Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Tobacco Caye

2014-01-13T07:02:45Z

Runningonbrains: Put coordinates in template instead of in text, format external links/references

{{Coord|16|53|54|N|88|3|43|W|display=title}}
[[File:Tobacco Caye..JPG|thumb|Tobacco Caye.]]
[[File:Tobacco Caye.JPG|thumb|Dock in Tobacco Caye]]
'''Tobacco Caye''' is a tiny island in [[Belize]], about 10 miles east of [[Dangriga]]. It is approximately three acres in area, shaped like an egg, with a north-south dimension of about 240 meters and an east-west dimension of 125 meters. It has a permanent population of about 20, and sees a regular stream of travelers thanks to the four small lodges on the island.<ref>[http://gocentralamerica.about.com/od/belizeguide/ig/Photos-of-Tobacco-Caye--Belize/ About.com posting]</ref> <ref>[http://www.moon.com/destinations/belize/the-southern-coast/islands-near-dangriga/tobacco-caye Moon guide article]</ref>
The island is believed to have been named for the early cultivation of tobacco there. <ref>{{cite book|last=Stoddart|first=D.R.|title=Cays of the Belize Barrier Reef and Lagoons|year=1982|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|location=Washington, DC}}</ref> The earliest known European chart to indicate Tobacco Caye was by the British geographer J. Speer in 1771.<ref>{{cite book|last=Speer|first=J.|title=The West-India Pilot|year=1771|location=London|page=15}}</ref>

Tobacco Caye lies within the [[South Water Caye Marine Reserve]], part of Belize's national system of protected waters, with a range of restrictions on fishing.

The island was ravaged by [[Hurricane Mitch]] in 1998, but has since been rebuilt.

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|Tobacco Caye}}
{{commons category|Tobacco Caye}}

*[http://www.tcmsbelize.org Tobacco Caye Marine Station]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{coord missing|Belize}}

[[Category:Islands of Belize]]

{{belize-stub}}

Magical Negro

2012-05-08T08:05:25Z

Runningonbrains: Reverted edits by 83.19.127.125 (talk) to last version by ZéroBot

The '''Magical Negro''', or '''magical African-American friend''', is a supporting [[stock character]] in [[American cinema]], who, by use of special insight or powers, helps the [[White people|white]] [[protagonist]].<ref name=time>{{cite news|title=That Old Black Magic |date= 2000-05-27 | author = [[Christopher John Farley]] |work = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] | quote=In The Legend of Bagger Vance, one of the more embarrassing movies in recent history, Will Smith plays a magical black caddie who helps Matt Damon win a golf tournament and the heart of Charlize Theron. ... The first is the Magical African-American Friend. Along with Bagger Vance, MAAFs appear in such films as , the upcoming Family Man (co-starring Don Cheadle) and last year's prison drama The Green Mile.|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,998604,00.html |accessdate=2007-02-03}}</ref>

African-American filmmaker [[Spike Lee]] popularized the term, deriding the [[archetype]] of the "super-duper magical Negro"<ref>{{cite web | title= Too Too Divine: Movies' 'Magic Negro' Saves the Day – but at the Cost of His Soul | url= http://www.blackcommentator.com/49/49_magic.html | last = Kempley |first = Rita | date= June 7, 2003 | accessdate = 2012-03-17 }}</ref> in 2001 while discussing films with students at [[Washington State University]] and at [[Yale University]].<ref name="strangehorizons">{{cite news |url= http://www.strangehorizons.com/2004/20041025/kinga.shtml |title= Stephen King's Super-Duper Magical Negroes |first= Nnedi | last = Okorafor-Mbachu | authorlink = Nnedi Okorafor-Mbachu| work = Strange Horizons |date= 2004-10-25 | accessdate = 2006-12-03 }}</ref><ref name="SpikeLee">{{cite news | url = http://www.yale.edu/opa/arc-ybc/v29.n21/story3.html | title = Director Spike Lee slams 'same old' black stereotypes in today's films | first = Susan | last = Gonzalez | work = Yale Bulletin & Calendar | publisher =Yale University | date = 2001-03-02 | accessdate = 2008-12-29 }}</ref> The word "[[Negro]]", now considered by many as archaic and sometimes offensive, is used intentionally to suggest that the archetype is a racial throwback, an update of the "[[Sambo (racial term)|Sambo]]" and "[[Noble savage]]" stereotypes.<ref>{{cite book|title=Race, Sex, and Suspicion: The Myth of the Black Male |first= D. Marvin | last = Jones |pages= 35 |location = [[Westport, Connecticut|Westport, Conn.]]| publisher=Praeger Publishers |year=2005 |isbn = 0275974626 | oclc = 56095393}}</ref>

== In fiction==
{{Main|List of Magical Negro occurrences in fiction}}

The Magical Negro is typically but not always "in some way outwardly or inwardly disabled, either by discrimination, disability or social constraint," often a janitor or prisoner.<ref name="Hicks">{{cite journal|first=Heather J. |last = Hicks | journal = Camera Obscura | title= Hoodoo Economics: White Men's Work and Black Men's Magic in Contemporary American Film |publisher=Camera Obscura |volume=18 |issue=2 |date=2003-09-01 |pages= 27–55 |url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-24435280_ITM |accessdate=2007-02-03 | doi= 10.1215/02705346-18-2_53-27}}</ref> He has no past; he simply appears one day to help the [[White people|white]] protagonist.<ref name="ejumpcut">{{cite journal | url= http://www.ejumpcut.org/archive/jc45.2002/colombe/ |title= White Hollywood's new Black boogeyman |first= Audrey | last = Colombe | issue = 45 | work = Jump Cut: A Review of Contemporary Media | month = October | year = 2002 | accessdate = 2006-12-03 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Contemporary Patterns of Politics, Praxis, and Culture | first = Georgia Anne | last = Persons |pages= 137 | location = [[New Brunswick, New Jersey|New Brunswick, NJ]] | publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=2005 |isbn = 141280468X | oclc = 56510401 }}</ref> He usually has some sort of magical power, "rather vaguely defined but not the sort of thing one typically encounters."<ref name="ejumpcut" /> He is patient and wise, often dispensing various words of wisdom, and is "closer to the earth."<ref name="strangehorizons" />

The Magical Negro serves as a plot device to help the protagonist get out of trouble, typically through helping the white character recognize his own faults and overcome them.<ref name="strangehorizons" /> Although he has magical powers, his "magic is ostensibly directed toward helping and enlightening a white male character."<ref name="Hicks" /> "These powers are used to save and transform disheveled, uncultured, lost, or broken whites (almost exclusively white men) into competent, successful, and content people within the context of the American myth of redemption and salvation."<ref name="Hughey" /> It is this feature of the Magical Negro that some people find most troubling. Although from a certain perspective the character may seem to be showing blacks in a positive light, he is still ultimately subordinate to whites. He is also regarded as an exception, allowing white America to "like individual black people but not black culture."<ref name="Hughey">{{cite article|title="Cinethetic Racism: White Redemption and Black Stereotypes in 'Magical Negro' Films." | first = Matthew | last = Hughey |pages = 543-577 | volume 25 | issue = 3 | work = Social Problems | month = August | year = 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Black Magic: White Hollywood and African American Culture | first = Krin | last = Gabbard |pages=173 | location = [[New Brunswick, New Jersey|New Brunswick, NJ]] | publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] |year= 2004|isbn = 081353383X | oclc = 53215708}}</ref>

To save the white protagonist, however, he would do anything, including sacrificing himself, as [[Sidney Poitier]] does in ''[[The Defiant Ones]]'', the prototypical Magical Negro movie.<ref name="strangehorizons" />

==Non-fictional occurrences==
The title "Obama the 'Magic Negro'" by [[David Ehrenstein]] for a ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' piece<ref name=nonfic>{{cite news| url=http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-ehrenstein19mar19,0,5335087.story?coll=la-opinion-center | work=Los Angeles Times | title=Obama the 'Magic Negro' | date=2007-03-19 | accessdate=2010-05-12 | first=David | last=Ehrenstein}}</ref> later inspired the song "[[Barack the Magic Negro]]," written by parodist [[Paul Shanklin]] and broadcast on [[Rush Limbaugh]]'s [[The Rush Limbaugh Show|radio show]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/28/us/politics/28rnc.html?hp|title=G.O.P. Receives Obama Parody to Mixed Reviews|work=[[New York Times]]|date=2008-12-28|last=DeParle|first=Jason}}</ref> In 2008 it was included on a CD sent by [[Chip Saltsman]], running for chair of the [[Republican National Committee]], to members of the committee.<ref>[http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1208/16919.html "'Magic Negro' flap might help Saltsman"] by Andy Barr, politico.com, 12/30/08 Retrieved 1-2-09.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Noble savage]]
*[[Romantic racism]]
*[[Stereotypes of African Americans]]
*[[Xenocentrism]]

==References==
;Notes
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{cite web |url= http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MagicalNegro |title= "Magical Negro" media appearances documented on TVTropes.org}}
*{{cite web |url= http://www.doubletongued.org/index.php/dictionary/magic_negro/ |title= "magic Negro" definition from Double Tongued Dictionary |accessdate=2007-10-04}}

{{Stock characters}}

[[Category:Stereotypes of African Americans]]
[[Category:Fictional African-American people]]
[[Category:Stock characters]]

[[hu:Magical Negro]]

Bariumstern

2011-07-21T12:17:38Z

Runningonbrains: wl diatomic carbon

'''Barium stars''' are G to K class [[giant star|giants]], whose [[Star classification|spectra]] indicate an overabundance of [[s-process]] elements by the presence of singly ionized [[barium]], Ba II, at [[wavelength|λ]] 455.4nm. Barium stars also show enhanced spectral features of [[carbon]], the bands of the molecules CH, CN and [[diatomic carbon|C2]]. The class was originally recognized and defined by [[William Bidelman]] and [[Philip_Childs_Keenan|Philip Keenan]].<ref>Bidelman, W.P., & Keenan, P.C. Astrophysical Journal, vol. 114, p. 473, 1951</ref>

Observational studies of their [[radial velocity]] suggested that all barium stars are [[binary stars]]<ref>McClure, R.D., Fletcher, J.M., & Nemec, J.M. Astrophysical Journal Letters, vol. 238, p. L35</ref><ref>McClure, R.D. & Woodsworth, A.W. Astrophysical Journal, vol. 352, pp. 709-723, April 1990.</ref><ref>Jorissen, A. & Mayor, M. Astronomy & Astrophysics, vol. 198, pp. 187-199, June 1988</ref> Observations in the [[ultraviolet]] using [[International Ultraviolet Explorer]] detected [[white dwarfs]] in some barium star systems.

Barium stars are believed to be the result of [[mass transfer]] in a [[binary star]] system. The mass transfer occurred when the presently-observed giant star was on the [[main sequence]]. Its companion, the donor star, was a [[carbon star]] on the [[asymptotic giant branch]] (AGB), and had produced carbon and s-process elements in its interior. These nuclear fusion products were mixed by [[convection]] to its surface. Some of that matter "polluted" the surface layers of the main sequence star as the donor star lost mass at the end of its AGB evolution, and it subsequently evolved to become a white dwarf. We are observing these systems an indeterminate amount of time after the mass transfer event, when the donor star has long been a white dwarf, and the "polluted" recipient star has evolved to become a [[red giant]].<ref>McClure, R. Journal of the Royals Astronomical Society of Canada, vol 79, pp. 277-293, Dec. 1985</ref> <ref>Boffin, H. M. J. & Jorissen, A., Astronomy & Astrophysics, vol. 205, pp. 155-163, October 1988</ref>.

During its evolution, the barium star will at times be larger and cooler than the limits of the spectral types G or K. When this happens, ordinarily such a star is spectral type M, but the s-process excesses may cause it to show its altered composition as another spectral peculiarity. While the star's surface temperature is in the M-type regime, the star may show molecular features of the s-process element [[zirconium]], zirconium oxide (ZrO) bands. When this happens, the star will appear as an "extrinsic" [[Stellar_classification#Class_S|S star]].

Historically, barium stars posed a puzzle, because in standard [[stellar evolution]] theory G and K giants are not far enough along in their evolution to have synthesized carbon and s-process elements and mix them to their surfaces. The discovery of the stars' binary nature resolved the puzzle, putting the source of their spectral peculiarities into a companion star which should have produced such material. The mass transfer episode is believed to be quite brief on an astronomical timescale. The mass transfer hypothesis predicts that there should be main sequence stars with barium star spectral peculiarities. At least one such star, HR 107, is known.<ref>Tomkin, J., Lambert, D.L., Edvardsson, B., Gustafsson, B., & Nissen, P.E., Astronomy & Astrophysics, vol 219, pp. L15-L18, July 1989</ref>

Prototypical barium stars include [[zeta Capricorni]], HR 774, and HR 4474.

The [[CH stars]] are [[Population II]] stars with similar evolutionary state, spectral peculiarities, and orbital statistics, and are believed to be the older, metal-poor analogs of the barium stars.<ref>McClure, R. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, vol 96, p. 117, 1984</ref>.

== References ==

<references/>

{{Star}}

[[Category:Star types]]

[[es:Estrella de bario]]
[[it:Stella al bario]]
[[hu:Báriumcsillag]]
[[ko:바륨별]]
[[ja:バリウム星]]
[[ru:Бариевая звезда]]
[[fi:Bariumtähti]]
[[zh:鋇星]]

Buckfast Tonic Wine

2011-07-07T15:08:03Z

Runningonbrains: /* History */ wl Bohemian

[[File:BuckyinthetankO.jpg|thumb|right|<nowiki></nowiki>300px|A laden tanker on the [[A38 road|A38]] in [[Devon]] transporting a large quantity of Buckfast Wine.]]
'''Buckfast Tonic Wine''', commonly known as '''Buckfast''' or '''Buckie''', is a [[fortified wine]] licensed by [[Buckfast Abbey]] in [[Devon]], south west England. It is distributed by J. Chandler & Company.

== History ==
The wine, which is still manufactured using many of the same ingredients, is based on a traditional recipe from France.The [[Benedictine]] monks at Buckfast Abbey first made the tonic wine in the 1890s. It was originally sold in small quantities as a medicine using the slogan ''"Three small glasses a day, for good health and lively blood"''.

In 1927 the Abbey lost its license to sell wine. As a result, the Abbot allowed wine merchants to distribute on behalf of the Abbey. At the same time, the recipe was changed to increase the appeal of the product. These changes resulted in increased sales. Modern bottles carry a notice stating that the wine does not have tonic properties of the type claimed by the former slogan.

The wine, which comes into distinct brands depending on the market, has achieved popularity in working class, students and [[Bohemian]] communities in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]]. In the Republic of Ireland, Buckfast (packaged in a darker bottle) has a slightly lower alcoholic strength and lacks [[vanillin]] flavouring of the British version. Buckfast sold in Northern Ireland is the same as the rest of the UK. <ref name='independentonsunday'>{{cite news | first=David | last=McKittrick | title=Ireland demands tougher taxes on dreaded 'Buckie' | date=2006-12-08 | url= http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/ireland-demands-tougher-taxes-on-dreaded-buckie-427573.html | work =The Independent on Sunday | accessdate = 2010-01-24 | location=London}}</ref>

Buckfast has become closely linked to the Scottish [[ned (Scottish)|ned culture]].<ref name='galwaypubguide'>{{cite web|url=http://www.galwaycitypubguide.com/drinks/drinking-in-galway.html |title=Drinking in Galway |accessdate=2010-01-24 |work=Galway City Pub Guide }}</ref> Due to its notoriety, the drink has also entered the popular culture lexicon in Scotland leading to nicknames, such as "Wreck the Hoose Juice", "Commotion Lotion" and "Mrs. Brown".<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/devon/4264059.stm |title= Court threat over monks' tipple |date= 14 February 2005 |accessdate= 2009-11-04 | work=BBC News}}</ref> Other nicknames are "Bucky", "Lurgan Champagne", "Buckie Baracas", "Sauce" and "Coatbridge Table Wine". <ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/5381360.stm | work=BBC News | first=Claire | last=Heald | title=Binge drinking - the Benedictine connection | date=2006-09-26}}</ref>

==Controversy in Scotland==
[[File:Buckfast bottle in the street.jpg|right|thumb|upright|A bottle of Buckfast in the street. Buckfast's perception as being involved with street drinking, [[public intoxication]] and [[anti-social behaviour]] has caused controversy in [[Scotland]].]]
In Scotland, Buckfast is associated with drinkers who are prone to committing [[anti-social behaviour]] when drunk, especially drinkers under 18 years old. Its high strength (15% ABV/14.8% in the Republic of Ireland), relatively low price and sweetness are characteristics that are thought to appeal to underage drinkers.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,859701,00.html | work=The Guardian| title=New wave of 'sophisticated' alcopops fuels teenage binge drinking | first=Sarah | last=Hall | date=2002-12-14 | accessdate=2010-04-27}}</ref> The drink also has a very high caffeine content, with each 750ml bottle containing the equivalent of eight cans of [[cola]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Macleod |first=Fiona |url=http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/scotland/Crime-link-as-Buckfast-revealed.5989472.jp |title=Crime link as Buckfast revealed to have as much caffeine as eight colas |publisher=The Scotsman |date=2010-01-18 |accessdate=2010-12-27}}</ref>

Several Scottish politicians and social activists have singled out Buckfast Tonic Wine as being particularly responsible for crime, disorder, and general social deprivation in these communities. Although Buckfast accounts for only 0.5% of alcohol sales in Scotland, the figure is markedly higher in [[Lanarkshire]].<ref>{{cite news |author= |coauthors= |title=For Scots, a Scourge Unleashed by a Bottle |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/04/world/europe/04scotland.html?em |quote= |work=New York Times |date=February 3, 2010 |accessdate=2010-02-05 | first=Sarah | last=Lyall}}</ref><ref name=SalesSurge>{{cite web|last=Macmillan |first=Arthur |url=http://news.scotsman.com/latestnews/Buckfast-sales-surge-after-Jamieson.2624524.jp |title=Buckfast Sales Surge |publisher=The Scotsman |date=2005-05-08 |accessdate=2010-12-27}}</ref> [[Helen Liddell]], former [[Secretary of State for Scotland]], called for the wine to be banned. In 2005 Scottish Justice Minister, [[Cathy Jamieson]] [[Member of the Scottish Parliament|MSP]], suggested that retailers should stop selling the wine. On a subsequent visit to [[Auchinleck]] within her constituency, she was greeted by [[Adolescence|teenagers]] chanting, "Don't ban Buckie".<ref>[http://www.eveningtimes.co.uk/hi/news/5035714.html ]{{dead link|date=December 2010}}</ref> Jamieson then received correspondences from lawyers acting for Buckfast distributors, J Chandler & Co., in [[Andover, Hampshire|Andover]]. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/1066/0011297.pdf |first=Cathy |last=Jamieson |title=Letter from the Minister for Justice to Angus G MacLeod |publisher=Scotland.gov.uk |date=2005-03-03 |accessdate=2010-12-28}}</ref> A further consequence was that Buckfast sales increased substantially in the months following Jamieson's comments.<ref name=SalesSurge />

In September 2006, [[Andy Kerr]], the [[Scottish Executive]]'s Health Minister described the drink as "an irresponsible drink in its own right" and a contributor to anti-social behaviour. The distributors denied the claims and accused him of showing "bad manners" and a "complete lack of judgement" regarding the drink.<ref>{{cite web|last=Macmillan |first=Arthur |url=http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/politics.cfm?id=1410682006 |title=Health minister condems Buckfast tonic wine |publisher=Scotland on Sunday |date=2006-09-24 |accessdate=2010-12-27}}</ref> Kerr met with J Chandler & Co. to discuss ways of lessening Buckfast's impact on west Scotland but the talks broke up without agreement. Three months later, [[Jack McConnell]], [[First Minister of Scotland]] stated that Buckfast had become a "a badge of pride amongst those who are involved in antisocial behaviour."<ref>{{cite web|last=Macdonell |first=Hamish |url=http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/scotland.cfm?id=1715022006&bad=178112 |title=McConnell joins the war of words on Buckfast, 'a seriously bad drink' |publisher=The Scotsman |date=2006-11-20 |accessdate=2010-12-27}}</ref> In response the distributors accused the [[Scottish Executive]] of trying to avoid having to deal with the consequences of failed social policy and the actual individuals involved in antisocial behaviour by blaming it all on the drinks industry.

However in January 2010 a [[BBC]] investigation revealed that Buckfast had been mentioned in 5,638 crime reports in the [[Strathclyde]] area of Scotland from 2006–2009, equating to an average of three per day. One in 10 of those offences had been violent and 114 times in that period a Buckfast bottle was used as a weapon. A survey at a Scottish [[Her Majesty's Young Offender Institution|young offenders’ institution]] showed of the 117 people who drank alcohol before committing their crimes, 43 percent said they had drunk Buckfast. In another study of [[litter]] around a typical [[Council house|council estate]] in Scotland, 35 percent of the items identified as rubbish were Buckfast bottles.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/8464359.stm | work=BBC News | title=Buckfast 'in 5,000 crime reports' | date=2010-01-18 | accessdate=2010-04-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/04/world/europe/04scotland.html | newspaper=The New York Times | title=For Scots, a Scourge Unleashed by a Bottle | first=Sarah | last=Lyall | date=2010-02-04 | accessdate=2010-04-27}}</ref>

The [[monk]]s of [[Buckfast Abbey]] and their distribution partners strenuously deny that their product is particularly harmful, saying that it is responsibly and legally enjoyed by the great majority of purchasers. They also point out that the areas identified with its acute misuse have been economically deprived for decades and Buckfast represents less than one percent of the total alcohol sales in these places - actual figure 0.58% of alcohol sales.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/devon/8490681.stm | work=BBC News | title=Monks reject crime link to wine | date=2010-02-01 | accessdate=2010-04-27}}</ref>

==Ingredients==
==="Green bottle" Buckfast tonic wine, usually found in the United Kingdom===
* [[Red wine]] based aperitif, 15% abv.
* Sodium [[glycerophosphate]], an [[emulsifier]].
* [[Dipotassium phosphate]], a protein [[antioxidant|stabiliser]]
* [[Disodium phosphate]], a stabiliser and emulsifier.
* [[Caffeine]], 37.5 mg/100ml (i.e. 0.0375 % [[w/v]])
* [[Vanillin]]

==="Brown bottle" Buckfast variant, typically from Ireland===

* [[Red wine]], 14.8% alcohol [[v/v]].
* Sodium and potassium [[glycerophosphate]]s - both measured at 0.65% [[w/v]].
* [[Disodium phosphate]], a stabiliser and emulsifer.
* [[Caffeine]], 55 mg/100ml (i.e. 0.055% [[w/v]])
* [[Sulfite]] preservatives.

===Effects===
====Alcohol====
{{Expand section|date=April 2010}}
Buckfast contains 15% alcohol in the 750 ml green-bottled UK version, and 14.8% in the brown-bottled Republic Of Ireland version. That equates to 11.25 units (UK) of ethanol.

====Caffeine====
The "brown bottle" Buckfast has a [[caffeine]] content about equal to brewed or percolated coffee, while the "green bottle" Buckfast has a caffeine content about equal to black tea.<ref name="Content">{{cite web |title=Caffeine Content of Food and Drugs |work=Nutrition Action Health Newsletter |publisher=[[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] |month=December|year=1996 |url=http://www.cspinet.org/nah/caffeine/caffeine_content.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070614144016/http://www.cspinet.org/nah/caffeine/caffeine_content.htm |archivedate=2007-06-14|accessdate=2009-02-04}}</ref><ref name="Erowid">{{cite web |title=Caffeine Content of Beverages, Foods, & Medications |publisher=Erowid|date=2009-08-17 |url=http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/caffeine/caffeine_info1.shtml |accessdate=2010-12-27}}</ref>

However, according to Alex Riley's 'Britain's Really Disgusting Drinks', the "green bottle" Buckfast contains the caffeine normally contained within six cups of coffee. The series also mentions that drop for drop, Buckfast has more caffeine than [[Red Bull]].<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b00tthry/Britains_Really_Disgusting_Drinks/ |accessdate=2010-09-17</ref>

====Glycerophosphates====
Sodium and potassium glycerophosphate are [[salts]] of [[glycerol 3-phosphate]], a biologically important [[sugar]] which has a role in cellular energy metabolism. Both glycerol-3-phosphate and its close relative [[3-Phosphoglycerate]] are intermediaries in the [[glycolysis]] pathway, the major biochemical pathway for energy production in animals. They are downstream from [[glucose]] and therefore can be converted more quickly into [[energy]] than glucose. They therefore have a tonic property in people who are depleted of energy.

Glycerophosphate is used in [[intravenous]] drip solutions as a source of [[phosphate]], a biologically important [[ion]] used in energy-requiring reactions.<ref>New Zealand Medicines and Medical Devices Safety Authority, [http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/Datasheet/g/Glycophosinf.htm ''Data Sheet: Glycophos''] . Retrieved 2 April 2010.</ref>

==In popular culture==
*An episode of [[Rab C. Nesbitt]] features Rab and Jamesie making a pilgrimage to Buckfast Abbey.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news|last=Heald |first=Claire |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/5381360.stm |title=Binge drinking - the Benedictine connection |publisher=BBC News |date=2006-09-26 |accessdate=2010-12-27}}</ref>
*Buckfast was featured on the BBC documentary ''Britain's Really Disgusting Drinks''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b00tthry/Britains_Really_Disgusting_Drinks/ |title=Britain's Really Disgusting Drinks |publisher=BBC Three |date=2010-11-09 |accessdate=2010-12-27}}</ref>
*A green bottle of Buckfast can be seen in the final scene of ''[[Trainspotting (film)|Trainspotting]]'', as Renton exits the hotel room.
*[[Ted Leo]] recorded a song titled "A Bottle of Buckie" on the album ''[[Living with the Living]]''.
*The cartoon character Groundskeeper Willie is seen drinking a bottle of buckfast in The Simpsons episode "Lisa Simpson, This Isn't Your Life".
*The Scottish [[Folk Metal]] band [[Alestorm]] recorded a song entitled Buckfast Powersmash, for their third album.
* Buckfast is regularly referred to in the Irish RTE comedy series, [[Hardy Bucks]].

==See also==
*[[Low-end fortified wine]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.buckfast.org.uk/site.php?use=tonic Buckfast Abbey's page on their tonic wine]

{{wines}}

[[Category:Alcopop]]
[[Category:Patent medicines]]
[[Category:Cocktails with wine]]
[[Category:Fortified wine]]

[[sco:Buckfast Tonic Wine]]

Wallingford-Tornado

2010-05-30T22:10:50Z

Runningonbrains: one more time

{{good article}}
{{coord|41.4637|-72.8268|dim:2km|display=title}}
{{Infobox tornado outbreak
| name = Wallingford Tornado
| image location = Wallingford, Connecticut tornado damage picture.jpg
| image name = Picture of a destroyed house in Wallingford
| date = August 9, 1878
| duration = ~3 hours
| fujitascale = possibly F4
| tornadoes = ≥2
| total damages (USD) = ~$5.3 million (2007 [[United States dollar|USD]])
| total fatalities = 34
| areas affected = Southern [[Connecticut]]
}}
The '''Wallingford Tornado''' struck the town of [[Wallingford, Connecticut]] on August 9, 1878. The violent [[tornado]] destroyed most of the town, killing 34 people and injuring at least 70, many severely.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm#CT| title = Connecticut: Tornadoes causing a death or more than five injuries| accessdate = 2008-05-14| year = 2000| publisher = The Tornado Project}}</ref> This was the deadliest tornado ever to strike the state of Connecticut, and the second deadliest ever in [[New England]], after the [[Flint-Worcester tornado outbreak sequence|Worcester tornado of 1953]].<ref name="significant tornadoes">Grazulis, pg. 596</ref>

==Before the storm==
The storm system that eventually spawned the Wallingford tornado produced damaging winds and at least one tornado far before it reached the town. The first tornado from this storm system touched down in [[South Kent]], unroofing houses, blowing down barns, and uprooting and tossing trees into the air. It moved steadily southeast for {{convert|12|mi|km|abbr=on}}, moving just south of [[New Preston, Connecticut|New Preston]], and then through [[Washington, Connecticut|Washington]], before turning north and dissipating. The next path of damage started further north along the [[Shepaug River]]. It is unknown whether this was a tornado or [[downburst|straight-line winds]], but the damage path continued southeast for three miles before disappearing again. More damage was reported near [[Waterbury, Connecticut|Waterbury]], where a house was unroofed two miles west of the town. In the town itself, branches and chimneys were damaged.<ref>
{{cite news | title = More About the Tornado | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=837114282&SrchMode=2&sid=3&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1210846487&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[Hartford Courant]] | location = [[Hartford, Connecticut]] | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-16 | accessdate = 2008-05-15 }}</ref><ref name="report">
{{cite book|title=Annual Report of the Chief Signal-Officer|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oL0tAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA653&lpg=RA1-PA654&ots=vkwrjr5NbM&dq=Wallingford+tornado+of+1878#PRA2-PA654,M1|format=PDF
|accessdate=2008-05-14|year=1878|publisher=Government Printing Office|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=654–661}}</ref>

As the storm approached Wallingford, observers described a black, rolling funnel, with clouds blowing in from all directions. This system passed directly over [[Cheshire, Connecticut|Cheshire]], producing a strong wind at the surface which caused some minor damage. The storm then moved directly towards Wallingford.<ref name="report"/>

==The Wallingford tornado==
[[Image:Wallingford tornado illustration.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Artist's conception of the tornado destroying a house]]
[[Image:Wallingford tornado track.PNG|right|250px|thumb|Map of the tornado's path through the town]]
In Wallingford, the day prior to the tornado was clear, and said to be "one of the loveliest [days] of the season".<ref name=NYT2>*{{cite news | author = Special Correspondent | title = Wallingford's Tornado | url = http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9D0CEEDB143EE63BBC4952DFBE668383669FDE | format = PDF | publisher = [[New York Times]] | page = 1 | date = 1878-08-11 | accessdate = 2008-05-14 }}</ref> At around 5 p.m. the sky began to get dark, and by 5:30 p.m. the air was very black. At around 6 p.m., the air at the surface was calm, but lightning began to fill the sky, and the clouds began moving at a very rapid pace, frightening some residents into shelter.

The tornado started as a [[waterspout]] over Community Lake, just west of town. It then moved through the center of town along Christian Street, damaging almost every structure as it went. The tornado tore houses from their foundations, throwing some more than 600 feet (180 meters). A receipt from the town was later found 65 miles (105 km) east in [[Wakefield-Peacedale, Rhode Island|Peacedale, Rhode Island]].<ref name="report"/> Large trees were uprooted and snapped, and those that were still standing were stripped of small limbs and leaves. The Catholic Church was blown to bits, and heavy [[tombstone]]s in the nearby cemetery were tossed around. The brand-new brick high school building was almost completely destroyed.<ref name=gendisasters>{{cite web| url = http://www3.gendisasters.com/connecticut/874/wallingford,-ct-tornado,-aug-1878| title = Wallingford, CT Tornado, Aug 1878| accessdate = 2008-05-14| last = Perley| first = Sidney| year = 1891| work = Historic Storms of New England| publisher = GenDisasters| pages = 334–337}}</ref> The tornado's path through town was only two miles long, but the damage path was up to 600 feet (180 meters) wide.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.crh.noaa.gov/ddc/wxtrivia/wxtrvAug.php| title = Today's Weather Trivia| accessdate = 2008-05-14| date = 2005-11-01| publisher = [[National Weather Service]] Dodge City, KS Weather Forecast Office}}</ref>

More tornadic damage was reported in southern [[Durham, Connecticut|Durham]] and [[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]], with some homes severely damaged, but there were no known injuries. Some sources insist that the Wallingford tornado dissipated a few miles west of the town, and this was an entirely separate tornado, but without a modern damage survey it is impossible to tell. The parent storm finally moved out over the ocean around 8 PM.<ref name="significant tornadoes"/><ref name="report"/>

==Aftermath==
[[Image:Wallingford, Connecticut school tornado damage.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Artist's drawing of damage to the grade school]]
A district schoolhouse was converted into a temporary morgue immediately after the storm; 21 bodies were discovered and placed there that night. One person was found dead 3300 feet (1 km) from where he had been standing.<ref name=NYT1/> The tornado brought down telegraph lines and poles around the area, so assistance from physicians in nearby towns took more than an hour.<ref name=NYT1/> More than 50 special police were sworn in to prevent looting, and to control the crowds of curious onlookers who had come by train from surrounding cities.<ref>{{cite news | title = Latest from the Tornado | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=4&did=823502852&SrchMode=2&sid=1&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1210830166&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[Hartford Courant]] | location = [[Hartford, Connecticut]] | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-14 | accessdate = 2008-05-15 }}</ref>

Thirty five homes were completely destroyed, with many more being unroofed or receiving some sort of damage. Damage estimates were around $150,000 from buildings alone; utilities and railway facilities received a lot of damage as well.<ref name=NYT1>{{cite news | title = Furious Northern Storms | url = http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9E0DE4DD1038EE3BBC4852DFBE668383669FDE | format = PDF | publisher = [[New York Times]] | page = 1 | date = 1878-08-10 | accessdate = 2008-05-14 }}</ref> Final estimates were around $250,000 ($5.3 million when adjusted for inflation).<ref name="report"/><ref name="inflation">{{cite web| url = http://www.westegg.com/inflation/index.html
| title = The Inflation Calculator| accessdate = 2008-11-01| author = Friedman, S. Morgan| work = "Historical Statistics of the United States" and "Statistical Abstracts of the United States"}}</ref>

Tornadoes are not very uncommon in the state of Connecticut, but tornadoes of this power are rare. Though tornadoes have only been officially rated on the [[Fujita scale]] since 1950, this tornado has been estimated to be of F4-intensity on the scale.<ref name="significant tornadoes"/> This would make it one of only three tornadoes of this intensity to ever affect the state, as of 2008.<ref name="tornado project">[[Tornado Project]]. [http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm#CT "Worst" Tornadoes] Retrieved on July 2, 2007.</ref> Thirty-four people were killed by the tornado—thirty-one more than the second-deadliest Connecticut tornado—and 70 others injured.<ref name="significant tornadoes"/><ref>Grazulis, p. 379</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks]]
*[[List of Connecticut tornadoes]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
===Book source===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book | last = Grazulis | first = Thomas P | title = Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991 | year = July | month = 1993 | publisher = The Tornado Project of Environmental Films | location = St. Johnsbury, VT | isbn = 1-879362-03-1 }}
*{{cite book |title=History of the Wallingford Disaster |last=Kendrick |first=John B. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1878 |publisher=The Case, Lockwood & Brainard Co. |location=Hartford, Conn. |isbn= |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HoENAQAAIAAJ |accessdate=2009-08-15}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/brs/nwind34.htm Illustrations of tornado damage (at bottom of page)]
*[http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital_dev/dgkeysearchdetail.cfm?trg=1&strucID=731833&imageID=G90F062_003F&total=5&num=0&word=French%2C%20D%2E%20%28David%29&s=3&notword=&d=&c=&f=4&k=0&lWord=&lField=&sScope=&sLevel=&sLabel=&imgs=20&pos=1&e=w Pictures of tornado damage]

[[Category:F4 tornadoes]]
[[Category:Tornadoes of 1878]]
[[Category:Connecticut tornadoes]]
[[Category:1878 in the United States]]

Wallingford-Tornado

2010-05-30T22:05:57Z

Runningonbrains: correct dimensions

{{good article}}
{{coord|41.463|-72.828|dim:2km|display=title}}
{{Infobox tornado outbreak
| name = Wallingford Tornado
| image location = Wallingford, Connecticut tornado damage picture.jpg
| image name = Picture of a destroyed house in Wallingford
| date = August 9, 1878
| duration = ~3 hours
| fujitascale = possibly F4
| tornadoes = ≥2
| total damages (USD) = ~$5.3 million (2007 [[United States dollar|USD]])
| total fatalities = 34
| areas affected = Southern [[Connecticut]]
}}
The '''Wallingford Tornado''' struck the town of [[Wallingford, Connecticut]] on August 9, 1878. The violent [[tornado]] destroyed most of the town, killing 34 people and injuring at least 70, many severely.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm#CT| title = Connecticut: Tornadoes causing a death or more than five injuries| accessdate = 2008-05-14| year = 2000| publisher = The Tornado Project}}</ref> This was the deadliest tornado ever to strike the state of Connecticut, and the second deadliest ever in [[New England]], after the [[Flint-Worcester tornado outbreak sequence|Worcester tornado of 1953]].<ref name="significant tornadoes">Grazulis, pg. 596</ref>

==Before the storm==
The storm system that eventually spawned the Wallingford tornado produced damaging winds and at least one tornado far before it reached the town. The first tornado from this storm system touched down in [[South Kent]], unroofing houses, blowing down barns, and uprooting and tossing trees into the air. It moved steadily southeast for {{convert|12|mi|km|abbr=on}}, moving just south of [[New Preston, Connecticut|New Preston]], and then through [[Washington, Connecticut|Washington]], before turning north and dissipating. The next path of damage started further north along the [[Shepaug River]]. It is unknown whether this was a tornado or [[downburst|straight-line winds]], but the damage path continued southeast for three miles before disappearing again. More damage was reported near [[Waterbury, Connecticut|Waterbury]], where a house was unroofed two miles west of the town. In the town itself, branches and chimneys were damaged.<ref>
{{cite news | title = More About the Tornado | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=837114282&SrchMode=2&sid=3&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1210846487&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[Hartford Courant]] | location = [[Hartford, Connecticut]] | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-16 | accessdate = 2008-05-15 }}</ref><ref name="report">
{{cite book|title=Annual Report of the Chief Signal-Officer|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oL0tAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA653&lpg=RA1-PA654&ots=vkwrjr5NbM&dq=Wallingford+tornado+of+1878#PRA2-PA654,M1|format=PDF
|accessdate=2008-05-14|year=1878|publisher=Government Printing Office|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=654–661}}</ref>

As the storm approached Wallingford, observers described a black, rolling funnel, with clouds blowing in from all directions. This system passed directly over [[Cheshire, Connecticut|Cheshire]], producing a strong wind at the surface which caused some minor damage. The storm then moved directly towards Wallingford.<ref name="report"/>

==The Wallingford tornado==
[[Image:Wallingford tornado illustration.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Artist's conception of the tornado destroying a house]]
[[Image:Wallingford tornado track.PNG|right|250px|thumb|Map of the tornado's path through the town]]
In Wallingford, the day prior to the tornado was clear, and said to be "one of the loveliest [days] of the season".<ref name=NYT2>*{{cite news | author = Special Correspondent | title = Wallingford's Tornado | url = http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9D0CEEDB143EE63BBC4952DFBE668383669FDE | format = PDF | publisher = [[New York Times]] | page = 1 | date = 1878-08-11 | accessdate = 2008-05-14 }}</ref> At around 5 p.m. the sky began to get dark, and by 5:30 p.m. the air was very black. At around 6 p.m., the air at the surface was calm, but lightning began to fill the sky, and the clouds began moving at a very rapid pace, frightening some residents into shelter.

The tornado started as a [[waterspout]] over Community Lake, just west of town. It then moved through the center of town along Christian Street, damaging almost every structure as it went. The tornado tore houses from their foundations, throwing some more than 600 feet (180 meters). A receipt from the town was later found 65 miles (105 km) east in [[Wakefield-Peacedale, Rhode Island|Peacedale, Rhode Island]].<ref name="report"/> Large trees were uprooted and snapped, and those that were still standing were stripped of small limbs and leaves. The Catholic Church was blown to bits, and heavy [[tombstone]]s in the nearby cemetery were tossed around. The brand-new brick high school building was almost completely destroyed.<ref name=gendisasters>{{cite web| url = http://www3.gendisasters.com/connecticut/874/wallingford,-ct-tornado,-aug-1878| title = Wallingford, CT Tornado, Aug 1878| accessdate = 2008-05-14| last = Perley| first = Sidney| year = 1891| work = Historic Storms of New England| publisher = GenDisasters| pages = 334–337}}</ref> The tornado's path through town was only two miles long, but the damage path was up to 600 feet (180 meters) wide.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.crh.noaa.gov/ddc/wxtrivia/wxtrvAug.php| title = Today's Weather Trivia| accessdate = 2008-05-14| date = 2005-11-01| publisher = [[National Weather Service]] Dodge City, KS Weather Forecast Office}}</ref>

More tornadic damage was reported in southern [[Durham, Connecticut|Durham]] and [[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]], with some homes severely damaged, but there were no known injuries. Some sources insist that the Wallingford tornado dissipated a few miles west of the town, and this was an entirely separate tornado, but without a modern damage survey it is impossible to tell. The parent storm finally moved out over the ocean around 8 PM.<ref name="significant tornadoes"/><ref name="report"/>

==Aftermath==
[[Image:Wallingford, Connecticut school tornado damage.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Artist's drawing of damage to the grade school]]
A district schoolhouse was converted into a temporary morgue immediately after the storm; 21 bodies were discovered and placed there that night. One person was found dead 3300 feet (1 km) from where he had been standing.<ref name=NYT1/> The tornado brought down telegraph lines and poles around the area, so assistance from physicians in nearby towns took more than an hour.<ref name=NYT1/> More than 50 special police were sworn in to prevent looting, and to control the crowds of curious onlookers who had come by train from surrounding cities.<ref>{{cite news | title = Latest from the Tornado | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=4&did=823502852&SrchMode=2&sid=1&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1210830166&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[Hartford Courant]] | location = [[Hartford, Connecticut]] | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-14 | accessdate = 2008-05-15 }}</ref>

Thirty five homes were completely destroyed, with many more being unroofed or receiving some sort of damage. Damage estimates were around $150,000 from buildings alone; utilities and railway facilities received a lot of damage as well.<ref name=NYT1>{{cite news | title = Furious Northern Storms | url = http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9E0DE4DD1038EE3BBC4852DFBE668383669FDE | format = PDF | publisher = [[New York Times]] | page = 1 | date = 1878-08-10 | accessdate = 2008-05-14 }}</ref> Final estimates were around $250,000 ($5.3 million when adjusted for inflation).<ref name="report"/><ref name="inflation">{{cite web| url = http://www.westegg.com/inflation/index.html
| title = The Inflation Calculator| accessdate = 2008-11-01| author = Friedman, S. Morgan| work = "Historical Statistics of the United States" and "Statistical Abstracts of the United States"}}</ref>

Tornadoes are not very uncommon in the state of Connecticut, but tornadoes of this power are rare. Though tornadoes have only been officially rated on the [[Fujita scale]] since 1950, this tornado has been estimated to be of F4-intensity on the scale.<ref name="significant tornadoes"/> This would make it one of only three tornadoes of this intensity to ever affect the state, as of 2008.<ref name="tornado project">[[Tornado Project]]. [http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm#CT "Worst" Tornadoes] Retrieved on July 2, 2007.</ref> Thirty-four people were killed by the tornado—thirty-one more than the second-deadliest Connecticut tornado—and 70 others injured.<ref name="significant tornadoes"/><ref>Grazulis, p. 379</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks]]
*[[List of Connecticut tornadoes]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
===Book source===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book | last = Grazulis | first = Thomas P | title = Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991 | year = July | month = 1993 | publisher = The Tornado Project of Environmental Films | location = St. Johnsbury, VT | isbn = 1-879362-03-1 }}
*{{cite book |title=History of the Wallingford Disaster |last=Kendrick |first=John B. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1878 |publisher=The Case, Lockwood & Brainard Co. |location=Hartford, Conn. |isbn= |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HoENAQAAIAAJ |accessdate=2009-08-15}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/brs/nwind34.htm Illustrations of tornado damage (at bottom of page)]
*[http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital_dev/dgkeysearchdetail.cfm?trg=1&strucID=731833&imageID=G90F062_003F&total=5&num=0&word=French%2C%20D%2E%20%28David%29&s=3&notword=&d=&c=&f=4&k=0&lWord=&lField=&sScope=&sLevel=&sLabel=&imgs=20&pos=1&e=w Pictures of tornado damage]

[[Category:F4 tornadoes]]
[[Category:Tornadoes of 1878]]
[[Category:Connecticut tornadoes]]
[[Category:1878 in the United States]]

Wallingford-Tornado

2010-05-30T22:04:17Z

Runningonbrains: add coordinates

{{good article}}
{{coord|41.463|-72.828|display=title}}
{{Infobox tornado outbreak
| name = Wallingford Tornado
| image location = Wallingford, Connecticut tornado damage picture.jpg
| image name = Picture of a destroyed house in Wallingford
| date = August 9, 1878
| duration = ~3 hours
| fujitascale = possibly F4
| tornadoes = ≥2
| total damages (USD) = ~$5.3 million (2007 [[United States dollar|USD]])
| total fatalities = 34
| areas affected = Southern [[Connecticut]]
}}
The '''Wallingford Tornado''' struck the town of [[Wallingford, Connecticut]] on August 9, 1878. The violent [[tornado]] destroyed most of the town, killing 34 people and injuring at least 70, many severely.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm#CT| title = Connecticut: Tornadoes causing a death or more than five injuries| accessdate = 2008-05-14| year = 2000| publisher = The Tornado Project}}</ref> This was the deadliest tornado ever to strike the state of Connecticut, and the second deadliest ever in [[New England]], after the [[Flint-Worcester tornado outbreak sequence|Worcester tornado of 1953]].<ref name="significant tornadoes">Grazulis, pg. 596</ref>

==Before the storm==
The storm system that eventually spawned the Wallingford tornado produced damaging winds and at least one tornado far before it reached the town. The first tornado from this storm system touched down in [[South Kent]], unroofing houses, blowing down barns, and uprooting and tossing trees into the air. It moved steadily southeast for {{convert|12|mi|km|abbr=on}}, moving just south of [[New Preston, Connecticut|New Preston]], and then through [[Washington, Connecticut|Washington]], before turning north and dissipating. The next path of damage started further north along the [[Shepaug River]]. It is unknown whether this was a tornado or [[downburst|straight-line winds]], but the damage path continued southeast for three miles before disappearing again. More damage was reported near [[Waterbury, Connecticut|Waterbury]], where a house was unroofed two miles west of the town. In the town itself, branches and chimneys were damaged.<ref>
{{cite news | title = More About the Tornado | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=837114282&SrchMode=2&sid=3&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1210846487&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[Hartford Courant]] | location = [[Hartford, Connecticut]] | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-16 | accessdate = 2008-05-15 }}</ref><ref name="report">
{{cite book|title=Annual Report of the Chief Signal-Officer|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oL0tAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA653&lpg=RA1-PA654&ots=vkwrjr5NbM&dq=Wallingford+tornado+of+1878#PRA2-PA654,M1|format=PDF
|accessdate=2008-05-14|year=1878|publisher=Government Printing Office|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=654–661}}</ref>

As the storm approached Wallingford, observers described a black, rolling funnel, with clouds blowing in from all directions. This system passed directly over [[Cheshire, Connecticut|Cheshire]], producing a strong wind at the surface which caused some minor damage. The storm then moved directly towards Wallingford.<ref name="report"/>

==The Wallingford tornado==
[[Image:Wallingford tornado illustration.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Artist's conception of the tornado destroying a house]]
[[Image:Wallingford tornado track.PNG|right|250px|thumb|Map of the tornado's path through the town]]
In Wallingford, the day prior to the tornado was clear, and said to be "one of the loveliest [days] of the season".<ref name=NYT2>*{{cite news | author = Special Correspondent | title = Wallingford's Tornado | url = http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9D0CEEDB143EE63BBC4952DFBE668383669FDE | format = PDF | publisher = [[New York Times]] | page = 1 | date = 1878-08-11 | accessdate = 2008-05-14 }}</ref> At around 5 p.m. the sky began to get dark, and by 5:30 p.m. the air was very black. At around 6 p.m., the air at the surface was calm, but lightning began to fill the sky, and the clouds began moving at a very rapid pace, frightening some residents into shelter.

The tornado started as a [[waterspout]] over Community Lake, just west of town. It then moved through the center of town along Christian Street, damaging almost every structure as it went. The tornado tore houses from their foundations, throwing some more than 600 feet (180 meters). A receipt from the town was later found 65 miles (105 km) east in [[Wakefield-Peacedale, Rhode Island|Peacedale, Rhode Island]].<ref name="report"/> Large trees were uprooted and snapped, and those that were still standing were stripped of small limbs and leaves. The Catholic Church was blown to bits, and heavy [[tombstone]]s in the nearby cemetery were tossed around. The brand-new brick high school building was almost completely destroyed.<ref name=gendisasters>{{cite web| url = http://www3.gendisasters.com/connecticut/874/wallingford,-ct-tornado,-aug-1878| title = Wallingford, CT Tornado, Aug 1878| accessdate = 2008-05-14| last = Perley| first = Sidney| year = 1891| work = Historic Storms of New England| publisher = GenDisasters| pages = 334–337}}</ref> The tornado's path through town was only two miles long, but the damage path was up to 600 feet (180 meters) wide.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.crh.noaa.gov/ddc/wxtrivia/wxtrvAug.php| title = Today's Weather Trivia| accessdate = 2008-05-14| date = 2005-11-01| publisher = [[National Weather Service]] Dodge City, KS Weather Forecast Office}}</ref>

More tornadic damage was reported in southern [[Durham, Connecticut|Durham]] and [[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]], with some homes severely damaged, but there were no known injuries. Some sources insist that the Wallingford tornado dissipated a few miles west of the town, and this was an entirely separate tornado, but without a modern damage survey it is impossible to tell. The parent storm finally moved out over the ocean around 8 PM.<ref name="significant tornadoes"/><ref name="report"/>

==Aftermath==
[[Image:Wallingford, Connecticut school tornado damage.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Artist's drawing of damage to the grade school]]
A district schoolhouse was converted into a temporary morgue immediately after the storm; 21 bodies were discovered and placed there that night. One person was found dead 3300 feet (1 km) from where he had been standing.<ref name=NYT1/> The tornado brought down telegraph lines and poles around the area, so assistance from physicians in nearby towns took more than an hour.<ref name=NYT1/> More than 50 special police were sworn in to prevent looting, and to control the crowds of curious onlookers who had come by train from surrounding cities.<ref>{{cite news | title = Latest from the Tornado | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=4&did=823502852&SrchMode=2&sid=1&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1210830166&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[Hartford Courant]] | location = [[Hartford, Connecticut]] | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-14 | accessdate = 2008-05-15 }}</ref>

Thirty five homes were completely destroyed, with many more being unroofed or receiving some sort of damage. Damage estimates were around $150,000 from buildings alone; utilities and railway facilities received a lot of damage as well.<ref name=NYT1>{{cite news | title = Furious Northern Storms | url = http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9E0DE4DD1038EE3BBC4852DFBE668383669FDE | format = PDF | publisher = [[New York Times]] | page = 1 | date = 1878-08-10 | accessdate = 2008-05-14 }}</ref> Final estimates were around $250,000 ($5.3 million when adjusted for inflation).<ref name="report"/><ref name="inflation">{{cite web| url = http://www.westegg.com/inflation/index.html
| title = The Inflation Calculator| accessdate = 2008-11-01| author = Friedman, S. Morgan| work = "Historical Statistics of the United States" and "Statistical Abstracts of the United States"}}</ref>

Tornadoes are not very uncommon in the state of Connecticut, but tornadoes of this power are rare. Though tornadoes have only been officially rated on the [[Fujita scale]] since 1950, this tornado has been estimated to be of F4-intensity on the scale.<ref name="significant tornadoes"/> This would make it one of only three tornadoes of this intensity to ever affect the state, as of 2008.<ref name="tornado project">[[Tornado Project]]. [http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm#CT "Worst" Tornadoes] Retrieved on July 2, 2007.</ref> Thirty-four people were killed by the tornado—thirty-one more than the second-deadliest Connecticut tornado—and 70 others injured.<ref name="significant tornadoes"/><ref>Grazulis, p. 379</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks]]
*[[List of Connecticut tornadoes]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
===Book source===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book | last = Grazulis | first = Thomas P | title = Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991 | year = July | month = 1993 | publisher = The Tornado Project of Environmental Films | location = St. Johnsbury, VT | isbn = 1-879362-03-1 }}
*{{cite book |title=History of the Wallingford Disaster |last=Kendrick |first=John B. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1878 |publisher=The Case, Lockwood & Brainard Co. |location=Hartford, Conn. |isbn= |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HoENAQAAIAAJ |accessdate=2009-08-15}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/brs/nwind34.htm Illustrations of tornado damage (at bottom of page)]
*[http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital_dev/dgkeysearchdetail.cfm?trg=1&strucID=731833&imageID=G90F062_003F&total=5&num=0&word=French%2C%20D%2E%20%28David%29&s=3&notword=&d=&c=&f=4&k=0&lWord=&lField=&sScope=&sLevel=&sLabel=&imgs=20&pos=1&e=w Pictures of tornado damage]

[[Category:F4 tornadoes]]
[[Category:Tornadoes of 1878]]
[[Category:Connecticut tornadoes]]
[[Category:1878 in the United States]]

Magmatische Großprovinz

2010-01-27T06:17:42Z

Runningonbrains: this was the coined term, not the abbreviation

{{Nofootnotes|article|date=February 2008}}

'''Large [[Igneous rock|Igneous]] provinces''' (LIP) are extremely large accumulations of [[igneous]] rocks—either [[intrusive]], [[extrusive]], or both—which are found in the earth's crust. The term 'large igneous province' was originally proposed by Coffin and Eldholm (1992) to refer to a variety of [[mafic]] igneous provinces extending over areas greater than 100,000 square kilometers (slightly larger than the area of Portugal), erupted over extremely short [[geological time]] intervals of a few million years or less, that originated by processes not associated with 'normal' [[plate tectonics]] and seafloor spreading<ref>http://www.mantleplumes.org/LIPClass2.html</ref>.

The definition of 'LIP' has been expanded and refined, and is still a work in progress. 'LIP' is now frequently used to also describe voluminous areas of, not just mafic, but all types of igneous rocks. Sub-categorization of LIP's into Large Volcanic Provinces (LVP) and Large Plutonic Provinces (LPP), and including rocks produced by 'normal' plate tectonic processes, has been proposed.<ref>http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/sheth2007-esr.pdf</ref>.

[[Mantle plumes]], a recently apprehended and still poorly-understood and controversial geological process, are thought to be the source of many or all of the LIP's that are not associated with 'normal plate tectonics.'

Some LIP's are now intact, i.e. the basaltic [[Deccan Traps]] in India; others have been dismembered by plate tectonic motion, i.e. the basaltic [[Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]] (CAMP) parts of which are found in Brazil, the eastern United States and Canada, and northwestern Africa.

As originally defined LIPs include continental [[flood basalt]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, large [[dike swarm]]s (the eroded roots of a volcanic province), and [[passive margin|volcanic rifted margins]]. Most of these LIPs consist of basalt, but some contain large volumes of associated rhyolite (i.e. the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]] in the western United States; the rhyolite is typically very dry compared to island arc rhyolites, with much higher eruption temperatures (850°C to 1000°C) than normal rhyolites. Some new definitions of the term 'LIP' include large granitic provinces such as those found in the Andes Mountains of South America and in western North America.

When created, LIPs often have an areal extent of a few million km² and volumes on the order of 1 million km3. In most cases, the majority of a basaltic LIP's volume is emplaced in less than 1 million years. One of the conundra of such LIPs origins is to understand how enormous volumes of basaltic magma are formed and erupted over such short time scales, with effusion rates up to an order of magnitude greater than mid-ocean ridge basalts.

==Theories of formation==
Large igneous provinces are often linked to active [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] by linear chains of volcanic islands or volcanoes, leading to models that connect their origins to [[mantle plume]]s. In this hypothesis, mantle plumes consist of a bulbous head and a thin tail that feeds hot mantle into the head. When the rising plume head encounters the [[lithosphere]], it spreads out and melts catastrophically to form large volumes of basalt magma in 1-2 million years. Subsequent volcanism originates with the plume tail. The movement of lithosphere across the surface of the Earth in response to plate tectonics causes the plume tail volcanics to form linear island chains. The impact of the plume on the base of continental lithosphere may cause rifting and breakup of the continent, creating conjugate LIPs on opposite sides of an ocean basin (e.g., the Parana-Etendeka pair of South America-Africa).

Alternate theories include delamination of eclogitic lower crust, edge effects of thick lithosphere, and meteorite impact (see [[Mantle plume]]s for more complete discussion of alternate models).

==Relationship of LIP's to extinction events==
Eruptions or emplacements of LIP's appear to have, in some cases, occurred simultaneously with [[oceanic anoxic event]]s and [[extinction event]]s. The most important examples are the [[Deccan Traps]] ([[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event]]), the [[Karoo-Ferrar]] ([[Pliensbachian-Toarcian extinction]]), the [[Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]] ([[Triassic-Jurassic extinction event]]), and the [[Siberian traps]] ([[Permian-Triassic extinction event]]).

Several mechanism's are proposed to explain the association of LIP's with extinction events. The eruption of basaltic LIP's onto the earth's surface releases large volumes of sulfate gas, which forms sulfuric acid in the atmosphere; this absorbs heat and causes substantial cooling (e.g., the [[Laki (volcano)|Laki]] eruption in Iceland, 1783). Oceanic LIP's can reduce oxygen in seawater by either direct oxidation reactions with metals in hydrothermal fluids or by causing algal blooms that consume large amounts of oxygen (Kerr, 2005).

==Examples of LIPs==
These are well documented large igneous provinces in geological research.

'''Continental Flood basalts'''
*[[Ethiopian Highlands]]
*[[Columbia River Basalt Group]]
*[[Coppermine River basalts]] (Canadian Shield)
*[[Deccan Traps]] (India)
*[[Paraná and Etendeka traps]] (Brazil-Namibia)
*[[Brazilian Highlands]]
*[[Rio de la Plata Craton]] (Uruguay)
*[[Karoo-Ferrar]] (South Africa-Antarctica)
*[[Siberian Traps]] (Russia)
*[[Emeishan Traps]] (western China)

'''Oceanic Plateaux'''
*[[Wrangellia Terrane]] (Alaska and Canada)
*[[Caribbean large igneous province]] (Caribbean Sea)
*[[Kerguelen Plateau]] (Indian Ocean)
*[[Ontong Java Plateau]], [[Manihiki Plateau]] and [[Hikurangi Plateau]] (southwest Pacific Ocean)
*[[Jameson Land]]

'''Volcanic Rifted Margins'''
*[[High Arctic Large Igneous Province]] (includes the [[Ellesmere Island Volcanics]], [[Strand Fiord Formation]], [[Alpha Ridge]], [[Franz Josef Islands]] and [[Svalbard]].)
*[[North Atlantic Igneous Province]] (includes basalts in Greenland, Iceland, Ireland, Scotland, Faroes)
*[[Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]] (eastern United States and Canada, northern South America, northwest Africa)

'''Dike Swarms'''
*[[Mackenzie dike swarm]] (Canadian Shield)
*[[Long Range dikes]] (Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada)
*[[Mistassini dike swarm]] (western Quebec, Canada)
*[[Matachewan dike swarm]] (northern Ontario, Canada)

'''Sills'''
*[[Winagami sill complex]] (northwestern Alberta, Canada)

==See also==
*[[Igneous rock]]
*[[Geologic province]]
*[[Mantle plume]]s
*[[Hotspot (geology)|Hotspots]]
*[[Oceanic plateau]]
*[[Supervolcano]]
*[[Volcanic margins]]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

* [[Don L. Anderson|Anderson, DL]], 2005, Large igneous provinces, delammination, and fertile mantle: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 271-275. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* Baragar WRA, R.E. Ernst, L. Hulbert, T. Peterson, Longitudinal petrochemical variation in the Mackenzie dyke swarm, northwestern Canadian Shield. J. Petrol. 37: 317-359, 1996.
* Campbell, IH, 2005, Large igneous provinces and the plume hypothesis: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 265-269. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* Coffin, M.F., Eldholm, O., 1992. Volcanism and continental break-up: a global compilation of large igneous provinces. In: Storey, B.C., Alabaster, T., Pankhurst, R.J. (Eds.), Magmatism and the Causes of Continental Breakup. Special Publication. Geological Society of London, London, pp. 17-30.
* Coffin, M and Eldholm, O, 1994, Large igneous provinces: crustal structure, dimensions, and external consequences. Reviews in Geophysics, vol. 32, 1-36.
* Cohen, B., Vasconcelos, P.M.D., Knesel, K. M., 2004 ''Tertiary magmatism in Southeast Queensland'' in, ''Dynamic Earth: Past, Present and Future'', pp. 256 - 256, Geological Society of Australia
* International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior. Large Igneous Provinces Commission. Large Igneous Provinces Record: http://largeigneousprovinces.org/record.html
* Jones, AP, 2005, Meteor impacts as triggers to large igneous provinces: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 277-281. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* Kerr, AC, 2005, Oceanic LIPS: Kiss of death: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 289-292. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* Marsh, JS, Hooper PR, Rehacek J, Duncan RA, Duncan AR, 1997. Stratigraphy and age of Karoo basalts of Lesotho and implications for correlations within the Karoo igneous province. In: Mahoney JJ and Coffin MF, editors, Large Igneous Provinces: continental, oceanic, and planetary flood volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 247-272.
* Peate DW, 1997. The Parana-Etendeka Province. In: Mahoney JJ and Coffin MF, editors, Large Igneous Provinces: continental, oceanic, and planetary flood volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 247-272.
* Ratajeski, K. (November 25, 2005). [http://serc.carleton.edu/research_education/cretaceous/superplume.html The Cretaceous Superplume]
* Ritsema, J., H.J. van Heijst, and J.H. Woodhouse, ''Complex shear wave velocity structure imaged beneath Africa and Iceland,'' Science, 286, 1925-1928, 1999.
* Saunders, AD, 2005, Large igneous provinces: origin and environmental consequences: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 259-263. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* Wignall, P, 2005, The link between large igneous provinces eruptions and mass extinctions: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 293-297. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* R.E. Ernst, I.H. Campbell, and K.L. Buchan, 2005, Frontiers in Large Igneous Province Research. Lithos Special Issue 79, edited by A. Kerr, R. England, and P. Wignall, p. 271-297.

==External links==
*[http://www.largeigneousprovinces.org Large Igneous Provinces Commission]

{{Large igneous provinces}}

[[Category:Petrology]]
[[Category:Volcanology]]
[[Category:Flood basalts]]
[[Category:Geological hazards]]
[[Category:Supervolcanoes]]
[[Category:Large igneous provinces| ]]

[[et:Suur magmaprovints]]
[[fr:Grande province ignée]]
[[he:משטח בזלת נרחב]]
[[nl:Large Igneous Province]]
[[ja:巨大火成岩岩石区]]
[[pl:Duża prowincja magmatyczna]]
[[fi:Laakiopurkaus]]

Magmatische Großprovinz

2010-01-27T06:10:59Z

Runningonbrains: awful grammar for the first sentence...and that's all I've read so far.

{{Nofootnotes|article|date=February 2008}}

'''Large [[Igneous rock|Igneous]] provinces''' (LIP) are extremely large accumulations of [[igneous]] rocks—either [[intrusive]], [[extrusive]], or both—which are found in the earth's crust. The term 'LIP' was originally proposed by Coffin and Eldholm (1992) to refer to a variety of [[mafic]] igneous provinces extending over areas greater than 100,000 square kilometers (slightly larger than the area of Portugal), erupted over extremely short [[geological time]] intervals of a few million years or less, that originated by processes not associated with 'normal' [[plate tectonics]] and seafloor spreading<ref>http://www.mantleplumes.org/LIPClass2.html</ref>.

The definition of 'LIP' has been expanded and refined, and is still a work in progress. 'LIP' is now frequently used to also describe voluminous areas of, not just mafic, but all types of igneous rocks. Sub-categorization of LIP's into Large Volcanic Provinces (LVP) and Large Plutonic Provinces (LPP), and including rocks produced by 'normal' plate tectonic processes, has been proposed.<ref>http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/sheth2007-esr.pdf</ref>.

[[Mantle plumes]], a recently apprehended and still poorly-understood and controversial geological process, are thought to be the source of many or all of the LIP's that are not associated with 'normal plate tectonics.'

Some LIP's are now intact, i.e. the basaltic [[Deccan Traps]] in India; others have been dismembered by plate tectonic motion, i.e. the basaltic [[Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]] (CAMP) parts of which are found in Brazil, the eastern United States and Canada, and northwestern Africa.

As originally defined LIPs include continental [[flood basalt]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, large [[dike swarm]]s (the eroded roots of a volcanic province), and [[passive margin|volcanic rifted margins]]. Most of these LIPs consist of basalt, but some contain large volumes of associated rhyolite (i.e. the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]] in the western United States; the rhyolite is typically very dry compared to island arc rhyolites, with much higher eruption temperatures (850°C to 1000°C) than normal rhyolites. Some new definitions of the term 'LIP' include large granitic provinces such as those found in the Andes Mountains of South America and in western North America.

When created, LIPs often have an areal extent of a few million km² and volumes on the order of 1 million km3. In most cases, the majority of a basaltic LIP's volume is emplaced in less than 1 million years. One of the conundra of such LIPs origins is to understand how enormous volumes of basaltic magma are formed and erupted over such short time scales, with effusion rates up to an order of magnitude greater than mid-ocean ridge basalts.

==Theories of formation==
Large igneous provinces are often linked to active [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] by linear chains of volcanic islands or volcanoes, leading to models that connect their origins to [[mantle plume]]s. In this hypothesis, mantle plumes consist of a bulbous head and a thin tail that feeds hot mantle into the head. When the rising plume head encounters the [[lithosphere]], it spreads out and melts catastrophically to form large volumes of basalt magma in 1-2 million years. Subsequent volcanism originates with the plume tail. The movement of lithosphere across the surface of the Earth in response to plate tectonics causes the plume tail volcanics to form linear island chains. The impact of the plume on the base of continental lithosphere may cause rifting and breakup of the continent, creating conjugate LIPs on opposite sides of an ocean basin (e.g., the Parana-Etendeka pair of South America-Africa).

Alternate theories include delamination of eclogitic lower crust, edge effects of thick lithosphere, and meteorite impact (see [[Mantle plume]]s for more complete discussion of alternate models).

==Relationship of LIP's to extinction events==
Eruptions or emplacements of LIP's appear to have, in some cases, occurred simultaneously with [[oceanic anoxic event]]s and [[extinction event]]s. The most important examples are the [[Deccan Traps]] ([[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event]]), the [[Karoo-Ferrar]] ([[Pliensbachian-Toarcian extinction]]), the [[Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]] ([[Triassic-Jurassic extinction event]]), and the [[Siberian traps]] ([[Permian-Triassic extinction event]]).

Several mechanism's are proposed to explain the association of LIP's with extinction events. The eruption of basaltic LIP's onto the earth's surface releases large volumes of sulfate gas, which forms sulfuric acid in the atmosphere; this absorbs heat and causes substantial cooling (e.g., the [[Laki (volcano)|Laki]] eruption in Iceland, 1783). Oceanic LIP's can reduce oxygen in seawater by either direct oxidation reactions with metals in hydrothermal fluids or by causing algal blooms that consume large amounts of oxygen (Kerr, 2005).

==Examples of LIPs==
These are well documented large igneous provinces in geological research.

'''Continental Flood basalts'''
*[[Ethiopian Highlands]]
*[[Columbia River Basalt Group]]
*[[Coppermine River basalts]] (Canadian Shield)
*[[Deccan Traps]] (India)
*[[Paraná and Etendeka traps]] (Brazil-Namibia)
*[[Brazilian Highlands]]
*[[Rio de la Plata Craton]] (Uruguay)
*[[Karoo-Ferrar]] (South Africa-Antarctica)
*[[Siberian Traps]] (Russia)
*[[Emeishan Traps]] (western China)

'''Oceanic Plateaux'''
*[[Wrangellia Terrane]] (Alaska and Canada)
*[[Caribbean large igneous province]] (Caribbean Sea)
*[[Kerguelen Plateau]] (Indian Ocean)
*[[Ontong Java Plateau]], [[Manihiki Plateau]] and [[Hikurangi Plateau]] (southwest Pacific Ocean)
*[[Jameson Land]]

'''Volcanic Rifted Margins'''
*[[High Arctic Large Igneous Province]] (includes the [[Ellesmere Island Volcanics]], [[Strand Fiord Formation]], [[Alpha Ridge]], [[Franz Josef Islands]] and [[Svalbard]].)
*[[North Atlantic Igneous Province]] (includes basalts in Greenland, Iceland, Ireland, Scotland, Faroes)
*[[Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]] (eastern United States and Canada, northern South America, northwest Africa)

'''Dike Swarms'''
*[[Mackenzie dike swarm]] (Canadian Shield)
*[[Long Range dikes]] (Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada)
*[[Mistassini dike swarm]] (western Quebec, Canada)
*[[Matachewan dike swarm]] (northern Ontario, Canada)

'''Sills'''
*[[Winagami sill complex]] (northwestern Alberta, Canada)

==See also==
*[[Igneous rock]]
*[[Geologic province]]
*[[Mantle plume]]s
*[[Hotspot (geology)|Hotspots]]
*[[Oceanic plateau]]
*[[Supervolcano]]
*[[Volcanic margins]]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

* [[Don L. Anderson|Anderson, DL]], 2005, Large igneous provinces, delammination, and fertile mantle: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 271-275. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* Baragar WRA, R.E. Ernst, L. Hulbert, T. Peterson, Longitudinal petrochemical variation in the Mackenzie dyke swarm, northwestern Canadian Shield. J. Petrol. 37: 317-359, 1996.
* Campbell, IH, 2005, Large igneous provinces and the plume hypothesis: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 265-269. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* Coffin, M.F., Eldholm, O., 1992. Volcanism and continental break-up: a global compilation of large igneous provinces. In: Storey, B.C., Alabaster, T., Pankhurst, R.J. (Eds.), Magmatism and the Causes of Continental Breakup. Special Publication. Geological Society of London, London, pp. 17-30.
* Coffin, M and Eldholm, O, 1994, Large igneous provinces: crustal structure, dimensions, and external consequences. Reviews in Geophysics, vol. 32, 1-36.
* Cohen, B., Vasconcelos, P.M.D., Knesel, K. M., 2004 ''Tertiary magmatism in Southeast Queensland'' in, ''Dynamic Earth: Past, Present and Future'', pp. 256 - 256, Geological Society of Australia
* International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior. Large Igneous Provinces Commission. Large Igneous Provinces Record: http://largeigneousprovinces.org/record.html
* Jones, AP, 2005, Meteor impacts as triggers to large igneous provinces: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 277-281. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* Kerr, AC, 2005, Oceanic LIPS: Kiss of death: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 289-292. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* Marsh, JS, Hooper PR, Rehacek J, Duncan RA, Duncan AR, 1997. Stratigraphy and age of Karoo basalts of Lesotho and implications for correlations within the Karoo igneous province. In: Mahoney JJ and Coffin MF, editors, Large Igneous Provinces: continental, oceanic, and planetary flood volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 247-272.
* Peate DW, 1997. The Parana-Etendeka Province. In: Mahoney JJ and Coffin MF, editors, Large Igneous Provinces: continental, oceanic, and planetary flood volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 247-272.
* Ratajeski, K. (November 25, 2005). [http://serc.carleton.edu/research_education/cretaceous/superplume.html The Cretaceous Superplume]
* Ritsema, J., H.J. van Heijst, and J.H. Woodhouse, ''Complex shear wave velocity structure imaged beneath Africa and Iceland,'' Science, 286, 1925-1928, 1999.
* Saunders, AD, 2005, Large igneous provinces: origin and environmental consequences: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 259-263. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* Wignall, P, 2005, The link between large igneous provinces eruptions and mass extinctions: Elements, vol. 1, December 2005, 293-297. http://www.elementsmagazine.org/
* R.E. Ernst, I.H. Campbell, and K.L. Buchan, 2005, Frontiers in Large Igneous Province Research. Lithos Special Issue 79, edited by A. Kerr, R. England, and P. Wignall, p. 271-297.

==External links==
*[http://www.largeigneousprovinces.org Large Igneous Provinces Commission]

{{Large igneous provinces}}

[[Category:Petrology]]
[[Category:Volcanology]]
[[Category:Flood basalts]]
[[Category:Geological hazards]]
[[Category:Supervolcanoes]]
[[Category:Large igneous provinces| ]]

[[et:Suur magmaprovints]]
[[fr:Grande province ignée]]
[[he:משטח בזלת נרחב]]
[[nl:Large Igneous Province]]
[[ja:巨大火成岩岩石区]]
[[pl:Duża prowincja magmatyczna]]
[[fi:Laakiopurkaus]]

Kriege der Drei Königreiche

2009-07-22T15:39:15Z

Runningonbrains: /* England */ rm test edit

{{otheruses|Three Kingdoms (disambiguation)}}
{{Campaignbox Wars of the Three Kingdoms}}
The '''Wars of the Three Kingdoms''' (sometimes known as the '''Wars of the Three Nations''') formed an intertwined series of conflicts that took place in England, Ireland, and Scotland between 1639 and 1651 after these three countries had come under the "[[Personal Rule]]" of the same monarch. The [[English Civil War]] has become the best-known of these conflicts. The wars were the outcome of tensions between king and subjects over religious and civil issues. Religious disputes centered on whether religion was to be dictated by the monarch or the choice of the subject, the subjects often feeling that they ought to have a direct relationship with God unmediated by any monarch or human intermediary. The related civil questions were to what extent the king's rule was constrained by parliaments — in particular his right to raise taxes and armed forces without consent. In addition, the wars also had an element of national conflict, as Ireland and Scotland rebelled against England's primacy within the Three Kingdoms. The victory of the [[English Parliament]] — ultimately under [[Oliver Cromwell]] — over the King, the Irish and the Scots helped to determine the future of Great Britain as a constitutional monarchy with [[political power]] centred on London. The Wars of the Three Kingdoms also paralleled a number of similar conflicts at the same time in Europe — such as the [[Fronde]] in France and the rebellions of the Netherlands and Portugal against Spanish rule. Some historians{{Who|date=March 2009}} have seen this period as one of '''General Crisis''' in Europe, characterised by the rebellion of conservative societies against centralising [[Political absolutism|absolutist]] monarchs.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

The Wars included the [[Bishops' Wars]] of 1639 and 1640, the [[Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms|Scottish Civil War]] of 1644–1645; the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641]], [[Confederate Ireland]], 1642–1649 and the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]] in 1649 (collectively the [[Irish Confederate Wars]]); and the [[First English Civil War|First]], [[Second English Civil War|Second]] and [[Third English Civil War|Third]] [[English Civil Wars]] of 1642–1646, 1648–1649 and 1650–1651.

The naming of these linked conflicts as the ''Wars of the Three Kingdoms'' represents a trend by {{As of|2007|alt=recent}} historians aiming to take a unified overview rather than treating some of the conflicts as mere background to the ''English Civil War''. Some, such as Gaunt, Plant and Gillon have labelled them the '''British Civil Wars''',<ref>British Civil Wars:
* Gaunt, Peter ''The British Wars 1637-1651'', Routledge (UK) , 1997, ISBN 0-415-12966-4
* Plant David, ''[http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/ British Civil Wars & Commonwealth website]''
</ref>
but this led to confusion, as the kingdoms did not become a single political entity until the [[Act of Union 1800]]. Moreover the wars involved the whole of Ireland, and the name ''Britain'' is now commonly used as an abbreviation of [[The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]], so ''British Civil Wars'' could wrongly be taken to exclude the involvement of what is now the [[Republic of Ireland]].{{Fact|date=June 2009}}

[[Image:Riot against Anglican prayer book 1637.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The start — riots set off by [[Jenny Geddes]].]]

== Background ==

The personal union of the three kingdoms under one monarch came about as a relatively recent development in contemporary 17th-century terms. Since 1541, monarchs of England had also styled their Irish territory as a [[Kingdom of Ireland|Kingdom]] (ruled with the assistance of a separate [[Parliament of Ireland|Irish Parliament]]), while Wales became more closely integrated into the [[Kingdom of England]] under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Scotland, the third separate kingdom, came under the same ruler as England and Ireland when King [[James VI of Scotland]] also became King James I of England in 1603. Ruling over these three diverse kingdoms proved difficult for James and his successor [[Charles I of England]], particularly when they tried to impose religious uniformity on the three kingdoms.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

Different religious conditions pertained in each of these jurisdictions. With the [[English Reformation]], [[King Henry VIII]] made himself head of the [[Protestant]] [[Church of England]] and outlawed [[Roman Catholicism]] in England and Wales. In the course of the 16th century Protestantism became intimately associated with [[national identity]] in England: English folk in general saw Catholicism as the national enemy, especially as embodied in France and Spain. However, Catholicism remained the religion of most people in Ireland and was for many a symbol of native resistance to the [[Tudor re-conquest of Ireland]] in the 16th century. In the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] the [[Protestant Reformation]] was a popular movement led by [[John Knox]]. The Scottish Parliament legislated for a National Presbyterian church, the [[Presbyterian]] [[Church of Scotland]] or "[[Kirk]]", and the Catholic [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]] was forced to abdicate in favour of her son [[James VI of Scotland]]. He grew up under a regency disputed between Catholic and Protestant factions, then took power and aspired to be a "universal King" favouring the English [[Episcopal polity|Episcopalian]] system of bishops appointed by the king. In 1584, he introduced bishops, but met vigorous opposition and had to concede that the [[General Assembly of the Church of Scotland|General Assembly]] running the church should continue to do so. [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] reacted against the formal liturgy of ''the Book of Common Order'' moving increasingly to extempore prayer, though this was opposed by [[Scottish Episcopal Church|an Episcopalian faction]].{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

=== Religious confrontation in Scotland ===
{{See also|Bishops' Wars}}

James VI remained Protestant, taking care to maintain his hopes of succession to the English throne. He duly also became [[James I of England]] in 1603 and moved to London. His diplomatic and political skills now concentrated fully in dealing with the English Court and [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] at the same time as running Scotland by writing to the [[Privy Council of Scotland]] and controlling the [[Parliament of Scotland]] through the [[Lords of the Articles]]. He stopped the Scottish General Assembly from meeting, then increased the number of Scottish bishops, and in 1618, held a General Assembly and pushed through ''Five Articles'' of Episcopalian practices which were widely boycotted. In 1625, he was succeeded by his son [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] who was less skilful or restrained and was crowned in [[St Giles Cathedral]], [[Edinburgh]], in 1633 with full [[Anglican]] rites. Opposition to his attempts to enforce Anglican practices reached a flashpoint when he introduced a [[Book of Common Prayer]]. Charles' confrontation with the Scots came to a head in 1639, when Charles tried and failed to coerce Scotland by military means. In some respects, this revolt also represented Scottish resentment at being sidelined within the Stuart monarchies since James I's accession to the throne of England.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

=== England ===
:''See also the [[English Civil War]] ([[English Civil War#Background|Background]]).''
While the Wars of the Three Kingdoms pre-figured many of the changes that would shape modern Britain, in the short term they resolved little. The English Commonwealth did achieve a compromise (though a relatively unstable one) between a monarchy and a republic. In practice, Oliver Cromwell exercised political power because of his control over the Parliament's military forces, but his legal position remained unclear, even when he became Lord Protector. None of the several proposed constitutions ever came into effect. Thus the Commonwealth and the Protectorate established by the victorious Parliamentarians left little behind it in the way of new forms of government.{{Fact|date=July 2009}}

Two important legacies remain from this period:

1. after the execution of King Charles I for high treason, no future British monarch could expect that his subjects would tolerate perceived despotism;{{Fact|date=July 2009}}

2. the excesses of New Model Army, particularly that of the Rule of the Major-Generals, left an abiding mistrust of military rule in England.{{Fact|date=July 2009}}

English Protestants experienced religious freedom during the Interregnum, but not English Roman Catholics. The new authorities abolished the Church of England and the House of Lords. Cromwell dismissed the Rump Parliament and failed to create an acceptable alternative. Nor did Cromwell and his supporters move in the direction of a popular democracy, as the more radical fringes of the Parliamentarians (such as the Levellers) wanted.{{Fact|date=July 2009}}

The New Model Army occupied Ireland and Scotland during the Interregnum. In Ireland, the new government confiscated almost all lands belonging to Irish Catholics as punishment for the rebellion of 1641; harsh Penal Laws also restricted this community. Thousands of Parliamentarian soldiers settled in Ireland on confiscated lands. The Commonwealth abolished the Parliaments of Ireland and Scotland. In theory, these countries had representation in the English Parliament, but since this body never received real powers, such representation remained ineffective. When Cromwell died in 1658 the Commonwealth fell apart without major violence, and Charles II returned as King of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1660.{{Fact|date=July 2009}}

Under the English Restoration, the political system returned to the constitutional position of before the wars. The new régime executed or imprisoned for life those responsible for the regicide of Charles I. Neo-Royalists dug up Cromwell's corpse and gave it a posthumous execution. Religious and political radicals held responsible for the wars suffered harsh repression. Scotland and Ireland regained their Parliaments, some Irish retrieved confiscated lands and the New Model Army disbanded. However, the issues that had caused the wars — religion, the power of Parliament and the relationship between the three kingdoms — remained unresolved, only postponed to re-emerge as matters fought over again in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Only after this point did the features of modern Britain seen in the Civil Wars emerge permanently: a Protestant constitutional monarchy with England dominant and a strong standing army.{{fact}}

Charles shared his father's belief in the [[Divine Right of Kings]], and his assertion of this led to a serious breach between the Crown and the English Parliament. While the Church of England remained dominant, a powerful [[Puritan]] minority, represented by around one third of the members of Parliament, had much in common with the Presbyterian Scots.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

The English Parliament also had repeated disputes with the King over such subjects as taxation, military expenditure and the role of parliament in government. While James I had held the same opinions as his son with regard to [[Royal Prerogative|royal prerogatives]], he had enough charisma to persuade the Parliament to accept his policies. Charles did not have this skill in human management and so, when faced with a crisis in 1639–42, he failed to prevent his Kingdoms from sliding into civil war. When Charles approached the Parliament to pay for a campaign against the Scots, they refused, declared themselves to be permanently in session and put forward a long list of civil and religious grievances that Charles would have to remedy before they approved any new legislation.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

=== Ireland ===

Meanwhile, in the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] (proclaimed such in 1541 but only fully conquered for the Crown in 1603), tensions had also begun to mount. Charles I's Lord Deputy there, [[Thomas Wentworth]], had antagonised the native Irish Catholics by repeated initiatives to confiscate their lands and grant them to English colonists. He had also angered [[Roman Catholics]] by enforcing new taxes but denying them full rights as subjects. This situation became explosive in 1639 when Wentworth offered the Irish Catholics the reforms they had desired in return for them raising and paying for an Irish army to put down the Scottish rebellion. Although plans called for an army with Protestant officers, the idea of an Irish Catholic army enforcing what many saw as tyrannical government horrified both the Scottish and the English Parliaments, who in response threatened to invade Ireland.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

== War breaks out ==

{{See also|Bishops' War|Irish Rebellion of 1641|English Civil War|Irish Confederate Wars|Scottish Civil War}}

Modern historians have emphasised the lack of the inevitability of the Civil Wars, pointing out that all sides resorted to violence in a situation marked by mutual distrust and paranoia. Charles' initial failure to bring the [[Bishops' Wars]] to a quick end also made other discontented groups feel that force could serve to get what they wanted.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

Alienated by English/Protestant domination and frightened by the rhetoric of the English and Scottish Parliaments, a small group of Irish conspirators launched the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641]], ostensibly in support of the "King's Rights". The rising featured widespread assaults on the Protestant communities in Ireland, sometimes culminating in massacres. Rumours spread in England and Scotland that the killings had the King's sanction and that this foreshadowed their own fate if the Kings' Irish troops landed in Britain. As a result, the English Parliament refused to pay for a royal army to put down the rebellion in Ireland and instead raised their own armed forces. The King did likewise, rallying those [[Cavalier|Royalists]] (some of them members of Parliament) who believed that loyalty to the Legitimate King outweighed other important political principles.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

The [[English Civil War]] broke out in 1642. The Scottish [[Covenanters]], as the Presbyterians called themselves, sided with the English Parliament, joined the war in 1643, and played a major role in the English Parliamentary victory. The King's forces found themselves ground down by the efficiency of Parliament's [[New Model Army]] — backed by the financial muscle of the [[City of London]]. In 1646, Charles I surrendered. After he failed to compromise with Parliament, the Parliamentary party had him detained and then executed him in 1649. In Ireland, the rebel Irish Catholics formed their own government — [[Confederate Ireland]] — with the intention of helping the Royalists in return for religious toleration and political autonomy. Troops from England and Scotland fought in Ireland, and Irish Confederate troops mounted an expedition to Scotland in 1644, sparking the [[Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms|Scottish Civil War]]. In Scotland, the Royalists had a series of victories in 1644-45, but were crushed with the end of the first English Civil War and the return of the main Covenanter armies to Scotland.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

After the end of the [[Second English Civil War]] in January 1649 the victorious Parliamentary forces, now commanded by [[Oliver Cromwell]], invaded Ireland and crushed the Royalist-Confederate alliance there in the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]] in 1649. The English Parliament's alliance with the Scottish Covenanters had broken down, and the Scots crowned [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] as king, sparking renewed [[Third English Civil War|hostilities with England]]. Cromwell embarked on a conquest of Scotland in 1650-51 and on 3 September 1651 defeated Charles II at the [[Battle of Worcester]] after the latter had led a Scottish army south in the hope that a Royalist rising in England would allow him to regain the English throne.

At the end of the wars, the Three Kingdoms emerged as a [[unitary state]] called the [[English Commonwealth]], ostensibly a [[republic]], but having many characteristics of a [[Rule of the Major-Generals|military dictatorship]].

== Main events ==

* 1637: Charles I attempts to impose [[Anglican]] services on the [[Presbyterian]] [[Church of Scotland]], [[Jenny Geddes]] starts riots
* 1638: Signing of the [[National Covenant]] in Scotland
* 1639: Conflict between [[Covenanter]]s and Royalists in Scotland, beginning with the Covenanters seizing the city of Aberdeen in February
* 1639: [[Bishops' Wars|The Bishops' War]]: Charles brings his troops into Scotland but decides not to attack but to negotiate instead. Signing of the [[Treaty of Berwick (1639)|Treaty of Berwick]] (18 June 1639)
* 1640: Charles recalls the English Parliament in order to obtain money to finance his military struggle with Scotland. Parliament agrees to fund Charles, but only on condition he answer their grievances relating to his 11-year "personal rule" or "tyranny". Charles refuses and dissolves Parliament after a mere 3 weeks, hence the name of the "[[Short Parliament]]"
* 1640: [[Bishops' Wars#Second Bishops' War (1640)|The Second Bishops' War]] or "Second War of the Covenant" breaks out in August. Responding to Charles' attempt to raise an army against them, an army of Covenanters crosses the Tweed and overruns an English force at the [[Battle of Newburn]] (28 August 1640), marching on the city of Newcastle.
* 1640: The [[Treaty of Ripon]] (26 October 1640) leaves Newcastle in the hands of the Scots, who also receive a large tribute from Charles. Charles has no option but to recall Parliament in order to raise the necessary funds. Parliament convenes in November and remains convened, in one form or another, until 1660, thus earning the name of the "[[Long Parliament]]".
* 1641: 23 October, [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|Irish Rebellion]] breaks out in [[Ulster]], with violence marked by the massacre of Protestants by Catholics. The rebels win a battle against Crown forces at [[battle of Julianstown|Julianstown Bridge]] near [[Siege of Drogheda|Drogheda]] in December.<ref>November 1641 according to http://www.julianstown.com/images/plaque_bridge.jpg, retrieved 2008-03-02 </ref>
* 1641: 1 December, Parliament issues the [[Grand Remonstrance]] to Charles, which some{{Who|date=March 2009}} see as a direct challenge to the King's authority. Charles refuses to address the grievances it raises.
* 1642: The Covenanters send a Protestant Scots army to [[Ulster]] to defend the Protestant [[Plantation (settlement or colony)|plantation]]s
[[Image:Charlesx3.JPG|thumb|right|250px|''"Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles"'' by [[Anthony van Dyck]] ]]
* 1642: Charles enters the House of Commons to arrest five "traitors". The news of his "assault" on Parliament causes uproar in London. Charles leaves the city in fear for his life. In his absence Parliament passes the Militia Bill which, in effect, seizes control of the London arsenal and places the [[trainband]]s and militia under its authority. Charles retaliates by appointing individuals to take control of other regional militias in the King's name. From this moment both sides actively raise troops and gather munitions.
* 1642-1646: [[English Civil War|The First English Civil War]]
* 1642: An alliance of Irish Catholics; Gaelic Irish and the [[Old English (Ireland)|Old English]] forms the [[Confederate Ireland|Catholic Confederation]], based at [[Kilkenny]], meeting first in March 1642.
* 1642: 23 October: the [[Battle of Edgehill]], the inconclusive first battle in the [[English Civil War]]
* 1643: Ceasefire between the English Royalists and Irish Confederates declared
* 1643: 25 September: an alliance between the English Parliament and the Scottish Covenanters — the [[Solemn League and Covenant]] — declared. Scottish troops march into England to support the English Parliamentarians
* 1644: 2 July: the [[Battle of Marston Moor]], a major defeat of the royalists by the Parliamentarians and Scots
* 1644: [[Scottish Civil War]] started by the Scottish Royalist [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|Montrose]], with the aid of Irish Confederate troops under [[Alasdair MacColla]], including the Scots-Irish forces serving under [[Manus O'Cahan's Regiment (English Civil War)|Manus O'Cahan]]
* 1645: the English Parliament forms the [[New Model Army]]
* 1645: 14 June: the [[Battle of Naseby]]: the New Model Army crushes the Royalist army, effectively ending the First English Civil War
* 1645: 15 August, [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|Montrose]] wins Royalist control of Scotland at the [[Battle of Kilsyth]]; subsequently Covenanter armies returned from England defeat him at the [[Battle of Philiphaugh]] (13 September 1645)
* 1646: May: Charles I surrenders to Scots Covenanters, who hand him over to the English Parliament
* 1646: June: in the [[battle of Benburb]], an Irish Confederate army under [[Owen Roe O'Neill]] defeats the Scottish [[Covenanter]] army in Ulster
* 1647: in the [[Battle of Dungans Hill]] (August) and the [[Battle of Knocknanauss]] (November) English Parliamentarian forces smash the Irish Confederate armies of Leinster and Munster respectively
* 1648-1649: [[English Civil War#The Second English Civil War|The Second English Civil War]]
* 1648-1649: Ormonde Peace — formal alliance between Irish Confederates and English Royalists declared
* 1648: the [[Battle of Preston (1648)|Battle of Preston]] (August): Scottish Covenanter ([[Engagers]] faction) army invades England to restore Charles I; defeated by the Parliamentarians
* 1649: 30 January: Execution of Charles I by the English Parliament
* 1649: 2 August: in the [[battle of Rathmines]], Parliamentarians rout an Irish-Royalist force outside [[Dublin]]; 15 August, [[New Model Army]] lands in Ireland — begins [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]].
* 1649: [[September 11]]: Cromwell takes [[Siege of Drogheda|Drogheda]]; followed by [[Sack of Wexford|Wexford]] on 11 October
* 1650: Montrose tries to launch a Royalist uprising in Scotland; the Covenanters defeat, arrest and execute him
* 1650: Charles II takes the oath in support of the [[Solemn League and Covenant]] and repudiates his alliance with the Irish Confederates. (The Scots subsequently crown him at [[Scone, Scotland|Scone]] on New Year's Day, 1651.)
* 1650: [[Third English Civil War]] breaks out between the Scots and the English Parliament. Cromwell invades Scotland and smashes the Scottish army at the [[Battle of Dunbar (1650)|Battle of Dunbar]] (3 September 1650)
* 1651: [[Henry Ireton]] [[siege of Limerick (1650-51)|besieges Limerick]]
* 1651: June: Capture of the [[Isles of Scilly]] by Admiral [[Robert Blake (admiral)|Robert Blake]]
* 1651: 3 September: the defeat of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] and the Scots at [[Battle of Worcester|Worcester]] ends the Third Civil War. Charles II goes into exile in France
* 1652: Surrender of the last Irish stronghold in [[Galway]] — guerrilla warfare continues
* 1653: Surrender of the last organised Irish troops in [[Cavan]].
* 1654: The end of the [[Royalist rising of 1651 to 1654]] in Scotland
* 1655: March: [[Penruddock uprising]] in southwest England
* 1659: August: [[George Booth, 1st Baron Delamer|Booth's]] Uprising along Welsh border
* 1660: [[English Restoration]]
* 1661: [[Thomas Venner|Venner's]] Uprising in London

== Aftermath ==

While the Wars of the Three Kingdoms pre-figured many of the changes that would shape modern Britain, in the short term they resolved little. The [[English Commonwealth]] did achieve a compromise (though a relatively unstable one) between a monarchy and a republic. In practice, Oliver Cromwell exercised political power because of his control over the Parliament's military forces, but his legal position remained unclear, even when he became [[Lord Protector]]. None of the several proposed constitutions ever came into effect. Thus the Commonwealth and [[the Protectorate]] established by the victorious Parliamentarians left little behind it in the way of new forms of government.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

Two important legacies remain from this period:
# after the execution of King Charles I for [[high treason]], no future British monarch could expect that his subjects would tolerate perceived despotism;{{Fact|date=March 2008}}
# the excesses of New Model Army, particularly that of the [[Rule of the Major-Generals]], left an abiding mistrust of military rule in England.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

English Protestants experienced religious freedom during the [[English Interregnum|Interregnum]], but not English Roman Catholics. The new authorities abolished the [[Church of England]] and the [[House of Lords]]. Cromwell dismissed the [[Rump Parliament]] and failed to create an acceptable alternative. Nor did Cromwell and his supporters move in the direction of a popular democracy, as the more radical fringes of the Parliamentarians (such as the [[Levellers]]) wanted.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

The New Model Army occupied Ireland and Scotland during the Interregnum. In Ireland, the new government confiscated almost all lands belonging to Irish Catholics as punishment for the rebellion of 1641; harsh [[Penal Laws]] also restricted this community. Thousands of Parliamentarian soldiers settled in Ireland on confiscated lands. The Commonwealth abolished the Parliaments of Ireland and Scotland. In theory, these countries had representation in the English Parliament, but since this body never received real powers, such representation remained ineffective. When Cromwell died in 1658 the Commonwealth fell apart without major violence, and Charles II returned as King of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1660.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

Under the [[English Restoration]], the political system returned to the constitutional position of before the wars. The new régime executed or imprisoned for life those responsible for the [[regicide]] of Charles I. Neo-Royalists dug up Cromwell's corpse and gave it a [[posthumous execution]]. Religious and political radicals held responsible for the wars suffered harsh repression. Scotland and Ireland regained their Parliaments, some Irish retrieved confiscated lands and the New Model Army disbanded. However, the issues that had caused the wars — religion, the power of Parliament and the relationship between the three kingdoms — remained unresolved, only postponed to re-emerge as matters fought over again in the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688. Only after this point did the features of modern Britain seen in the Civil Wars emerge permanently: a Protestant constitutional monarchy with England dominant and a strong standing army.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

== See also ==

* [[British military history]]
* [[Catholicism and the wars of religion]]
* [[Thirty Years' War]]

==References and notes ==
{{Refimprove|date=March 2008}}
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
==== British Isles ====

* {{cite book|last=Bennett|first=Martyn|title=The Civil Wars in Britain and Ireland, 1638-1651|year=1997|publisher=Blackwell|location=Oxford|isbn=0-631-19154-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Bennett|first=Martyn|title=The Civil Wars Experienced: Britain and Ireland, 1638-1661|year=2000|publisher=Routledge|location=Oxford|isbn=0-415-15901-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Carlton|first=Charles|title=Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars, 1638-1651|year=1992|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0-415-03282-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Kenyon|first=John|coauthors=and Jane Ohlmeyer (eds.)|title=The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1638-1660|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-866222-X}}
* {{cite book|last=Royle|first=Trevor|title=The Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, 1638-1660|year=2004|publisher=Little, Brown|location=London|isbn=0-316-86125-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Russell|first=Conrad|authorlink=Conrad Russell, 5th Earl Russell|title=The Fall of the British Monarchies, 1637-1642|year=1991|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-822754-X}}
* {{cite book|last=Stevenson|first=David|title=Scottish Covenanters and Irish Confederates: Scottish-Irish Relations in the Mid-Seventeenth Century|year=1981|publisher=Ulster Historical Foundation|location=Belfast|isbn=0-901905-24-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Young|first=John R. (ed.)|title=Celtic Dimensions of the British Civil Wars|year=1997|publisher=John Donald|location=Edinburgh|isbn=0-85976-452-4}}

==== England ====

* {{cite book|last=Aylmer|first=G. E.|authorlink = Gerald Aylmer|title=Rebellion or Revolution?: England, 1640-1660|year=1986|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-219179-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Hill|first=Christopher|authorlink=Christopher Hill (historian)|title=The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution|year=1972|publisher=Temple Smith|location=London|isbn=0-85117-025-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Morrill|first=John (ed.)|authorlink=John Morrill (historian)|title=The Impact of the English Civil War|year=1991|publisher=Collins & Brown|location=London|isbn=1-85585-042-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Woolrych|first=Austin|authorlink = Austin Herbert Woolrych|title=Battles of the English Civil War|year=2000|origyear=1961|publisher=Phoenix Press|location=London|isbn=1-84212-175-8}}
* J.C. Beckett, 'The Making of Modern Ireland 1603-1923'

==== Ireland ====
* {{cite book|last=Lenihan|first=Pádraig|title=Confederate Catholics at War, 1641-1649|year=2000|publisher=Cork University Press|location=Cork|isbn=1-85918-244-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Ó hAnnracháin|first=Tadhg|title=Catholic Reformation in Ireland: The Mission of Rinuccini, 1645-1649|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-820891-X}}
* {{cite book|last=Ó Siochrú|first=Micheál|title=Confederate Ireland, 1642-1649: A Constitutional and Political Analysis|year=1999|publisher=Four Courts Press|location=Dublin|isbn=1-85182-400-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Ó Siochrú|first=Micheál (ed.)|title=Kingdoms in Crisis: Ireland in the 1640s|year=2001|publisher=Four Courts Press|location=Dublin|isbn=1-85182-535-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Perceval-Maxwell|first=M.|title=The Outbreak of the Irish Rebellion of 1641|year=1994|publisher=Gill & Macmillan|location=Dublin|isbn=0-7171-2173-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Wheeler|first=James Scott|title=Cromwell in Ireland|year=1999|publisher=Gill & Macmillan|location=Dublin|isbn=0-7171-2884-9}}

==== Scotland ====

* {{cite book|last=Stevenson|first=David|title=The Scottish Revolution, 1637-1644: The Triumph of the Covenanters|year=1973|publisher=David & Charles|location=Newton Abbot|isbn=0-7153-6302-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Stevenson|first=David|title=Alasdair MacColla and the Highland Problem in the Seventeenth Century|year=1980|publisher=John Donald|location=Edinburgh|isbn=0-85976-055-3}}

=== Others ===
* [http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/index.htm www.british-civil-wars.co.uk] Extensive site on the Wars of the Three Kingdoms
* [http://www.historybookshop.com/articles/commentary/wars-of-three-kingdoms-chronology-ht.asp Chronology of The Wars of the Three Kingdoms]
* [http://www.historybookshop.com/articles/commentary/civil-wars-of-three-kingdoms-ht.asp The Wars of the Three Kingdoms] Article by Jane Ohlmeyer arguing that the English Civil War was just one of an interlocking set of conflicts that encompassed the British Isles in the mid-17th century
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1373/is_1998_Nov/ai_54879255 The English Context of the British Civil Wars] (Link inaccessible as of 2008-03-02.) John Adamson argues that historians have exaggerated the importance of the Celtic countries in the events of the 1640s
* [http://www.templum.freeserve.co.uk/history/civilwars/scottish_civil_war.htm The first Scottish Civil War]
* [http://www.usna.edu/EnglishDept/ilv/reb1641.htm The Rebellion of 1641 and the Cromwellian Occupation of Ireland]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/ireland_kingdoms_01.shtml Ireland and the War of the Three Kingdoms]
* [http://www.open2.net/civilwar/index.html Civil War]

[[Category:Wars of the Three Kingdoms| ]]
[[Category:Wars involving Ireland]]
[[Category:Wars involving Scotland]]
[[Category:Wars involving England]]
[[Category:17th century in Scotland]]

[[da:Krigen i de tre kongeriger]]
[[es:Guerra de los tres reinos]]
[[fr:Guerres des Trois Royaumes‎]]
[[it:Guerre dei tre regni]]
[[sv:Trekungakrigen]]

Benutzer:Merkið/Kriege der drei Königreiche

2009-07-22T15:39:15Z

Runningonbrains: /* England */ rm test edit

Westchester-County-Tornado 2006

2009-07-14T12:54:20Z

Runningonbrains: Revert to revision 301924211 dated 2009-07-13 20:30:39 by Piledhigheranddeeper using popups

{{Infobox tornado single
| name = 2006 Westchester County tornado
| image location = 2006 Westchester Tornado California Closests.jpg
| image name =The California Closets Warehouse that was severely damaged by the tornado
| date = July 12, 2006
| time = 3:30 p.m. – 4:03 p.m. [[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]]
| fujitascale = F2
| total damages (USD) = $12.1 million (2006 [[United States Dollar|USD]]) $12.9 million (2008 USD)
| total fatalities = None (6 injuries)
| area affected = [[Rockland County, New York|Rockland]] and [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]], [[New York]]; and [[Fairfield County, Connecticut|Fairfield]], [[Connecticut]]
}}

The '''2006 Westchester County tornado''' was the strongest and largest [[tornado]] in the history of [[Westchester County, New York]].<ref name="THPWest"/> It touched down there on July 12, 2006 and traveled {{convert|13|mi|km}} into southwestern [[Connecticut]] during a 33-minute span through two states. The tornado touched down at 3:30 p.m. [[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]] (19:30 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]) on the shore of the [[Hudson River]] before becoming a [[waterspout]] and traveling {{convert|3|mi|km|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} across the river. Coming ashore, the tornado entered [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]] and struck the town of [[Sleepy Hollow, New York|Sleepy Hollow]] at [[Fujita_scale#Parameters|F1]] intensity. After passing through the town, it intensified into an F2 tornado and grew to almost a quarter of a mile (400 m) in diameter.<ref name="MSSum"/> The tornado continued through the county, damaging numerous structures, until it crossed into Connecticut at 4:01 p.m. EDT (20:01 UTC). Not long after entering the state, it dissipated in the town of [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]] at 4:03 p.m. EDT (20:03 UTC).<ref name="MSSum"/> When the tornado entered Westchester County, it was the eighth known tornado to either touch down or enter the county since 1950.<ref name="THPWest">{{cite web| author=[[Storm Prediction Center]]| year=2007| title=Tornado History Project: Westchester, New York Tornadoes, 1950-2007| publisher=Joshua Lietz (TornadoHistoryProject.com)| accessdate=2008-12-06|url=http://tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado.php?yr=%25&mo=%25&day=%25&st=New+York&fu=%25&co=Westchester&l=auto&submit=Table&ddat=on&dsta=on&dfuj=on&dfat=on&dinj=on&dcou=on&format=basic&p=1&s=1}}</ref>

Two barns and a warehouse were destroyed, and a large stained-glass window was shattered. Numerous homes and businesses were damaged and thousands of trees were uprooted. There were no fatalities and only six minor injuries were associated with the storm. The cost of damages was estimated at $12.1 million (2006 [[United States Dollar|USD]]; $12.9 million 2008 USD).

==Meteorological synopsis==
[[File:Radar image of westchester 2006 supercell.png|thumb|left|[[Weather radar]] image of the supercell thunderstorm that spawned the tornado at 3:45 pm EDT]]
On July 12 a [[supercell]] [[thunderstorm]] developed over eastern [[New Jersey]] in association with a [[Low pressure area|surface low-pressure area]] in southwestern [[Ontario]]. Daytime heating in the [[Tri-State Region]] led to moderate instability, a key factor in the development of [[Atmospheric convection|showers and thunderstorms]]. With conditions favorable for the development of a [[tornado]], the [[Storm Prediction Center]] issued a [[tornado watch]] at 12:40 p.m. [[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]] (16:40 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]).<ref name="Tornadowatch">{{cite web| author=Thompson| date=2006-07-12| title=Severe Weather Watch #593 (Tornado Watch)| publisher=[[Storm Prediction Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www.spc.noaa.gov/products/watch/2006/ww0593.html}}</ref> A strong thunderstorm developed around 2:00 p.m. EDT (18:00 UTC) which produced a [[funnel cloud]] near [[Carlstadt, New Jersey|Carlstadt]] at around 2:45 p.m. EDT (18:45 UTC), although no damage was associated with the funnel.<ref name="NJFunnel">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #625643 (Funnel Cloud)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~625643}}</ref> That same storm intensified and developed into a supercell as it crossed into [[New York]].<ref name="Tornado1"/> About 15 minutes later, a [[tornado warning]] was issued for southern Rockland and [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]] counties which would remain in effect until 4:15 p.m. EDT (21:15 UTC).<ref name="WCBS"/> At around 3:30 p.m. EDT (19:30 UTC), an [[Fujita_scale#Parameters|F1]] tornado touched down near [[Grand View-on-Hudson, New York|Grand View-on-Hudson]] along the [[Hudson River]] in [[Rockland County, New York|Rockland County]]. The 100 yard (91 m) wide tornado touched down on a dock before becoming a [[waterspout]] as it took a {{convert|3|mi|km|abbr=on}} path across the river. The tornado passed near the [[Tappan Zee Bridge]] before crossing into [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]].<ref name="Tornado1">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #626587 (Tornado)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~626587}}</ref> Upon entering Westchester, it was the eighth tornado ever recorded in the county.<ref name="THPWest"/>

The tornado hit the town of [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]], around 3:37 p.m. EDT (19:37 UTC); two minutes later, a {{convert|58|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} wind gust was reported along the periphery of the tornado. As the tornado neared [[New York State Route 9A]], it intensified to F2 status, generating winds up to {{convert|157|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}, and struck the California Closet Warehouse. At the time, the tornado was estimated to be 300 yd (274 m) wide<ref name="Tornado2"/> and was the strongest tornado ever recorded in Westchester County.<ref name="USAT">{{cite news| author=Jim Fitzgerald| date=2006-07-14| title=Weather Service confirms F-2 tornado roared through N.Y., Conn. on Wednesday| work=[[USA Today]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www.usatoday.com/weather/storms/2006-07-14-ny-tornado-confirmed_x.htm}}</ref> Shortly after, it weakened back to F1 intensity. Minor damage was reported through the [[Kensico Reservoir]] in [[Valhalla, New York|Valhalla]] as the tornado neared the New York–[[Connecticut]] border. The track length through Westchester County was measured at around {{convert|8|mi|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Tornado2">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #626588 (Tornado)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~626588}}</ref> After crossing the state border into [[Fairfield County, Connecticut]], it weakened further before lifting at 4:03 p.m  EDT (20:03 UTC) in [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]] after traveling {{convert|2|mi|km|abbr=on}} in Connecticut. Another brief touchdown may have occurred shortly after near the [[Merritt Parkway]].<ref name="Tornado3">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #606978 (Tornado)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~606978}}</ref> Overall, the tornado tracked across a total of {{convert|13|mi|km|abbr=on}} through two states over a period over 33 minutes.<ref name="MSSum">{{cite web| date=2006-7-14| title=Summary of Tornado| publisher=[[National Weather Service]] in Upton, New York| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www.erh.noaa.gov/okx/pns/torjul06.txt}}</ref>

==Impact==
[[Image:DCP 7760.JPG|thumb|right|Tornado damage near a [[forest]]ed area]]
The tornado took a path through [[Rockland County, New York|Rockland]], [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]], and [[Fairfield County, Connecticut|Fairfield]] counties, downing or uprooting thousands of trees and damaging several structures, including significant structural damage to the California Closets warehouse. Six minor injuries were also reported. In all, the tornado inflicted $12.1 million (2006 [[United States Dollar|USD]]; $12.9 million 2008 USD) in damage.<ref name="MSSum"/>

Minor damage was reported in Rockland County. One dock and one boat were damaged by the tornado.<ref name="MSSum"/> After crossing the [[Hudson River]], the tornado entered Westchester County, where the worst of the damage took place. It struck the town of [[Sleepy Hollow, New York|Sleepy Hollow]], damaging roofs and tearing the siding off numerous homes and businesses.<ref name="MSSum"/> A 10 foot (3 m) tall stained-glass window in the St. Teresa of Avila Church was shattered.<ref name="USAT"/> Afterwards, the town of [[Pocantico Hills, New York|Pocantico Hills]] was struck as the tornado intensified to F2 intensity. Several trees were uprooted and two barns were destroyed. The California Closet Warehouse suffered severe structural damage; two concrete walls were destroyed.<ref name="MSSum"/> An interior staircase, which employees used as a shelter, collapsed causing four injuries. Concrete blocks from the building were blown about, some of which struck cars in a nearby parking lot.<ref name="USAT"/> A nearby [[Comfort Inn]] had part of its roof torn off.<ref name="WESH">{{cite web| date=2006-7-13|author=Associated Press| title=Tornado Rips Through Suburban New York| publisher=[[Internet Broadcasting|Internet Broadcasting Systems, Inc]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.wesh.com/news/9510358/detail.html}}</ref> After a [[tornado warning]] was issued, a school near the warehouse was evacuated.<ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news| author=Lisa W. Foderaro| date=2006-07-13| title=Tornado in Westchester Tosses Around Trees and Damages Property| work=[[The New York Times]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/13/nyregion/13weather.html?pagewanted=print}}</ref>

[[File:Westchester Tornado damage1.JPG|thumb|left|An area where numerous trees were knocked down, the white tubes support [[sapling]]s being grown to re-populate the affected area.]]
As the tornado crossed [[New York State Route 9A]], it picked up a state trooper car and flipped it several times before it fell to the ground; the officer inside suffered only minor injuries.<ref name="USAT"/> Moving towards the east-northeast, the tornado struck the towns of [[Mount Pleasant, New York|Mount Pleasant]] and [[Hawthorne, New York|Hawthorne]], damaging numerous trees and causing minor structural damage.<ref name="MSSum"/> Damage along the [[Saw Mill River Parkway]] prompted officials to shut down a section of the highway near Mount Pleasant.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news| author= Rose Arce | date=2006-07-13| title=Tornado hits north of Manhattan, Winds damage store, close highway; no serious injuries reported| publisher=[[CNN|Cable News Network]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/WEATHER/07/12/ny.tornado/index.html
}}</ref> Trees fell on streets and railroad tracks, halting [[Metro-North Railroad]] service and creating major traffic delays.<ref name="NYTimes"/> After passing by the [[Kensico Reservoir]] in [[Valhalla, New York|Valhalla]], the tornado crossed into [[Connecticut]],<ref name="MSSum"/> where it knocked down numerous power lines, cutting power to about 10,000 residences in the county.<ref name="USAT"/> In all, six people sustained minor injuries and damages amounted to $10.1 million (2006 USD).<ref name="Tornado2"/>

The weakening tornado ended its duration in Fairfield County, Connecticut, in the town of [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]]. Thousands of trees were either uprooted or snapped along the tornado's {{convert|2|mi|km|abbr=on}} path through the state. Minor damage was inflicted upon several structures.<ref name="MSSum"/> The tornado left 1,700 residences in Greenwich without power and blocked six roads. Most of the damage was concentrated to the northwestern corner of the town.<ref name="NYTimes2">{{cite news| author=Avi Salzman and Anahad O'Connor| date=2006-07-16| title=The Week; Rare Tornado Snaps Trees and Power Lines| publisher=The New York Times| accessdate=2008-12-01|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F04E2D91F30F935A25754C0A9609C8B63}}</ref> Damages in the state totaled to $2 million (2006 USD).<ref name="Tornado3"/>

==Aftermath==
In the wake of the tornado, the mayor of Sleepy Hollow declared a village-wide state of emergency.<ref name="ABC7">{{cite news| author=Eyewitness News| date=2006-07-13| title=Weather Service confirms F2 tornado in area, Sleepy Hollow, Hawthorne hardest hit| publisher=[[ABC News]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://abclocal.go.com/wabc/story?section=weather&id=4363255}}</ref> Two hundred emergency personnel responded to the storm.<ref name="LoHUD2">{{cite news| author=Reka Bala and Glenn Blain| date=2006-07-13| title=Tornado slams Lower Hudson Valley| publisher=[[The Journal News]]| accessdate=2008-12-01|url=http://www.lohud.com/article/20060713/NEWS09/607130345}}</ref> [[Consolidated Edison]] (conEdison) crews were sent out to repair downed power lines and clear roads. By the next night, power was restored to all but 600 of the previous 10,000 residences without power in [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]].<ref name="USAT"/> Westchester County opened its Emergency Operations Center after the storm to quickly respond to the event.<ref name="WCBS">{{cite news| author=Associated Press| date=2006-07-13| title=Westchester County Storm: Let The Clean-Up Begin| publisher=[[WCBS-TV]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://wcbstv.com/topstories/Tornado.Tornado.Warning.2.236314.html}}</ref> Two days after the storm, many of the roads had been cleared and power was fully restored. A recreational path in [[Tarrytown, New York]], was not expected to be open for another two weeks due to numerous fallen trees.<ref name="LoHUD">{{cite web| date=2006-7-15|author=Candice Ferrette| title=Westchester tornado twists many lives| publisher=The Journal News| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.lohud.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060715/NEWS02/607150347}}</ref> [[Metro-North Railroad]] suspended trains on the Upper Harlem line until 5:00 p.m. EDT (21:00 UTC) for the removal of debris on the tracks. During the time the rails were shut down, southbound passengers were transported by bus.<ref name="NYTimes"/> All trains were back on schedule by 7:00 p.m. EDT (23:00 UTC).<ref name="LoHUD2"/>

==See also==
*[[1900 Westchester County tornado]]
*[[1904 Chappaqua tornado]]
*[[List of Connecticut tornadoes]]
*[[List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks]]
*[[Tornadoes_of_2006#July_11-12|Tornadoes of 2006]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://wcbstv.com/video/?id=89570@wcbs.dayport.com Doppler Radar image of the tornadic supercell nearing Tarrytown]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fLZLrZAB0M Video of the tornado damage in Westchester]
*[http://wcbstv.com/topstories/Tornado.Tornado.Warning.2.236314.html WCBS article and video of damage/press reports of the tornado]

{{featured article}}

[[Category:F2 tornadoes]]
[[Category:New York tornadoes]]
[[Category:Connecticut tornadoes]]
[[Category:Tornadoes of 2006]]
[[Category:2006 in the United States]]
[[Category:Greenwich, Connecticut]]
[[Category:Rockland County, New York]]
[[Category:Westchester County, New York]]

Westchester-County-Tornado 2006

2009-07-12T20:29:19Z

Runningonbrains: Reverted edits by 64.9.106.202 (talk) to last version by Willking1979

{{Infobox tornado single
| name = 2006 Westchester County tornado
| image location = 2006 Westchester Tornado California Closests.jpg
| image name =The California Closets Warehouse that was severely damaged by the tornado
| date = July 12, 2006
| time = 3:30 p.m. – 4:03 p.m. [[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]]
| fujitascale = F2
| total damages (USD) = $12.1 million (2006 [[United States Dollar|USD]]) $12.9 million (2008 USD)
| total fatalities = None (6 injuries)
| area affected = [[Rockland County, New York|Rockland]] and [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]], [[New York]]; and [[Fairfield County, Connecticut|Fairfield]], [[Connecticut]]
}}

The '''2006 Westchester County tornado''' was the strongest and largest [[tornado]] in the history of [[Westchester County, New York]].<ref name="THPWest"/> It touched down there on July 12, 2006 and traveled {{convert|13|mi|km}} into southwestern [[Connecticut]] during a 33-minute span through two states. The tornado touched down at 3:30 p.m. [[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]] (19:30 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]) on the shore of the [[Hudson River]] before becoming a [[waterspout]] and traveling {{convert|3|mi|km|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} across the river. Coming ashore, the tornado entered [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]] and struck the town of [[Sleepy Hollow, New York|Sleepy Hollow]] at [[Fujita_scale#Parameters|F1]] intensity. After passing through the town, it intensified into an F2 tornado and grew to almost a quarter of a mile (400 m) in diameter.<ref name="MSSum"/> The tornado continued through the county, damaging numerous structures, until it crossed into Connecticut at 4:01 p.m. EDT (20:01 UTC). Not long after entering the state, it dissipated in the town of [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]] at 4:03 p.m. EDT (20:03 UTC).<ref name="MSSum"/> When the tornado entered Westchester County, it was the eighth known tornado to either touch down or enter the county since 1950.<ref name="THPWest">{{cite web| author=[[Storm Prediction Center]]| year=2007| title=Tornado History Project: Westchester, New York Tornadoes, 1950-2007| publisher=Joshua Lietz (TornadoHistoryProject.com)| accessdate=2008-12-06|url=http://tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado.php?yr=%25&mo=%25&day=%25&st=New+York&fu=%25&co=Westchester&l=auto&submit=Table&ddat=on&dsta=on&dfuj=on&dfat=on&dinj=on&dcou=on&format=basic&p=1&s=1}}</ref>

Two barns and a warehouse were destroyed, and a large stained-glass window was shattered. Numerous homes and businesses were damaged and thousands of trees were uprooted. There were no fatalities and only six minor injuries were associated with the storm. The cost of damages was estimated at $12.1 million (2006 [[United States Dollar|USD]]; $12.9 million 2008 USD).

==Meteorological synopsis==
[[File:Radar image of westchester 2006 supercell.png|thumb|left|[[Weather radar]] image of the supercell thunderstorm that spawned the tornado at 3:45 pm EDT]]
On July 12 a [[supercell]] [[thunderstorm]] developed over eastern [[New Jersey]] in association with a [[Low pressure area|surface low-pressure area]] in southwestern [[Ontario]]. Daytime heating in the [[Tri-State Region]] led to moderate instability, a key factor in the development of [[Atmospheric convection|showers and thunderstorms]]. With conditions favorable for the development of a [[tornado]], the [[Storm Prediction Center]] issued a [[tornado watch]] at 12:40 p.m. [[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]] (16:40 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]).<ref name="Tornadowatch">{{cite web| author=Thompson| date=2006-07-12| title=Severe Weather Watch #593 (Tornado Watch)| publisher=[[Storm Prediction Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www.spc.noaa.gov/products/watch/2006/ww0593.html}}</ref> A strong thunderstorm developed around 2:00 p.m. EDT (18:00 UTC) which produced a [[funnel cloud]] near [[Carlstadt, New Jersey|Carlstadt]] at around 2:45 p.m. EDT (18:45 UTC), although no damage was associated with the funnel.<ref name="NJFunnel">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #625643 (Funnel Cloud)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~625643}}</ref> That same storm intensified and developed into a supercell as it crossed into [[New York]].<ref name="Tornado1"/> About 15 minutes later, a [[tornado warning]] was issued for southern Rockland and [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]] counties which would remain in effect until 4:15 p.m. EDT (21:15 UTC).<ref name="WCBS"/> At around 3:30 p.m. EDT (19:30 UTC), an [[Fujita_scale#Parameters|F1]] tornado touched down near [[Grand View-on-Hudson, New York|Grand View-on-Hudson]] along the [[Hudson River]] in [[Rockland County, New York|Rockland County]]. The 100 yard (91 m) wide tornado touched down on a dock before becoming a [[waterspout]] as it took a {{convert|3|mi|km|abbr=on}} path across the river. The tornado passed near the [[Tappan Zee Bridge]] before crossing into [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]].<ref name="Tornado1">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #626587 (Tornado)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~626587}}</ref> Upon entering Westchester, it was the eighth tornado ever recorded in the county.<ref name="THPWest"/>

The tornado hit the town of [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]], around 3:37 p.m. EDT (19:37 UTC); two minutes later, a {{convert|58|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} wind gust was reported along the periphery of the tornado. As the tornado neared [[New York State Route 9A]], it intensified to F2 status, generating winds up to {{convert|157|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}, and struck the California Closet Warehouse. At the time, the tornado was estimated to be 300 yd (274 m) wide<ref name="Tornado2"/> and was the strongest tornado ever recorded in Westchester County.<ref name="USAT">{{cite news| author=Jim Fitzgerald| date=2006-07-14| title=Weather Service confirms F-2 tornado roared through N.Y., Conn. on Wednesday| work=[[USA Today]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www.usatoday.com/weather/storms/2006-07-14-ny-tornado-confirmed_x.htm}}</ref> Shortly after, it weakened back to F1 intensity. Minor damage was reported through the [[Kensico Reservoir]] in [[Valhalla, New York|Valhalla]] as the tornado neared the New York–[[Connecticut]] border. The track length through Westchester County was measured at around {{convert|8|mi|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Tornado2">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #626588 (Tornado)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~626588}}</ref> After crossing the state border into [[Fairfield County, Connecticut]], it weakened further before lifting at 4:03 p.m  EDT (20:03 UTC) in [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]] after traveling {{convert|2|mi|km|abbr=on}} in Connecticut. Another brief touchdown may have occurred shortly after near the [[Merritt Parkway]].<ref name="Tornado3">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #606978 (Tornado)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~606978}}</ref> Overall, the tornado tracked across a total of {{convert|13|mi|km|abbr=on}} through two states over a period over 33 minutes.<ref name="MSSum">{{cite web| date=2006-7-14| title=Summary of Tornado| publisher=[[National Weather Service]] in Upton, New York| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www.erh.noaa.gov/okx/pns/torjul06.txt}}</ref>

==Impact==
[[Image:DCP 7760.JPG|thumb|right|Tornado damage near a [[forest]]ed area]]
The tornado took a path through [[Rockland County, New York|Rockland]], [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]], and [[Fairfield County, Connecticut|Fairfield]] counties, downing or uprooting thousands of trees and damaging several structures, including significant structural damage to the California Closest Warehouse. Six minor injuries were also reported. In all, the tornado inflicted $12.1 million (2006 [[United States Dollar|USD]]; $12.9 million 2008 USD) in damage.<ref name="MSSum"/>

Minor damage was reported in Rockland County. One dock and one boat were damaged by the tornado.<ref name="MSSum"/> After crossing the [[Hudson River]], the tornado entered Westchester County, where the worst of the damage took place. It struck the town of [[Sleepy Hollow, New York|Sleepy Hollow]], damaging roofs and tearing the siding off numerous homes and businesses.<ref name="MSSum"/> A 10 foot (3 m) tall stained-glass window in the St. Teresa of Avila Church was shattered.<ref name="USAT"/> Afterwards, the town of [[Pocantico Hills, New York|Pocantico Hills]] was struck as the tornado intensified to F2 intensity. Several trees were uprooted and two barns were destroyed. The California Closet Warehouse suffered severe structural damage; two concrete walls were destroyed.<ref name="MSSum"/> An interior staircase, which employees used as a shelter, collapsed causing four injuries. Concrete blocks from the building were blown about, some of which struck cars in a nearby parking lot.<ref name="USAT"/> A nearby [[Comfort Inn]] had part of its roof torn off.<ref name="WESH">{{cite web| date=2006-7-13|author=Associated Press| title=Tornado Rips Through Suburban New York| publisher=[[Internet Broadcasting|Internet Broadcasting Systems, Inc]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.wesh.com/news/9510358/detail.html}}</ref> After a [[tornado warning]] was issued, a school near the warehouse was evacuated.<ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news| author=Lisa W. Foderaro| date=2006-07-13| title=Tornado in Westchester Tosses Around Trees and Damages Property| work=[[The New York Times]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/13/nyregion/13weather.html?pagewanted=print}}</ref>

[[File:Westchester Tornado damage1.JPG|thumb|left|An area where numerous trees were knocked down, the white tubes support [[sapling]]s being grown to re-populate the affected area.]]
As the tornado crossed [[New York State Route 9A]], it picked up a state trooper car and flipped it several times before it fell to the ground; the officer inside suffered only minor injuries.<ref name="USAT"/> Moving towards the east-northeast, the tornado struck the towns of [[Mount Pleasant, New York|Mount Pleasant]] and [[Hawthorne, New York|Hawthorne]], damaging numerous trees and causing minor structural damage.<ref name="MSSum"/> Damage along the [[Saw Mill River Parkway]] prompted officials to shut down a section of the highway near Mount Pleasant.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news| author= Rose Arce | date=2006-07-13| title=Tornado hits north of Manhattan, Winds damage store, close highway; no serious injuries reported| publisher=[[CNN|Cable News Network]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/WEATHER/07/12/ny.tornado/index.html
}}</ref> Trees fell on streets and railroad tracks, halting [[Metro-North Railroad]] service and creating major traffic delays.<ref name="NYTimes"/> After passing by the [[Kensico Reservoir]] in [[Valhalla, New York|Valhalla]], the tornado crossed into [[Connecticut]],<ref name="MSSum"/> where it knocked down numerous power lines, cutting power to about 10,000 residences in the county.<ref name="USAT"/> In all, six people sustained minor injuries and damages amounted to $10.1 million (2006 USD).<ref name="Tornado2"/>

The weakening tornado ended its duration in Fairfield County, Connecticut, in the town of [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]]. Thousands of trees were either uprooted or snapped along the tornado's {{convert|2|mi|km|abbr=on}} path through the state. Minor damage was inflicted upon several structures.<ref name="MSSum"/> The tornado left 1,700 residences in Greenwich without power and blocked six roads. Most of the damage was concentrated to the northwestern corner of the town.<ref name="NYTimes2">{{cite news| author=Avi Salzman and Anahad O'Connor| date=2006-07-16| title=The Week; Rare Tornado Snaps Trees and Power Lines| publisher=The New York Times| accessdate=2008-12-01|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F04E2D91F30F935A25754C0A9609C8B63}}</ref> Damages in the state totaled to $2 million (2006 USD).<ref name="Tornado3"/>

==Aftermath==
In the wake of the tornado, the mayor of Sleepy Hollow declared a village-wide state of emergency.<ref name="ABC7">{{cite news| author=Eyewitness News| date=2006-07-13| title=Weather Service confirms F2 tornado in area, Sleepy Hollow, Hawthorne hardest hit| publisher=[[ABC News]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://abclocal.go.com/wabc/story?section=weather&id=4363255}}</ref> Two hundred emergency personnel responded to the storm.<ref name="LoHUD2">{{cite news| author=Reka Bala and Glenn Blain| date=2006-07-13| title=Tornado slams Lower Hudson Valley| publisher=[[The Journal News]]| accessdate=2008-12-01|url=http://www.lohud.com/article/20060713/NEWS09/607130345}}</ref> [[Consolidated Edison]] (conEdison) crews were sent out to repair downed power lines and clear roads. By the next night, power was restored to all but 600 of the previous 10,000 residences without power in [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]].<ref name="USAT"/> Westchester County opened its Emergency Operations Center after the storm to quickly respond to the event.<ref name="WCBS">{{cite news| author=Associated Press| date=2006-07-13| title=Westchester County Storm: Let The Clean-Up Begin| publisher=[[WCBS-TV]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://wcbstv.com/topstories/Tornado.Tornado.Warning.2.236314.html}}</ref> Two days after the storm, many of the roads had been cleared and power was fully restored. A recreational path in [[Tarrytown, New York]], was not expected to be open for another two weeks due to numerous fallen trees.<ref name="LoHUD">{{cite web| date=2006-7-15|author=Candice Ferrette| title=Westchester tornado twists many lives| publisher=The Journal News| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.lohud.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060715/NEWS02/607150347}}</ref> [[Metro-North Railroad]] suspended trains on the Upper Harlem line until 5:00 p.m. EDT (21:00 UTC) for the removal of debris on the tracks. During the time the rails were shut down, southbound passengers were transported by bus.<ref name="NYTimes"/> All trains were back on schedule by 7:00 p.m. EDT (23:00 UTC).<ref name="LoHUD2"/>

==See also==
*[[1900 Westchester County tornado]]
*[[1904 Chappaqua tornado]]
*[[List of Connecticut tornadoes]]
*[[List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks]]
*[[Tornadoes_of_2006#July_11-12|Tornadoes of 2006]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://wcbstv.com/video/?id=89570@wcbs.dayport.com Doppler Radar image of the tornadic supercell nearing Tarrytown]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fLZLrZAB0M Video of the tornado damage in Westchester]
*[http://wcbstv.com/topstories/Tornado.Tornado.Warning.2.236314.html WCBS article and video of damage/press reports of the tornado]

{{featured article}}

[[Category:F2 tornadoes]]
[[Category:New York tornadoes]]
[[Category:Connecticut tornadoes]]
[[Category:Tornadoes of 2006]]
[[Category:2006 in the United States]]
[[Category:Greenwich, Connecticut]]
[[Category:Rockland County, New York]]
[[Category:Westchester County, New York]]

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-07-02T15:46:27Z

Runningonbrains: move up table of contents

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-07-02T15:45:31Z

Runningonbrains: add {{clear}}

Westchester-County-Tornado 2006

2009-06-26T10:47:50Z

Runningonbrains: same fix: near --> in

{{Infobox tornado single
| name = July 2006 Westchester County tornado
| image location = 2006 Westchester Tornado California Closests.jpg
| image name =The California Closets Warehouse that was severely damaged by the tornado
| date = July 12, 2006
| time = 3:30 p.m. – 4:03 p.m. [[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]]
| fujitascale = F2
| total damages (USD) = $12.1 million (2006 [[United States Dollar|USD]]) $12.9 million (2008 USD)
| total fatalities = None (6 injuries)
| area affected = [[Rockland County, New York|Rockland]] and [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]], [[New York]]; and [[Fairfield County, Connecticut|Fairfield]], [[Connecticut]]
}}

The '''July 2006 Westchester County tornado''' was an [[Fujita_scale#Parameters|F2]] [[tornado]] that touched down in [[Rockland County, New York]] on July 12, 2006. It traveled {{convert|13|mi|km}} into southwestern [[Connecticut]] during a 33-minute span through two states. The tornado touched down at 3:30 p.m. [[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]] (19:30 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]) on the shore of the [[Hudson River]] before becoming a [[waterspout]] and traveling {{convert|3|mi|km|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} across the river. Coming ashore, the tornado entered [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]] and struck the town of [[Sleepy Hollow, New York|Sleepy Hollow]] at F1 intensity. After passing through the town, it intensified into an F2 tornado and grew to almost a quarter mile (400 m) in diameter,<ref name="MSSum"/> making it both the strongest and largest tornado in the county's history.<ref name="THPWest"/> The tornado continued through the county, causing damage to numerous structures, until it crossed into Connecticut at 4:01 p.m. EDT (20:01 UTC). Not long after entering the state, it dissipated in the town of [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]] at 4:03 p.m. EDT (20:03 UTC).<ref name="MSSum"/> When the tornado entered Westchester County, it was the eighth known tornado to either touch down or enter the county since 1950.<ref name="THPWest">{{cite web| author=[[Storm Prediction Center]]| year=2007| title=Tornado History Project: Westchester, New York Tornadoes, 1950-2007| publisher=Joshua Lietz (TornadoHistoryProject.com)| accessdate=2008-12-06|url=http://tornadohistoryproject.com/tornado.php?yr=%25&mo=%25&day=%25&st=New+York&fu=%25&co=Westchester&l=auto&submit=Table&ddat=on&dsta=on&dfuj=on&dfat=on&dinj=on&dcou=on&format=basic&p=1&s=1}}</ref>

The tornado left significant damage in its wake. Two barns and a warehouse were destroyed, and a large stained-glass window was shattered. Numerous homes and businesses were damaged and thousands of trees were uprooted. There were no fatalities and only six minor injuries were associated with the storm. Damages from the tornado totaled $12.1 million (2006 [[United States Dollar|USD]]; $12.9 million 2008 USD).

==Meteorological synopsis==
On July 12, a [[supercell]] [[thunderstorm]] developed over eastern [[New Jersey]] in association with a [[Low pressure area|surface low-pressure area]] in southwestern [[Ontario]]. Daytime heating in the [[Tri-State Region]] led to moderate instability, a key factor in the development of [[Atmospheric convection|showers and thunderstorms]]. With conditions favorable for the development of a [[tornado]], the [[Storm Prediction Center]] issued a [[tornado watch]] at 12:40 p.m. [[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]] (16:40 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]).<ref name="Tornadowatch">{{cite web| author=Thompson| date=2006-07-12| title=Severe Weather Watch #593 (Tornado Watch)| publisher=[[Storm Prediction Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www.spc.noaa.gov/products/watch/2006/ww0593.html}}</ref> A strong thunderstorm developed around 2:00 p.m. EDT (18:00 UTC) which produced a [[funnel cloud]] near [[Carlstadt, New Jersey|Carlstadt]] at around 2:45 p.m. EDT (18:45 UTC), although no damage was associated with the funnel.<ref name="NJFunnel">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #625643 (Funnel Cloud)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~625643}}</ref> That same storm intensified and developed into a supercell as it crossed into [[New York]].<ref name="Tornado1"/> About 15 minutes later, a [[tornado warning]] was issued for southern Rockland and [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]] counties which would remain in effect until 4:15 p.m. EDT (21:15 UTC).<ref name="WCBS"/> At around 3:30 p.m. EDT (19:30 UTC), an [[Fujita_scale#Parameters|F1]] tornado touched down near [[Grand View-on-Hudson, New York|Grand View-on-Hudson]] along the [[Hudson River]] in [[Rockland County, New York|Rockland County]]. The 100 yard (91 m) wide tornado touched down on a dock before becoming a [[waterspout]] as it took a {{convert|3|mi|km|abbr=on}} path across the river. The tornado passed near the [[Tappan Zee Bridge]] before crossing into [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]].<ref name="Tornado1">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #626587 (Tornado)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~626587}}</ref> Upon entering Westchester, it was the eighth tornado ever recorded in the county.<ref name="THPWest"/>

The tornado hit the town of [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]] around 3:37 p.m. EDT (19:37 UTC); two minutes later, a {{convert|58|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} wind gust was reported along the periphery of the tornado. As the tornado neared [[New York State Route 9A]], it intensified to F2 status, generating winds up to {{convert|157|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}, and struck the California Closet Warehouse. At the time, the tornado was estimated to be 300 yd (274 m) wide<ref name="Tornado2"/> and was the strongest tornado ever recorded in Westchester County.<ref name="USAT">{{cite news| author=Jim Fitzgerald| date=2006-07-14| title=Weather Service confirms F-2 tornado roared through N.Y., Conn. on Wednesday| work=[[USA Today]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www.usatoday.com/weather/storms/2006-07-14-ny-tornado-confirmed_x.htm}}</ref> Shortly after, it weakened back to F1 intensity. Minor damage was reported through the [[Kensico Reservoir]] in [[Valhalla, New York|Valhalla]] as the tornado neared the New York–[[Connecticut]] border. The track length through Westchester County was measured at around {{convert|8|mi|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Tornado2">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #626588 (Tornado)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~626588}}</ref> After crossing the state border into [[Fairfield County, Connecticut]], it weakened further before lifting at 4:03 p.m  EDT (20:03 UTC) in [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]] after traveling {{convert|2|mi|km|abbr=on}} in Connecticut. Another brief touchdown may have occurred shortly after near the [[Merritt Parkway]].<ref name="Tornado3">{{cite web| author=Stuart Hinson| year=2006| title=July 12, Weather Event #606978 (Tornado)| publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~606978}}</ref> Overall, the tornado tracked across a total of {{convert|13|mi|km|abbr=on}} through two states over a period over 33 minutes.<ref name="MSSum">{{cite web| date=2006-7-14| title=Summary of Tornado| publisher=[[National Weather Service]] in Upton, New York| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://www.erh.noaa.gov/okx/pns/torjul06.txt}}</ref>

==Impact==
[[Image:DCP 7760.JPG|thumb|right|Tornado damage near a forested area]]
The tornado took a path through [[Rockland County, New York|Rockland]], [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]], and [[Fairfield County, Connecticut|Fairfield]] counties, downing or uprooting thousands of trees and damaging several structures, including significant structural damage to the California Closest Warehouse. Six minor injuries were also reported. In all, the tornado inflicted $12.1 million (2006 [[United States Dollar|USD]]; $12.9 million 2008 USD) in damage.<ref name="MSSum"/>

Minor damage was reported in Rockland County. One dock and one boat were damaged by the tornado.<ref name="MSSum"/> After crossing the [[Hudson River]], the tornado entered Westchester County, where the worst of the damage took place. It struck the town of [[Sleepy Hollow, New York|Sleepy Hollow]], damaging roofs and tearing the siding off numerous homes and businesses.<ref name="MSSum"/> A 10 foot (3 m) tall stained-glass window in the St. Teresa of Avila Church was shattered.<ref name="USAT"/> Afterwards, the town of [[Pocantico Hills, New York|Pocantico Hills]] was struck as the tornado intensified to F2 intensity. Several trees were uprooted and two barns were destroyed. The California Closet Warehouse suffered severe structural damage; two concrete walls were destroyed.<ref name="MSSum"/> An interior staircase, which employees used as a shelter, collapsed causing four injuries. Concrete blocks from the building were blown about, some of which struck cars in a nearby parking lot.<ref name="USAT"/> A nearby [[Comfort Inn]] had part of its roof torn off.<ref name="WESH">{{cite web| date=2006-7-13|author=Associated Press| title=Tornado Rips Through Suburban New York| publisher=[[Internet Broadcasting|Internet Broadcasting Systems, Inc]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.wesh.com/news/9510358/detail.html}}</ref> After a [[tornado warning]] was issued, a school near the warehouse was evacuated.<ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news| author=Lisa W. Foderaro| date=2006-07-13| title=Tornado in Westchester Tosses Around Trees and Damages Property| work=[[The New York Times]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/13/nyregion/13weather.html?pagewanted=print}}</ref>

[[File:Westchester Tornado damage1.JPG|thumb|left|An area where numerous trees were knocked down, the white tubes support saplings being grown to re-populate the affected area.]]
As the tornado crossed [[New York State Route 9A]], it picked up a state trooper car and flipped it several times before it fell to the ground; the officer inside suffered only minor injuries.<ref name="USAT"/> Moving towards the east-northeast, the tornado struck the towns of [[Mount Pleasant, New York|Mount Pleasant]] and [[Hawthorne, New York|Hawthorne]], damaging numerous trees and causing minor structural damage.<ref name="MSSum"/> Damage along the [[Saw Mill River Parkway]] prompted officials to shut down a section of the highway near Mount Pleasant.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news| author= Rose Arce | date=2006-07-13| title=Tornado hits north of Manhattan, Winds damage store, close highway; no serious injuries reported| publisher=[[CNN|Cable News Network]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/WEATHER/07/12/ny.tornado/index.html
}}</ref> Trees fell on streets and railroad tracks, halting [[Metro-North Railroad]] service and creating major traffic delays.<ref name="NYTimes"/> After passing by the [[Kensico Reservoir]] in [[Valhalla, New York|Valhalla]], the tornado crossed into [[Connecticut]],<ref name="MSSum"/> where it knocked down numerous power lines, cutting power to about 10,000 residences in the county.<ref name="USAT"/> In all, six people sustained minor injuries and damages amounted to $10.1 million (2006 USD).<ref name="Tornado2"/>

The weakening tornado ended its duration in Fairfield County, Connecticut in the town of [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]]. Thousands of trees were either uprooted or snapped along the tornado's {{convert|2|mi|km|abbr=on}} path through the state. Minor damage was inflicted upon several structures.<ref name="MSSum"/> The tornado left 1,700 residences in Greenwich without power and blocked six roads. Most of the damage was concentrated to the northwestern corner of the town.<ref name="NYTimes2">{{cite news| author=Avi Salzman and Anahad O'Connor| date=2006-07-16| title=The Week; Rare Tornado Snaps Trees and Power Lines| publisher=The New York Times| accessdate=2008-12-01|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F04E2D91F30F935A25754C0A9609C8B63}}</ref> Damages in the state totaled to $2 million (2006 USD).<ref name="Tornado3"/>

==Aftermath==
In the wake of the tornado, the mayor of Sleepy Hollow declared a town-wide state of emergency.<ref name="ABC7">{{cite news| author=Eyewitness News| date=2006-07-13| title=Weather Service confirms F2 tornado in area, Sleepy Hollow, Hawthorne hardest hit| publisher=[[ABC News]]| accessdate=2008-11-29|url=http://abclocal.go.com/wabc/story?section=weather&id=4363255}}</ref> Two hundred emergency personnel responded to the storm.<ref name="LoHUD2">{{cite news| author=Reka Bala and Glenn Blain| date=2006-07-13| title=Tornado slams Lower Hudson Valley| publisher=[[The Journal News]]| accessdate=2008-12-01|url=http://www.lohud.com/article/20060713/NEWS09/607130345}}</ref> [[Consolidated Edison]] (conEdison) crews were sent out to repair downed power lines and clear roads. By the next night, power was restored to all but 600 of the previous 10,000 residences without power in [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester]].<ref name="USAT"/> Westchester County opened its Emergency Operations Center after the storm to quickly respond to the event.<ref name="WCBS">{{cite news| author=Associated Press| date=2006-07-13| title=Westchester County Storm: Let The Clean-Up Begin| publisher=[[WCBS-TV]]| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://wcbstv.com/topstories/Tornado.Tornado.Warning.2.236314.html}}</ref> Two days after the storm, many of the roads had been cleared and power was fully restored. A recreational path in [[Tarrytown, New York]] was not expected to be open for another two weeks due to numerous fallen trees.<ref name="LoHUD">{{cite web| date=2006-7-15|author=Candice Ferrette| title=Westchester tornado twists many lives| publisher=The Journal News| accessdate=2008-11-30|url=http://www.lohud.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060715/NEWS02/607150347}}</ref> [[Metro-North Railroad]] suspended trains on the Upper Harlem line until 5:00 p.m. EDT (21:00 UTC) for the removal of debris on the tracks. During the time the rails were shut down, southbound passengers were transported by bus.<ref name="NYTimes"/> All trains were back on schedule by 7:00 p.m. EDT (23:00 UTC).<ref name="LoHUD2"/>

==See also==
*[[List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks]]
*[[Tornadoes_of_2006#July_11-12|Tornadoes of 2006]]
*[[List of Connecticut tornadoes]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://wcbstv.com/video/?id=89570@wcbs.dayport.com Doppler Radar image of the tornadic supercell nearing Tarrytown]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fLZLrZAB0M Video of the tornado damage in Westchester]
*[http://wcbstv.com/topstories/Tornado.Tornado.Warning.2.236314.html WCBS article and video of damage/press reports of the tornado]

{{featured article}}

[[Category:F2 tornadoes]]
[[Category:New York tornadoes]]
[[Category:Connecticut tornadoes]]
[[Category:Tornadoes of 2006]]
[[Category:2006 in the United States]]

Universidad Católica Santa María La Antigua

2009-06-26T03:15:22Z

Runningonbrains: cleanup

{{unreferenced}}
The Universidad Católica Santa María La Antigua (USMA), is a private university in [[Panama]]. The institution was created as the first private university of Panama, starting on May 27th 1965. Its academic activities started with 232 students on 9 careers and 21 professors.

Today the university has about 25 thousand former students, 3 thousand students, 500 professors and more than 80 academic programs from undergraduate to post graduate y four regional centers spread across the country.

==External link==
[http://www.usma.ac.pa/ USMA Website]
[[Category:Universities of Panama]]

Poul Erik Tøjner

2009-06-26T03:12:11Z

Runningonbrains: fix link

'''Poul Erik Tøjner''' (born [[February 25]] [[1958]]) is a [[Denmark|Danish]] museum director and [[art criticism|art critic]]. Since 2000 he has been director of the [[Louisiana Museum of Modern Art]] in [[Gumlebæk]], [[Denmark]].

==Biography==
Poul Erik Tøjner studied philosophy (1981) amd Nordic philology (1987) at the [[University of Copenhagen]], getting his master degree in 1987 and a [[Licentiate|licentiate degree]] in 1991 with a dissertation on [[Søren Kierkegaard]].<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.dac.dk/visArtikel.asp?artikelID=3154|title=POUL ERIK TØJNER|publisher=Dansk Arkitektur Center|accessdate=2009-06-04}}</ref> He has been a [[literary criticism|literary]] and art critic first at national Danish newspaper Kristligt Dagblad 1984-87, [[Dagbladet Information]] 1987-89 and [[Weekendavisen]] from 1989.2000, where he served both as a cultural [[editor]] and from 1997-2000 also as a member of the Editors-in-Chief. In 2000 he took up the post as director of the Louisiana Museum of modern Art and from 2007 a member of the [[Danish Academy]]. He is also a member of the boards of the publishing house [[Gyldendal]], the University of Copenhagen and the [[The David Collection|C. L. David Foundation]].<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.dac.dk/visArtikel.asp?artikelID=3154|title=POUL ERIK TØJNER|publisher=Dansk Arkitektur Center|accessdate=2009-06-04}}</ref>

==See also==
[[Louisiana Museum of Modern Art]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Danish art critics]]
[[Category:Museum directors]]

[[da:Poul Erik Tøjner]]

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T19:31:33Z

Runningonbrains: /* Synopsis */ convert template for distance

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T19:30:24Z

Runningonbrains: /* Historical perspective */ see also section

Four-State Tornado Swarm

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Runningonbrains: add another book ref, a bunch of fixes to ready for DYK

Four-State Tornado Swarm

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Runningonbrains: /* List of known tornadoes */ I have looked at these now :-D

Four-State Tornado Swarm

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Runningonbrains: /* References */ fmt reflist, add categories

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T06:05:48Z

Runningonbrains: moved User:Runningonbrains/1787 New England tornado outbreak to Four-State Tornado Swarm: Ready for mainspace

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T06:03:06Z

Runningonbrains: What to call this section?

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T05:57:47Z

Runningonbrains: rearranging

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T05:54:35Z

Runningonbrains: /* Synopsis */ more paper refs

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T04:23:39Z

Runningonbrains: /* Synopsis */ oops, fix ref

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T04:22:39Z

Runningonbrains: /* Synopsis */ adding another Courant source, better conversion for hail size

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T01:00:24Z

Runningonbrains: /* Synopsis */ the sub-headers are unnecessary; add Litchfield storm damage

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T00:35:10Z

Runningonbrains: /* Third tornado */ ref newspaper instead of book (more transparent)

Four-State Tornado Swarm

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Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T00:20:10Z

Runningonbrains: NYT reference

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T00:10:09Z

Runningonbrains: fatality location

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-25T00:08:46Z

Runningonbrains: /* Synopsis */ almost ready for main space

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-24T23:54:19Z

Runningonbrains: /* Fourth tornado */ finish

Four-State Tornado Swarm

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Runningonbrains: /* First tornado */ rm repeated facts

Four-State Tornado Swarm

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Runningonbrains: /* Fourth tornado */ width

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-24T22:39:58Z

Runningonbrains: /* Synopsis */ will need better section names later

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-24T22:34:06Z

Runningonbrains: let's finish this up today

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-12T17:31:02Z

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Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-12T17:20:40Z

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Four-State Tornado Swarm

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Runningonbrains: /* Book references */ try again

{{Infobox tornado outbreak
|name=Four-State Tornado Swarm
|date=August 15, 1787
|duration=3.5+ hours
|fujitascale=unknown
|tornadoes=≥5
|total damages (USD)=unknown
|total fatalities=2
|areas affected=[[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Massachusetts]], [[New Hampshire]]
}}
The '''Four-State Tornado Swarm''' was a destructive outbreak of [[tornado]]es in [[New England]] on August 15, 1787. At least five separate tornadoes caused major damage in the states of [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Massachusetts]], and [[New Hampshire]]. Two people were killed by one tornado, and many were injured.

==List of known tornadoes==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="7"|Tornadoes
|-
!'''[[Fujita scale|F#]]'''
!'''Location'''
!'''County'''
!'''Time ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]])'''
!'''Path length'''
!'''Damage'''
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[Connecticut]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[New Britain, Connecticut|New Britain]] to [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]]'''
| [[Hartford County, Connecticut|Hartford]], [[Tolland County, Connecticut|Tolland]]
|1330
|≥{{convert|5|mi|km|sigfig=1}}
|'''2 deaths''' 10 injured. [[New Britain, Connecticut|New Britain]], [[Newington, Connecticut|Newington]], [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]], [[Glastonbury, Connecticut|Glastonbury]], [[Bolton, Connecticut|Bolton]], [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]]
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''NE of [[East Windsor, Connecticut|East Windsor]]'''
| [[Hartford County, Connecticut|Hartford]]
|unknown
|{{convert|5|mi|km|sigfig=1}}
|[[East Windsor, Connecticut|East Windsor]]
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]] to [[Mendon, Massachusetts]]'''
| [[Windham County, Connecticut|Windham]], [[Providence County, Rhode Island|Providence (RI)]], [[Worcester County, Massachusetts|Worcester (MA)]]
|1700
|{{convert|20|mi|km}}
|1 injured. [[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]], [[Glocester, Rhode Island|Gloucester, Rhode Island]], [[Mendon, Massachusetts]]
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[Massachusetts]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Northborough, Massachusetts|Northborough]] to [[Framingham, Massachusetts|Framingham]]'''
| [[Worcester County, Massachusetts|Worcester]], [[Middlesex County, Massachusetts|Middlesex County]]
|unknown
|{{convert|8|mi|km}}
|2 injured. [[Northborough, Massachusetts|Northborough]], [[Southborough, Massachusetts|Southborough]], [[Framingham, Massachusetts|Framingham]]
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[New Hampshire]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Rochester, New Hampshire|Rochester]]'''
| [[Strafford County, New Hampshire|Strafford]]
|unknown
|
|2 injured. [[Rochester, New Hampshire|Rochester]]
|-
|colspan="7"|Sources: Grazulis, pg. 553; (Ludlam pgs. 12-16 not reviewed yet)
|}
{{clear}}

==Synopsis==
This day was the most extensive tornado event on record at the time, and was the most severe tornado outbreak in early New England history, on par only with the [[User:Runningonbrains/1821 Great New Hampshire tornado outbreak|1821 Great New Hampshire tornado outbreak]].<ref name="Grazulis">Grazulis, pg. 553</ref><ref name="Ludlam 12">Ludlam, pg. 12</ref> Very few buildings were struck by the tornadoes (though the tornadoes passed close to many highly-populated towns) which accounts for the low death toll.<ref name="Ludlam 12"/>

A document was published in the ''Connecticut Courant'' (now the ''[[Hartford Courant]]'') a few days later, detailing the appearance of "a black column from the earth to the cloud" near [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]]. This was the most complete description of a tornado on record until the 1830s.<ref name="Ludlam 12"/>

The first tornado touched down near [[New Britain, Connecticut]] between 1 pm and 2 pm, moving east-northeast. A barn roof was blown {{convert|2|mi|km}} away. It then passed through [[Newington, Connecticut|Newington]] on to [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]]. The tornado was described there as "[whirling] with amazing velocity and a most tremendous roar."<ref name="Grazulis"/> It passed through a mostly-uninhabited part of the town; if the path were more than {{convert|0.5|mi|km}} further north or south, the tornado "would have been fatal to a large number of families."<ref name="courant">{{cite news | title = An Account of the late hurricane at Wethersfield | author = J. Lewis | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=838184472&SrchMode=2&sid=3&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1244610276&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[The Hartford Courant|Connecticut Courant and Weekly Intelligencer]] | location = Hartford, Connecticut | date = August 20, 2009 | page = 3 | accessdate = June 10, 2009 }}</ref> The tornado traveled slightly north of east, and struck just one home. The inhabitants fled the house upon the sight of the tornado: two young boys, a laborer, and a mother and baby were overtaken by the tornado in a nearby field. The two boys were found amid some rubble, one dead and one was "feared mortally wounded." The mother was killed as well, but the baby who was in her arms survived with only minor injuries. The laborer was thrown over a fence but only slightly injured.<ref name="courant"/> A woman and her child were killed when their family was caught out in the open. Their house was unroofed, and several outbuildings were "leveled with the ground". Clothes from the house were found three miles away, and trees and boards were carried a half-mile or more.<ref name="Grazulis"/>

The tornado continued east-northeast from Wethersfield, leveling almost all trees in its path, until it reached [[Glastonbury, Connecticut|Glastonbury]].<ref name="courant"/> There it damaged several homes and barns, including an unroofing of a large brick home, but only injured two people slightly. The damage continued into at least [[Bolton, Connecticut|Bolton]] and [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]], where more damage was done, but any specific damage done or human casualties are unknown.<ref name="Grazulis"/><ref name="courant"/>

The second tornado was spotted west of [[East Windsor, Connecticut|East Windsor]]. It moved northeast away from the center of town, but did damage a home and a barn. Trees {{convert|2.5|ft|m}} in diameter were twisted down, and even sod and stones "of a considerable size" were torn up.<ref name="Ludlam 15">Ludlam, pg. 15</ref> No injuries were reported.

The third tornado of the outbreak was a long-tracked tornado, first spotted in [[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]]. It moved northeast into [[Rhode Island]] to near [[Gloucester, Rhode Island|Gloucester]]. There orchards were destroyed an a house and barn were "torn to pieces" while the family took shelter in the cellar.<ref name="Ludlam 15"/> Several other homes were unroofed, and a woman was carried some distance, but only suffered minor injuries.<ref name="Ludlam 15"/> The tornado continued northeast into [[Massachusetts]] as far as [[Mendon, Massachusetts|Mendon]], {{convert|20|mi|km}} from where it touched down.<ref name="Ludlam 15"/>

==Aftermath==
Only a few isolated homes and buildings were struck by the known tornadoes that day, so loss of life was minimal. However, the destructive potential was high, as indicated by the incredible tree damage in places.<ref name="Ludlam 13">Ludlam, pg. 13</ref>

==References==
<ref name="NYT08131878">{{cite news | title = The hurricanes of the past | publisher = ''New York Times'' | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-13 }}</ref>
{{reflist}}
===Book references===
*{{cite book | last = Grazulis | first = Thomas P | title = Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991 | year = 1993 | month = July | publisher = The Tornado Project of Environmental Films | location = St. Johnsbury, VT | isbn = 1-879362-03-1 }}
*{{cite book | last = Ludlum | first = David McWilliams | title = Early American Tornadoes 1586–1870 | year = 1970 | publisher = American Meteorological Society | location = Boston, MA | isbn = 0933876327}}

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Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-12T17:19:34Z

Runningonbrains: /* Book references */ quick think

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-12T16:56:32Z

Runningonbrains: /* List of known tornadoes */ this was probably longer, but further damage unconfirmable

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-12T12:44:33Z

Runningonbrains: oops, this is unknown

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-12T12:44:08Z

Runningonbrains: why not use the accepted name?

{{Infobox tornado outbreak
|name=Four-State Tornado Swarm
|date=August 15, 1787
|duration=3.5+ hours
|fujitascale=unknown
|tornadoes=≥5
|total damages (USD)=>$130 million 1989 [[United States dollar|USD]]<ref name="Grazulis"/> ($214 million 2006 USD)
|total fatalities=2
|areas affected=[[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Massachusetts]], [[New Hampshire]]
}}
The '''Four-State Tornado Swarm''' was a destructive outbreak of [[tornado]]es in [[New England]] on August 15, 1787. At least five separate tornadoes caused major damage in the states of [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Massachusetts]], and [[New Hampshire]]. Two people were killed by one tornado, and many were injured.

==List of known tornadoes==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="7"|Tornadoes
|-
!'''[[Fujita scale|F#]]'''
!'''Location'''
!'''County'''
!'''Time ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]])'''
!'''Path length'''
!'''Damage'''
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[Connecticut]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[New Britain, Connecticut|New Britain]] to [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]]'''
| [[Hartford County, Connecticut|Hartford]], [[Tolland County, Connecticut|Tolland]]
|1330
|{{convert|5|mi|km|sigfig=1}}
|'''2 deaths''' 10 injured. [[New Britain, Connecticut|New Britain]], [[Newington, Connecticut|Newington]], [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]], [[Glastonbury, Connecticut|Glastonbury]], [[Bolton, Connecticut|Bolton]], [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]]
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''NE of [[East Windsor, Connecticut|East Windsor]]'''
| [[Hartford County, Connecticut|Hartford]]
|unknown
|{{convert|5|mi|km|sigfig=1}}
|[[East Windsor, Connecticut|East Windsor]]
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]] to [[Mendon, Massachusetts]]'''
| [[Windham County, Connecticut|Windham]], [[Providence County, Rhode Island|Providence (RI)]], [[Worcester County, Massachusetts|Worcester (MA)]]
|1700
|{{convert|20|mi|km}}
|1 injured. [[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]], [[Glocester, Rhode Island|Gloucester, Rhode Island]], [[Mendon, Massachusetts]]
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[Massachusetts]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Northborough, Massachusetts|Northborough]] to [[Framingham, Massachusetts|Framingham]]'''
| [[Worcester County, Massachusetts|Worcester]], [[Middlesex County, Massachusetts|Middlesex County]]
|unknown
|{{convert|8|mi|km}}
|2 injured. [[Northborough, Massachusetts|Northborough]], [[Southborough, Massachusetts|Southborough]], [[Framingham, Massachusetts|Framingham]]
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[New Hampshire]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Rochester, New Hampshire|Rochester]]'''
| [[Strafford County, New Hampshire|Strafford]]
|unknown
|
|2 injured. [[Rochester, New Hampshire|Rochester]]
|-
|colspan="7"|Sources: Grazulis, pg. 553; (Ludlam pgs. 12-16 not reviewed yet)
|}
{{clear}}

==Synopsis==
This day was the most extensive tornado event on record at the time, and was the most severe tornado outbreak in early New England history, on par only with the [[User:Runningonbrains/1821 Great New Hampshire tornado outbreak|1821 Great New Hampshire tornado outbreak]].<ref name="Grazulis">Grazulis, pg. 553</ref><ref name="Ludlam 12">Ludlam, pg. 12</ref> Very few buildings were struck by the tornadoes (though the tornadoes passed close to many highly-populated towns) which accounts for the low death toll.<ref name="Ludlam 12"/>

A document was published in the ''Connecticut Courant'' (now the ''[[Hartford Courant]]'') a few days later, detailing the appearance of "a black column from the earth to the cloud" near [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]]. This was the most complete description of a tornado on record until the 1830s.<ref name="Ludlam 12"/>

The first tornado touched down near [[New Britain, Connecticut]] between 1 pm and 2 pm, moving east-northeast. A barn roof was blown {{convert|2|mi|km}} away. It then passed through [[Newington, Connecticut|Newington]] on to [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]]. The tornado was described there as "[whirling] with amazing velocity and a most tremendous roar."<ref name="Grazulis"/> It passed through a mostly-uninhabited part of the town; if the path were more than {{convert|0.5|mi|km}} further north or south, the tornado "would have been fatal to a large number of families."<ref name="courant">{{cite news | title = An Account of the late hurricane at Wethersfield | author = J. Lewis | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=838184472&SrchMode=2&sid=3&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1244610276&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[The Hartford Courant|Connecticut Courant and Weekly Intelligencer]] | location = Hartford, Connecticut | date = August 20, 2009 | page = 3 | accessdate = June 10, 2009 }}</ref> The tornado traveled slightly north of east, and struck just one home. The inhabitants fled the house upon the sight of the tornado: two young boys, a laborer, and a mother and baby were overtaken by the tornado in a nearby field. The two boys were found amid some rubble, one dead and one was "feared mortally wounded." The mother was killed as well, but the baby who was in her arms survived with only minor injuries. The laborer was thrown over a fence but only slightly injured.<ref name="courant"/> A woman and her child were killed when their family was caught out in the open. Their house was unroofed, and several outbuildings were "leveled with the ground". Clothes from the house were found three miles away, and trees and boards were carried a half-mile or more.<ref name="Grazulis"/>

The tornado continued east-northeast from Wethersfield, leveling almost all trees in its path, until it reached [[Glastonbury, Connecticut|Glastonbury]].<ref name="courant"/> There it damaged several homes and barns, including an unroofing of a large brick home, but only injured two people slightly. The damage continued into at least [[Bolton, Connecticut|Bolton]] and [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]], where more damage was done, but any specific damage done or human casualties are unknown.<ref name="Grazulis"/><ref name="courant"/>

The second tornado was spotted west of [[East Windsor, Connecticut|East Windsor]]. It moved northeast away from the center of town, but did damage a home and a barn. Trees {{convert|2.5|ft|m}} in diameter were twisted down, and even sod and stones "of a considerable size" were torn up.<ref name="Ludlam 15">Ludlam, pg. 15</ref> No injuries were reported.

The third tornado of the outbreak was a long-tracked tornado, first spotted in [[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]]. It moved northeast into [[Rhode Island]] to near [[Gloucester, Rhode Island|Gloucester]]. There orchards were destroyed an a house and barn were "torn to pieces" while the family took shelter in the cellar.<ref name="Ludlam 15"/> Several other homes were unroofed, and a woman was carried some distance, but only suffered minor injuries.<ref name="Ludlam 15"/> The tornado continued northeast into [[Massachusetts]] as far as [[Mendon, Massachusetts|Mendon]], {{convert|20|mi|km}} from where it touched down.<ref name="Ludlam 15"/>

==Aftermath==
Only a few isolated homes and buildings were struck by the known tornadoes that day, so loss of life was minimal. However, the destructive potential was high, as indicated by the incredible tree damage in places.<ref name="Ludlam 13">Ludlam, pg. 13</ref>

==References==
<ref name="NYT08131878">{{cite news | title = The hurricanes of the past | publisher = ''New York Times'' | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-13 }}</ref>
{{reflist}}
===Book references===
*{{cite book | last = Grazulis | first = Thomas P | title = Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991 | year = 1993 | month = July | publisher = The Tornado Project of Environmental Films | location = St. Johnsbury, VT | isbn = 1-879362-03-1 }}
*{{cite book | last = Ludlum | first = David McWilliams | title = Early American Tornadoes 1586–1870 | year = 1970 | publisher = American Meteorological Society | location = Boston, MA | isbn = 0933876327}}

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-12T12:37:53Z

Runningonbrains: /* Synopsis */ even more

{{Infobox tornado outbreak
|name=1787 [[New England]] tornado outbreak
|date=August 15, 1787
|duration=3.5+ hours
|fujitascale=unknown
|tornadoes=≥5
|total damages (USD)=>$130 million 1989 [[United States dollar|USD]]<ref name="Grazulis"/> ($214 million 2006 USD)
|total fatalities=2
|areas affected=[[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Massachusetts]], [[New Hampshire]]
}}
The '''1787 New England tornado outbreak''', also known as the '''Four-State Tornado Swarm''', was a destructive outbreak of [[tornado]]es in [[New England]] on August 15, 1787. At least five separate tornadoes caused major damage in the states of [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Massachusetts]], and [[New Hampshire]]. At least two people were killed by one tornado, and many were injured.

==List of known tornadoes==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="7"|Tornadoes
|-
!'''[[Fujita scale|F#]]'''
!'''Location'''
!'''County'''
!'''Time ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]])'''
!'''Path length'''
!'''Damage'''
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[Connecticut]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[New Britain, Connecticut|New Britain]] to [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]]'''
| [[Hartford County, Connecticut|Hartford]], [[Tolland County, Connecticut|Tolland]]
|1330
|{{convert|5|mi|km|sigfig=1}}
|'''2 deaths''' 10 injured. [[New Britain, Connecticut|New Britain]], [[Newington, Connecticut|Newington]], [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]], [[Glastonbury, Connecticut|Glastonbury]], [[Bolton, Connecticut|Bolton]], [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]]
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''NE of [[East Windsor, Connecticut|East Windsor]]'''
| [[Hartford County, Connecticut|Hartford]]
|unknown
|{{convert|5|mi|km|sigfig=1}}
|[[East Windsor, Connecticut|East Windsor]]
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]] to [[Mendon, Massachusetts]]'''
| [[Windham County, Connecticut|Windham]], [[Providence County, Rhode Island|Providence (RI)]], [[Worcester County, Massachusetts|Worcester (MA)]]
|1700
|{{convert|20|mi|km}}
|1 injured. [[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]], [[Glocester, Rhode Island|Gloucester, Rhode Island]], [[Mendon, Massachusetts]]
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[Massachusetts]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Northborough, Massachusetts|Northborough]] to [[Framingham, Massachusetts|Framingham]]'''
| [[Worcester County, Massachusetts|Worcester]], [[Middlesex County, Massachusetts|Middlesex County]]
|unknown
|{{convert|8|mi|km}}
|2 injured. [[Northborough, Massachusetts|Northborough]], [[Southborough, Massachusetts|Southborough]], [[Framingham, Massachusetts|Framingham]]
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[New Hampshire]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Rochester, New Hampshire|Rochester]]'''
| [[Strafford County, New Hampshire|Strafford]]
|unknown
|
|2 injured. [[Rochester, New Hampshire|Rochester]]
|-
|colspan="7"|Sources: Grazulis, pg. 553; (Ludlam pgs. 12-16 not reviewed yet)
|}
{{clear}}

==Synopsis==
This day was the most extensive tornado event on record at the time, and was the most severe tornado outbreak in early New England history, on par only with the [[User:Runningonbrains/1821 Great New Hampshire tornado outbreak|1821 Great New Hampshire tornado outbreak]].<ref name="Grazulis">Grazulis, pg. 553</ref><ref name="Ludlam 12">Ludlam, pg. 12</ref> Very few buildings were struck by the tornadoes (though the tornadoes passed close to many highly-populated towns) which accounts for the low death toll.<ref name="Ludlam 12"/>

A document was published in the ''Connecticut Courant'' (now the ''[[Hartford Courant]]'') a few days later, detailing the appearance of "a black column from the earth to the cloud" near [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]]. This was the most complete description of a tornado on record until the 1830s.<ref name="Ludlam 12"/>

The first tornado touched down near [[New Britain, Connecticut]] between 1 pm and 2 pm, moving east-northeast. A barn roof was blown {{convert|2|mi|km}} away. It then passed through [[Newington, Connecticut|Newington]] on to [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]]. The tornado was described there as "[whirling] with amazing velocity and a most tremendous roar."<ref name="Grazulis"/> It passed through a mostly-uninhabited part of the town; if the path were more than {{convert|0.5|mi|km}} further north or south, the tornado "would have been fatal to a large number of families."<ref name="courant">{{cite news | title = An Account of the late hurricane at Wethersfield | author = J. Lewis | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=838184472&SrchMode=2&sid=3&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1244610276&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[The Hartford Courant|Connecticut Courant and Weekly Intelligencer]] | location = Hartford, Connecticut | date = August 20, 2009 | page = 3 | accessdate = June 10, 2009 }}</ref> The tornado traveled slightly north of east, and struck just one home. The inhabitants fled the house upon the sight of the tornado: two young boys, a laborer, and a mother and baby were overtaken by the tornado in a nearby field. The two boys were found amid some rubble, one dead and one was "feared mortally wounded." The mother was killed as well, but the baby who was in her arms survived with only minor injuries. The laborer was thrown over a fence but only slightly injured.<ref name="courant"/> A woman and her child were killed when their family was caught out in the open. Their house was unroofed, and several outbuildings were "leveled with the ground". Clothes from the house were found three miles away, and trees and boards were carried a half-mile or more.<ref name="Grazulis"/>

The tornado continued east-northeast from Wethersfield, leveling almost all trees in its path, until it reached [[Glastonbury, Connecticut|Glastonbury]].<ref name="courant"/> There it damaged several homes and barns, including an unroofing of a large brick home, but only injured two people slightly. The damage continued into at least [[Bolton, Connecticut|Bolton]] and [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]], where more damage was done, but any specific damage done or human casualties are unknown.<ref name="Grazulis"/><ref name="courant"/>

The second tornado was spotted west of [[East Windsor, Connecticut|East Windsor]]. It moved northeast away from the center of town, but did damage a home and a barn. Trees {{convert|2.5|ft|m}} in diameter were twisted down, and even sod and stones "of a considerable size" were torn up.<ref name="Ludlam 15">Ludlam, pg. 15</ref> No injuries were reported.

The third tornado of the outbreak was a long-tracked tornado, first spotted in [[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]]. It moved northeast into [[Rhode Island]] to near [[Gloucester, Rhode Island|Gloucester]]. There orchards were destroyed an a house and barn were "torn to pieces" while the family took shelter in the cellar.<ref name="Ludlam 15"/> Several other homes were unroofed, and a woman was carried some distance, but only suffered minor injuries.<ref name="Ludlam 15"/> The tornado continued northeast into [[Massachusetts]] as far as [[Mendon, Massachusetts|Mendon]], {{convert|20|mi|km}} from where it touched down.<ref name="Ludlam 15"/>

==Aftermath==
Only a few isolated homes and buildings were struck by the known tornadoes that day, so loss of life was minimal. However, the destructive potential was high, as indicated by the incredible tree damage in places.<ref name="Ludlam 13">Ludlam, pg. 13</ref>

==References==
<ref name="NYT08131878">{{cite news | title = The hurricanes of the past | publisher = ''New York Times'' | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-13 }}</ref>
{{reflist}}
===Book references===
*{{cite book | last = Grazulis | first = Thomas P | title = Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991 | year = 1993 | month = July | publisher = The Tornado Project of Environmental Films | location = St. Johnsbury, VT | isbn = 1-879362-03-1 }}
*{{cite book | last = Ludlum | first = David McWilliams | title = Early American Tornadoes 1586–1870 | year = 1970 | publisher = American Meteorological Society | location = Boston, MA | isbn = 0933876327}}

Four-State Tornado Swarm

2009-06-12T12:14:30Z

Runningonbrains: /* Synopsis */ more details

{{Infobox tornado outbreak
|name=1787 [[New England]] tornado outbreak
|date=August 15, 1787
|duration=3.5+ hours
|fujitascale=unknown
|tornadoes=≥5
|total damages (USD)=>$130 million 1989 [[United States dollar|USD]]<ref name="Grazulis"/> ($214 million 2006 USD)
|total fatalities=2
|areas affected=[[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Massachusetts]], [[New Hampshire]]
}}
The '''1787 New England tornado outbreak''', also known as the '''Four-State Tornado Swarm''', was a destructive outbreak of [[tornado]]es in [[New England]] on August 15, 1787. At least five separate tornadoes caused major damage in the states of [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Massachusetts]], and [[New Hampshire]]. At least two people were killed by one tornado, and many were injured.

==List of known tornadoes==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="7"|Tornadoes
|-
!'''[[Fujita scale|F#]]'''
!'''Location'''
!'''County'''
!'''Time ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]])'''
!'''Path length'''
!'''Damage'''
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[Connecticut]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[New Britain, Connecticut|New Britain]] to [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]]'''
| [[Hartford County, Connecticut|Hartford]], [[Tolland County, Connecticut|Tolland]]
|1330
|{{convert|5|mi|km|sigfig=1}}
|'''2 deaths''' 10 injured. [[New Britain, Connecticut|New Britain]], [[Newington, Connecticut|Newington]], [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]], [[Glastonbury, Connecticut|Glastonbury]], [[Bolton, Connecticut|Bolton]], [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]]
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''NE of [[East Windsor, Connecticut|East Windsor]]'''
| [[Hartford County, Connecticut|Hartford]]
|unknown
|{{convert|5|mi|km|sigfig=1}}
|[[East Windsor, Connecticut|East Windsor]]
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]] to [[Mendon, Massachusetts]]'''
| [[Windham County, Connecticut|Windham]], [[Providence County, Rhode Island|Providence (RI)]], [[Worcester County, Massachusetts|Worcester (MA)]]
|1700
|{{convert|20|mi|km}}
|1 injured. [[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]], [[Glocester, Rhode Island|Gloucester, Rhode Island]], [[Mendon, Massachusetts]]
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[Massachusetts]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Northborough, Massachusetts|Northborough]] to [[Framingham, Massachusetts|Framingham]]'''
| [[Worcester County, Massachusetts|Worcester]], [[Middlesex County, Massachusetts|Middlesex County]]
|unknown
|{{convert|8|mi|km}}
|2 injured. [[Northborough, Massachusetts|Northborough]], [[Southborough, Massachusetts|Southborough]], [[Framingham, Massachusetts|Framingham]]
|-
|colspan="7" align=center|'''[[New Hampshire]]'''
|-
|bgcolor=#{{storm colour|unknown}} | <big>'''F?'''</big>
|'''[[Rochester, New Hampshire|Rochester]]'''
| [[Strafford County, New Hampshire|Strafford]]
|unknown
|
|2 injured. [[Rochester, New Hampshire|Rochester]]
|-
|colspan="7"|Sources: Grazulis, pg. 553; (Ludlam pgs. 12-16 not reviewed yet)
|}
{{clear}}

==Synopsis==
This day was the most extensive tornado event on record at the time, and was the most severe tornado outbreak in early New England history, on par only with the [[User:Runningonbrains/1821 Great New Hampshire tornado outbreak|1821 Great New Hampshire tornado outbreak]].<ref name="Grazulis">Grazulis, pg. 553</ref><ref name="Ludlam 12">Ludlam, pg. 12</ref> Very few buildings were struck by the tornadoes (though the tornadoes passed close to many highly-populated towns) which accounts for the low death toll.<ref name="Ludlam 12"/>

A document was published in the ''Connecticut Courant'' (now the ''[[Hartford Courant]]'') a few days later, detailing the appearance of "a black column from the earth to the cloud" near [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]]. This was the most complete description of a tornado on record until the 1830s.<ref name="Ludlam 12"/>

The first tornado touched down near [[New Britain, Connecticut]] between 1 pm and 2 pm, moving east-northeast. A barn roof was blown {{convert|2|mi|km}} away. It then passed through [[Newington, Connecticut|Newington]] on to [[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]]. The tornado was described there as "[whirling] with amazing velocity and a most tremendous roar."<ref name="Grazulis"/> It passed through a mostly-uninhabited part of the town; if the path were more than {{convert|0.5|mi|km}} further north or south, the tornado "would have been fatal to a large number of families."<ref name="courant">{{cite news | title = An Account of the late hurricane at Wethersfield | author = J. Lewis | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=838184472&SrchMode=2&sid=3&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1244610276&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[The Hartford Courant|Connecticut Courant and Weekly Intelligencer]] | location = Hartford, Connecticut | date = August 20, 2009 | page = 3 | accessdate = June 10, 2009 }}</ref> The tornado traveled slightly north of east, and struck just one home. The inhabitants fled the house upon the sight of the tornado: two young boys, a laborer, and a mother and baby were overtaken by the tornado in a nearby field. The two boys were found amid some rubble, one dead and one was "feared mortally wounded." The mother was killed as well, but the baby who was in her arms survived with only minor injuries. The laborer was thrown over a fence but only slightly injured.<ref name="courant"/> A woman and her child were killed when their family was caught out in the open. Their house was unroofed, and several outbuildings were "leveled with the ground". Clothes from the house were found three miles away, and trees and boards were carried a half-mile or more.<ref name="Grazulis"/>

The tornado continued east-northeast from Wethersfield, leveling almost all trees in its path, until it reached [[Glastonbury, Connecticut|Glastonbury]].<ref name="courant"/> There it damaged several homes and barns, including an unroofing of a large brick home, but only injured two people slightly. The damage continued into at least [[Bolton, Connecticut|Bolton]] and [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]], where more damage was done, but any specific damage done or human casualties are unknown.<ref name="Grazulis"/><ref name="courant"/>

==Aftermath==
Only a few isolated homes and buildings were struck by the known tornadoes that day, so loss of life was minimal. However, the destructive potential was high, as indicated by the incredible tree damage in places.<ref name="Ludlam 13">Ludlam, pg. 13</ref>

==References==
<ref name="NYT08131878">{{cite news | title = The hurricanes of the past | publisher = ''New York Times'' | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-13 }}</ref>
{{reflist}}
===Book references===
*{{cite book | last = Grazulis | first = Thomas P | title = Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991 | year = 1993 | month = July | publisher = The Tornado Project of Environmental Films | location = St. Johnsbury, VT | isbn = 1-879362-03-1 }}
*{{cite book | last = Ludlum | first = David McWilliams | title = Early American Tornadoes 1586–1870 | year = 1970 | publisher = American Meteorological Society | location = Boston, MA | isbn = 0933876327}}

Wallingford-Tornado

2009-06-11T16:58:04Z

Runningonbrains: pretty glaring error there

{{Infobox tornado outbreak
| name = Wallingford Tornado
| image location = Wallingford, Connecticut tornado damage picture.jpg
| image name = Picture of a destroyed house in Wallingford
| date = August 9, 1878
| duration = ~3 hours
| fujitascale = possibly F4
| tornadoes = ≥2
| total damages (USD) = ~$5.3 million (2007 [[United States dollar|USD]])
| total fatalities = 34
| areas affected = Southern [[Connecticut]]
}}
The '''Wallingford Tornado''' struck the town of [[Wallingford, Connecticut]] on August 9, 1878. The violent [[tornado]] destroyed most of the town, killing 34 people and injuring at least 70, many severely.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm#CT| title = Connecticut: Tornadoes causing a death or more than five injuries| accessdate = 2008-05-14| year = 2000| publisher = The Tornado Project}}</ref> This was the deadliest tornado ever to strike the state of Connecticut, and the second deadliest ever in [[New England]], after the [[Flint-Worcester tornado outbreak sequence|Worcester tornado of 1953]].<ref name="significant tornadoes">Grazulis, pg. 596</ref>

==Before the storm==
The storm system which eventually spawned the Wallingford tornado produced damaging winds and at least one tornado far before it reached the town. The first tornado from this storm system touched down in [[South Kent]], unroofing houses, blowing down barns, and uprooting and tossing trees into the air. It moved steadily southeast for {{convert|12|mi|km|abbr=on}}, moving just south of [[New Preston, Connecticut|New Preston]], and then through [[Washington, Connecticut|Washington]], before turning north and dissipating. The next path of damage started further north along the [[Shepaug River]]. It is unknown whether this was a tornado or [[downburst|straight-line winds]], but the damage path continued southeast for three miles before disappearing again. More damage was reported near [[Waterbury, Connecticut|Waterbury]], where a house was unroofed two miles west of the town. In the town itself, branches and chimneys were damaged.<ref>
{{cite news | title = More About the Tornado | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=837114282&SrchMode=2&sid=3&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1210846487&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[Hartford Courant]] | location = [[Hartford, Connecticut]] | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-16 | accessdate = 2008-05-15 }}</ref><ref name="report">
{{cite book|title=Annual Report of the Chief Signal-Officer|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oL0tAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA653&lpg=RA1-PA654&ots=vkwrjr5NbM&dq=Wallingford+tornado+of+1878#PRA2-PA654,M1|format=PDF
|accessdate=2008-05-14|year=1878|publisher=Government Printing Office|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=654-661}}</ref>

As the storm approached Wallingford, observers described a black, rolling funnel, with clouds blowing in from all directions. This system passed directly over [[Cheshire, Connecticut|Cheshire]], producing a strong wind at the surface which caused some minor damage. The storm then moved directly towards Wallingford.<ref name="report"/>

==The Wallingford tornado==
[[Image:Wallingford tornado illustration.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Artist's conception of the tornado destroying a house]]
[[Image:Wallingford tornado track.PNG|right|250px|thumb|Map of the tornado's path through the town]]
In Wallingford, the day prior to the tornado was clear, and said to be "one of the loveliest [days] of the season".<ref name=NYT2>*{{cite news | author = Special Correspondent | title = Wallingford's Tornado | url = http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9D0CEEDB143EE63BBC4952DFBE668383669FDE | format = PDF | publisher = [[New York Times]] | page = 1 | date = 1878-08-11 | accessdate = 2008-05-14 }}</ref> At around 5 p.m. the sky began to get dark, and by 5:30 p.m. the air was very black. At around 6 p.m., the air at the surface was calm, but lightning began to fill the sky, and the clouds began moving at a very rapid pace, frightening some residents into shelter.

The tornado started as a [[waterspout]] over Community Lake, just west of town. It then moved through the center of town along Christian Street, damaging almost every structure as it went. The tornado tore houses from their foundations, throwing some more than 600 feet (180 meters). A receipt from the town was later found 65 miles (105 km) east in [[Wakefield-Peacedale, Rhode Island|Peacedale, Rhode Island]].<ref name="report"/> Large trees were uprooted and snapped, and those that were still standing were stripped of small limbs and leaves. The Catholic church was blown to bits, and heavy [[tombstone]]s in the nearby cemetery were tossed around. The brand-new brick high school building was almost completely destroyed.<ref name=gendisasters>{{cite web| url = http://www3.gendisasters.com/connecticut/874/wallingford,-ct-tornado,-aug-1878| title = Wallingford, CT Tornado, Aug 1878| accessdate = 2008-05-14| last = Perley| first = Sidney| year = 1891| work = Historic Storms of New England| publisher = GenDisasters| pages = 334-337}}</ref> The tornado's path through town was only two miles long, but the damage path was up to 600 feet (180 meters) wide.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.crh.noaa.gov/ddc/wxtrivia/wxtrvAug.php| title = Today's Weather Trivia| accessdate = 2008-05-14| date = 2005-11-01| publisher = [[National Weather Service]] Dodge City, KS Weather Forecast Office}}</ref>

More tornadic damage was reported in southern [[Durham, Connecticut|Durham]] and [[Killingly, Connecticut|Killingly]], with some homes severely damaged, but there were no known injuries. Some sources insist that the Wallingford tornado dissipated a few miles west of the town, and this was an entirely separate tornado, but without a modern damage survey it is impossible to tell. The parent storm finally moved out over the ocean around 8 PM.<ref name="report"/><ref name="significant tornadoes"/>

==Aftermath==
[[Image:Wallingford, Connecticut school tornado damage.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Artist's drawing of damage to the grade school]]
A district schoolhouse was converted into a temporary morgue immediately after the storm; 21 bodies were discovered and placed there that night. One person was found dead 3300 feet (1 km) from where he had been standing.<ref name=NYT1/> The tornado brought down telegraph lines and poles around the area, so assistance from physicians in nearby towns took more than an hour.<ref name=NYT1/> More than 50 special police were sworn in to prevent looting, and to control the crowds of curious onlookers who had come by train from surrounding cities.<ref>{{cite news | title = Latest from the Tornado | url = http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=4&did=823502852&SrchMode=2&sid=1&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1210830166&clientId=61720 | format = PDF | publisher = [[Hartford Courant]] | location = [[Hartford, Connecticut]] | page = 2 | date = 1878-08-14 | accessdate = 2008-05-15 }}</ref>

Thirty five homes were completely destroyed, with many more being unroofed or receiving some sort of damage. Damage estimates were around $150,000 from buildings alone; utilities and railway facilities received a lot of damage as well.<ref name=NYT1>{{cite news | title = Furious Northern Storms | url = http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9E0DE4DD1038EE3BBC4852DFBE668383669FDE | format = PDF | publisher = [[New York Times]] | page = 1 | date = 1878-08-10 | accessdate = 2008-05-14 }}</ref> Final estimates were around $250,000 ($5.3 million when adjusted for inflation).<ref name="inflation">{{cite web| url = http://www.westegg.com/inflation/index.html
| title = The Inflation Calculator| accessdate = 2008-11-01| author = Friedman, S. Morgan| work = "Historical Statistics of the United States" and "Statistical Abstracts of the United States"}}</ref><ref name="report"/>

Tornadoes are not uncommon in the state of Connecticut, but tornadoes of this power are rare. Though tornadoes have only been officially rated on the [[Fujita scale]] since 1950, this tornado has been estimated to be of F4-intensity on the scale.<ref name="significant tornadoes"/> This would make it one of only three tornadoes of this intensity to ever affect the state, as of 2008.<ref name="tornado project">[[Tornado Project]]. [http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm#CT "Worst" Tornadoes] Retrieved on July 2, 2007.</ref> Thirty-four people were killed by the tornado—thirty-one more than the second-deadliest Connecticut tornado—and 70 others injured.<ref name="significant tornadoes"/><ref>Grazulis, p. 379</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks]]
*[[List of Connecticut tornadoes]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
===Book source===
*{{cite book | last = Grazulis | first = Thomas P | title = Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991 | year = July | month = 1993 | publisher = The Tornado Project of Environmental Films | location = St. Johnsbury, VT | isbn = 1-879362-03-1 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/brs/nwind34.htm Illustrations of tornado damage (at bottom of page)]
*[http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital_dev/dgkeysearchdetail.cfm?trg=1&strucID=731833&imageID=G90F062_003F&total=5&num=0&word=French%2C%20D%2E%20%28David%29&s=3&notword=&d=&c=&f=4&k=0&lWord=&lField=&sScope=&sLevel=&sLabel=&imgs=20&pos=1&e=w Pictures of tornado damage]

[[Category:F4 tornadoes]]
[[Category:Tornadoes of 1878]]
[[Category:Connecticut tornadoes]]
[[Category:1878 in the United States]]