Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Entropische Gravitation

2017-01-09T10:16:43Z

Rod57: /* See also */ {{colbegin|3}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}
[[Image:NewtonsLawOfUniversalGravitation.svg|thumb|right|200px|Verlinde's statistical description of gravity as an entropic force leads to the correct [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|inverse square distance law of attraction between classical bodies]].]]

'''Entropic gravity''', also known as '''emergent gravity''', is a [[theory]] in [[modern physics]] that describes [[gravity]] as an ''[[entropic force]]''—a force with macro-scale homogeneity but which is subject to [[Quantum fluctuation|quantum-level]] disorder—and not a [[fundamental interaction]]. The theory, based on [[string theory]], [[black hole]] physics, and [[Quantum_information#Quantum_information_theory|quantum information theory]], describes gravity as an ''emergent'' phenomenon that springs from the [[quantum entanglement]] of small bits of [[spacetime]] information. As such, entropic gravity is said to abide by physical systems' tendency to increase in [[entropy]].

At its simplest, entropic gravity provides the underlying framework to explain [[Modified Newtonian Dynamics]], or MOND, which holds that at an exceedingly low threshold level—far lower than that seen at the edge of our solar system—gravitational force varies ''inversely with radius'' rather than the normal [[inverse-square law]] of the radius.

The theory claims to be consistent with both the macro-level observations of [[Newtonian gravity]] as well as Einstein's [[general relativity|theory of general relativity]] and its gravitational distortion of spacetime. Importantly, the theory also explains—without invoking the existence of [[dark matter]] and its accompanying math featuring new [[free parameter]]s that are tweaked to obtain the desired outcome—why [[Galaxy rotation curve|galactic rotation curves]] differ from the profile expected with visible matter.

The theory of entropic gravity posits that what has been interpreted as unobserved dark matter is actually the product of quantum effects that can be regarded as a form of ''positive [[dark energy]]'' that lifts the [[vacuum energy]] of space from its ground state value. A central tenet of the theory is that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to entropy that overtakes the area law of [[anti-de Sitter space]] precisely at
the [[Hubble volume|cosmological horizon]].

The proposal has been intensely contested in the physics community, but it has also sparked a new line of research into [[thermodynamic]] properties of gravity.

==Origin==
The thermodynamic description of gravity has a history that goes back at least to research on [[black hole thermodynamics]] by [[Jacob Bekenstein|Bekenstein]] and [[Stephen Hawking|Hawking]] in the mid-1970s. These studies suggest a deep connection between [[gravity]] and thermodynamics, which describes the behavior of heat. In 1995, [[Theodore Jacobson|Jacobson]] demonstrated that the [[Einstein field equations]] describing relativistic gravitation can be derived by combining general thermodynamic considerations with the [[equivalence principle]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jacobson|first=Theodore|title=Thermodynamics of Spacetime: The Einstein Equation of State|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.1260|date=4 April 1995|pages=1260–1263|issue=7|volume=75|journal=Phys. Rev. Lett.|arxiv=gr-qc/9504004|bibcode=1995PhRvL..75.1260J}}</ref> Subsequently, other physicists, most notably [[Thanu Padmanabhan]], began to explore links between gravity and [[entropy]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Padmanabhan|first=Thanu|title=Thermodynamical Aspects of Gravity: New insights|date=26 November 2009|pages=6901|issue=4|volume=73|journal=Rep. Prog. Phys. |arxiv=0911.5004|doi=10.1088/0034-4885/73/4/046901|bibcode=2010RPPh...73d6901P}}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv|last=Mok|first=H.M.|title=Further Explanation to the Cosmological Constant Problem by Discrete Space-time Through Modified Holographic Principle|eprint=physics/0408060|date=13 August 2004|class=physics.gen-ph}}</ref>

==Erik Verlinde's theory==
In 2009, [[Erik Verlinde]] disclosed a conceptual model that describes gravity as an entropic force.<ref>{{cite news|last=van Calmthout|first=Martijn|title=Is Einstein een beetje achterhaald?|url=http://www.volkskrant.nl/wetenschap/article1326775.ece/Is_Einstein_een_beetje_achterhaald|accessdate=6 September 2010|newspaper=de Volkskrant|date=12 December 2009|language=Dutch}}</ref> He argues (similar to Jacobson's result) that gravity is a consequence of the "information associated with the positions of material bodies".<ref>{{cite journal |author=E.P. Verlinde |doi=10.1007/JHEP04(2011)029 |journal=JHEP |title=On the Origin of Gravity and the Laws of Newton |bibcode = 2011JHEP...04..029V |arxiv = 1001.0785 }}</ref> This model combines the thermodynamic approach to gravity with [[Gerard 't Hooft]]'s [[holographic principle]]. It implies that gravity is not a [[fundamental interaction]], but an [[emergent phenomenon]] which arises from the statistical behavior of microscopic [[Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degrees of freedom]] encoded on a holographic screen. The paper drew a variety of responses from the scientific community. [[Andrew Strominger]], a string theorist at Harvard said “Some people have said it can’t be right, others that it’s right and we already knew it — that it’s right and profound, right and trivial."<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|last=Overbye|first=Dennis|title=A Scientist Takes On Gravity|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/13/science/13gravity.html?_r=1|accessdate=6 September 2010|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=12 July 2010}}</ref>

In July 2011 Verlinde presented the further development of his ideas in a contribution to the Strings 2011 conference, including an explanation for the origin of dark matter.<ref>[http://www2.physics.uu.se/external/strings2011/presentations/5%20Friday/1220_Verlinde.pdf E. Verlinde, The Hidden Phase Space of our Universe], Strings 2011, Uppsala, 1 July 2011.</ref>

Verlinde's article also attracted a large amount of media exposure,<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20527443.800-the-entropy-force-a-new-direction-for-gravity.html?page=1 The entropy force: a new direction for gravity], [[New Scientist]], 20 January 2010, issue 2744</ref><ref>[http://www.wired.com/beyond_the_beyond/2010/01/gravity-is-an-entropic-form-of-holographic-information/ Gravity is an entropic form of holographic information], ''[[Wired Magazine]]'', 20 January 2010</ref> and led to immediate follow-up work in cosmology,<ref>{{cite arXiv |eprint=1001.3237 |author1=Fu-Wen Shu |author2=Yungui Gong |title=Equipartition of energy and the first law of thermodynamics at the apparent horizon |class=gr-qc |year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Rong-Gen Cai |author2=Li-Ming Cao |author3=Nobuyoshi Ohta |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.81.061501 |journal=Phys. Rev. D |volume=81 |title=Friedmann Equations from Entropic Force |issue=6 |year=2010 |arxiv=1001.3470|bibcode = 2010PhRvD..81f1501C }}</ref> the [[dark energy|dark energy hypothesis]],<ref>[http://www.scientificblogging.com/hammock_physicist/it_bit_how_get_rid_dark_energy It from Bit: How to get rid of dark energy], Johannes Koelman, 2010</ref> [[Metric expansion of space|cosmological acceleration]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Easson |author2=Frampton |author3=Smoot |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2010.12.025 |journal=Phys. Lett. B |volume=696 |title=Entropic Accelerating Universe |issue=3 |pages=273–277 |year=2010 |arxiv=1002.4278|bibcode = 2011PhLB..696..273E }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Yi-Fu Cai |author2=Jie Liu |author3=Hong Li |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2010.05.033 |journal=Phys. Lett. B |volume=690 |title=Entropic cosmology: a unified model of inflation and late-time acceleration |issue=3 |pages=213–219 |year=2010 |arxiv=1003.4526|bibcode = 2010PhLB..690..213C }}</ref> [[Inflation (cosmology)|cosmological inflation]],<ref>{{cite arXiv |eprint=1001.4786 |author1=Yi Wang |title=Towards a Holographic Description of Inflation and Generation of Fluctuations from Thermodynamics |class=hep-th |year=2010}}</ref> and [[loop quantum gravity]].<ref>{{cite arXiv |eprint=1001.3668 |author1=Lee Smolin |title=Newtonian gravity in loop quantum gravity |class=gr-qc |year=2010}}</ref> Also, a specific microscopic model has been proposed that indeed leads to entropic gravity emerging at large scales.<ref>{{cite arXiv |eprint=1001.3808 |author1=Jarmo Mäkelä |title=Notes Concerning "On the Origin of Gravity and the Laws of Newton" by E. Verlinde |class=gr-qc |year=2010}}</ref>

==Derivation of the law of gravitation==
The law of gravitation is derived from classical statistical mechanics applied to the [[holographic principle]], that states that the description of a volume of space can be thought of as <math>N</math> bits of binary information, encoded on a boundary to the region, a surface of area <math>A</math>. The information is evenly distributed on the surface and each bit is stored on an elementary surface of area

:<math>N = A/\ell_\mathrm{P}^2</math>

where <math>\ell_\mathrm{P}</math> is the [[Planck length]]. The statistical [[equipartition theorem]] relates the temperature <math>T</math> of a system with its average energy

:<math>E = \frac{1}{2} N k_\text{B} T</math>

where <math>k_\text{B}</math> is the [[Boltzmann constant]]. This energy is identified with a mass <math>M</math> by the [[mass–energy equivalence]] relation

:<math>E = Mc^2</math>.

The effective temperature experienced by a uniformly accelerating detector in a [[vacuum state|vacuum field]] is given by the [[Unruh effect]]. This temperature is

:<math>T = \frac{\hbar a}{2\pi c k_\text{B}},</math>

where <math>\hbar</math> is the reduced [[Planck constant]], and <math>a</math> is the local acceleration, which is related to a force <math>F</math> by [[Newton's second law]] of motion

:<math>F = ma</math>.

By assuming that the holographic screen is a sphere of radius <math>r</math>, its surface is given by

:<math>A = 4\pi r^2</math>,

and one derives from these principles [[Newton's law of universal gravitation]]

:<math>F = G \frac{m M}{r^2} </math>.

==Criticism and experimental tests==

Entropic gravity, as proposed by Verlinde in his original article, reproduces [[Einstein field equations]] and, in a Newtonian approximation, a 1/r potential for gravitational forces. Since it does not make new physical predictions, it cannot be falsified with existing experimental methods any more than Newtonian gravity and general relativity.

Even so, entropic gravity in its current form has been severely challenged on formal grounds. [[Matt Visser]], professor of mathematics at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ in "Conservative Entropic Forces" <ref>{{cite arXiv|last=Visser|first=Matt|title=Conservative entropic forces|eprint=1108.5240}}</ref> has shown that the attempt to model conservative forces in the general Newtonian case (i.e. for arbitrary potentials and an unlimited number of discrete masses) leads to unphysical requirements for the required entropy and involves an unnatural number of temperature baths of differing temperatures. Visser concludes:
{{quote|There is no reasonable doubt concerning the physical reality of entropic forces, and no reasonable doubt that classical (and semi-classical) general relativity is closely related to thermodynamics [52–55]. Based on the work of Jacobson [1–6], [[Thanu Padmanabhan]] [7– 12], and others, there are also good reasons to suspect a thermodynamic interpretation of the fully relativistic Einstein equations might be possible. Whether the specific proposals of Verlinde [26] are anywhere near as fundamental is yet to be seen — the rather baroque construction needed to accurately reproduce n-body Newtonian gravity in a Verlinde-like setting certainly gives one pause.}}

For the derivation of Einstein's equations from an entropic gravity perspective, Tower Wang shows <ref>{{cite arXiv |last=Wang |first=Tower |title=Modified entropic gravity revisited |eprint=1211.5722}}</ref> that the inclusion of energy-momentum conservation and cosmological homogeneity and isotropy requirements severely restrict a wide class of potential modifications of entropic gravity, some of which have been used to generalize entropic gravity beyond the singular case of an entropic model of Einstein's equations. Wang asserts that:
{{quote|As indicated by our results, the modified entropic gravity models of form (2), if not killed, should live in a very narrow room to assure the energy-momentum conservation and to accommodate a homogeneous isotropic universe.}}

A team from the [[Leiden Observatory]] testing the lensing effect of gravity around more than 33,000 galaxies concluded that Verlinde's theory agreed with the measured gravity distribution.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://phys.org/news/2016-12-verlinde-theory-gravity.html |title=Verlinde's new theory of gravity passes first test |date=December 16, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=First test of Verlinde's theory of Emergent Gravity using Weak Gravitational Lensing measurements |first1=Margot M. |last1=Brouwer |display-authors=etal |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |volume= |issue=to appear |date=11 December 2016 |doi=10.1093/mnras/stw3192 |arxiv=1612.03034}}</ref><ref>https://www.newscientist.com/article/2116446-first-test-of-rival-to-einsteins-gravity-kills-off-dark-matter/</ref>

===Entropic gravity and quantum coherence===
Another criticism of entropic gravity is that entropic processes should, as critics argue, break [[quantum coherence]]. Experiments with ultra-cold neutrons in the gravitational field of Earth are claimed to show that neutrons lie on discrete levels exactly as predicted by the [[Schrödinger equation]] considering the gravitation to be a conservative potential field without any decoherent factors. Archil Kobakhidze argues that this result disproves entropic gravity.<ref>{{cite arXiv|last=Kobakhidze|first=Archil|title=Gravity is not an entropic force|eprint=1009.5414}}</ref> [[Luboš Motl]] gives popular explanations of this position in his blog.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Motl|first1=Luboš|title=Why gravity can't be entropic|url=http://motls.blogspot.ru/2010/01/erik-verlinde-why-gravity-cant-be.html|website=The Reference Frame|accessdate=10 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Motl|first1=Luboš|title=Once more: gravity is not an entropic force|url=http://motls.blogspot.ru/2011/08/once-more-gravity-is-not-entropic-force.html|website=The Reference Frame|accessdate=29 April 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
{{colbegin|3}}
*[[Abraham–Lorentz force]]
*[[Black hole thermodynamics#Beyond black holes|Beyond black holes]]
*[[Black hole electron]]
*[[Entropic force]]
*[[Hawking radiation]]
*[[Invariance mechanics]]
*[[List of quantum gravity researchers]]
*[[Ideal chain#Entropic elasticity of an ideal chain|Entropic elasticity of an ideal chain]]
*[[Gravitation]]
*[[Induced gravity]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*[http://www.science20.com/hammock_physicist/it_bit_entropic_gravity_pedestrians It from bit - Entropic gravity for pedestrians], J. Koelman
*[http://www.imsc.res.in/~iagrg/IagrgSite/Activities/IagrgMeetings/25th_Iagrg/VRtalk.pdf Gravity: the inside story], T Padmanabhan
*[http://www.technologyreview.com/view/425220/experiments-show-gravity-is-not-an-emergent-phenomenon/ Experiments Show Gravity Is Not an Emergent Phenomenon]

{{Theories of gravitation}}

[[Category:Theories of gravitation]]
[[Category:Information theory|Gravity As An Entropic Force]]
[[Category:Thermodynamics|Gravity As An Entropic Force]]

Spektr-RG

2016-02-06T03:35:57Z

Rod57: /* top */ {{As of|February 2016}} it is planned to launch in Sept 2017.<ref

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2012}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2013}}
{{Infobox spaceflight
| name = Spektr-RG
| image = Spektr-RG russian X-ray space telescope P1110968.jpg
| image_caption = Spektr-RG

| mission_type = Astronomy <ref name="rsw2011jan">{{cite web | title = Spektr-RG | url = http://www.russianspaceweb.com/spektr_rg.html | author = Anatoly Zak | date = 2011-01-23 | accessdate = 2011-02-03 | publisher = Russian Space Web }}</ref>
| operator = [[Russian Space Research Institute]] [[European Space Agency]], [[Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics|Planck Institute]], [[University of Leicester]]
| website = {{url|http://hea.iki.rssi.ru/SRG/}}
| COSPAR_ID =
| SATCAT =
| mission_duration =

| spacecraft_bus = [[Navigator (spacecraft bus)|Navigator]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/spektr-rg.htm | accessdate = 2011-02-04 | title = Spektr-RG (SXG) | author = Gunter Dirk Krebs}}</ref>
| manufacturer = [[NPO Lavochkin]]
| dry_mass =
| launch_mass =
| power =

| launch_date = 2017<ref name="Spektr-RG">[http://www.russianspaceweb.com/spektr_rg.html Spektr-RG]</ref>
| launch_rocket = [[Zenit-3F]]
| launch_site = [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]] [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 45|45/1]]
| entered_service =

| disposal_type =
| deactivated =
| last_contact =
| decay_date =


| orbit_epoch =
| orbit_reference = [[geocentric orbit|Geocentric]]
| orbit_regime = [[low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
| orbit_periapsis =
| orbit_apoapsis =
| orbit_inclination =
| orbit_semimajor =
| orbit_eccentricity =
| orbit_period =
| apsis = gee

| instruments = [[eROSITA]], [[Lobster (Spektr-RG instrument)|Lobster]], [[ART-XC]]
| telescope_type = eROSITA: [[Wolter telescope|Wolter]]
| telescope_diameter = 
| telescope_focal_length= 
| telescope_area = 
| telescope_wavelength = [[X-ray]]
}}

'''Spektr-RG''' (Russian for ''[[Electromagnetic spectrum|Spectrum]]'' + ''[[X-ray|Röntgen]]'' + ''[[Gamma ray|Gamma]]''; also called '''Spectrum-X-Gamma''', '''SRG''', '''SXG''') is an international [[high-energy astronomy|high-energy astrophysics]] observatory, which is being built under the leadership of the [[Russian Space Research Institute]] (IKI). Spektr-RG instrumentation includes 5 [[telescopes]] spanning the [[electromagnetic spectrum|energy range]] from the far [[ultraviolet]] to the hard [[X-ray]], plus an all-sky monitor. {{As of|February 2016}} it is planned to launch in Sept 2017.<ref>[http://www.russianspaceweb.com/spektr_rg.html Spektr-RG to expand horizons of X-ray astronomy]</ref>

Development of an early version with the same name was cancelled in 2002.<ref name="SE2008"/> The second Spektr-RG is intended to study interplanetary magnetic field, galaxies, black holes.<ref name="rfsa2010">{{cite web | title = Russia to Restart Science in Space | url = http://www.roscosmos.ru/main.php?id=2&nid=10988&hl=spektr | author = | date = 2010-08-12 | accessdate = 2011-02-04 | publisher = [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] }}</ref>

== Spacecraft ==
The Spektr-RG programme was revived in 2005<ref name ="IKI2005">{{cite web | url = http://hea.iki.rssi.ru/SXG/PROJECT/SXG-eng.htm | date = 2005-10-30 | accessdate=2011-02-04 | publisher = [[Russian Space Research Institute]] | title = Spectrum-RG/eRosita/Lobster mission definition document}}</ref> and the spacecraft currently in development and scheduled for launch in 2017.<ref name="Spektr-RG"/> The observatory is intended to study the interplanetary magnetic field, galaxies and black holes.<ref name="rfsa2010"/>

===Instruments===
{| class="wikitable"
|+Instruments on the original{{clarify|date=February 2016}} Spektr-RG satellite
!Instrument
!Organisation
!Description
|-
| [[eROSITA]] (Extended Roentgen Survey with an Imaging Telescope Array)
| [[Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics]]
| [[Wolter telescope]]s
|-
| [[ART-XC]]
| [[Russian Space Research Institute|IKI]]/[[VNIIEF]]
| [[X-ray telescope#Coded apertures|Coded-mask telescope]]s
|}

==Earlier proposal==
[[File:Spektr-RG (early).png|right|thumb|Spektr-RG as originally designed|250px]]
Development of an early version of Spektr-RG was started in mid-1990s and was cancelled in 2002.<ref name="SE2008">{{citation | last1=Harland | first1=David M. | year=2007 | title=Space Exploration 2008 | last2=Harvey | first2=Brian | publisher=シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社 | isbn=978-0-387-71667-1 | page=96 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NljCb14KPVcC&pg=PA96 | accessdate = 2011-02-04 }}</ref> Initial launch date was set to 1995,<ref name="dsri">{{cite web | title = Spectrum-X-Gamma | url = http://www.dsri.dk/showpage.php3?id=54 | author = | date = 2000-08-04 | accessdate = 2011-02-04 | publisher = [[DTU Space]] }}</ref> but later postponed as far as 2008, until it was finally cancelled in 2002.<ref name="SE2008"/> However, some of the instruments have been completed, e.g., an [[X-ray telescope]] by [[Leicester University]] ([[JET-X]])<ref name="culture24">{{cite web | title = Leicester's role in Russian satellite programme revealed as UK's largest telescope goes to Science Museum | url = http://www.culture24.org.uk/science+%26+nature/art69567 | author = | date = 2009-06-17 | accessdate = 2011-02-04 | publisher = [[DTU Space]] }}</ref> and an [[ultraviolet telescope]] by [[Tel-Aviv University]] ([[TAUVEX]]).

The satellite would have been launched into a 51.5 degree orbit with an apogee of {{convert|200000|km}} and a period of four days, by a [[Proton-K]] rocket with a [[Blok DM-2]] upper stage.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Instruments on the Spektr-RG satellite as originally prosed
!Instrument
!Organisation
!Description
|-
|[[JET-X]]<ref name="jet-x">[http://www.sstd.rl.ac.uk/project/jet-x/]</ref>
|
| Two co-aligned 4.4 m-long X-ray telescopes
|-
|[[TAUVEX]]
|
| Ultraviolet telescope
|-
| EUVITA
|
| Ultraviolet telescope
|-
| MART
|
| [[X-ray telescope]] with coded-aperture instruments
|-
| LEPC/HEPC
|
| gaseous position-sensitive proportional counters
|-
| SIXA
|
| two solid-state Si(Li) detectors
|-
| SXRP
|
| stellar X-ray polarimeter
|-
| MOXE
|
| X-ray all-sky monitor
|-
| DIOGENE
|
| Spectrometer for measuring gamma-ray bursts
|-
| SPIN
|
| Spectrometer for measuring gamma-ray bursts
|-
|
|
| Gaseous scintillation proportional counter
|-
| SODART<ref name="sodart">[http://www.aip.de/groups/xray/sodart/]</ref>
|
| High-throughput multi-mirror X-ray twin telescope of 8m focal length with changeable detectors on slides for energies between 0.1 and 20 keV
|-
|
|
| Bragg spectrometer
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://hea-www.harvard.edu/SXG/sxg.shtml Spectrum-X-Gamma] on the internet.
* [http://english.pravda.ru/science/tech/16-09-2009/109313-telescope-0 New X-Ray Telescopes Search for Galaxy Clusters and Massive Black Holes]

{{RosKosmos space observatories}}
{{Space observatories}}
{{Future spaceflights}}

[[Category:Engineering projects]]
[[Category:Space observatories]]
[[Category:Gamma-ray telescopes]]
[[Category:X-ray telescopes]]
[[Category:Earth satellites of Russia]]
[[Category:2017 in spaceflight]]
[[Category:2017 in Russia]]

Automated Planet Finder

2015-04-08T01:54:50Z

Rod57: /* top */ [[

[[File:Automated Planet Finder Dome.JPG|220px|thumb|right|The Automated Planet Finder dome. In the background is the dome housing the [http://www.ucolick.org/public/telescopes/astrograph.html Carnegie Double Astrograph].]]
The '''Automated Planet Finder Telescope''' ('''APF''') is a fully robotic 2.4-meter optical telescope at [[Lick Observatory]], situated on the summit of Mount Hamilton, east of San Jose, California, USA. It is designed to search for [[extrasolar planets]] in the range of five to twenty times the mass of the [[Earth]]. The instrument will examine ~10 stars per night. Over a decade, the telescope will study 1,000 nearby stars for planets.<ref>[http://www.ucsc.edu/news_events/text.asp?pid=1537 Major gift supports crucial piece of Automated Planet Finder]</ref> It has an estimated cost of $10 million.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Automated-Planet-Finder-telescope-seeks-life-3177056.php |title=Automated Planet Finder telescope seeks life |first=David |last=Perlman |date=August 21, 2010 |work=San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref> The total cost-to-
completion of the APF project was $12.37 million.<ref>Steven S. Vogt et al., ''[http://arxiv.org/abs/1402.6684 APF - The Lick Observatory Automated Planet Finder]'', 26 February 2014.</ref>

The telescope uses high-precision [[radial velocity]] measurements to measure the gravitational reflex motion of nearby stars caused by the orbiting of planets. The design goal is to detect stellar motions as small as one meter per second, comparable to a slow walking speed. The main targets will be stars within about 100 light years of the Earth.

First light was originally scheduled for 2006, but delays in the construction of the
major components of the telescope pushed this back to mid-2009.<ref>[http://ucodirector.blogspot.com/2009/10/uco-newsletter-6-october-2009.html UCO Director Newsletters: Newsletter #6 October 2009]</ref> As of July 2013, the telescope is nearing the end of commissioning, and regular operations are anticipated in fall 2013, advancing to fully robotic operations by the end of 2013. It was effectively the case on January 1, 2014.<ref>Steven S. Vogt et al., ''[http://arxiv.org/abs/1402.6684 APF - The Lick Observatory Automated Planet Finder]'', 26 February 2014.</ref>

Early tests show that the performance of the [[Ken and Gloria Levy Doppler Spectrometer]] is meeting the design goals. The spectrometer has high throughput and is meeting the design sensitivity of (1.0 m/s),<ref>http://www.ucolick.org/public/telescopes/apf.html APF Telescope</ref> similar to the radial velocity precision of [[HARPS]] and [[W. M. Keck Observatory#Instruments|HIRES]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ucolick.org/public/telescopes/apf.html Automated Planet Finder Telescope - ucolick.org]
* [http://mthamilton.ucolick.org/apfcam/ APF Camera view of Dome - ucolick.org]

{{coord|37.3425407|-121.6381903|display=title}}
{{Exoplanet search projects}}

[[Category:Telescopes]]
[[Category:Lick Observatory]]
[[Category:Exoplanet search projects]]

{{observatory-stub}}

Margaritifer Sinus (Gradfeld)

2013-03-25T01:35:00Z

Rod57: /* See also */ 3 cols

[[Image:Margaritifer Sinus Map.JPG|thumb|400px|Map of Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle with major features labeled. Capri Chasma and [[Eos Chasma]] are at the east end of the Mariner Valley.]]
The '''margaritifer Sinus [[quadrangle (geography)|quadrangle]]''' is one of a series of [[list of quadrangles on Mars|30 quadrangle maps of Mars]] used by the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) [[Astrogeology Research Program]]. The Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle is also referred to as MC-19 (Mars Chart-19).<ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992mars.conf..321D Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. "Geodesy and Cartography" in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. ''Mars.'' University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.]</ref>

The '''Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle''' covers the area from 0° to 45° west longitude and 0° to 30° south latitude on [[Mars]]. This quadrangle shows many signs of past water with evidence of lakes, deltas, ancient rivers, inverted channels, and chaos regions that released water.<ref>Grotzinger, J. and R. Milliken (eds.) 2012. Sedimentary Geology of Mars. SEPM</ref> Margaritifer Sinus contains some of the longest lake-chain systems on Mars, perhaps because of a wetter climate, more groundwater, or some of each factor. The Samara/Himera lake-chain system is about 1800 km long; the Parara/Loire valley network and lake-chain system is about 1100 km long.<ref>[http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103508002728 Fassett, C. and J. Head III. 2008. Valley network-fed, open-basin lakes on Mars: Distribution and implications for Noachian surface and subsurface hydrology. Icarus: 198. 39-56. ] {{doi|10.1016/j.icarus.2008.06.016}}</ref> A low area between [[Parana Valles]] and Loire Vallis is believed to have once held a lake.<ref>[http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103500964650 Goldspiel, J. and S. Squyres. 2000. Groundwater sapping and valley formation on Mars. Icarus. 89: 176-192. ] {{doi|10.1006/icar.2000.6465}}</ref><ref name="Carr2006">{{cite book|author=Michael H. Carr|title=The surface of Mars|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uLHlJ6sjohwC|accessdate=21 March 2011|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87201-0}}</ref> The 154 km diameter Holden Crater also once held a lake.<ref name="Cabrol, N 2010">Cabrol, N. and E. Grin (eds.). 2010. Lakes on Mars. Elsevier. NY.</ref> Near Holden Crater is a graben, called Erythraea Fossa, that once held a chain of three lakes.<ref>Buhler, P. et al. 2011. Evidence for palelakes in Erythracea Fossa, Mars: Implications for an ancient hydrological cycle. Icarus. 213: 104-115.</ref>

This region of Mars is famous because the [[Opportunity Rover]] landed there on January 25, 2004 at 1.94°S and 354.47°E (5.53° W).

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{{Wide image|Eagle_crater_on_the_Mars_PIA05163.jpg|1500px|This panorama of Eagle crater shows outcroppings which are thought to have water origins.}}

<gallery>
Image:Opportunity Rover by HiRISE.jpg|Opportunity Rover as seen by HiRISE on January 29, 2009. Opportunity is on its way to Endeavour Crater, 17 km away at this point (2.1° S and 354.5° E).
Image:MOLA opportunity.jpg|Location of Opportunity Rover on surface of Mars.
Image:PIA05229 label.jpg|Mars Global Surveyor [[orbiter]]'s photograph of landing site showing "[[Eagle (crater)|hole in one]]."
</gallery>

==What Opportunity Rover Discovered about Rocks and Minerals at Meridiani Planum==
[[File:Xpe pubeng approved 032304 color berry bowl-B060R1 br.jpg|thumb|left|The rock "Berry Bowl".]]
[[File:08-AY-3-shiny-B026R1 br.jpg|thumb|This image, taken by the microscopic imager, reveals shiny, spherical objects embedded within the trench wall]]
[[File:Blueberries eagle.gif|thumb|"Blueberries" (hematite spheres) on a rocky outcrop at Eagle Crater. Note the merged triplet in the upper left.]]

[[Opportunity Rover]] found that the soil at [[Meridiani Planum]] was very similar to the soil at [[Gusev crater]] and [[Ares Vallis]]; however in many places at Meridiani the soil was covered with round, hard, gray spherules that were named "blueberries."<ref name="Yen, A. 2005">Yen, A., et al. 2005. An integrated view of the chemistry and mineralogy of martian soils. Nature. 435.: 49-54.</ref> These blueberries were found to be composed almost entirely of the mineral [[hematite]]. It was decided that the spectra signal spotted from orbit by Mars Odyssey was produced by these spherules. After further study it was decided that the blueberries were concretions formed in the ground by water.<ref>Bell, J (ed.) The Martian Surface. 2008. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86698-9</ref> Over time, these concretions weathered from what was overlying rock, and then became concentrated on the surface as a [[lag deposit]]. The concentration of spherules in bedrock could have produced the observed blueberry covering from the weathering of as little as one meter of rock.<ref name="Squyres, S. 2004">Squyres, S. et al. 2004. The Opportunity Rover’s Athena Science Investigation at Meridiani Planum, Mars. Science: 1698-1703.</ref><ref>Soderblom, L., et al. 2004. Soils of [[Eagle Crater]] and Meridiani Planum at the Opportunity Rover Landing Site. Science: 306. 1723-1726.</ref> Most of the soil consisted of olivine basalt sands that did not come from the local rocks. The sand may have been transported from somewhere else.<ref>Christensen, P., et al. Mineralogy at Meridiani Planum from the Mini-TES Experiment on the Opportunity Rover. Science: 306. 1733-1739.</ref>

<gallery>
File:Meridianiblueberries.jpg|Drawing showing how "blueberries" came to cover much of surface in Meridiani Planum.
</gallery>

===Minerals in Dust===
A Mössbauer spectrum was made of the dust that gathered on Opportunity’s capture magnet. The results suggested that the magnetic component of the dust was titanomagnetite, rather than just plain [[magnetite]], as was once thought. A small amount of [[olivine]] was also detected which was interpreted as indicating a long arid period on the planet. On the other hand, a small amount of hematite that was present meant that there may have been liquid water for a short time in the early history of the planet.<ref>Goetz, W., et al. 2005. Indication of drier periods on Mars from the chemistry and mineralogy of atmospheric dust. Nature: 436.62-65.</ref>
Because the [[Rock Abrasion Tool]] (RAT) found it easy to grind into the bedrocks, it is thought that the rocks are much softer than the rocks at Gusev crater.

===Bedrock Minerals===
Few rocks were visible on the surface where Opportunity landed, but bedrock that was exposed in craters was examined by the suit of instruments on the Rover.<ref>Bell, J., et al. 2004. Pancam Multispectral Imaging Results from the Opportunity Rover at Meridiani Planum. Science: 306.1703-1708.</ref> Bedrock rocks were found to be sedimentary rocks with a high concentration of [[sulfur]] in the form of calcium and [[magnesium sulfate]]s. Some of the sulfates that may be present in bedrocks are [[kieserite]], sulfate anhydrate, bassanite, hexahydrite, [[epsomite]], and [[gypsum]]. [[Salt]]s, such as [[halite]], bischofite, antarcticite, bloedite, vanthoffite, or gluberite may also be present.<ref>Christensen, P., et al. 2004 Mineralogy at Meridiani Planum from the Mini-TES Experiment on the Opportunity Rover. Science: 306. 1733-1739.</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Squyres, S. et al. 2004. In Situ Evidence for an Ancient Aqueous Environment at Meridian Planum, Mars. Science: 306. 1709-1714.</ref>

The rocks contained the sulfates had a light tone compared to isolated rocks and rocks examined by landers/rovers at other locations on Mars. The spectra of these light toned rocks, containing hydrated sulfates, were similar to spectra taken by the [[Thermal Emission Spectrometer]] on board the [[Mars Global Surveyor]]. The same spectrum is found over a large area, so it is believed that water once appeared over a wide region, not just in the area explored by Opportunity Rover.<ref>Hynek, B. 2004. Implications for hydrologic processes on Mars from extensive bedrock outcrops throughout Terra Meridiani. Nature: 431. 156-159.</ref>

The [[Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer]] (APXS) found rather high levels of [[phosphorus]] in the rocks. Similar high levels were found by other rovers at [[Ares Vallis]] and [[Gusev Crater]], so it has been hypothesized that the mantle of Mars may be phosphorus-rich.<ref>Dreibus,G. and H. Wanke. 1987. Volatiles on Earth and Marsw: a comparison. Icarus. 71:225-240</ref> The minerals in the rocks could have originated by [[acid]] weathering of [[basalt]]. Because the solubility of phosphorus is related to the solubility of [[uranium]], [[thorium]], and [[rare earth elements]], they are all also expected to be enriched in rocks.<ref>Rieder, R., et al. 2004. Chemistry of Rocks and Soils at Meridiani Planum from the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer. Science. 306. 1746-1749</ref>

When Opportunity Rover traveled to the rim of [[Endeavour crater]], it soon found a white vein that was later identified as being pure gypsum.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mer/news/mer20111207.html</ref><ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/01/120125093619.htm</ref> It was formed when water carrying gypsum in solution deposited the mineral in a crack in the rock. A picture of this vein, called "Homestake" formation, is shown below.

{{Gallery
| lines = 2
| width = 200
| height = 120
| align = center
|File:PIA15034 Pancam sol2769 L257F.tif|"Homestake" formation
}}

===Evidence for Water===
[[File:LastChance D JG03-B058R1 br.jpg|thumb|left|Cross-bedding features in rock "Last Chance".]]
Examination of Meridiani rocks found strong evidence for past water. The mineral called jarosite which only forms in water was found in all bedrocks. This discovery proved that water once existed in Meridiani Planum<ref>Klingelhofer, G. et al. 2004. Jarosite and Hematite at Meridiani Planum from Opportunity’s Mossbauer Spectrometer. Science: 306. 1740-1745.</ref> In addition, some rocks showed small laminations (layers) with shapes that are only made by gently flowing water.<ref name="Herkenhoff, K. 2004">Herkenhoff, K., et al. 2004. Evidence from Opportunity’s Microscopic Imager for Water on Meridian Planum. Science: 306. 1727-1730</ref> The first such laminations were found in a rock called "The Dells." Geologists would say that the cross-stratification showed festoon geometry from transport in subaqueous ripples.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> A picture of cross-stratification, also called cross-bedding, is shown on the left.

Box-shaped holes in some rocks were caused by sulfates forming large crystals, and then when the crystals later dissolved, holes, called vugs, were left behind.<ref name="Herkenhoff, K. 2004"/> The concentration of the element [[bromine]] in rocks was highly variable probably because it is very soluble. Water may have concentrated it in places before it evaporated. Another mechanism for concentrating highly-soluble bromine compounds is frost deposition at night that would form very thin films of water that would concentrate bromine in certain spots.<ref name="Yen, A. 2005"/>

<gallery>
File:17-jg-03-mi2-B035R1_br.jpg|Voids or "vugs" inside the rock
</gallery>

===Rock from Impact===
One rock, "Bounce Rock," found sitting on the sandy plains was found to be ejecta from an impact crater. Its chemistry was different than the bedrocks. Containing mostly pyroxene and plagioclase and no olivine, it closely resembled a part, Lithology B, of the shergottite meteorite EETA 79001, a meteorite known to have come from Mars. Bounce rock received its name by being near an airbag bounce mark.<ref name="Squyres, S. 2004"/>

===Meteorites===
Opportunity Rover found meteorites just sitting on the plains. The first one analyzed with Opportunity’s instruments was called "Heatshield Rock," as it was found near where Opportunity’s headshield landed. Examination with the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer ([[Mini-TES]]), [[Mossbauer spectrometer]], and APXS lead researchers to, classify it as an [[IAB meteorites|IAB meteorite]]. The APXS determined it was composed of 93% [[iron]] and 7% [[nickel]]. The cobble named "Fig Tree Barberton" is thought to be a stony or stony-iron meteorite (mesosiderite silicate),<ref>Squyres, S., et al. 2009. Exploration of Victoria Crater by the Mars Rover Opportunity. Science: 1058-1061.</ref><ref>Schroder,C., et al. 2008. J. Geophys. Res: 113.</ref> while "Allan Hills," and "Zhong Shan" may be iron meteorites.

<center><gallery>
File:PIA07269-Mars Rover Opportunity-Iron Meteorite.jpg|Heat Shield Rock was the first meteorite ever identified on another planet.
File:Opportunity heat shield Sol335B P2364 L456-B339R1.jpg|Heat shield, with Heat Shield Rock just above and to the left in the background.
</gallery></center>

===Geological History===
Observations at the site have led scientists to believe that the area was flooded with water a number of times and was subjected to evaporation and desiccation.<ref name="Squyres, S. 2004"/> In the process sulfates were deposited. After sulfates cemented the sediments, hematite concretions grew by precipitation from groundwater. Some sulfates formed into large crystals which later dissolved to leave vugs. Several lines of evidence point toward an arid climate in the past billion years or so, but a climate supporting water, at least for a time, in the distant past.<ref>Clark, B. et al. Chemistry and mineralogy of outcrops at Meridiani Planum. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 240: 73-94.</ref>

==Vallis==
'''''Vallis''''' (plural ''valles'') is the [[Latin]] word for ''valley''. It is used in [[planetary geology]] for the naming of valley [[landform]] features on other planets.

Vallis was used for old river valleys that were discovered on Mars, when probes were first sent to Mars. The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Space craft cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.<ref name="Kieffer1992">{{cite book|author=Hugh H. Kieffer|title=Mars|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NoDvAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=7 March 2011|year=1992|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=978-0-8165-1257-7}}</ref><ref name="Raeburn1998">Raeburn, P. 1998. ''Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet Mars''. National Geographic Society. Washington, D.C.</ref><ref name="Moore1990">Moore, P. et al. 1990. '' The Atlas of the Solar System''. Mitchell Beazley Publishers, New York.</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Parana Valles.JPG|[[Parana Valles]], as seen by HiRISE. Scale bar is 1000 meters long.
image:Ladon Valles.JPG|[[Ladon Valles]], as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see dark and light-toned layers.
Image:Ravi Vallis.jpg|[[Ravi Vallis]], as seen by Viking Orbiter. Ravi Vallis was probably formed when catastrophic floods came out of the ground to the right (chaotic terrain). Image located in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle.
Image:Viking Teardrop Islands.jpg|Tear-drop shaped islands caused by flood waters from Maja Vallis, as seen by Viking Orbiter. Image is located in [[Oxia Palus quadrangle]].
Image:Uzboi Vallis.JPG|The long channel [[Nirgal Vallis]] is showed where it connects to [[Uzboi Vallis]]. The crater Luki is 21 km in diameter. Picture taken by [[THEMIS]].
Image:Nirgal Vallis.jpg|Nirgal Vallis, as seen by THEMIS.
Image:Nirgal Vallis Close-up.JPG|Nirgal Vallis Close-up, as seen by THEMIS
</gallery>

== Branched streams seen by Viking ==
The Viking Orbiters discovered much about water on Mars. Branched streams, studied by the Orbiters in the southern hemisphere, suggested that rain once fell.<ref name="Kieffer1992"/><ref name="Raeburn1998"/><ref name="Moore1990"/>

<gallery>
Image:Dissected Channels, as seen by Viking.jpg|The branched channels seen by Viking from orbit strongly suggested that it rained on Mars in the past. Image is located in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle
</gallery>

== Aureum Chaos ==
Aureum Chaos is a major canyon system and collapsed area. It is probably a major source of water for large outflow channels.

Large outflow channels on Mars are believed to be caused by catastrophic discharges of ground water. Many of the channels begin in chaotic terrain, where the ground has apparently collapsed. In the collapsed section, blocks of undisturbed material be seen. The OMEGA experiment on [[Mars Express]] discovered [[clay]] minerals ([[phyllosilicates]]) in a variety of places in Aureum Chaos. Clay minerals need water to form, so the area may once have contained large amounts of water.<ref>[http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_0040261765 (HiRISE image; Observation ID: PSP_0040261765)]</ref> Scientists are interested in determining what parts of Mars contained water because evidence of past or present life may be found there.

<gallery>
Image:Canyons and Mesas of Aureum Chaos in Oxia Palus.JPG|Huge canyons in [[Aureum Chaos]]. Gullies are rare at this latitude. Picture taken by THEMIS.
Image:Aureum Chaos from Themis.JPG|Aureum Chaos, as seen from THEMIS.
Image:ESP_024807whitebutte.jpg|Light toned butte on floor of crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Arrows show outcrops of light toned material. Light toned material is probably sulfate-rich and similar to material examined by Spirit Rover, and it once probably covered the whole floor. Other images below show enlargements of the butte.
Image:24807whitebutte.jpg|Light toned butte, as seen by HiRISE, under HiWish program.
Image:24807buttetop.jpg|Close up of top of light toned butte, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.
</gallery>

On April 1, 2010, NASA released the first images under the HiWish program, with the public suggesting places for HiRISE to photograph. One of the eight locations was Aureum Chaos.<ref>[http://www.uahirise.org/releases/hiwish-captions.php Captioned Images Inspired by HiWish Suggestions (HiRISE)]</ref> The first image below gives a wide view of the area. The next two images are from the HiRISE image.<ref>[http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/ESP_016869_1775 Mesas in Aureum Chaos (HiRISE image; Observation ID: ESP_016869_1775)]</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Aureum Chaos wide context.JPG|THEMIS image of wide view of following HiRISE images. Black box shows approximate location of HiRISE images. This image is just a part of the vast area known as Aureum Chaos. Click on image to see more details.
Image:Aureum Chaos wide view.JPG|Aureum Chaos, as seen by HiRISE, under the [[HiWish program]].
Image:Aureum Chaos HiWish.JPG|Close up view of previous image, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Small round dots are boulders.
</gallery>

== Mars Science Laboratory ==
Several sites in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle have been proposed as areas to send NASA's next major Mars rover, the [[Mars Science Laboratory]]. Both [[Holden (Martian crater)|Holden Crater]] and [[Eberswalde Crater]] made the cut to be among the top four.<ref>[http://www.space.com/8598-mars-rover-landing-site-narrowed-4-choices.html Next Mars Rover's Landing Site Narrowed to 4 Choices. JR Minkel, 15 June 2010 (SPACE.com)]</ref> [[Miyamoto Crater]] was in the top 7 sites chosen. Holden Crater is believed to have once been a lake. Actually, it is now believed that it held two lakes.<ref>Grant,J., et al. 2008. HiRISE imaging of impact megabreccia and sub-meter aqueous strata in Holden Crater, Mars. Geology. 36: 195-198.</ref> The first was longer lived and was formed from drainage within the crater and precipitation. The last lake began when water damed up in Uzboi Vallis broke through a divide, then rapidly drained into Holden Crater. Because there are rocks meters in diameter on the crater floor, it is thought it was a powerful flood when water flowed into the crater.<ref name="Cabrol, N 2010"/>

<gallery>
Image:Holden Crater Rim.jpg|West Rim of [[Holden (Martian crater)|Holden Crater]], as seen by THEMIS. Click on image to see more details.
Image:Holden Crater Close-up.JPG|Close-up of Channels on Rim of Holden Crater, as seen by THEMIS. Click on image to see more details.
</gallery>

Eberswalde Crater contains a [[River delta|delta]].<ref>[http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/11/21/mars-landing-sites-02.html NASA Narrows List of Next Mars Landing Sites. Irene Klotz, 21 November 2008. (Discovery News)]</ref> There is a great deal of evidence that Miyamoto Crater once contained rivers and lakes. Many minerals, such as clays, [[chloride]]s, [[sulfate]]s, and [[iron oxide]]s, have been discovered there.<ref>[http://www.planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/3964.pdf Murchie, S. et al. 2009. A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Journal of Geophysical Research: 114. ] {{doi|10.1029/2009JE003342}}</ref>
These minerals are often formed in water. A picture below shows an inverted channel in Miyamoto Crater. Inverted channels formed from accumulated sediments that were cemented by minerals. These channels eroded into the surface, then the whole area was covered over with sediments. When the sediments were later eroded away, the place where the river channel existed remained because the hardened material that was deposited in the channel was resistant to erosion.<ref>[http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/ HiRISE - High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment]</ref> [[Iani Chaos]], pictured below, was among the top 33 landing sites. Deposits of [[hematite]] and [[gypsum]] have been found there.<ref name="Iani_Chaos">[http://themis.mars.asu.edu/feature/31 The Floods of Iani Chaos (Mars Odyssey THEMIS)]</ref> Those minerals are usually formed in connection with water.

<gallery>
Image:Iani Chaos.JPG|[[Iani Chaos]], as seen by THEMIS. Sand from eroding mesas is covering brighter floor material. Click on image to see relationship of Iani Chaos to other local features.
Image:Landing zone in Iani Chaos.JPG|Landing zone in [[Iani Chaos]], as seen by THEMIS.
</gallery>

The aim of the [[Mars Science Laboratory]] is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return samples from sites that the [[Mars Science Laboratory]] identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12 mile wide, smooth, flat circle is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once ponded.<ref name="Iani_Chaos"/> They would like to examine sediment layers.

== Inverted relief ==
Some places on Mars show [[inverted relief]]. In these locations, a stream bed may be a raised feature, instead of a valley. The inverted former stream channels may be caused by the depositon of large rocks or due to cementation. In either case erosion would erode the surrounding land and leave the old channel as a raised ridge because the ridege will be more resistant to erosion. An image below, taken with [[HiRISE]] of [[Miyamoto Crater]] shows a ridge that is an old channel that has become inverted.<ref>[http://hiroc.lpl.arizona.edu/images/PSP/diafotizo.php?ID=PSP_002279_1735 Sinuous Ridges Near Aeolis Mensae (HiRISE image; Observation ID: PSP_002279_1735)]</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Miyamoto Crater.JPG| Inverted Channel in [[Miyamoto Crater]], as seen by [[HiRISE]]. The scale bar is 500 meters long.
Image:Inverted terrain context image.JPG|CTX context image for next image that was taken with HiRISE. Note long ridge going across image is probably an old stream. Box indicates area for HiRISE image.
Image:Inverted terrain in Parana Valles.JPG|Example of inverted terrain in [[Parana Valles]] region, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program.
</gallery>

== Deltas ==
Researchers have found a number of examples of deltas that formed in Martian lakes. Finding deltas is a major sign that Mars once had a lot of water. Deltas often require deep water over a long period of time to form. Also, the water level needs to be stable to keep sediment from washing away. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range. Below, are pictures of a few.<ref>[http://www.geo.brown.edu/geocourses/geo292/papers/Irwin2005-JGR-Lakes2005JE002460.pdf Irwin III, R. et al. 2005. An intense terminal epoch of widespread fluvial activity on early Mars: 2. Increased runoff and paleolake development. Journal of Geophysical Research: 10. E12S15]</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Delta in Margaritifer Sinus.jpg|Delta in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle as seen by THEMIS.
Image:Distributary fan-delta.jpg|Probable delta in [[Eberswalde Crater]] that lies to the NE of Holden Crater, as seen by Mars Global Surveyor. Image in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle.
</gallery>

==Craters==
Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak.<ref>[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/stones/ Stones, Wind, and Ice: A Guide to Martian Impact Craters. Compiled by Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil L. Sharpton]</ref> The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact.<ref name="Kieffer1992"/> Sometimes craters will display layers. Craters can show us what lies deep under the surface.

In December 2011, Opportunity Rover discovered a vein of gypsum sticking out of the soil along the rim of [[Endeavour crater]].. Tests confirmed that it contained calcium, sulfur, and water. The mineral gypsum is the best match for the data. It likely formed from mineral rich water moving through a crack in the rock. The vein, called "Homestake," is in Mars' Meridiani plain. It could have been produced in conditions more neutral than the harshly acidic conditions indicated by the other sulfate deposits; hence this environment may have been more hospitable for a large variety of living organisms. Homestake is in a zone where the sulfate-rich sedimentary bedrock of the plains meets older, volcanic bedrock exposed at the rim of Endeavour crater.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/dec/HQ_11-403_Mars_Rover_Gypsum.html</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Beer Crater.JPG|[[Beer (Martian crater)|Beer Crater]] eroded west wall, as seen by [[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter|CTX]].
Image:Alga Crater.JPG|Alga Crater, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see the relationship between Alga Crater and the larger Chekalin Crater.
Image:Timbuktu Crater.jpg|[[Timbuktu Crater]], located on the edge of Capri Chasma. Image taken with THEMIS.
</gallery>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:26996layeredwhitebuttes.jpg|Butte in Arsinoes Chaos with some light-toned layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.
File:ESP 028618 1760layers.jpg|Layered butte, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.
</gallery>

==See also==
{{colbegin|3}}
* [[Composition of Mars]]
* [[Geology of Mars]]
* [[Groundwater on Mars]]
* [[Impact crater]]
* [[List of quadrangles on Mars]]
* [[List of rocks on Mars]]
* [[Martian soil]]
* [[Opportunity Rover]]
* [[Scientific information from the Mars Exploration Rover mission]]
* [[Spirit rover]],
* [[Vallis]]
* [[Water on Mars]]
{{colend}}

== External links ==
*[http://marspans.com/vr/index.htm Walk around Spirit Rover]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Mars Quads - By Name}}
{{Mars quadrangle layout}}
{{Mars}}

{{portal bar|Mars}}

[[Category:Mars]]
[[Category:Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle|*]]

Margaritifer Sinus (Gradfeld)

2013-03-25T01:29:37Z

Rod57: /* What Opportunity Rover Discovered about Rocks and Minerals at Meridiani Planum */ [[

[[Image:Margaritifer Sinus Map.JPG|thumb|400px|Map of Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle with major features labeled. Capri Chasma and [[Eos Chasma]] are at the east end of the Mariner Valley.]]
The '''margaritifer Sinus [[quadrangle (geography)|quadrangle]]''' is one of a series of [[list of quadrangles on Mars|30 quadrangle maps of Mars]] used by the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) [[Astrogeology Research Program]]. The Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle is also referred to as MC-19 (Mars Chart-19).<ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992mars.conf..321D Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. "Geodesy and Cartography" in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. ''Mars.'' University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.]</ref>

The '''Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle''' covers the area from 0° to 45° west longitude and 0° to 30° south latitude on [[Mars]]. This quadrangle shows many signs of past water with evidence of lakes, deltas, ancient rivers, inverted channels, and chaos regions that released water.<ref>Grotzinger, J. and R. Milliken (eds.) 2012. Sedimentary Geology of Mars. SEPM</ref> Margaritifer Sinus contains some of the longest lake-chain systems on Mars, perhaps because of a wetter climate, more groundwater, or some of each factor. The Samara/Himera lake-chain system is about 1800 km long; the Parara/Loire valley network and lake-chain system is about 1100 km long.<ref>[http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103508002728 Fassett, C. and J. Head III. 2008. Valley network-fed, open-basin lakes on Mars: Distribution and implications for Noachian surface and subsurface hydrology. Icarus: 198. 39-56. ] {{doi|10.1016/j.icarus.2008.06.016}}</ref> A low area between [[Parana Valles]] and Loire Vallis is believed to have once held a lake.<ref>[http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103500964650 Goldspiel, J. and S. Squyres. 2000. Groundwater sapping and valley formation on Mars. Icarus. 89: 176-192. ] {{doi|10.1006/icar.2000.6465}}</ref><ref name="Carr2006">{{cite book|author=Michael H. Carr|title=The surface of Mars|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uLHlJ6sjohwC|accessdate=21 March 2011|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87201-0}}</ref> The 154 km diameter Holden Crater also once held a lake.<ref name="Cabrol, N 2010">Cabrol, N. and E. Grin (eds.). 2010. Lakes on Mars. Elsevier. NY.</ref> Near Holden Crater is a graben, called Erythraea Fossa, that once held a chain of three lakes.<ref>Buhler, P. et al. 2011. Evidence for palelakes in Erythracea Fossa, Mars: Implications for an ancient hydrological cycle. Icarus. 213: 104-115.</ref>

This region of Mars is famous because the [[Opportunity Rover]] landed there on January 25, 2004 at 1.94°S and 354.47°E (5.53° W).

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{{Wide image|Eagle_crater_on_the_Mars_PIA05163.jpg|1500px|This panorama of Eagle crater shows outcroppings which are thought to have water origins.}}

<gallery>
Image:Opportunity Rover by HiRISE.jpg|Opportunity Rover as seen by HiRISE on January 29, 2009. Opportunity is on its way to Endeavour Crater, 17 km away at this point (2.1° S and 354.5° E).
Image:MOLA opportunity.jpg|Location of Opportunity Rover on surface of Mars.
Image:PIA05229 label.jpg|Mars Global Surveyor [[orbiter]]'s photograph of landing site showing "[[Eagle (crater)|hole in one]]."
</gallery>

==What Opportunity Rover Discovered about Rocks and Minerals at Meridiani Planum==
[[File:Xpe pubeng approved 032304 color berry bowl-B060R1 br.jpg|thumb|left|The rock "Berry Bowl".]]
[[File:08-AY-3-shiny-B026R1 br.jpg|thumb|This image, taken by the microscopic imager, reveals shiny, spherical objects embedded within the trench wall]]
[[File:Blueberries eagle.gif|thumb|"Blueberries" (hematite spheres) on a rocky outcrop at Eagle Crater. Note the merged triplet in the upper left.]]

[[Opportunity Rover]] found that the soil at [[Meridiani Planum]] was very similar to the soil at [[Gusev crater]] and [[Ares Vallis]]; however in many places at Meridiani the soil was covered with round, hard, gray spherules that were named "blueberries."<ref name="Yen, A. 2005">Yen, A., et al. 2005. An integrated view of the chemistry and mineralogy of martian soils. Nature. 435.: 49-54.</ref> These blueberries were found to be composed almost entirely of the mineral [[hematite]]. It was decided that the spectra signal spotted from orbit by Mars Odyssey was produced by these spherules. After further study it was decided that the blueberries were concretions formed in the ground by water.<ref>Bell, J (ed.) The Martian Surface. 2008. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86698-9</ref> Over time, these concretions weathered from what was overlying rock, and then became concentrated on the surface as a [[lag deposit]]. The concentration of spherules in bedrock could have produced the observed blueberry covering from the weathering of as little as one meter of rock.<ref name="Squyres, S. 2004">Squyres, S. et al. 2004. The Opportunity Rover’s Athena Science Investigation at Meridiani Planum, Mars. Science: 1698-1703.</ref><ref>Soderblom, L., et al. 2004. Soils of [[Eagle Crater]] and Meridiani Planum at the Opportunity Rover Landing Site. Science: 306. 1723-1726.</ref> Most of the soil consisted of olivine basalt sands that did not come from the local rocks. The sand may have been transported from somewhere else.<ref>Christensen, P., et al. Mineralogy at Meridiani Planum from the Mini-TES Experiment on the Opportunity Rover. Science: 306. 1733-1739.</ref>

<gallery>
File:Meridianiblueberries.jpg|Drawing showing how "blueberries" came to cover much of surface in Meridiani Planum.
</gallery>

===Minerals in Dust===
A Mössbauer spectrum was made of the dust that gathered on Opportunity’s capture magnet. The results suggested that the magnetic component of the dust was titanomagnetite, rather than just plain [[magnetite]], as was once thought. A small amount of [[olivine]] was also detected which was interpreted as indicating a long arid period on the planet. On the other hand, a small amount of hematite that was present meant that there may have been liquid water for a short time in the early history of the planet.<ref>Goetz, W., et al. 2005. Indication of drier periods on Mars from the chemistry and mineralogy of atmospheric dust. Nature: 436.62-65.</ref>
Because the [[Rock Abrasion Tool]] (RAT) found it easy to grind into the bedrocks, it is thought that the rocks are much softer than the rocks at Gusev crater.

===Bedrock Minerals===
Few rocks were visible on the surface where Opportunity landed, but bedrock that was exposed in craters was examined by the suit of instruments on the Rover.<ref>Bell, J., et al. 2004. Pancam Multispectral Imaging Results from the Opportunity Rover at Meridiani Planum. Science: 306.1703-1708.</ref> Bedrock rocks were found to be sedimentary rocks with a high concentration of [[sulfur]] in the form of calcium and [[magnesium sulfate]]s. Some of the sulfates that may be present in bedrocks are [[kieserite]], sulfate anhydrate, bassanite, hexahydrite, [[epsomite]], and [[gypsum]]. [[Salt]]s, such as [[halite]], bischofite, antarcticite, bloedite, vanthoffite, or gluberite may also be present.<ref>Christensen, P., et al. 2004 Mineralogy at Meridiani Planum from the Mini-TES Experiment on the Opportunity Rover. Science: 306. 1733-1739.</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Squyres, S. et al. 2004. In Situ Evidence for an Ancient Aqueous Environment at Meridian Planum, Mars. Science: 306. 1709-1714.</ref>

The rocks contained the sulfates had a light tone compared to isolated rocks and rocks examined by landers/rovers at other locations on Mars. The spectra of these light toned rocks, containing hydrated sulfates, were similar to spectra taken by the [[Thermal Emission Spectrometer]] on board the [[Mars Global Surveyor]]. The same spectrum is found over a large area, so it is believed that water once appeared over a wide region, not just in the area explored by Opportunity Rover.<ref>Hynek, B. 2004. Implications for hydrologic processes on Mars from extensive bedrock outcrops throughout Terra Meridiani. Nature: 431. 156-159.</ref>

The [[Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer]] (APXS) found rather high levels of [[phosphorus]] in the rocks. Similar high levels were found by other rovers at [[Ares Vallis]] and [[Gusev Crater]], so it has been hypothesized that the mantle of Mars may be phosphorus-rich.<ref>Dreibus,G. and H. Wanke. 1987. Volatiles on Earth and Marsw: a comparison. Icarus. 71:225-240</ref> The minerals in the rocks could have originated by [[acid]] weathering of [[basalt]]. Because the solubility of phosphorus is related to the solubility of [[uranium]], [[thorium]], and [[rare earth elements]], they are all also expected to be enriched in rocks.<ref>Rieder, R., et al. 2004. Chemistry of Rocks and Soils at Meridiani Planum from the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer. Science. 306. 1746-1749</ref>

When Opportunity Rover traveled to the rim of [[Endeavour crater]], it soon found a white vein that was later identified as being pure gypsum.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mer/news/mer20111207.html</ref><ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/01/120125093619.htm</ref> It was formed when water carrying gypsum in solution deposited the mineral in a crack in the rock. A picture of this vein, called "Homestake" formation, is shown below.

{{Gallery
| lines = 2
| width = 200
| height = 120
| align = center
|File:PIA15034 Pancam sol2769 L257F.tif|"Homestake" formation
}}

===Evidence for Water===
[[File:LastChance D JG03-B058R1 br.jpg|thumb|left|Cross-bedding features in rock "Last Chance".]]
Examination of Meridiani rocks found strong evidence for past water. The mineral called jarosite which only forms in water was found in all bedrocks. This discovery proved that water once existed in Meridiani Planum<ref>Klingelhofer, G. et al. 2004. Jarosite and Hematite at Meridiani Planum from Opportunity’s Mossbauer Spectrometer. Science: 306. 1740-1745.</ref> In addition, some rocks showed small laminations (layers) with shapes that are only made by gently flowing water.<ref name="Herkenhoff, K. 2004">Herkenhoff, K., et al. 2004. Evidence from Opportunity’s Microscopic Imager for Water on Meridian Planum. Science: 306. 1727-1730</ref> The first such laminations were found in a rock called "The Dells." Geologists would say that the cross-stratification showed festoon geometry from transport in subaqueous ripples.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> A picture of cross-stratification, also called cross-bedding, is shown on the left.

Box-shaped holes in some rocks were caused by sulfates forming large crystals, and then when the crystals later dissolved, holes, called vugs, were left behind.<ref name="Herkenhoff, K. 2004"/> The concentration of the element [[bromine]] in rocks was highly variable probably because it is very soluble. Water may have concentrated it in places before it evaporated. Another mechanism for concentrating highly-soluble bromine compounds is frost deposition at night that would form very thin films of water that would concentrate bromine in certain spots.<ref name="Yen, A. 2005"/>

<gallery>
File:17-jg-03-mi2-B035R1_br.jpg|Voids or "vugs" inside the rock
</gallery>

===Rock from Impact===
One rock, "Bounce Rock," found sitting on the sandy plains was found to be ejecta from an impact crater. Its chemistry was different than the bedrocks. Containing mostly pyroxene and plagioclase and no olivine, it closely resembled a part, Lithology B, of the shergottite meteorite EETA 79001, a meteorite known to have come from Mars. Bounce rock received its name by being near an airbag bounce mark.<ref name="Squyres, S. 2004"/>

===Meteorites===
Opportunity Rover found meteorites just sitting on the plains. The first one analyzed with Opportunity’s instruments was called "Heatshield Rock," as it was found near where Opportunity’s headshield landed. Examination with the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer ([[Mini-TES]]), [[Mossbauer spectrometer]], and APXS lead researchers to, classify it as an [[IAB meteorites|IAB meteorite]]. The APXS determined it was composed of 93% [[iron]] and 7% [[nickel]]. The cobble named "Fig Tree Barberton" is thought to be a stony or stony-iron meteorite (mesosiderite silicate),<ref>Squyres, S., et al. 2009. Exploration of Victoria Crater by the Mars Rover Opportunity. Science: 1058-1061.</ref><ref>Schroder,C., et al. 2008. J. Geophys. Res: 113.</ref> while "Allan Hills," and "Zhong Shan" may be iron meteorites.

<center><gallery>
File:PIA07269-Mars Rover Opportunity-Iron Meteorite.jpg|Heat Shield Rock was the first meteorite ever identified on another planet.
File:Opportunity heat shield Sol335B P2364 L456-B339R1.jpg|Heat shield, with Heat Shield Rock just above and to the left in the background.
</gallery></center>

===Geological History===
Observations at the site have led scientists to believe that the area was flooded with water a number of times and was subjected to evaporation and desiccation.<ref name="Squyres, S. 2004"/> In the process sulfates were deposited. After sulfates cemented the sediments, hematite concretions grew by precipitation from groundwater. Some sulfates formed into large crystals which later dissolved to leave vugs. Several lines of evidence point toward an arid climate in the past billion years or so, but a climate supporting water, at least for a time, in the distant past.<ref>Clark, B. et al. Chemistry and mineralogy of outcrops at Meridiani Planum. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 240: 73-94.</ref>

==Vallis==
'''''Vallis''''' (plural ''valles'') is the [[Latin]] word for ''valley''. It is used in [[planetary geology]] for the naming of valley [[landform]] features on other planets.

Vallis was used for old river valleys that were discovered on Mars, when probes were first sent to Mars. The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Space craft cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.<ref name="Kieffer1992">{{cite book|author=Hugh H. Kieffer|title=Mars|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NoDvAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=7 March 2011|year=1992|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=978-0-8165-1257-7}}</ref><ref name="Raeburn1998">Raeburn, P. 1998. ''Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet Mars''. National Geographic Society. Washington, D.C.</ref><ref name="Moore1990">Moore, P. et al. 1990. '' The Atlas of the Solar System''. Mitchell Beazley Publishers, New York.</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Parana Valles.JPG|[[Parana Valles]], as seen by HiRISE. Scale bar is 1000 meters long.
image:Ladon Valles.JPG|[[Ladon Valles]], as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see dark and light-toned layers.
Image:Ravi Vallis.jpg|[[Ravi Vallis]], as seen by Viking Orbiter. Ravi Vallis was probably formed when catastrophic floods came out of the ground to the right (chaotic terrain). Image located in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle.
Image:Viking Teardrop Islands.jpg|Tear-drop shaped islands caused by flood waters from Maja Vallis, as seen by Viking Orbiter. Image is located in [[Oxia Palus quadrangle]].
Image:Uzboi Vallis.JPG|The long channel [[Nirgal Vallis]] is showed where it connects to [[Uzboi Vallis]]. The crater Luki is 21 km in diameter. Picture taken by [[THEMIS]].
Image:Nirgal Vallis.jpg|Nirgal Vallis, as seen by THEMIS.
Image:Nirgal Vallis Close-up.JPG|Nirgal Vallis Close-up, as seen by THEMIS
</gallery>

== Branched streams seen by Viking ==
The Viking Orbiters discovered much about water on Mars. Branched streams, studied by the Orbiters in the southern hemisphere, suggested that rain once fell.<ref name="Kieffer1992"/><ref name="Raeburn1998"/><ref name="Moore1990"/>

<gallery>
Image:Dissected Channels, as seen by Viking.jpg|The branched channels seen by Viking from orbit strongly suggested that it rained on Mars in the past. Image is located in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle
</gallery>

== Aureum Chaos ==
Aureum Chaos is a major canyon system and collapsed area. It is probably a major source of water for large outflow channels.

Large outflow channels on Mars are believed to be caused by catastrophic discharges of ground water. Many of the channels begin in chaotic terrain, where the ground has apparently collapsed. In the collapsed section, blocks of undisturbed material be seen. The OMEGA experiment on [[Mars Express]] discovered [[clay]] minerals ([[phyllosilicates]]) in a variety of places in Aureum Chaos. Clay minerals need water to form, so the area may once have contained large amounts of water.<ref>[http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_0040261765 (HiRISE image; Observation ID: PSP_0040261765)]</ref> Scientists are interested in determining what parts of Mars contained water because evidence of past or present life may be found there.

<gallery>
Image:Canyons and Mesas of Aureum Chaos in Oxia Palus.JPG|Huge canyons in [[Aureum Chaos]]. Gullies are rare at this latitude. Picture taken by THEMIS.
Image:Aureum Chaos from Themis.JPG|Aureum Chaos, as seen from THEMIS.
Image:ESP_024807whitebutte.jpg|Light toned butte on floor of crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Arrows show outcrops of light toned material. Light toned material is probably sulfate-rich and similar to material examined by Spirit Rover, and it once probably covered the whole floor. Other images below show enlargements of the butte.
Image:24807whitebutte.jpg|Light toned butte, as seen by HiRISE, under HiWish program.
Image:24807buttetop.jpg|Close up of top of light toned butte, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.
</gallery>

On April 1, 2010, NASA released the first images under the HiWish program, with the public suggesting places for HiRISE to photograph. One of the eight locations was Aureum Chaos.<ref>[http://www.uahirise.org/releases/hiwish-captions.php Captioned Images Inspired by HiWish Suggestions (HiRISE)]</ref> The first image below gives a wide view of the area. The next two images are from the HiRISE image.<ref>[http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/ESP_016869_1775 Mesas in Aureum Chaos (HiRISE image; Observation ID: ESP_016869_1775)]</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Aureum Chaos wide context.JPG|THEMIS image of wide view of following HiRISE images. Black box shows approximate location of HiRISE images. This image is just a part of the vast area known as Aureum Chaos. Click on image to see more details.
Image:Aureum Chaos wide view.JPG|Aureum Chaos, as seen by HiRISE, under the [[HiWish program]].
Image:Aureum Chaos HiWish.JPG|Close up view of previous image, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Small round dots are boulders.
</gallery>

== Mars Science Laboratory ==
Several sites in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle have been proposed as areas to send NASA's next major Mars rover, the [[Mars Science Laboratory]]. Both [[Holden (Martian crater)|Holden Crater]] and [[Eberswalde Crater]] made the cut to be among the top four.<ref>[http://www.space.com/8598-mars-rover-landing-site-narrowed-4-choices.html Next Mars Rover's Landing Site Narrowed to 4 Choices. JR Minkel, 15 June 2010 (SPACE.com)]</ref> [[Miyamoto Crater]] was in the top 7 sites chosen. Holden Crater is believed to have once been a lake. Actually, it is now believed that it held two lakes.<ref>Grant,J., et al. 2008. HiRISE imaging of impact megabreccia and sub-meter aqueous strata in Holden Crater, Mars. Geology. 36: 195-198.</ref> The first was longer lived and was formed from drainage within the crater and precipitation. The last lake began when water damed up in Uzboi Vallis broke through a divide, then rapidly drained into Holden Crater. Because there are rocks meters in diameter on the crater floor, it is thought it was a powerful flood when water flowed into the crater.<ref name="Cabrol, N 2010"/>

<gallery>
Image:Holden Crater Rim.jpg|West Rim of [[Holden (Martian crater)|Holden Crater]], as seen by THEMIS. Click on image to see more details.
Image:Holden Crater Close-up.JPG|Close-up of Channels on Rim of Holden Crater, as seen by THEMIS. Click on image to see more details.
</gallery>

Eberswalde Crater contains a [[River delta|delta]].<ref>[http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/11/21/mars-landing-sites-02.html NASA Narrows List of Next Mars Landing Sites. Irene Klotz, 21 November 2008. (Discovery News)]</ref> There is a great deal of evidence that Miyamoto Crater once contained rivers and lakes. Many minerals, such as clays, [[chloride]]s, [[sulfate]]s, and [[iron oxide]]s, have been discovered there.<ref>[http://www.planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/3964.pdf Murchie, S. et al. 2009. A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Journal of Geophysical Research: 114. ] {{doi|10.1029/2009JE003342}}</ref>
These minerals are often formed in water. A picture below shows an inverted channel in Miyamoto Crater. Inverted channels formed from accumulated sediments that were cemented by minerals. These channels eroded into the surface, then the whole area was covered over with sediments. When the sediments were later eroded away, the place where the river channel existed remained because the hardened material that was deposited in the channel was resistant to erosion.<ref>[http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/ HiRISE - High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment]</ref> [[Iani Chaos]], pictured below, was among the top 33 landing sites. Deposits of [[hematite]] and [[gypsum]] have been found there.<ref name="Iani_Chaos">[http://themis.mars.asu.edu/feature/31 The Floods of Iani Chaos (Mars Odyssey THEMIS)]</ref> Those minerals are usually formed in connection with water.

<gallery>
Image:Iani Chaos.JPG|[[Iani Chaos]], as seen by THEMIS. Sand from eroding mesas is covering brighter floor material. Click on image to see relationship of Iani Chaos to other local features.
Image:Landing zone in Iani Chaos.JPG|Landing zone in [[Iani Chaos]], as seen by THEMIS.
</gallery>

The aim of the [[Mars Science Laboratory]] is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return samples from sites that the [[Mars Science Laboratory]] identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12 mile wide, smooth, flat circle is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once ponded.<ref name="Iani_Chaos"/> They would like to examine sediment layers.

== Inverted relief ==
Some places on Mars show [[inverted relief]]. In these locations, a stream bed may be a raised feature, instead of a valley. The inverted former stream channels may be caused by the depositon of large rocks or due to cementation. In either case erosion would erode the surrounding land and leave the old channel as a raised ridge because the ridege will be more resistant to erosion. An image below, taken with [[HiRISE]] of [[Miyamoto Crater]] shows a ridge that is an old channel that has become inverted.<ref>[http://hiroc.lpl.arizona.edu/images/PSP/diafotizo.php?ID=PSP_002279_1735 Sinuous Ridges Near Aeolis Mensae (HiRISE image; Observation ID: PSP_002279_1735)]</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Miyamoto Crater.JPG| Inverted Channel in [[Miyamoto Crater]], as seen by [[HiRISE]]. The scale bar is 500 meters long.
Image:Inverted terrain context image.JPG|CTX context image for next image that was taken with HiRISE. Note long ridge going across image is probably an old stream. Box indicates area for HiRISE image.
Image:Inverted terrain in Parana Valles.JPG|Example of inverted terrain in [[Parana Valles]] region, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program.
</gallery>

== Deltas ==
Researchers have found a number of examples of deltas that formed in Martian lakes. Finding deltas is a major sign that Mars once had a lot of water. Deltas often require deep water over a long period of time to form. Also, the water level needs to be stable to keep sediment from washing away. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range. Below, are pictures of a few.<ref>[http://www.geo.brown.edu/geocourses/geo292/papers/Irwin2005-JGR-Lakes2005JE002460.pdf Irwin III, R. et al. 2005. An intense terminal epoch of widespread fluvial activity on early Mars: 2. Increased runoff and paleolake development. Journal of Geophysical Research: 10. E12S15]</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Delta in Margaritifer Sinus.jpg|Delta in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle as seen by THEMIS.
Image:Distributary fan-delta.jpg|Probable delta in [[Eberswalde Crater]] that lies to the NE of Holden Crater, as seen by Mars Global Surveyor. Image in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle.
</gallery>

==Craters==
Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak.<ref>[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/stones/ Stones, Wind, and Ice: A Guide to Martian Impact Craters. Compiled by Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil L. Sharpton]</ref> The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact.<ref name="Kieffer1992"/> Sometimes craters will display layers. Craters can show us what lies deep under the surface.

In December 2011, Opportunity Rover discovered a vein of gypsum sticking out of the soil along the rim of [[Endeavour crater]].. Tests confirmed that it contained calcium, sulfur, and water. The mineral gypsum is the best match for the data. It likely formed from mineral rich water moving through a crack in the rock. The vein, called "Homestake," is in Mars' Meridiani plain. It could have been produced in conditions more neutral than the harshly acidic conditions indicated by the other sulfate deposits; hence this environment may have been more hospitable for a large variety of living organisms. Homestake is in a zone where the sulfate-rich sedimentary bedrock of the plains meets older, volcanic bedrock exposed at the rim of Endeavour crater.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/dec/HQ_11-403_Mars_Rover_Gypsum.html</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Beer Crater.JPG|[[Beer (Martian crater)|Beer Crater]] eroded west wall, as seen by [[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter|CTX]].
Image:Alga Crater.JPG|Alga Crater, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see the relationship between Alga Crater and the larger Chekalin Crater.
Image:Timbuktu Crater.jpg|[[Timbuktu Crater]], located on the edge of Capri Chasma. Image taken with THEMIS.
</gallery>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:26996layeredwhitebuttes.jpg|Butte in Arsinoes Chaos with some light-toned layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.
File:ESP 028618 1760layers.jpg|Layered butte, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Composition of Mars]]
* [[Geology of Mars]]
* [[Groundwater on Mars]]
* [[Impact crater]]
* [[List of quadrangles on Mars]]
* [[List of rocks on Mars]]
* [[Martian soil]]
* [[Opportunity Rover]]
* [[Scientific information from the Mars Exploration Rover mission]]
* [[Spirit rover]],
* [[Vallis]]
* [[Water on Mars]]

== External links ==
*[http://marspans.com/vr/index.htm Walk around Spirit Rover]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Mars Quads - By Name}}
{{Mars quadrangle layout}}
{{Mars}}

{{portal bar|Mars}}

[[Category:Mars]]
[[Category:Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle|*]]

Margaritifer Sinus (Gradfeld)

2013-03-25T01:24:12Z

Rod57: /* What Opportunity Rover Discovered about Rocks and Minerals at Meridiani Planum */ [[

[[Image:Margaritifer Sinus Map.JPG|thumb|400px|Map of Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle with major features labeled. Capri Chasma and [[Eos Chasma]] are at the east end of the Mariner Valley.]]
The '''margaritifer Sinus [[quadrangle (geography)|quadrangle]]''' is one of a series of [[list of quadrangles on Mars|30 quadrangle maps of Mars]] used by the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) [[Astrogeology Research Program]]. The Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle is also referred to as MC-19 (Mars Chart-19).<ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992mars.conf..321D Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. "Geodesy and Cartography" in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. ''Mars.'' University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.]</ref>

The '''Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle''' covers the area from 0° to 45° west longitude and 0° to 30° south latitude on [[Mars]]. This quadrangle shows many signs of past water with evidence of lakes, deltas, ancient rivers, inverted channels, and chaos regions that released water.<ref>Grotzinger, J. and R. Milliken (eds.) 2012. Sedimentary Geology of Mars. SEPM</ref> Margaritifer Sinus contains some of the longest lake-chain systems on Mars, perhaps because of a wetter climate, more groundwater, or some of each factor. The Samara/Himera lake-chain system is about 1800 km long; the Parara/Loire valley network and lake-chain system is about 1100 km long.<ref>[http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103508002728 Fassett, C. and J. Head III. 2008. Valley network-fed, open-basin lakes on Mars: Distribution and implications for Noachian surface and subsurface hydrology. Icarus: 198. 39-56. ] {{doi|10.1016/j.icarus.2008.06.016}}</ref> A low area between [[Parana Valles]] and Loire Vallis is believed to have once held a lake.<ref>[http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103500964650 Goldspiel, J. and S. Squyres. 2000. Groundwater sapping and valley formation on Mars. Icarus. 89: 176-192. ] {{doi|10.1006/icar.2000.6465}}</ref><ref name="Carr2006">{{cite book|author=Michael H. Carr|title=The surface of Mars|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uLHlJ6sjohwC|accessdate=21 March 2011|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87201-0}}</ref> The 154 km diameter Holden Crater also once held a lake.<ref name="Cabrol, N 2010">Cabrol, N. and E. Grin (eds.). 2010. Lakes on Mars. Elsevier. NY.</ref> Near Holden Crater is a graben, called Erythraea Fossa, that once held a chain of three lakes.<ref>Buhler, P. et al. 2011. Evidence for palelakes in Erythracea Fossa, Mars: Implications for an ancient hydrological cycle. Icarus. 213: 104-115.</ref>

This region of Mars is famous because the [[Opportunity Rover]] landed there on January 25, 2004 at 1.94°S and 354.47°E (5.53° W).

__TOC__
{{Wide image|Eagle_crater_on_the_Mars_PIA05163.jpg|1500px|This panorama of Eagle crater shows outcroppings which are thought to have water origins.}}

<gallery>
Image:Opportunity Rover by HiRISE.jpg|Opportunity Rover as seen by HiRISE on January 29, 2009. Opportunity is on its way to Endeavour Crater, 17 km away at this point (2.1° S and 354.5° E).
Image:MOLA opportunity.jpg|Location of Opportunity Rover on surface of Mars.
Image:PIA05229 label.jpg|Mars Global Surveyor [[orbiter]]'s photograph of landing site showing "[[Eagle (crater)|hole in one]]."
</gallery>

==What Opportunity Rover Discovered about Rocks and Minerals at Meridiani Planum==
[[File:Xpe pubeng approved 032304 color berry bowl-B060R1 br.jpg|thumb|left|The rock "Berry Bowl".]]
[[File:08-AY-3-shiny-B026R1 br.jpg|thumb|This image, taken by the microscopic imager, reveals shiny, spherical objects embedded within the trench wall]]
[[File:Blueberries eagle.gif|thumb|"Blueberries" (hematite spheres) on a rocky outcrop at Eagle Crater. Note the merged triplet in the upper left.]]

[[Opportunity Rover]] found that the soil at [[Meridiani Planum]] was very similar to the soil at [[Gusev crater]] and [[Ares Vallis]]; however in many places at Meridiani the soil was covered with round, hard, gray spherules that were named "blueberries."<ref name="Yen, A. 2005">Yen, A., et al. 2005. An integrated view of the chemistry and mineralogy of martian soils. Nature. 435.: 49-54.</ref> These blueberries were found to be composed almost entirely of the mineral [[hematite]]. It was decided that the spectra signal spotted from orbit by Mars Odyssey was produced by these spherules. After further study it was decided that the blueberries were concretions formed in the ground by water.<ref>Bell, J (ed.) The Martian Surface. 2008. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86698-9</ref> Over time, these concretions weathered from what was overlying rock, and then became concentrated on the surface as a lag deposit. The concentration of spherules in bedrock could have produced the observed blueberry covering from the weathering of as little as one meter of rock.<ref name="Squyres, S. 2004">Squyres, S. et al. 2004. The Opportunity Rover’s Athena Science Investigation at Meridiani Planum, Mars. Science: 1698-1703.</ref><ref>Soderblom, L., et al. 2004. Soils of [[Eagle Crater]] and Meridiani Planum at the Opportunity Rover Landing Site. Science: 306. 1723-1726.</ref> Most of the soil consisted of olivine basalt sands that did not come from the local rocks. The sand may have been transported from somewhere else.<ref>Christensen, P., et al. Mineralogy at Meridiani Planum from the Mini-TES Experiment on the Opportunity Rover. Science: 306. 1733-1739.</ref>

<gallery>
File:Meridianiblueberries.jpg|Drawing showing how "blueberries" came to cover much of surface in Meridiani Planum.
</gallery>

===Minerals in Dust===
A Mössbauer spectrum was made of the dust that gathered on Opportunity’s capture magnet. The results suggested that the magnetic component of the dust was titanomagnetite, rather than just plain [[magnetite]], as was once thought. A small amount of [[olivine]] was also detected which was interpreted as indicating a long arid period on the planet. On the other hand, a small amount of hematite that was present meant that there may have been liquid water for a short time in the early history of the planet.<ref>Goetz, W., et al. 2005. Indication of drier periods on Mars from the chemistry and mineralogy of atmospheric dust. Nature: 436.62-65.</ref>
Because the [[Rock Abrasion Tool]] (RAT) found it easy to grind into the bedrocks, it is thought that the rocks are much softer than the rocks at Gusev crater.

===Bedrock Minerals===
Few rocks were visible on the surface where Opportunity landed, but bedrock that was exposed in craters was examined by the suit of instruments on the Rover.<ref>Bell, J., et al. 2004. Pancam Multispectral Imaging Results from the Opportunity Rover at Meridiani Planum. Science: 306.1703-1708.</ref> Bedrock rocks were found to be sedimentary rocks with a high concentration of [[sulfur]] in the form of calcium and [[magnesium sulfate]]s. Some of the sulfates that may be present in bedrocks are [[kieserite]], sulfate anhydrate, bassanite, hexahydrite, [[epsomite]], and [[gypsum]]. [[Salt]]s, such as [[halite]], bischofite, antarcticite, bloedite, vanthoffite, or gluberite may also be present.<ref>Christensen, P., et al. 2004 Mineralogy at Meridiani Planum from the Mini-TES Experiment on the Opportunity Rover. Science: 306. 1733-1739.</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Squyres, S. et al. 2004. In Situ Evidence for an Ancient Aqueous Environment at Meridian Planum, Mars. Science: 306. 1709-1714.</ref>

The rocks contained the sulfates had a light tone compared to isolated rocks and rocks examined by landers/rovers at other locations on Mars. The spectra of these light toned rocks, containing hydrated sulfates, were similar to spectra taken by the [[Thermal Emission Spectrometer]] on board the [[Mars Global Surveyor]]. The same spectrum is found over a large area, so it is believed that water once appeared over a wide region, not just in the area explored by Opportunity Rover.<ref>Hynek, B. 2004. Implications for hydrologic processes on Mars from extensive bedrock outcrops throughout Terra Meridiani. Nature: 431. 156-159.</ref>

The [[Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer]] (APXS) found rather high levels of [[phosphorus]] in the rocks. Similar high levels were found by other rovers at [[Ares Vallis]] and [[Gusev Crater]], so it has been hypothesized that the mantle of Mars may be phosphorus-rich.<ref>Dreibus,G. and H. Wanke. 1987. Volatiles on Earth and Marsw: a comparison. Icarus. 71:225-240</ref> The minerals in the rocks could have originated by [[acid]] weathering of [[basalt]]. Because the solubility of phosphorus is related to the solubility of [[uranium]], [[thorium]], and [[rare earth elements]], they are all also expected to be enriched in rocks.<ref>Rieder, R., et al. 2004. Chemistry of Rocks and Soils at Meridiani Planum from the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer. Science. 306. 1746-1749</ref>

When Opportunity Rover traveled to the rim of [[Endeavour crater]], it soon found a white vein that was later identified as being pure gypsum.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mer/news/mer20111207.html</ref><ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/01/120125093619.htm</ref> It was formed when water carrying gypsum in solution deposited the mineral in a crack in the rock. A picture of this vein, called "Homestake" formation, is shown below.

{{Gallery
| lines = 2
| width = 200
| height = 120
| align = center
|File:PIA15034 Pancam sol2769 L257F.tif|"Homestake" formation
}}

===Evidence for Water===
[[File:LastChance D JG03-B058R1 br.jpg|thumb|left|Cross-bedding features in rock "Last Chance".]]
Examination of Meridiani rocks found strong evidence for past water. The mineral called jarosite which only forms in water was found in all bedrocks. This discovery proved that water once existed in Meridiani Planum<ref>Klingelhofer, G. et al. 2004. Jarosite and Hematite at Meridiani Planum from Opportunity’s Mossbauer Spectrometer. Science: 306. 1740-1745.</ref> In addition, some rocks showed small laminations (layers) with shapes that are only made by gently flowing water.<ref name="Herkenhoff, K. 2004">Herkenhoff, K., et al. 2004. Evidence from Opportunity’s Microscopic Imager for Water on Meridian Planum. Science: 306. 1727-1730</ref> The first such laminations were found in a rock called "The Dells." Geologists would say that the cross-stratification showed festoon geometry from transport in subaqueous ripples.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> A picture of cross-stratification, also called cross-bedding, is shown on the left.

Box-shaped holes in some rocks were caused by sulfates forming large crystals, and then when the crystals later dissolved, holes, called vugs, were left behind.<ref name="Herkenhoff, K. 2004"/> The concentration of the element [[bromine]] in rocks was highly variable probably because it is very soluble. Water may have concentrated it in places before it evaporated. Another mechanism for concentrating highly-soluble bromine compounds is frost deposition at night that would form very thin films of water that would concentrate bromine in certain spots.<ref name="Yen, A. 2005"/>

<gallery>
File:17-jg-03-mi2-B035R1_br.jpg|Voids or "vugs" inside the rock
</gallery>

===Rock from Impact===
One rock, "Bounce Rock," found sitting on the sandy plains was found to be ejecta from an impact crater. Its chemistry was different than the bedrocks. Containing mostly pyroxene and plagioclase and no olivine, it closely resembled a part, Lithology B, of the shergottite meteorite EETA 79001, a meteorite known to have come from Mars. Bounce rock received its name by being near an airbag bounce mark.<ref name="Squyres, S. 2004"/>

===Meteorites===
Opportunity Rover found meteorites just sitting on the plains. The first one analyzed with Opportunity’s instruments was called "Heatshield Rock," as it was found near where Opportunity’s headshield landed. Examination with the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer ([[Mini-TES]]), [[Mossbauer spectrometer]], and APXS lead researchers to, classify it as an [[IAB meteorites|IAB meteorite]]. The APXS determined it was composed of 93% [[iron]] and 7% [[nickel]]. The cobble named "Fig Tree Barberton" is thought to be a stony or stony-iron meteorite (mesosiderite silicate),<ref>Squyres, S., et al. 2009. Exploration of Victoria Crater by the Mars Rover Opportunity. Science: 1058-1061.</ref><ref>Schroder,C., et al. 2008. J. Geophys. Res: 113.</ref> while "Allan Hills," and "Zhong Shan" may be iron meteorites.

<center><gallery>
File:PIA07269-Mars Rover Opportunity-Iron Meteorite.jpg|Heat Shield Rock was the first meteorite ever identified on another planet.
File:Opportunity heat shield Sol335B P2364 L456-B339R1.jpg|Heat shield, with Heat Shield Rock just above and to the left in the background.
</gallery></center>

===Geological History===
Observations at the site have led scientists to believe that the area was flooded with water a number of times and was subjected to evaporation and desiccation.<ref name="Squyres, S. 2004"/> In the process sulfates were deposited. After sulfates cemented the sediments, hematite concretions grew by precipitation from groundwater. Some sulfates formed into large crystals which later dissolved to leave vugs. Several lines of evidence point toward an arid climate in the past billion years or so, but a climate supporting water, at least for a time, in the distant past.<ref>Clark, B. et al. Chemistry and mineralogy of outcrops at Meridiani Planum. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 240: 73-94.</ref>

==Vallis==
'''''Vallis''''' (plural ''valles'') is the [[Latin]] word for ''valley''. It is used in [[planetary geology]] for the naming of valley [[landform]] features on other planets.

Vallis was used for old river valleys that were discovered on Mars, when probes were first sent to Mars. The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Space craft cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.<ref name="Kieffer1992">{{cite book|author=Hugh H. Kieffer|title=Mars|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NoDvAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=7 March 2011|year=1992|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=978-0-8165-1257-7}}</ref><ref name="Raeburn1998">Raeburn, P. 1998. ''Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet Mars''. National Geographic Society. Washington, D.C.</ref><ref name="Moore1990">Moore, P. et al. 1990. '' The Atlas of the Solar System''. Mitchell Beazley Publishers, New York.</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Parana Valles.JPG|[[Parana Valles]], as seen by HiRISE. Scale bar is 1000 meters long.
image:Ladon Valles.JPG|[[Ladon Valles]], as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see dark and light-toned layers.
Image:Ravi Vallis.jpg|[[Ravi Vallis]], as seen by Viking Orbiter. Ravi Vallis was probably formed when catastrophic floods came out of the ground to the right (chaotic terrain). Image located in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle.
Image:Viking Teardrop Islands.jpg|Tear-drop shaped islands caused by flood waters from Maja Vallis, as seen by Viking Orbiter. Image is located in [[Oxia Palus quadrangle]].
Image:Uzboi Vallis.JPG|The long channel [[Nirgal Vallis]] is showed where it connects to [[Uzboi Vallis]]. The crater Luki is 21 km in diameter. Picture taken by [[THEMIS]].
Image:Nirgal Vallis.jpg|Nirgal Vallis, as seen by THEMIS.
Image:Nirgal Vallis Close-up.JPG|Nirgal Vallis Close-up, as seen by THEMIS
</gallery>

== Branched streams seen by Viking ==
The Viking Orbiters discovered much about water on Mars. Branched streams, studied by the Orbiters in the southern hemisphere, suggested that rain once fell.<ref name="Kieffer1992"/><ref name="Raeburn1998"/><ref name="Moore1990"/>

<gallery>
Image:Dissected Channels, as seen by Viking.jpg|The branched channels seen by Viking from orbit strongly suggested that it rained on Mars in the past. Image is located in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle
</gallery>

== Aureum Chaos ==
Aureum Chaos is a major canyon system and collapsed area. It is probably a major source of water for large outflow channels.

Large outflow channels on Mars are believed to be caused by catastrophic discharges of ground water. Many of the channels begin in chaotic terrain, where the ground has apparently collapsed. In the collapsed section, blocks of undisturbed material be seen. The OMEGA experiment on [[Mars Express]] discovered [[clay]] minerals ([[phyllosilicates]]) in a variety of places in Aureum Chaos. Clay minerals need water to form, so the area may once have contained large amounts of water.<ref>[http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_0040261765 (HiRISE image; Observation ID: PSP_0040261765)]</ref> Scientists are interested in determining what parts of Mars contained water because evidence of past or present life may be found there.

<gallery>
Image:Canyons and Mesas of Aureum Chaos in Oxia Palus.JPG|Huge canyons in [[Aureum Chaos]]. Gullies are rare at this latitude. Picture taken by THEMIS.
Image:Aureum Chaos from Themis.JPG|Aureum Chaos, as seen from THEMIS.
Image:ESP_024807whitebutte.jpg|Light toned butte on floor of crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Arrows show outcrops of light toned material. Light toned material is probably sulfate-rich and similar to material examined by Spirit Rover, and it once probably covered the whole floor. Other images below show enlargements of the butte.
Image:24807whitebutte.jpg|Light toned butte, as seen by HiRISE, under HiWish program.
Image:24807buttetop.jpg|Close up of top of light toned butte, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.
</gallery>

On April 1, 2010, NASA released the first images under the HiWish program, with the public suggesting places for HiRISE to photograph. One of the eight locations was Aureum Chaos.<ref>[http://www.uahirise.org/releases/hiwish-captions.php Captioned Images Inspired by HiWish Suggestions (HiRISE)]</ref> The first image below gives a wide view of the area. The next two images are from the HiRISE image.<ref>[http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/ESP_016869_1775 Mesas in Aureum Chaos (HiRISE image; Observation ID: ESP_016869_1775)]</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Aureum Chaos wide context.JPG|THEMIS image of wide view of following HiRISE images. Black box shows approximate location of HiRISE images. This image is just a part of the vast area known as Aureum Chaos. Click on image to see more details.
Image:Aureum Chaos wide view.JPG|Aureum Chaos, as seen by HiRISE, under the [[HiWish program]].
Image:Aureum Chaos HiWish.JPG|Close up view of previous image, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Small round dots are boulders.
</gallery>

== Mars Science Laboratory ==
Several sites in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle have been proposed as areas to send NASA's next major Mars rover, the [[Mars Science Laboratory]]. Both [[Holden (Martian crater)|Holden Crater]] and [[Eberswalde Crater]] made the cut to be among the top four.<ref>[http://www.space.com/8598-mars-rover-landing-site-narrowed-4-choices.html Next Mars Rover's Landing Site Narrowed to 4 Choices. JR Minkel, 15 June 2010 (SPACE.com)]</ref> [[Miyamoto Crater]] was in the top 7 sites chosen. Holden Crater is believed to have once been a lake. Actually, it is now believed that it held two lakes.<ref>Grant,J., et al. 2008. HiRISE imaging of impact megabreccia and sub-meter aqueous strata in Holden Crater, Mars. Geology. 36: 195-198.</ref> The first was longer lived and was formed from drainage within the crater and precipitation. The last lake began when water damed up in Uzboi Vallis broke through a divide, then rapidly drained into Holden Crater. Because there are rocks meters in diameter on the crater floor, it is thought it was a powerful flood when water flowed into the crater.<ref name="Cabrol, N 2010"/>

<gallery>
Image:Holden Crater Rim.jpg|West Rim of [[Holden (Martian crater)|Holden Crater]], as seen by THEMIS. Click on image to see more details.
Image:Holden Crater Close-up.JPG|Close-up of Channels on Rim of Holden Crater, as seen by THEMIS. Click on image to see more details.
</gallery>

Eberswalde Crater contains a [[River delta|delta]].<ref>[http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/11/21/mars-landing-sites-02.html NASA Narrows List of Next Mars Landing Sites. Irene Klotz, 21 November 2008. (Discovery News)]</ref> There is a great deal of evidence that Miyamoto Crater once contained rivers and lakes. Many minerals, such as clays, [[chloride]]s, [[sulfate]]s, and [[iron oxide]]s, have been discovered there.<ref>[http://www.planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/3964.pdf Murchie, S. et al. 2009. A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Journal of Geophysical Research: 114. ] {{doi|10.1029/2009JE003342}}</ref>
These minerals are often formed in water. A picture below shows an inverted channel in Miyamoto Crater. Inverted channels formed from accumulated sediments that were cemented by minerals. These channels eroded into the surface, then the whole area was covered over with sediments. When the sediments were later eroded away, the place where the river channel existed remained because the hardened material that was deposited in the channel was resistant to erosion.<ref>[http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/ HiRISE - High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment]</ref> [[Iani Chaos]], pictured below, was among the top 33 landing sites. Deposits of [[hematite]] and [[gypsum]] have been found there.<ref name="Iani_Chaos">[http://themis.mars.asu.edu/feature/31 The Floods of Iani Chaos (Mars Odyssey THEMIS)]</ref> Those minerals are usually formed in connection with water.

<gallery>
Image:Iani Chaos.JPG|[[Iani Chaos]], as seen by THEMIS. Sand from eroding mesas is covering brighter floor material. Click on image to see relationship of Iani Chaos to other local features.
Image:Landing zone in Iani Chaos.JPG|Landing zone in [[Iani Chaos]], as seen by THEMIS.
</gallery>

The aim of the [[Mars Science Laboratory]] is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return samples from sites that the [[Mars Science Laboratory]] identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12 mile wide, smooth, flat circle is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once ponded.<ref name="Iani_Chaos"/> They would like to examine sediment layers.

== Inverted relief ==
Some places on Mars show [[inverted relief]]. In these locations, a stream bed may be a raised feature, instead of a valley. The inverted former stream channels may be caused by the depositon of large rocks or due to cementation. In either case erosion would erode the surrounding land and leave the old channel as a raised ridge because the ridege will be more resistant to erosion. An image below, taken with [[HiRISE]] of [[Miyamoto Crater]] shows a ridge that is an old channel that has become inverted.<ref>[http://hiroc.lpl.arizona.edu/images/PSP/diafotizo.php?ID=PSP_002279_1735 Sinuous Ridges Near Aeolis Mensae (HiRISE image; Observation ID: PSP_002279_1735)]</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Miyamoto Crater.JPG| Inverted Channel in [[Miyamoto Crater]], as seen by [[HiRISE]]. The scale bar is 500 meters long.
Image:Inverted terrain context image.JPG|CTX context image for next image that was taken with HiRISE. Note long ridge going across image is probably an old stream. Box indicates area for HiRISE image.
Image:Inverted terrain in Parana Valles.JPG|Example of inverted terrain in [[Parana Valles]] region, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program.
</gallery>

== Deltas ==
Researchers have found a number of examples of deltas that formed in Martian lakes. Finding deltas is a major sign that Mars once had a lot of water. Deltas often require deep water over a long period of time to form. Also, the water level needs to be stable to keep sediment from washing away. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range. Below, are pictures of a few.<ref>[http://www.geo.brown.edu/geocourses/geo292/papers/Irwin2005-JGR-Lakes2005JE002460.pdf Irwin III, R. et al. 2005. An intense terminal epoch of widespread fluvial activity on early Mars: 2. Increased runoff and paleolake development. Journal of Geophysical Research: 10. E12S15]</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Delta in Margaritifer Sinus.jpg|Delta in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle as seen by THEMIS.
Image:Distributary fan-delta.jpg|Probable delta in [[Eberswalde Crater]] that lies to the NE of Holden Crater, as seen by Mars Global Surveyor. Image in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle.
</gallery>

==Craters==
Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak.<ref>[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/stones/ Stones, Wind, and Ice: A Guide to Martian Impact Craters. Compiled by Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil L. Sharpton]</ref> The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact.<ref name="Kieffer1992"/> Sometimes craters will display layers. Craters can show us what lies deep under the surface.

In December 2011, Opportunity Rover discovered a vein of gypsum sticking out of the soil along the rim of [[Endeavour crater]].. Tests confirmed that it contained calcium, sulfur, and water. The mineral gypsum is the best match for the data. It likely formed from mineral rich water moving through a crack in the rock. The vein, called "Homestake," is in Mars' Meridiani plain. It could have been produced in conditions more neutral than the harshly acidic conditions indicated by the other sulfate deposits; hence this environment may have been more hospitable for a large variety of living organisms. Homestake is in a zone where the sulfate-rich sedimentary bedrock of the plains meets older, volcanic bedrock exposed at the rim of Endeavour crater.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/dec/HQ_11-403_Mars_Rover_Gypsum.html</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Beer Crater.JPG|[[Beer (Martian crater)|Beer Crater]] eroded west wall, as seen by [[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter|CTX]].
Image:Alga Crater.JPG|Alga Crater, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see the relationship between Alga Crater and the larger Chekalin Crater.
Image:Timbuktu Crater.jpg|[[Timbuktu Crater]], located on the edge of Capri Chasma. Image taken with THEMIS.
</gallery>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:26996layeredwhitebuttes.jpg|Butte in Arsinoes Chaos with some light-toned layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.
File:ESP 028618 1760layers.jpg|Layered butte, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Composition of Mars]]
* [[Geology of Mars]]
* [[Groundwater on Mars]]
* [[Impact crater]]
* [[List of quadrangles on Mars]]
* [[List of rocks on Mars]]
* [[Martian soil]]
* [[Opportunity Rover]]
* [[Scientific information from the Mars Exploration Rover mission]]
* [[Spirit rover]],
* [[Vallis]]
* [[Water on Mars]]

== External links ==
*[http://marspans.com/vr/index.htm Walk around Spirit Rover]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Mars Quads - By Name}}
{{Mars quadrangle layout}}
{{Mars}}

{{portal bar|Mars}}

[[Category:Mars]]
[[Category:Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle|*]]

Pertuzumab

2012-12-10T13:35:33Z

Rod57: /* Clinical trials */ [[ recent->2012

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| molecular_weight =
}}
[[Image:Pertuzumab-HER2 complex 1S78.png|thumb|237px|The structure of [[HER2]] and pertuzumab]]

'''Pertuzumab''' (also called '''2C4''', trade name '''Perjeta''') is a [[monoclonal antibody]]. The first of its class in a line of agents called "HER dimerization inhibitors". By binding to [[HER2]], it inhibits the [[protein dimer|dimer]]ization of HER2 with other HER receptors, which is hypothesized to result in slowed [[cancer|tumor]] growth.<ref name="JCO-deBono">{{cite journal|last = de Bono|first = Johann S.|title=Open-Label Phase II Study Evaluating the Efficacy and Safety of Two Doses of Pertuzumab in Castrate Chemotherapy-Naive Patients With Hormone-Refractory Prostate Cancer|journal = Journal of Clinical Oncology|volume=25|issue=3|pages=257–262|date=20 January 2007|id=|doi=10.1200/JCO.2006.07.0888|pmid=17235043|last2 = Bellmunt|first2 = J|last3 = Attard|first3 = G|last4 = Droz|first4 = JP|last5 = Miller|first5 = K|last6 = Flechon|first6 = A|last7 = Sternberg|first7 = C|last8 = Parker|first8 = C|last9 = Zugmaier|first9 = G}}</ref> Pertuzumab received US FDA approval for the treatment of HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer on June 8, 2012.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.gene.com/gene/news/press-releases/display.do?method=detail&id=14007 |title=FDA Approves Perjeta (Pertuzumab) for People With HER2-Positive Metastatic Breast Cancer |publisher=Genentech |accessdate=2012-06-09}}</ref> Pertuzumab was developed at [[Genentech]] and is now owned by [[Hoffmann-La Roche|Roche]] which acquired Genentech in 2009.

==Clinical trials==
Early clinical trials of pertuzumab in prostate, breast, and ovarian cancers have been met with limited success.<ref>[http://www.gene.com/gene/news/press-releases/display.do?method=detail&id=8431 Genentech press release] - May 15, 2005</ref>

The dosage of pertuzumab used in the pivotal phase III CLEOPATRA (Clinical Evaluation of Pertuzumab and Trastuzumab) trial was as follows: IV 840 mg loading dose followed by IV 420 mg every three weeks.<ref name="test">Keating GM. Pertuzumab: in the first-line treatment of HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer. ''Drugs 2012 Feb 12; 72 (3): 353-60''.[http://adisonline.com/drugs/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=2012&issue=72030&article=00005&type=abstract Link text] </ref>

The pharmacokinetics of intravenous pertuzumab appear to be unaffected by age and no drug-drug interaction has been reported with [[docetaxel]]. The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of pertuzumab were summarized in a Feb 2012 review by Gillian Keating.<ref name="test">Keating GM. Pertuzumab: in the first-line treatment of HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer. ''Drugs 2012 Feb 12; 72 (3): 353-60''.[http://adisonline.com/drugs/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=2012&issue=72030&article=00005&type=abstract Link text] </ref>

The combination of pertuzumab plus [[trastuzumab]] plus docetaxel, as compared with placebo plus trastuzumab plus docetaxel, when used as first-line treatment for HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer, significantly prolonged [[progression-free survival]], with no increase in cardiac toxic effects in the randomized, double-blind, multinational, phase III CLEOPATRA trial.<ref name=“test”>Baselga J, Cortés J, Kim SB, and the CLEOPATRA Study Group. Pertuzumab plus trastuzumab plus docetaxel for metastatic breast cancer. ''N Engl J Med 2012 Jan 12; 366 (2): 109-19''. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22149875 Link text] </ref>

Intravenous pertuzumab is currently being evaluated in patients with breast cancer in the following trials: MARIANNE (advanced breast cancer), NEOSPHERE (early breast cancer), TRYPHAENA (HER2-positive stage II/III breast cancer) and APHINITY (HER2-positive nonmetastatic breast cancer).<ref name="test">Keating GM. Pertuzumab: in the first-line treatment of HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer. ''Drugs 2012 Feb 12; 72 (3): 353-60''.[http://adisonline.com/drugs/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=2012&issue=72030&article=00005&type=abstract Link text] </ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.perjeta.com/ PERJETA™ (pertuzumab) HER2/neu receptor antagonist]

{{Monoclonals for tumors}}

[[Category:Monoclonal antibodies]]

{{monoclonal-antibody-stub}}
{{antineoplastic-drug-stub}}

10.1056/NEJMoa1113216

[[it:Pertuzumab]]
[[pt:Pertuzumabe]]
[[zh:帕妥珠单抗]]

Benutzer:Snackroeg/Kernreaktoren der Generation 5

2012-12-07T03:28:49Z

Rod57: /* See also */ {{colbegin|3}}

[[File:GenIVRoadmap.jpg|right|480px|Nuclear Energy Systems Deployable no later than 2030 and offering significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, and economics]]
'''Generation IV reactors''' (Gen IV) are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched. Most of these designs are generally not expected to be available for commercial construction before 2030. Current reactors in operation around the world are generally considered second- or third-generation systems, with most of the first-generation systems having been retired some time ago.

== Reactor types ==
Many reactor types were considered initially; however, the list was downsized to focus on the most promising technologies and those that could most likely meet the goals of the Gen IV initiative. Three systems are nominally [[thermal reactor]]s and three are [[fast reactor]]s. The Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) is also being researched for potentially providing high quality process heat for hydrogen production. The fast reactors offer the possibility of burning actinides to further reduce waste and of being able to "breed more fuel" than they consume. These systems offer significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, economics, proliferation resistance and physical protection.

=== Thermal reactors ===
==== Very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) ====
[[File:Very High Temperature Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR)]]
{{Main|Very high temperature reactor}}
The '''very high temperature reactor''' concept uses a [[graphite]]-moderated core with a once-through [[uranium]] fuel cycle, using helium or molten salt as the [[Very_high_temperature_reactor#Coolant|coolant]]. This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1,000 °C. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a [[pebble bed reactor]] design. The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or [[hydrogen]] production via the thermochemical [[Sulfur-iodine cycle|iodine-sulfur]] process. It would also be [[Passive nuclear safety|passively safe]].

The planned construction of the first VHTR, the South African PBMR ([[pebble bed modular reactor]]), lost government funding in February, 2010.<ref>[http://www.powergenworldwide.com/index/display/articledisplay/6322207443/articles/power-engineering-international/volume-18/Issue_3/regulars/world-news/INTERNATIONAL.html South Africa to stop funding Pebble Bed nuclear reactor]</ref> A pronounced increase of costs and concerns about possible unexpected technical problems had discouraged potential investors and customers.

==== Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR) ====
[[File:Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)]]
{{Main|Supercritical water reactor}}
The '''supercritical water reactor''' (SCWR)<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a concept that uses [[supercritical fluid|supercritical water]] as the working fluid. SCWRs are basically [[light water reactor]]s (LWR) operating at higher pressure and temperatures with a direct, once-through cycle. As most commonly envisioned, it would operate on a direct cycle, much like a boiling water reactor ([[BWR]]), but since it uses supercritical water (not to be confused with [[Critical mass (nuclear)|critical mass]]) as the working fluid, would have only one phase present, like the pressurized water reactor ([[Pressurized water reactor|PWR]]). It could operate at much higher temperatures than both current PWRs and BWRs.

Supercritical water-cooled reactors (SCWRs) are promising advanced nuclear systems because of their high [[thermal efficiency]] (i.e., about 45% vs. about 33% efficiency for current LWRs) and considerable plant simplification.

The main mission of the SCWR is generation of low-cost [[electricity]]. It is built upon two proven technologies, LWRs, which are the most commonly deployed power generating reactors in the world, and supercritical [[fossil fuel]] fired [[boiler]]s, a large number of which are also in use around the world. The SCWR concept is being investigated by 32 organizations in 13 countries.{{cn|date=October 2012}}

==== Molten-salt reactor (MSR) ====
[[File:Molten Salt Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Molten Salt Reactor (MSR)]]
{{Main|Molten salt reactor}}
{{see also|Liquid fluoride thorium reactor}}
A '''molten salt reactor'''<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a type of [[nuclear reactor]] where the primary [[coolant]], or even the fuel itself is a molten salt mixture. There have been many designs put forward for this type of reactor and a few prototypes built. The early concepts and many current ones rely on [[nuclear fuel]] dissolved in the molten [[fluoride]] salt as [[uranium]] tetrafluoride (UF4) [[Thorium fuel cycle|or thorium tetrafluoride]] (ThF4), the fluid would reach [[Critical mass (nuclear)|criticality]] by flowing into a [[graphite]] core which would also serve as the [[neutron moderator|moderator]]. Many current concepts rely on fuel that is dispersed in a graphite matrix with the molten salt providing low pressure, high temperature cooling.

The [[liquid fluoride thorium reactor]] ([[acronym]] '''LFTR'''; spoken as ''lifter'') is a thermal breeder molten salt reactor which uses the [[thorium fuel cycle]] in a [[fluoride]]-based molten salt fuel to achieve high operating temperatures at [[atmospheric pressure]]. It has recently been the subject of a renewed interest worldwide.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/victor-stenger/lftr-a-longterm-energy-so_b_1192584.html | work=Huffington Post | first=Victor | last=Stenger | title=LFTR: A Long-Term Energy Solution? | date=12 January 2012}}</ref>

=== Fast reactors ===

==== Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) ====
[[File:Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR)]]
{{Main|Gas-cooled fast reactor}}
The '''gas-cooled fast reactor''' (GFR)<ref name="Roadmap"/> system features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed [[Nuclear fuel cycle|fuel cycle]] for efficient conversion of [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and management of [[actinide]]s. The reactor is [[helium]]-cooled, with an outlet temperature of 850 °C and using a direct [[Brayton cycle]] [[Closed-cycle gas turbine|gas turbine]] for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are being considered for their potential to operate at very high temperatures and to ensure an excellent retention of [[Nuclear fission|fission]] products: composite [[ceramic]] fuel, advanced fuel particles, or ceramic clad elements of actinide compounds. Core configurations are being considered based on pin- or plate-based fuel assemblies or prismatic blocks.

==== Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) ====
[[File:Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)]]
{{Main|Sodium-cooled fast reactor}}
{{see also|Experimental Breeder Reactor II|Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station|Monju Nuclear Power Plant|Phénix|BN-600 reactor|Toshiba 4S}}
The SFR<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a project that builds on two closely related existing projects, the [[LMFBR|liquid metal fast breeder reactor]] and the [[Integral Fast Reactor]].

The goals are to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by [[breeder reactor|breeding]] plutonium and eliminating the need for [[transuranic]] isotopes ever to leave the site. The reactor design uses an unmoderated core running on [[fast neutron]]s, designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). In addition to the benefits of removing the long [[half-life]] transuranics from the waste cycle, the SFR fuel expands when the reactor overheats, and the chain reaction automatically slows down. In this manner, it is passively safe.

The SFR reactor concept is cooled by liquid [[sodium]] and fueled by a metallic alloy of [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]]. The fuel is contained in steel cladding with liquid sodium filling in the space between the clad elements which make up the fuel assembly. One of the design challenges of an SFR is the risks of handling sodium, which reacts explosively if it comes into contact with water. However, the use of liquid metal instead of water as coolant allows the system to work at atmospheric pressure, reducing the risk of leakage.

==== Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) ====
[[File:Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR)]]
{{Main|Lead-cooled fast reactor}}
{{See also|MYRRHA|BREST-300}}
The '''lead-cooled fast reactor'''<ref name="Roadmap">{{cite journal| year=2002 | title=A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems | last=US DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee |volume=GIF-002-00|url=http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/documents/gen_iv_roadmap.pdf}}</ref> features a fast-neutron-spectrum [[lead]] or [[lead]]/[[bismuth]] [[eutectic]] ([[Lead-bismuth eutectic|LBE]]) liquid-metal-cooled reactor with a closed [[Nuclear fuel cycle|fuel cycle]]. Options include a range of plant ratings, including a "battery" of 50 to 150 MW of electricity that features a very long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300 to 400 MW, and a large monolithic plant option at 1,200 MW. (The term ''battery'' refers to the long-life, factory-fabricated core, not to any provision for electrochemical energy conversion.) The fuel is metal or nitride-based containing [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and [[transuranic]]s. The LFR is cooled by natural [[convection]] with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550 °C, possibly ranging up to 800 °C with advanced materials. The higher temperature enables the production of hydrogen by thermochemical processes.

== Advantages and disadvantages==
Relative to current nuclear power plant technology, the claimed benefits for 4th generation reactors include:
* Nuclear waste that remains radioactive for a few centuries instead of millennia <ref>{{cite web |title=Strategies to Address Global Warming |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~jeh1/mailings/2009/20090713_Strategies.pdf}}</ref>
* 100-300 times more energy yield from the same amount of nuclear fuel <ref>{{cite web |title=4th Generation Nuclear Power |url=http://www.ossfoundation.us/projects/energy/nuclear}}</ref>
* The ability to consume existing nuclear waste in the production of electricity
* Improved operating safety

One disadvantage of any new reactor technology is that safety risks may be greater initially as reactor operators have little experience with the new design. Nuclear engineer [[David Lochbaum]] has explained that almost all serious nuclear accidents have occurred with what was at the time the most recent technology. He argues that "the problem with new reactors and accidents is twofold: scenarios arise that are impossible to plan for in simulations; and humans make mistakes".<ref name=safe/> As one director of a U.S. research laboratory put it, "fabrication, construction, operation, and maintenance of new reactors will face a steep learning curve: advanced technologies will have a heightened risk of accidents and mistakes. The technology may be proven, but people are not".<ref name=safe>[[Benjamin K. Sovacool]]. A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia, ''Journal of Contemporary Asia'', Vol. 40, No. 3, August 2010, p. 381.</ref>

A specific risk of the sodium-cooled fast reactor is related to using metallic sodium as a coolant. In case of a breach, sodium explosively reacts with water. Fixing breaches may also prove dangerous, as the noble gas argon is also used to prevent sodium oxidation. Argon is an asphyxiant, so workers may be exposed to this additional risk. This is a pertinent problem as can be testified by the events at the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor Monju at Tsuruga, Japan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Japan Strains to Fix a Reactor Damaged Before Quake |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/18/world/asia/18japan.html | work=The New York Times | first=Hiroko |last=Tabuchi |date=17 June 2011}}</ref>

== Participating countries ==
The members of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) are:
* {{ARG}} [http://www.cnea.gov.ar/] (Spanish-only web site)
* {{BRA}} [http://www.aben.com.br/]
* {{CAN}} [http://www.aecl.ca/]
* {{CHN}} [http://www.caea.gov.cn/n602669/n2231600/n2272156/n2272415/167948.html]
* {{EU}} [http://www.euronuclear.org/1-information/generation-IV.htm]
* {{FRA}} [http://www.cea.fr/]
* {{JPN}} [http://www.jaea.go.jp/english/]
* {{KOR}} [http://www.mest.go.kr/index.html] (Korean-only web site)
* {{RUS}} [http://www.rosatom.ru/en/]
* {{RSA}} [http://www.eskom.co.za/live/index.php]
* {{SUI}} [http://www.psi.ch/index_e.shtml]
* {{UK}} [http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/sources/nuclear/technology/fission/page17924.html]
* {{USA}} [http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/neGenIV1.html]

The nine GIF founding members were joined by Switzerland in 2002, Euratom in 2003 and most recently by China and Russia at the end of 2006.<ref>{{cite web | author=[[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique]]|title= Future nuclear systems| url=http://nucleaire.cea.fr/fr/nucleaire_futur/pu_schema1ch2.htm}}</ref>

Australia has also shown interest in joining the GIF.{{cn|date=March 2012}}

== Designs under development ==
* VVER-1700/393 (Super-VVER or VVER-SKD) — Supercritical-water-cooled reactor with double-inlet-core
* BREST-OD-300 (Lead-cooled fast reactor)

==See also==
{{colbegin|3}}
* [[Nuclear reactor]]
* [[Nuclear material]]
* [[Nuclear physics]]
* [[List of reactor types]]
* [[Generation II reactor]]
* [[Generation III reactor]]
* [[Integral Fast Reactor]]
* [[Liquid fluoride thorium reactor]]
* [[Breeder reactor]]
* [[Small modular reactor]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://inlportal.inl.gov/portal/server.pt?open=514&objID=1361&parentname=CommunityPage&parentid=10&mode=2&in_hi_userid=200&cached=true Article from Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen. IV reactors.]
* [http://www.gen-4.org/ Generation IV International Forum (GIF)]
* [http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/neGenIV1.html U.S. Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology]
* [http://www.engr.utk.edu/nuclear/colloquia/slides/Gen%20IV%20U-Tenn%20Presentation.pdf Gen IV presentation]
* [http://www.ecology.at/ecology/files/pr577_1.pdf Science or Fiction - Is there a Future for Nuclear?] (Nov. 2007) - A publication from the Austrian [[Ecology Institute (Austria)|Ecology Institute]] about 'Generation IV' and Fusion reactors.
* {{cite web |url=http://memagazine.asme.org/Articles/2011/December/Nuclear_Power_After_Fukushima.cfm |title=Nuclear Power After Fukushima |author=Gail H. Marcus |date= December 2011 |work= Mechanical Engineering (the magazine of [[ASME]])|accessdate=23 January 2012}} "In the wake of a severe plant accident, advanced reactor designs are getting renewed attention."

{{Nuclear Technology}}

[[Category:Nuclear power reactor types]]
[[Category:Idaho National Laboratory]]

[[de:Generation IV International Forum]]
[[es:Reactor nuclear de IV generación]]
[[fa:راکتور نسل ۴]]
[[fr:Forum International Génération IV]]
[[ko:4세대 원자로]]
[[hr:Nuklearni reaktori IV. generacije]]
[[it:Reattore nucleare di IV generazione]]
[[nl:Vierde-generatiekernreactor]]
[[ja:第4世代原子炉]]
[[no:Generasjon IV internasjonale forum]]
[[pl:Reaktory jądrowe IV generacji]]
[[pt:Reatores Nucleares de Quarta Geração]]
[[fi:Reaktorisukupolvet]]
[[sv:Fjärde generationens reaktor]]

Lincoln Experimental Satellite

2012-10-27T03:06:29Z

Rod57: MHW-RTG

'''Lincoln Experimental Satellite''' refers to a series of satellites designed and built by [[Lincoln Laboratory]] at [[MIT]] between 1965 and 1976, under [[USAF]] sponsorship, for testing devices and techniques for satellite communication.

The series had satellites named LES1 through LES9. They suffered a number of launch problems - LES1 and LES2 were supposed to be delivered to the same 2800 x 15000km orbit <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.astronautix.com/craft/les.htm | title = Astronautix.com}}</ref>, though a failure of a boost stage left LES1 in a 2800km circular orbit. LES3 and LES4 were intended to be delivered to [[geostationary orbit]], but a launch problem left them in their transfer orbit. All these satellites returned useful results despite the incorrect orbits. LES 5, 6, 8 and 9 ended up successfully in [[geostationary orbit]]; the project that would have been LES-7 ran out of funding and was cancelled. <ref name = "NASA">{{cite web | url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-4217/ch8.htm | title = Thirty Years of Space Communications Research and Development at Lincoln Laboratory}}</ref>.

LES3 was a very small (16kg) satellite containing a radio transmitter, intended to measure the extent of multi-path interference due to reflection of 300MHz radio waves off sufficiently flat parts of the Earth.

Amongst the technologies tested on LES1 through LES4 were solid-state [[X-band]] radio equipment, low-power logic circuits, electronic despinning (using optics to determine the location of the Earth and Sun relative to a spinning satellite at any moment, and then transmitting via whichever of several antennae were best positioned with respect to the Earth), and [[magnetic torquers]]. <ref>{{cite journal | title=The Lincoln Experimental Satellite Program (LES-1,2,3,4): A Progress Report | journal=Proceedings of Communications Satellite Systems Conference May 2-4 1966 | publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics}}</ref>.

'''LES8''' and '''LES9''' were satellites of around 450kg mass, launched in 1976. They were originally planned to be equipped with [[Pulsed plasma thruster|pulsed plasma engines]] but actually launched with gas thrusters; unusually for communication satellites, they are powered by [[MHW-RTG]]s rather than by solar panels.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.aero.org/publications/martin/martin-8a.html | title = Aerospace Corporation article}}</ref> There was a cross-link between them in the 36-38GHz part of the [[K-band]], with UHF up- and down-links; they are still operated, and the cross-link technology is used by NASA's [[TDRSS]] satellites. The original intention was to run the cross-link at a frequency in the 55-65GHz range which is absorbed by water, so that it would be impossible for Earth-based receivers to pick up scattered signals, but technology at the time was inadequate. They operated in geostationary orbit until 1992 and now are drifting slowly.

[[Lincoln Laboratory]]'s next satellite-communication project after LES was the construction of [[FLTSATCOM|FLTSAT]] EHF Packages.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-4217/ch8.htm NASA ''SP-4217 Beyond the Ionosphere'' (derived from William W. Ward, Franklin W. Floyd (1989), ''Thirty Years of Space Communications Research and Development at Lincoln Laboratory'')] is a detailed description of satellite communications development at [[Lincoln Laboratory]], and was used as a reference for much of this article.

[[Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[Category:Satellites]]

Lincoln Experimental Satellite

2012-10-27T03:05:31Z

Rod57: launched in 1976 They operated in geostationary orbit until 1992 and now are drifting slowly.

'''Lincoln Experimental Satellite''' refers to a series of satellites designed and built by [[Lincoln Laboratory]] at [[MIT]] between 1965 and 1976, under [[USAF]] sponsorship, for testing devices and techniques for satellite communication.

The series had satellites named LES1 through LES9. They suffered a number of launch problems - LES1 and LES2 were supposed to be delivered to the same 2800 x 15000km orbit <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.astronautix.com/craft/les.htm | title = Astronautix.com}}</ref>, though a failure of a boost stage left LES1 in a 2800km circular orbit. LES3 and LES4 were intended to be delivered to [[geostationary orbit]], but a launch problem left them in their transfer orbit. All these satellites returned useful results despite the incorrect orbits. LES 5, 6, 8 and 9 ended up successfully in [[geostationary orbit]]; the project that would have been LES-7 ran out of funding and was cancelled. <ref name = "NASA">{{cite web | url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-4217/ch8.htm | title = Thirty Years of Space Communications Research and Development at Lincoln Laboratory}}</ref>.

LES3 was a very small (16kg) satellite containing a radio transmitter, intended to measure the extent of multi-path interference due to reflection of 300MHz radio waves off sufficiently flat parts of the Earth.

Amongst the technologies tested on LES1 through LES4 were solid-state [[X-band]] radio equipment, low-power logic circuits, electronic despinning (using optics to determine the location of the Earth and Sun relative to a spinning satellite at any moment, and then transmitting via whichever of several antennae were best positioned with respect to the Earth), and [[magnetic torquers]]. <ref>{{cite journal | title=The Lincoln Experimental Satellite Program (LES-1,2,3,4): A Progress Report | journal=Proceedings of Communications Satellite Systems Conference May 2-4 1966 | publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics}}</ref>.

'''LES8''' and '''LES9''' were satellites of around 450kg mass, launched in 1976. They were originally planned to be equipped with [[Pulsed plasma thruster|pulsed plasma engines]] but actually launched with gas thrusters; unusually for communication satellites, they are powered by [[Radioisotope thermoelectric generator|RTG]]s rather than by solar panels.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.aero.org/publications/martin/martin-8a.html | title = Aerospace Corporation article}}</ref> There was a cross-link between them in the 36-38GHz part of the [[K-band]], with UHF up- and down-links; they are still operated, and the cross-link technology is used by NASA's [[TDRSS]] satellites. The original intention was to run the cross-link at a frequency in the 55-65GHz range which is absorbed by water, so that it would be impossible for Earth-based receivers to pick up scattered signals, but technology at the time was inadequate. They operated in geostationary orbit until 1992 and now are drifting slowly.

[[Lincoln Laboratory]]'s next satellite-communication project after LES was the construction of [[FLTSATCOM|FLTSAT]] EHF Packages.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-4217/ch8.htm NASA ''SP-4217 Beyond the Ionosphere'' (derived from William W. Ward, Franklin W. Floyd (1989), ''Thirty Years of Space Communications Research and Development at Lincoln Laboratory'')] is a detailed description of satellite communications development at [[Lincoln Laboratory]], and was used as a reference for much of this article.

[[Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[Category:Satellites]]

Lincoln Experimental Satellite

2012-10-27T02:55:54Z

Rod57: Thirty Years of Space Communications Research and Development at Lincoln Laboratory

'''Lincoln Experimental Satellite''' refers to a series of satellites designed and built by [[Lincoln Laboratory]] at [[MIT]] between 1965 and 1976, under [[USAF]] sponsorship, for testing devices and techniques for satellite communication.

The series had satellites named LES1 through LES9. They suffered a number of launch problems - LES1 and LES2 were supposed to be delivered to the same 2800 x 15000km orbit <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.astronautix.com/craft/les.htm | title = Astronautix.com}}</ref>, though a failure of a boost stage left LES1 in a 2800km circular orbit. LES3 and LES4 were intended to be delivered to [[geostationary orbit]], but a launch problem left them in their transfer orbit. All these satellites returned useful results despite the incorrect orbits. LES 5, 6, 8 and 9 ended up successfully in [[geostationary orbit]]; the project that would have been LES-7 ran out of funding and was cancelled. <ref name = "NASA">{{cite web | url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-4217/ch8.htm | title = Thirty Years of Space Communications Research and Development at Lincoln Laboratory}}</ref>.

LES3 was a very small (16kg) satellite containing a radio transmitter, intended to measure the extent of multi-path interference due to reflection of 300MHz radio waves off sufficiently flat parts of the Earth.

Amongst the technologies tested on LES1 through LES4 were solid-state [[X-band]] radio equipment, low-power logic circuits, electronic despinning (using optics to determine the location of the Earth and Sun relative to a spinning satellite at any moment, and then transmitting via whichever of several antennae were best positioned with respect to the Earth), and [[magnetic torquers]]. <ref>{{cite journal | title=The Lincoln Experimental Satellite Program (LES-1,2,3,4): A Progress Report | journal=Proceedings of Communications Satellite Systems Conference May 2-4 1966 | publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics}}</ref>.

LES8 and LES9 were satellites of around 450kg mass. They were originally planned to be equipped with [[Pulsed plasma thruster|pulsed plasma engines]] but actually launched with gas thrusters; unusually for communication satellites, they are powered by [[Radioisotope thermoelectric generator|RTG]]s rather than by solar panels.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.aero.org/publications/martin/martin-8a.html | title = Aerospace Corporation article}}</ref> There was a cross-link between them in the 36-38GHz part of the [[K-band]], with UHF up- and down-links; they are still operated, and the cross-link technology is used by NASA's [[TDRSS]] satellites. The original intention was to run the cross-link at a frequency in the 55-65GHz range which is absorbed by water, so that it would be impossible for Earth-based receivers to pick up scattered signals, but technology at the time was inadequate.

[[Lincoln Laboratory]]'s next satellite-communication project after LES was the construction of [[FLTSATCOM|FLTSAT]] EHF Packages.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-4217/ch8.htm NASA ''SP-4217 Beyond the Ionosphere'' (derived from William W. Ward, Franklin W. Floyd (1989), ''Thirty Years of Space Communications Research and Development at Lincoln Laboratory'')] is a detailed description of satellite communications development at [[Lincoln Laboratory]], and was used as a reference for much of this article.

[[Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[Category:Satellites]]

Puppis A

2011-02-27T02:15:17Z

Rod57: /* Puppis X-1 */ [[Astronomical X-ray sources|

{{ Supernova |
| name = Puppis A
| image = [[Image:Puppis A Chandra + ROSAT.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[Chandra]] three-color image (inset) is a region of the supernova remnant Puppis A (wide-angle view from ROSAT in blue) which reveals a cloud being torn apart by a shock wave produced in a supernova explosion. ROSAT image is 88 arcmin across; Chandra image 8 arcmin across. [[RA]] 08h 23m 08.16s [[Dec]] -42º 41' 41.40" in Puppis. Observation date: September 4, 2005. Color code: Energy (Red 0.4-0.7 keV; Green 0.7-1.2 keV; Blue 1.2-10 keV). Instrument: ACIS. Credit: Chandra: NASA/CXC/GSFC/U.Hwang et al.; ROSAT: NASA/GSFC/S.Snowden et al.]]
| caption = X-ray image of the [[RX J0822-4300|Cosmic Cannonball]] in Puppis A
| epoch = J2000
| type = S
| host = [[Milky Way]]
| constellation = [[Puppis]]
| gal = ''l'' = 260.2°, ''b'' = -3.7°
| ra = 08h 24m 07s
| dec =-42° 59' 48
| discovery = 1971
| iauc =
| mag_v =
| distance = 7.000 [[light-year|ly]]
| progenitor = Unknown
| progenitor_type = Unknown
| b-v = Unknown
| notes = central source: [[RX J0822-4300]]. Apparent size: 1° }}
'''Puppis A''' is a [[supernova remnant]] (SNR) about 10 light-years in diameter. The supernova 'occurred' (ie. would have been seen on earth) approximately 3700 years ago. Although it overlaps the [[Vela Supernova Remnant]], it is four times more distant.

A hypervelocity [[neutron star]] known as the [[RX J0822-4300|Cosmic Cannonball‎]] has been found in this SNR traveling ~3 million miles per hour.

==Puppis X-1==

Puppis X-1 (Puppis A) was discovered by a [[Skylark (rocket)|Skylark]] flight in October 1971, viewed for 1 min with an accuracy ≥ 2 arcsec,<ref name=Wiggin>{{cite web |author=Wiggin M |title=The Dome on Ball Hill – The RAE Observatory |year=2000 |month=December |url=http://www.astro.cardiff.ac.uk/sas/2000_02.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> probably at 1M 0821-426, with Puppis A ([[RA]] 08h 23m 08.16s [[Dec]] -42º 41' 41.40") as the likely visual counterpart.

Puppis A is one of the brightest [[Astronomical X-ray sources|X-ray sources in the X-ray sky]]. Its X-ray designation is 2U 0821-42.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*"Puppis A: Chandra Reveals Cloud Disrupted By Supernova Shock", Chandra: NASA/CXC/GSFC/U.Hwang et al.; ROSAT: NASA/GSFC/S.Snowden et al., [http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2006/puppisa/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071128151817.htm]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?protocol=html&Ident=SNR+260.4-3.4&NbIdent=1&Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id Simbad]

==See also==
* [[List of supernova remnants]]

[[Category:Supernova remnants]]
[[Category:Puppis constellation]]

{{Star-stub}}

[[fr:Puppis A]]
[[it:Puppis A]]
[[zh:船尾座超新星殘骸]]

Puppis A

2011-02-27T02:11:40Z

Rod57: discovery = 1971

{{ Supernova |
| name = Puppis A
| image = [[Image:Puppis A Chandra + ROSAT.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[Chandra]] three-color image (inset) is a region of the supernova remnant Puppis A (wide-angle view from ROSAT in blue) which reveals a cloud being torn apart by a shock wave produced in a supernova explosion. ROSAT image is 88 arcmin across; Chandra image 8 arcmin across. [[RA]] 08h 23m 08.16s [[Dec]] -42º 41' 41.40" in Puppis. Observation date: September 4, 2005. Color code: Energy (Red 0.4-0.7 keV; Green 0.7-1.2 keV; Blue 1.2-10 keV). Instrument: ACIS. Credit: Chandra: NASA/CXC/GSFC/U.Hwang et al.; ROSAT: NASA/GSFC/S.Snowden et al.]]
| caption = X-ray image of the [[RX J0822-4300|Cosmic Cannonball]] in Puppis A
| epoch = J2000
| type = S
| host = [[Milky Way]]
| constellation = [[Puppis]]
| gal = ''l'' = 260.2°, ''b'' = -3.7°
| ra = 08h 24m 07s
| dec =-42° 59' 48
| discovery = 1971
| iauc =
| mag_v =
| distance = 7.000 [[light-year|ly]]
| progenitor = Unknown
| progenitor_type = Unknown
| b-v = Unknown
| notes = central source: [[RX J0822-4300]]. Apparent size: 1° }}
'''Puppis A''' is a [[supernova remnant]] (SNR) about 10 light-years in diameter. The supernova 'occurred' (ie. would have been seen on earth) approximately 3700 years ago. Although it overlaps the [[Vela Supernova Remnant]], it is four times more distant.

A hypervelocity [[neutron star]] known as the [[RX J0822-4300|Cosmic Cannonball‎]] has been found in this SNR traveling ~3 million miles per hour.

==Puppis X-1==

Puppis X-1 (Puppis A) was discovered by a [[Skylark (rocket)|Skylark]] flight in October 1971, viewed for 1 min with an accuracy ≥ 2 arcsec,<ref name=Wiggin>{{cite web |author=Wiggin M |title=The Dome on Ball Hill – The RAE Observatory |year=2000 |month=December |url=http://www.astro.cardiff.ac.uk/sas/2000_02.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> probably at 1M 0821-426, with Puppis A ([[RA]] 08h 23m 08.16s [[Dec]] -42º 41' 41.40") as the likely visual counterpart. Puppis A is one of the brightest X-ray sources in the X-ray sky. Its X-ray designation is 2U 0821-42.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*"Puppis A: Chandra Reveals Cloud Disrupted By Supernova Shock", Chandra: NASA/CXC/GSFC/U.Hwang et al.; ROSAT: NASA/GSFC/S.Snowden et al., [http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2006/puppisa/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071128151817.htm]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?protocol=html&Ident=SNR+260.4-3.4&NbIdent=1&Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id Simbad]

==See also==
* [[List of supernova remnants]]

[[Category:Supernova remnants]]
[[Category:Puppis constellation]]

{{Star-stub}}

[[fr:Puppis A]]
[[it:Puppis A]]
[[zh:船尾座超新星殘骸]]

Puppis A

2011-02-27T02:08:32Z

Rod57: (ie. would have been seen on earth)

{{ Supernova |
| name = Puppis A
| image = [[Image:Puppis A Chandra + ROSAT.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[Chandra]] three-color image (inset) is a region of the supernova remnant Puppis A (wide-angle view from ROSAT in blue) which reveals a cloud being torn apart by a shock wave produced in a supernova explosion. ROSAT image is 88 arcmin across; Chandra image 8 arcmin across. [[RA]] 08h 23m 08.16s [[Dec]] -42º 41' 41.40" in Puppis. Observation date: September 4, 2005. Color code: Energy (Red 0.4-0.7 keV; Green 0.7-1.2 keV; Blue 1.2-10 keV). Instrument: ACIS. Credit: Chandra: NASA/CXC/GSFC/U.Hwang et al.; ROSAT: NASA/GSFC/S.Snowden et al.]]
| caption = X-ray image of the [[RX J0822-4300|Cosmic Cannonball]] in Puppis A
| epoch = J2000
| type = S
| host = [[Milky Way]]
| constellation = [[Puppis]]
| gal = ''l'' = 260.2°, ''b'' = -3.7°
| ra = 08h 24m 07s
| dec =-42° 59' 48
| discovery =
| iauc =
| mag_v =
| distance = 7.000 [[light-year|ly]]
| progenitor = Unknown
| progenitor_type = Unknown
| b-v = Unknown
| notes = central source: [[RX J0822-4300]]. Apparent size: 1° }}
'''Puppis A''' is a [[supernova remnant]] (SNR) about 10 light-years in diameter. The supernova 'occurred' (ie. would have been seen on earth) approximately 3700 years ago. Although it overlaps the [[Vela Supernova Remnant]], it is four times more distant.

A hypervelocity [[neutron star]] known as the [[RX J0822-4300|Cosmic Cannonball‎]] has been found in this SNR traveling ~3 million miles per hour.

==Puppis X-1==

Puppis X-1 (Puppis A) was discovered by a [[Skylark (rocket)|Skylark]] flight in October 1971, viewed for 1 min with an accuracy ≥ 2 arcsec,<ref name=Wiggin>{{cite web |author=Wiggin M |title=The Dome on Ball Hill – The RAE Observatory |year=2000 |month=December |url=http://www.astro.cardiff.ac.uk/sas/2000_02.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> probably at 1M 0821-426, with Puppis A ([[RA]] 08h 23m 08.16s [[Dec]] -42º 41' 41.40") as the likely visual counterpart. Puppis A is one of the brightest X-ray sources in the X-ray sky. Its X-ray designation is 2U 0821-42.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*"Puppis A: Chandra Reveals Cloud Disrupted By Supernova Shock", Chandra: NASA/CXC/GSFC/U.Hwang et al.; ROSAT: NASA/GSFC/S.Snowden et al., [http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2006/puppisa/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071128151817.htm]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?protocol=html&Ident=SNR+260.4-3.4&NbIdent=1&Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id Simbad]

==See also==
* [[List of supernova remnants]]

[[Category:Supernova remnants]]
[[Category:Puppis constellation]]

{{Star-stub}}

[[fr:Puppis A]]
[[it:Puppis A]]
[[zh:船尾座超新星殘骸]]

The Clink

2011-02-24T03:28:16Z

Rod57: /* English Protestants */ {{fact

{{Coord|51|30|25.48|N|0|05|30.95|W|region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}
[[Image:London clink prison museum 20050521.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Entrance to The Clink prison museum]]
'''The Clink''' was a notorious [[prison]] in [[Southwark]], England which functioned from the 12th century until 1780 either deriving its name from, or bestowing it on, the local manor, the Clink [[Liberty (division)|Liberty]] (see also the [[Liberty of the Clink]]). The manor and prison were owned by the [[Bishop of Winchester]] and situated next to his residence at [[Winchester Palace]]. The Clink was possibly the oldest men's prison and probably the oldest women's prison in England.<ref>[http://www.london-se1.co.uk/places/clink-prison-museum Clink Prison Museum]</ref>

The origins of the name "The Clink" are uncertain, but it possibly onomatopoeic and derives from the sound of striking metal as the prison's doors were bolted, or the rattling of the chains the prisoners wore.

==History==
[[Image:Clink-Blue-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|[[Blue plaque]] on the site]]

There has been a prison owned by the Bishop of Winchester in one form or another since the year 860, although at that time it would only have been one cell in a priests college. By 1076 an Archbishop had listed the type of punishments allowed, scourging with rods, solitary confinement, and bread and water in silence.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A623864</ref>

The building of a chapel and mansion at Southwark was begun in 1107 by the then current Bishop of Winchester, but was not completed until 1144, by his successor. There were two prisons included, one for men and one for women. It would have been a good source of income for the Bishop, as it was about this time that the brothels were regulated, bringing in plenty of fines and customers. The brothels were closed, reopened, moved and used throughout the life of the Clink, bringing in prisoners at a fairly steady rate. By 1180 the land was owned outright by the Clink prison.

The prisoners were ill treated although those with money and friends on the outside were able to pay the gaolers to make their time better. As the gaolers were very poorly paid they found other ways to supplement their income. They hired out rooms, beds, bedding, candles and fuel to those who could afford it, food and drink were charged at twice the correct price. They accepted payments for fitting lighter irons, and for removing them completely, for a fee prisoners would be allowed outside to beg, or even to work. Madams were allowed to keep a brothel going, with payments going to the gaolers<ref>Burford, E. J. (1978), In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison, New English Library</ref>. Poorer prisoners had to beg at the grates that led up to street level and sell anything they had with them, including their clothes to pay for food.

In 1450 rioters protesting the Statute of Labourers raided Winchester House. Classing clerics as tax collectors, they murdered them, and released prisoners from the Clink before burning it down. The rebellion was put down and Winchester House was rebuilt and extended, including a new prison.

===Decline===
In 1649 Winchester House was sold to a property developer and was divided into shops, tenements and dye houses. The Cage was removed temporarily as ratepayers had complained about the cost of upkeep, but the whipping post was still busy. By 1707 both of these and the stocks were all unused because of the cost of upkeep, and by 1732 there were only two registered inmates. In 1745 a temporary prison was used as the Clink was too decayed to use, although by 1776 the prison was again taking in debtors. It was burnt down in 1780 by [[Gordon Riots|Gordon riotors]], and was never rebuilt.

===Today===
The Clink Prison Museum is currently located on the original site in Clink Street, in the basement of a former warehouse. The museum tries to recreate the conditions of the original prison.

==Notable prisoners==
===English Catholics===
* Father [[John Gerard, S.J.]] ~1595
* Father [[Thomas Strange, S.J.]]

* Father [[George Blackwell]] ~1607-1613
* [[Matthew Wilson (Jesuit)|Matthew Wilson]], alias Edward Knott, Jesuit author.<ref>Bernard Basset, S.J., ''The English Jesuits: From Campion to Martindale'' (Great Britain : Ditchling Press for Herder and Herder, 1967).</ref> 1629-1633

===English Protestants===
* [[John Lothropp]]{{fact}}
* [[Anne Askew]]{{fact}}

==See also==
*[[List of prisons in the United Kingdom]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Burford |first=E. J. |title=In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison |year=1978 |publisher=New English Library |isbn=978-0450032172}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.clink.co.uk/ Clink Prison Museum]

{{Prisons in London}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clink}}
[[Category:Prison museums in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Former buildings and structures of Southwark]]
[[Category:Defunct prisons in London]]
[[Category:Museums in Southwark]]

The Clink

2011-02-24T03:24:58Z

Rod57: /* English Protestants */ Anne Askew{{fact}}

{{Coord|51|30|25.48|N|0|05|30.95|W|region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}
[[Image:London clink prison museum 20050521.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Entrance to The Clink prison museum]]
'''The Clink''' was a notorious [[prison]] in [[Southwark]], England which functioned from the 12th century until 1780 either deriving its name from, or bestowing it on, the local manor, the Clink [[Liberty (division)|Liberty]] (see also the [[Liberty of the Clink]]). The manor and prison were owned by the [[Bishop of Winchester]] and situated next to his residence at [[Winchester Palace]]. The Clink was possibly the oldest men's prison and probably the oldest women's prison in England.<ref>[http://www.london-se1.co.uk/places/clink-prison-museum Clink Prison Museum]</ref>

The origins of the name "The Clink" are uncertain, but it possibly onomatopoeic and derives from the sound of striking metal as the prison's doors were bolted, or the rattling of the chains the prisoners wore.

==History==
[[Image:Clink-Blue-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|[[Blue plaque]] on the site]]

There has been a prison owned by the Bishop of Winchester in one form or another since the year 860, although at that time it would only have been one cell in a priests college. By 1076 an Archbishop had listed the type of punishments allowed, scourging with rods, solitary confinement, and bread and water in silence.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A623864</ref>

The building of a chapel and mansion at Southwark was begun in 1107 by the then current Bishop of Winchester, but was not completed until 1144, by his successor. There were two prisons included, one for men and one for women. It would have been a good source of income for the Bishop, as it was about this time that the brothels were regulated, bringing in plenty of fines and customers. The brothels were closed, reopened, moved and used throughout the life of the Clink, bringing in prisoners at a fairly steady rate. By 1180 the land was owned outright by the Clink prison.

The prisoners were ill treated although those with money and friends on the outside were able to pay the gaolers to make their time better. As the gaolers were very poorly paid they found other ways to supplement their income. They hired out rooms, beds, bedding, candles and fuel to those who could afford it, food and drink were charged at twice the correct price. They accepted payments for fitting lighter irons, and for removing them completely, for a fee prisoners would be allowed outside to beg, or even to work. Madams were allowed to keep a brothel going, with payments going to the gaolers<ref>Burford, E. J. (1978), In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison, New English Library</ref>. Poorer prisoners had to beg at the grates that led up to street level and sell anything they had with them, including their clothes to pay for food.

In 1450 rioters protesting the Statute of Labourers raided Winchester House. Classing clerics as tax collectors, they murdered them, and released prisoners from the Clink before burning it down. The rebellion was put down and Winchester House was rebuilt and extended, including a new prison.

===Decline===
In 1649 Winchester House was sold to a property developer and was divided into shops, tenements and dye houses. The Cage was removed temporarily as ratepayers had complained about the cost of upkeep, but the whipping post was still busy. By 1707 both of these and the stocks were all unused because of the cost of upkeep, and by 1732 there were only two registered inmates. In 1745 a temporary prison was used as the Clink was too decayed to use, although by 1776 the prison was again taking in debtors. It was burnt down in 1780 by [[Gordon Riots|Gordon riotors]], and was never rebuilt.

===Today===
The Clink Prison Museum is currently located on the original site in Clink Street, in the basement of a former warehouse. The museum tries to recreate the conditions of the original prison.

==Notable prisoners==
===English Catholics===
* Father [[John Gerard, S.J.]] ~1595
* Father [[Thomas Strange, S.J.]]

* Father [[George Blackwell]] ~1607-1613
* [[Matthew Wilson (Jesuit)|Matthew Wilson]], alias Edward Knott, Jesuit author.<ref>Bernard Basset, S.J., ''The English Jesuits: From Campion to Martindale'' (Great Britain : Ditchling Press for Herder and Herder, 1967).</ref> 1629-1633

===English Protestants===
* [[John Lothropp]]
* [[Anne Askew]]{{fact}}

==See also==
*[[List of prisons in the United Kingdom]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Burford |first=E. J. |title=In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison |year=1978 |publisher=New English Library |isbn=978-0450032172}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.clink.co.uk/ Clink Prison Museum]

{{Prisons in London}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clink}}
[[Category:Prison museums in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Former buildings and structures of Southwark]]
[[Category:Defunct prisons in London]]
[[Category:Museums in Southwark]]

The Clink

2011-02-24T03:20:11Z

Rod57: /* English Catholics */ 1629-1633

{{Coord|51|30|25.48|N|0|05|30.95|W|region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}
[[Image:London clink prison museum 20050521.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Entrance to The Clink prison museum]]
'''The Clink''' was a notorious [[prison]] in [[Southwark]], England which functioned from the 12th century until 1780 either deriving its name from, or bestowing it on, the local manor, the Clink [[Liberty (division)|Liberty]] (see also the [[Liberty of the Clink]]). The manor and prison were owned by the [[Bishop of Winchester]] and situated next to his residence at [[Winchester Palace]]. The Clink was possibly the oldest men's prison and probably the oldest women's prison in England.<ref>[http://www.london-se1.co.uk/places/clink-prison-museum Clink Prison Museum]</ref>

The origins of the name "The Clink" are uncertain, but it possibly onomatopoeic and derives from the sound of striking metal as the prison's doors were bolted, or the rattling of the chains the prisoners wore.

==History==
[[Image:Clink-Blue-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|[[Blue plaque]] on the site]]

There has been a prison owned by the Bishop of Winchester in one form or another since the year 860, although at that time it would only have been one cell in a priests college. By 1076 an Archbishop had listed the type of punishments allowed, scourging with rods, solitary confinement, and bread and water in silence.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A623864</ref>

The building of a chapel and mansion at Southwark was begun in 1107 by the then current Bishop of Winchester, but was not completed until 1144, by his successor. There were two prisons included, one for men and one for women. It would have been a good source of income for the Bishop, as it was about this time that the brothels were regulated, bringing in plenty of fines and customers. The brothels were closed, reopened, moved and used throughout the life of the Clink, bringing in prisoners at a fairly steady rate. By 1180 the land was owned outright by the Clink prison.

The prisoners were ill treated although those with money and friends on the outside were able to pay the gaolers to make their time better. As the gaolers were very poorly paid they found other ways to supplement their income. They hired out rooms, beds, bedding, candles and fuel to those who could afford it, food and drink were charged at twice the correct price. They accepted payments for fitting lighter irons, and for removing them completely, for a fee prisoners would be allowed outside to beg, or even to work. Madams were allowed to keep a brothel going, with payments going to the gaolers<ref>Burford, E. J. (1978), In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison, New English Library</ref>. Poorer prisoners had to beg at the grates that led up to street level and sell anything they had with them, including their clothes to pay for food.

In 1450 rioters protesting the Statute of Labourers raided Winchester House. Classing clerics as tax collectors, they murdered them, and released prisoners from the Clink before burning it down. The rebellion was put down and Winchester House was rebuilt and extended, including a new prison.

===Decline===
In 1649 Winchester House was sold to a property developer and was divided into shops, tenements and dye houses. The Cage was removed temporarily as ratepayers had complained about the cost of upkeep, but the whipping post was still busy. By 1707 both of these and the stocks were all unused because of the cost of upkeep, and by 1732 there were only two registered inmates. In 1745 a temporary prison was used as the Clink was too decayed to use, although by 1776 the prison was again taking in debtors. It was burnt down in 1780 by [[Gordon Riots|Gordon riotors]], and was never rebuilt.

===Today===
The Clink Prison Museum is currently located on the original site in Clink Street, in the basement of a former warehouse. The museum tries to recreate the conditions of the original prison.

==Notable prisoners==
===English Catholics===
* Father [[John Gerard, S.J.]] ~1595
* Father [[Thomas Strange, S.J.]]

* Father [[George Blackwell]] ~1607-1613
* [[Matthew Wilson (Jesuit)|Matthew Wilson]], alias Edward Knott, Jesuit author.<ref>Bernard Basset, S.J., ''The English Jesuits: From Campion to Martindale'' (Great Britain : Ditchling Press for Herder and Herder, 1967).</ref> 1629-1633

===English Protestants===
* [[John Lothropp]]
* [[Anne Askew]]

==See also==
*[[List of prisons in the United Kingdom]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Burford |first=E. J. |title=In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison |year=1978 |publisher=New English Library |isbn=978-0450032172}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.clink.co.uk/ Clink Prison Museum]

{{Prisons in London}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clink}}
[[Category:Prison museums in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Former buildings and structures of Southwark]]
[[Category:Defunct prisons in London]]
[[Category:Museums in Southwark]]

The Clink

2011-02-24T03:16:31Z

Rod57: /* English Catholics */ ~1607-1613

{{Coord|51|30|25.48|N|0|05|30.95|W|region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}
[[Image:London clink prison museum 20050521.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Entrance to The Clink prison museum]]
'''The Clink''' was a notorious [[prison]] in [[Southwark]], England which functioned from the 12th century until 1780 either deriving its name from, or bestowing it on, the local manor, the Clink [[Liberty (division)|Liberty]] (see also the [[Liberty of the Clink]]). The manor and prison were owned by the [[Bishop of Winchester]] and situated next to his residence at [[Winchester Palace]]. The Clink was possibly the oldest men's prison and probably the oldest women's prison in England.<ref>[http://www.london-se1.co.uk/places/clink-prison-museum Clink Prison Museum]</ref>

The origins of the name "The Clink" are uncertain, but it possibly onomatopoeic and derives from the sound of striking metal as the prison's doors were bolted, or the rattling of the chains the prisoners wore.

==History==
[[Image:Clink-Blue-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|[[Blue plaque]] on the site]]

There has been a prison owned by the Bishop of Winchester in one form or another since the year 860, although at that time it would only have been one cell in a priests college. By 1076 an Archbishop had listed the type of punishments allowed, scourging with rods, solitary confinement, and bread and water in silence.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A623864</ref>

The building of a chapel and mansion at Southwark was begun in 1107 by the then current Bishop of Winchester, but was not completed until 1144, by his successor. There were two prisons included, one for men and one for women. It would have been a good source of income for the Bishop, as it was about this time that the brothels were regulated, bringing in plenty of fines and customers. The brothels were closed, reopened, moved and used throughout the life of the Clink, bringing in prisoners at a fairly steady rate. By 1180 the land was owned outright by the Clink prison.

The prisoners were ill treated although those with money and friends on the outside were able to pay the gaolers to make their time better. As the gaolers were very poorly paid they found other ways to supplement their income. They hired out rooms, beds, bedding, candles and fuel to those who could afford it, food and drink were charged at twice the correct price. They accepted payments for fitting lighter irons, and for removing them completely, for a fee prisoners would be allowed outside to beg, or even to work. Madams were allowed to keep a brothel going, with payments going to the gaolers<ref>Burford, E. J. (1978), In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison, New English Library</ref>. Poorer prisoners had to beg at the grates that led up to street level and sell anything they had with them, including their clothes to pay for food.

In 1450 rioters protesting the Statute of Labourers raided Winchester House. Classing clerics as tax collectors, they murdered them, and released prisoners from the Clink before burning it down. The rebellion was put down and Winchester House was rebuilt and extended, including a new prison.

===Decline===
In 1649 Winchester House was sold to a property developer and was divided into shops, tenements and dye houses. The Cage was removed temporarily as ratepayers had complained about the cost of upkeep, but the whipping post was still busy. By 1707 both of these and the stocks were all unused because of the cost of upkeep, and by 1732 there were only two registered inmates. In 1745 a temporary prison was used as the Clink was too decayed to use, although by 1776 the prison was again taking in debtors. It was burnt down in 1780 by [[Gordon Riots|Gordon riotors]], and was never rebuilt.

===Today===
The Clink Prison Museum is currently located on the original site in Clink Street, in the basement of a former warehouse. The museum tries to recreate the conditions of the original prison.

==Notable prisoners==
===English Catholics===
* Father [[John Gerard, S.J.]] ~1595
* Father [[Thomas Strange, S.J.]]

* Father [[George Blackwell]] ~1607-1613
* [[Matthew Wilson (Jesuit)|Matthew Wilson]], alias Edward Knott, Jesuit author.<ref>Bernard Basset, S.J., ''The English Jesuits: From Campion to Martindale'' (Great Britain : Ditchling Press for Herder and Herder, 1967).</ref>

===English Protestants===
* [[John Lothropp]]
* [[Anne Askew]]

==See also==
*[[List of prisons in the United Kingdom]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Burford |first=E. J. |title=In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison |year=1978 |publisher=New English Library |isbn=978-0450032172}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.clink.co.uk/ Clink Prison Museum]

{{Prisons in London}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clink}}
[[Category:Prison museums in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Former buildings and structures of Southwark]]
[[Category:Defunct prisons in London]]
[[Category:Museums in Southwark]]

The Clink

2011-02-24T03:14:11Z

Rod57: /* English Catholics */ ~1595

{{Coord|51|30|25.48|N|0|05|30.95|W|region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}
[[Image:London clink prison museum 20050521.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Entrance to The Clink prison museum]]
'''The Clink''' was a notorious [[prison]] in [[Southwark]], England which functioned from the 12th century until 1780 either deriving its name from, or bestowing it on, the local manor, the Clink [[Liberty (division)|Liberty]] (see also the [[Liberty of the Clink]]). The manor and prison were owned by the [[Bishop of Winchester]] and situated next to his residence at [[Winchester Palace]]. The Clink was possibly the oldest men's prison and probably the oldest women's prison in England.<ref>[http://www.london-se1.co.uk/places/clink-prison-museum Clink Prison Museum]</ref>

The origins of the name "The Clink" are uncertain, but it possibly onomatopoeic and derives from the sound of striking metal as the prison's doors were bolted, or the rattling of the chains the prisoners wore.

==History==
[[Image:Clink-Blue-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|[[Blue plaque]] on the site]]

There has been a prison owned by the Bishop of Winchester in one form or another since the year 860, although at that time it would only have been one cell in a priests college. By 1076 an Archbishop had listed the type of punishments allowed, scourging with rods, solitary confinement, and bread and water in silence.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A623864</ref>

The building of a chapel and mansion at Southwark was begun in 1107 by the then current Bishop of Winchester, but was not completed until 1144, by his successor. There were two prisons included, one for men and one for women. It would have been a good source of income for the Bishop, as it was about this time that the brothels were regulated, bringing in plenty of fines and customers. The brothels were closed, reopened, moved and used throughout the life of the Clink, bringing in prisoners at a fairly steady rate. By 1180 the land was owned outright by the Clink prison.

The prisoners were ill treated although those with money and friends on the outside were able to pay the gaolers to make their time better. As the gaolers were very poorly paid they found other ways to supplement their income. They hired out rooms, beds, bedding, candles and fuel to those who could afford it, food and drink were charged at twice the correct price. They accepted payments for fitting lighter irons, and for removing them completely, for a fee prisoners would be allowed outside to beg, or even to work. Madams were allowed to keep a brothel going, with payments going to the gaolers<ref>Burford, E. J. (1978), In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison, New English Library</ref>. Poorer prisoners had to beg at the grates that led up to street level and sell anything they had with them, including their clothes to pay for food.

In 1450 rioters protesting the Statute of Labourers raided Winchester House. Classing clerics as tax collectors, they murdered them, and released prisoners from the Clink before burning it down. The rebellion was put down and Winchester House was rebuilt and extended, including a new prison.

===Decline===
In 1649 Winchester House was sold to a property developer and was divided into shops, tenements and dye houses. The Cage was removed temporarily as ratepayers had complained about the cost of upkeep, but the whipping post was still busy. By 1707 both of these and the stocks were all unused because of the cost of upkeep, and by 1732 there were only two registered inmates. In 1745 a temporary prison was used as the Clink was too decayed to use, although by 1776 the prison was again taking in debtors. It was burnt down in 1780 by [[Gordon Riots|Gordon riotors]], and was never rebuilt.

===Today===
The Clink Prison Museum is currently located on the original site in Clink Street, in the basement of a former warehouse. The museum tries to recreate the conditions of the original prison.

==Notable prisoners==
===English Catholics===
* Father [[John Gerard, S.J.]] ~1595
* Father [[Thomas Strange, S.J.]]

* Father [[George Blackwell]]
* [[Matthew Wilson (Jesuit)|Matthew Wilson]], alias Edward Knott, Jesuit author.<ref>Bernard Basset, S.J., ''The English Jesuits: From Campion to Martindale'' (Great Britain : Ditchling Press for Herder and Herder, 1967).</ref>

===English Protestants===
* [[John Lothropp]]
* [[Anne Askew]]

==See also==
*[[List of prisons in the United Kingdom]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Burford |first=E. J. |title=In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison |year=1978 |publisher=New English Library |isbn=978-0450032172}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.clink.co.uk/ Clink Prison Museum]

{{Prisons in London}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clink}}
[[Category:Prison museums in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Former buildings and structures of Southwark]]
[[Category:Defunct prisons in London]]
[[Category:Museums in Southwark]]

Liberty of the Clink

2011-02-24T02:52:08Z

Rod57: /* Abolition */ [[Restoration (England)|

[[Image:London clink prison museum 20050521.jpg|thumb|Entrance to The Clink prison museum]]
[[Image:Clink-Blue-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|[[Blue plaque]] on the site]]

The '''Liberty of the Clink''' was an area in [[Southwark]], on the south bank of the [[River Thames]], opposite the [[City of London]]. Although situated in [[Surrey]] the [[liberty (division)|liberty]] was exempt from the jurisdiction of the [[High Sheriff of Surrey|county's high sheriff]] and was under the jurisdiction of the [[Bishop of Winchester]] who was usually either the Chancellor or Treasurer of the King.

The liberty was originally north-eastern part of the 'hide of Southwark' granted by Henry I to the Priory of Bermondsey (later [[Bermondsey Abbey]]) in 1104-09 and that house then sold it to the Bishop of Winchester in ca 1149, who wanted a house for his London governmental duties. The Bishopric's administration referred to it as the 'Manor of Southwark' ie the Manor of the Bishop in Southwark. It was also known as the 'Liberty of Winchester'. The liberty (ie a manorial jurisdiction) was confirmed when King [[Stephen of England|Stephen]] sanctioned the transaction for his brother [[Henry Blois]], then Bishop of Winchester. It was approximately 70 acres (28 hectares) in size and was situated in the modern [[Bankside]] area of the [[London Borough of Southwark]]. Clink Street and Winchester Street recall the former liberty.

It formed part of the parish of St Margaret's, Southwark until 1539 when it was closed being replaced by St Saviour's (now [[Southwark Cathedral]]). As a civic area it was united in the [[St Saviour's District (Metropolis)|St Saviour's District]] with St Saviour's and Christchurch, Surrey under the [[Metropolitan Board of Works]] from 1855.

The Clink is most famous for its [[The Clink|prison]]. The first recorded use of the term Liberty of the Clink was in 1530; the nickname was used informally to avoid confusion with the other manors in Southwark. 'Clink' seems to be derived from the name of the Bishop's prison, which he held as a civil authority deriving from his role as Chancellor or Treasurer. It was also the manorial gaol maintained by the bishop as part of the administration of the liberty.

The bishop's London residence, [[Winchester Palace|Winchester House]] was built in the liberty, originally surrounded by parkland.

==Illicit activities==
The liberty lay outside the jurisdiction of the City of London, and that of the county authorities of Surrey, and activities forbidden in those areas were permitted within it.

===[[Prostitution]]===
In 1161 the bishop was granted the power to licence prostitutes and brothels in the liberty, a business useful to the Church both to accommodate female orphans and to service the clergy (who before the Reformation were not allowed to marry). The prostitutes were known as '''Winchester Geese,''' and many are buried in [[Cross Bones]], an unconsecrated graveyard. Similarly, to "be bitten by a Winchester goose" meant "to contract a venereal disease",<ref>[http://www.takeourword.com/TOW199/page4.html Take Our Word For It Issue 199, page 4]</ref> and "[[goose bumps]]" was slang for symptoms of [[venereal disease]]s.

===Theatres===
Theatres and playhouses were allowed in the Clink, the most famous being the [[Globe Theatre]] where [[William Shakespeare]] performed his plays. Another noted one was [[The Rose (theatre)|The Rose]], where Shakespeare and [[Christopher Marlowe]] both premiered plays.

===Animal baiting===
Bull and bear baiting were also permitted.

==Abolition==
During the period of the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]] the [[episcopy]] was abolished, and the liberty was sold to a private owner in 1649. It was returned to the bishop on the [[Restoration (England)|restoration in 1660]].

The Clink prison was destroyed in 1780, and the bishop's palace in 1814. In 1856 most local government in the area passed to the St Saviour's District Board of Works and the [[Metropolitan Board of Works]]. In 1863 the rights of the Bishop of Winchester in the liberty were vested in the [[Ecclesiastical Commissioners]].

The liberty was finally abolished in 1889, when the [[Local Government Act 1888]] merged all remaining liberties into [[administrative county|counties]]. The Liberty of the Clink thus became part of the new [[County of London]].

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=43043 The borough of Southwark manors], from the Victoria County History of Surrey

{{coord|51|30.4|N|0|05.5|W|region:GB-SWK_type:adm3rd|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clink}}
[[Category:History of Southwark]]
[[Category:Liberties of London]]

Liberty of the Clink

2011-02-24T02:42:42Z

Rod57: /* Abolition */ [[

[[Image:London clink prison museum 20050521.jpg|thumb|Entrance to The Clink prison museum]]
[[Image:Clink-Blue-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|[[Blue plaque]] on the site]]

The '''Liberty of the Clink''' was an area in [[Southwark]], on the south bank of the [[River Thames]], opposite the [[City of London]]. Although situated in [[Surrey]] the [[liberty (division)|liberty]] was exempt from the jurisdiction of the [[High Sheriff of Surrey|county's high sheriff]] and was under the jurisdiction of the [[Bishop of Winchester]] who was usually either the Chancellor or Treasurer of the King.

The liberty was originally north-eastern part of the 'hide of Southwark' granted by Henry I to the Priory of Bermondsey (later [[Bermondsey Abbey]]) in 1104-09 and that house then sold it to the Bishop of Winchester in ca 1149, who wanted a house for his London governmental duties. The Bishopric's administration referred to it as the 'Manor of Southwark' ie the Manor of the Bishop in Southwark. It was also known as the 'Liberty of Winchester'. The liberty (ie a manorial jurisdiction) was confirmed when King [[Stephen of England|Stephen]] sanctioned the transaction for his brother [[Henry Blois]], then Bishop of Winchester. It was approximately 70 acres (28 hectares) in size and was situated in the modern [[Bankside]] area of the [[London Borough of Southwark]]. Clink Street and Winchester Street recall the former liberty.

It formed part of the parish of St Margaret's, Southwark until 1539 when it was closed being replaced by St Saviour's (now [[Southwark Cathedral]]). As a civic area it was united in the [[St Saviour's District (Metropolis)|St Saviour's District]] with St Saviour's and Christchurch, Surrey under the [[Metropolitan Board of Works]] from 1855.

The Clink is most famous for its [[The Clink|prison]]. The first recorded use of the term Liberty of the Clink was in 1530; the nickname was used informally to avoid confusion with the other manors in Southwark. 'Clink' seems to be derived from the name of the Bishop's prison, which he held as a civil authority deriving from his role as Chancellor or Treasurer. It was also the manorial gaol maintained by the bishop as part of the administration of the liberty.

The bishop's London residence, [[Winchester Palace|Winchester House]] was built in the liberty, originally surrounded by parkland.

==Illicit activities==
The liberty lay outside the jurisdiction of the City of London, and that of the county authorities of Surrey, and activities forbidden in those areas were permitted within it.

===[[Prostitution]]===
In 1161 the bishop was granted the power to licence prostitutes and brothels in the liberty, a business useful to the Church both to accommodate female orphans and to service the clergy (who before the Reformation were not allowed to marry). The prostitutes were known as '''Winchester Geese,''' and many are buried in [[Cross Bones]], an unconsecrated graveyard. Similarly, to "be bitten by a Winchester goose" meant "to contract a venereal disease",<ref>[http://www.takeourword.com/TOW199/page4.html Take Our Word For It Issue 199, page 4]</ref> and "[[goose bumps]]" was slang for symptoms of [[venereal disease]]s.

===Theatres===
Theatres and playhouses were allowed in the Clink, the most famous being the [[Globe Theatre]] where [[William Shakespeare]] performed his plays. Another noted one was [[The Rose (theatre)|The Rose]], where Shakespeare and [[Christopher Marlowe]] both premiered plays.

===Animal baiting===
Bull and bear baiting were also permitted.

==Abolition==
During the period of the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]] the [[episcopy]] was abolished, and the liberty was sold to a private owner in 1649. It was returned to the bishop on the restoration in 1660. The Clink prison was destroyed in 1780, and the bishop's palace in 1814. In 1856 most local government in the area passed to the St Saviour's District Board of Works and the [[Metropolitan Board of Works]]. In 1863 the rights of the Bishop of Winchester in the liberty were vested in the [[Ecclesiastical Commissioners]].

The liberty was finally abolished in 1889, when the [[Local Government Act 1888]] merged all remaining liberties into [[administrative county|counties]]. The Liberty of the Clink thus became part of the new [[County of London]].

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=43043 The borough of Southwark manors], from the Victoria County History of Surrey

{{coord|51|30.4|N|0|05.5|W|region:GB-SWK_type:adm3rd|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clink}}
[[Category:History of Southwark]]
[[Category:Liberties of London]]

Liberty of the Clink

2011-02-24T02:39:20Z

Rod57: /* Illicit activities */ [[

[[Image:London clink prison museum 20050521.jpg|thumb|Entrance to The Clink prison museum]]
[[Image:Clink-Blue-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|[[Blue plaque]] on the site]]

The '''Liberty of the Clink''' was an area in [[Southwark]], on the south bank of the [[River Thames]], opposite the [[City of London]]. Although situated in [[Surrey]] the [[liberty (division)|liberty]] was exempt from the jurisdiction of the [[High Sheriff of Surrey|county's high sheriff]] and was under the jurisdiction of the [[Bishop of Winchester]] who was usually either the Chancellor or Treasurer of the King.

The liberty was originally north-eastern part of the 'hide of Southwark' granted by Henry I to the Priory of Bermondsey (later [[Bermondsey Abbey]]) in 1104-09 and that house then sold it to the Bishop of Winchester in ca 1149, who wanted a house for his London governmental duties. The Bishopric's administration referred to it as the 'Manor of Southwark' ie the Manor of the Bishop in Southwark. It was also known as the 'Liberty of Winchester'. The liberty (ie a manorial jurisdiction) was confirmed when King [[Stephen of England|Stephen]] sanctioned the transaction for his brother [[Henry Blois]], then Bishop of Winchester. It was approximately 70 acres (28 hectares) in size and was situated in the modern [[Bankside]] area of the [[London Borough of Southwark]]. Clink Street and Winchester Street recall the former liberty.

It formed part of the parish of St Margaret's, Southwark until 1539 when it was closed being replaced by St Saviour's (now [[Southwark Cathedral]]). As a civic area it was united in the [[St Saviour's District (Metropolis)|St Saviour's District]] with St Saviour's and Christchurch, Surrey under the [[Metropolitan Board of Works]] from 1855.

The Clink is most famous for its [[The Clink|prison]]. The first recorded use of the term Liberty of the Clink was in 1530; the nickname was used informally to avoid confusion with the other manors in Southwark. 'Clink' seems to be derived from the name of the Bishop's prison, which he held as a civil authority deriving from his role as Chancellor or Treasurer. It was also the manorial gaol maintained by the bishop as part of the administration of the liberty.

The bishop's London residence, [[Winchester Palace|Winchester House]] was built in the liberty, originally surrounded by parkland.

==Illicit activities==
The liberty lay outside the jurisdiction of the City of London, and that of the county authorities of Surrey, and activities forbidden in those areas were permitted within it.

===[[Prostitution]]===
In 1161 the bishop was granted the power to licence prostitutes and brothels in the liberty, a business useful to the Church both to accommodate female orphans and to service the clergy (who before the Reformation were not allowed to marry). The prostitutes were known as '''Winchester Geese,''' and many are buried in [[Cross Bones]], an unconsecrated graveyard. Similarly, to "be bitten by a Winchester goose" meant "to contract a venereal disease",<ref>[http://www.takeourword.com/TOW199/page4.html Take Our Word For It Issue 199, page 4]</ref> and "[[goose bumps]]" was slang for symptoms of [[venereal disease]]s.

===Theatres===
Theatres and playhouses were allowed in the Clink, the most famous being the [[Globe Theatre]] where [[William Shakespeare]] performed his plays. Another noted one was [[The Rose (theatre)|The Rose]], where Shakespeare and [[Christopher Marlowe]] both premiered plays.

===Animal baiting===
Bull and bear baiting were also permitted.

==Abolition==
During the period of the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]] the episcopy was abolished, and the liberty was sold to a private owner in 1649. It was returned to the bishop on the restoration in 1660. The Clink prison was destroyed in 1780, and the bishop's palace in 1814. In 1856 most local government in the area passed to the St Saviour's District Board of Works and the [[Metropolitan Board of Works]]. In 1863 the rights of the Bishop of Winchester in the liberty were vested in the [[Ecclesiastical Commissioners]].

The liberty was finally abolished in 1889, when the [[Local Government Act 1888]] merged all remaining liberties into [[administrative county|counties]]. The Liberty of the Clink thus became part of the new [[County of London]].

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=43043 The borough of Southwark manors], from the Victoria County History of Surrey

{{coord|51|30.4|N|0|05.5|W|region:GB-SWK_type:adm3rd|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clink}}
[[Category:History of Southwark]]
[[Category:Liberties of London]]

The Clink

2011-02-24T02:27:47Z

Rod57: /* Decline */ [[Gordon Riots|

{{Coord|51|30|25.48|N|0|05|30.95|W|region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}
[[Image:London clink prison museum 20050521.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Entrance to The Clink prison museum]]
'''The Clink''' was a notorious [[prison]] in [[Southwark]], England which functioned from the 12th century until 1780 either deriving its name from, or bestowing it on, the local manor, the Clink [[Liberty (division)|Liberty]] (see also the [[Liberty of the Clink]]). The manor and prison were owned by the [[Bishop of Winchester]] and situated next to his residence at [[Winchester Palace]]. The Clink was possibly the oldest men's prison and probably the oldest women's prison in England.<ref>[http://www.london-se1.co.uk/places/clink-prison-museum Clink Prison Museum]</ref>

The origins of the name "The Clink" are uncertain, but it possibly onomatopoeic and derives from the sound of striking metal as the prison's doors were bolted, or the rattling of the chains the prisoners wore.

==History==
[[Image:Clink-Blue-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|[[Blue plaque]] on the site]]

There has been a prison owned by the Bishop of Winchester in one form or another since the year 860, although at that time it would only have been one cell in a priests college. By 1076 an Archbishop had listed the type of punishments allowed, scourging with rods, solitary confinement, and bread and water in silence.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A623864</ref>

The building of a chapel and mansion at Southwark was begun in 1107 by the then current Bishop of Winchester, but was not completed until 1144, by his successor. There were two prisons included, one for men and one for women. It would have been a good source of income for the Bishop, as it was about this time that the brothels were regulated, bringing in plenty of fines and customers. The brothels were closed, reopened, moved and used throughout the life of the Clink, bringing in prisoners at a fairly steady rate. By 1180 the land was owned outright by the Clink prison.

The prisoners were ill treated although those with money and friends on the outside were able to pay the gaolers to make their time better. As the gaolers were very poorly paid they found other ways to supplement their income. They hired out rooms, beds, bedding, candles and fuel to those who could afford it, food and drink were charged at twice the correct price. They accepted payments for fitting lighter irons, and for removing them completely, for a fee prisoners would be allowed outside to beg, or even to work. Madams were allowed to keep a brothel going, with payments going to the gaolers<ref>Burford, E. J. (1978), In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison, New English Library</ref>. Poorer prisoners had to beg at the grates that led up to street level and sell anything they had with them, including their clothes to pay for food.

In 1450 rioters protesting the Statute of Labourers raided Winchester House. Classing clerics as tax collectors, they murdered them, and released prisoners from the Clink before burning it down. The rebellion was put down and Winchester House was rebuilt and extended, including a new prison.

===Decline===
In 1649 Winchester House was sold to a property developer and was divided into shops, tenements and dye houses. The Cage was removed temporarily as ratepayers had complained about the cost of upkeep, but the whipping post was still busy. By 1707 both of these and the stocks were all unused because of the cost of upkeep, and by 1732 there were only two registered inmates. In 1745 a temporary prison was used as the Clink was too decayed to use, although by 1776 the prison was again taking in debtors. It was burnt down in 1780 by [[Gordon Riots|Gordon riotors]], and was never rebuilt.

===Today===
The Clink Prison Museum is currently located on the original site in Clink Street, in the basement of a former warehouse. The museum tries to recreate the conditions of the original prison.

==Notable prisoners==
===English Catholics===
* Father [[John Gerard, S.J.]]
* Father [[Thomas Strange, S.J.]]

* Father [[George Blackwell]]
* [[Matthew Wilson (Jesuit)|Matthew Wilson]], alias Edward Knott, Jesuit author.<ref>Bernard Basset, S.J., ''The English Jesuits: From Campion to Martindale'' (Great Britain : Ditchling Press for Herder and Herder, 1967).</ref>

===English Protestants===
* [[John Lothropp]]
* [[Anne Askew]]

==See also==
*[[List of prisons in the United Kingdom]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Burford |first=E. J. |title=In the Clink: Story of England's Oldest Prison |year=1978 |publisher=New English Library |isbn=978-0450032172}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.clink.co.uk/ Clink Prison Museum]

{{Prisons in London}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clink}}
[[Category:Prison museums in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Former buildings and structures of Southwark]]
[[Category:Defunct prisons in London]]
[[Category:Museums in Southwark]]

Wolf 1061

2010-09-09T22:24:13Z

Rod57: [[

{{Starbox begin |
name=Wolf 1061 }}
{{Starbox observe |
epoch=J2000 |
ra=16h 30m 18.1s |
dec=-12° 39' 45" |
appmag_v=10.10 |
constell=[[Ophiuchus]] }}
{{Starbox character |
class=M3 V |
b-v=1.59 |
u-b=1.17 |
variable=None }}
{{Starbox astrometry |
radial_v=-21.0 |
prop_mo_ra=-93.61 |
prop_mo_dec=-1184.90 |
parallax=236.01 |
p_error=1.67 |
absmag_v=11.96 }}
{{Starbox catalog |
names=[[Henry L. Giclas catalogue|Gl]] 153-058, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue|GJ]] 628, [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]] -12°4523, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 3746.00, [[Luyten Half-Second catalogue|LHS]] 419, [[Alexander N. Vyssotsky|Vys]] 164, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]] 80824.}}
{{Starbox end}}

'''Wolf 1061''' is a [[red dwarf]] star. It is located relatively near our [[Sun]], at a distance of about 13.8 [[light year]]s, in the constellation [[Ophiuchus]]. It has a relatively high [[proper motion]] and has not been found to have any unusual [[Spectroscopy|spectroscopic]] features.

==See also==
* [[List of nearest stars]]

==External links==
* [http://nstars.arc.nasa.gov/searches/starinfo.cfm?partb=1630m1239&starpage=0 nStars database entry]
* [http://www.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/aricns/cnspages/4c01308.htm ARICNS entry]
{{Nearest systems|3}}
[[Category:M-type main sequence stars]]
[[Category:Ophiuchus constellation]]
[[Category:HIP objects|080824]]
[[Category:Gliese and GJ objects|0628]]
[[Category:Wolf objects|1061]]
[[Category:Durchmusterung objects|BD-12 04523]]

{{main-star-stub}}

[[br:Gl 628]]
[[es:Gliese 628]]
[[fr:Wolf 1061]]
[[ko:글리제 628]]
[[it:Gliese 628]]
[[ja:ウォルフ1061]]
[[pl:Wolf 1061]]
[[sk:Wolf 1061]]

Interne Fixation

2010-07-13T13:09:58Z

Rod57: /* External links */ PPT

[[Image:X-ray3.jpg|250px|thumb|Orthopedic implants to repair fractures to the radius and ulna. Note the visible break in the ulna. (right forearm)]]
[[File:Orif surgery.jpg|thumb|right|300px|US Navy doctors perform an open reduction internal fixation femur surgery.]]

An '''internal fixator''' refers to the [[implant (medicine)]] used in [[internal fixation]] of bones during orthopedic surgery. The concept of internal fixation dates to the mid 1800's.<ref>General Principles of Internal Fixation. URL: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1269987-overview Accessed 9 January 2010</ref> An internal fixator may be made of [[stainless steel]] or [[titanium]].

Types of internal fixators include bone screws and metal plates, pins, rods,<ref>MedicineNet.com URL: http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=13714 Accessed 9 January 2010</ref> [[Kirschner wire]]s and intramedullary devices such as the [[Kuntscher nail]] and interlocking nail.

'''Open Reduction Internal Fixation''' (ORIF) is a medical procedure. ''Open [[Reduction (orthopedic surgery)|reduction]]'' refers to [[open surgery]] to set [[bone]]s, as is necessary for some [[fracture]]s. ''Internal fixation'' refers to fixation of screws and/or plates to enable or facilitate [[healing]]. Rigid fixation prevents micromotion across lines of fracture to enable healing and prevent infection, which happens when implants such as plates (e.g. [[Dynamic Compression Plate]]) are used. Open Reduction Internal Fixation techniques are often used in cases involving serious fractures such as [[comminuted fracture|comminuted]] or displaced fractures.

Risks and complications can include bacterial colonization of the bone, [[infection]], [[joint stiffness|stiffness and loss of range of motion]], non-union, malunion, damage to the muscles, nerve damage and palsy, [[arthritis]], [[tendonitis]], chronic [[pain]] associated with plates, screws, and pins, [[compartment syndrome]], [[deformity]], audible popping and snapping, and possible future surgeries to remove the hardware.

==See also==
* [[Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Osteosynthesefragen]]
* [[External fixation]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.aofoundation.org/wps/portal/surgeryskully AO Surgery Reference]
* [http://www.orthopaedicweblinks.com/Detailed/9326.html Basic Principles And Techniques Of Internal Fixation Of Fractures (28MB PPT) ]



{{surgery-stub}}

[[Category:Implants]]
[[Category:Orthopedic surgery]]
[[Category:Surgical procedures]]

[[ar:تثبيت داخلي]]

Interne Fixation

2010-07-13T13:03:14Z

Rod57: image of example

[[Image:X-ray3.jpg|250px|thumb|Orthopedic implants to repair fractures to the radius and ulna. Note the visible break in the ulna. (right forearm)]]
[[File:Orif surgery.jpg|thumb|right|300px|US Navy doctors perform an open reduction internal fixation femur surgery.]]

An '''internal fixator''' refers to the [[implant (medicine)]] used in [[internal fixation]] of bones during orthopedic surgery. The concept of internal fixation dates to the mid 1800's.<ref>General Principles of Internal Fixation. URL: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1269987-overview Accessed 9 January 2010</ref> An internal fixator may be made of [[stainless steel]] or [[titanium]].

Types of internal fixators include bone screws and metal plates, pins, rods,<ref>MedicineNet.com URL: http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=13714 Accessed 9 January 2010</ref> [[Kirschner wire]]s and intramedullary devices such as the [[Kuntscher nail]] and interlocking nail.

'''Open Reduction Internal Fixation''' (ORIF) is a medical procedure. ''Open [[Reduction (orthopedic surgery)|reduction]]'' refers to [[open surgery]] to set [[bone]]s, as is necessary for some [[fracture]]s. ''Internal fixation'' refers to fixation of screws and/or plates to enable or facilitate [[healing]]. Rigid fixation prevents micromotion across lines of fracture to enable healing and prevent infection, which happens when implants such as plates (e.g. [[Dynamic Compression Plate]]) are used. Open Reduction Internal Fixation techniques are often used in cases involving serious fractures such as [[comminuted fracture|comminuted]] or displaced fractures.

Risks and complications can include bacterial colonization of the bone, [[infection]], [[joint stiffness|stiffness and loss of range of motion]], non-union, malunion, damage to the muscles, nerve damage and palsy, [[arthritis]], [[tendonitis]], chronic [[pain]] associated with plates, screws, and pins, [[compartment syndrome]], [[deformity]], audible popping and snapping, and possible future surgeries to remove the hardware.

==See also==
* [[Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Osteosynthesefragen]]
* [[External fixation]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.aofoundation.org/wps/portal/surgeryskully AO Surgery Reference]



{{surgery-stub}}

[[Category:Implants]]
[[Category:Orthopedic surgery]]
[[Category:Surgical procedures]]

[[ar:تثبيت داخلي]]

Diskussion:Johanna Budwig

2010-04-12T15:14:06Z

Rod57: /* English article nominated for deletion */ kept

== Ausbildung? ==

zu klären:
war sie nun Chemikerin oder Apothekerin ?
geboren 1904 oder 1908 ?
hmmm.......[[Benutzer:Redecke|Redecke]] 16:24, 8. Aug 2006 (CEST)

== Revert vom 23.8.06 ==
User Amethyst fügte einen Beitrag zu einem Urteil ein: Zitat Beginn
Streitigkeiten wurden ebenfalls gerichtlich ausgetragen, welche in einem Freispruch endeten.
"Staatsanwaltschaft beim Landgericht Geschäfts Nr. 21 Js 10729/74
Rottweil, den 30.05.1975"

In der Anzeige gegen Dr. Johanna Budwig, Dietersweiler wegen Betrugs wird das Verfahren eingestellt. Die Kosten trägt die Staatskasse.
Aus den Gründen:„Ein strafbares Verhalten der Beschuldigten Frau Dr. J. Budwig im Sinne von § 263 StBG liegt nicht vor. Frau Dr. Budwig bedient sich als Heilpraktikerin einer Außenseitermethode. Ihre Ansicht geht davon aus, daß die Ursachen der Krebswucherung anzugehen sind. Diese Ursachen sieht sie als Störungen des Fettstoffwechsels der menschlichen Körperzellen. Dabei kann sie auf gute Kenntnisse von einschlägigen Wissenschaftsbereichen der Biochemie, der Physik, der Physiologie und andere stützen. Ihre seit Jahren angewandte Behandlungsmethode hat Frau Dr. Budwig auf wissenschaftlichen Kongressen vertreten und hat sie auch in wissenschaftlichen Abhandlungen dargelegt. Frau Dr. Budwig hat zahlreiche Dankschreiben über Heilerfolge zu den Akten gegeben. Hierbei ist besonders interessant, daß eines der Schreiben von einem Facharzt verfasst ist, bei dessen Vater nach einer Behandlung von Frau Dr. Budwig ein Heilerfolg eingetreten ist und daß andere von einem ärztlichen Direktor einer namhaften Strahlenklinik stammen.
Unterzeichnet vom Staatsanwalt und gegengezeichnet von Oberstaatsanwalt Dr. Hauser

Zitat Ende

Ich habe den entsprechenden Text wieder herausgenommen. Grund: er eignet sich zur bewertung der ansichten von frau budwig nicht. dazu sind stellungnahmen von gesundheitsexperten notwendig und nicht von anwälten oder richtern da diese in der regel keine medizinische ausbildung haben.

[[Benutzer:Redecke|Redecke]] 21:40, 23. Aug 2006 (CEST)

Ich habe den Text eingefügt, da dieser Text überhaupt erstmal einen Hinweis darauf gibt, dass es sich bei den Heilungserfolgen nicht um frei erfundene Anekdoten handelt und jemand unbeteiligtes Drittes (Oberstaatsanwalt) als Zeuge für Belege hergezogen werden kann.
Andererseits findet man leider keine weitern Quellen zu diesem (alten) Gerichtsurteil und müsste seperat recherchiert werden.
Andererseit klingt er auch nicht erfunden.
Eventuell schlage ich eine Pro und Kontra Rubrik in dem Artikel vor.
--[[Benutzer:Amethyst|Amethyst]] 23:28, 23. Aug 2006 (CEST)

==Änderungen==
Ein Hinweis an Neulinge: Es ist bei Wikipedia üblich, vor wesentlichen inhaltlichen Änderungen darüber auf der Diskussionsseite mit anderen Autoren zu diskutieren. Das gilt auch für Bedenken, was einzelne Sätze oder Abschnitte eines Textes angeht. Diese Regel ist bitte grundsätzlich einzuhalten. Ziel der Diskussion ist, einen Konsens zu erzielen. In einer Enzyklopädie steht übrigens auch nie "Frau xy" oder "Herr xy", siehe dazu auch bitte [[Wikipedia:Wie schreibe ich gute Artikel]]. --[[Benutzer:Dinah|Dinah]] 22:45, 23. Aug 2006 (CEST)

-----

okay, vielen Dank, ja ich bin neu hier und möchte ich für mein forsches Vorgehen entschuldigen. Der ganze Text war ziemlich abwertend geschrieben, aber gerade die Neutralität von wikipedia schätze ich sehr.
:hallo Amethyst ! Du kannst deine beiträge kennzeichnen indem du am ende 4 mal die altgr-taste plus das +-zeichen drückst. bislang hatte sich niemand groß für die frau budwig interessiert. du hast offenbar interesse, und das ist erstmal gut. die frage welchen akademischen werdegang budwig hat war bislang nicht so ganz klar. im internet schwirren dazu diverse informationen herum von denen einige offenbar falsch sind. ich gehe davon aus dass du es genauer weisst. es gibt klare und unmissverständliche aussagen von experten darüber dass die einhaltung einer ''krebsdiät'' die krankheit krebs nicht heilen kann. darüber hinaus gibt es keine belege dafür dass alleine eine diät diese krankheit heilen könnte. begleitend zu einer als effektiv erkannten therapie kann ein krebskranker auf diese diät setzen, da sie bislang nicht als schädlich erkant wurde. insofern sind die annahmen von frau budwig widerlegt, die entsprechenden aussagen kann ich gerne dir nennen. es ist prinzipiell so dass jemand der eine neue hypothese unter die leute bringt beweise dafür liefern muss - nicht umgekehrt. zu den links: MGK (Lothar Hirneise) ist eine unzumutbare informationsquelle. schon länger beobachte ich das treiben dieser leute, die eine 240 euro teure und meiner meinung nach fragwürdige ''krebsberatung'' [http://www.krebsberater-mgk.de/html/unsere_kosten.html] anbietet, die auf: ''...Entgiftung und energetisches Arbeiten...'' bei krebserkrankungen setzt, wofür es keinerlei wirksamkeitsnachweise gibt. Er setzt sich auch für die neue medizin des heilers hamer ein [http://www.buck.gmxhome.de/Optionen_2004-2_Der_Fall_Hamer_Lothar_Hirneise.pdf]. der andere link ''www.wissenschaft-unzensiert'' verbreitet verschwörungstheorien die in der rechten szene populär sind. gleich oben ein werbender hinweis schon wieder für die ''neue medizin'' des antisemiten hamer. völlig indiskutabel. [[Benutzer:Redecke|Redecke]] 00:19, 24. Aug 2006 (CEST)

::zur ausbildung findet man: aothekrin, biochemikerin, chemikerin, promovierte physikerin. was nun richtig ist muss noch herausgefunden werden. [[Benutzer:Redecke|Redecke]] 00:43, 24. Aug 2006 (CEST)

----

Hallo Redecke,

die Promotion (Dr.)von Frau Budwig sollte als gesichert gelten. Sowohl auf den ganz alten Büchern von 1968 z.B. vom Hyperion Verlag findet man die Aufschrift Dr.Johanna Budwig, als auch im Sensei Verlag ist immer von Dr. Johanna Budwig die Rede. (siehe www.amazon.de)
Es sei denn, Du unterstellst allen Beteiligten (Verlagen inklusive) eine große Verschwörung, das finde ich aber anbetracht der Tatsache, dass man mit der Öl Eiweiß Kost kein großes Geld verdienen kann, als sehr weit hergeholt. Es handelt sich außerdem um eine Außenseitermeinung.
Ich möchte ungern Themen vermischen, dennoch ein Punkt generell zu Diäten. (als persönliche Anmerkung an Dich, weil der Artikel sehr stark subjektiv geprägt war)
Es gibt starke Hinweise dazu, dass eine diätische Kost generell das Leben verlängert, dazu finden sich Publikationen in Wissenschaftsmagazinen wie GEO zur Insel Okinawa. Auch bei mehreren Naturvölkern wurde dies beobachtet.
Auch der Würzburger Altersforscher Franke konnte dies bei seinen Untersuchungen des Essverhaltens rüstiger Hundertjähriger feststellen.
Auch von in Abkasien lebende untersuchten Naturvölkern findet man Artikel und Hinweise zu einer diätischen Lebensweise im Netz.
Tierversuche an Ratten und sogar an Affen zeigen ein ähnliches Bild. (Lebensverlängerung mit diätischer Ernährung).
(bei Interesse kann ich Dir Links geben)
Noch ein Punkt zum Thema Voreingenommen:
Wenn sogar hochoffizielle europäische Studien (ich glaube Brustkrebs - Daten dazu kann ich aber noch genau liefern, wenn gewünscht) zu dem Schluß kommen, dass die Überlebensrate nach 5 Jahren mit Chemotherapie schlechter bzw. gleich ist als ohne Behandlung, dann sollte man sich durchaus AUCH kritisch mit der Schulmedizin befassen und sich eben ständig eine neue Meinung bilden und immer wieder wissenschaftlich vorgehen und nicht einfach sagen das eine ist GUT und das andere ist SCHLECHT. (schließlich sind die finanziellen Interessen in der Schulmedizin viel größer) .. Auch wenn eine Beratung bei Krebs mal 250 Euro kostet. Auch in der hochkarätigen Klinik für Tumorbiologie in Freiburg sind intensive Beratungen nicht kostenlos.
Ich möchte jetzt aber keinesfalls irgendwelche Machenschaften schön reden, nur zu einer eigenen Meinungsbildung anregen.
Und wenn bei Frau Budwig angeblich dokumentierte Fälle vorliegen sollen, dann hätte ich die auch gern selber mal gesehen (habe ich nicht), sollten aber zumindest erwähnt werden.
Auch aus persönlichen pseudo "Forschungen" aus dem persönlichen Umkreis kann ich Dir sagen, dass der Opa von einem guten Freund nächstes Jahr 100 wird und auch immer sehr gern (unbewusst) Kartoffeln mit Quark und Leinöl gegessen hat in seinem Leben. (Knoblauch ebenfalls)
Ich mein ja nur, jeder darf sich irren, aber bitte nicht von vorn herein negativ eingestellt sein. Ich erinnere an den laschen Umgang mit den Röntgengeräten in den 50er Jahren. Es gibt viele Beispiele in der sich die Medizin ständig irrt, ohne vorher genau geprüft zu haben. Ein gewisses Risiko ist auch nötig, es lässt sich eben vieles auch in der Praxis prüfen.
Zum Schluss möchte ich sagen, dass uns ein eigenes Urteil zu dem Thema bei Wikipedia nicht zusteht und wir nur informieren sollen, damit jeder ein eigenes Bild schaffen kann, es gibt dokumentierte Fälle von Menschen (im Netz), die trotz dass sie großer Fan der Öl-Eiweiß Kost waren, dennoch gestorben sind. Diese Links könnten eventuell mit Einverständnis der Seitenbetreiber bei solchen kontroversen Themen dem Artikel hinzugefügt werden)

--[[Benutzer:Amethyst|Amethyst]] 17:35, 24. Aug 2006 (CEST)

Michael Redecke hat sich mit dem Thema Ernährung ziemlich ausführlich beschäftigt, er wird Dir sicher auch selbst antworten. Bisher ist wissenschaftlich keine zwingende Korrelation zwischen Ernährung und Lebenserwartung nachgewiesen; die Lebenserwartung hängt von einer ganzen Reihe von Faktoren ab, die auch noch nicht alle erforscht sind. Damit beschäftigt sich z.B. die [[Biogerontologie]]. Eine Person, die jemand zufällig kennt, belegt natürlich gar nichts, das wirst Du aber wohl selbst wissen. --[[Benutzer:Dinah|Dinah]] 22:05, 24. Aug 2006 (CEST)

----

Hallo Dinah, ich freue mich schon auf einen eventuellen Wissensaustausch mit Michael Redecke.
Deine Behauptung, es hätte noch kein wissenschaftlicher Nachweis stattgefunden, ist schlicht falsch. Es konnte an Ratten und anderen Tierversuchen genau dieser Zusammenhang nachgewiesen werden.
http://focus.msn.de/gesundheit/ernaehrung/news/anti-aging_nid_28732.html
Was nun noch nicht bewiesen ist, ob die Studien auch auf den Menschen übertragbar sind. Die Hinweise sprechen aber dafür !
Da diese Studien aber die Lebenszeit eines Menschen überschreiten werden, wirst Du die Ergebnisse wahrscheinlich nicht mehr erleben. Außerdem ist fraglich ob sich jemand freiwillg "falsch" ernähren möchte. (kleiner Scherz)
Zu bedenken ist aber, dass ansonsten auch alle möglichen Medikamenten Tests bei Ratten untersucht und danach auf den Menschen übertragen werden.

--[[Benutzer:Amethyst|Amethyst]] 22:20, 24. Aug 2006 (CEST)

:hallo Amethyst ! die unterschrift klappt jetzt prima. dass frau budwig promoviert hat habe ich nicht bestritten. eine quelle gibt an sie habe ihren dr in physik gemacht. andere meine sie wäre pharmakologin. kurzum: da schwirren viele angaben umher. Du sprichst dann die CR-hypothese an. dazu hat dinah schon auf artikel anti-aging verwiesen. bei manchen tieren führt sie zur erhöhung der lebenserwartung. aber beim menschen ? hat mit budwig nichts zu tun. denn du kannst auch jeden tag [[Rumpsteak]] a la Bearnaise essen, aber nur in kleinen mengen eben. die berichte aus [[Abchasien]] oder anderen abgelegenen gebieten (Peru,hunza) sind häufig deswegen problematisch weil dort ausweise oft erst nach der geburt der alten menschen eingeführt wurden, und weil in manchen gebieten das hohe lebensalter die menschen sozusagen ''aufwertet'', sodaß es eine art druck gibt sich als älter zu bezeichnen als man ist. es ist stattdessen nunmal so daß alle nachgewiesenermassen sehr alten menschen zur zeit aus industriestaaten kommen. gruss michael [[Benutzer:Redecke|Redecke]] 23:29, 24. Aug 2006 (CEST)

Hallo Michael, ich denke dass sie in beiden Fächern promoviert hat, ein Medizinstudium hat sie noch angefangen aber nicht beendet, glaub ich.
von Pharmalogie habe ich noch nichts gehört. Da bist Du der erste.
Ich kümmer mich drum, das sollte bei den Akten des Gerichtsurteil vermerkt sein, gegen eine geringe Kopierkopie bekommt man meistens die Unterlagen zu Urteilen durchaus zugesandt.
Das Thema der Lebensverlängerung hat mit Budwig wirklich nichts zu tun, daher müssen wir nicht darüber diskutieren.
Deine Ergänzung zum Thema Zucker macht irgendwie keinen Sinn und verwirrt den Leser nur, da Budwig auch Traubenzucker und schnell verwertbare Kohlenhydrate wie Weißmehl ablehnt und höchstens Fruchtzucker zulässt. Bitte überdenke diesen Abschnitt daher nochmal. Er verwirrt und lässt den Leser vermuten es handelte sich um eine Erklärung die was mit Budwig zu tun hätte.

--[[Benutzer:Amethyst|Amethyst]] 23:58, 24. Aug 2006 (CEST)

----

Hallo Michael, Du solltest Dich erst mit dem Thema intensiv beschäftigen, bevor Du den Artikel kürzt, die Warburg Hypothese hat NICHTS mit dem Essen von irgendwelchen Produkten zu tun ! Du verdrehst da etwas. Die Warburg Hypthese wurde bewiesen, Budwigs Idee aber NOCH nicht !

--[[Benutzer:Amethyst|Amethyst]] 00:21, 25. Aug 2006 (CEST)

:hallo die verwirrung war ganz meinerseits über die frage wie denn zucker (damit ist stets saccharose gemeint) an einen tumor heransoll. wenn du von traubenzucker (also glukose) reden willst, dann ist das ganze anders zu verstehen. ich werden mir morgen die warburg-hypothese genauer ansehen und ggf das als artikel formulieren, dann erübrigen sich vielleicht die missverständnisse. der link den du eingefüht hast sagt aus dass es keinen beweis für die warburg-hypothese gibt, wenn du einen beweis kennen solltest nenne bitte die quelle. der link zur berliner zeitung geht nicht übrigens. [[Benutzer:Redecke|Redecke]] 00:23, 25. Aug 2006 (CEST)

----

Hallo Michael, okay, ich lass es erstmal so und schau Du morgen nochmal. Dieser Artikel der Berliner Zeitung sollte Klarheit schaffen.
http://www.berlinonline.de/berliner-zeitung/archiv/.bin/dump.fcgi/2006/0211/wissenschaft/0005/index.html
Da ist Budwigs Idee kritisch bemerkt worden ( sollte Dir sicherlich nicht mißfallen).
Punkt 2 bitte beachten: "Wikipedia dient nicht der Theoriefindung, sondern der Theoriedarstellung."
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Was_Wikipedia_nicht_ist

lösche daher bitte also Deine Vermutungen, ob Glukose nun den Tumor über die Ernährung erreichen können oder nicht. Genau das wollen Wissenschaftler nun rausfinden.
Gruß Amethyst

--[[Benutzer:Amethyst|Amethyst]] 00:39, 25. Aug 2006 (CEST)

hallo amethyst. der artikel [[Warburg-Hypothese]] ist schon in einer ersten fassung fertig. ich habe den begriff zucker nicht benutzt, sondern du. jetzt wo ich die warburg-hypothese besser kenne, kann ich ahnen worauf budwig (oder auch manfred von ardenne usw) hinauswollte und kann die WH entsprechend im artikel einbauen. budwig geht offenbar davon aus dass der traubenzucker (nicht haushaltszucker) hier schädlich sei, da er die anaerobe vergärung fördere. bloss: soll der mensch dann ohne seinen treibstoff traubenzucker auskommen ? nein das geht nicht, denn das immunsystem (das ja krebs durchaus unter kontrolle halten kann) braucht ja auch traubenzucker als energieträger, genauso wie das herz energie zur aufrechterhaltung des kreislaufs braucht und wir muskelarbeit leisten. [[Benutzer:Redecke|Redecke]] 01:07, 25. Aug 2006 (CEST)

----

Hallo Michael, großes Lob zu Deinem Artikel der Warburg-Hypothese, Du bist ja schneller wie die Feuerwehr. Ich habe noch einen neuen Punkt "Kritik an der Budwig Diät" eingeführt, unter dem alle kritischen Anmerkungen hinterlegt werden können.

--[[Benutzer:Amethyst|Amethyst]] 01:23, 25. Aug 2006 (CEST)
:wir kriegen das schon hin. mir ist immer noch schleierhaft wie budwig durch ihre diät den warburg-effekt anwenden wollte. morgen gucke ich mir deine änderungen gerne nochmal an. wir nähern uns ja an. bei gelegenheit musst du uns noch verraten warum du ursprünglich diese links auf die MGK und ''wissenschaft-unzensiert'' reinhaben wolltest. hatte mich so richtig verärgert und dir gegenüber mistrauisch gemacht. gute nacht. michael [[Benutzer:Redecke|Redecke]] 01:28, 25. Aug 2006 (CEST)

------------

Hallo Micheal, ich wusste nicht, dass diese Seiten bzw. deren Betreiber so umstritten sind. Ich bin meist immer kritisch, egal von welcher Seite eine Meinung kommt. Dennoch waren die Links gut recherchiert. Da der erste Link des Fotos auch auf diese von Dir nicht gewünschte Seite weiterverlinkt, sollte man das Foto vielleicht durch den Link www.johanna-budwig.de ersetzen. Vielleicht verirrt sich ja mal ein Wissenschaftler auf wikipedia, der wirklich schonmal etwas nachweisen oder widerlegen konnte.
Vielleicht ist die Verlinkung von der WH auf Budwig dann zuviel des Guten. Dafür ist die Budwig Seite nicht wissenschaftlich genug dargelegt.
Gruß

--[[Benutzer:Amethyst|Amethyst]] 15:09, 26. Aug 2006 (CEST)

:hallo Ametyst ! da hattest du völlig recht mit dem link ! die probleme in diesem artikel entstehen einfach dadurch dass es keinerlei wissenschaftlichen, neutralen studien gibt die wir hier heranziehen können. die 2 arbeiten zur warburg-hypothese beziehen sich ja auf mäuse und nicht den menschen, sind auch (noch) nicht repliziert worden, des weiteren muss noch nachgewiesen werden dass diese diät tatsächlich diesen effekt ausnutzt. ansonsten widersprechen budwigs ansichten einer als effektiv anzusehenden [[Krebsdiät]] heutigen ansichten der modernen medizin, sie kann sogar menschen dazu verleiten einzig auf dieses zu setzen anstatt einer als effektiv bekannten therapie zu vertrauen. da liegt das gefahrenpotential, neben einer möglicherweise sinnlosen geldausgabe. [[Benutzer:Redecke|Redecke]] 15:36, 26. Aug 2006 (CEST)

------------

Kurze Infos zu Frau Budwig.
Dr. Johanna Budwig war ausgebildete Apothekerin und promovierte in Physik und Chemie. Sie hat ein Medizinstudium angefangen, musste aber feststellen, dass die Ausbildung nicht dem entsprach, was sie an Erfahrung mitbrachte. Darum hat sie dann dieses Studium abgebrochen. Genauere Infos kann man im Buch "KREBS - Das Problem und die Lösung" im Sensei-Verlag nachlesen. ISBN-13: 978-3932576638.
Als weites Buch zum Thema Krebstherapien zu empfehlen ist: "Chemotherapie heilt Krebs und die Erde ist eine Scheibe" von Lothar Hirneise ISBN-13: 978-3932576676
Wer die Arbeit von Frau Dr. Johanna Budwig auf die "Öl-Eiweiss-Kost" reduziert, hat keine Ahnung was alles hinter der Arbeit von Frau Budwig steckt. Bitte lest diese beiden Bücher.
Mir kommt es vor wie mit dem Rauchen. Jahrzehnte lang haben hunderte Wissenschaftler bewiesen, dass Aktiv- und Passivrauchen gesundheitsschädlich ist und das Leben um Jahre verkürzt. Die Tabakindustrie hat es aber fertig gebracht, mit einfachen Argumenten wie "Das ist wissenschaftlich nicht bewiesen" oder "Das muss zuerst wissenschaftliche bewiesen werden" jahrelang die Konsumenten an der Nase herum geführt. Gleiches geschieht bei der Krebstherapie. Es ist schon lange auch dank Johanna Budwig bewiesen, dass es gute Alternativen zur traditionellen Schulmedizin gibt. Nur lässt sich leider mit der Öl-Eiweiss-Kost nicht so viel Geld verdienen. Die Therapien von Frau Budwig sind zu einfach und für jedermann anwendbar. Es steht kein Pharmakonzern dahinter, der mit schützenden Patenten viel Geld damit verdienen kann. Aus diesem Grund ist es auch nicht möglich viel Geld für Werbung auszugeben.

{{Diskussion}}

Wikipedia ist weder ein Forum noch ein Portal, sondern eine Enzyklopädie. Hier wird weder für Diäten noch für Bücher geworben und es dürfen auch keine Heilungsversprechen gemacht werden --[[Benutzer:Dinah|Dinah]] 12:26, 24. Jun. 2007 (CEST)

==Promotion==
ebenfalls zu klären: war sie nun promovierte chemikerin oder physikerin? oder doppelpromotion? das ist mir zu unwissenschaftlich und pseudo-kompetenz-erheischend! zudem ist die formulierung "mit promotion in" völlig ungebräuchlich, entweder heißt es "mit einem doktortitel in" (promotion bezeichnet nämlich den gesamten vorgang dissertation - disputation - veröffentlichung - doktortitel) oder man sagt "eine promovierte chemikerin" (oder physikerin). bitte mal korrigieren bei zeiten! zudem wird in anderen publikationen (reiner schnmid - ölwechsel für ihren körper, ein fürchterlich unwissenschaftliches buch!) gern darauf hingewisen, dass sie für den nobelpreis nominiert gewesen sei, was unsinn ist: sie war 7 mal für den ALTERNATIVEN nobelpreis nominiert, das ist ein erheblicher unterschied! soweit, gruß - --[[Benutzer:Alsterdrache|Alsterdrache]] 16:21, 7. Aug. 2008 (CEST)

ich bin noch die quelle schuldig: diese ist die budwig-firma selbst (authentischer geht's ja gar nicht), nämlich hier: http://www.dr-johanna-budwig.de/wissenswertes/dr-johanna-budwig.html; zudem erfahren wir, dass sie ein patent zur benutzung von rubinlasern in kernkraftwerken anfang der 1980er jahre beantragt hat, spannend, das passt so gar nicht zu einer alternativen forscherin. ich denke, das werde ich in den hauptartikel mit hineinschreiben (wie gebe ich die quelle da an?!). --[[Benutzer:Alsterdrache|Alsterdrache]] 20:14, 7. Aug. 2008 (CEST)

:"authentisch" ist die kommerziell betriebene Seite sicher in gewisser Weise, aber das ist keine unabhängige Quelle und deshalb sind alle Angaben dort mit Vorsicht und Vorbehalt zu betrachten. Unabhängige Quellen sind in einer Enzyklopädie in jedem Fall zu bevorzugen --[[Benutzer:Dinah|Dinah]] 20:17, 7. Aug. 2008 (CEST)

wow, ich kann ja richtig hier mitmachen, ein ehrliches danke Dinah! ich hab gelernt, dass neue sachen nach unten gehören. okay. dann inhaltlich: ja, richtig, kommerziell betriebene seite, aber die budwig-firma gehört dem neffen und nachlassverwalter der verstorbenen frau budwig, also gehe ich schon von einem hohen validitätsgrad aus, schließlich behaupten alle möglichen seiten diese "nominiert für den nobelpreis"-geschichte, die firmenseite hingegen ist erhlich und gibt zu dass es sich nur um den seit 1980 privat gegründeten im volksmund so genannten "alternativen nobelpreis" handelt. das finde ich recht seriös, müsste doch einer kommerziellen seite es eigentlich ganz gelegen kommen, wenn alle welt behauptet, die markennamengeberin seit 6 bis 7 mal für den nobelpreis nominiert worden. die sache mit dem kernkraft-laser scheint zu stimmen, ich hab das mal gegooglet. bemerkenswert finde ich das schon, denn auf vielen, ich nenne es mal "einschlägigen seiten", wird johanna budwig als ikone der ökologischen bewegung propagiert - dazu passt ein patent für eine innovation in der kernenergie nach meinem verständnis gar nicht und sollte deswegen erwähnt werden. ich hab mich bemüht, dass ganz sachlich in den hauptartikel einzuflechten. aber bitte um nachsicht: ich lerne hier noch :-) aber es macht direkt schon spaß! --[[Benutzer:Alsterdrache|Alsterdrache]] 20:46, 7. Aug. 2008 (CEST)

== Literaturangaben ==

Die zu den Büchern habe ich eben etwas überarbeitet; nur stehen sie in keiner irgendwie erkennbar sinnvollen Reihenfolge. Die zu den Einzelnachweisen entsprechen nicht den Regeln hier und insbesondere sollten sie keine Abkürzungen enthalten (auch die Verbindung zum ''pub-med'' ersetzt keine korrekten Angaben). - Ich habe dafür keine Zeit mehr, das müssen Andere erledigen. -- [[Benutzer:Sophophiloteros|Sophophiloteros]] 17:53, 23. Feb. 2009 (CET)

== English article nominated for deletion ==

Apologies, I can not read/write German. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johanna_Budwig Johanna Budwig article on the english wikipedia] has been [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Johanna_Budwig nominated for deletion] due to her not being notable. If you know of any reliable sources for her being an academic (eg institution and dates), or being notable (eg 3rd party discussion, evidence of media interviews) that could help the discussion. Many thanks. [[Spezial:Beiträge/86.140.229.88|86.140.229.88]] 15:16, 2. Apr. 2010 (CEST)

: The AfD decision was to keep, but additional sources would still be very helpful. [[Benutzer:Rod57|Rod57]] 17:14, 12. Apr. 2010 (CEST)

Photoelektrochemischer Prozess

2009-12-10T17:54:48Z

Rod57: /* Photosensitization */ Photosensitisers are a key component of photodynamic therapy used to treat cancers.

{{Infobox Particle
| bgcolour =
| name = Photoelectrochemical processes
| image = [[Image:Military laser experiment.jpg|275px]]
| caption = [[Photons]] emitted in a [[Coherence (physics)|coherent]] beam from a [[laser]]
| family =
| group =
| generation =
| interaction = [[Electromagnetism|Electromagnetic]], [[Optics|Optical]], [[Chemical]]
| theorized =
| discovered =
}}
'''Photoelectrochemical processes''' usually involve transforming light into other forms of energy.<ref name=photochemelec-process>
{{Cite book| last =Schiavello| first = Mario| coauthors =NATO
|title =Photoelectrochemistry, Photocatalysis and Photoreactors Fundamentals and Developments
|publisher =Springer London, Limited| date = 1985-02| pages =39
|url =http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=rLRMeP1KGhsC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Photoelectrochemical+processes&ots=l66b8tf2Os&sig=kI6jSx_9xgnAC5JvrrmGC8jta4s#v=onepage&q=Photoelectrochemical%20processes&f=false
|format =ISBN-13: 9789027719461| isbn = 9027719462}}</ref> These processes apply to photochemistry, optically pumped lasers, sensitized solar cells, luminescence, and the effect of reversible change of color upon exposure to light. To the right [[photons]] are emitted in a [[Coherence (physics)|coherent]] beam from a [[laser]].

==Electron excitation==
[[Image:Energylevels.png|thumb|210px|right| After absorbing energy, an electron may jump from the ground state to a higher energy excited state.]]

'''Electron excitation''' is the movement of an [[electron]] to a higher [[energy state]]. This can either be done by photoexcitation (PE), where the original electron absorbs the photon and gains all the photon's energy or by electrical [[Excited state|excitation]] (EE), where the original electron absorbs the energy of another, energetic electron. Within a semiconductor crystal lattice, thermal excitation is a process where lattice vibrations provide enough energy to move electrons to a higher [[energy band]]. When an excited electron falls back to a lower energy state again, it is called electron relaxation. This can be done by radiation of a photon or giving the energy to a third spectator particle as well.<ref name=2-electron>{{Citation
|last =Madden| first =R.P.
|last2 =Codling| first2 =K
|title =Two electron states in Helium
|journal =Astrophysical Journal
|volume =141| pages =364
|date =1965-02| url =http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1965ApJ...141..364M
|doi =10.1086/148132}}</ref>

In physics there is a specific technical definition for [[energy level]] which is often associated with an atom being excited to an [[excited state]]. The excited state, in general, is in relation to the [[ground state]], where the excited state is at a higher [[energy level]] than the ground state.

==Photoexcitation==
'''Photoexcitation''' is the mechanism of [[electron excitation]] by [[photon]] absorption, when the energy of the photon is too low to cause [[photoionization]]. The absorption of photon takes place in accordance to the Planck's Quantum Theory.

Photoexcitation plays role in photoisomerization. Photoexcitation is exploited in [[dye-sensitized solar cell]]s, [[photochemistry]], [[luminescence]], optically [[laser pumping|pumped]] lasers, and in some [[photochromic]] applications.

See also: [[Photoelectric effect]]

==Photoisomerization==
In [[chemistry]], '''photoisomerization''' is [[molecule|molecular]] behavior in which structural change between [[isomer]]s is caused by photoexcitation. Both reversible and irreversible photoisomerization reactions exist. However, the word "photoisomerization" usually indicates a reversible process. Photoisomerizable molecules are already put to practical use, for instance, in [[pigment]]s for [[CD-RW|rewritable CDs]], [[DVD-RW|DVDs]], and [[3D optical data storage]] solutions. In addition, recent interest in photoisomerizable molecules has been aimed at molecular devices, such as molecular switches, molecular motors, and molecular electronics.

Photoisomerization behavior can be roughly categorized into two classes: ''trans'' (or ''E'') and ''cis'' (or ''Z'') conversion, and open ring and closed ring transition. Instances of the former include [[stilbene]] and [[azobenzene]]. This class of compounds has a double [[chemical bond|bond]], and rotation or inversion around the double bond affords isomerization between the two states. Examples of the latter include [[fulgide]] and [[diarylethene]]. These types of compounds undergo bond cleavage and bond creation upon irradiation with particular wavelengths of light.

==Photoionization==
'''Photoionization''' is the physical process in which an incident [[photon]] ejects one or more [[electrons]] from an [[atom]], [[ion]] or [[molecule]]. This is essentially the same process that occurs with the photoelectric effect with metals. In the case of a gas, the term photoionization is more common.<ref name= Photoionisation-1>
{{Cite encyclopedia| title =Radiation| encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica Online
|volume =Photoelectric effect| pages =1| date =2009
|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/488507/radiation
|accessdate =2009-11-09}}</ref>

The ejected electrons, known as [[photoelectron]]s, carry information about their pre-ionized states. For example, a single electron can have a [[kinetic energy]] equal to the energy of the incident photon minus the [[electron binding energy]] of the state it left. Photons with energies less than the electron binding energy may be absorbed or [[scattering|scattered]] but will not photoionize the atom or ion.<ref name= Photoionisation-1/>

For example, to ionize [[hydrogen]], photons need an energy greater than 13.6 [[electronvolt]]s, which corresponds to a wavelength of 91.2 [[nanometer|nm]].<ref>{{cite book |title=An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics |last=Carroll |first=B. W. |coauthors=Ostlie, D. A. |year=2007 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |location=London |isbn=0321442849 |page=121}}</ref> For photons with greater energy than this, the energy of the emitted photoelectron is given by:

:½''mv''2 = ''hν'' − 13.6 eV

where ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]] and ''ν'' is the [[frequency]] of the photon.

This formula defines the [[photoelectric effect]].

Not every photon which encounters an atom or ion will photoionize it. The probability of photoionization is related to the photoionization [[Cross section (physics)|cross-section]], which depends on the energy of the photon and the target being considered. For photon energies below the ionization threshold, the photoionization cross-section is near zero. But with the development of pulsed lasers it has become possible to create extremely intense, coherent light where multi-photon ionization may occur.

===Multi-photon ionization===
Several photons of energy below the ionization threshold may actually combine their energies to ionize an atom. This probability decreases rapidly with the number of photons required, but the development of very intense, pulsed lasers still makes it possible. In the perturbative regime (below about 1014 W/cm2 at optical frequencies), the probability of absorbing ''N'' photons depends on the laser-light intensity ''I'' as ''I''''N'' <ref>
{{Cite journal|last1 = Deng|first1 = Z|last2 = Eberly|first2 = J H
|title = Multiphoton absorption above ionization threshold by atoms in strong laser fields
|journal = J. Opt. Soc. Am. B|volume = 2|issue = 3|pages = 491
|date = March 1985|year = 1985|url = http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v42/i17/p1127_1}}</ref>.

Above-threshold ionization (ATI) <ref>{{Cite journal|last1 = Agostini|first1 = P|last2 = Fabre|first2 = F
|last3 = Mainfray|first3 = G|last4 = Petite|first4 = G|last5 = Rahman|first5 = N K
|title = Free-Free Transitions Following Six-Photon Ionization of Xenon Atoms
|journal = Phys. Rev. Lett.|volume = 42|issue = 17|pages = 1127–1130|date = 23 April 1979|year = 1979
|url = http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v42/i17/p1127_1}}</ref> is an extension of multi-photon ionization where even more photons are absorbed than actually would be necessary to ionize the atom. The excess energy gives the released electron higher [[kinetic energy]] than the usual case of just-above threshold ionization. More precisely,
The released electron will have an integer number of photon-energies more kinetic energy than in the normal (lowest possible number of photons) ionization.

: See also {{main|Fluorescence spectroscopy| Fluorescence}}

==Photo-Dember==
{{main|Photo-Dember}}
In semiconductor physics the [[Photo-Dember]] effect (named after its discoverer H. Dember) consists in the formation of a charge [[dipole]] in the vicinity of a [[semiconductor]] surface after ultra-fast [[Photoexcitation|photo-generation]] of charge carriers. The dipole forms owing to the difference of mobilities (or diffusion constants) for holes and electrons which combined with the break of symmetry provided by the surface lead to an effective charge separation in the direction perpendicular to the surface.<ref name=photodember>{{cite journal|doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.53.4005|title=THz electromagnetic emission by coherent infrared-active phonons|year=1996|last1=Dekorsy|first1=T.|first2=H.|first3=H. J.|first4=H. G.|first5=H.|journal=Physical Review B|volume=53|pages=4005}}</ref>

==Grotthuss–Draper law==
The '''Grotthuss–Draper law''' (also called Principle of Photochemical Activation) states that only that light which is absorbed by a system can bring about a photochemical change. Materials such as dyes and phosphors must be able to absorb "light" at optical frequencies. A basis for Fluorescence and phosphorescence is found in this law. It was first proposed in 1817 by [[Theodor Grotthuss]] and [[John W. Draper]]. This is considered to be one of the two basic laws of photochemistry. The second law is the [[Stark–Einstein law]], which says that primary chemical or physical reactions occur with each photon absorbed.<ref name="Grotthuss–Draper-law">
{{Cite encyclopedia| title =Radiation| encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica Online| volume =radiation (physics): Photochemistry| pages =1| date =2009
|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/488507/radiation
| accessdate =2009-11-09}}</ref>

==Stark–Einstein law==
The '''Stark–Einstein law''' is named after the German-born physicists [[Johannes Stark]] and [[Albert Einstein]], who independently formulated the law between 1908 and 1913. It is known also as the '''photochemical equivalence law''' or '''photoequivalence law'''. In essence is says that every photon that is absorbed will cause a (primary) chemical or physical reaction.<ref name=StarkEinsteinlaw>{{Citation
|title =Photoequivalence law
|encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica Online
|date =2009-11
|accessdate =2009-11-07}}</ref>

The photon is a quantum of radiation, or one unit of radiation. Therefore, this is a single unit of EM radiation that is equal to Planck's constant (h) times the frequency of light. This quantity is symbolized by

The photochemical equivalence law is also restated as follows: for every [[mole (chemistry)|mole]] of a substance that reacts, an equivalent mole of quanta of light are absorbed. The formula is:<ref name=StarkEinsteinlaw/>

:<math> \Delta E_{mol} = N_A h \nu </math>

where NA is [[Avogadro's number]].

The photochemical equivalence law applies to the part of a light-induced reaction that is referred to as the primary process (i.e. [[absorption (electromagnetic radiation)|absorption]] or [[fluorescence]]).<ref name=StarkEinsteinlaw/>

In most photochemical reactions the primary process is usually followed by so-called secondary photochemical processes that are normal interactions between reactants not requiring absorption of light. As a result such reactions do not appear to obey the one quantum–one molecule reactant relationship.<ref name=StarkEinsteinlaw/>

The law is further restricted to conventional photochemical processes using light sources with moderate intensities; high-intensity light sources such as those used in [[flash photolysis]] and in laser experiments are known to cause so-called biphotonic processes; i.e., the absorption by a molecule of a substance of two photons of light.<ref name=StarkEinsteinlaw/>

==Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)==
{{main |Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)}}
In [[physics]], '''absorption''' of electromagnetic radiation is the way by which the [[energy]] of a [[photon]] is taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an atom. Thus, the electromagnetic energy is transformed to other forms of energy, for example, to heat. The absorption of light during [[wave propagation]] is often called [[attenuation (electromagnetic radiation)|attenuation]]. Usually, the absorption of waves does not depend on their intensity (linear absorption), although in certain conditions (usually, in [[optics]]), the medium changes its transparency dependently on the intensity of waves going through, and the [[Saturable absorption]] (or nonlinear absorption) occurs.

==Photosensitization==
Photosenitization is a process of transferring the [[energy]] of absorbed light. After absorption, the energy is transferred to the (chosen) [[reactant]]s. This is part of the work of [[photochemistry]] in general. In particular this process is commonly employed where reactions require light sources of certain [[wavelength]]s that are not readily available.<ref name=Photosensitization/>

For example, [[mercury (element)|mercury]] absorbs radiation at 1849 and 2537 [[angstrom]]s, and the source is often high-intensity [[arc lamp|mercury lamps]]. It is a commonly used sensitizer. When mercury vapor is mixed with [[ethylene]], and the compound is [[irradiated]] with a mercury lamp, this results in the photodecomposition of ethylene to acetylene. This accomplished as the mercury atoms absorb the light and an excited state occurs. The mercury atoms are able to transfer this energy to the ethylene molecules, and are in turn deactivated to their initial energy state.<ref name=Photosensitization/>

[[Cadmium]]; some of the [[noble gases]], for example (usually) [[xenon]]; [[zinc]]; [[benzophenone]]; and a large number of organic dyes, are also used as sensitizers.<ref name=Photosensitization>
{{Cite encyclopedia|title =Photosensitization| encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
|volume =Online| pages =1| date =2009| url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/458153/photosensitization
|accessdate =2009-11-10}}</ref>

Photosensitisers are a key component of [[photodynamic therapy]] used to treat cancers.

==Sensitizer==
{{for|the "Sensitizer" used in explosives|explosive}}
A '''sensitizer''' in [[chemoluminescence]] is a chemical compound, capable of [[light emission]] after it has received energy from a molecule, which became excited previously in the chemical reaction. A good example is this:

When an alkaline solution of [[sodium hypochlorite]] and a concentrated solution of [[hydrogen peroxide]] are mixed, a reaction occurs:

:ClO-(aq) + H2O2(aq) → O2*(g) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + OH-(aq)

O2*is excited oxygen - meaning, one or more electrons in the O2 molecule have been promoted to higher-energy [[molecular orbital]]s. Hence, oxygen produced by this chemical reaction somehow 'absorbed' the energy released by the reaction and became excited. This energy state is unstable, therefore it will return to the [[ground state]] by lowering its energy. It can do that in more than one way:

*it can react further, without any light emission
*it can lose energy without emission, for example, giving off heat to the surroundings or transferring energy to another molecule
*it can emit light

The intensity, duration and color of emitted light depend on [[quantum mechanics|quantum]] and [[chemical kinetics|kinetical]] factors. However, excited molecules are frequently less capable of light emission in terms of brightness and duration when compared to sensitizers. This is because sensitizers can store energy (that is, be excited) for longer periods of time than other excited molecules. The energy is stored through means of [[quantum vibration]], so sensitizers are usually compounds which either include systems of [[Aromaticity|aromatic]] rings or many conjugated double and triple [[covalent bond|bonds]] in their structure. Hence, if an excited molecule transfers its energy to a sensitizer thus exciting it, longer and easier to quantify light emission is often observed.

The color (that is, the [[wavelength]]), brightness and duration of emission depend upon the sensitizer used. Usually, for a certain chemical reaction, many different sensitizers can be used.

==List of some common sensitizers==
*[[Violanthrone]]
*[[Isoviolanthrone]]
*[[Fluorescein]]e
*[[Rubrene]]
*[[9,10-diphenylanthracene]]
*[[Tetracene]]
*[[13,13'-dibenzantronile]]

==Fluorescence spectroscopy==
[[Image:Spectrophotomer.JPG|right|thumb|260px|Schematic of a fluorometer with 90° geometry utilizing a Xe light source]]
{{main|Fluorescence spectroscopy| Fluorescence}}
'''Fluorescence spectroscopy''' aka fluorometry or spectrofluorometry, is a type of [[electromagnetic spectroscopy]] which analyzes [[fluorescence]] from a sample. It involves using a beam of light, usually [[ultraviolet light]], that excites the electrons in [[molecules]] of certain compounds and causes them to emit light of a lower energy, typically, but not necessarily, [[visible light]]. A complementary technique is [[absorption spectroscopy]].<ref name=Modern-spectroscopy/><ref name=sym-spectroscopy/>

Devices that measure [[fluorescence]] are called [[fluorometer]]s or fluorimeters.

==Absorption spectroscopy==
{{main| Absorption spectroscopy}}
'''Absorption spectroscopy''' refers to [[spectroscopy|spectroscopic]] techniques that measure the absorption of radiation, as a function of frequency or wavelength, due to its interaction with a sample. The sample absorbs energy, i.e., photons, from the radiating field. The intensity of the absorption varies as a function of frequency, and this variation is the [[absorption spectrum]]. Absorption spectroscopy is performed across the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].<ref name=Modern-spectroscopy> Modern Spectroscopy (Paperback)
by J. Michael Hollas ISBN 0470844167</ref><ref name=sym-spectroscopy> Symmetry and Spectroscopy: An Introduction to Vibrational and Electronic Spectroscopy (Paperback)
by Daniel C. Harris, Michael D. Bertolucci ISBN 048666144X</ref>

==See also==
{{colbegin|3}}
*[[Electron binding energy]]
*[[Isomerization]]
*[[Photoionization mode]]
*[[Photochromism]]
*[[Photoelectric effect]]
*[[Photoionization detector]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

[[Category:Astrochemistry]]
[[Category:Chemical reactions]]
[[Category:Electron]]
[[Category:Luminescence]]
[[Category:Materials science]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Photochemistry]]
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[Category:Reaction mechanisms]]
[[Category:Semiconductors]]

[[ar:امتصاص (المادة)]]
[[da:Absorption]]
[[de:Absorption (Chemie)]]
[[de:Photosensibilisator]]
[[et:Fotoionisatsioon]]
[[et:Absorptsioon (keemia)]]
[[el:Εφίζηση]]
[[es:Absorción (química)]]
[[fr:Absorption (Physique)]]
[[hi:अवशोषक]]
[[id:Absorpsi]]
[[it:Fotoisomerizzazione]]
[[it:Fotoionizzazione]]
[[it:Absorbimento]]
[[it:Legge di Stark-Einstein]]
[[nl:Absorptie]]
[[ja:光増感剤]]
[[no:Absorpsjon]]
[[pl:Absorpcja (fizyka)]]
[[pl:Fotoizomeryzacja]]
[[pl:Prawo Grotthussa-Drapera]]
[[pt:Absorção (química)]]
[[ro:Absorbţie (chimie)]]
[[ru:Абсорбция]]
[[ru:Фотосенсибилизатор]]
[[sl:Absorpcija]]
[[fi:Absorptio (kemia)]]
[[sv:Absorption]]
[[th:การดูดซึม]]
[[tk:Absorbsiýa]]
[[vi:Hấp phụ]]

Molybdän-Cofaktor

2009-11-09T11:53:25Z

Rod57: /* See also */ * MOCS1, MOCS2, MOCS3, GEPH

'''Molybdenum cofactor''' is a [[cofactor]] required for the activity of [[enzyme]]s such as [[sulphite oxidase]], [[xanthine oxidoreductase]], and [[aldehyde oxidase]].<ref name="pmid16261263">{{cite journal | author = Schwarz G | title = Molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis and deficiency | journal = Cell. Mol. Life Sci. | volume = 62 | issue = 23 | pages = 2792–810 | year = 2005 | month = December | pmid = 16261263 | doi = 10.1007/s00018-005-5269-y | url = | issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid18411266">{{cite journal | author = Smolinsky B, Eichler SA, Buchmeier S, Meier JC, Schwarz G | title = Splice-specific functions of gephyrin in molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis | journal = J. Biol. Chem. | volume = 283 | issue = 25 | pages = 17370–9 | year = 2008 | month = June | pmid = 18411266 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M800985200 | url = | issn = }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Molybdenum cofactor deficiency]], a genetic illness.
* [[MOCS1]], [[MOCS2]], [[MOCS3]], [[GEPH]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{biochem-stub}}

Molybdän-Cofaktor

2009-11-08T12:56:44Z

Rod57: start stub

'''Molybdenum cofactor''' is a [[cofactor]] required for the activity of [[enzyme]]s such as [[sulphite oxidase]], [[xanthine oxidoreductase]], and [[aldehyde oxidase]].<ref>http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17328911</ref>
<ref>http://www.jbc.org/content/283/25/17370.full</ref>

==See also==
* [[Molybdenum cofactor deficiency]], a genetic illness.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{biochem-stub}}

Antineoplastone

2009-09-21T10:39:12Z

Rod57: /* Proposed mechanisms */ [[

'''Antineoplaston''' ('''ANP''') is a name coined by [[Stanislaw Burzynski]] for a group of [[peptides]], derivatives, and mixtures that he uses as an [[alternative cancer treatment]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Block KI |title=Antineoplastons and the challenges of research in integrative care |journal=Integr Cancer Ther |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=3–4 |year=2004 |month=March |pmid=15035867 |doi=10.1177/1534735404263274}}</ref> These compounds are not licensed as drugs but are instead sold and administered by Burzynski as part of clinical trials that he runs at his own institute, a practice that earns millions of dollars.<ref name=ACS/><ref>{{cite journal |title=Lessons from antineoplaston |journal=Lancet |volume=349 |issue=9054 |pages=741 |year=1997 |month=March |pmid=9091754 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(97)21011-1}}</ref> The clinical [[efficacy]] of antineoplastons combinations for various diseases have been the subject of many such trials by Burzynski and his associates, but these have not produced any clear evidence of efficiency. Oncologists have described these studies as flawed, with one doctor stating that they are "scientific nonsense".<ref>Terri Langford [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-19476029.html Oncologists criticize methods of controversial cancer treatment] ''Associated press'' October 1998</ref>

There is no convincing evidence from [[randomized controlled trial]]s in the [[scientific literature]] that antineoplastons are useful treatments of cancer and the [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) has not approved these products for the treatment of any disease.<ref name=ACS>[http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/antineoplastons/Patient/page2 Antineoplastons] ''National Cancer Institute''</ref> The [[American Cancer Society]] have stated that there is no evidence that these products have any beneficial effects in cancer and have recommended that people do not buy these products.<ref name=Antineoplastic1983>{{citation | last = Antineoplastic | first = A. | year = 1983 | title = Antineoplastons | journal = CA Cancer J Clin | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 57–9 | doi = 10.3322/canjclin.33.1.57 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6401577}}</ref> A recent medical review described this treatment as a "disproven therapy".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vickers A |title=Alternative cancer cures: "unproven" or "disproven"? |journal=CA Cancer J Clin |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=110–8 |year=2004 |pmid=15061600 |doi= 10.3322/canjclin.54.2.110|url=http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15061600}}</ref>

== Background ==

Stanislaw Burzynski has stated that he began investigating the use of antineoplastons after detecting what he considered significant differences in peptides between the blood of cancer patients and a control group.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Burzynski SR |title=Antineoplastons: history of the research (I) |journal=Drugs under experimental and clinical research |volume=12 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=1–9 |year=1986 |pmid=3527634}}</ref>. Burzynski first identified antineoplastons from human blood. Since similar peptides had been isolated from urine, in 1970 Burzynski initially purified urine as a bulk source of antinoeplastons. Since 1980 he has been reproducing his compounds synthetically.<ref>Ralph Moss (1996), ''The Cancer Industry'' ISBN 1881025098</ref> Since his initial discovery, Burzynski has isolated dozens of peptide and derivatives, some of which he states are active against cancer with low toxicity.

The first active peptide fraction identified was called antineoplaston A-10 (3-phenylacetylamino-2,6-piperidinedione). From A-10, antineoplaston AS2-1, a 4:1 mixture of [[phenylacetic acid]] and [[phenylacetylglutamine]], was derived <ref>NCI Drug Dictionary, [http://cancer.gov/Templates/drugdictionary.aspx?searchTxt=antineoplaston Definitions of antineoplastons A10 and AS2-1]</ref>. The website of the Burzynski clinic states that the active ingredient of antineoplaston A10-I is phenylacetylglutamine <ref name="mechanism">S.R. Burzynski, [http://burzynskiclinic.com/assets/documents/ANP_mechamism_of_activity.pdf The Proposed Mechanism of Antitumor Activity of Antineoplastons (ANPs) in High Grade Glioma Pathology (HBSG)] Integrative Cancer Therapies 2006; 40-47</ref>.

Phenylacetic acid is a toxic compound that the body produces during normal [[metabolism]]. It is detoxified in the [[liver]] to phenylacetyl glutamine. The "antineoplaston A-10" compound is an isolation artifact resulting from heating the urine under [[acid]]ic conditions. The "antineoplaston AS2-1" mixture is the result of an [[alkaline hydrolysis]] of "antineoplaston A-10". All compounds are widely available cheap chemicals.

== Treatment ==

Since antineoplastons are not licensed as treatments for any disease, Burzynski can only sell his products as part of clinical trials. Patients receiving cancer treatment with antineoplastons must therefore first qualify for one of the currently available clinical trials. In order to qualify for most of the trials, a patient must have first failed standard treatment for the condition being treated, or it must be a condition that is unlikely to respond to currently available therapy and for which no curative therapy exists.

Antineoplastons may be administered intravenously or orally. Patients who respond positively to initial treatment with intravenous antineoplastons sometimes transition to the oral form. Intravenous antineoplastons are administered continuously with a portable programmable pump that the patient carries on a shoulder strap in a canvas bag.

Treatment with antineoplastons can be very costly to patients without insurance coverage, exceeding $100,000 for the first year of intravenous treatment. Many insurance companies consider antineoplaston therapy to be investigational and unproven and do not cover the cost.<ref>Aetna Clinical Policy Bulletin, [http://aetna.com/cpb/medical/data/200_299/0240.html Antineoplaston Therapy and Sodium Phenylbutyrate]</ref><ref>Blue Cross/Blue Shield Medical Policy, [http://empireblue.com/provider/noapplication/f2/s5/t9/pw_ad084920.pdf Antineoplaston Therapy]</ref>

The "antineoplastons," natural peptides and metabolites, are not generally cytotoxic like many historical (and current) antineoplastic agents; rather the highest usage levels carry a very high sodium load that require careful attention to fluid and electrolyte balance.

== Proposed mechanisms ==

Antineoplastons, being investigational drugs, have never been FDA approved as "safe and effective" in treating human cancer. Independent tests at the [[National Cancer Institute]] have never been positive.<ref name="mayo">{{cite journal |author=Burzynski SR |title=Efficacy of antineoplastons A10 and AS2-1 |journal=Mayo Clin. Proc. |volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=641–2 |year=1999 |pmid=10377942}}</ref> A 1995 [[Phase I trial]] by Japanese researchers showed promise, but [[Phase II trial]]s were never initiated.<ref>[http://www.houstonpress.com/2009-01-01/news/cancer-doctor-stanislaw-burzynski-sees-himself-as-a-crusading-researcher-not-a-quack/2 Cancer Doctor Stanislaw Burzynski Sees Himself as a Crusading Researcher, Not a Quack]</ref>

Burzynski suggests that antineoplastons A10 and AS2-1 both work by inhibiting oncogenes, promoting [[apoptosis]], and activating tumor suppressor genes <ref name="mechanism" />. Several other mechanism of action have been proposed.

One of the factors that allows some cancers to grow out of control is the presence of abnormal enzymes, a byproduct of [[DNA methylation]]. In the presence of these enzymes, the normal life cycle of the cells is disrupted and they replicate continuously. Antineoplastons have been shown in the laboratory to inhibit these enzymes <ref>{{cite journal |author=Liau MC, Burzynski SR |title=Altered methylation complex isozymes as selective targets for cancer chemotherapy |journal=Drugs under experimental and clinical research |volume=12 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=77–86 |year=1986 |pmid=3743383}}</ref>.

Recent studies have shown that inhibiting [[histone deacetylase]] (HDAC) promotes the activation of [[tumor suppressor gene]]s [[p21]] and [[p53]]. Phenylacetic acid contained in the AS2-1 mixture has been shown to be a weak HDAC inhibitor<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jung M |title=Inhibitors of histone deacetylase as new anticancer agents |journal=Curr. Med. Chem. |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=1505–11 |year=2001 |pmid=11562279}}</ref>.

== References ==

{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/reprint/33/1/57.pdf Antineoplastons], ''CA Cancer J Clin'' 1983;33;57-59
* [http://burzynskiclinic.com Burzynski Clinic]
* Michael Lerner, Ph.D, [http://commonweal.org/pubs/choices/21.html Choices In Healing: Integrating The Best of Conventional and Complementary Approaches to Cancer], 1994; 21:5
* Office of Technology Assessment, [http://www.wws.princeton.edu/ota/disk2/1990/9044/904407.PDF Pharmologic and Biologic Treatments], ''Unconventional Cancer Treatments'' Sept. 1990; Chapter 5:91-95.
* [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Cancer/burzynski1.html Quackwatch on "antineoplastons"]

* Ralph W. Moss Ph.D., [http://ralphmoss.com/burzynski.html The Burzynski Saga], ''The Cancer Chronicles'' 1989-1996.
* [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/antineoplastons/Patient/page1 US National Cancer Institute] Antineoplaston information
* [http://www.houstonpress.com/2009-01-01/news/cancer-doctor-stanislaw-burzynski-sees-himself-as-a-crusading-researcher-not-a-quack Cancer doctor Stanislaw Burzynski sees himself as a crusading researcher, not a quack] (HoustonPress, January 1, 2009)

[[Category:Medical controversies]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Alternative cancer treatments]]

[[es:Antineoplaston]]

Chert (Gestein)

2008-10-18T22:29:33Z

Rod57: some type of

{{for|the Spanish municipality|Xert}}
[[Image:ChertUSGOVjpg.jpg|thumb|Chert]]
'''Chert''' ({{pronEng|ˈtʃɝt}}) is a fine-grained [[silica]]-rich [[microcrystalline]], [[cryptocrystalline]] or [[microfibrous]] [[sedimentary rock]] that may contain small [[fossil]]s. It varies greatly in color (from white to black), but most often manifests as gray, brown, grayish brown and light green to rusty red; its color is an expression of trace elements present in the rock, and both red and green are most often related to traces of iron (in its oxidized and reduced forms respectively).

Chert occurs as oval to irregular nodules in [[greensand]], [[limestone]], [[chalk]], and [[dolostone]] formations as a replacement mineral, where it is formed as a result of some type of [[diagenesis]]. Where it occurs in [[chalk]], it is usually called [[flint]]. It also occurs in thin beds, when it is a primary deposit (such as with many jaspers and radiolarites). Thick beds of chert occur in deep [[geosyncline|geosynclinal]] deposits. These thickly bedded cherts include the [[novaculite]] of the [[Ouachita Mountains]] of [[Arkansas]], [[Oklahoma]], and similar occurrences in [[Texas]] in the [[United States]]. The [[banded iron formation]]s of [[Precambrian]] age are composed of alternating layers of chert and [[iron oxide]]s.

==Concerning the terms "chert", "chalcedony" and "flint"==
There is much confusion concerning the exact meanings and differences among the terms "chert", "[[chalcedony]]" and "[[flint]]" (as well as their numerous varieties). In [[petrology]] the term "chert" is used to generally refer to all rocks composed primarily of microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline and microfibrous quartz. The term does not include quartzite. Chalcedony is a microfibrous (microcrystaline with a fibrous structure) variety of quartz. Strictly speaking, the term "flint" is reserved for varieties of chert which occur in chalk and marly limestone formations. <ref>George R. Rapp, "Archaeomineralogy", 2002. ISBN 3-540-42579-9</ref> <ref>Barbara E. Luedtke, "The Identification of Sources of Chert Artifacts", American Antiquity, Vol. 44, No.4 (Oct., 1979), 744-757.</ref> Among non-geologists (in particular among archaeologists), the distinction between "flint" and "chert" is often one of quality - chert being lower quality than flint. This usage of the terminology is prevalent in America and is likely caused by early immigrants who imported the terms from England where most true flint (that found in chalk formations) was indeed of better quality than "common chert" (from limestone formations). Among petrologists, chalcedony is sometimes considered separately from chert due to its fibrous structure. Since many cherts contain both microcrystaline and microfibrous quartz, it is sometimes difficult to classify a rock as completely chalcedony, thus its general inclusion as a variety of chert.

==Chert and Precambrian fossils==
The [[cryptocrystalline]] nature of chert, combined with its above average ability to resist [[weathering]], [[recrystallisation]] and [[metamorphism]] has made it an ideal rock for preservation of early life forms<ref>[http://www.uni-muenster.de/GeoPalaeontologie/Palaeo/Palbot/seite1.html THE EARLIEST LIFE: Annotated listing]</ref>.

For example:
*The 3.2 billion year old chert of the [[Fig Tree Formation]] in the Barbeton Mountains between [[Swaziland]] and [[South Africa]] preserved non-colonial [[unicellular]] bacterial-like fossils<ref>[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/marsmet98/pdf/7033.pdf Fig Tree Formation of South Africa]</ref>.
*The [[Gunflint Chert]] of western Ontario (1.9 to 2.3 BYA) preserves not only [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[cyanobacteria]] but also organisms believed to be ammonia-consuming and some that resemble [[green algae]] and fungus-like organisms<ref>[http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/paleochron/05_e.php Gunflint chert]</ref>.
*The [[Apex Chert]] (3.4 BYA) of the [[Pilbara craton]], [[Australia]] preserved eleven taxa of [[prokaryotes]]<ref>[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2003/pdf/1267.pdf BIOGENICITY OF MICROFOSSILS IN THE APEX CHERT]</ref>.
*The Bitter Springs Formation of the Amadeus Basin, Central Australia, preserves 850 Ma old cyanobacteria and algae<ref>[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/precambrian/bittersprings.html Cyanobacertial fossils of the Bitter Springs Chert, UMCP Berkley]</ref>.
*The [[Devonian]] [[Rhynie chert]] (400 MYA) of Scotland has the oldest remains of land flora, and the preservation is so perfect that it allows cellular studies of the fossils.

==Prehistoric and historic uses==
In prehistoric times, chert was often used as a raw material for the construction of [[stone tool]]s. Like [[obsidian]], as well as some [[rhyolite]]s, [[felsite]]s, [[quartzite]]s, and other [[tool stone]]s used in [[lithic reduction]], chert fractures in a [[Hertzian cone]] when struck with sufficient force. This results in conchoidal fractures, a characteristic of all minerals with no [[Cleavage (crystal)|cleavage]] planes. In this kind of fracture, a cone of force propagates through the material from the point of impact, eventually removing a full or partial cone; this result is familiar to anyone who has seen what happens to a plate-glass window when struck by a small object, such as an airgun projectile. The partial Hertzian cones produced during lithic reduction are called [[lithic flake|flake]]s, and exhibit features characteristic of this sort of breakage, including [[striking platform]]s, [[bulb of force|bulbs of force]], and occasionally [[eraillure]]s, which are small secondary flakes detached from the flake's bulb of force.

When a chert stone is struck against steel, sparks result. This makes it an excellent tool for starting fires, and both flint and common chert were used in various types of fire-starting tools, such as [[tinderbox]]es, throughout history. A primary historic use of common chert and flint was for [[flintlock]] [[firearms]], in which the chert striking a metal plate produces a spark that ignites a small reservoir containing [[black powder]], discharging the firearm.

In some areas, chert is [[ubiquitous]] as stream gravel and fieldstone and is currently used as construction material and road surfacing. Part of chert's popularity in road surfacing or driveway construction is that rain tends to firm and compact chert while other fill often gets muddy when wet. However, where cherty gravel ends up as fill in concrete, the slick surface can cause localized failure. Hauled prices for chert of less than $10 - $15 per ton are not uncommon in many parts of the U.S.

Chert has been used in late 19th-century and early 20th-century [[headstone]]s or grave markers in Tennessee and other regions.

==Varieties of Chert==
There are numerous varieties of chert, classified based on their visible, microscopic and physical characteristics.<ref>W.L. Roberts, T.J. Campbell, G.R. Rapp Jr., "Encyclopedia of Mineralogy, Second Edition", 1990. ISBN 0-442-27681-8</ref> <ref>R.S. Mitchell, "Dictionary of Rocks", 1985. ISBN 0-442-26328-7</ref> Some of the more common varieties are:
*[[Flint]] is a compact microcrystaline quartz. It is found in [[chalk]] or marly limestone formations and is formed by a replacement of calcium carbonate with [[silica]]. It is commonly found as nodules. This variety was often used in past times to make bladed tools.
*"Common chert" is a variety of chert which forms in limestone formations by replacement of calcium carbonate with silica. This is the most abundantly found variety of chert. It is generally considered to be less attractive for producing gem stones and bladed tools than [[flint]].
*[[Jasper]] is a variety of chert formed as primary deposits, found in or in connection with magmatic formations which owes its red color to iron(III) inclusions. Jasper frequently also occurs in black, yellow or even green (depending on the type of iron it contains). Jasper is usually opaque to near opaque.
*[[Radiolarite]] is a variety of chert formed as primary deposits and containing [[radiolarian]] microfossils.
*[[Chalcedony]] is a microfibrous quartz.
*[[Agate]] is distinctly banded chalcedony with successive layers differing in colour or value.
*[[Onyx]] is a banded agate with layers in parallel lines, often black and white.
*[[Opal]] is a hydrated silicon dioxide. It is often of a [[Neogene|Neogenic]] origin. In fact is not a mineral (it is a [[mineraloid]]) and it is generally not considered a variety of chert, although some varieties of opal (opal-C and opal-CT) are microcrystaline and contain much less water (sometime none). Often people without petrological training confuse opal with chert due to similar visible and physical characteristics.
*[[Magadi-type chert]] is a variety that forms from a sodium silicate precursor in highly alkaline lakes such as [[Lake Magadi]] in Kenya.

Other lesser used terms for chert (most of them archaic) include, firestone, silex, silica stone and flintstone.

==See also==
*[[Chalcedony]]
*[[Eolith]]
*[[Flint]]
*[[Obsidian]]
*[[Whinstone]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.globalcommunity.org/wtt/walk_photos/3200.htm Photo & note re: Fig Tree Formation]
*[http://www2.bc.edu/~strother/GE_146/labs/lab7/Archaean.html Microphotographs of Fig Tree fossils]
*Schopf, J.W. (1999) ''Cradle of Life: The Discovery of Earth's Earliest Fossils'', Princeton University Press, 336 p. ISBN 0-691-00230-4
* [http://virtual.parkland.edu//lstelle1/len/biface_guide/chert/documents/chert_types.html An Archaeological Guide To Chert Types Of East-Central Illinois]

{{Silica minerals}}

{{Commonscat|Chert}}

[[Category:Petrology]]
[[Category:Sedimentary rocks]]
[[Category:Lithics]]
[[Category:Quartz varieties]]


[[zh-min-nan:Hoé-chio̍h]]
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[[eo:Siliko]]
[[fr:Silex]]
[[id:Rijang]]
[[it:Selce]]
[[he:צור (סלע)]]
[[la:Silex]]
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[[uk:Кремінь]]
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