Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Tom Butler (Schauspieler)

2007-03-04T03:34:12Z

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''This page is about the actor. For the Bishop of Southwark, see the article on [[Thomas Frederick Butler]].''

'''Tom Butler''' (born on [[1951]] in [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]]) is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[actor]] who has starred in movies and on television series and in many TV movies.

He is best known for his television role on the [[science fiction]] series ''[[Sliders]]'' as Michael Mallory, the father of Quinn Mallory in the pilot episode. Tom reprised his role as Michael Mallory in the season 2 episode "Gillian of the Spirits".

Tom starred in the [[1990s]] tv series ''[[HRT]]'' as Special Agent David Nelson.

He has starred in many movies, Tom has starred in such films as ''[[Renegades (1989 film)|Renegades]]'' ([[1989]]), ''[[Ernest Rides Again]]'' ([[1993]]), ''[[Freddy vs. Jason]]'' ([[2003]]) and his most recent film ''[[Everything's Gone Green (film)|Everything Gone Green]]'' ([[2006]]).

Tom has made some guest appearances on many tv shows, those appearances range from ''[[Highlander: The Series]]'' as an evil Immortal named [[Andrew Ballin]] in the season 1 episode "[[Episodes of Highlander (season 1)#Eyewitness|Eyewitness]]". He appeared on shows like ''[[Sliders]]'', ''[[The Commish]]'', ''[[The Outer Limits]]'', ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' and ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]''.

==Selected filmography==
*''[[Everything's Gone Green (film)|Everything Gone Green]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
*''[[The Score (2005 film)|The Score]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[Miracle (film)|Miracle]]'' ([[2004 in film|2004]])
*''[[I Accuse]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]])
*''[[Freddy vs. Jason]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]])
*''[[Josie and the Pussycats (film)|Josie and the Pussycats]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
*''[[Less Apart]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]])
*''[[Maternal Instincts]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]])
*''[[Death Match]]'' ([[1994 in film|1994]])
*''[[Ernest Rides Again]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]])
*''[[Red Sun Rising]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]])
*''[[Guilty as Sin]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]])
*''[[Scanners II: The New Order]]'' ([[1991 in film|1991]])
*''[[Renegades (1989 film)|Renegades]]'' ([[1989 in film|1989]])
*''[[Martha, Ruth & Edie]]'' ([[1988 in film|1988]])
*''[[Confidential]]'' ([[1986 in film|1986]])
*''[[Head Office]]'' ([[1985 in film|1985]])
*''[[Murder by Phone]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]])
*''[[Drying Up the Streets]]'' ([[1978 in film|1978]])

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0125148|name=Tom Butler}}

[[Category:1951 births|Butler, Tom]]
[[Category:Living people|Butler, Tom]]
[[Category:Canadian film actors|Butler, Tom]]
[[Category:Canadian television actors|Butler, Tom]]
[[Category:A Nightmare on Elm Street cast members|Butler, Tom]]
[[Category:Highlander cast members|Butler, Tom]]
[[Category:People from Ottawa|Butler, Tom]]

Wilsonregenpfeifer

2007-02-23T01:31:54Z

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{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Wilson's Plover
| status = LC
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Charadriiformes]]
| familia = [[Charadriidae]]
| genus = ''[[Charadrius]]''
| species = '''''C. wilsonia'''''
| binomial = ''Charadrius wilsonia''
| binomial_authority = ([[George Ord|Ord]], [[1814]])
}}
The ''' Wilson's Plover ''' (''Charadrius wilsonia'') is a small [[plover]].

Wilson's Plover is a coastal [[wader]] which breeds on both coasts of the Americas from the equator northwards. Its range extends north to include much of the [[U.S.]] eastern coast, and the west coast of Mexico in the west.

It is a partial [[bird migration|migrant]]. Birds leave the [[United States]], except [[Florida]] winter south to Brazil. Some Mexican birds leave in winter to reach [[Peru]].

This strictly coastal plover nests on a bare scrape on sandy beaches or sandbars.

This is a small plover at 17-20cm. The adult's upper parts are mainly dark grey, with a short white wing bar and white tail sides. The underparts are white except for a breast band, and the legs are pink, brighter when breeding. The dark bill is large and heavy for a plover of this size. The call is a high weak whistle.

The breeding male has a black breast band, lores and forecrown, and a rufous mask. Females and non-breeding males have a similar plumage, but the black of the breeding male is replaced by brown or rufous. Non-breeders have a greyer tint to the head and breast band.

Immature birds are similar to the female, but the breast band is often incomplete.

Wilson's Plovers forage for food on beaches, usually by sight, moving slowly across the beach. They have a liking for crabs, but will also eat insects and marine worms.

This bird was named after the Scottish-American ornithologist [[Alexander Wilson]].

==References==
* {{IUCN2006|assessors=BirdLife International|year=2004|id=49141|title=Charadrius wilsonia|downloaded=[[11 May]] [[2006]]}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern

* ''Shorebirds'' by Hayman, Marchant and Prater ISBN 0-395-60237-8

{{DEFAULTSORT:Plover, Wilson's}}

[[Category:Charadrius]]
[[Category:Shorebirds]]
[[Category:Birds of the United States]]
[[Category:Birds of Puerto Rico]]

Euronet Worldwide

2007-02-16T01:29:19Z

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'''Euronet Worldwide''', EEFT (Nasdaq), is the largest independant ATM acquiring network in Central/Eastern Europe.

Founded in 1994 by brother-in-laws Mike Henry and Dan Brown.

Euronet purchased it's software solutions vendor, Arksys, in 1999.

{{Uncategorized|February 2007}}

Runanga

2006-12-09T14:02:03Z

STBot: re-categorisation per CFD

'''Runanga''' is a small town (population approximately 1,000) on the [[West Coast, New Zealand|West Coast]] of the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]]. It is located ten kilometres to the northwest of [[Greymouth, New Zealand|Greymouth]], to the north of the [[Grey River]].

The town's origins can be traced back to European colonisation in the late 19th century, when large numbers of settlers came to work the local [[coal]] fields. Coal [[mining]] is still the main employer of the town. The town's name is [[Maori language|Maori]] for ''meeting place''.

[[Category:West Coast, New Zealand]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in New Zealand]]

{{WestCoastNZ-geo-stub}}

Neo-Feudalismus

2006-10-21T09:47:49Z

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{{sources}}
'''Neofeudalism''' is a pejorative term used by some critics to describe the policies of various [[right-wing]] politicians. The justification is that government policies are allegedly instituted with the specific intent, or at least the effect, of radically increasing the wealth [[income distribution|gap]] between the rich and the poor while increasing the power of the rich and decreasing the power of the poor (also see [[wealth condensation]]). This effect is considered to be similar to classical [[feudalism]]. However such historical feudalism maintained [[caste]] outside of consideration for [[Capital (economics)|capital]], where wealth divides could only make [[merchant]]s out of common men, and class gaps of [[aristocracy]] were unbreachable even by private wealth until the late stages and breakdown of feudalism. To that extent, the labeling of monopoly capitalism as neofeudalism can be seen as a [[misnomer]].

Others would argue, however, that the prefix "neo" is distinctly meant to separate modern feudalism from the old kind and that use of the term only means that it mimics many of the effects of the old feudalism: an entrenched, fabulously wealthy elite, held in place by low taxes on capital and no taxes on estates; and a large and growing class of unedcuated, unskilled labor brought in by unchecked immigration (both legal and illegal), and kept in check by high levels of personal debt, and high taxes on earned income (payroll, income, sales, property, etc.)

Among the concerns of those who use the term are class stratification, [[globalization]], [[multinational corporation]]s, and "[[corporatism]]."

[[Feudalism]] was a form of [[socioeconomic]] organization prevalent in [[medieval]] [[Europe]] and pre-industrial [[Asia]], whereby political and economic control was maintained by a small group of [[feudal]] lords within a [[decentralized]] state. The vast majority of the population living in feudal Europe was legally bound to provide farming, husbandry and other agricultural services on land held by the [[nobility]] either directly or as [[appanage]]. In return, the lord offered protection and some measure of localized stability. One specific and alternative application of the term ''neofeudalism'' alleges that corporate and government policies make workers dependent on the corporations, as well as making the economic power of the corporations greater than the power of national [[government]]s. This, detractors say, leads to a situation where workers are dependent on private interests that are more powerful than government, resembling the situation that prevailed during historic feudalism. Although it should be noted that in feudal law localized [[prerogative]]s were considered government. Some critics link these processes to [[neoliberalism]].

The argument over neofeudalism is part of the controversy over [[income redistribution]] born out of massive societal shifts during the [[industrial revolution]]. At the time the issue was wealth disparity between [[social class|classes]], landholders, entrepreneurs, peasants, workers, and other economic and social groups. Neofeudalism encompasses the current debate over globalization to include entire societies, countries, regions ("North" versus "South," "Western" versus "non-Western"), and supra-national non-state actors. Unlike other [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] issues such as [[environmentalism]] and [[security]], the charge of "neofeudalism" largely focuses on [[economics]].

One of its applications to current politicians, especially by conservatives who wish to distance themselves from the policies of [[President George W Bush]], is that it explains the support of some Republicans for both high levels of nearly uncontrolled immigration and of reduced taxation on the rich. Such politicans are also frequently opposed to minimum wage laws, claiming they would reduce job opportunities for the poor and the young, even though their support for open borders is based on the claim that the economy is already producing too many jobs. These policies, traditionalists say, would continue to devalue the labor of the working class while creating a wealthy elite that is permanently entrenched. They also use Bush's family history (being the son of a president and grandson of a US Senator) as proof of an aristcratic bent in President Bush.

[[Category:Socioeconomics]]
[[Category:Pejorative political terms]]

[[he:נאו פיאודליזם]]

Mary White Ovington

2006-10-21T05:12:22Z

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[[Image:mary_white_ovington.gif|thumb|185px|Mary White Ovington]]
'''Mary White Ovington''' (born [[April 11]], [[1865]] in [[Brooklyn, New York]] - died [[July 15]], [[1951]]) a [[suffragette]], [[Socialism|socialist]], [[Unitarianism|unitarian]], [[journalist]], and co-founder of the [[NAACP]].

Her parents, members of the [[Unitarian Church]] were supporters of [[women's rights]] and had been involved in [[anti-slavery]] movement. Educated at [[Packer Collegiate Institute]] and [[Radcliffe College]], Ovington became involved in the campaign for civil rights in [[1890]] after hearing [[Frederick Douglass]] speak in a Brooklyn church.

In [[1895]] she helped found the [[Greenpoint Settlement]] in Brooklyn. Appointed head of the project the following year, Ovington remained until [[1904]] when she was appointed fellow of the [[Greenwich House Committee on Social Investigations]]. Over the next five years she studied employment and housing problems in black [[Manhattan]]. During her investigations she met [[William Du Bois]], an [[African American]] from [[Harvard University]], and she was introduced to the founding members of the [[Niagara Movement]].

Influenced by the ideas of [[William Morris]], Ovington joined the [[United States Socialist Party|Socialist Party]] in [[1905]], where she met people such as [[Daniel De Leon]], [[Asa Philip Randolph]], [[Floyd Dell]], [[Max Eastman]] and [[Jack London]], who argued that racial problems were as much a matter of class as of race. She wrote for radical journals and newspapers such as, ''[[The Masses]]'', ''[[New York Evening Post]]'', and ''[[The Call (newspaper)|The Call]]''. She also worked with [[Ray Stannard Baker]] and influenced the content of his book, ''[[Following the Color Line]]'' ([[1908]]).

On September 3, [[1908]] she read an article written by [[Socialism|socialist]] [[William English Walling]] entitled "''Race War in the North''" in ''[[The Independent]]''. Walling described a massive [[Mass racial violence in the United States|race riot]] directed at [[African-American|black]] residents in the hometown of [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[Springfield Race Riot of 1908|Springfield, Illinois]] that led to seven deaths, 40 homes and 24 businesses destroyed, and 107 indictments against rioters. Walling ended the article by calling for a powerful body of citizens to come to the aid blacks. Ovington responded to the article by writing Walling and meeting at his apartment in [[New York City]] along with [[social worker]] Dr. [[Henry Moskowitz]]. The group decided to launch a campaign by issuing a "call" for a national conference on the civil and political [[rights]] of [[African-American]]s on the centennial of Lincoln’s birthday, [[February 12]], [[1909]]. Many responded to the “call” that eventually led to the formation of the [[National Negro Committee]] that held its first meeting in New York on May 31 and June 1, 1909. By May, 1910 the National Negro Committee and attendants, at its second conference, organized a permanent body known as the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP) where Ovington was appointed as its executive secretary. Early members included [[Josephine Ruffin]], [[Mary Talbert]], [[Mary Church Terrell]], [[Inez Milholland]], [[Jane Addams]], [[George Henry White]], [[William Du Bois]], [[Charles Edward Russell]], [[John Dewey]], [[Charles Darrow]], [[Lincoln Steffens]], [[Ray Stannard Baker]], [[Fanny Garrison Villard]], [[Oswald Garrison Villard]] and [[Ida Wells-Barnett]].

The following year she attended the [[Universal Races Congress]] in [[London]]. Ovington remained active in the struggle for [[women's suffrage]] and as a [[pacifist]] opposed [[USA|America]]'s involvement in the [[World War I|First World War]]. During the war Ovington supported [[Asa Philip Randolph]] and his magazine, ''[[The Messenger]]'', which campaigned for black civil rights.

After the war Ovington served the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] as board member, executive secretary and chairman. The NAACP fought a long legal battle against [[racial segregation|segregation]] and [[racial discrimination]] in housing, education, employment, voting and transportation. They appealed to the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] to rule that several laws passed by [[U.S. southern states|southern states]] were unconstitutional and won three important judgments between [[1915]]-[[1923]] concerning voting rights and housing.

The NAACP was criticised by some members of the [[African American]] community. [[Booker T. Washington]] opposed the group because it proposed an outspoken condemnation of racist policies in contrast to his policy of quiet diplomacy behind the scenes. Members of the organization were physically attacked by white racists. [[John R. Shillady]], executive secretary of the NAACP was badly beaten up when he visited [[Austin, Texas]] in [[1919]].

She wrote several books and articles including a study of black [[Manhattan]], ''[[Half a Man]]'' ([[1911]]), ''[[Status of the Negro in the United States]]'' ([[1913]]), ''[[Socialism and the Feminist Movement]]'' ([[1914]]), an anthology for black children, ''[[The Upward Path]]'' ([[1919]]), biographical sketches of prominent African Americans, ''[[Portraits in Color]]'' ([[1927]]), an autobiography, ''[[Reminiscences]]'' ([[1932]]) and a history of the [[NAACP]], ''[[The Walls Come Tumbling Down]]'' ([[1947]]).

Ovington retired as a board member of the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] in [[1947]] and in doing so, ended her 38 years service with the organisation.

[[Category:1865 births|Ovington, Mary White]]
[[Category:1951 deaths|Ovington, Mary White]]
[[Category:African Americans' rights activists|Ovington, Mary White]]
[[Category:American women's rights activists|Ovington, Mary White]]
[[Category:People from Brooklyn|Ovington, Mary White]]
[[Category:Alumnae of women's colleges|Ovington, Mary White]]

Köçek

2006-10-20T00:12:44Z

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The '''köçek''' phenomenon (plural ''köçekler'' in Turkish) is considered to be one of the most significant feature of [[Ottoman Empire]] culture. The köçek was typically a very handsome young male ''rakkas,'' "dancer," usually cross-dressed in feminine attire, employed as an [[entertainer]] and [[sex worker]].
[[Image:Turkish - Dancing Kocek - Late 19th c - wiki.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''Köçek with [[tambourine]]''<br> Entertainers and sex workers, köçeks were in high demand in the [[Ottoman Empire]]. They were sought by high and low, up to the Sultan.<br>Photograph, late 19th c.]]

The köçeks were usually children of non-Muslim [[dhimmi]] peoples living under Ottoman rule. Their ranks were filled from the ethnic groups -mostly Christians- subdued by the Turkish empire (such as the [[Albanians]], [[Circassians]], [[South Slavs#Ethno-cultural subdivisions|Balkan Slavs]], [[Armenians]], [[Jews]], [[Roma people|Roma]], Moldavians and [[Greeks]]) since the profession was held to be below the dignity of a Muslim and thus forbidden to Muslim boys.

== Roots ==
The word is derived from the [[Persian language|Persian]] ''kuchak,'' "little," "small," or "young."

The culture of the köçek, which flourished from the 17th to the 19th century, had its origin in the customs in [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] palaces, and in particular in the [[harem (household)|harems]]. Its genres enriched both the music and the dance of the Ottomans.

The support of the [[Ottoman Dynasty|Sultans]] was a key factor in its development, as in the early stages the arts form was confined to palace circles. From there the practice dispersed throughout [[Anatolia]] and the [[Balkans]] by means of independent troupes. In the big cities, where it was enjoyed by people of all classes, the köçek were the attraction of the Ottoman nights...

== Culture ==
[[Image:Koceks - Surname-i Vehbi.jpg|thumb|left|250px|'''Köçek troupe at a fair''' at Sultan Ahmed's 1720 celebration of his sons' circumcision. Miniature from the ''Surname-i Vehbi'', [[Topkapi Palace]], [[Istanbul]].]]
A köçek would begin training around the age of seven or eight, and would be considered accomplished after about six years of study and practice. A dancer's career would last as long as he was beardless and retained his youthful appearance. Dancers would get married when they were around 25 or 30, and then could become organizers of a new köçek troop. Köçeks were organized into companies known as ''kol.'' Twelve such companies were counted in the mid-1600's, each company averaging about 250 dancers.

Their erotic dances, collectively known as ''köçek oyunu,'' blended [[Arab]], [[Greeks|Greek]], [[Assyria]]n and [[Kurdistan|Kurdish]] elements. They were performed to a particular genre of music known as ''köçekce,'' which was performed in the form of suites in a given melody. It too was a mix of [[Sufism|Sufi]], Balkan and [[Ottoman classical music|classical Anatolian]] influences, some of which survives in [[Music of Turkey|popular Turkish music]] today. The accompaniment included various percussion instruments, such as the ''davul-köçek,'' the [[davul]] being a large drum, one side covered with goat skin and the other in sheep skin, producing different tones. [[Image:Zils.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Pair of zils; Khan el Khalili market, [[Cairo]].]]A köçek's skill would be judged not only on his dancing abilities but also on his proficiency with percussion instruments, especially a type of [[castanets|castagnette]] known as the ''çarpare.'' In later times these were replaced by metal cymbals called ''[[Zil]]s''. The dancers were accompanied by an orchestra, featuring four to five each [[Kemenche|''kaba kemence'']] and ''lauto'' as principal instruments, used exclusively for köçek suites. There were also two singers. A köçek dance in the Ottoman [[Seraglio]] (palace harem) involved one or two dozen köçeks and many musicians. The occasions of their performances were wedding or circumcision celebrations, feasts and festivals, as well as the pleasure of the sultans and the aristocracy.

The youths, often wearing heavy makeup, would curl their hair and wear it in long tresses under a small black or red velvet hat decorated with coins, jewels and gold. Their usual garb consisted of a tiny red embroidered velvet jacket with a gold-embroidered silk shirt, ''shalvars'' (baggy trousers), a long skirt and a gilt belt, knotted at the back. They were said to be "sensuous, attractive, effeminate," and their dancing "sexually provocative," impersonating female dancers. Dancers minced and gyrated their hips in slow vertical and horizontal figure-8's, rhythmically snapping their fingers and making suggestive gestures. Often acrobatics, tumbling and mock [[wrestling]] were also part of the act. The köçeks were available sexually, often to the highest bidder, in the passive role.

The names and backgrounds of köçeks in Istanbul in the 18th century are well documented. Among the more celebrated köçeks from the end of the 18th century are the Gypsy Benli Ali of [[Didymoteicho|Dimetoka]] (today's [[Greece]]); ''Buyuk'' (big, older) Afet (born Yorgaki) of [[Croatia in the Habsburg Empire#The Ottoman incursion|Croatian]] origin, ''Kucuk'' (little) Afet (born Kaspar) of Armenian origin, and Pandeli from the Greek Island of Chiros. There were at least fifty köçeks of star stature at the time. The famous ones, like the [[Roma people|Gypsy]] köçek Ismail, would have to be booked weeks or months in advance, at a very high cost.

Western visitors were variously taken with the - for them - unusual sight of [[pederasty]] unleashed. One impression is preserved in ''Don Leon,'' a poem anonymously written in the voice of [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]]:
[[Image:Saki - Reza Abbasi - Moraqqa’-e Golshan 1609 Golestan Palace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Saki'' ([[1609]]) by [[Reza Abbasi]] ([[1565]] - [[1635]]). Moraqqa’-e Golshan, [[Isfahan]], Iran; [[Golestan Palace]].]]
:''Here much I saw – and much I mused to see
:''The loosened garb of Eastern luxury.
:''I sought the brothel, where, in maiden guise,
:''The black-eyed boy his trade unblushing plies;
:''Where in lewd dance he acts the scenic show –
:''His supple haunches wriggling to and fro:
:''With looks voluptuous the thought excites,
:''Whilst gazing sit the hoary sybarites:
:''Whilst gentle lute and drowsy tambourine
:''Add to the languor of the monstrous scene.
:''Yes, call it monstrous! but not monstrous, where
:''Close latticed harems hide the timid fair:
:''With mien gallant where pæderasty smirks,
:''And whoredom, felon like, in covert lurks.
:''All this I saw – but saw it not alone –
:''A friend was with me, and I dared not own
:''How much the sight had touched some inward sense,
:''Too much for e’en the closest confidence.'' (441-8).

In his travels to the [[Levant]], Byron had indeed been present at such a dance as described above. His traveling companion, [[John Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton|John Cam Hobhouse]], relates in his diary that on Saturday, May 19th, [[1810]]:

:''This day, went with Byron and a party to the [[Meyhane|wine houses]] of [[Galata]]. Took pipes, and saw two old and ugly boys, who wrung the sweat off their brows, dance as before, waving their long hair. Also they spread a mat and, putting on a kind of shawl, performed an [[Alexandria|Alexandrian]] woman’s dance – much the same, except that they knelt, and, covering each other’s heads, seemed as if kissing. One of [[Robert Adair|Mr Adair]]’s [[Janissary|Janissaries]], who talks English and has been in England, was with us. I asked him if these boys would not be hanged in England. “Oh yes, directly. De Turk take and byger dem d’ye see?”''

:''For this beastly sight we paid fifty-five piastres, five to the boys each, and five to all fiddlers and singers and performers &c., nor is this dear, I understand. Turk boys are not allowed to dance.'' [http://www.hobby-o.com/constantinople.php#ref42 Excerpt from Hobhouse's diary]

The youths were held in high esteem. Famous poets, such as [[Fazyl bin Tahir Enderuni]], wrote poems, and classical composers, such as the court musician [[Dede Efendi|Hammamizade İsmail Dede Efendi]] (1778-1846), composed köçekces for celebrated koceks. Many Istanbul [[meyhane]]s (night-time taverns serving [[meze]], [[raki]] or wine) hired köçeks. Before starting their performance, the köçek danced among the spectators, to make them more excited. In the audience, competition for their attention often caused commotions and altercations. Men would go wild, breaking their glasses, shouting themselves voiceless, or fighting and sometimes killing each other vying for the boys' sexual favors. This resulted in suppression of the practice under sultan Sultan [[Abd-ul-Mejid I]]. Köçek dances were officially banned in [[1856]], and many of the boys left the country to practice their profession in Egypt and elsewhere. With the suppression of [[Seraglio|harem culture]] under Sultan [[`Abdu'l-`Aziz]] ([[1861]]-[[1876]]) and Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] ([[1876]]-[[1908]]), köçek dance and music lost the support of its royal patrons, and gradually disappeared.

The other type of ''rakkas,'' or male dancer (from ''raks,'' "dance") was the ''tavşan oğlan'', "rabbit boy," a young dancer dressed in provocative male clothing: tight pants and a jaunty hat. The non-Muslim tavşan oğlan are thought to have come mainly from the Greek islands in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and the [[Sea of Marmara]]. They performed mainly during [[Ramadan]], working as ''saki''s "wine boys" in the ''meyhane''s otherwise, when not dancing at special occasions.

Köçeks were much more sought after than the ''çengi'', their feminine counterparts. Some youths were known to have been killed by the çengi, who were extremely jealous of men's attention towards the boys.

== Modern offshoots ==
[[Image:MaleBellyDance.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Male belly dancer in Istanbul Turkey.]] 
At present, the same-sex love and sexuality aspect of köçek culture is considered to have been "a privilege of the powerful economic classes or the world of the arts." Though no new compositions or performances have taken place in the last hundred years, male dancers dressed as women still perform in some areas of Turkey, though their art is no longer primarily of a sensual nature and is seen primarily as [[Turkish folk music|folkloric]].

The style however continues to inspire modern musicians. [[Ulvi Cemal Erkin]] (1906-1972) is a Turkish classical composer whose most popular masterpiece is ''Köçekçe'' a dance rhapsody composed in [[1943]], and perhaps the best known single piece of Turkish music abroad. It was first introduced to the public in 1943 with [[Ernst Praetorius]] conducting the [[Presidential Symphony Orchestra]].

Another modern interpretation is the movie ''Kocek'' (''Küçük cadi'' 1975) by director [[Nejat Saydam]]. It is probably the first Turkish movie to deal with the topic of [[homosexuality]] and change of [[gender role]].
At the same time, young male dancers dressed in sparkling costumes are again finding favor, despite the objections of conservative commentators. Known as ''rakkas'', they have become a common feature of dance halls and night clubs, performing seductive [[belly dance#Male belly dancing|belly dance]]s, and are reputed to be "as sexual and popular as any of the best Turkish female belly dancers."

==References==
*AYVERDI, Sâmiha; Istanbul Geceleri ''The nights of Istanbul,'' ed. Baha, Istanbul, 1977.
*ENDERUNLU Fazıl bey; ''Çenginame','' 1759
*ERDOGAN, Sema Nilgün: ''Sexual life in Ottoman Empire,'' ed. Dönence, Istanbul, 1996. Pp 88-92
*JANSSEN, Thijs: ''Transvestites and Transsexuals in Turkey,'' in ''Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies,'' edited by Arno Schmidt and Jehoeda Sofer, ed. Harrington Park Press, NY, 1992
*KOCU, Resad Ekrem, ''Eski Istanbul'da Meyhaneler ve Meyhane Kocekleri, Istanbul Ansiklopedisi Notlari No''
*OZTUNA, Yilmaz: ''Turk Musikisi Ansiklopedisi,'' Milli Egitim Basimevi, Istanbul, 1976. p.23

==See also==
*[[Bacchá]]
*[[Cocek]]
*[[Culture of the Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Hammam]]
*[[Harem (household)|Harem]]
*[[Ottoman Turkish language]]
*[[Pederasty in the Islamic world#The Ottoman Empire|Pederasty in the Islamic world: The Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Hammam#Tellak (Staff)|Tellak]]
*[[List of transgender-related topics]]

==External links==
*[http://www.jasminjahal.com/articles/02_02_male_belly_d.html Male Belly Dance in Turkey]
*[http://www2.egenet.com.tr/mastersj/encyclopedia-k.html Habibullah's Encyclopaedia of the Ottoman Empire]
*[http://www.bdancer.com/history/BDhist2c.html Origins of oriental dance]
*[http://www.turkishnews.com/itumuk/info/petek/c1s4/petek9603.txt Turkish News.com]
*[http://www.androphile.org/preview/Museum/Turkey/turkish.htm Classical Turkish homoerotic art]
*{{imdb title|id=392318|title=Küçük cadi}}

[[Category:Turkish culture|Kocek]]
[[Category:LGBT history|Kocek]]
[[Category:Transgender in non-western cultures|Kocek]]
[[Category:Sex workers|Kocek]]
[[Category:Pederasty|Kocek]]

[[ru:Кучек]]

Joe Hahn

2006-10-19T00:26:19Z

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[[Image:Joe Hahn.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Joe Hahn.]]
'''Joseph Hahn''', a.k.a. '''Mr. Hahn''' (born [[March 15]], [[1977]]), is the [[Disc jockey|turntablist]] for the [[United States|American]] [[nu-metal]]/[[rapcore]] band [[Linkin Park]].

Born in [[Dallas, Texas]], Hahn is a second-generation [[Korean American]]. He was raised in [[Glendale, California]]. In high school, he did football and track, mostly pole vaulting. He graduated Hoover High School and took interest in [[visual arts]]. He attended the [[Art Center College of Design]] in [[Pasadena, California]] with his fellow Linkin Park bandmate, [[Mike Shinoda]]. His intended field of study was [[illustration]] but decided to drop out to pursue a career involving overseeing [[special effects]] in television shows and movies such as [[The X-Files]], [[Sphere (movie)|Sphere]] and [[Dune (TV miniseries)|Dune]].

He joined Linkin Park (then called [[Xero (rock band)|Xero]]) in [[1996]] as the band's DJ. Since then, he has directed [[music video]]s for most singles of his band (except for [[One Step Closer (song)|One Step Closer]], [[Crawling (song)|Crawling]] and [[Faint (song)|Faint]]). He has also directed videos for [[Static-X]], [[Story of the Year]] and [[Alkaline Trio]].

He is known to be an avid fan of [[electronica|electronic]] and [[drum n bass]] music. In the past, he has acknowledged [[Aphex Twin]] as being one of his biggest influences.

Hahn is known for his sarcastic and dry sense of humor during interviews. He can also play guitar and has traded instruments with [[Brad Delson]] during occasional Linkin Park concerts.

Adding to his humor, he has been known to have a split personality named Remy.{{fact}} Although this was a joke, fans have taken this seriously. In his solo song "Cure For The Itch" in Hybrid Theory, Remy speaks in the beginning of the song. The lines are "Folks, we have a very special guest for you tonight, I'd like to introduce Mr. Hahn."

With bandmates [[Chester Bennington]] and Mike Shinoda busy with [[side-project]]s, Hahn is busy doing his own side-projects. Recently, he shot a mini-film called ''The Seed'' in [[Los Angeles, California]] and plans to enter it in the [[2006]] [[Sundance Film Festival]]. He is also working on ''Kung Fu High School'' and ''King Rat'', which is an adaptation of the novel by [[China Mieville]]. Mr.Hahn was introduced to "King Rat" by his personal manager.{{fact}}

He has just recently opened a small clothing store called "Suru" in the Los Angeles fashion district.

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=1060386|name=Joe Hahn}}

{{Linkin Park}}

[[Category:Linkin Park|Hahn, Joe]]
[[Category:American keyboardists|Hahn, Joe]]
[[Category:Hip hop DJs|Hahn, Joe]]
[[Category:American music video directors|Hahn, Joe]]
[[Category:People from the Greater Los Angeles Area|Hahn, Joe]]
[[Category:California musicians|Hahn, Joe]]
[[Category:Korean Americans|Hahn, Joe]]
[[Category:1977 births|Hahn, Joe]]
[[Category:Living people|Hahn, Joe]]

[[bg:Джоузеф Хан]]
[[cs:Joe Hahn]]
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[[he:ג'ו האן]]
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Japanophilie

2006-10-18T23:50:44Z

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{{cleanup-date|August 2006}}
{{not verified}}
[[Image:Lafcadio hearn.jpg|right|thumb|[[Lafcadio Hearn]], aka Koizumi Yakumo, a notable scholar and author well known for his strong interest in Japanese culture and books on Japan.]]
A '''Japanophile''', or alternatively a '''Nipponophile''', is a non-Japanese person with a strong interest in one or more aspects of [[Japan]] or [[Culture of Japan|Japanese culture]]. The word is sometimes used in a [[derogatory]] manner to denote a person with an excessive or misguided interest with Japan (though, a slang variation of japanophile is "wapanese", derived like "[[wigger]]").

"Japanophile" is also less commonly used to alternatively describe individuals who fall into one or more of the following categories:

:* Scholars on the [[History of Japan]]
:* Students of the [[Japanese language]]
:* Scholars on the [[Sociology]] of Japan
:* Politicians seen as particularly favourable to Japanese interests
:* Fans of a particular aspect of Japanese culture (such as [[kendo]], [[sumo|sumo wrestling]], [[Japanese cuisine]], and so forth)
:* Anyone seen as (or believed to be) knowledgeable regarding a particular aspect of Japan, its culture or its influence.

Notable Japanophiles have included [[Lafcadio Hearn]], [[Steven Seagal]] and French president [[Jacques Chirac]].

Japanophilia is recently on the increase around the world, with the popularization of many Japanese cultural exports and Japanese pop culture, such as [[Zen Buddhism]], [[sushi]], [[J-Horror]], [[J-Pop]], [[anime]], and [[manga]] among others [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A33261-2003Dec26?language=printer]. Once esoteric, many of these exports have gone from purely a [[geek]] pastime to the mainstream, with sushi being [[de rigueur]] in some circles{{fact}}. However it does not always translate into political support for Japan.

Some Japanophiles have been criticized for having a limited perception of Japanese culture and many of their interests of Japan are based on an idealized, romantic or [[Orientalism|orientalist]] Western view of Japan. Such accusations come from many sides, from passionate, yet capricious, cynics to people with an extensive association with Japan and its culture. Some authors, such as [[Alex Kerr]] (author of ''[[Dogs and Demons: Tales from the Dark Side of Modern Japan]]''), attribute limited perceptions to a superficial knowledge of difficult issues facing Japan combined with wishful thinking. Kerr's view presents a mutual tendency to obscure or minimize these issues by beneficiaries of foreign interest in Japan and by enamored Japanophiles.

[[Image:Leejapan.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Lee Teng-hui]], formerly [[President of Taiwan]], seen [[cosplay]]ing a Japanese [[manga]] character, [[Heihachi Edajima]]]]
In Asia, some Japanophile population exists in [[Taiwan]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Mainland China]], especially among youth. Notable members include [[Lee Teng-hui]], a former President in Taiwan, who was educated under [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese colonial rule]] and has claimed to be "one half Japanese". In 2005, members of the [[Taiwan Solidarity Union]], a political party in Taiwan, visited the [[Yasukuni Shrine]], resulting in some controversy.

==See also==
* [[Asiaphile]]
* [[Orientalism]]
* [[Japanese pop culture]]

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A33261-2003Dec26?language=printer "Japan's Empire of Cool"], Washington Post

[[Category:Japan in non-Japanese culture]]
[[Category:Subcultures]]

[[ko:친일파]]
[[ja:親日派]]
[[zh:亲日派]]
[[sv:Japanofil]]

Teufelsfarn

2006-10-18T22:37:57Z

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{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Osmunda claytoniana''
| image = Osmunda claytoniana JSG.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = Typical fertile fronds
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Pteridophyta]]
| classis = [[Osmundopsida]]
| ordo = [[Osmundales]]
| familia = [[Osmundaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Osmunda]]''
| species = '''''O. claytoniana'''''
| binomial = ''Osmunda claytoniana''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}

'''''Osmunda claytoniana''''' ('''Interrupted Fern''') is a [[fern]] native to eastern [[North America]] and eastern [[Asia]]. In eastern North America it occurs from southern [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]] (up to the [[tree line]]), east to [[Newfoundland]] and south through the [[Appalachian mountains]] down to [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and west to the [[Mississippi River]]. In Asia, it is found in the [[Himalaya]], southern [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Taiwan]].

[[Image:Osmunda claytoniana, Pancake Bay PP.jpg|thumb|left|Interrupted fern, [[Pancake Bay Provincial Park|Pancake Bay P.P.]], [[Ontario]]]]
It is named after the English botanist [[John Clayton]].

The [[frond]]s are [[bipinnate]], 40-100 cm tall and 20-30 cm broad, the blade formed of alternate segments forming an arching blade tightening to a pointed end. The lower end is also slightly thinner than the rest of the frond because the first segments are shorter. Three to seven short, cinnamon-colored fertile segments are inserted in the middle of the length, giving the plant its name. In their absence, the plant in all its stages is extremely similar to ''[[Osmunda cinnamomea]]'' (Cinnamon Fern). To distinguish them, look at the base of the segments; where ''O. cinnamomea'' has typical felt-like [[trichome|hairs]], the few hairs present on ''O. claytoniana'' are extremely short, usually requiring a [[magnifying glass]] to see well.

Like other species in the family Osmundaceae, it grows a very large [[rhizome]], with persistent stipe bases from previous years. It forms small, dense [[clonal colony|colonies]], spreading locally through its rhizome, and often forming [[fairy ring]]s.

===Ecological aspects===
It is found in humid zones, mostly in forests, but also in more open biomes, although rarely in [[bog]]s. The interrupted fern is often found alongside [[Ostrich fern|ostrich]], cinnamon and [[sensitive fern]]s.

The plant is known from [[fossil]]s to have grown in [[Europe]], showing a previous [[circumboreal]] distribution.

''Osmunda × ruggii'', a hybrid between ''O. claytoniana'' and ''[[Osmunda regalis|O. regalis]]'' (Royal Fern), is the only known hybrid in the family Osmundaceae. The hybrid is considered important because it suggests a closer genetic relationshp between ''O. claytoniana'' and ''O. regalis'' than between ''O. claytoniana'' and ''O. cinnamomea''.

===Cultivation and uses===
Unlike those of the ostrich fern, the interrupted fern's [[fiddlehead]]s are not readily edible, due to their bitter taste and a tendency to cause diarrhea. The base of the stipe and very young buds are edible, but should not be abused for risk of killing the crown.

==References==
*[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200002994 Flora of North America: ''Osmunda claytoniana'']
*[http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/udth/bin/fot1.exe/browse?bid=1&page=82 Flora of Taiwan: ''Osmunda claytoniana'']
*{{cite book | author=Lamoureux, Gisèle and al. | title=Fougères, prêles et lycopodes | publisher=Fleurbec | year=1993 | id=ISBN 2-920174-13-4}}

[[Category:Pteridophyta]]
[[Category:Flora of Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of Canada]]
[[Category:Flora of the United States]]

Ian Smith (Cricketspieler, 1957)

2006-10-18T10:27:12Z

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{{Infobox Cricketer |
flag = Flag of New Zealand.svg |
nationality = New Zealand |
country = New Zealand |
country abbrev = NZ |
name = Ian Smith |
picture = Cricket_no_pic.png |
batting style = Right-hand bat |
bowling style = Right-arm bowler |
balls = true |
tests = 63 |
test runs = 1815 |
test bat avg = 25.56 |
test 100s/50s = 2/6 |
test top score = 173 |
test overs = 18 |
test wickets = - |
test bowl avg = - |
test 5s = - |
test 10s = - |
test best bowling = - |
test catches/stumpings = 168/8 |
ODIs = 98 |
ODI runs = 1055 |
ODI bat avg = 17.29 |
ODI 100s/50s = -/3 |
ODI top score = 62* |
ODI overs = - |
ODI wickets = - |
ODI bowl avg = - |
ODI 5s = - |
ODI 10s = - |
ODI best bowling = - |
ODI catches/stumpings = 81/5 |
date = 4 February |
year = 2006 |
source = http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/38396.html}}
'''Ian David Stockley Smith''' (born [[February 28]], [[1957]] in [[Nelson, New Zealand]]) is a former [[cricket]] player turned sporting commentator. He played as a [[wicket-keeper]] for [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] throughout the 1980s and part of the 1990s.

Smith has one of the highest ever strike rates as a batsman for [[One-day International]]s – 99 runs per 100 balls faced. He also holds the record for the highest score in Tests for a batsmen coming in at number nine, which is 173 off 136 balls, scored against [[Indian cricket team|India]] at [[Eden Park]] in 1990.<ref>[http://www.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1980S/1989-90/IND_IN_NZ/IND_NZ_T3_22-26FEB1990.html New Zealand v India, 1989/90, 3rd Test]</ref> During the innings, he became joint holder of the record for [[List of Test cricket records#Most runs in an over|most runs scored off a six-ball Test over]], striking 24 runs off [[Atul Wassan]].

Currently Smith works as a commentator for companies such as [[SKY Network Television|SKY Sport]] (in [[New Zealand]], commentating both [[Rugby union|rugby]] and [[cricket]]), and [[Sunset & Vine]] (which broadcasts on [[Channel Four]] in the [[United Kingdom]]).

==References==
<references/>

==External link==
*[http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/NZ/S/SMITH_IDS_05001633/ CricInfo: Ian Smith profile]

[[Category:1957 births|Smith, Ian]]
[[Category:Living people|Smith, Ian]]
[[Category:Auckland cricketers|Smith, Ian]]
[[Category:Central Districts cricketers|Smith, Ian]]
[[Category:New Zealand ODI cricketers|Smith, Ian]]
[[Category:New Zealand Test captains|Smith, Ian]]
[[Category:New Zealand Test cricketers|Smith, Ian]]
[[Category:New Zealand cricketers|Smith, Ian]]
[[Category:New Zealand wicket-keepers|Smith, Ian]]
[[Category:Cricket commentators|Smith, Ian]]

{{NZ-cricketbio-stub}}

Hollycombe Quarry Railway

2006-10-18T05:04:49Z

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The ''Hollycombe Steam Collection'' is a collection of [[steam engine|steam]] powered rides and attractions based at [[Liphook]] in [[Hampshire]]. The collection includes fairground rides, a display farm and two railways.

== History ==

The collection dates back to the late 1940s when Commander John Baldock decided to preserve some of the steam [[traction engines]] that were rapidly dissapearing from British life. By the early 1960s he had acquired a significant collection of road vehicles and started to collect [[fairground]] rides. In the late '60s he extended his interests again into preserving railway equipment.

The collection was eventually opened to the public and became a major Hampshire tourist attraction. Eventually the collection grew so large it became impossible for one person to maintain, and by 1984 Baldock decided he would have to close the operation.

A Society was formed by volunteers to operate the collection. This was successful and the collection continued to expand. At the beginning of 1999 a [[charitable trust]] took over the majority of the collection, funded by a [[Heritage Lottery Fund]] grant.

== Attractions ==

The Hollycombe steam fair, [[Hampshire]], [[England]], holds [[Edwardian]] rides originating from the 1870s. Rides are constructed from wood and are powered by [[steam engine]]s. Visitors can also take three rail-rides, [[narrow gauge]], [[standard gauge]] and [[miniature railway]].

A Complete Edwardian Fairground with a wide variety of rides from the gentle Golden Gallopers to the exhilarating Steam Yacht and Razzle Dazzle. There are rides for all ages and the atmosphere is completed with a number of fairground organs and a range of sidestalls.

Take a trip from the fairground to the Farm, where you can alight to see the animals and farm machinery.

Marvel at the power of the tiny engines as they haul you for one third of a mile through the gardens.

See a wide range of vintage steam powered farm equipment including ploughing engines, threshing, baling and a stationary engine driving small machinery through a line shaft. Visit the animals; Shire horses, ponies, sheep, goats, ducks and geese.

The sawmill is used to cut much of the wood used on site and is powered by a large semi-portable Robey Steam Engine. Close by is the engine from the Paddle Steamer Caledonia.

Various [[steam powered]] farm equipment is also on display.

== Narrow gauge railway ==

[[Image:Hunslet 638 Jerry M Dinorwic Slate Quarries 1951.jpg|thumb|right|''Jerry M'' running at Dinorwig before preservation at Hollycombe]]

The [[narrow gauge]] railway at Hollycombe started in 1967 using equipment purchased from the [[Dinorwig]] slate quarry in north [[Wales]]. The quarry had recently abandoned its extensive internal rail system and Commander Baldock acquired the [[steam locomotive]] ''Jerry M'' along with a quantity of track and several wagons. Construction started in 1968 and reached the sandstone quarry by 1971. The line was later extended to include a loop, which brought the track length to its present 1½ miles. The second steam locomotive ''Caledonia'' was purchased in 1968.

=== Locomotives ===

{|class="wikitable"
!Name
!Builder
!Type
!Date
!Works number
!Notes
|-
|''Jerry M''
|[[Hunslet Engine Company|Hunslet]]
|0-4-0ST
|1895
|638
|ex-[[Dinorwig]] quarry
|-
|''Caledonia''
|[[Andrew Barclay & Sons Co.|Barclay]]
|0-4-0WT
|1931
|1995
|Formerly named ''No. 70'', ex-[[Dinorwig]] quarry
|-
|''Jack''
|[[Ruston (engine builder)|Ruston Hornsby]]
|4wDM
|
|
|
|}

== References ==

* {{cite book| author=Thomas, Cliff|title=The Narrow Gauge in Britain & Ireland| publisher=Atlantic Publishers| year=2002|id=ISBN 1902827058}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.hollycombe.co.uk/index.htm| title=Official website}}

==See also==
*[[British narrow gauge railways]]

[[Category:Transport museums in England]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Narrow gauge railways]]

Goldene Stunde (Fotografie)

2006-10-18T01:56:51Z

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[[Image:Bangkok skytrain sunset.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Images taken during the "golden hour" period can be far more striking than would be ordinarily expected.]]
In [[photography]], the '''golden hour''' is the first and last hour of [[sun]] during the day when a specific photographic effect is achieved with the quality of the light during these hours.

Typically, lighting will be softer ( more [[diffuse]] ) and [[warm]] in [[hue]], and shadows will be quite pronounced as a result of the sun being so close to parallel with the horizon. This is because (1) the sun light is travelling a further distance, and (2) coming from a less harsh side angle, instead of straight down. The '''Golden Hour''' is a mild version of [[Alpine glow]], as described by [[Galen Rowell]].

During the golden hour, highlights are less likely to be [[exposure (photography)|overexposed]]. This is often considered aesthetically pleasing in comparison to photos taken during the middle of the day when bright overhead sunlight creates overexposed highlights and deep, dark [[shadow]]s. The degree to which this will occur will vary as different types of film and digital cameras have varying [[dynamic range]]s.

This is particularly important in portrait photography where a [[fill flash]] is often necessary to balance the exposure of the subject, as strong shadows on the face are considered undesirable. However, during the golden hour, such shadows are less pronounced.

In landscape photography, warm hues are considered desirable to 'enhance' the colours; capture a warmer hue as well as more vibrant, saturated tones.

== External links ==
*[http://www.garageglamour.com/goldenhour/goldenhour.php Golden Hour Calculator]
*[http://www.night-ray.com/PhotoCheatSheet.pdf Photographic Cheat Sheet] ([[PDF]])
*[http://www.largeformatphotography.info/sunmooncalc/ Sun/Moon Calculator] (find your sunrise and sunset times!)
*[http://www.landscapephoto.us/Photos/SunsetInYellowstone.html A golden hour landscape]

{{photo-stub}}

Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi

2006-10-18T01:24:57Z

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{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
[[Image:Ghulam_Mustafa_Jatoi.jpg|thumb|Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi]]

'''Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi''' ([[Urdu]]: '''غلام مصطفیٰ جتوئی''') (born [[14 August]] [[1931]]) is a [[Pakistan]]i politician, and was [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]].

Jatoi was born in the Province of [[Sindh]]. He was the eldest of four brothers, and his father, [[Khan Bahadur Ghulam Rasul Khan Jatoi]], was a member of the Bombay Legislative Assembly in 1923, 1927 & 1931. At the time there were only 4 members representing the entire Province of Sind.

Jatoi was educated at [[Karachi]] Grammar School and passed his senior Cambridge. In [[1952]], he went to [[England]] for his bar at law, but had to return home within one year due to his father's serious illness. He was elected to the first Provincial Assembly of [[West Pakistan]] in [[1958]], and was re-elected in [[1965]]. He has also serves as Chairman District Board of Nawabshah District in 1952, holding the distinction of being the youngest District Board Chairman on the sub-continent.

Jatoi joined Pakistan People's Party in March [[1969]]. In [[1970]], he was elected to the [[National Assembly]] on PPP ticket. He held the Portfolios of Political Affairs, Ports and Shipping, Communications, Natural Resources, Railways & Telecommunications in the Federal Government headed by Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. In [[1973]], he was elected [[Chief Minister]] of the Sindh, and held this office till [[1977]]. He has the disticion of being the longest serving Chief Minister of Sindh since the birth of Pakistan. He was re-elected in March 1977. After the imposition of [[Martial Law]], Jatoi remained associated with the Movement for Restoration of Democracy (MRD). Twice he was arrested in [[1983]] and [[1985]].

Later, he founded the [[National People's Party]]. A number of political heavyweights from all over the country were brought into the National People’s Party, launched under the chairmanship of Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi. Among them were Ghulam Mustafa Khar, Haneef Ramay, SM Zafar, [[Hamid Raza Gilani]], Malik Hamid Sarfraz, Ghaus Bux Raeesani, Kamal Azfar, Mian Sajid Pervaiz, Nafees Siddiqui, Rana Muhammad Haneef, Rabbani Khar and Aftab Shah Gilani. An attractive manifesto was prepared and the party was expected to shoot into prominence in no time due to the declining popularity of the Peoples Party at the time.

The NPP and the PML, then headed by Mr Junejo, along with 7 other political parties, contested the 1988 elections from the platform of the Islami Jamhoori Ittehad. The PPP won the bout, though with a thin majority.

In 1989, he was elected to the National Assembly in by-elections from Kot Addu. After joining [[Islami Jamhoori Ittehad]] (IJI), Jatoi was elected leader of the combined opposition parties in the National Assembly in 1989.

Mr. Jatoi was appointed Prime Minister after the dismissal of the Benazir government on corruption and incompetence charges by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan. In protest at the autocratic tendencies of the Nawaz Sharif, the then Prime Minister, Mr. Jatoi joined hands with the opposition lead by Benazir Bhutto in launching a movement against the Sharif government, resulting in its dismissal in 1993.

The NPP contested the 1993 elections and later joined the Benazir Bhutto government as a coalition partner till the Governments dismissal in 1997 by the PPP President Farooq Leghari. In the 2002 general election, it was the dominant partner in a new group called the National Alliance which was Chaired by him. The National Alliance won 16 seats in the national Assembly, 16 seats in the Sindh Assembly and 3 Senate Seats.

His two sons, Arif Mustafa Jatoi and Asif Mustafa Jatoi are also in politics, currently serving as Minister for Food and Agriculture in Sindh and as a Senator, respectively.

==External links==
*[http://pakistanspace.tripod.com/47.htm Chronicles Of Pakistan]

{{sequence|prev=[[Benazir Bhutto]]|next=[[Nawaz Sharif]]|list=[[Prime Minister of Pakistan]]}}
{{PakistaniPMs}}

[[Category:Prime Ministers of Pakistan|Jatoi, Ghulam Mustafa]]
[[Category:Pakistani people|Jatoi, Ghulam Mustafa]]
[[Category:Pakistani politicians|Jatoi, Ghulam Mustafa]]

{{Pakistan-bio-stub}}

Foe (Einheit)

2006-10-17T23:08:20Z

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A '''foe''' is a unit of [[energy]] equal to 10<sup>44</sup> [[joule]]s.

To measure the staggeringly immense amount of energy produced by a [[supernova]], specialists occasionally use a unit of energy known as a "foe", an acronym derived from the phrase [ten to the [[Exponentiation|power]]] '''f'''ifty-'''o'''ne '''e'''rgs, or 10<sup>51</sup> [[erg]]s. This unit of measure is convenient because a supernova typically releases about one foe of observable energy in a very short period of time (which can be measured in seconds). In comparison, if the Sun had its current luminosity throughout its entire lifetime, it would produce 3.827{{e|26}} [[Watt|W]] × 10<sup>10</sup> [[years]] ≈ 1.2 foe ([http://www.google.com/search?q=3.827*10%5E26W+*+10%5E10+year+in+ergs Google Calculator]).

[[Category:Units of energy]]

[[es:Foe]]

Federalist-Artikel Nr. 10

2006-10-17T01:42:33Z

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[[Image:JamesMadison.jpg|right|thumb|200px|James Madison, author of Federalist No. 10]]

'''Federalist No. 10''' ('''Federalist Number 10''') is an [[essay]] by [[James Madison]] and the tenth of the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'', a series arguing for the ratification of the [[United States Constitution]]. It was published on [[November 22]], [[1787]], under the [[pseudonym]] [[Publius]], the name under which all the ''Federalist Papers'' were published. The essay is the most famous of the ''Federalist Papers,'' along with [[Federalist No. 51]], also by James Madison, and is among the most highly regarded of all [[United States|American]] political writings.{{ref|Ep59}}

No. 10 addresses the question of how to guard against "[[political faction|factions]]," groups of citizens with interests contrary to the rights of others or the interests of the whole community. In today's discourse the term [[special interest]] often carries the same connotation. Madison argued that a strong, large republic would be a better guard against those dangers than smaller republics—for instance, the individual states. Opponents of the Constitution offered counterarguments to his position, which were substantially derived from the commentary of [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]] on this subject.

Federalist No. 10 continues a theme begun in [[Federalist No. 9]]; it is titled, "The Same Subject Continued: The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection." The whole series is cited by scholars and [[jurist]]s as an authoritative interpretation and explication of the meaning of the Constitution. Jurists have frequently read No. 10 to mean that the [[Founding Fathers]] did not intend the United States government to be [[political party|partisan]].

==Publication==

By [[September 17]], [[1787]], the [[Philadelphia Convention]] had submitted the Constitution to the states for ratification. [[Anti-Federalist]] writers began to publish essays and letters arguing against ratification, and [[Alexander Hamilton]] recruited Madison and [[John Jay]] to write a series of pro-ratification letters in response. Like most of the Anti-Federalist essays and the vast majority of the ''Federalist Papers'', No. 10 first appeared in popular [[newspaper]]s. It was first printed in the ''Daily Advertiser''; in this it was remarkable among the essays of Publius, as almost all of them first appeared in one of two other papers, the ''Independent Journal'' and the ''New-York Packet''. [[Federalist No. 37]], also by Madison, was the only other essay to appear first in the ''Advertiser''.{{ref|const}}

On [[January 1]], [[1788]], the publishing company J. & A. McLean announced that they would publish the first 36 of the essays in a single volume. This volume, titled ''The Federalist'', was released on [[March 2]], [[1788]]. Two later editions are of note. The first was by George Hopkins in 1802; in this edition Hopkins revealed that Madison, Hamilton, and Jay were in fact the authors of the series. In 1818, James Gideon published a third edition containing corrections by Madison, who by that time had completed his two terms as [[President of the United States]].{{ref|spark}}

==The question of faction==

Federalist No. 10 continues the discussion of a question broached in Hamilton's Federalist No. 9. Hamilton had addressed the destructive role of [[Political faction|faction]] in breaking apart a republic. The question Madison answers, then, is how to eliminate the negative effects of faction. He defines a faction as "a number of citizens, whether amounting to a minority or majority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community." He identifies the main source of factions as a result of the unequal distribution of property, of society divided into different [[classes]]. He writes, "But the most common and durable source of factions has been the various and unequal distribution of property. Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society." He saw [[direct democracy]] as a danger to individual rights and advocated a [[representative democracy]] (also called a [[republic]]), in order to protect what he viewed as individual liberty from majority rule, or from the effects of such inequality within society. He says, "A pure democracy can admit no cure for the mischiefs of faction. A common passion or interest will be felt by a majority, and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party. Hence it is, that democracies have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have, in general, been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths."

Like the anti-Federalists who opposed him, Madison was substantially influenced by the work of Montesquieu, though Madison and Montesquieu disagreed on the question addressed in this essay. He also relied heavily on the philosophers of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]], especially [[David Hume]], whose influence is most clear in Madison's discussion of the types of faction.

==Publius' argument==

Madison takes the position that there are two ways to limit the damage caused by faction: removing the causes of faction or controlling its effects. He contends that there are two ways to remove the causes that provoke the development of factions. One, the elimination of liberty, he rejects as unacceptable. The other, creating a society homogeneous in opinion and interest, he sees as impractical because the causes of faction, among them variant economic interests, are inherent in a free society. Madison concludes that the damage caused by faction can be limited only by controlling its effects.

Madison notes that the principle of popular sovereignty should prevent minority factions from gaining power. Majority factions are then the problem, and he offers two ways to check them: prevent the "existence of the same passion or interest in a majority at the same time," or alternately render a majority faction unable to act. From this point Madison concludes that a small democracy cannot avoid majority faction, because small size means that common passions are likely to form among a majority of the people, and democracy means that the majority can enforce its will.

A republic, Madison writes, differs from a democracy in that its government is delegated to representatives, and as a result of this, it can be extended over a larger area. Regarding the first difference, Madison contends that a large republic will elect better delegates than a small one. In a large republic, the number of citizens per representative will be greater, and each chosen representative will be the best from a larger sample of people, resulting in better government. Also, the fact that each representative is chosen from a larger constituency means that "vicious arts" of electioneering will be less effective.

The fact that a republic can encompass larger areas and populations is a strength of that form of government. Madison believes that larger societies will have a greater variety of diverse parties and interest groups, which in competition will be less likely to yield a majority faction. This is a general application of the [[checks and balances]] principle, which is central to the American constitutional system. In conclusion, Madison emphasizes that the greater size of the Union will allow for more effective governments than were the states to remain more independent.

Though Madison argued for a large and diverse republic, the writers of the ''Federalist Papers'' recognized the need for a balance. They wanted a republic diverse enough to prevent faction but with enough commonality to maintain cohesion. In [[Federalist No. 2]], [[John Jay]] counted as a blessing that America possessed "one united people—a people descended from the same ancestors, speaking the same language, professing the same religion." Madison himself addresses a limitation of his conclusion that large constituencies will provide better representatives. He notes that if constituencies are too large, the representatives will be "too little acquainted with all their local circumstances and lesser interests." He says that this problem is partly solved by [[federalism]]. No matter how large the constituencies of federal representatives, local matters will be looked after by state and local officials with naturally smaller constituencies.

==Contemporary counterarguments==

[[Image:George_clinton.jpg|right|frame|[[George Clinton (politician)|George Clinton]], widely believed to be the Anti-Federalist Cato]]

The [[Anti-Federalists]] vigorously contested the notion that a republic of diverse interests could survive. The author Cato (another pseudonym, most likely that of [[George Clinton (politician)|George Clinton]]) summarized the Anti-Federalist position in the article Cato no. 3:

:''Whoever seriously considers the immense extent of territory comprehended within the limits of the United States, together with the variety of its climates, productions, and commerce, the difference of extent, and number of inhabitants in all; the dissimilitude of interest, morals, and policies, in almost every one, will receive it as an intuitive truth, that a consolidated republican form of government therein, can never'' form a perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to you and your posterity, ''for to these objects it must be directed: this unkindred legislature therefore, composed of interests opposite and dissimilar in their nature, will in its exercise, emphatically be, like a house divided against itself.''{{ref|cato}}

Generally, it was their position that republics about the size of the individual states could survive, but that a republic on the size of the Union would fail. A particular point in support of this was that most of the states were focused on one industry—to generalize, commerce and shipping in the northern states and plantation farming in the southern. The Anti-Federalist belief that the wide disparity in the economic interests of the various states would lead to controversy was perhaps realized in the [[American Civil War]], which some scholars attribute to this disparity.{{ref|ransom}} Madison himself, in a letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]], noted that differing economic interests had created dispute, even when the Constitution was being written.{{ref|mad-jef}}

The discussion of the ideal size for the republic was not limited to the options of individual states or encompassing union. In a letter to [[Richard Price]], [[Benjamin Rush]] noted that "Some of our enlightened men who begin to despair of a more complete union of the States in Congress have secretly proposed an Eastern, Middle, and Southern Confederacy, to be united by an alliance offensive and defensive."{{ref|rush}} However, compromise ideas like this gained little traction.

In making their arguments, the Anti-Federalists appealed to both historical and theoretic evidence. On the theoretical side, they leaned heavily on the work of [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu]]. The Anti-Federalists [[Robert Yates (politician)|Brutus]] and Cato both quoted Montesquieu on the issue of the ideal size of a republic, citing his statement in ''[[The Spirit of the Laws]]'' that:

:''It is natural to a republic to have only a small territory, otherwise it cannot long subsist. In a large republic there are men of large fortunes, and consequently of less moderation; there are trusts too great to be placed in any single subject; he has interest of his own; he soon begins to think that he may be happy, great and glorious, by oppressing his fellow citizens; and that he may raise himself to grandeur on the ruins of his country. In a large republic, the public good is sacrificed to a thousand views; it is subordinate to exceptions, and depends on accidents. In a small one, the interest of the public is easier perceived, better understood, and more within the reach of every citizen; abuses are of less extent, and of course are less protected.''

Brutus points out that the [[Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] states envisioned by many Americans as model republics (as evidenced by the choice of many authors on both sides of the debate to take Roman monikers) were small. Brutus also points out that the expansion of these republics resulted in a transition from free government to tyranny.{{ref|brutus}}

==Modern analysis and reaction==

In the first century of the American republic, No. 10 was not regarded as among the more important numbers of ''The Federalist''. For instance, in ''[[Democracy in America]]'' [[Alexis de Tocqueville]] refers specifically to more than fifty of the essays, but No. 10 is not among them.{{ref|adair110}} Today, however, No. 10 is regarded as a seminal work of American democracy. In "The People's Vote," a popular survey conducted by the [[National Archives and Records Administration]], [[National History Day]], and ''[[U.S. News and World Report]]'', No. 10 (along with [[Federalist No. 51]], also by Madison) was chosen as the 20th most influential document in United States history.{{ref|people}}

[[Douglass Adair]] attributes the increased interest in the tenth number to [[Charles A. Beard]]'s book ''[[An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution]]'', published in 1913. Adair also contends that Beard's selective focus on the issue of [[class struggle]], and his political [[progressivism]], has colored modern scholarship on the essay. According to Adair, Beard reads No. 10 as evidence for his belief in "the Constitution as an instrument of class exploitation."{{ref|Adair2}} Adair's own view is that Federalist No. 10 should be read as "eighteenth-century political theory directed to an eighteenth-century problem; and … one of the great creative achievements of that intellectual movement that later ages have christened 'Jeffersonian democracy.'"{{ref|Adair131}}

[[Garry Wills]] is a noted critic of Madison's argument in Federalist No. 10. In his book ''Explaining America'', he adopts the position of [[Robert Dahl]] in arguing that Madison's framework does not necessarily enhance the protections of minorities or ensure the common good. Instead, Wills claims: "Minorities can make use of dispersed and staggered governmental machinery to clog, delay, slow down, hamper, and obstruct the majority. But these weapons for delay are given to the minority irrespective of its factious or nonfactious character; and they can be used against the majority irrespective of its factious or nonfactious character. What Madison prevents is not faction, but action. What he protects is not the common good but delay as such."{{ref|Wills195}}

==Application==

Federalist No. 10 is the classic citation for the belief that the [[Founding Fathers]] and the constitutional framers did not intend American politics to be [[political party|partisan]]. For instance, [[United States Supreme Court]] justice [[John Paul Stevens]] cites the paper for the statement, "Parties ranked high on the list of evils that the Constitution was designed to check."{{ref|stevens}} Discussing a California provision that forbids candidates from running as independents within one year of holding a partisan affiliation, Justice [[Byron White]] made apparent the Court's belief that Madison spoke for the framers of the Constitution: "California apparently believes with the Founding Fathers that splintered parties and unrestrained factionalism may do significant damage to the fabric of government. See The Federalist, No. 10 (Madison)."{{ref|white}}

Madison's argument that restraining liberty to limit faction is an unacceptable solution has been used by opponents of campaign finance limits. Justice [[Clarence Thomas]], for example, invoked Federalist No. 10 in a dissent against a ruling supporting limits on campaign contributions, writing: "The Framers preferred a political system that harnessed such faction for good, preserving liberty while also ensuring good government. Rather than adopting the repressive 'cure' for faction that the majority today endorses, the Framers armed individual citizens with a remedy."{{ref|Thomas}}. It has also been used by those that seek fairer and equitable [[ballot access law]], such as [[Richard Winger]] of [[Ballot Access News]].

==Notes==
<div class="references-small">
# {{note|Ep59}} Epstein, 59.
# {{note|const}} ''The Federalist'' contents, with dates and publication information, at [http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa00.htm the Constitution Society]
# {{note|spark}} ''The Federalist'' timeline at [http://www.sparknotes.com/history/american/federalist/timeline.html www.sparknotes.com]
# {{note|cato}} Cato, no. 3
# {{note|ransom}} Ransom, Roger L. [http://www.eh.net/encyclopedia/article/ransom.civil.war.us "Economics of the Civil War"]. August 25, 2001. Referenced November 20, 2005.
# {{note|mad-jef}} [[October 24]], [[1787]] letter of Madison to Jefferson, at ''The Founders' Constitution'' [http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch17s22.html web edition]
# {{note|rush}} Letter by [[Benjamin Rush]] to [[Richard Price]], at ''The Founders' Constitution'' [http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch7s7.html web edition]
# {{note|brutus}} Brutus, no. 1
# {{note|adair110}} Adair, 110
# {{note|people}} "The People's Vote" website at [http://www.ourdocuments.gov/content.php?page=vote www.ourdocuments.gov]
# {{note|Adair2}} Adair, 120-124 ''passim''. Quotation at 123.
# {{note|Adair131}} Adair, 131.
# {{note|Wills195}} Wills, 195.
# {{note|stevens}} ''[[California Democratic Party v. Jones]]'', 530 U.S. 567, 592 (2000) [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=search&court=US&case=/us/000/99%2D401.html#FN3.2]
# {{note|white}} ''[[Storer v. Brown]]'', 415 U.S. 724, 736 (1974) [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?navby=volpage&court=us&vol=415&page=728#728]
# {{note|Thomas}} ''[[Nixon v. Shrink Missouri Government PAC]]'', 528 U.S. 377, 424 (2000) [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=search&court=US&case=/us/000/98%2D963.html#fn5.9]
</div>

==References==
<div class="references-small">
* Adair, Douglass. ''Fame and the Founding Fathers.'' Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1974. <small>A collection of essays; that used here is "The Tenth Federalist Revisited."</small>
* Epstein, David F. ''The Political Theory of The Federalist''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
* Hamilton, Alexander; Madison, James; and Jay, John. ''The Federalist''. Edited by Jacob E. Cooke. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1961.
* Storing, Herbert J., ed. ''The Complete Anti-Federalist''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. <small>A 7-volume edition containing most all relevant Anti-Federalist writings.</small>
* Wills, Garry. ''Explaining America''. New York: Penguin Books, 1982.
* {{cite web | title= ''Storer v. Brown'', 415 U.S. 724 (1974) | work=Findlaw | url= http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=415&invol=724 | accessdate=October 1 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title= ''Nixon v. Shrink Missouri Government PAC'', 528 U.S. 377 (2000) | work=Findlaw | url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=528&invol=377 | accessdate=August 23 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title= ''California Democratic Party v. Jones'', 530 U.S. 567 (2000) | work=Findlaw | url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=530&invol=567 | accessdate=August 23 | accessyear=2005}}
</div>

==External links==

{{wikisource|The_Federalist_Papers/No._10|Federalist No. 10}}

* Online text of [http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch4s19.html Federalist No. 10] at [http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/ http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/], the online edition of ''[[The Founders' Constitution]]'', hosted by the [[University of Chicago]].
* Online text of [http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch4s14.html Brutus, no. 1], same source as above.
* Online text of [http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch4s16.html Cato, no. 3], same source as above.
* [http://www.law.mcgill.ca/quid/archive/2003/03111817.html The Making of the American Constitution]
{{Federalist Papers}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Federalist Papers]]
[[Category:1787 in law]]
[[Category:Works by heads of state or government]]

[[io:Federalist No. 10]]
[[id:Federalis No. 10]]

Europa zuerst

2006-10-17T00:58:06Z

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'''Europe first''' (sometimes known as '''Germany first''') was the key element of the grand strategy employed by the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] during [[World War II]]. According to this policy, the United States and the United Kingdom would use the preponderance of their resources to subdue [[Germany]] in [[Europe]] first, and fight a holding action against [[Japan]] in the [[Pacific]] in the meanwhile, using fewer resources. After the defeat of Germany, considered the greater threat, all Allied forces could be concentrated against Japan.

==Background==
When Japan attacked the United States, the United Kingdom had already been fighting in Europe for years, and had relatively few resources to spare to protect far-flung [[colonialism|colonies]]. Since Germany declared war on the United States on [[December 11]], the United States faced a decision about how to allocate resources between these two separate theaters of war. (At the maximum extent of Axis power, there were still several thousand miles of Allied territory between the regions of German occupation and Japanese occupation, so the wars could be considered separately from a strategic viewpoint.) On the one hand, Japan had attacked the United States directly, and the Japanese navy threatened United States territory in a way that Germany, with a limited surface navy, was not in a position to do. On the other hand, Germany was universally considered the stronger and more dangerous power, and the United States' European allies were forced by geography to focus there.

==Agreement==
Soon after the declaration of war at the [[Arcadia Conference]], the United States and the United Kingdom agreed on the Europe first strategy, and the United States committed to sending the [[United States Army|army]] and [[United States Army Air Forces|air force]] it was raising to fight Germany in Europe and Africa as soon as it was ready. The campaign against Japan would be focused on halting Japanese expansion until the war on Germany was complete, at which time the full power of the United Kingdom, the United States, and eventually the [[Soviet Union]] could be turned against Japan. This strategy would concentrate on what was perceived as the strongest of the Axis Powers, and would prevent a German victory that might knock the United Kingdom or the Soviets out of the war.

==Consequences==
In practice, the United States was able to use most of its fleet against Japan anyway, since Germany's surface fleet was small and the escort ships used in the [[Second Battle of the Atlantic]] were mostly [[destroyer]]s rather than [[aircraft carrier|carriers]] or [[battleship]]s. The Pacific War could be prosecuted successfully with relatively small numbers of ground troops (usually [[uS Marine Corps|Marines]]), and by the time Germany was defeated, the allies had reconquered [[Burma]], the [[Philippines]], and a string of island bases leading up to the home islands of Japan. The US started a massive reallocation of troops to the Pacific to prepare for the [[Operation Downfall|invasion of Japan]], but in the process, Japan surrendered following detonation of [[atomic bomb]]s over [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] victories in [[Manchuria]].

One clear result of the Europe First was that battles in the European theatre tended to be set-piece, pre-planned events. With fewer resources, the Allied Commanders in the Pacific tended to run much smaller, ad-hoc operations and were forced (by necessity of circumstances) to be more flexible in their strategic planning - for example, as a result of fortuitous events, the [[Battle of Leyte]] and later [[Battle of Iwo Jima]] were undertaken with almost no strategic foreplanning.

[[Category:World War II politics]]

[[no:Europa først]]

Drumcondra Castle

2006-10-16T03:54:50Z

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'''Drumcondra''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Droim Conrach'') is a residential area on the [[Northside (Dublin)|Northside]] of [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]].

It is famous as the birthplace and residence of [[Taoiseach]] [[Bertie Ahern]] [[Teachta Dála|TD]], the [[Prime Minister]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. It is the site of the palace of the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin and three colleges are located here: [[All Hallows College]], [[Mater Dei Institute of Education]] and [[St Patrick's College of Education]]. All three of these colleges are associated with the Irish Roman Catholic Church.

Drumcondra is also the location of [[Tolka Park]], the home of Irish Premier League soccer team [[Shelbourne F.C.]].

It is served by [[Drumcondra railway station]], on the main Drumcondra road.

The Cat and Cage Pub on the Drumcondra Road was the site of an old postal stop and the point at which rebels, during the [[1798 rebellion]], seized a postal cart in order to signal to others in north Co. Dublin to revolt.

== External links ==
*[http://www.dublin.forumforus.com/Map_of_Drumcondra Map of Drumcondra]

[[Category:Towns and suburbs in Dublin]]

{{Dublin-geo-stub}}

Cougar Mountain Regional Wildland Park

2006-10-15T10:05:54Z

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{{Infobox_protected_area | name = Cougar Mountain Regional Wildland Park
| iucn_category = IV
| image = US_Locator_Blank.svg
| caption =
| locator_x = 27
| locator_y = 12
| location = [[Washington]], [[United States|USA]]
| nearest_city = [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]]
| lat_degrees = 47
| lat_minutes = 31
| lat_seconds = 15
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 122
| long_minutes = 05
| long_seconds = 29
| long_direction = W
| area = 3,098 acres (12.54 km²)
| established = January 1985
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body = [[King County, Washington|King County Parks and Recreation Division]]
}}
The lowest and westernmost of the [[Issaquah Alps]], '''Cougar Mountain''' is a zone of highlands in suburban [[Seattle|Seattle, Washington]], rising abruptly from southeast of the intersection of [[Interstate 90|I-90]] and [[Interstate 405 (Washington)|I-405]]. Reaching as high as 1,595 feet above sea-level, about two-thirds of Cougar Mountain has experienced residential development, but the forested heart of the hills was officially preserved by [[King County, Washington|King County]] in June 1983 as a [[Regional park|Regional Wildland Park]]. The first land acquisition was in January 1985. With 36 miles of hiking trails and 12 miles of equestrian trails providing a true wilderness experience on Seattle's very doorstep, the park has grown piecemeal to 3,098 acres, becoming the largest urban wildland in the United States.

Outside the official boundaries of the park are many more miles of trails in city greenbelts or on swaths of private land too steep to patrol for errant hikers, let alone develop. Additionally, King County Parks has attempted, by obscuring connections with main trails, to "erase" a network of trails in the southeast quadrant of Cougar Mountain to create a '''Designated Wildlife Corridor''' connecting to the rest of the Issaquah Alps. After a decade of neglect, most of these trails are still in good condition once the hiker has negotiated through the brushy endpoints.

[[Image:CoalCreekCougarMountain.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Coal Creek.]]

==Access==
The main trailheads are '''Red Town''' in Newcastle, [[elevation]] 600 [[Foot (unit of length)|feet]], at the site of an old [[coal]]-[[mining]] [[company town]], '''Radar Park''' in Bellevue, elevation 1,400 feet, where a [[radar]] installation for [[Project Nike|Nike]] [[missiles]] was located during the [[Cold War]], and '''[[Wilderness]] Creek''', elevation 400 feet, on [[State Route]] 900 near May Valley Road. These [[trailhead]]s provide [[maps]] and there are directional [[Information sign|signs]] at each [[trail]] intersection. Several lesser trailheads provide access from [[neighborhoods]] abutting the [[park]].

==Geography==
===Environs===

The park is bordered on the north by the city of [[Bellevue, Washington|Bellevue]] (primarily [[Eastgate, Washington|Eastgate]]) and on the northeast by the city of [[Issaquah, Washington|Issaquah]]. State Route 900 forms the eastern border. Neighboring [[Squak Mountain]] looms to the southeast and the farms of May Creek valley lie to the south. To the southwest is the city of [[Renton, Washington|Renton]]. The city of [[Newcastle, Washington|Newcastle]], ranging over the Newport Hills, occupies the western portion of Cougar Mountain. To the northwest the deep gully of [[Coal Creek (Washington)|Coal Creek]], with its own separate park, divides Newcastle from Bellevue and [[Factoria, Bellevue, Washington|Factoria]].

===Summits===
* '''AA Peak''' - 1,480 feet. This peak overlooks Radar Park, a former Cold War military installation. Excellent views to the north of [[Lake Sammamish]] and [[Mt. Baker]] are obtained here.
* '''Claypit Peak''' - 1,560 feet. Separated from Wilderness Peak by a saddle, Claypit Peak looms above a 150 acre source of clay for bricks, leased by Mutual Materials in [[Newcastle, Washington|Newcastle]].
* '''Deceiver Ridge''' - 1,220 feet. A broad plateau bristling with second-growth fir.
* '''Long View Peak''' - 1,445 feet. This summit has a horse hitch, a bench, and a view to the south.
* '''Marshall's Hill''' - 1,120 feet. Dominating the Renton side of Cougar Mountain, the top of Marshall's Hill is reached by switchbacks from the '''De Leo Wall.'''
* '''Reichert's Hill''' - 1,420 feet. Also known as Radio Hill or Goat Hill, this is the site of many radio and television station broadcast antennas.
* '''Ring Road Peak''' - 1,245 feet. On the shoulder of Long View Peak. The summit is outside the Park, on private property.
* '''Wilderness Peak''' - 1,595 feet. There is no view owing to a stand of old growth timber, but Wilderness Peak is the highest elevation in the park. There is a summit register.

==Hydrography==
===Creeks===
The hilltops of Cougar Mountain form a rough horseshoe-shape around the Klondike Marsh headwaters of [[Coal Creek (Washington)|Coal Creek]], which runs northwest to [[Lake Washington]] through [[Coal Creek Park]]. Long Marsh Creek, Far Country Creek, Cabbage Creek, and Wilderness Creek are tributaries of [[May Creek]], draining the south side of Cougar Mountain to Lake Washington. Deeply etching the sandstone precipice on the north and east side, Lewis Creek, Kline Creek, AA Creek, West Tibbets Creek, and Claypit Creek carry their water to [[Lake Sammamish]].

===Marshes===
[[Image:CougarMountainMarsh.jpg|thumb|200px|right|One edge of Long Marsh near the Indian Trail.]]
* '''Blackwater Pond''' - The headwaters of the east fork of Coal Creek.
* '''Jerry's Duck Pond''' - A quiet wooded man-made pond near the summit of Claypit Peak.
* '''Klondike Marsh''' - A former reservoir providing water for coal-car steam hoists.
* '''Lake Boren''' - A separate park in Newcastle, Lake Boren is the largest body of water in the highlands.
* '''Long Marsh''' - Large swamp between the Wildside Trail and Indian Trail.
* '''Shy Bear Marsh''' - The source of Cabbage Creek in the most remote part of the park.
* '''Tibbett's Marsh''' - The source of West Tibbett's Creek, crossed by a massive downed cedar log.
* '''Trog Swamp''' - Wetland along the Far Country Trail.

===Waterfalls===
There are five named waterfalls within Cougar Mountain Regional Wildland Park.

* '''Coal Creek Falls''' 25 feet, seasonal flow. At Coal Creek near the Quarry Trail.

* '''Doughty Falls''' - At Cabbage Creek on the Deceiver Trail.

* '''Far Country Falls''' At Far Country Creek on the Indian Trail.

* '''North Fork Falls''' - 20 feet, year-round flow. Near the Red Town Trailhead.

* '''Sandstone Falls''' - On the Primrose Trail in Coal Creek Park.

==Official Trails==
===North side===
* '''N1: Coal Creek Trail''' - Trail begins at the trailhead where Coal Creek Parkway dips to cross the creek and is soon joined on the north by a trail leading to the [[Bellevue]] system of open spaces. Scenic Brickyard Creek joins from the south in a steep descent. At a Y the Primrose Trail '''(N11)''' peels off to tour the creek at its most scenic reach in a canyon where Sandstone Falls is found. The main line tours the relics of an old farm and is joined by the Primrose Trail again further on. Strange hummocks are found in this area which were debris piles created during coal mining operations more than a century ago. A steep road leaves the trail to the site of the Cinder Mine. The last 0.75 mile of the trail gently ascends to the Red Town trailhead with North Fork Falls and many coal-mining relics found along the way.

* '''N2: Military Road Trail''' - Trail begins at Red Town trailhead and ascends the old U.S. Army route (originally running to Issaquah) to the gate which marks the beginning of the Clay Pit Road. This is the only part of the Military Road that is accessed by an official trail. The route of the old road runs over Radio Hill and through private land, and it enters the park again above the Precipice Bottom Trail in a section informally called Harvey's Magic Quarter Mile.

* '''N3: Radio Peak Trail''' - Trail forks from the Coyote Creek Trail along the western edge of the Klondike Marsh and steadily ascends a rather narrow ridge populated with a fine stand of Douglas Fir. At the summit the trail arrives at a large cluster of radio transmitters and a service road that can take you down to Cougar Mountain Drive, but officially the trail ends here.

* '''N4: Coyote Creek Trail''' - Trail begins where Cougar Mountain Drive changes from blacktop to gravel. Also known as "Bill's Trail" (because Bill Culbert preferred to use this route to transit the area during high rains), the path meanders along the western edge of Klondike Swamp, crosses a clearing, and intersects the Claypit Road directly across from the terminus of the Cave Hole Trail.

* '''N5: Klondike Swamp Trail''' - Trail forks from the Coyote Creek Trail and passes along the base of Anti-Aircraft Peak where it meets the Klondike Swamp. An old woods road, the trail is relatively flat and straight, offering a quick route into the heart of Cougar Mountain. It passes a large vine maple that forms a canopy before ending at the Cougar Pass Trail.

* '''N6: Lost Beagle Trail''' - Trail ascends from the Klondike Swamp Trail through cool forest, switchbacking east to the summit area of Anti-Aircraft Peak. Radar Park has interpretive signs and the concrete foundations of a military installation that has long been abandoned. In [[World War II]] this was the site of anti-aircraft gun emplacements for possible Japanese attack. Later, [[Nike missile]]s were installed nearby, directed by personnel stationed here.

* '''N7: AA Ridge Trail''' - Trail begins near the summit of Anti-Aircraft Peak and runs south down the gentle spine of the peak through a mixed [[coniferous]] and [[deciduous]] forest, reaching Cougar Pass which divides the watersheds of Coal Creek and West Tibbetts Creek. [[Image:CougarMountainClaws.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Possible bear or cougar clawmarks on a tree along the AA Ridge Trail.]]

* '''N8: Cougar Pass Trail''' - Trail connects the Klondike Swamp Trail with the Tibbetts Marsh Trail, striking the AA Ridge Trail at the highest point. It provides an alternative to the Clay Pit Road which parallels it just to the south.

* '''N9: Tibbett's Marsh Trail''' - Trail begins at Radar Park and provides the most direct route to the Claypit area, crossing the mile-wide saddle between AA and Claypit Peaks. It spans the marsh on a giant fallen cedar which has been converted into an ad hoc bridge with many axe strokes.

* '''N10: Peggy's Trail''' - Trail begins where a private gravel drive meets Cougar Mountain Drive a short distance from Radar Park. It strikes due north and descends the slope steeply, but inaction on the part of [[King County, Washington|King County]] permitted the last link (a single lot just before the trail reaches 60th Street) to be developed, making this important route effectively a dead end trail. Hikers must now backtrack and use public roads to reach the Lewis Creek Canyon system of trails.

===East side===
* '''E1: Shangri-La Trail''' - Trail begins at the Radar Park trailhead and descends the eastern flanks of Cougar Mountain to the Talus development. Wide and gently sloping, the former logging road parallels the Surprise Creek Trail. The forest has not yet grown again sufficiently to permit this trail to lose its character as a road.

* '''E2: Surprise Creek Trail''' - Trail begins at the Shangri-La Trail and provides a more scenic route down to the Issaquah Reservoir. It accesses the Powerline Trail at two points.

* '''E3: Bear Ridge Trail''' - Trail begins in a small three-car alcove 0.9 miles south of Newport Way on State Route 900 and forks left. Paralleling West Tibbetts Creek on a narrow ridge high above it, the trail passes a section corner marker and enormous firs before reaching the Fantastic [[Erratic]], a fern covered boulder about the size of a two-car garage deposited here during the ice age by the Canadian glacier. The Trail switchbacks up to an undissected plateau of knee-high ferns dotted with islands of oak, maple, alder, and young fir (The country is so open here a person with a compass or GPS could strike off cross country and easily reach the Clay Pit). After crossing two creeks the trail bends north to intersect the Shangri-La Trail.

* '''E4: Wilderness Peak Trail''' - Trail climbs steeply from Shy Bear pass to the highest point on Cougar Mountain, where trees rise at least another 100 feet but block any view. This is the uppermost edge of a large forest of virgin Douglas Firs that drapes the east ridge of the peak almost all the way down to the highway.

* '''E5: Wilderness Cliffs Trail''' - Trail begins at Boulder Junction on the Wilderness Creek mainline and ascends to a cliff-top view of [[Squak Mountain]] and soon after another view of [[Mount Rainier]]. Wilderness Creek is far, far below. The trail mounts to the beautiful forest of second growth Douglas Fir and salal underbrush on the rounded southern bulk of Wilderness Peak, passes a pond called Wilderness "Lake", and attains the summit, where one may leave a message in the register.

* '''E6: Wilderness Creek Trail''' - Trail begins at the Wilderness Creek trailhead on State Route 900, about a mile from May Valley Road. With many switchbacks it ascends the creek to Boulders Junction, does a hairpin turn and mounts a ridge on the right bank. A view back down to the tiny people on the bridge below surprises hikers with how high they've come. The trail passes Cougar Mountain Cave formed by talus fallen from the clifftops high above and reaches Shy Bear Pass.

* '''E7: Powerline Trail''' - Trail begins along the Surprise Creek trail, reaches a power line right-of-way, and drops straight down toward Goode's Corner, making only one bend into the woods to switchback through a zone of steep rocks. From this trail it is possible to leave the Park Boundaries and explore the northern Precipice.

* '''E8: No Name Trail''' - Trail is a relatively short connector between the Shangri-La Trail and Surprise Creek Trail. It links the northern and southern halves of the Precipice Trail.

* '''E9: Protector Trail''' - Trail begins along Tibbett's Marsh Trail and runs to an indistinct spur of AA Peak that forms a wall containing the wetland. Originally this ridge was not in the Park, and Harvey Manning feared it would be developed. Now it is deep inside the Park and the trail links to the Shangri-La Trail.

===South side===
* '''S1: Far Country Trail''' - Trail begins on the Indian Trail and gently switchbacks up through a beautiful glade to a clearing called Far Country Lookout, with views toward Renton and Tukwila. [[Harvey Manning]] named this area the Far Country because ice-age glaciers had eroded a south-flowing watershed where he expected to find a containing ridge and headwaters on his first exploration. He felt he had somehow crossed into a magical country far from home.

* '''S2: Shy Bear Trail''' - Trail begins at Far Country Lookout (indeed it is merely the continuation of the Far Country Trail), crosses a shoulder of Deceiver Ridge and drops to Shy Bear Marsh, which it crosses on a series of boardwalks. At this point a hiker is as far as anyone can get from a trailhead, this is the most remote part of Cougar Mountain. From the swamp the trail ascends to Shy Bear Pass, where a number of trails all come together in a small area.

* '''S3: Deceiver Trail''' - Trail forks off from Shy Bear Trail with a steel artifact of the logging days lying nearby. It ascends to the broad summit of Deceiver Ridge and drops to Cabbage Creek, just above Doughty Falls. The trail then switchbacks up to the summit of Long View Peak with an excellent window through the trees south.

* '''S4: Long View Peak Trail''' - Trail begins at the summit of Long View Peak and drops to Shy Bear Pass. It is really just a continuation of the Deceiver Trail.

* '''S5: Ring Road Trail''' - Trail begins along the Long View Peak Trail and crosses a saddle to reach a dirt road near the summit of Ring Road Peak (which actually lies outside of the park). Soon after this, at a view of [[Mount Rainier]], private property is reached, marking the end of the trail.

*'''S6: Licorice Fern Trail:''' - Trail begins near the Indian Trail trailhead and forks left behind a row of houses, following a ravine of Far Country Creek to Licorice Fern Way. The trail resumes on the other side of the road, soon passing Trog Swamp and Surprise Wall. The trail resembles the Coal Creek Trail as it passes through a century-old forest, sometimes along the creek, sometimes high on the wall, to the lower trailhead on Licorice Fern Way where a homeowner has dedicated a permanent [[easement]].

===Central basins===
* '''C1: Clay Pit Road''' - An extension of 166th Avenue, this gravel road extends from the gate all the way to the Clay Pit, which is leased by Mutual Materials to obtain raw material for bricks. The company rarely uses the road, so it is effectively just another route for horses and boots. It provides access to a meadow at Nike Park, where Nike anti-aircraft missiles were set up to defend against Soviet bombers in the [[Cold War]]. This will eventually become a parking lot and trailhead.

* '''C2: Red Town Creek Trail''' - Trail connects the Cave Hole Trail to the Military Road Trail and provides access to the Red Town Creek Dam. Water from the lake which existed here before the dam silted up was used to provide steam for hauling the coal cars out of the mine shafts.[[Image:RedAlder 7504.jpg|thumb|right|[[Red Alder]] forest near Sky Country Trailhead]]

* '''C3: Cave Hole Trail''' - Trail begins on the Red Town Trail and provides the main route from the Red Town area to the higher elevations of Cougar Mountain. The former wagon road to the Klondike Dam, it passes some rather large holes which were formed by earth collapsing into coal seams as they were mined.

* '''C4: Coal Creek Falls Trail''' - Trail forks off from the Cave Hole Trail and runs more-or-less level south to a 25 foot cataract on Coal Creek which is one of the most popular destinations in the Park, especially during periods of heavy runoff. Thereafter the trail ascends to meet the Quarry Trail.

* '''C6: Quarry Trail''' - Trail begins on the Indian Trail near a stone quarry and ascends the ravine of Shy Bear Creek (the old route ascended the ridge between this creek and Coal Creek). It intercepts Fred's Railroad Trail very near the terminus of that trail with the Shy Bear Trail.

* '''C7: Fred's Railroad Trail''' - Trail begins at the Clay Pit Road across the street from the Cougar Pass Trail endpoint. It runs along a former railroad bed and therefore has no sharp turns or steep inclines. Many logging structures can be seen along the sides of the trail as it runs south to meet the Shy Bear Trail.

* '''C8: East Fork Trail''' - Trail begins on Fred's Railroad Trail and ascends the east branch of Coal Creek all the way to its source at the Blackwater Pond. It passes along the serene waters of Jerry's Duckpond before arriving at the lip of the Clay Pit on a shoulder of Clay Pit Peak.

* '''C9: Bypass Trail''' - Trail begins at the intersection of Fred's Railroad Trail and Clay Pit Road and drops to the Cave Hole Trail. It provides a way to transit the area without using the road.

* '''C10: Mine Shaft Trail''' - Trail begins at Jerry's Duckpond and runs to a large, deep mineshaft covered with a grid of rebar. It is possible to safely stand on this grate over the middle of the hole. The shaft is slightly inclined and actually goes below sea level. After the mine shaft the trail intersects the road.

===West side===
[[Image:Dicentra formosa 03533.JPG|right|thumb|[[Dicentra formosa|Western Bleeding Heart]] along Wildside Trail]]
* '''W1: Wildside Trail''' - Trail begins at the Rainbow Town Trail and runs along the western side of the valley of Coal Creek. Ironically, development has pressed close to this trail at some points and reduced its wild character. After crossing Marshall's Hill trail it skirts Long Marsh to an intersection with the Deleo Wall Trail.

* '''W2: Red Town Trail''' - Trail begins at the Red Town trailhead and runs along the eastern side of the valley of Coal Creek to the Ballpark Meadow restoration project.

* '''W3: Rainbow Town Trail''' - Trail begins along the Red Town Trail and passes the Ford Slope coal mining exhibit, which includes pictures of the Red Town area at the height of the coal-mining times. The visitor is struck by how thoroughly nature has reclaimed the area.

* '''W4: Steam Hoist Trail''' - Trail begins along the Wildside Trail and after crossing the creek loops back to the Rainbow Town Trail, touring many artifacts of the coal-mining days, including an intact concrete dam and the massive concrete foundation for the old steam hoist, which would almost be mistaken for a natural feature but for all the right angles.

* '''W5: China Creek Trail''' - Trail begins at the Red Town trailhead and runs to the edge of the Park, providing access to the Rainbow Town Trail. In the days before the landfill became a golf course this trail provided access to the network of trails in the saddle between Marshall's Hill and Mt. Trashmore.

* '''W6: Marshall's Hill Trail''' - Trail begins on the Wildside Trail and ascends to a view of the Coal Creek basin with the rest of Cougar Mountain looming behind it. It continues on to the Deleo Wall Trail and a water tower access road which descends to a neighborhood cul-de-sac that can serve as a trailhead for the western trail system.

* '''W7: Indian Trail''' - Trail begins at a cul-de-sac on 171st Avenue where [[King County, Washington|King County]] owns two vacant lots to ensure access. This is believed to be part of the route used by the Duwamish tribe and others to go between Coal Creek and May Creek. It provides access to Far Country Falls and terminates at the Ballfield.

* '''W9: Deleo Wall Trail''' - Trail begins along the Indian Trail and passes an unnamed wetland before ascending steadily to the top of Deleo Wall, a 600 foot cliff looking out over May Valley to [[Mount Rainier]]. From the viewpoint a series of well-constructed switchbacks ascends to the summit of Marshall's Hill, where Picture Buttress looks down to a forest glade. The trail intersects a water tower access road and the Marshall's Hill Trail, with a remarkable view of downtown Seattle.

* '''W10: Bagley Seam Trail''' - Trail begins at Red Town trailhead and descends a gully which has collapsed into a formerly coal-bearing seam before linking to the Red Town Trail.

==Unofficial Trails==
With the aim of leaving a section of the park totally wild for the peace of mind of cougars and bears and other wildlife, [[King County, Washington|King County]] Parks has withdrawn official recognition from some of the trails described below, and the [[Issaquah Alps Trails Club]] no longer performs trail maintenance, nor even describes the trails in new editions of guidebooks. But using the trails is not expressly forbidden. In fact, letting such a large portion of the park go fallow enhances its value as an urban wildland. Some individuals have even adopted the trails and maintain them in their interior. Additionally, there is a system of trails between the "official" ones in the higher elevations and the developed properties below that lace a belt of very steep terrain called the ''Precipice.'' Most of this system lies on private property, but the propensity of the land to slide when it gets wet makes it quite safe from ever being developed.

* '''Blackwater Trail:''' - Trail begins on the "Penultimate Plateau" just a few feet below the summit of the highest point on Cougar Mountain and strikes north, dropping to the saddle between Wilderness Peak and Claypit Peak in a forest of rather large Douglas Firs (the trail becomes brushy at times but the route is flagged with orange and black plastic strips). It reaches the East Fork Trail at Blackwater Pond, which is one source of Coal Creek. Under the old system it was designated trail E3. When the trail was abandoned by [[King County, Washington|King County]] Parks E3 was reassigned to the Bear Ridge Trail.

* '''Gorgeous Gorges: ''' - Trail begins at the Summerhill trailhead off Newport Way NW and signed "Ralph's Hi Line" it proceeds along the Precipice between AA Gorge and Kline Road. The route is incised by an unnamed gulch just before a high rocky outcrop (with an enormous view) negotiated by a rope. Following in succession are Jackstraw Gulch, Nurselog Gulch, Schneider Creek Gorge, Stormwater Creek Gorge, and Hairpin Gulch.

* '''Lower West Tibbetts Creek Trail:''' - Trail begins at the three-car parking area for the Bear Ridge Trail (striking right instead of left) and follows the intricate bed of the beautiful creek up to an intersection with the West Tibbetts Creek Connector. The well-maintained route is marred by the intrusion of the Talus development at one point.

* '''Newcastle-Queen Mine Trail:''' - Trail begins at a gate just a bit south of the Bear Ridge/West Tibbetts Creek trailhead. Designated E2 on the old system, the Surprise Creek Trail now bears that number. A woods road, Newcastle-Queen ascends to the area of an old coal mine with an air vent and other relics still evident. The road continues up through the airy forest on the eastern flank of Claypit Peak. An attempt to erase the route by planting trees in the middle of the road has failed, the trees did not flourish. After crossing the intersection with the South Precipice Trail it becomes very steep and deeply rutted, and seems to end at a cul-de-sac. However, to the northeast a hidden connector trail switchbacks down to the South Precipice Trail, and to the west the mine road continues as an excellent trail rising gently through salmonberries all the way to the Clay Pit.

* '''Precipice Bottom Trail:''' - Trail begins at the Summerhill trailhead and follows Anti-Aircraft Creek back to a crossing. This entire area contains a maze of small game trails and trails made by neighborhood kids. The PB trail ascends Harvey's Mud Slide (assisted by a rope) and contours to Big Tree Ridge and Little Big Tree Ridge. It is easy to lose the trail in this area due to blowdowns and a 1998 clearcut that is only now coming back in, but distinctive IATC trail signs are found here and there to assure the hiker they are not lost. After Military Creek and Extra Creek there is a rather treacherous crossing of Stagecoach Creek before the intersection with the Telephone Trail is reached.

* '''South Precipice:''' - Trail begins in a grove hidden behind the low ridge immediately south of the Fantastic [[Erratic]] (a little bushwhacking is required to begin), and steeply ascends knife-sharp Elegant Ridge to a beautiful area of deeply etched sandstone ridges and gulches that come one after the other until the trail straightens out and intersects the Newcastle-Queen Mine road. However, the [[Issaquah Alps Trails Club]] does not maintain this trail, so there are many blown-down trees one must either crawl under or over, which makes for slow going.

* '''Upper West Tibbetts Creek Trail:''' - Trail begins along the Tibbetts Marsh Trail, where a sign with an arrow stands right in the middle of the intersection (no attempt to hide the endpoint with debris was made). The trail descends gently along a shallow ravine of the creek until it meets the Bear Ridge Trail. Some blown-down trees mar the route of this unmaintained trail.

* '''West Tibbetts Creek Connector: ''' - Trail begins east of the Fantastic [[Glacial erratic|Erratic]] allowing a transfer from the Bear Ridge Trail north to West Tibbetts Creek where it emerges from its canyon and tumbles over sandstone, sculpting potholes. As a continuation of the South Precipice Trail, it ascends some poorly-constructed switchbacks (that are difficult to manage in wet weather) through the wildest section of West Tibbetts Creek and after passing a nurse log and an excellent view to the east it intersects the upper portion of the Bear Ridge Trail.

==Sources==
* Manning, Harvey & Owen, Ralph. ''Hiking and Strolling the Trails of Cougar Mountain'', Issaquah Alps Trails Club, Issaquah, 1991.
* McCrone, Charles. ''The Authoritative Guide to the Hiking Trails of Cougar Mountain Regional Wildland Park and Surrounds'', Issaquah Alps Trails Club, Issaquah, 2000.

{{Commons|Cougar Mountain Regional Wildland Park|Cougar Mountain}}
==External links==
*[http://www.metrokc.gov/parks/rentals/pommar99.htm Cougar Mountain Regional Wildland Park]
*[http://www.metrokc.gov/gis/vmc/Recreation.htm#CM Park maps and guide]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|47.5208|-122.0913}}

[[Category:Cascade Range|Cougar Mountain]]
[[Category:Mountains of Washington|Cougar Mountain]]
[[Category:Geography of King County, Washington|Cougar Mountain]]

Kommerzielle sexuelle Ausbeutung von Kindern

2006-10-15T08:51:17Z

STBot: clean up - bother me at my talk if I mess up using AWB

The '''commercial sexual exploitation of children''' (CSEC) has been defined as one of the worst forms of child labour by the [[Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention]] (Convention No 182) of the [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO). This [[Treaty|convention]] provides that countries which ratify it must eliminate CSEC without delay. It was adopted in 1999 and enjoyed the fastest ratification in the ILO's history since 1919.

The Convention was drawn up after the first World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation held in Stockholm in 1996. CSEC was defined in the declaration adopted at this congress as ‘sexual abuse by the adult and remuneration in cash or kind to the child or a third person or persons. The child is treated as a sexual object and as a commercial object.’ CSEC includes the prostitution of children; child pornography; and other forms of transactional sex where a child engages in sexual activities to have key needs fulfilled, such as food, shelter or access to education. It includes forms of transactional sex where the sexual abuse of children is not stopped or reported by household members, due to benefits derived by the household from the perpetrator. CSEC also potentially includes arranged marriages involving children under the age of 18 years, where the child has not freely consented to marriage and where the child is sexually abused.

The ILO views the [[prostitution of children]] under the age of 18 years, [[child pornography]] and the (often related) sale and [[trafficking of children]] as crimes of violence against children. They are considered to be economic [[exploitation]] akin to [[forced labour]] or [[slavery]]. Such children often suffer irreparable damage to their physical and mental health. They face [[early pregnancy]] and risk [[sexually transmitted diseases]], particularly [[AIDS]]. They are often inadequately protected by the law and may be treated as criminals.

Child trafficking and CSEC sometimes overlap. On the one hand, children who are trafficked are often trafficked for the purposes of CSEC. However, not all trafficked children are trafficked for these purposes. Further, even if some of the children trafficked for other forms of work are subsequently sexually abused at work, this does not necessarily constitute CSEC. On the other hand, by no means all children involved in CSEC have been trafficked. Many are involved in CSEC near their homes.

CSEC is also part of, but distinct from child abuse, or even child sexual abuse. Child rape, for example, will not usually constitute CSEC. Neither will domestic violence.

Although CSEC is considered as child labour, and indeed one of the WFCL, in terms of international conventions, in legislation, policy and programmatic terms, CSEC is often treated as a form of child abuse or a crime.

==Causes==
The causes of CSEC are complex and patterns differ among countries and regions. For example, in some areas the commercial sexual exploitation of children is clearly related to foreign [[child sex tourism]], in others it is associated with the local demand. In most countries, girls represent 80 to 90 % of the victims, although in some places boys predominate.

As is the case for other worst forms of child labour, severe poverty, the possibility of relatively high earnings, low value attached to education, family dysfunction, a cultural obligation to help support the family or the need to earn money to simply survive are all factors that make children vulnerable to CSEC.

There are other non-economic factors that also push children into commercial sexual exploitation. Children who are at greatest risk of becoming victims of CSEC are those that have previously experienced physical or sexual abuse. A family environment of little protection, where caregivers are absent or where there is a high level of violence or alcohol or drug consumption, induces boys and girls to run away from home, making them highly susceptible to abuse. [[Gender discrimination]] and low educational levels of the caregivers, are also risk factors.

On the demand side, certain factors can aggravate the problem. For example, [[Sex tourism|tourist areas]] are a source of demand for prostitution. The presence of military troops or of large public works may also create demand. Client preferences for young children, particularly in the context of the [[HIV/AIDS]] epidemic, pull in additional children. Additionally, the expansion of the [[Internet]] has facilitated the growth of [[child pornography]].

Experience has shown that certain socio-economic characteristics, such as population density, concentration of night entertainment (bars and discos), high poverty and unemployment levels, movement of people, and access to highways, ports, or borders are also associated with CSEC.

==Observations on CSEC from recent IPEC Rapid Assessments==
While it is practically impossible to know the true extent of the problem, given its hidden and illegal nature, [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO) global child labour figures for the year 2000 estimate that there are as many as 1.8 million children exploited in prostitution or pornography worldwide. While the age that a child becomes involved may be quite young, 15 to 17-year olds are most affected.

The [[Rapid Assessment]] survey, developed by the ILO's [[International Programme for the Elimination of Child Labour]] (IPEC) and [[UNICEF]], relies on interviews and other, mainly qualitative, techniques, to provide a picture of a specific activity in a limited geographic area. It is a highly useful tool for collecting information on the worst forms of child labour, like CSEC, that is difficult to capture with standard quantitative surveys.
*In [[Sri Lanka]], children often become the prey of sexual exploiters through friends and relatives. The prevalence of boys in prostitution here is strongly related foreign tourism.
*An estimated 12,000 Nepalese children, mainly girls, are trafficked for sexual commercial exploitation each year within [[Nepal]] or to [[brothel]]s in [[India]] and other countries.
*Some 84 % of girls in prostitution interviewed in [[Tanzania]] reported having been battered, raped or tortured by police officers and sungu sungu (local community guards). At least 60% had no permanent place to live. Some of these girls started out as [[child domestic work|child domestic workers]].
*In [[El Salvador]], one-third of the sexually exploited children between 14 and 17 years of age are boys. The median age for entering into prostitution among all children interviewed was 13 years. They worked on average five days per week, although nearly 10% reported that they worked seven days a week.
*In [[Vietnam]], family poverty, low family education and family dysfunction were found to be primary causes for CSEC. Sixteen per cent of the children interviewed were illiterate, 38 % had only primary-level schooling. Sixty-six per cent said that tuition and school fees were beyond the means of their families.

==IPEC programmes on CSEC==
The ILO's IPEC has the following programmes to eliminate commercial sexual exploitation of children:

===[[Anglophone Africa]]===
*IPEC recently completed Phase I of this sub-regional programme. This programme produced studies on good practices in fighting CSEC in [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] and [[Zambia]]. It also supported national workshops in these countries and a final sub-regional workshop to present findings and share experiences to build strategies for the future interventions.
*The second phase will support the replication and scaling-up of these good practices through direct action to withdraw and rehabilitate victims of CSEC in these four countries plus [[Ethiopia]]. The programme also aims to improve the capacity of national and local institutions to fight CSEC.
*A so-called [[Time-bound Programme]] in the United Republic of [[Tanzania]].
*In [[South Africa]] pilot projects are planned, also addressing [[child trafficking]] and the educational rehabilitation of children. These are run by the [[Programme Towards the Elimination of the worst forms of Child Labour]], in support of the South African [[Child Labour Action Programme (South Africa)|Child Labour Action Programme]].

===[[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]]===
*With the financial support of the US [[Department of Labor]], IPEC has developed a three-year regional project for the elimination of commercial sexual exploitation of children in seven countries of Central America: the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Panama]]. This project has activities aimed at strengthening institutional capacities and the development of national policies; communication campaigns; and the development of pilot models of prevention and protection of the victims in three localities of the region.
*IPEC also has large country programmes to combat CSEC underway in [[Chile]], [[Brazil]] and [[Paraguay]], and [[Mexico]].
*A [[Time-Bound Programme]] in the Dominican Republic.
*A [[Time-Bound Programme]] in El Salvador.

===[[Asia]]===
*A [[Time-Bound Programme]] is running in [[Nepal]], where [[Child trafficking|trafficking of children]] (many of whom end up victims of CSEC) is included among its targeted worst forms.

===[[South-East Asia]]===
*A sub-regional programme to combat trafficking in children and women, the majority of whom are trafficked for prostitution, was begun in 1998 covering [[Cambodia]], [[China]] ([[Yunnan Province]]), [[Laos]], [[Thailand]] and [[Vietnam]]. In cooperation with the ILO’s [[Gender Promotion Bureau]], a three-year pilot intervention has focused on working with local partners in implementing projects in education and skills training, alternative livelihood promotion, legal literacy and awareness raising. A region strategic framework added capacity building, advocacy and cross-border consultation to these national actions.
*A [[Time-Bound Programme]] in the [[Philippines]].

==See also==
*[[Child pornography]]
*[[ECPAT]]
*[[OneChild]]
*[[International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour]]
*[[Pedophilia]]
*[[Pedophilia and child sexual abuse in fiction]]
*[[Pedophilia and child sexual abuse in films]]
*[[Prostitution of children]]
*[[Trafficking in human beings]]
*[[Towards the Elimination of the worst forms of Child Labour]]
*[[North American Man/Boy Love Association]]
'''Relevant ILO Conventions and Recommendations'''
*[[Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention]]
*[[Worst Forms of Child Labour Recommendation]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2783655.stm 'Asia's sex trade is 'slavery' - BBC]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4078304.stm 'Trapping Cambodia's sex tourists - BBC]
* [http://www.unicri.it/wwd/trafficking/minors/countries.php Trafficking in Minors - United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute]
* [http://traditionalvalues.org/urban/ Homosexual Urban Legends]

[[Category:Child labour]]
[[Category:Child sexual abuse]]

[[pt:Exploração sexual de crianças e adolescentes]]

Coccolithovirus

2006-10-15T08:21:48Z

STBot: clean up - bother me at my talk if I mess up using AWB

{{taxobox_begin | color = violet | name = Coccolithovirus}}
{{taxobox_image | image = [[Image:Coccolithovirus.jpg|200px]]| caption = Micrograph of the Coccolithovirus (shown in violet)}}
{{taxobox_begin_placement_virus | color = violet}}
{{taxobox_group_i_entry}}
{{taxobox_familia_entry | taxon = '''''Coccolithoviridae'''''}}
{{taxobox_genus_entry | taxon = ''Coccolithovirus''}}
{{Taxobox_end_placement}}
{{Taxobox_section_subdivision | color = violet | plural_taxon = Species}}
Emiliania huxleyi virus 86 (EhV-86)
{{taxobox_end}}

'''Coccolithovirus''' is a giant double-stranded [[DNA virus]] that infects the ''[[Emiliania huxleyi]]'' species of [[coccolithophore]]{{ref|virology}}. The genome is 407,339 base pairs in size with a G+C content of 41.1%, and contains 472 predicted coding sequences{{ref|sanger}}.

Wilson and his team at the [[Marine Biological Association]] (MBA), [[University of East Anglia]] and [[Plymouth Marine Laboratory]] (PML), first observed the virus in [[1999]]. Later in the summer of [[2005]] researchers at the [[Plymouth Marine Laboratory]] (Willie Wilson ''et al.'') and at the [[Sanger Institute]] (Holden ''et al.'') sequenced the genome for the EhV-86 strain finding it to have 472 protein-coding genes making it a "giant-virus", and the largest known marine virus by genome{{ref|giant}}.

From initial investigation of the ''Coccolithoviruses'' genome, a sequence of genes responsible for production of [[ceramide]] was discovered {{ref|press}}. Ceramide is a controlling factor in cell death, and it is currently thought that ''Coccolithovirus'' uses this to prolong the life of ''[[Emiliania huxleyi]]'' while it uses the host cell to replicate. This is a unique ability unseen in any viral genome to date.

==Notes==
<div class="references-small">
# {{note|virology}} [http://www.virologyj.com/content/2/1/52 Giant viruses in the oceans: the 4th Algal Virus Workshop ''Virology Journal'' 2005]
# {{note|sanger}} [http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects/EhV/ Sanger institute home for ''Emiliania huxleyi'' virus 86]
# {{note|giant}} [http://www.giantvirus.org/top.html Giantviruses.org top viruses by genome size.]
# {{note|press}} [http://www.pml.ac.uk/pml/news/050812.htm Plymouth Marine Laboratory press release.]
</div>

==See also==
* ''[[Mimivirus]]'' - largest giant virus on record by genome
* ''[[Mycoplasma genitalium]]'', ''[[Pelagibacter ubique]]'' - some of the smallest known [[bacterium|bacteria]]
* ''[[Nanoarchaeum]]'' - smallest known [[archaeum]]
* [[Nanobacterium]]
* [[Nanobe]]
* [[Parvovirus]] - smallest known family of [[virus]]es

==Further reading==
* Wilson, W. H., Schroeder, D. C., Allen, M. J., Holden, M. T. G., Parkhill, J., Barrell, B. G., Churcher, C., Hamlin, N., Mungall, K., Norbertczak, H., Quail, M. A., Price, C., Rabbinowitsch, E., Walker, D., Craigon, M., Roy, D. and Ghazal, P. (2005) [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/309/5737/1090 Complete Genome Sequence and Lytic Phase Transcription Profile of a Coccolithovirus]. ''Science'' '''5737''', 1090-1092
* Allen, M. J., Schroeder, D. C., Holden, M. T. and Wilson, W. H. (2006) [http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/23/1/86 Evolutionary History of the Coccolithoviridae]. ''Mol Biol Evol.'' '''23''', 86-92 ('''Athens''' login required)

[[Category:Viruses]]

{{virus-stub}}

The Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986

2006-10-15T04:32:38Z

STBot: clean up - bother me at my talk if I mess up using AWB

'''Proposition 65''' is a [[California]] law that has been in effect since [[1986]] to promote clean drinking water and keep toxic substances that cause [[cancer]] and [[birth defect]]s out of consumer products. It is administered by Cal/EPA's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA).

The law requires that anyone at reasonable risk of exposure be informed when substances classified as toxins are present. Since enactment, it has been the reason for the addition of notices of specific contents to consumer product labels. Along with the added label requirements, an official list of implicated substances is maintained and made publicly available. Entries are added or removed based on current scientific information. All substances listed show their known or suspected risk factors, a unique [[Chemical Abstracts Service|CAS]] chemical classification number, the date they were listed, and if so, whether they have been delisted.

The [[warning label]] mandated by this law reads as follows:

WARNING: This product contains chemicals known to the State of California to cause [[cancer]] and [[birth defect]]s or other reproductive harm.

== Enforcement ==
Enforcement is carried out through civil lawsuits. These lawsuits may be brought by the Attorney General, any district attorney, or certain city attorneys (those in cities with a population exceeding 750,000). Lawsuits may also be brought by private parties "acting in the public interest", but only after providing notice of the alleged violation to the Attorney General, the appropriate district attorney and city attorney, and the business accused of the violation.

The notice must provide adequate information to allow the recipient to assess the nature of the alleged violation. A notice must comply with the information and procedural requirements specified in regulations. A private party may not pursue an enforcement action directly under Proposition 65 if one of the government officials noted above initiates an action within sixty days of the notice.

A business found to be in violation of Proposition 65 is subject to civil penalties of up to $2,500 per day for each violation. In addition, the business may be ordered by a court of law to stop committing the violation. <ref>[http://www.calcleaners.com/drycleaners/prop65.html]</ref>

== Abuse of Proposition 65==
The legislation is very controversial. Most of the Proposition 65 lawsuits are filed by private attorneys some of whose entire business is built on filing Proposition 65 lawsuits.

Labeling requirements conceded the reality that listing and classifying substances did not help the consumer if the contents of a purchase were unknown. At the same time, there were no other labeling requirements to support the proposition. Industry critics and corporate defense lawyers charge that Proposition 65 is "a clever and irritating mechanism used by litigious [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s and others to publicly spank politically incorrect opponents ranging from the American gun industry to seafood retailers, etc." <ref>[http://www.fisheries.ifcnr.com/article.cfm?NewsID=495]</ref>

In addition, because of a loophole in the law allowing private citizens to sue and collect damages to any business violating the law, there have been many cases of lawers and lawfirms using Proposition 65 as an extortion tool to force a settlement out of California businesses. <ref>[http://www.quackpotwatch.org/quackpots/all_about_the.htm Lifting the Smoke Screen]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[California ballot proposition]]
* [[Environmentalism]]
* [[Toxicity]]
* [[Pollution]]

==External links==
*[http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65.html Official Proposition 65 website]
*[http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/Newlist.html Official Proposition 65 list of substances]
*[http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/whats_new/index.html Proposition 65 updates]
*[http://www.oehha.ca.gov/ OEHHA website]
*[http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2001/1015/080.html Forbes.com -Toxic Avengers, Morse Mehrban gets rich from Proposition 65]

==Footnotes==
<references/>

[[Category:California ballot propositions|65]]
[[Category:1986 in law]]
[[Category:United States environmental law]]

[[nl:Proposition 65]]

{{Statute-stub}}

Benutzer:ManuBu/C-Pop

2006-10-15T04:18:23Z

STBot: clean up - bother me at my talk if I mess up using AWB

'''C-pop''' is an abbreviation for '''Chinese pop'''. The term refers to [[China|Chinese]] [[popular music]]. Majority of modern Chinese pop artists originate from [[Hong Kong]] and [[Taiwan]]. While a portion Chinese pop songs are in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] or [[Taiwanese language|Taiwanese]], majority of Chinese pop songs are in [[Mandarin Chinese]]. This is mainly attributed to the wider available Asian audiences who speak mainly Mandarin Chinese (see also [[Mandopop]]).

== Musical Styles ==
Chinese pop covers many musical styles, including [[rhythm and blues]], ballads, [[Hip hop]], and [[rock music|rock]]. Modern Chinese pop acts often relies heavily on western pop music influences, such that Chinese pop is often described as a more 'distilled' version of western pop.

Recent years also saw the rise of [[bubblegum pop]] boybands and girlbands in the Chinese scene, with commercially successful acts such as [[S.H.E]] and [[Energy band|Energy]]. Pop musician, [[Jay Chou]], was also widely credited for leading to the popularity of [[rhythm and blues]] and [[rap music]] in the Chinese scene.

C-pop should not be confused with [[Cantopop]], which is the Cantonese counterpart of Chinese pop.

Notable popular artists in Chinese pop include [[Jay Chou]], [[Wang Lee-Hom]], [[David Tao]], Twins, [[S.H.E.]], [[Joey Yung]] and [[Stefanie Sun]].

==See also==
* [[Cantopop]] (HK-pop)
* [[Mandopop]]
* [[J-pop]]
* [[K-pop]]
*[[:Category:Chinese musicians|Chinese musicians]]
*[[:Category:Chinese singers|Chinese singers]]

{{popmusic}}

[[Category:Chinese music]]
[[Category:C-pop| ]]

[[de:C-Pop]]
[[nl:C-pop]]

Big Four Mountain

2006-10-15T01:33:07Z

STBot: clean up - bother me at User talk:ST47 if I mess up, or at User talk:STBot if I go crazy using AWB

[[Image:Ice cave.jpg|300px|right|thumb|One of Big Four's ice caves, ca. [[1920]].]]
'''Big Four''' is a mountain in the [[Cascade Range]], located 20 miles east of [[Granite Falls, Washington]]. The mountain is about 6,135 ft. high and on its north flank, debris piles form from avalanches and are able to remain there year round because of the continuous shade provided by the mountain. During the [[summer]], snowmelt streams flow beneath the debris piles and cause [[cave]]s to be formed in the ice. The caves vary in size from season to season and are unpredictably dangerous. The large snowfield that forms these caves is probably the lowest snowfield in the lower 48 states, as it lies nowhere close to the region of permanent snow since it's only at 2,000 ft. elevation at its lower end and only over 2,400 ft. at its higher end. This mountain is open to the public via a trail which travels to the largest snowfield, which is off-limits due to a cave-in, killing one and seriously injuring another in 1999.

[[Image:Bigfour.JPG|300px|right|thumb|Big Four Mountain.]]

[[Category:Cascade Range]]
[[Category:Mountains of Washington]]
[[Category:Snohomish County, Washington]]

{{Washington-geo-stub}}

Atole

2006-10-14T22:58:49Z

STBot: clean up - bother me at User talk:ST47 if I mess up, or at User talk:STBot if I go crazy using AWB

'''Atole''' is a traditional [[cornstarch]]-based [[Mexico|Mexican]] and Central American (where is known as atole) hot drink. [[Chocolate]] atole is known as [[Champurrado (beverage)|champurrado]]. It is typically accompanied with [[tamale]]s, and very popular during the [[Christmas]] holiday season ([[Las Posadas]]).

The drink typically includes [[masa]] (corn meal), water, [[piloncillo]], cinnamon, vanilla and optional chocolate or fruit. The mixture is blended and heated before serving. Atole can also be prepared with [[rice]] [[flour]] in place of masa. There is also a variation using pinole (Toasted and lightly sweetened corn meal). Atole is one of the traditional drinks of the Mexican holiday [[Day of the Dead]].

In [[New Mexico]], blue corn atole is finely ground cornmeal toasted for cooking, consumed as a grainy porridge-style drink served warm, usually sweetened with sugar and/or thinned with milk. It is usually served at breakfast like cream of wheat or oatmeal.

==See also==
*[[Champurrado (beverage)|Champurrado]] – a Mexican chocolate-based atole
*[[Shuco]] – a Salvadoran atole made of Blue Maize

== External links ==
*[http://mexicanfood.about.com/od/bebidasdrinks/r/atole.htm Atole] Made with cinnamon and brown sugar
*[http://mexicanfood.about.com/od/bebidasdrinks/r/champurrado.htm Champurrado] Made with Masa and flavored with Mexican chocolate and Anise
* [http://www.gourmetsleuth.com/atole.htm Recipe for Mexican Atole] on GormetSleuth.
* [http://www.hormel.com/kitchen/glossary.asp?akw=&id=36279&catitemid= Definition of Atole] on Hormel Glossary.

[[Category:Non-alcoholic beverages]]
[[Category:Mexican drinks]]

[[es:Atole]]

{{drink-stub}}

Akiko Yajima

2006-10-14T02:30:38Z

STBot: clean up - if I go crazy visit User talk:STBot using AWB

{{nihongo|'''Akiko Yajima'''|矢島晶子|''Yajima Akiko''}}, ''née'' Akiko Ogasawara (小笠原 晶子 ''Ogasawara Akiko'', born [[May 4]], [[1967]]), is a [[seiyū]] who was born in [[Niigata]] and raised in [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa]].

==Notable [[anime]] and [[video game]] voice roles==
*[[Chrono, Ere, Ex|Ex (Ekusu)]] in ''[[Ah! My Goddess The Movie]]''
*Shinnosuke Nohara (Shin-chan) in ''[[Crayon Shin-chan]]''
*Mitsuru Tsuwabaki in ''[[Revolutionary Girl Utena]]''
*Manami in ''[[Jungle de Ikou]]''
*[[Kohaku]]/Yura of the Hair in ''[[InuYasha]]''
*Access Time in ''[[Kamikaze Kaito Jeanne]]''
*[[Relena Peacecraft|Relena Darlian]] in ''[[Gundam Wing]]''
*Mannen in ''[[Prétear]]''
*[[R. Dorothy Wayneright]] in ''[[Big O (anime)|The Big O]]''
*[[Tenchi Universe#Ken-Ohki|Ken-Ohki]] in ''[[Tenchi Universe]]''
*[[Yugi (Tenchi Muyo!)|Yugi]] in ''[[Tenchi in Tokyo]]''
*Sayuri in ''[[Nadesico]]''
*Annie Bars in ''[[Tales of Rebirth]]''
*Kuu in ''[[Haibane Renmei]]''
*Earl Tyrant, Chocobo in ''[[Final Fantasy: Unlimited]]''
*Ranmaru in ''[[Naruto (manga)|Naruto]]''
*Sera in ''[[Megaman Legends 2|Rockman DASH 2 ~Episode 2: Ooi Naru Isan~]]''
*Alicia in ''[[Valkyrie Profile 2: Silmeria]]''
*Akisu in ''[[One Piece|One Piece: Nejimaki Shima no Bouken]]'' (second movie)
*Haydée in ''[[Gankutsuou]]''
*Vivian in ''[[Floral Magician Mary Bell]]''
*Mipple in ''[[Futari wa Pretty Cure]]''

==Trivia==
She has starred alongside [[Naoko Matsui]] in at least 2 anime series.
*In [[Gundam Wing]], with Matsui as Dorothy Catalonia and Yajima as Relena Darlian / Peacecraft. Here, their characters were friends.
*In [[Gankutsuou]], with Matsui as Madam Danglars and Yajima as Haydee (although their characters have no dialogue together). Also, Haydee share some similarities with Relena.
**Both girls were orphans.
**Both were of royal blood, and their kingdoms were destroyed.
**Both were kind and gentle most of the time, but had expressed strong emotions when angered.
**Both were petite ladies.

[[Category:1967 births|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:CLAMP voice actors|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:Final Fantasy voice actors|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:Gundam actors|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:Japanese voice actors|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:Living people|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:Mega Man voice actors|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:Naruto voice actors|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:One Piece voice actors|Yajima Akiko]]
[[Category:People from Niigata Prefecture|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:Pokémon voice actors|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:Rumic World voice actors|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:Sailor Moon actors|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:Tenchi Muyo! voice actors|Yajima, Akiko]]
[[Category:Valkyrie Profile voice actors|Yajima, Akiko]]

[[ja:矢島晶子]]
[[zh:矢島晶子]]

{{Japan-voice-actor-stub}}