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Walther Ebeloe

2021-10-27T10:12:31Z

Refdoc: /* Web-links */

'''Walther Ebeloe''' (1896–c.1982) war ein deutscher [[Klavier]]-, [[Cembalo]]<ref>''Harpsichord Fesival Scheduled'', bei [[Hilda Jonas]] in ''The Harpsichord, Vol III No 4 1970</ref>-<ref>''Remembering Hilde Jonas'' by Glendon Frank, in ''The Diapason - Harpsichord News'' Dec 2014</ref><ref>''The modern harpsichord, twentieth century instruments and their makers'', Wolfgang Zuckermann, 1969, October House, New York</ref>, [[Clavichord]]- und [[Orgel|Orgelbauer]] in Beginn und Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts <ref>''Amendments and additions to clavichord-related information in the Third Edition of Donald Boalch’s Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord 1440–1840'', edited by Charles Mould (1995)</ref>, tätig vor allem in [[Hamburg]]<ref>''Das Klavichord'' Hanns Neupert, Baerenreither Verlag, 1977 pp 62</ref>, und [[Braunschweig]]<ref>''Archiv deutscher Cembalobau-Wekstaetten 1899-2012'', Wolf Dieter Neupert, 2015, 2017</ref>. Stark beeinflusst durch [[Anthroposophie|anthroposophische]] Ideen<ref>''Werkskatalog'' Cembalo Werke Wegener und Ebeloe, </ref> zeichneten sich seine Instrumente durch historische Klangtreue und handwerkliche Sorgfalt aus.

===Web-links===
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0GB9PAb5_cY|Ebeloe Clavichord - Aufnahme von J.S. Bach: Inventionen und Sinfonien (BWV 772- BWV 801) Eta Harich Schneider, ]

==Einzelnachweise==
<references />

{{SORTIERUNG:Ebeloe, Walther}}
[[Kategorie:Orgelbauer]]
[[Kategorie:Deutscher]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1896]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1982]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Ebeloe, Walther
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=deutscher Klavier-, Cembalo-, Clavichord- und Orgelbauer
|GEBURTSDATUM=1896
|GEBURTSORT=
|STERBEDATUM=1982
|STERBEORT=
}}

Walther Ebeloe

2021-10-27T10:08:54Z

Refdoc: AZ: Die Seite wurde neu angelegt: '''Walther Ebeloe''' (1896–c.1982) war ein deutscher Klavier-, Cembalo<ref>''Harpsichord Fesival Scheduled'', bei Hilda Jonas in ''The Harpsichord, Vol III No 4 1970</ref>-<ref>''Remembering Hilde Jonas'' by Glendon Frank, in ''The Diapason - Harpsichord News'' Dec 2014</ref><ref>''The modern harpsichord, twentieth century instruments and their makers'', Wolfgang Zuckermann, 1969, Octo…

'''Walther Ebeloe''' (1896–c.1982) war ein deutscher [[Klavier]]-, [[Cembalo]]<ref>''Harpsichord Fesival Scheduled'', bei [[Hilda Jonas]] in ''The Harpsichord, Vol III No 4 1970</ref>-<ref>''Remembering Hilde Jonas'' by Glendon Frank, in ''The Diapason - Harpsichord News'' Dec 2014</ref><ref>''The modern harpsichord, twentieth century instruments and their makers'', Wolfgang Zuckermann, 1969, October House, New York</ref>, [[Clavichord]]- und [[Orgel|Orgelbauer]] in Beginn und Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts <ref>''Amendments and additions to clavichord-related information in the Third Edition of Donald Boalch’s Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord 1440–1840'', edited by Charles Mould (1995)</ref>, taetig vor allem in [[Hamburg]]<ref>''Das Klavichord'' Hanns Neupert, Baerenreither Verlag, 1977 pp 62</ref>, und [[Braunschweig]]<ref>''Archiv deutscher Cembalobau-Wekstaetten 1899-2012'', Wolf Dieter Neupert, 2015, 2017</ref>. Stark beeinflußt durch [[Anthroposophie|anthroposophische]] Ideen<ref>''Werkskatalog'' Cembalo Werke Wegener und Ebeloe, </ref> zeichneten sich seine Instrumente durch historische Klangtreue und handwerkliche Sorgfalt aus.

===Web-links===
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0GB9PAb5_cY|Ebeloe Cembalo - Aufnahme von J.S. Bach: Inventionen und Sinfonien (BWV 772- BWV 801)]

===Einzelnachweise===

Militärputsch in Südvietnam 1960

2009-03-17T15:18:09Z

Refdoc: Reverted edits by Dltrsjhg (talk) to last version by 216.164.151.206

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=1960 South Vietnamese coup attempt
|image=[[Image:Ngo Dinh Diem - Thumbnail - ARC 542189.gif]]
|caption=President Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam
|partof=
|date=November 11, 1960
|place=[[Ho Chi Minh City|Saigon]], [[South Vietnam]]
|result=[[Coup d'état|Coup]] attempt crushed
|combatant1=[[Army of the Republic of Vietnam]] (ARVN) rebels
|combatant2=[[Image:Flag of South Vietnam.svg|22px]] [[South Vietnam]] [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam]] (ARVN) loyalists
|commander1=[[Vuong Van Dong]] [[Nguyen Chanh Thi]]
|commander2=[[Nguyễn Văn Thiệu]] [[Tran Thien Khiem]]
|strength1=One armoured regiment, one marine unit, and three paratrooper battalions
|strength2=[[Fifth Division]] and [[Seventh Division]] of the ARVN
|casualties3=Unclear, more than 400 dead on both sides
}}

On November 11, 1960, a failed [[Coup d'état|coup]] attempt against President [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] of [[South Vietnam]] was led by Lieutenant Colonel [[Vuong Van Dong]] and Colonel [[Nguyen Chanh Thi]] of the [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam]]. The rebels launched the coup in response to Diem's autocratic rule and the negative political influence of his brother [[Ngo Dinh Nhu]] and his sister-in-law [[Madame Ngo Dinh Nhu]]. After initially being trapped inside the [[Reunification Palace|Independence Palace]], Diem stalled the coup by holding negotiations and promising reforms. However, his real aim was to buy time for loyalist forces to enter [[Ho Chi Minh City|Saigon]] and relieve him. The coup failed when the [[Fifth Division|Fifth]] and [[Seventh Division]]s of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam entered Saigon and defeated the rebels. More than four hundred people—many of whom were civilian spectators—were killed in the ensuing battle. Dong and Thi fled to Cambodia, while Diem berated the United States for a perceived lack of support during the crisis. Afterwards, Diem ordered a crackdown, imprisoning numerous anti-government critics and former cabinet ministers. A trial for those implicated in the plot was held in 1963. Seven officers and two civilians were sentenced to death ''[[in absentia]]'', while 14 officers and 34 civilians were jailed.

== Background ==
The revolt was led by 28-year-old Lieutenant Colonel [[Vuong Van Dong]],<Ref name="j117"/> a northerner who had fought with the [[French Union]] forces against the [[Vietminh]] during the [[First Indochina War]]. Later trained at [[Fort Leavenworth]] in the [[United States]], Dong was regarded by American military advisers as a brilliant tactician and the brightest military prospect of his generation.<Ref name="j117"/> Back in Vietnam, Dong became discontented with Diem's arbitrary rule and constant meddling in the internal affairs of the army. Diem promoted officers on loyalty rather than skill, and played senior officers against one another in order to weaken the military leadership and prevent them from challenging his rule. Years after the coup, Dong asserted that his sole objective was to force Diem to improve the governance of the country.<Ref name="k"/> Dong was clandestinely supported by his brother-in-law Lieutenant Colonel Nguyen Trieu Hong and Hong's uncle Hoang Co Thuy.<Ref name="h131"/>

Many Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) officers were members of other anti-communist nationalist groups that were opposed to Diem, such as the [[Dai Viet Quoc Dan Dang]] (''Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam'') and the [[Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang]] (VNQDD, ''Vietnamese Nationalist Party''), which were both established before [[World War II]]. The VNQDD had run a military academy in [[Yunnan]] near the [[China|Chinese]] border with the assistance of their nationalist Chinese counterparts, the [[Kuomintang]]. Diem and his family had crushed all alternative anti-communist nationalists, and his politicisation of the army had alienated the servicemen. Officers were promoted on the basis of political allegiance rather than competence, meaning that many VNQDD and Dai Viet trained officers were denied such promotions.<ref name="hback">[[#refHammer|Hammer]], pp. 131–133.</ref>

Planning for the coup had gone on for over a year, with Dong recruiting disgruntled officers. This included his commander, Colonel [[Nguyen Chanh Thi]]. In 1955, Thi had fought for Diem against the [[Binh Xuyen]] [[organized crime|organised crime syndicate]] in the [[Battle for Saigon]] in 1955. This performance so impressed Diem that the president thereafter referred to Thi as "my son".<ref name = "j117"/> The coup was organised with the help of some VNQDD and Dai Viet members, civilians and officers alike.<Ref name="h131"/> Dong enlisted the cooperation of an armoured regiment, marine unit and three paratrooper battalions. The operation was scheduled to launch on November 11 at 05:00.<Ref name="k"/><ref name="h131"/>

== Coup ==
According to [[Stanley Karnow]], the [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning author of ''Vietnam: A History'', the coup was ineffectively executed;<Ref name="k"/> although the rebels captured the headquarters of the Joint General Staff at [[Tan Son Nhut Air Base]],<ref name="h131"/> they failed to follow the textbook tactics of blocking the roads leading into [[Saigon]]. They also failed to disconnect phone lines into the Palace, which allowed Diem to call for aid from loyal units. At first, the forces encircled the compound without attacking, believing that Diem would comply with their demands. Dong attempted to call on US ambassador [[Elbridge Durbrow]] to put pressure on Diem. Durbrow, although a critic of Diem, maintained his government's position of supporting Diem, stating "We support this government until it fails".<ref name="k">[[#refKarnow|Karnow]], pp. 252–253.</ref> Most of the rebel soldiers had been told that they were attacking in order to save Diem from a mutiny by the Presidential Guard. Only one or two officers in any given rebel unit knew the true situation.<Ref name="h131"/>

The paratroopers' first assault on the palace met with surprising resistance. Only thirty Presidential Guardsmen stood between the rebels and Diem, but they managed to repel the initial thrust and kill seven rebels who attempted to scale palace walls. The rebels cordoned off the palace and held fire.<ref name="j117"/>

At daybreak, civilians began massing outside the palace gates, verbally encouraging the rebels and waving banners advocating regime change. Saigon Radio announced that a "Revolutionary Council" was in charge of South Vietnam’s government. Diem appeared lost, while many Saigon-based ARVN troops rallied to the insurgents. According to Nguyen Thai Binh, an exiled political rival, "Diem was lost. Any other than he would have capitulated."<Ref name="j117"/> However, the rebels hesitated as they decided their next move. Dong felt that the rebels should take the opportunity of storming the palace and capturing Diem. Thi on the other hand, was worried that Diem could be killed in an attack. Thi felt that despite Diem's shortcomings, the president was South Vietnam's best available leader, believing that enforced reform would yield the best outcome.<ref name = "j118"/> The rebels wanted [[Ngo Dinh Nhu]], Diem's younger brother and his chief adviser, and his wife out of the government, although they disagreed over whether to kill or deport the couple.<ref name="j117">[[#refJacobs|Jacobs]], p. 117.</ref>

[[Image:Lbj mnhu.jpg||thumb|left|The rebels demanded the removal of First Lady [[Madame Ngo Dinh Nhu]] (pictured left, with [[Lyndon Johnson]]).]]
Thi demanded that Diem appoint an officer as Prime Minister and that Diem remove [[Madame Ngo Dinh Nhu]] from the palace. Saigon Radio broadcast a speech authorised by Thi's Revolutionary Council, claiming that Diem was being removed because he was corrupt and suppressed liberty. Worried by the uprising, Diem sent his private secretary [[Vo Van Hai]] to negotiate with the coup leaders.<ref name="l">[[#refLangguth|Langguth]], pp. 108–109.</ref>

[[Phan Quang Dan]], became the rebels' spokesman. The most prominent political critic of Diem, Dan had been disqualified from the [[1959 South Vietnamese legislative election|1959 legislative election]] after winning his seat by a ratio of 6:1 despite Diem having organised votestacking against him. He cited political mismanagement of the war against the Vietcong and the government's refusal to broaden its political base as the reason for the revolt.<ref name="j118"/>

Madame Nhu railed against Diem agreeing to a power-sharing arrangement, asserting that it was the destiny of Diem and his family to save the country.<ref name="l"/> During the standoff, Durbrow ambivalently noted "We consider it overriding importance to Vietnam and Free World that agreement be reached soonest in order avoid continued division, further bloodshed with resultant fatal weakening Vietnam’s ability [to] resist communists."<ref name="h131">[[#refHammer|Hammer]], p. 131.</ref>

[[Image:Nguyen Van Thieu with map (cropped).jpg|thumb|Colonel Nguyen Van Thieu's (pictured) Fifth Division helped rescue Diem from the rebels.]]

In the meantime, the negotiations allowed time for loyalists to enter Saigon and rescue the president. The [[Fifth Division]] of Colonel [[Nguyen Van Thieu]], a future president, brought infantry forces from [[Bien Hoa]], a town north of Saigon. The [[Seventh Division]] of Colonel [[Tran Thien Khiem]] brought in tanks from [[My Tho]], a town in the [[Mekong Delta]] south of Saigon.<ref name="j118"/> Diem promised to end press censorship, liberalise the economy, and hold free and fair elections. Diem refused to sack Nhu, but he agreed to dissolve his cabinet and form a government that would accommodate the Revolutionary Council. In the early hours of November 12, Diem taped a speech detailing the concessions, which the rebels broadcast on Saigon Radio.<ref name="j118">[[#refJacobs|Jacobs]], p. 118.</ref>

As the speech was being aired, two infantry divisions and supporting loyal armour approached the palace grounds. Some of the Saigon-based units that had joined the rebellion sensed that Diem had regained the upper hand and switched sides for the second time in two days. The paratroopers became outnumbered and were forced to retreat to defensive positions around their barracks, which were approximately {{convert|1|km|mi}} away.<ref name="j118"/> After a brief but violent battle that killed around 400 people, the coup attempt was crushed.<Ref name="l"/>

General [[Nguyen Khanh]], commander of the ARVN II Corps, climbed over the palace wall to reach Diem on the second day of the siege. His action gained him a reputation of having helped the president, but in later years he was criticised for having a foot in both camps. Critics claimed that Khanh had been on good terms with the rebels and decided against rebelling when it was clear that Diem would win.<ref name="h132">[[#refHammer|Hammer]], p. 132.</ref>

== Aftermath ==
[[Image:Major-general-lansdale.jpg|left|thumb|Colonel Lansdale (pictured here as a [[Major General]]), a CIA agent who assisted Diem in the past, called for the removal of the US ambassador to Saigon.]]
After the failed coup, Dong and Thi fled to [[Cambodia]], where they were given asylum by Prince [[Norodom Sihanouk]].<ref name="h132"/> Diem promptly reneged on his promises, and began rounding up scores of critics, including several former cabinet ministers and some of the [[Caravelle Group]] of 18 who had released a petition calling for reform.<Ref name="k"/> One of Diem's first orders after re-establishing command was to order the arrest of Dan, who was imprisoned and tortured.<ref name="j119">[[#refJacobs|Jacobs]], p. 119.</ref>

In the wake of the failed coup, Diem blamed Durbrow for a perceived lack of US support, while his brother Nhu further accused the ambassador of colluding with the rebels. Durbrow denied this, saying that he had been "100% in support of Diem".<ref name="h133"/> In May 1961, Nhu said "[t]he least you can say . . . is that the State Department was neutral between a friendly government and rebels who tried to put that government down . . . and the official attitude of the Americans during that coup was not at all the attitude the President would have expected".<ref name="h133"/>

Colonel [[Edward Lansdale]], a [[CIA]] agent who helped entrench Diem in power in 1955, ridiculed Durbrow's comments and called on the [[Eisenhower administration]] to recall the ambassador.<Ref name="j119"/> Lieutenant Colonel [[Lionel McGarr]], the new commander of the [[Military Assistance Advisory Group]], agreed with Lansdale. The rift between American diplomatic and military representatives in South Vietnam began to grow. This was mirrored in the [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam]] and Diem. The paratroopers had been regarded as the most loyal of the ARVN's units, so Diem intensified his policy of promoting officers based on loyalty rather than competence.<ref name="j119"/> Khiem was promoted to general and appointed Army Chief of Staff.<ref name="h133">[[#refHammer|Hammer]], p. 133.</ref>

== Trial ==
The trial of those charged with involvement in the coup occurred more than two years later in mid-1963. Diem scheduled the hearing in the middle of the [[Buddhist crisis]], a move that was interpreted as an attempt to deter the populace from further dissent. Nineteen officers and 34 civilians were accused of complicity in the coup and called before the Special Military Court.<ref name="htrial">[[#refHammer|Hammer]], pp. 154–155.</ref>

Diem's officials gave the Americans an unsubtle warning not to interfere. The official prosecutor claimed to have documents proving that a foreign power was behind the failed coup but said that he could not publicly name the nation in question. It was later revealed in secret proceedings that he pinpointed two Americans: [[George Carver (CIA officer)|George Carver]], an employee of the United States Operations Mission (an economic mission) who was later revealed to be a [[CIA]] officer, and [[Howard C. Elting]], described as the deputy chief of the American mission in Saigon.<ref name="htrial"/>

One of the prominent civilians summoned to appear before the military tribunal was a well-known novelist who wrote under the pen name of Nhat Linh. He was the VNQDD leader [[Nguyen Tuong Tam]], who had been [[Ho Chi Minh]]'s foreign affairs minister in 1946. Tam had abandoned his post rather than lead the delegation to the [[Fontainebleau Conference]] and make concessions to the [[French Union]]. In the 30 months since the failed putsch, the police had not taken the conspiracy claims seriously enough to arrest Tam, but when Tam learned of the trial, he committed suicide by ingesting [[cyanide]]. He left a death note stating "I also will kill myself as a warning to those people who are trampling on all freedom", referring to [[Thich Quang Duc]], the [[bhikkhu|monk]] who self-immolated in protest against Diem's persecution of Buddhism.<ref name="htrial"/> Tam's suicide was greeted with a mixed reception. Although some felt that it upheld the Vietnamese tradition of choosing death over humiliation, some VNQDD members considered Tam's actions to be romantic and sentimental.<ref name="htrial"/>

The brief trial opened on July 8, 1963. The seven officers and two civilians who had fled the country after the failed coup were found guilty and sentenced to death in absentia. Five officers were acquitted, while the remainder were imprisoned for terms ranging from five to ten years. Another VNQDD leader [[Vu Hong Khanh]] was given six years in prison. Former Diem cabinet minister [[Phan Khac Suu]] was sentenced to eight years, mainly for being a signatory of the [[Caravelle Group]] which called on Diem to reform. Dan, the spokesman was sentenced to seven years. Fourteen of the civilians were acquitted, including Tam.<ref name="htrial"/>

== Notes ==
{{reflist|3}}

== References ==
* {{cite book| ref=refHammer | title=A Death in November| authorlink=Ellen Hammer |first=Ellen J.|last=Hammer| year=1987 |publisher=E. P. Dutton|isbn=0-525-24210-4}}
* {{cite book| ref=refJacobs | first=Seth |last=Jacobs| year=2006| title=Cold War Mandarin: Ngo Dinh Diem and the Origins of America's War in Vietnam, 1950–1963| publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers| isbn=0-7425-4447-8}}
* {{cite book| ref=refKarnow | title=Vietnam: A history| first=Stanley |last=Karnow |authorlink=Stanley Karnow|year=1997 |publisher=Penguin Books | isbn=0-670-84218-4}}
* {{cite book| ref=refLangguth | title=Our Vietnam| first=A. J. |last=Langguth |year=2000 |publisher=Simon and Schuster | isbn=0-684-81202-9}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:1960 in Vietnam]]
[[Category:Attempted coups]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1960]]
[[Category:History of South Vietnam]]
[[Category:Ngo Dinh Diem]]

[[es:Golpe militar de 1960 (Vietnam del Sur)]]
[[vi:Âm mưu đảo chính tại Nam Việt Nam năm 1960]]

Rinne-Versuch

2007-11-28T01:55:12Z

Refdoc:

Der '''Rinne-Versuch''' ist ein Test zur Prüfung des [[Gehör]]s, insbesondere dient der Rinne-Versuch der Unterscheidung zwischen [[Schallempfindungsstörung]] und [[Schallleitungsstörung]] an einem Ohr. Er ist zusammen mit dem [[Weber-Versuch]] ein Standardtest zur Untersuchung einer Hörstörung.

Der Test ist nach [[Heinrich Adolf Rinne]] (1819-1868) benannt, der ihn 1855 beschrieb.<ref>Feldmann H: Die geschichtliche Entwicklung der Hörprüfungsmethoden. Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart; 1960 </ref>

Beim Rinne-Test wird eine [[Stimmgabel]] zum Schwingen gebracht und dem Patienten zuerst auf den Knochen hinter der Ohrmuschel ("Mastoid", lat. ''[[Processus mastoideus]]'', ein Knochenfortsatz des Schläfenbeins direkt hinter dem Ohr) aufgesetzt. Sobald der Patient ein Zeichen gibt, die Stimmgabel nicht mehr zu hören, wird diese unmittelbar vor seine Ohrmuschel gehalten. Kann der Patient die Stimmgabel nun noch hören, gilt der Rinne-Test als positiv; hört er sie nicht, gilt der Test als negativ.

Der Rinne-Test macht sich die physiologischen Eigenschaften des Ohres zunutze: Bei normaler Hörfähigkeit ist Schall wegen der Verstärkereigenschaften von [[Gehörknöchelchen]] und [[Trommelfell]] über [[Luftleitung]] lauter wahrzunehmen als über [[Knochenleitung]]. Eine ausklingende Stimmgabel wird daher über Luftleitung länger gehört als über Knochenleitung, sie kann also am Gehörgang noch gehört werden, nachdem sie auf dem Warzenfortsatz nicht mehr gehört wurde.

Fällt der Rinne-Test negativ aus, ist dies ein Hinweis auf eine Schallleitungsschwerhörigkeit, also eine Störung im Außen- oder Mittelohrbereich. Fällt der Rinne-Test positiv aus, liegt keine Schallleitungsstörung vor, eine Schallempfindungsstörung ist damit jedoch nicht ausgeschlossen.

Wenn der Patient angibt, überhaupt keinen Stimmgabelton wahrzunehmen, muss eine ausgeprägte Schallempfindungsschwerhörigkeit vorliegen.

== Quellen ==
<references/>

== Weblinks ==

* [http://www.webster.edu/~davittdc/ear/rinne/rinne.htm Vorführung eines Rinne-Versuchs als Quicktime-Film (in englischer Sprache)]

{{Gesundheitshinweis}}
[[Kategorie:Hals-Nasen-Ohren-Heilkunde]]
[[Kategorie:Audiologische Akustik]]

Nojeh-Coup

2006-12-20T23:04:33Z

Refdoc: url added

{{copyvio|http://www.iranian.com/History/2004/July/Nojeh/ Anatomy of a coup}}
[[Nojeh Coup]] ([{{fullurl:Nojeh Coup|action=history}} history] · [{{fullurl:Nojeh Coup|diff=0}} last edit]) from [{{{http://www.iranian.com/History/2004/July/Nojeh/ Anatomy of a coup}}}]. [[User:Refdoc|Refdoc]] 23:04, 20 December 2006 (UTC)
The '''Nojeh coup''' (also spelled '''Nožeh''') was an uprising that happened on [[July 11]] [[1980]]. A group of high-ranking and well-trained officers of [[Iranian Army| Iranian arm forces]] came within few minutes of executing an ambitious and chaotic plan to topple the [[Islamic regime]] of [[Khomeini]]. The officers, who were mostly of [[Shah]]'s demoralized imperial armed forces, took part in a coup that was poorly planed, compromised, and easily defeated.

==Conscripts==
The core officers who were recruited to start the preliminary planning of the coup came from various sources: [[infantry]], [[air force]], [[army]], ex-[[Immortal Guards]], [[Iranian Imperial Guard| Imperial Guard]]s, and some former members of the [[Savak]] secret service. The officers were chosen carefully based on their experience and level of [[nationalism]], resentment of the Islamic regime. They were picked based on their access to military facilities, jet fighters, jet fuel, ammunition, maps, and knowledge of regime's military bases. The higher ranking officers were assigned to planning and logistics, while the lower level officers and pilots were given the task of implementing all stages of the coup.

==Plan==
The plan was comprised of three stages: stage one was a combination of twelve-hour air assaults against military, strategic, government, and clerical targets in [[Tehran]] and five other cities followed by two dozen low altitude supersonic flights over Tehran, [[Mashhad]] and [[Qom]]. The first stage was to be followed immediately by the second which consisted of dispatching nine infantry divisions to tactical locations such as the State Radio and Television, parliament, headquarters of [[Islamic Revolutionary Guards]], and Tehran's grand [[Bazaar]].

The third stage was the most ambitious. It called for cutting off Tehran from the rest of the nation with the help of fifty thousand [[Baluch]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]], and [[Turkish people|Turkish]] mercenary fighters brought from other side of the borders, under the leadership of an unknown national figure. The interesting and ruthless part of the third stage was to have the fighters outfitted as Revolutionary Guardsmen with a green bandana which had the words "Ya Vatan" (Oh Motherland) embedded on them. That way the coup forces could distinguish the coup fighters from the regime's forces.

The fighters' orders were to create pandemonium and confusion among Revolutionary Guardsmen and the backers of the young Islamic Republic by attacking the government forces that were dispatched from other cities to defend Tehran. There were, however, two problems with the last stage of the plan: one was the fact that majority of Baluch, Kurdish, and Turkish fighters were not familiar with Tehran's landscape, and the other obstacle was that some of them did not speak Persian.

==Leadership==
The actual political leader of the coup was [[Shapour Bakhtiar]] who in spite of being the last imperial prime minister, did not have good rapport with the Pahlavi monarchists.

Bakhtiar first explored the possibility of financing a coup in early 1979 by contacting Brigadier General Oveisi. Oveisi who lived abroad and did not wish to participate in any military action in Iran recommended a flamboyant, middle-aged, retired colonel (code-name Ehsan) who was Oveisi's prodigy in the late 60s.

Ehsan was a perfect choice; he was among the very few officers of the Shah's regime who had actual combat experience. Ehsan rose through the ranks in the early years of his career by scoring two major points with the regime: as a young officer he tracked down and captured the legendry [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] outlaw Mullah Avareh in the mountains of Kurdistan province, and a few years later he captured two of the most famous [[Pakistan]]i drug lords by the names of Sharif Ali Khan nd Mirza Rasefi who were responsible for trafficking thousands of tons of narcotics to and through Iran every year.

Ehsan was also shot in the shoulder while conducting an operation near the border with [[Afghanistan]]. One more fact that played in Ehsan's favor was his early retirement prior to the birth of the Islamic Republic, which made him a shadowy figure and unknown to the revolutionary government.

Oveisi however warned Bakhtiar about Ehsan's flashy lifestyle. Ehsan had a reputation among military elite as a heavy drinking womanizer with a big mouth. Nevertheless, Bakhtiar met Ehsan in [[Paris]] in [[1979]] and was impressed by the Colonel's personality and military knowledge. Ehsan returned to Iran, started planning and recruiting for the uprising.

==Beginning of the End==
It is estimated that the coup cost somewhere in the neighborhood of a million dollars. The money covered expenses for traveling from Tehran to Paris and Istanbul and most of the was spent on hiring Baluch, Kurdish, and Turkish mercenaries. The money was managed personally by Bakhtiar and no one else.

It is a known fact that the coup was no secret to Islamic regime and on the night of July 18th, the Islamic regime’s president Abolhasan Banisadr's task force, which consisted mostly of members of the [[People's Mujahedin of Iran| Mojahedin Khalgh]] Organization, were ready and waiting for the operation to start. Many of the pilots were captured hours before the start of the operation and other officers were arrested on the way to their bases. However it's not known who snitched and how the regime uncovered coup. The circumstances leading to the leak is by far the most fascinating part of this ordeal.

There are many different theories out there making attempts at explaining the circumstances behind the failure of the coup and its leaders. But the most intriguing piece comes from sources who claim that Saddam Hussein's government tipped the Islamic Republic a month before D-Day. It is said that Iraq intentionally reported the details of the operation knowing that the capture and execution of the best pilots and military commanders would seriously weaken the Iranian forces (Iraq invaded Iran two months later). Some even go so far as to allege that the coup was reported to the Iranian government by the U.S. to buy the release of American embassy hostages in Tehran.

Some believe that the success of the coup would have led Iran on the path of a bloody civil war and the assassination of Khomeini would have turned him into a mythical figure. These are legitimate concerns and yet it cannot be denied that the failed "Nojeh Coup" of 1980 was conducted by servicemen who deeply cared about their country. No evidence has surfaced so far that links the coup to foreign powers or shows that the officers had illegitimate intentions. The very fact that the coup's resources were not managed efficiently and plans were executed poorly, demonstrates the fact that the movement was most likely home-grown. Many of the officers believed that the country was heading in a wrong direction and in a desperate attempt to save Iran, they lost their lives.

==Sources==
*[http://www.iranian.com/History/2004/July/Nojeh/ Anatomy of a coup]
*[http://www.iranian.com/Pesar/2004/July/Nojeh/index.html Nice try - The failed Nojeh coup]
*[http://www.sarbazan.com/nojeh.htm Nojeh Coup]

[[Category:Revolutions]]
[[Category:1979]]
[[Category:History of Iran]]

[[es:Revolución iraní]]
[[fr:Révolution iranienne]]
[[ko:이란 혁명]]
[[he:המהפכה האיראנית]]
[[it:Rivoluzione iraniana]]
[[nl:Iraanse Revolutie]]
[[ja:イラン革命]]
[[no:Den iranske revolusjon]]{{Link FA|no}}
[[pt:Revolução Iraniana]]
[[fi:Iranin vallankumous]]
[[sv:Iranska revolutionen]]

Nojeh-Coup

2006-12-20T22:58:05Z

Refdoc: Copyvio highly likely

{{copyvio}}

The '''Nojeh coup''' (also spelled '''Nožeh''') was an uprising that happened on [[July 11]] [[1980]]. A group of high-ranking and well-trained officers of [[Iranian Army| Iranian arm forces]] came within few minutes of executing an ambitious and chaotic plan to topple the [[Islamic regime]] of [[Khomeini]]. The officers, who were mostly of [[Shah]]'s demoralized imperial armed forces, took part in a coup that was poorly planed, compromised, and easily defeated.

==Conscripts==
The core officers who were recruited to start the preliminary planning of the coup came from various sources: [[infantry]], [[air force]], [[army]], ex-[[Immortal Guards]], [[Iranian Imperial Guard| Imperial Guard]]s, and some former members of the [[Savak]] secret service. The officers were chosen carefully based on their experience and level of [[nationalism]], resentment of the Islamic regime. They were picked based on their access to military facilities, jet fighters, jet fuel, ammunition, maps, and knowledge of regime's military bases. The higher ranking officers were assigned to planning and logistics, while the lower level officers and pilots were given the task of implementing all stages of the coup.

==Plan==
The plan was comprised of three stages: stage one was a combination of twelve-hour air assaults against military, strategic, government, and clerical targets in [[Tehran]] and five other cities followed by two dozen low altitude supersonic flights over Tehran, [[Mashhad]] and [[Qom]]. The first stage was to be followed immediately by the second which consisted of dispatching nine infantry divisions to tactical locations such as the State Radio and Television, parliament, headquarters of [[Islamic Revolutionary Guards]], and Tehran's grand [[Bazaar]].

The third stage was the most ambitious. It called for cutting off Tehran from the rest of the nation with the help of fifty thousand [[Baluch]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]], and [[Turkish people|Turkish]] mercenary fighters brought from other side of the borders, under the leadership of an unknown national figure. The interesting and ruthless part of the third stage was to have the fighters outfitted as Revolutionary Guardsmen with a green bandana which had the words "Ya Vatan" (Oh Motherland) embedded on them. That way the coup forces could distinguish the coup fighters from the regime's forces.

The fighters' orders were to create pandemonium and confusion among Revolutionary Guardsmen and the backers of the young Islamic Republic by attacking the government forces that were dispatched from other cities to defend Tehran. There were, however, two problems with the last stage of the plan: one was the fact that majority of Baluch, Kurdish, and Turkish fighters were not familiar with Tehran's landscape, and the other obstacle was that some of them did not speak Persian.

==Leadership==
The actual political leader of the coup was [[Shapour Bakhtiar]] who in spite of being the last imperial prime minister, did not have good rapport with the Pahlavi monarchists.

Bakhtiar first explored the possibility of financing a coup in early 1979 by contacting Brigadier General Oveisi. Oveisi who lived abroad and did not wish to participate in any military action in Iran recommended a flamboyant, middle-aged, retired colonel (code-name Ehsan) who was Oveisi's prodigy in the late 60s.

Ehsan was a perfect choice; he was among the very few officers of the Shah's regime who had actual combat experience. Ehsan rose through the ranks in the early years of his career by scoring two major points with the regime: as a young officer he tracked down and captured the legendry [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] outlaw Mullah Avareh in the mountains of Kurdistan province, and a few years later he captured two of the most famous [[Pakistan]]i drug lords by the names of Sharif Ali Khan nd Mirza Rasefi who were responsible for trafficking thousands of tons of narcotics to and through Iran every year.

Ehsan was also shot in the shoulder while conducting an operation near the border with [[Afghanistan]]. One more fact that played in Ehsan's favor was his early retirement prior to the birth of the Islamic Republic, which made him a shadowy figure and unknown to the revolutionary government.

Oveisi however warned Bakhtiar about Ehsan's flashy lifestyle. Ehsan had a reputation among military elite as a heavy drinking womanizer with a big mouth. Nevertheless, Bakhtiar met Ehsan in [[Paris]] in [[1979]] and was impressed by the Colonel's personality and military knowledge. Ehsan returned to Iran, started planning and recruiting for the uprising.

==Beginning of the End==
It is estimated that the coup cost somewhere in the neighborhood of a million dollars. The money covered expenses for traveling from Tehran to Paris and Istanbul and most of the was spent on hiring Baluch, Kurdish, and Turkish mercenaries. The money was managed personally by Bakhtiar and no one else.

It is a known fact that the coup was no secret to Islamic regime and on the night of July 18th, the Islamic regime’s president Abolhasan Banisadr's task force, which consisted mostly of members of the [[People's Mujahedin of Iran| Mojahedin Khalgh]] Organization, were ready and waiting for the operation to start. Many of the pilots were captured hours before the start of the operation and other officers were arrested on the way to their bases. However it's not known who snitched and how the regime uncovered coup. The circumstances leading to the leak is by far the most fascinating part of this ordeal.

There are many different theories out there making attempts at explaining the circumstances behind the failure of the coup and its leaders. But the most intriguing piece comes from sources who claim that Saddam Hussein's government tipped the Islamic Republic a month before D-Day. It is said that Iraq intentionally reported the details of the operation knowing that the capture and execution of the best pilots and military commanders would seriously weaken the Iranian forces (Iraq invaded Iran two months later). Some even go so far as to allege that the coup was reported to the Iranian government by the U.S. to buy the release of American embassy hostages in Tehran.

Some believe that the success of the coup would have led Iran on the path of a bloody civil war and the assassination of Khomeini would have turned him into a mythical figure. These are legitimate concerns and yet it cannot be denied that the failed "Nojeh Coup" of 1980 was conducted by servicemen who deeply cared about their country. No evidence has surfaced so far that links the coup to foreign powers or shows that the officers had illegitimate intentions. The very fact that the coup's resources were not managed efficiently and plans were executed poorly, demonstrates the fact that the movement was most likely home-grown. Many of the officers believed that the country was heading in a wrong direction and in a desperate attempt to save Iran, they lost their lives.

==Sources==
*[http://www.iranian.com/History/2004/July/Nojeh/ Anatomy of a coup]
*[http://www.iranian.com/Pesar/2004/July/Nojeh/index.html Nice try - The failed Nojeh coup]
*[http://www.sarbazan.com/nojeh.htm Nojeh Coup]

[[Category:Revolutions]]
[[Category:1979]]
[[Category:History of Iran]]

[[es:Revolución iraní]]
[[fr:Révolution iranienne]]
[[ko:이란 혁명]]
[[he:המהפכה האיראנית]]
[[it:Rivoluzione iraniana]]
[[nl:Iraanse Revolutie]]
[[ja:イラン革命]]
[[no:Den iranske revolusjon]]{{Link FA|no}}
[[pt:Revolução Iraniana]]
[[fi:Iranin vallankumous]]
[[sv:Iranska revolutionen]]

Petzow

2006-10-21T10:22:15Z

Refdoc:

[[Image:Petzow_Schloss.jpg|thumb|280px|Schloss Petzow]]
Das ehemals selbständige Dorf '''Petzow''' ist seit dem 1. Januar 1929 ein Ortsteil der Stadt [[Werder (Havel)|Werder]] im [[Landkreis Potsdam-Mittelmark]] in Brandenburg.

Das von einem Park umgebene ''Schloss Petzow'' ist das bekannteste Baudenkmal des Ortes.

==Geschichte==
Das 1419 erstmals urkundlich erwähnte Dorf wurde 1542 zu einem Amtsdorf.

Besitzer des Schlosses war seit 1814 die Familie von Kaehne, besonders bekannt durch [[Friederich August Kaehne]]. Der wohlhabendste Mann des Ortes, Gutsbesitzer und Amtsrat ließ sich 1825 nach den Plänen von [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]] ein repräsentatives [[Herrenhaus (Gebäude)|Herrenhaus]] errichten, ein pittoreskes Bauwerk in einem bunten Mix von maurischem Kastell- und englischem [[Tudorstil]], das heute noch von weitem sichtbar ist. [[C. F. Kaehne]] wurde 1840 in den [[Adel]]sstand erhoben.
[[Image:Petzow_Church.jpg|thumb|210px|Dorfkirche]]
Auch die Dorfkirche Petzow, 1842 auf dem Grelleberg erbaut, entstand nach den Plänen von Schinkel und wurde durch [[Friedrich Wilhelm IV. (Preußen)|Friedrich Wilhelm IV.]] eingeweiht. Sie ist heute kulturelles Zentrum in Petzow und wurde nach umfangreichen Sanierungsarbeiten am 30. Oktober 1994 wieder der Öffentlichkeit übergeben. Um den Haussee herum existiert eine Fischerhütte, ein Waschhaus und eine Alte Schmiede. Das Waschhaus dient derzeit als Heimatkundemuseum, die Alte Schmiede ist ein Restaurant und die Fischerhütte ein privat genutztes Haus.

Der 15 Hektar große Schlosspark wurde 1838 von [[Peter Joseph Lenné]] (weltberühmt durch den [[Sanssouci|Park Sanssouci]]) gestaltet. Ein einzigartiges Gesamtkunstwerk von Architektur und Landschaft entstand im Rahmen des Lennéschen "Verschönerungsplan der Umgebung von Potsdam".

Seit 1953 hatte der [[Deutscher Schriftstellerverband | Deutsche Schriftstellerverband]], ab 1973 [[Schriftstellerverband der DDR]], in Petzow ein Erholungsheim. 2001 wurde das Schriftstellerheim an die Erbengemeinschaft des früheren jüdischen Besitzers der Villa zurückgegeben.

Das Schloss Petzow und sein Park wurde 2004/2005 für die erste deutsche [[Telenovela]] ''[[Bianca - Wege zum Glück]]'' als Außendrehort verwendet. Auch die Außenaufnahmen für ''[[Julia - Wege zum Glück]]'', die zweite Telenovela im [[ZDF]], entstehen hier - gedreht wird bis 2007 an der Fischerhütte und an einem Bootshaus am See.

Für Ostern 2007 ist eine Eröffnung des Schlosses Petzow als Hotel vorgesehen.

== Bilder ==
<gallery>
Bild:Petzow_Park_Lenne.JPG|Schlosspark von Lenné, Haussee mit Schwielowsee im Hintergrund
Image:Petzow_Schloss_O.jpg|Seeseite des Schlosses
Image:Petzow_Church_S.jpg|Grelleberg mit Dorfkirche
Image:Petzow_Grab_Kaehne.jpg|Erbbegräbnis der Familie von Kaehne
</gallery>

==Literatur==
*Bernd Erhard Fischer: ''Petzow. Ein Landsitz am Schwielowsee. Eine Spurensuche.'' ISBN 3-7605-8633-3

== Weblinks ==
*[http://www.petzow-online.de www.petzow-online.de] - Heimatverein Petzow e.V.
*[http://www.literaturport.de/index.php?id=19&no_cache=1&user_literaturlandschaft_pi1%5Blid%5D=-1568817928 Schriftstellerheim Petzow]

[[Kategorie:Ort in Brandenburg]]
[[Kategorie:Schloss in Brandenburg]]
[[Kategorie:Parkanlage in Brandenburg]]

Petzow

2006-10-21T10:21:38Z

Refdoc:

[[Image:Petzow_Schloss.jpg|thumb|280px|Schloss Petzow]]
Das ehemals selbständige Dorf '''Petzow''' ist seit dem 1. Januar 1929 ein Ortsteil der Stadt [[Werder (Havel)|Werder]] im [[Landkreis Potsdam-Mittelmark]] in Brandenburg.

Das von einem Park umgebene ''Schloss Petzow'' ist das bekannteste Baudenkmal des Ortes.

==Geschichte==
Das 1419 erstmals urkundlich erwähnte Dorf wurde 1542 zu einem Amtsdorf.

Besitzer des Schlosses war seit 1814 die Familie von Kaehne, besonders bekannt durch Friederich August Kaehne. Der wohlhabendste Mann des Ortes, Gutsbesitzer und Amtsrat ließ sich 1825 nach den Plänen von [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]] ein repräsentatives [[Herrenhaus (Gebäude)|Herrenhaus]] errichten, ein pittoreskes Bauwerk in einem bunten Mix von maurischem Kastell- und englischem [[Tudorstil]], das heute noch von weitem sichtbar ist. [[C. F. Kaehne]] wurde 1840 in den [[Adel]]sstand erhoben.
[[Image:Petzow_Church.jpg|thumb|210px|Dorfkirche]]
Auch die Dorfkirche Petzow, 1842 auf dem Grelleberg erbaut, entstand nach den Plänen von Schinkel und wurde durch [[Friedrich Wilhelm IV. (Preußen)|Friedrich Wilhelm IV.]] eingeweiht. Sie ist heute kulturelles Zentrum in Petzow und wurde nach umfangreichen Sanierungsarbeiten am 30. Oktober 1994 wieder der Öffentlichkeit übergeben. Um den Haussee herum existiert eine Fischerhütte, ein Waschhaus und eine Alte Schmiede. Das Waschhaus dient derzeit als Heimatkundemuseum, die Alte Schmiede ist ein Restaurant und die Fischerhütte ein privat genutztes Haus.

Der 15 Hektar große Schlosspark wurde 1838 von [[Peter Joseph Lenné]] (weltberühmt durch den [[Sanssouci|Park Sanssouci]]) gestaltet. Ein einzigartiges Gesamtkunstwerk von Architektur und Landschaft entstand im Rahmen des Lennéschen "Verschönerungsplan der Umgebung von Potsdam".

Seit 1953 hatte der [[Deutscher Schriftstellerverband | Deutsche Schriftstellerverband]], ab 1973 [[Schriftstellerverband der DDR]], in Petzow ein Erholungsheim. 2001 wurde das Schriftstellerheim an die Erbengemeinschaft des früheren jüdischen Besitzers der Villa zurückgegeben.

Das Schloss Petzow und sein Park wurde 2004/2005 für die erste deutsche [[Telenovela]] ''[[Bianca - Wege zum Glück]]'' als Außendrehort verwendet. Auch die Außenaufnahmen für ''[[Julia - Wege zum Glück]]'', die zweite Telenovela im [[ZDF]], entstehen hier - gedreht wird bis 2007 an der Fischerhütte und an einem Bootshaus am See.

Für Ostern 2007 ist eine Eröffnung des Schlosses Petzow als Hotel vorgesehen.

== Bilder ==
<gallery>
Bild:Petzow_Park_Lenne.JPG|Schlosspark von Lenné, Haussee mit Schwielowsee im Hintergrund
Image:Petzow_Schloss_O.jpg|Seeseite des Schlosses
Image:Petzow_Church_S.jpg|Grelleberg mit Dorfkirche
Image:Petzow_Grab_Kaehne.jpg|Erbbegräbnis der Familie von Kaehne
</gallery>

==Literatur==
*Bernd Erhard Fischer: ''Petzow. Ein Landsitz am Schwielowsee. Eine Spurensuche.'' ISBN 3-7605-8633-3

== Weblinks ==
*[http://www.petzow-online.de www.petzow-online.de] - Heimatverein Petzow e.V.
*[http://www.literaturport.de/index.php?id=19&no_cache=1&user_literaturlandschaft_pi1%5Blid%5D=-1568817928 Schriftstellerheim Petzow]

[[Kategorie:Ort in Brandenburg]]
[[Kategorie:Schloss in Brandenburg]]
[[Kategorie:Parkanlage in Brandenburg]]

Köçek

2005-12-15T22:47:41Z

Refdoc: /* Culture */ removed vandalism

The '''köçek''' phenomenon is considered to be one of the most significant symbols of [[Ottoman Empire]] culture. The köçek was typically a very handsome young male ''rakkas,'' "dancer," usually dressed in feminine attire, employed as an [[entertainer]] and [[sex worker]]. The köçeks (plural ''köçekler'' in Turkish) were usually children of [[dhimmi|non-Muslim]] peoples living under Ottoman rule. Their ranks were filled from the ethnic groups colonized by the Turks (such as the [[Albanians]], [[Balkans|Balkan Slavs]], [[Armenians]], [[Jews]], [[Roma people|Roma]] and [[Greeks]]) since the profession was held to be below the dignity of a Muslim and thus forbidden to Muslim boys.

== Roots ==

[[Image:Shah Abbas I Chehel Sotoun.jpg|thumb|250px|right|'''[[Shah Abbas I]] entertaining guests''' Köçeks at the Persian court. Fresco at [[Chehel Sotoun]], [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]].]]
The word is derived from the [[Persian language|Persian]] ''kuchak,'' "little," "small," or "young."

The culture of the köçek, which flourished form the 17th to the 19th century, had its origin in the customs followed at the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] palaces, and in particular in the [[harem (household)|harems]]. Its genres enriched both the music and the dance of the Ottomans.

The support of the Sultans was a key factor in its development, as in the early stages the art form was confined to palace circles. From there the practice dispersed throughout Anatolia and the Balkans by means of independent troupes. In the big cities, where it was enjoyed by people of all classes, the köçek were the attraction of the Ottoman nights.

== Culture ==

[[Image:Koceks - Surname-i Vehbi.jpg|thumb|left|250px|'''Köçeks at a fair''' Köçek troupe at Sultan Ahmed's 1720 celebration of his sons' circumcision. Miniature from the ''Surname-i Vehbi'', [[Topkapi Palace]], [[Istanbul]].]]

[[Image:Turkish - Dancing Kocek - Late 19th c - wiki.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''Köçek with [[tambourine]]'' Entertainers and sex workers, köçeks were in high demand in the [[Ottoman Empire]]. They were sought by high and low, up to the Sultan. Photograph, late 19th c.]]

A köçek would begin training around the age of seven or eight, and would be considered accomplished after about six years of study and practice. A dancer's career would last as long as he was beardless and retained his youthful appearance. Dancers would get married when they were around 25 or 30, and then could become organizers of a new köçek troop. Köçeks were organized into companies known as ''kol.'' Twelve such companies were counted in the mid-1600's, each company averaging about 250 dancers.

Their erotic dances, collectively known as ''köçek oyunu,'' blended [[Arab]], [[Greeks|Greek]], [[Assyria]]n and [[Kurdistan|Kurdish]] elements. They were performed to a particular genre of music known as ''köçekce,'' which was performed in the form of suites in a given melody. It too was a mix of Sufi, Balkan and classical Anatolian influences, some of which survives in popular Turkish music today. The accompaniment included various percussion instruments, such as the ''davul-köçek,'' a large drum of [[Armenia]]n origin, one side covered with goat skin and the other in sheep skin, producing different tones. The skill of a köçek would be judged not only on his dancing abilities but also on his proficiency with the percussion instruments, especially a type of [[castagnette]] known as the ''çarpare.'' In later times these were replaced by metal cymbals called ''zils.''

The dancers would be accompanied by an orchestra, featuring four to five each ''kaba kemence'' and ''lauto'' as principal instruments, used exclusively for köçek suites. There would also be two singers. A köçek dance in the Ottoman harem would involve one or two dozen köçeks, and a large number of musicians. The occasions of their performances were wedding celebrations, circumcision celebrations, feasts, festivals, as well as the pleasure of the sultans and the aristocracy.

The youths, often wearing heavy makeup, would curl their hair and wear it in long tresses under a small black or red velvet hat decorated with coins, jewels and gold. Their usual garb consisted of a tiny red embroidered velvet jacket with a gold-embroidered silk shirt, ''shalvars'' (baggy trousers), a long skirt, and a gilt belt, knotted at the back. They were said to be "sensuous, attractive, effeminate," and their dancing "sexually provocative," impersonating female dancers. Dancers minced and gyrated their hips in slow vertical and horizontal figure-8's, rhythmically snapping their fingers and making suggestive gestures. Often, acrobatics, tumbling, and mock wrestling were also part of the act. The köçeks were available sexually, often to the highest bidder, in the passive role. It is presumed that many of them were [[transgender]].

The names and backgrounds of köçeks in Istanbul in the 18th century are well documented. Among the more celebrated köçeks from the end of the 18th century are the Gypsy Benli Ali of Dimetoka (today's Greece); Buyuk (big, older) Afet (born Yorgaki) of Croatian origin, Kucuk (little) Afet (born Kaspar) of Armenian origin, and Pandeli from the Greek Island of Chiros. There were at least fifty köçeks of star stature at the time. The famous ones, like the Gypsy köçek Ismail, would have to be booked weeks or months in advance, at a very high cost.

Western visitors were variously taken with the - for them - unusual sight of [[pederasty]] unleashed. One impression is preserved in ''Don Leon,'' a poem anonymously written in the voice of [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]]:

:''Here much I saw – and much I mused to see
:''The loosened garb of Eastern luxury.
:''I sought the brothel, where, in maiden guise,
:''The black-eyed boy his trade unblushing plies;
:''Where in lewd dance he acts the scenic show –
:''His supple haunches wriggling to and fro:
:''With looks voluptuous the thought excites,
:''Whilst gazing sit the hoary sybarites:
:''Whilst gentle lute and drowsy tambourine
:''Add to the languor of the monstrous scene.
:''Yes, call it monstrous! but not monstrous, where
:''Close latticed harems hide the timid fair:
:''With mien gallant where pæderasty smirks,
:''And whoredom, felon like, in covert lurks.
:''All this I saw – but saw it not alone –
:''A friend was with me, and I dared not own
:''How much the sight had touched some inward sense,
:''Too much for e’en the closest confidence.'' (441-8).

In his travels to the Levant, Byron had indeed been present at such a dance as described above. His traveling companion, John Cam Hobhouse, relates in his diary that on Saturday, May 19th, 1810:

:''This day, went with Byron and a party to the wine houses of Galata. Took pipes, and saw two old and ugly boys, who wrung the sweat off their brows, dance as before, waving their long hair. Also they spread a mat and, putting on a kind of shawl, performed an Alexandrian woman’s dance – much the same, except that they knelt, and, covering each other’s heads, seemed as if kissing. One of Mr Adair’s Janissaries, who talks English and has been in England, was with us. I asked him if these boys would not be hanged in England. “Oh yes, directly. De Turk take and byger dem d’ye see?”''

:''For this beastly sight we paid fifty-five piastres, five to the boys each, and five to all fiddlers and singers and performers &c., nor is this dear, I understand. Turk boys are not allowed to dance.'' [http://www.hobby-o.com/constantinople.php#ref42 Excerpt from Hobhouse's diary]

The youths were held in high esteem. Famous poets, such as [[Fazyl bin Tahir Enderuni]], wrote poems, and classical composers, such as the court musician [[Hammamizade Ismail Dede Efendi]] (1778-1846), composed köçekces for celebrated koceks. Many Istanbul [[meyhane|meyhanes]] (night-time taverns serving meze, raki or wine) hired köçeks. Before starting their performance, the köçek danced among the spectators, to make them more excited. In the audience, competition for their attention often caused commotions and altercations. Men would go wild, breaking their glasses, shouting themselves voiceless, or fighting and sometimes killing each other vying for the boys' sexual favors. This resulted in suppression of the practice under sultan Sultan [[Abd-ul-Mejid I]]. Köçek dances were officially banned in 1856, and many of the boys left the country to practice their profession in Egypt and elsewhere. With the suppression of harem culture under Sultan Abdulaziz (1861-1876) and Sultan Abdulhamid II (1876-1908), köçek dance and music lost the support of its royal patrons, and gradually disappeared.

The other type of ''rakkas,'' or male dancer (from ''raks,'' "dance") was the ''tavşan oğlan'', "rabbit boy," a young dancer dressed in provocative male clothing: tight pants and a jaunty hat. The non-Muslim tavşan oğlan are thought to have come mainly from the Greek islands in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and the [[Sea of Marmara]]. They performed mainly during [[Ramadan]], working as ''sakis'' (wine boys) in the ''meyhanes'' otherwise, when not dancing at special occasions.

Köçeks were much more sought after than the ''çengi,'' their feminine counterparts. Some youths were known to have been killed by the çengi, who where extremely jealous of men's attention towards the boys.

== Modern offshoots ==

[[Image:Modern kocek.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Male dancer in female garb''' 20th c. Anatolia, Turkey]]

At the present time, the same-sex love and sexuality aspect of köçek culture is considered to have been "a privilege of the powerful economic classes or the world of the arts." Though no new compositions or performances have taken place in the last hundred years, male dancers dressed as women still perform in some areas of Turkey, though their art is no longer primarily of a sensual nature and is seen primarily as folkloric.

The style however continues to inspire modern musicians. [[Ulvi Cemal Erkin]],(1906-1972), is a Turkish classical composer whose most popular masterpiece is ''Köçekçe'' a dance rhapsody composed in 1943, and perhaps the best known single piece of Turkish music abroad. It was first introduced to the public in 1943 with E. Praetorius conducting the Presidential Symphony Orchestra.

Another modern interpretation is the movie ''Kocek'' (1975) by director [[Nejat Saydam]]. It is probably the first Turkish movie to deal with the topic of [[homosexuality]] and change of [[gender role]].

At the same time, young male dancers dressed in sparkling costumes are again finding favor, despite the objections of conservative commentators. Known as ''rakkas'' they have become a common feature of dance halls and night clubs. They perform seductive belly dances, and are reputed to be "as sexual and popular as any of the best Turkish female belly dancers."

==References==

*AYVERDI, Sâmiha; Istanbul Geceleri ''The nights of Istanbul,'' ed. Baha, Istanbul, 1977.
*ENDERUNLU Fazıl bey; ''Çenginame','' 1759
*ERDOGAN, Sema Nilgün: ''Sexual life in Ottoman Empire,'' ed. Dönence, Istanbul, 1996. Pp 88-92
*JANSSEN, Thijs: ''Transvestites and Transsexuals in Turkey,'' in ''Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies,'' edited by Arno Schmidt and Jehoeda Sofer, ed. Harrington Park Press, NY, 1992
*KOCU, Resad Ekrem, ''Eski Istanbul'da Meyhaneler ve Meyhane Kocekleri, Istanbul Ansiklopedisi Notlari No''
*OZTUNA, Yilmaz: ''Turk Musikisi Ansiklopedisi,'' Milli Egitim Basimevi, Istanbul, 1976. p.23

==See also==
*[[Baccha]]
*[[Cocek]]
*[[Culture of the Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Hammam]]
*[[Harem (household)|Harem]]
*[[Ottoman Turkish language]]
*[[Pederasty#The Ottoman Empire|Pederasty:The Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Tellak]]

==External links==
*[http://www.jasminjahal.com/articles/02_02_male_belly_d.html Male Belly Dance in Turkey]
*[http://www2.egenet.com.tr/mastersj/encyclopedia-k.html Habibullah's Encyclopaedia of the Ottoman Empire]
*[http://www.bdancer.com/history/BDhist2c.html Origins of oriental dance]
*[http://www.turkishnews.com/itumuk/info/petek/c1s4/petek9603.txt Turkish News.com]
*[http://www.androphile.org/preview/Museum/Turkey/turkish.htm Classical Turkish homoerotic art]

[[Category:Turkish culture]]
[[Category:Erotic dance]]
[[Category:LGBT history]]
[[Category:Transgender in non-western cultures]]
[[Category:Sex workers]]

Autonome Republik Aserbaidschan

2005-12-13T06:23:01Z

Refdoc: claimed by whom? Please prove a source.

The '''Democratic Republic of South Azerbaijan''', or '''Azerbaijan People's Government''', was a Soviet backed, shortlived attempt (November [[1945]]-November [[1946]]) to acclaim [[autonomy]] for the region of [[Iranian Azerbaijan|Azarbaijan]] in [[Iran]].

Following the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] occupation of parts of northern Iran during the [[Second World War]] attempts were made to secede Turkish parts of Nortwestern Iran by the [[Azerbaijani Democratic Party]] under the leadership of [[Jafar Pishevari|Sayyid Jafar Pishevari]].

These attempts culminated in November 1945 in the creation of a government based in [[Tabriz]]. Following pressure by Western powers, the Soviet Union reneged on its support to the new republic and Iranian military succeeded in re-establishing Iranian rule in November 1946. Many of the leaders sought refuge in the [[Azerbaijan SSR]].

[[Category:History of Iran]]

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Autonome Republik Aserbaidschan

2005-12-12T12:22:36Z

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Dschaʿfar Pischewari

2004-12-16T21:37:23Z

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'''Sayyid Jafar Pishevari''' (جعفر پیشه‌وری) was the founder and chairman of the [[Democratic Republic of South Azerbaijan]] (November [[1945]] – November [[1946]]).
He was born in [[Khalkhal]] (in Azarbaijan region of [[Iran]]) and became a journalist in the [[1920s]].
For some time, he was imprisoned by the Iranian [[Shah]] for his political ideas. He was a candidate for the [[Iranian parliament]] but was denied entry by the rulers. Pishevari was leader of the [[Azerbaijani Democratic Party]].

Pishevari, with [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] backing, founded the autonomous socialist Democratic Republic of South Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan People's Government]]) in November [[1945]]. After the collapse of this short-lived republic, he feld to [[Azerbaijan SSR]] and died there in [[1947]]. It's claimed that he was executed by the Soviets.

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[[Category:Iranian politicians|Pishevari, Jafar]]

Autonome Republik Aserbaidschan

2004-12-16T19:15:11Z

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or '''Azerbaijan People's Government''', a Soviet backed, shortlived attempt (November [[1945]]-November [[1946]]) to seceede the region of Azarbaijan from [[Iran]].

Following the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] occupation of parts of northern Iran during the [[Second World War]] attempts were made to seceed [[Azeri]] speaking parts of Nortwestern Iran by the [[Azerbaijani Democratic Party]] under the leadership of [[Jafar Pishevari|Sayyid Jafar Pishevari]].

These attempts culminated in November 1945 in the creation of a government based in [[Tabriz]. Following pressure by Western powers, the Soviet Union reneged on its support to the new republic and Iranian military succeeded in re-establishing iranian rule in November 1946. Many of the leaders sought refuge in the Azerbeycani SSSR.

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Dschaʿfar Pischewari

2004-12-16T13:54:57Z

Refdoc: removal of NPOV notice

'''Jafar Pishevari''' (جعفر پیشه‌وری) was the founder and chairman of the [[Democratic Republic of South Azerbaijan]] (November [[1945]] – November [[1946]]).
He was born in [[Khalkhal]] (in Azarbaijan region of [[Iran]]) and became a journalist in the [[1920s]].
For some time, he was imprisoned by the Iranian [[Shah]] for his political ideas. He was a candidate for the [[Iranian parliament]] but was denied entry by the rulers. Pishevari was leader of the [[Azerbaijani Democratic Party]].

Pishevari, with [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] backing, founded the autonomous socialist Democratic Republic of South Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan People's Government]]) in November [[1945]]. After the collapse of this short-lived republic, he feld to [[Azerbaijan SSR]] and died there in [[1947]]. It's claimed that he was executed by the Soviets.

{{bio-stub}}

[[Category:Iranian politicians|Pishevari, Jafar]]

Autonome Republik Aserbaidschan

2004-12-16T12:59:51Z

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Soviet backed, shortlived attempt (November [[1945]]-November [[1946]]) to seceede the [[Iran]]ian region Azarbaijan.

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Dschaʿfar Pischewari

2004-12-16T12:55:09Z

Refdoc: wikification

{{disputed}}

'''Jafar Pishevari''' (جعفر پیشه‌وری) was the founder and chairman of the [[Democratic Republic of South Azerbaijan]] (November [[1945]] – November [[1946]]).
He was born in [[Khalkhal]] (in Azarbaijan region of [[Iran]]) and became a journalist in the [[1920s]].
For some time, he was imprisoned by the Iranian [[Shah]] for his political ideas. He was a candidate for the [[Iranian parliament]] but was denied entry by the rulers. Pishevari was leader of the [[Azerbaijani Democratic Party]].

Pishevari, with [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] backing, founded the autonomous socialist Democratic Republic of South Azerbaijan ([[Azerbaijan People's Government]]) in November [[1945]]. After the collapse of this short-lived republic, he feld to [[Azerbaijan SSR]] and died there in [[1947]]. It's claimed that he was executed by the Soviets.

{{stub}}

[[Category:Iranian politicians|Pishevari, Jafar]]

Russisch-Türkischer Krieg (1768–1774)

2004-01-12T15:23:21Z

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'''Russo-Turkish war of 1768 - 1774''' followed the internal tensions within [[Poland]] where there was the strife between the nobility and the king, former favorite of the [[Russia]]n [[Empress]]. The king was dependent on the support from the Russian troops.

A detachment of [[Cossacks]] in Russian service entered [[Balta]] (on [[Ottoman]] territory) during the pursuit of a Polish oppositionary force. The [[Ottoman Empire]] accused the troops to have conducted the slaughter of its subjects in the town of Balta, a charge denied by the Russian authorities.

Following this border incident at Balta the [[Turkey|Turkish]] [[Sultan]] declared war on Russia on [[September 25]] [[1768]].

The Turks formed the alliance with the Polish oppositionary forces of [[Bar Confederation]], while Russia was supported by [[England]], who offered naval advisers to the Russian navy.

The Polish opposition was defeated by [[Aleksandr Vasilievich Suvorov|Suvorov]] who was then transfered to the Turkish theatre of operations where in [[1773]] and [[1774]] he won several minor and major battles following the previous grand successes of the Russian field marshal-general P.A.Rumiantsev. The naval operations of the Russian [[Baltic]] [[Fleet]] in the [[Mediterranean]] yielded even more spectacular victories under the command of A.G.Orlov. [[Greece]] and then, in [[1771]], [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] rebelled against the Ottoman rule while the Russian fleet totally destroyed the Turkish [[Navy]].

On [[July 10]] [[1774]] the Ottoman Empire signed the peace treaty according to which the [[Crimea]] gained its independence from the Turks, and Russia received
the contribution of 4,5 million rubles and two key-seaports allowing the direct access to the [[Black Sea]].

This war was but a small part of the continuous process of expansion of the Russian Empire towards the South and the East during the 18th and 19th century.

Russisch-Türkischer Krieg (1768–1774)

2003-12-15T14:48:33Z

Refdoc:

'''Russo-Turkish war of 1768 - 1774''' followed the internal tensions within [[Poland]] where there was the strife between the nobility and the king, former favorite of the [[Russian]] [[Empress]]. The king was dependent on the support from the Russian troops.

A detachment of [[Cossacks]] in Russian service entered [[Balta]] (on [[Ottoman]] territory) during the pursuit of a Polish oppositionary force. The [[Ottoman Empire]] accused the troops to have conducted the slaughter of its subjects in the town of Balta, a charge denied by the Russian authorities.

Following this border incident at Balta the [[Turkish]] [[Sultan]] declared war on Russia on [[September]] 25, [[1768]].

The Turks formed the alliance with the Polish oppositionary forces of [[Bar Confederation]], while Russia was supported by [[England]], who offered naval advisers to the Russian navy.

The Polish opposition was defeated by [[Aleksandr Vasilievich Suvorov|Suvorov]] who was then transfered to the Turkish theatre of operations where in [[1773]] and [[1774]] he won several minor and major battles following the previous grand successes of the Russian field marshal-general P.A.Rumiantsev. The naval operations of the Russian [[Baltic]] [[Fleet]] in the [[Mediterranean]] yielded even more spectacular victories under the command of A.G.Orlov. [[Greece]] and then, in [[1771]], [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] rebelled against the Ottoman rule while the Russian fleet totally destroyed the Turkish [[Navy]].

On [[July]] 10, [[1774]] the Ottoman Empire signed the peace treaty according to which the [[Crimea]] gained its independence from the Turks, and Russia received
the contribution of 4,5 million rubles and two key-seaports allowing the direct access to the [[Black Sea]].

This war was but a small part of the continuous process of expansion of the Russian Empire towards the South and the East during the 18th and 19th century.

Russisch-Türkischer Krieg (1768–1774)

2003-12-15T14:48:10Z

Refdoc:

'''Russo-Turkish war of 1768 - 1774''' followed the internal tensions within [[Poland]] where there was the strife between the nobility and the king, former favorite of the [[Russian]] [[Empress]]. The king was dependent on the support from the Russian troops.

A detachment of [[Cossacks]] in Russian service entered [[Balta]] (on [[Ottoman]] territory) during the pursuit of a Polish oppositionary force. The [[Ottoman Empire]] accused the troops to have conducted the slaughter of its subjects in the town of Balta, a charge denied by the Russian authorities.

Following this border incident at Balta the [[Turkish]] [[Sultan]] declared war on Russia on [[September]] 25, [[1768]].

The Turks formed the alliance with the Polish oppositionary forces of [[Bar Confederation]], while Russia was supported by [[England]], who offered naval advisers to the Russian navy.

The Polish opposition was defeated by [[Aleksandr Vasilievich Suvorov|Suvorov]] who was then transfered to the Turkish theatre of operations where in [[1773]] and [[1774]] he won several minor and major battles following the previous grand successes of the Russian field marshal-general P.A.Rumiantsev. The naval operations of the Russian [[Baltic]] [[Fleet]] in the [[Mediterranean]] yielded even more spectacular victories under the command of A.G.Orlov. [[Greece]] and then, in [[1771]], [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] rebelled against the Ottoman rule while the Russian fleet totally destroyed the Turkish [[Navy]].

On [[July]] 10, [[1774]] the Ottoman Empire signed the peace treaty according to which the [[Crimea]] gained its independence from the Turks, and Russia received
the contribution of 4,5 million rubles and two key-seaports allowing the direct access to the [[Black Sea]].

This war was but a small part of the continuous process of ansion of the Russian Empire towards the South and the East during the 18th and 19th century.

Russisch-Türkischer Krieg (1768–1774)

2003-12-15T13:43:33Z

Refdoc:

Russisch-Türkischer Krieg (1768–1774)

2003-12-15T13:42:57Z

Refdoc: NPOV reconstruction