Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Zaida Ben-Yusuf

2008-05-10T02:50:06Z

Recurring dreams: bold title

'''Zaida Ben-Yusuf''' (1869-1933) was an American portrait photographer. Ben-Yusuf was born in London to an Algerian Muslim father and a German mother of Algerian descent. She immigrated to New York in 1897.

Ben-Yusuf was noted for portraits of the wealthy, fashionable, and famous Americans of the period. In 1891 the [[Ladies Home Journal]] featured her in a gorup of six photographers that it dubed, "The Foremost Women Photographers in America." <ref> Ladies Home Journal November, 1901</ref> A photo essay of a trip she took to Japan was published in the [[Saturday Review]].

In 2008 the Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery mounted an exhibition of Ben-Yusuf's work, aiming to "recover" the work of an artist who had falled from memory. <ref>http://www.npg.si.edu/exhibit/curex1.htm#zaida</ref>

==External links==
*[http://www.npg.si.edu/exhibit/zaida/index.html Simthsonian web photo exhibit of Ben-Yusuf's work]

==References==

{{Reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ben-Yusuf, Zaida}}
[[Category:1869 births]]
[[Category:1933 deaths]]
[[Category:American photographers]]
[[Category:Portrait photographers]]

Holden Coupé 60

2008-03-27T05:57:40Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 1 edit by Shamusmagee identified as vandalism to last revision by 203.122.246.1. using TW

The new Holden Coupe 60 concept is a sports coupe made by [[Holden]].
The Coupe 60 is a pillarless concept car that explores the limits of Holden's current rear-wheel drive expertise, combining racing looks and technology into a road going sportscar experience. The Coupe 60 is based on the [[VE Commodore]].

This concept car was first revealed at the 2008 [[Melbourne]] International Motor Show, along with the new [[HSV W427]].
It was also built to show how far [[Holden]] has come in 60 years, as the 60 means Holden's 60th anniversary. It is also a glimpse of future directions in design, engineering and emerging engine technologies.

This car runs on Ethanol (E85) and powers 275kW & 530Nm of torque.

==External links==
* [http://concept.holdencampaign.com.au/ Holden Coupe 60 concept website]
* [http://www.holden.com.au Holdens official website]

[[Category:Australian cars]]
[[Category:Coupes]]
[[Category:Holden vehicles]]

Vitamin-B12-Mangel

2008-03-26T07:03:11Z

Recurring dreams: clean up the intro

{{Infobox_Disease |
Name = {{PAGENAME}} |
Image = |
Caption = |
DiseasesDB = 13905 |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|E|53|8|e|50}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|266.2}} |
ICDO = |
OMIM = |
MedlinePlus = |
eMedicineSubj = |
eMedicineTopic = |
MeshID = D014806 |
}}
'''B12 deficiency''' is a reduction in [[vitamin B12]] from inadequate dietary intake or impaired absorption. The condition is commonly asymptomatic, but can also present as anemia characterized by enlarged blood corpuscles, so-called [[megaloblastic anemia]].
However in serious cases deficiency can potentially cause severe and irreversible damage to the nervous system.

The anemia is thought to be due to problems in DNA synthesis, specifically in the synthesis of [[thymine]], which is dependent on products of the [[5-methyltetrahydrofolate-homocysteine methyltransferase#reaction|MTR reaction]]. Other cell lines such as [[white blood cell]]s and [[platelet]]s are often also low. [[Bone marrow]] examination may show [[megaloblast]]ic [[hemopoiesis]]. The anemia is easy to cure with vitamin B12.

==Presentation==
Early and even fairly pronounced deficiency does not always cause distinct or specific symptoms. Common early symptoms are tiredness or a decreased mental work capacity, decreased concentration and decreased memory, irritability and depression.

Sleep disturbances may occur, because B12 may be involved in the regulation of the sleep wake cycle by the pineal gland (through melatonin)<ref name="pmid8981490">{{cite journal |author=Hashimoto S, Kohsaka M, Morita N, Fukuda N, Honma S, Honma K |title=Vitamin B12 enhances the phase-response of circadian melatonin rhythm to a single bright light exposure in humans |journal=Neurosci. Lett. |volume=220 |issue=2 |pages=129-32 |year=1996 |pmid=8981490 |doi=}}</ref>.

Neurological signs of B{{ssub|12}} deficiency, which can occur without anemia, include sensory disturbances due to damage to peripheral nerves caused by [[demyelination]] and irreversible nerve cell death. Symptoms include [[numbness]], tingling of the extremities, disturbed coordination and, if not treated in time, an [[ataxic gait]], a syndrome known as [[subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord]].

B12 deficiency can also cause symptoms of mania and psychosis.<ref name="ijnwvitaminb12">{{cite journal | author=Sethi NK, Robilotti E, Sadan Y | title=Neurological Manifestations Of Vitamin B-12 Deficiency | journal=The Internet Journal of Nutrition and Wellness | volume=2 | issue=1 | year=2005 | doi=}}</ref><ref name="imajvitaminb12">{{cite journal | author=Masalha R, Chudakov B, Muhamad M, Rudoy I, Volkov I, Wirguin I | title=Cobalamin-responsive psychosis as the sole manifestation of vitamin B12 deficiency | journal=Israeli Medical Association Journal | volume=3 | year=2001 | pages=701-703 | doi=}}</ref>

Recent studies have devalued a possible connection between B12 deficiency and Alzheimer's dementia, and such a correlation is unlikely as of June 2007.<ref name="pmid16917153">{{cite journal |author=Morris MC, Evans DA, Schneider JA, Tangney CC, Bienias JL, Aggarwal NT |title=Dietary folate and vitamins B-12 and B-6 not associated with incident Alzheimer's disease |journal=J. Alzheimers Dis. |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=435-43 |year=2006 |pmid=16917153 |doi=}}</ref>

Studies showing a relationship between [[clinical depression]] levels and deficient B{{ssub|12}} blood levels in elderly people are documented in the clinical literature.<ref>{{cite journal | author= Brenda W. J. H. Penninx ''et al''| title= Vitamin B{{ssub|12}} Deficiency and Depression in Physically Disabled Older Women: Epidemiologic Evidence From the Women’s Health and Aging Study | journal= Am. J. Psychiatry| year= 2000| volume= 157| pages= 715-721| id= PMID 10784463}}</ref> and [[2002]] <ref>{{cite journal | author= Henning Tiemeier ''et al''| title= Vitamin B12, Folate, and Homocysteine in Depression: The Rotterdam Study| journal= Am. J. Psychiatry| year= 2002| volume= 159| pages= 2099-2101| id= PMID 12450964}}</ref>

[[Bipolar disorder]] appears to genetically co-segregate with the hereditary B12-deficiency disorder [[pernicious anemia]] <ref>{{cite journal | author=Reading CM. | title= X-linked dominant manic-depressive illness: Linkage with Xg blood-group, red-green color-blindness and vitamin-B12 deficiency. | journal= Orthomolecular Psychiatry | year= 1979 | volume= 8 | pages= 68-77| id= }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Reading CM. | title= Latent pernicious anemia: A preliminary report. | journal= Medical Journal of Australia | year= 1975 | volume= 40 | pages= 91-4 | id= }}</ref>.

==Causes==
* Inadequate dietary intake of vitamin B<sub>12</sub>. As the vitamin B<sub>12</sub> occurs naturally only in animal products (eggs, meat, milk) a [[vegan]] diet can produce a deficiency unless one uses supplements or eats enriched food.<ref>[http://www.pernicious-anaemia-society.org/whatispa.html Pernicious Anaemia Society - What is Pernicious Anaemia?], retrieved July 30, 2007.</ref>

* Selective impaired absorption of vitamin B<sub>12</sub> due to [[intrinsic factor]] deficiency. This may depend on loss of [[stomach|gastric]] [[parietal cells]] in chronic [[atrophic gastritis]] (in which case, the resulting [[megaloblastic anaemia]] takes the name of "[[pernicious anaemia]]"), or on wide surgical resection of stomach (such as in [[bariatric surgery]]), or on rare hereditary causes of impaired synthesis of intrinsic factor.

* Impaired absorption of vitamin B<sub>12</sub> in the setting of a more generalised [[malabsorption]] or [[maldigestion]] syndrome. This includes any form of structural damage or wide surgical resection of the terminal [[ileum]] (the principal site of vitamin B<sub>12</sub> absorption), forms of [[achlorhydria]] (including that artificially induced by drugs such as [[proton pump inhibitors]]), as well as [[bacterial overgrowth]] (such as in [[blind loop syndrome]]).

* Chronic intestinal infestation by the [[fish tapeworm]] ''[[Diphyllobothrium]]'', that competes for vitamin B<sub>12</sub>, seizing it for its own use and therefore leaving insufficient amount for the host organism. This is mostly confined to [[Scandinavia]] and parts of [[Eastern Europe]] (for example, in preparers of [[gefilte fish]], who would acquire the tapeworm by sneaking bits of fish before it was cooked while making the Eastern European delicacy).

* The [[diabetes]] medication, [[metformin]] may interfere with B12 dietary absorption.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Ting R, Szeto C, Chan M, Ma K, Chow K | title = Risk factors of vitamin B(12) deficiency in patients receiving metformin | journal = Arch Intern Med | volume = 166 | issue = 18 | pages = 1975-9 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 17030830}}</ref>.

* Hereditary causes such as severe [[MTHFR]] deficiency, [[homocystinuria]], and [[transcobalamin]] deficiency.

==Incidence/prevalence==

Recent research indicates that B12 deficiency is far more widespread than formerly believed. A large study in the US found that 39 percent had low values.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2000/000802.htm |title=B12 Deficiency May Be More Widespread Than Thought / August 2, 2000 / News from the USDA Agricultural Research Service |accessdate=2007-07-01 |format= |work=}}</ref> This study at Tufts University used the B12 concentration 258 pmol/l (= 350 pg/liter) as a criterion of "low level". However, recent research has found that B12 deficiency may occur at a much higher B12 concentration (500-600 pg/l). On this basis Mitsuyama and Kogoh <ref>{{cite journal | author=Mitsuyama Y, Kogoh H. | journal=Japanese Journal of Psychiatry and Neurology| year=1988 | title=Serum and cerebrospinal fluid vitamin B12 levels in demented patients with CH3-
B12 treatment. | pages=65-71| volume=42 | issue=1 }}</ref>. proposed 550 pg/l, and Tiggelen et al <ref>{{cite journal | author=VanTiggelen CJM, Peperkamp JPC, TerToolen JFW. | journal=Journal of Orthomolecular Psychiatry | year=1983 | title=Vitamin-B12 levels of cerebrospinal fluid in patients with organic mental disorder. | pages=305-11 | volume= | issue=12 }}</ref> proposed 600 pg/l. Against this background, there are reasons to believe that B12 deficiency is present in a far greater proportion of the population than 39% as reported by the Tufts University.

In the developing world the deficiency is very widespread, with significant levels of deficiency in Africa, India, and South and Central America. This is due to low intakes of animal products, particular among the poor. Increased intake of animal products or supplements have beens suggested.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Sally P. Stabler and Robert H. Allen(2004)| title = Vitamin B12 Deficiency as a Worldwide Problem. ''Annual Review of Nutrition'' 24: 299-326}}</ref>

B12 deficiency is even more common in the elderly <ref>{{cite journal | author = H.W. Baik, R.M. Russell (1999)| title = Vitamin b12 deficiency in the elderly. Annual Review of Nutrition 19: 357-377}}</ref>. This is because B{{ssub|12}} absorption decreases greatly in the presence of atrophic gastritis, which is common in elderly.

B12 deficiency is common among vegetarians. In vegans the risk is very high because none of their natural food sources contain B12. One American study found blood levels below normal in 92 % of vegans, 64 % of lactovegetarians, 47 % of lacto-ovovegetarians <ref>{{cite journal | author = Dong A and Scott SC (1982)| title = Ann Nutr Metab 26(4):209-16 }}</ref>. The study applied the old normal values, so in reality a considerably greater proportion may have been deficient.

==Diagnosis==
[[Serum]] B{{ssub|12}} levels are often low in B{{ssub|12}} deficiency, but if other features of B{{ssub|12}} deficiency are present with normal B{{ssub|12}} then the diagnosis must not be discounted. One possible explanation for normal B{{ssub|12}} levels in B{{ssub|12}} deficiency is antibody interference in people with high titres of [[intrinsic factor antibody]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Hamilton MS, Blackmore S, Lee A. | journal=Brit Med J | year=2006 | title=Possible cause of flase normal B-12 assays (letter) | pages=654–5 | volume=333 | issue=7569 }}</ref>
Some researchers propose that the current standard norms of vitamin B12 levels are too low{{Fact|date=July 2007}}. In Japan, the lowest acceptable level for vitamin B12 in blood has been raised from about 200 picograms/litre (pg/l) = 145 picomol/litre (pm/l) to 550 pg/l = 400 pm/l{{Fact|date=July 2007}}. <ref>{{cite journal | author=Mitsuyama Y, Kogoh H. | journal=Japanese Journal of Psychiatry and Neurology| year=1988 | title=Serum and cerebrospinal fluid vitamin B12 levels in demented patients with CH3-
B12 treatment. | pages=65-71| volume=42 | issue=1 }}</ref>

Serum Homocysteine and Methylmalonic acid levels are considered more reliable indicators of B12 deficiency than the concentration of B12 in blood, see for example research at the [[St. Louis University]].<ref name="titleTest used to diagnose B12 deficiency may be inadequate">{{cite web |url=http://www.news-medical.net/?id=5908 |title=Test used to diagnose B12 deficiency may be inadequate |accessdate=2007-12-04 |format= |work=}}</ref> The levels of these substances are high in B{{ssub|12}} deficiency and can be helpful if the diagnosis is unclear. Approximately 10% of patients with vitamin B12 levels between 200-400pg/l will have a vitamin B12 deficiency on the basis of elevated levels of [[homocysteine]] and [[methylmalonic acid]].{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

Routine monitoring of [[methylmalonic acid]] levels in urine is an option for people who may not be getting enough dietary B{{ssub|12}}, as a rise in [[methylmalonic acid]] levels may be an early indication of deficiency.<ref name="donaldson">Donaldson MS. Metabolic vitamin B{{ssub|12}} status on a mostly raw vegan diet with follow-up using tablets, nutritional yeast, or probiotic supplements. Ann Nutr Metab. 2000;44(5-6):229-34. PMID 11146329.</ref>

If nervous system damage is suspected, B12 analysis in cerebrospinal fluid can also be helpful, though such an invasive test would be applicable only after unrevealing blood testing.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Devalia V | title=Diagnosing vitamin B-12 deficiency on the basis of serum B-12 assay | journal=Brit J Med | year=2006 | volume=333 | issue=7564 | pages=385-6 | id= PMID 16916826 }}</ref>

==Treatment==
B{{ssub|12}} can be supplemented in healthy subjects by oral pill; [[sublingual]] pill, liquid, or strip; or by injection. B{{ssub|12}} is available singly or in combination with other supplements. B{{ssub|12}} supplements are available in forms including [[cyanocobalamin]], [[hydroxocobalamin]], [[methylcobalamin]], and [[adenosylcobalamin]] (sometimes called "cobamamide" or "dibencozide").

Vitamin B{{ssub|12}} can be given as intramuscular injections of [[hydroxycobalamin]], [[methylcobalamin]], or [[cyanocobalamin]]. Body stores (in the liver) are refilled with half a dozen injections in the first couple of weeks and then maintenance with monthly to quarterly injections throughout the life of the [[patient]].

B{{ssub|12}} has traditionally been given [[parenterally]] to ensure absorption. However, oral replacement is now an accepted route, as it has become increasingly appreciated that sufficient quantities of B{{ssub|12}} are absorbed when large doses are given. This absorption does not rely on the presence of intrinsic factor or an intact ileum. Generally 1 to 2 mg daily is required as a large dose [http://www.bloodjournal.org/cgi/content/full/92/4/1191]. By contrast, the typical Western diet contains 5–7 µg of B{{ssub|12}} ([[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) Daily Value <ref>{{cite web| url = http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitaminb12.asp | title = Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin B12| publisher = National Institutes of Health: Office of Dietary Supplements | accessdate = 2006-06-06 }}</ref>).

[[Hypokalemia]], an excessive low [[potassium]] level in the [[blood]], is anecdotally reported as a complication of vitamin B{{ssub|12}} repletion after deficiency. Excessive quantities of [[potassium]] are used by newly growing and dividing [[hematopoeitic]] cells, depleting circulating stores of the [[mineral]].

It has been appreciated since the 1960s that deficiency can sometimes be treated with oral B{{ssub|12}} supplements when given in sufficient doses. When given in oral doses ranging from 0.1–2 mg daily, B{{ssub|12}} can be absorbed in a pathway that does not require an intact ileum or intrinsic factor. However, with the advent of sublingual and intranasal administration, tablet usage is becoming outdated. <ref>{{cite journal | author= Antoinette M. Kuzminski ''et al''| title= Effective Treatment of Cobalamin Deficiency With Oral Cobalamin| journal= Blood| year= 1998| volume= 92| issue= 4| pages= 1191-1198| id= PMID 9694707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | journal=Fam Pract | year=2006 | volume=23 | issue=3 | pages=279-85 | title=Oral vitamin B12 versus intramuscular vitamin B12 for vitamin B12 deficiency: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials | author=Butler CC, Vidal-Alaball J, Cannings-John R, ''et al.'' | id=PMID 16585128 }}</ref> Oral absorption is limited so regular intramuscular injections or sublingual/intranasal administration of a cobalamin (preferably methyl- or hydroxycobalamin) is necessary to restore systemic stores to physiological levels. Recent research indicates that sublingual administration eliminates a deficiency as well as injections (reference will be added) with the advantage of evading the allergy risk.

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Nutritional pathology}}

[[pl:Niedobór witaminy B12]]
[[pt:Deficiência de vitamina B12]]

Tea bag

2007-10-11T08:45:27Z

Recurring dreams: /* The practice */ fix

{{Refimprove|date=September 2007}}
{{wiktionary|teabagging}}
'''Teabagging''' is a [[slang]] term for the act of a man placing his [[testicle]]s, specifically the [[scrotum]], in the mouth<ref name="bedside"/> or face of another person, often in a repeated in-and-out motion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asktaco.com/qanda/view/qid-945?sessionid=17141a28e8ff5edfb1835be8bb4eba2e|title=Ask Taco: What is teabagging?|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> The practice vaguely resembles dipping a [[tea bag]] into a cup of [[tea]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sexdictionary.info/teabagging.html|title=SexDictionary.info: Tea bagging|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jackandhisbeanstalk.com/guide-to-sex/what-is-teabagging.htm|title=Jack and his Bean Stalk: What is Teabagging?|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=teabagging|title=Urban Dictionary: teabagging|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref><ref name=teen>{{cite web|url=http://www.teenwire.com/ask/2004/as-20040303p747-teabag.php|title=TeenWire: Ask the Experts - What is Teabagging?|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> and can be combined with [[facesitting]].

It is a relatively [[safe sex|safe]] sexual act, and the risk of [[sexually transmitted diseases]] being spread as a result of teabagging is minimal.<ref name=teen/> However, along with other acts (such as the "[[turkey (bird)|turkey]] slap", in which the [[penis]] is used instead of the testicles) involving the placing of the genitals in the general face area, it is often done more for the purpose of [[humiliation]] and [[degradation]] than for sexual gratification, and in this way is distinct from [[oral sex]] in general.{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

==The practice==
The practice of teabagging can extend not only from dipping one's penis into the mouth of another individual, but also to placing the scrotum into someone's [[eye socket]]s or [[nose]], often as a [[punishment]] for their [[drunkenness]], especially when carried out while the other person is [[unconscious]], known colloquially as '''Russian goggles'''.<ref>[http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=russian+goggles Urban Dictionary: russian goggles]</ref> When carried out as a [[prank]], it can be a [[crime]] as a form of [[sexual assault]], which has led to at least one arrest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digg.com/offbeat_news/North_Idaho_band_students_arrested_for_teabagging_prank|title=Digg.com -Band Students Arrested for Teabagging|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> An example of such teabagging is shown in the movie ''[[Pecker (film)|Pecker]]'' by [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reviews.media-culture.org.au/screens/pecker.html|title=Taking the Piss: John Waters' "Pecker"|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref><ref name=rot>[http://www.rotten.com/library/sex/teabagging/ Rotten.com: Teabagging]</ref><ref>''Filthy: The John Waters Phenomenon'', [[Robert L. Pela]]. Page 202. ISBN 1-55583-625-9.</ref> which showed a male [[stripper]] repeatedly striking a man's forehead, and purportedly introduced the practice of teabagging to a wider audience.<ref name=rot/>

It has also been reported as a practice in [[hazing]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legalreader.com/archives/003197.html|title=Legal Reader: Definition of Teabagging|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> among athletic teams. This is described in an article by Robert DeKoven from ''[[Gay and Lesbian Times]]''.<ref>[http://www.gaylesbiantimes.com/?id=6927&issue=950 "Is forcible ‘tea-bagging’ just hazing?"], 9 March 2006</ref>

{{Cquote|One such story involved what school officials termed a hazing incident, which involved three varsity wrestlers and three coaches at ... High School near Chicago. The school suspended the wrestlers and coaches for a hazing incident that involved the “tea-bagging” of several freshman wrestlers.
Cyd Zeigler Jr. reports that the incident occurred on a bus trip home last year on Dec. 1. ... According to the Daily Southtown, the three varsity wrestlers pulled freshmen, one by one, to the back of the bus. There, two of the boys held each boy down as the third boy shoved his testicles in the freshman’s face.}}

==In the media==
===''Big Brother Australia''===
''[[Big Brother Australia 2006]]'' was thrown into controversy when two housemates, [[List of Big Brother Australia housemates (2006 series)#Ashley|Michael "Ashley" Cox]] and [[List of Big Brother Australia housemates (2006 series)#John|Michael "John" Bric]] were removed from the house after performing a turkey slap<ref name=dunc>{{cite web|url=http://www.duncanriley.com/2006/07/03/big-brother-turkey-slap-transcript/|title=Duncan Riley: Turkey Slap Transcript|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> on female housemate [[List of Big Brother Australia housemates (2006 series)#Camilla|Camilla Halliwell]].

On the [[July 6]] [[2006]] episode of the [[Australian Football League|AFL]] ''[[The Footy Show|Footy Show]]'', the opening skit parodied the ''Big Brother'' incident, with [[Sam Newman]] depicted in the house, lying on a bed, with [[James Brayshaw]]. Newman exclaimed, "You're not going to turkey slap me are you?", at which point Brayshaw unleashed a frozen turkey and slapped Newman across the face. A skit on the [[July 7]] [[2006]] episode of ''[[The Chaser's War on Everything]]'' featured co-host [[Julian Morrow]] asking people what they thought of "turkey slapping," and then presented them with an actual frozen turkey to slap. This episode was replayed on [[August 1]], [[2007]] as part of the 10 week repeats for the show.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mpegmedia.abc.net.au/tv/chaser/war/int/vodcast/chaser_2007_06R_int.wmv|title="The Chaser's War on Everything" Web Podcast (S02 EP06R)|accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref>

===Video games===
Teabagging has become a taunt in most [[online]] [[multiplayer]] [[first-person shooter]] video games, such as ''[[Halo: Combat Evolved]]'',''[[Call of Duty 3]]'', ''[[Halo 2]]'', ''[[Battlefield (video game series)|Battlefield]]'', ''[[Medal of Honor]]'', where a type of crouching movement can be used. Also known as "'''corpse-humping''',"{{Fact|date=September 2007}} the 'teabag' is performed by repeatedly crouching over the face/body of a deceased player to simulate the inserting of the scrotum into the dead player's mouth. Many games delay the [[spawning (computer gaming)|respawning]] of a killed player for a few seconds after death, allowing ample time for the victor to use this technique to frustrate his or her opponent. Various forum threads have been written to describe the etiquette of teabagging a downed opponent. Most commonly, teabagging is used as a form of revenge on an opponent.

In the game Halo 3, this act of "teabagging" is glorified even moreso than the two prior Halo video games. New physics have been added, so that as a player "teabags" another player that he or she has killed; the dead body moves as it is "humped" and/or mêléed by that player. The option for a dead player to move the camera after they are killed gives the player more visibility while they are being "teabagged".

===Miscellaneous===
*After numerous arrests for underage drinking at his concert, [[John Mayer]] jokingly threatened to teabag passed out concert goers in his blog:
*:"If I happen to be walking backstage and I see any of you young men passed out drunk on a stretcher, make no mistake about it, you will come-to in front of your disappointed parents with a face full of Sharpie and the sneaking suspicion that you've been teabagged by one of Time Magazine's 100 most influential people of 2007."<ref>http://www.johnmayer.com/blog#381</ref>
*In 2002, a news report told the story of a teenage boy who had been teabagged by some of his peers, and how the incident left him subsequently afraid to leave the house.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifilm.com/video/2755572/collection/3603/channel/collections|title=IFilm.com - "Life Ruined By Teabagging"|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref><ref name=rot/>
*On the television series ''[[Sex and the City]]'', [[Samantha Jones]], played by [[Kim Cattrall]], explained the practice of teabagging to her friends quite blatantly and loudly in a crowded restaurant in the episode "[[A Woman's Right to Shoes]]".<ref name=bedside>''The Bedside Orgasm Book: 365 Days of Sexual Ecstasy'', [[Cynthia W. Gentry]], 2004. Page 293. ISBN 1-59233-101-7.</ref>
*When [[Robert Knepper]], whose character on ''[[Prison Break]]'' is nicknamed [[Theodore "T-Bag" Bagwell|T-Bag]], appeared on ''[[Live with Regis and Kelly]]'' on [[30 January]] [[2007]] he began to recount how he learned what the name meant only to be cut off by an obviously uncomfortable [[Kelly Ripa]] who quickly threw to a commercial break.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1FtKtnxi_gQ |title=Prison Break Star Tries to Explain Tea-bagging|accessdate=2007-10-10}}</ref>
*Rapper [[Ludacris]] has a [[skit]] on his ''[[Chicken & Beer]]'' album called "T Baggin'". It is a parody of phone messages asking the dialer to press a number for a service. It says: "If you woke up with a hangover and a pair of hairy balls on your forehead, press 7". Number 7 is pressed, and the phone message says, "You've been victimized and introduced to a moral crime known as "teabaggin'". We suggest that you probably hang up the phone, beat the ass of any [[White people|white guys]] you hung out with last night and find and destroy all photos before they appear on the [[Internet]]. Thank you for calling. Goodbye! Good luck!"{{Fact|date=September 2007}}

==Other uses==
*In [[windsurfing]] and other [[watersports]], an individual is "teabagged" when they fall beneath the water of a choppy wave.<ref name=rot/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{external links}}
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/sex/teabagging/ Teabagging] in the [[Rotten Library]].
*[http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=teabagging Teabagging] on [[Urban Dictionary]].
*[http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=turkey+slap Turkey slap] on [[Urban Dictionary]].
*[http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=51183&lastnode_id=694774 Tea bag] on [[Everything2]].

[[Category:Oral eroticism]]
[[Category:Practical jokes]]
[[Category:Sexual acts]]
[[Category:Sexual fetishism]]
[[Category:Sexual slang]]
[[Category:Male reproductive system]]

[[cs:Teabagging]]
[[pl:Teabagging]]

Fight Club (Roman)

2007-09-26T13:37:26Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 1 edit by 163.153.186.125 identified as vandalism to last revision by ShelfSkewed. using TW

: ''This is about the novel. For the film, see [[Fight Club (film)]]. For other uses, see [[Fight Club (disambiguation)]].''
{{infobox Book | 
| name = Fight Club
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Fightclubcvr.jpg|200px]]
| image_caption = First edition cover
| author = [[Chuck Palahniuk]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist = Jacket design by Michael Ian Kaye<br>Photograph by Melissa Hayden<br>Soap by Proverbial Inc.
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Novel]]
| publisher = [[W. W. Norton & Company]]
| release_date = August 1996
| english_release_date =
| media_type = Print ([[hardcover]], [[paperback]], & library binding) & audio cassette
| pages = 208 pp (first edition, hardcover)
| isbn = ISBN 0-393-03976-5 (first edition, hardcover)
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}
'''''Fight Club'''''<ref name="lowercase">Throughout the novel, Palahniuk writes the name of the club in [[lowercase]]. The only occurrence of "Fight Club" as a proper noun is in the novel's title. Thus, all occurrences to "fight club" in this article refer to the fictional club, while all occurrences of "''Fight Club''" refer to the novel itself.</ref> (1996) is the first published [[novel]] by [[United States|America]]n [[author]] [[Chuck Palahniuk]]. The plot is based around an unnamed [[protagonist]] who struggles with his growing discomfort with [[consumerism]] and changes in the state of [[masculinity]] in [[American culture]]. In an attempt to overcome this, he creates an underground [[fighting]] club as a radical form of [[psychotherapy]]. It was made into a [[Fight Club (film)|movie of the same name]] in 1999 by director [[David Fincher]]. The movie became a pop culture phenomenon. In the wake of the film's popularity, the novel has become a target of criticism, mainly for its explicit depictions of [[Graphic violence|violence]].

==History==
When Palahniuk made his first attempt at publishing a novel (''[[Invisible Monsters]]'') publishers rejected it for being too disturbing. This led him to work on ''Fight Club'', which he wrote as an attempt to disturb the publishers even more for rejecting him. Palahniuk wrote this story while working as a diesel mechanic for [[Freightliner (truck)|Freightliner]]. After initially publishing it as a short story (which became chapter 6 of the novel) in the compilation ''Pursuit of Happiness'', Palahniuk expanded it into a full novel, which, contrary to what he expected, the publisher was willing to publish.<ref name="tomlinson">Tomlinson, Sarah. "[http://www.salon.com/ent/movies/int/1999/10/13/palahniuk/index.html Is it fistfighting, or just multi-tasking?]". ''Salon.com''. October 13, 1999.</ref> While the original, hardcover edition of the book received positive reviews and some awards, it had a short shelf life. Nevertheless, the book had made its way to [[Hollywood]], where interest in adapting it to film was growing. It was eventually adapted in 1999 by screenwriter Jim Uhls and director David Fincher. The film was a box office disappointment (although it was #1 at the U.S. box office in its first weekend and critical reaction was mostly favorable), but a [[Cult film|cult following]] soon emerged after the release of the film on DVD. As a result of the film, the original hardcover edition became a collector's item.<ref name="offman">Offman, Craig. "[http://archive.salon.com/books/log/1999/09/03/fight_club/ Movie makes "Fight Club" book a contender]". ''[[Salon.com]]''. September 3, 1999.</ref> This film is now popularly considered to be a an uncompromising critique of humanity's loss of identity through mass consumerism. Two paperback rereleases of the novel, one in 1999 and the other in 2004 (the latter of which begins with an introduction by the author about the conception and popularity of both the novel and the movie), were later made. This success helped launch Palahniuk's career as a popular [[novelist]], as well as establish a writing style that would appear in many of his future novels.

Despite popular belief, Palahniuk was not inspired to write the novel by any actual fight club. The club itself was based on a series of [[fight]]s that Palahniuk got into over previous years (most notably one that he got into during a [[camping]] trip).<ref name="jemielity">Jemielity, Sam. "[http://www.playboy.com/arts-entertainment/comversation/palahniuk/ Chuck Palahniuk:The Playboy.Comversation]". ''[[Playboy]].com''. Retrieved June 30, 2005.</ref> Even though he has mentioned this in many interviews, Palahniuk is still often approached by fans wanting to know where their local fight club takes place. Palahniuk insists that there is no real, singular organization like the one in his book. However, he does admit that some fans have mentioned to him that some fight clubs (albeit much smaller than the one in the novel) exist or previously existed (some having existed long before the novel was written). Also, in the introduction to the current edition of the novel, Palahniuk refers to a few of the many actual instances of mischief being carried out in the style of fight club, most notably, a "Waiter from one of London's two finest restaurants" alleging that he ejaculated into [[Margaret Thatcher|Margaret Thatcher's]] food on multiple occasions.

Many other events in the novel were also based on events that Palahniuk himself had experienced. The [[support groups]] that the narrator attends are based on support groups to which the author brought terminally ill people as part of a volunteer job he did for a local hospital. Project Mayhem is loosely based on the [[Cacophony Society]], of which Palahniuk is a member. Various events and characters are based on friends of the author. Other events came as a result of stories told to him by various people he had talked to.<ref name="palahniukstf228229">''Palahniuk (''Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories''), pp. 228–229.''</ref> This method of combining various stories from various people into novels has become a common way of writing novels for Palahniuk ever since.

Outside of Palahniuk's professional and personal life, the novel's impact has been felt elsewhere. Several individuals in various locations of the [[United States]] (and possibly in other countries), ranging from teenagers to people in technical careers, have set up their own fight clubs based on the one mentioned in the novel.<ref name="usatoday">"[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-05-29-fight-club_x.htm Fight club draws techies for bloody underground beatdowns]". ''[[Associated Press]]''. May 29, 2006.</ref> Some of Tyler's on-the-job pranks (such as food tampering) have been repeated by fans of the book (although these same pranks existed well before the novel was published). Palahniuk eventually documented this phenomenon in his essay "Monkey Think, Monkey Do",<ref name="palahniukstf212215">''Palahniuk (''Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories''), pp. 212–215.''</ref> which was published in his book ''[[Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories]]'', as well as in the introduction to the 2004 paperback edition of ''Fight Club''. Other fans of the book have been inspired to social activity as well; Palahniuk has claimed that fans tell him that they have been inspired to go back to college after reading the book.<ref name="tomlinson" />

Other than the film, a few other adaptations have been attempted. In 2004 ''Fight Club'' was in development as a [[musical theater|musical]], developed by Palahniuk, Fincher, and [[Trent Reznor]].<ref name="chang">Chang, Jade. "[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/collective/A2799633 tinseltown: fight club and fahrenheit]". ''[[BBC]].co.uk''. July 2, 2004.</ref> [[Brad Pitt]], who played the role of Tyler Durden in the film, expressed interest in being involved. A video game loosely based on the film was published by [[Vivendi Universal Games]] in 2004, receiving poor reviews from gaming critics (see [[Fight Club (video game)|''Fight Club'' (video game)]]).

==Plot summary==
The book centers on a nameless narrator who hates his job and his life. The narrator works for a car company, also unnamed, organizing [[product recall]]s on defective models if, and only if, a [[cost-benefit analysis]] shows that the cost of the [[product recall|recall]] is less than the cost of [[out-of-court settlement]]s paid to relatives of the deceased (which parallels the [[1970s]] story of the [[Ford Pinto#Safety problems|Ford Pinto's safety problems and recall]]). At the same time, he is becoming disenchanted with the "nesting instinct"<ref name="palahniukfc43">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 43.''</ref> of consumerism that has absorbed his life, forcing him to define himself by the furniture, clothes, and other material things that he owns. This dissatisfaction, combined with his frequent business trips across multiple time zones, disturb him to the point that he suffers from chronic [[insomnia]].

At the recommendation of his physician (who does not consider his insomnia to be a serious ailment), the narrator goes to a support group for men with [[testicular cancer]] to "see what real suffering is like". After finding that crying at these support groups and listening to emotional outpourings from the suffering allows him to sleep at night, he becomes dependent on them. At the same time, he befriends a cancer victim named Bob. Although he does not really suffer from any of the ailments that the other attendants have, he is never caught being a "tourist" until he meets Marla Singer, a woman who also attends support groups for alternative reasons. Her presence reflects the narrator's "tourism", and only reminds him that he doesn't belong at the support groups. He begins to hate Marla for keeping him from crying, and therefore from sleeping. After a short confrontation, they begin going to separate support groups in order to avoid meeting again.

Shortly before this incident, his life changes radically upon meeting Tyler Durden, a beach artist who works low-paying jobs at night in order to perform deviant behavior on the job. After his confrontation with Marla, the narrator's condo is destroyed by an explosion and he asks Tyler if he can stay at his house. Tyler agrees, but asks for something in return, in a now-famous line: "I want you to hit me as hard as you can."<ref name="palahniukfc46">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 46.''</ref> The resulting fight in a bar's parking lot attracts more disenchanted males, and a new form of support group, the first "Fight Club," is born. The fight club becomes a new type of therapy through [[bare-knuckle]] fighting, controlled by a set of rules:


{{quotation|
#You don't talk about fight club.
#You don't talk about fight club.<ref name="2rules">The first rules of both fight club and Project Mayhem are repeated for emphasis. Fans of the novel and the film have latched on to the first two rules of fight club as a [[meme]] and have made it into a [[catchphrase]] (although slightly changed to "you do not talk about fight club", based on the variation in the film).</ref>
#When someone says stop, or goes limp, even if he's just faking it, the fight is over.<ref name="lostrule">Shortly after the third rule is introduced, it is dropped from the club and the other rules move up one numbered position. It is mentioned by the narrator the first time he states the rules, but it is not mentioned by Tyler when he states them. Tyler also adds the eighth rule, which becomes the seventh rule in his version of the rule set.This may have been the result of a [[continuity error]], though it is also possible that Tyler changed the rules to allow the narrator to break the third rule later in the novel. ''Palahniuk (1999), pp. 49–50.''</ref>
#Only two guys to a fight.
#One fight at a time.
#They fight without shirts or shoes.
#The fights go on as long as they have to.
#If this is your first night at fight club, you have to fight.|''Fight Club''|pages 48-50<ref name="palahniukfc4850">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), pp. 48–50.''</ref>}}

Later in the book the mechanic tells the narrator two new rules to fight club. The first new rule is that nobody is the center of fight club except for the two men fighting. The second new rule is that fight club will always be free.

Meanwhile, Tyler rescues Marla from a suicide attempt and the two initiate an affair that confounds the narrator. Throughout this affair, Marla is mostly unaware of the existence of fight club, and completely unaware of Tyler and the narrator's interaction with one another.<ref name="tylermarla">Because Tyler and Marla are never seen at the same time, the narrator wonders if Tyler and Marla are the same person. This foreshadows the later revelation of Tyler and the narrator being the same person. Palahniuk may have also meant for this detail to be a [[red herring (plot device)|red herring]]. ''Palahniuk (1999), p. 65.''</ref>

As the fight club's membership grows (and, unbeknownst to the narrator, spreads to other cities across the country), Tyler begins to use it to spread anti-consumerist ideas and recruits its members to participate in increasingly elaborate attacks on [[corporate America]]. This was originally the narrator's idea, but Tyler takes control from him. Tyler eventually gathers the most devoted fight club members (referred to as "[[Monkeys in space|space monkey]]s") and forms "Project Mayhem", a [[cult]]-like organization that trains itself as an army to bring down modern civilization. This organization, like the fight club, is controlled by a set of rules:


{{quotation|
#You don't ask questions.
#You don't ask questions.
#No excuses.
#No lies.
#You have to trust Tyler.|''Fight Club''|pages 119, 122, 125<ref name="palahniukfc119122125">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), pp. 119, 122 & 125.''</ref>}}

The narrator starts off as a loyal participant in Project Mayhem, seeing it as the next step for fight club. However, he becomes uncomfortable with the increasing destructiveness of their activities after it results in the death of Bob.

As the narrator endeavors to stop Tyler and his followers, [[anagnorisis|he learns]] that he ''is'' Tyler;<ref name="unreliable">The narrator's inability to explain Tyler's existence earlier on in the story is a classic example of an [[unreliable narrator]].</ref> Tyler is not a separate person, but a [[Dissociative identity disorder|separate personality]]. As the narrator struggled with his hatred for his job and his consumerist lifestyle, his mind began to form a new personality that was able to escape from the problems of his normal life. The final straw came when he met Marla; Tyler was truly born as a distinct personality when the narrator's unconscious desire for Marla clashed with his conscious hatred for her. Having come to the surface, Tyler's personality has been slowly taking over the narrator's mind, which he planned to take over completely by making the narrator's real personality more like his. The narrator's bouts of insomnia had actually been Tyler's personality surfacing; Tyler would be active whenever the narrator was "sleeping". This allowed Tyler to manipulate the narrator into helping him create fight club; Tyler learned recipes for creating explosives when he was in control, and used this knowledge to blow up his own condo.

The narrator also learns that Tyler plans to blow up the Parker-Morris building (the fictional "tallest building in the world") in the downtown area of the city using [[homemade bomb]]s created by Project Mayhem. The actual reason for the explosion is to destroy the nearby national museum. During the explosion, Tyler plans to die as a [[martyr]] for Project Mayhem, taking the narrator's life as well. Realizing this, the narrator sets out to stop Tyler, although Tyler is always thinking ahead of him. In his attempts to stop Tyler, he makes peace with Marla (who always knew the narrator as Tyler) and explains to her that he is not Tyler Durden. The narrator is eventually forced to confront Tyler on the roof of the building. The narrator is held captive at gunpoint by Tyler, forced to watch the destruction wrought on the museum by Project Mayhem. Marla comes to the roof with one of the support groups. Tyler vanishes, because “Tyler was ''his'' hallucination, not hers.” <ref name="palahniukfc195">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 195.''</ref>

With Tyler gone, the narrator waits for the bomb to explode and kill him. However, the bomb malfunctions because Tyler mixed paraffin into the explosives, which the narrator said early in the book "has never, ever worked for me." Still alive and holding the gun that Tyler used to carry on him, the narrator decides to make the first decision that is truly his own: he puts the gun in his mouth and shoots himself. Some time later, he awakens in a mental institution, believing that he is dead and has gone to heaven. The book ends with members of Project Mayhem who work at the institution telling the narrator that their plans still continue, and that they are expecting Tyler to come back.

==Characters in ''Fight Club''==
; Narrator : Some fans of the film refer to the narrator as "Jack", which is in reference to a scene in which he reads stories written from the perspective of a man's organs (e.g. "Jack's [[medulla oblongata]]"); the protagonists' lines in the official movie script also use the name "Jack" to denote them. Furthermore, a number of props from the film (such as a paycheck for the narrator) have the name "Jack Moore" on them, indicating that members of the film's crew also thought the narrator's name was Jack. Palahniuk himself refers to the narrator as "Jack" in the commentary for the 1999 film version of ''Fight Club.'' The name "Jack" was "Joe" in the novel, which was changed in the film to avoid conflicts with ''[[Reader's Digest]]'' over the use of the name (the articles read by the narrator were featured in the magazine). The narrator of ''Fight Club'' set a precedent for the protagonists of later novels by Palahniuk, especially in the case of male protagonists, as they often shared his anti-heroic and [[transgressional fiction|transgressive]] behavior.
; Tyler Durden : A [[Neo-luddism|neo-luddite]], [[Nihilism|nihilist]], [[Anarcho-primitivist]] with a strong hatred for consumer culture. "Because of his nature"<ref name="palahniukfc25">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 25.''</ref>, Tyler works night jobs where he causes problems for the companies; he also makes soap to supplement his income and create the ingredients for his bomb making which will be put to work later with his fight club. He is the co-founder of fight club (it was his idea to have the fight that led to it). He later launches Project Mayhem, from which he and the members make various attacks on consumerism. Tyler is blond, as by the narrator's comment "in his everything-blond way." The unhinged but magnetic Tyler could also be considered an antihero (especially since he and the narrator are technically the same person), although he becomes the [[antagonist]] of the novel later in the story. Few characters like Tyler have appeared in later novels by Palahniuk, though the character of Oyster from ''[[Lullaby (novel)|Lullaby]]'' shares many similarities.
; Marla Singer : A woman that the narrator meets during a support group. The narrator no longer receives the same release from the groups when he realizes Marla is faking her problems just like he is. After he leaves the groups, he meets her again when she meets Tyler and becomes his lover. She is a [[nymphomaniac]], and she shares many of Tyler's thoughts on consumer culture. In later novels by Palahniuk in which the protagonist is male, a female character similar to Marla has also appeared. Marla and these other female characters have helped Palahniuk to add romantic themes into his novels.
; Robert "Bob" Paulson : A man that the narrator meets at a support group for [[testicular cancer]]. A former [[bodybuilding|bodybuilder]], Bob lost his testicles to cancer caused by the [[steroids]] he used to bulk up his muscles, and had to undergo testosterone injections; this resulted in his body increasing its [[estrogen]], causing him to grow large [[breasts]] ([[Gynecomastia]]) ("Bitch-tits") and develop a softer voice. The narrator befriends Bob and, after leaving the groups, meets him again in fight club. Bob's death later in the story while carrying out an assignment for Project Mayhem causes the narrator to turn against Tyler, because the members of Project Mayhem treat it as a trivial matter instead of a tragedy. When the narrator explains that the dead man had a name and was a real person, a member of Project Mayhem points out that only in death do members of Project Mayhem have a name. The unnamed member begins chanting, "his name was Robert Paulson", and this phrase becomes a [[meme]] and mantra that the narrator encounters later on in the story multiple times. This differs from the book which only states that people in other fight clubs were chanting "Robert Paulson" for the same reason as mentioned above. When the narrator goes to a fight club to shut it down for this reason, Tyler orders them to make him a "homework assignment".

==Motifs==
At two points in the novel, the narrator claims he wants to "wipe [his] ass with the ''[[Mona Lisa]]''"; a mechanic who joins fight club also repeats this to him in one scene.<ref name="palahniukfc124141200">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), pp. 124, 141 & 200.''</ref> This [[motif (literature)|motif]] shows his desire for chaos, later explicitly expressed in his urge to "destroy something beautiful". Additionally, he mentions at one point that "Nothing is static. Even the ''Mona Lisa'' is falling apart."<ref name="palahniukfc49">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 49.''</ref> University of Calgary literary scholar Paul Kennett claims that this want for chaos is a result of an [[Oedipus complex]], as the narrator, Tyler, and the mechanic all show disdain for their fathers.<ref name="kennett5051">''Kennett, pp. 50–51.''</ref> This is most explicitly stated in the scene that the mechanic appears in:

{{quotation|
The mechanic says, “If you’re male and you’re Christian and living in America, your father is your model for God. And if you never know your father, if your father bails out or dies or is never at home, what do you believe about God?<br>
...<br>
How Tyler saw it was that getting God’s attention for being bad was better than getting no attention at all. Maybe because God’s hate is better than His indifference.<br>
If you could be either God’s worst enemy or nothing, which would you choose?<br>
We are God’s middle children, according to Tyler Durden, with no special place in history and no special attention.<br>
Unless we get God’s attention, we have no hope of damnation or redemption.<br>
Which is worse, hell or nothing?<br>
Only if we’re caught and punished can we be saved.<br>
“Burn the [[Louvre]],” the mechanic says, “and wipe your ass with the Mona Lisa. This way at least, God would know our names.”|''Fight Club''|page 141<ref name="palahniukfc141">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 141.''</ref>}}

Kennett further argues that Tyler wants to use this chaos to change history so that "God’s middle children" will have some historical significance, whether or not this significance is "damnation or redemption".<ref name="kennett5152">''Kennett, pp. 51–52.''</ref> This will figuratively return their absent fathers, as judgement by future generations will replace judgement by their fathers.

After reading stories written from the perspective of the organs of a man named Joe, the narrator begins using similar quotations to describe his feelings, often replacing organs with feelings and things involved in his life.

The narrator often repeats the line "I know this because Tyler knows this." This is used to [[foreshadowing|foreshadow]] the novel's major plot twist in which Tyler is revealed to be the same person as the narrator.

The color [[cornflower blue]] first appears as the color of an icon on the narrator's boss's computer.<ref name="palahniukfc49" /> Later, it is mentioned that his boss has eyes of the same color.<ref name="palahniukfc98">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 98.''</ref> These mentions of the color are the first of many uses of cornflower blue in Palahniuk's books, which all feature the color at some point in the text.

The theme of masculinity is also a motif throughout the book. Different symbols lead to this reoccurring theme, such as violence, and testes. Fighting is perceived as a masculine characteristic.

==Subtext==
Throughout the novel, Palahniuk uses the narrator and Tyler to comment on how people in modern society try to find meaning in their lives through commercial culture. Several lines in the novel make reference to this lifestyle as meaningless. Usually Palahniuk delivers this through overt methods, but there are also some allegorical references as well; for instance, the narrator, upon looking at the contents of his refrigerator, notices he has "a house full of condiments and no food."<ref name="palahniukfc45">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 45.''</ref> This also denotes that modern society and consumerism has no substance, but is merely based upon making things appear to have substance; i.e condiments are not a main food source, they merely add flavor to existing food. Indulging in consumerism(shopping, like from the Ikea book) doesn't add any real substance to life, it only adds an appearance(like a condiment).

Additionally, much of the novel comments on how many men in modern society have found dissatisfaction with the state of masculinity as it currently exists. The characters of the novel lament the fact that many of them were raised by their mothers because their fathers either abandoned their family or divorced their mothers. As a result, they see themselves as being "a generation of men raised by women,"<ref name="palahniukfc50">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 50.''</ref> being without a male role model in their lives to help shape their masculinity. This ties in with the anti-consumer culture theme, as the men in the novel see their "[[IKEA]] nesting instinct" as resulting from the feminization of men in a matriarchal culture.

Maryville University of St. Louis professor Jesse Kavadlo, in an issue of the literary journal ''Stirrings Still'', claimed that the narrator's opposition to emasculation is a form of projection, and that the problem that he fights is himself.<ref name="kavadlo5">''Kavadlo, p. 5.''</ref> He also claims that Palahniuk uses [[existentialism]] in the novel to conceal subtexts of [[feminism]] and romance in order to convey these concepts in a novel that is mainly aimed at a male audience.<ref name="kavadlo7">''Kavadlo, p. 7.''</ref>

Palahniuk himself gives a much simpler assertion about the theme of the novel, stating "all my books are about a lonely person looking for some way to connect with other people."<ref name="palahniukstfxv">''Palahniuk (''Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories''), p. xv.''</ref>

Paul Kennett claims that, because the narrator's fights with Tyler are fights with himself, and because he fights himself in front of his boss at the hotel, the narrator is using the fights as a way of asserting himself as his own boss. He argues that these fights are a representation of the struggle of the [[Proletariat|proletarian]] at the hands of a higher capitalist power, and by asserting himself as capable of having the same power he thus becomes his own master. Later, when fight club is formed, the participants are all dressed and groomed similarly, thus allowing them to symbolically fight themselves at the club and gain the same power.<ref name="kennett5354">''Kennett, pp. 53–54.''</ref>

Afterwards, Kennett says, Tyler becomes nostalgic for patriarchical power controlling him, and creates Project Mayhem to achieve this. Through this proto-fascist power structure, the narrator seeks to learn "what, or rather, who, he might have been under a firm patriarchy."<ref name="kennett55">''Kennett, p. 55.''</ref> Through his position as leader of Project Mayhem, Tyler uses his power to become a "God/Father" to the "space monkeys", who are the other members of Project Mayhem (although by the end of the novel his words hold more power than he does, as is evident in the space monkeys' threat to castrate the narrator when he contradicts Tyler's rule). According to Kennett, this creates a paradox in that Tyler pushes the idea that men who wish to be free from a controlling father-figure are only [[self-actualization|self-actualized]] once they have children and become a father themselves.<ref name="kennett56">''Kennett, p. 56.''</ref> This new structure is, however, ended by the narrator's elimination of Tyler, allowing him to decide for himself how to determine his freedom.

==Literary criticism==
Many critics have claimed there are [[homoerotic]] elements in ''Fight Club''. Amongst these were David
Denby of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and Laura Miller of ''[[Salon.com]]''.<ref name="kavadlo6">''Kavadlo, p. 6.''</ref> Additionally, Robert Alan Brookey and Robert Westerfelhaus published ''Hiding Homoeroticism in Plain View: The Fight Club DVD as Digital Closet'' to make similar claims.<ref name="brookeywestfelhaus">Brookey, Robert Alan & Westerfelhaus, Robert. "Hiding Homoeroticism in Plain View: The Fight Club DVD as Digital Closet". ''Critical Studies in Media Communication''. March 2002.</ref>

==Awards==
The novel won the following awards:
*the 1997 Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Award<ref name="pnba">Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Awards. http://www.pnba.org/awards.htm. Retrieved June 20, 2005.</ref>
*the 1997 Oregon Book Award for Best Novel<ref name="oba">[http://www.literary-arts.org/oba_poetry.htm#fiction Oregon Book Awards]. Literary Arts, Inc. Retrieved June 20, 2005.</ref>

==U.S. editions==
*New York: [[W. W. Norton & Company]], August 1996. [[Hardcover]] first edition. ISBN 0-393-03976-5
*New York: [[Henry Holt|Owl Books]], 1997. First [[Paperback#Trade paperback|trade paperback]]. ISBN 0-8050-5437-5
*New York: Owl Books, 1999. Trade paperback reissue (film tie-in cover). ISBN 0-8050-6297-1
*Minneapolis, MN: HighBridge Company, 1999. Unabridged [[audiobook]] on 4 cassettes, read by [[J. Todd Adams]]. ISBN 1-56511-330-6
*Minneapolis, MN: Tandem Books, 1999. School & library binding. ISBN 0-613-91882-7
*New York: Owl Books, 2004. Trade paperback reissue, with a new introduction by the author (bloody lip cover). ISBN 0-8050-7647-6
*New York: Owl Books, 2004. Trade paperback reissue, with a new introduction by the author (film tie-in cover). ISBN 0-8050-7655-7
*New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. Trade paperback (fist cover). ISBN 0-393-32734-5

==See also==
* [[1996 in literature]]
* [[Anarcho-primitivism]]
* [[Generation X]]
* [[Neo-luddism]]
* [[Transgressional fiction]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
*Avni, Sheerly. "[http://www.alternet.org/mediaculture/24026/ Ten Hollywood Movies That Get Women Right]". ''[[AlterNet]]''. August 12, 2005.
*Brookey, Robert Alan & Westerfelhaus, Robert. "Hiding Homoeroticism in Plain View: The Fight Club DVD as Digital Closet". ''Critical Studies in Media Communication''. March 2002.
*Chang, Jade. "[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/collective/A2799633 tinseltown: fight club and fahrenheit]". ''[[BBC]].co.uk''. July 2, 2004.
*"[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-05-29-fight-club_x.htm Fight club draws techies for bloody underground beatdowns]". ''[[Associated Press]]''. May 29, 2006.
*Jemielity, Sam. "[http://www.playboy.com/arts-entertainment/dotcomversation/palahniuk/index.html Chuck Palahniuk:The Playboy.Conversation]". ''[[Playboy]].com''. Retrieved September 28, 2006.
*Kavadlo, Jesse. "The Fiction of Self-destruction: Chuck Palahniuk, Closet Moralist". ''Stirrings Still: The International Journal of Existential Literature''. Volume 2, Number 2. Fall/Winter 2005. [http://www.stirrings-still.org/ss22.pdf PDF link]
*Kennett, Paul. "Fight Club and the Dangers of Oedipal Obsession". ''Stirrings Still: The International Journal of Existential Literature''. Volume 2, Number 2. Fall/Winter 2005. [http://www.stirrings-still.org/ss22.pdf PDF link]
*Offman, Craig. "[http://archive.salon.com/books/log/1999/09/03/fight_club/ Movie makes "Fight Club" book a contender]". ''[[Salon.com]]''. September 3, 1999.
*[http://www.literary-arts.org/oba_poetry.htm#fiction Oregon Book Awards]. Literary Arts, Inc. Retrieved June 20, 2005.
*Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Awards. http://www.pnba.org/awards.htm. Retrieved June 20, 2005.
*Palahniuk, Chuck. ''Stranger Than Fiction : True Stories''. Garden City: [[Doubleday]], 2004. ISBN 0-385-50448-9
*Straus, Tamara. "[http://www.alternet.org/story/11049/ The Unexpected Romantic: An Interview with Chuck Palahniuk]". ''AlterNet''. June 19, 2001.
*Tomlinson, Sarah. "[http://www.salon.com/ent/movies/int/1999/10/13/palahniuk/index.html Is it fistfighting, or just multi-tasking?]". ''Salon.com''. October 13, 1999.
In addition, the following editions of the novel were used as references for this article:
*Palahniuk, Chuck. ''Fight Club''. New York: Henry Holt, 1997. ISBN 0-8050-6297-1
*Palahniuk, Chuck. ''Fight Club''. Clearwater: Owl Books, 2004. ISBN 0-8050-7647-6

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.chuckpalahniuk.net/books/fightclub/ Chuck Palahniuk.Net section for ''Fight Club'']
*[http://www.chuckpalahniuk.net/downloads/audio/bumbershoot_portland_fightclub_audioreading.mp3 Audio recording of Chuck Palahniuk reading Chapter 6 of ''Fight Club'']

{{ChuckPalahniuk}}

[[Category:Fight Club| {{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:1996 novels]]
[[Category:American novels]]
[[Category:American short stories]]
[[Category:Books by Chuck Palahniuk]]
[[Category:Fictional clubs]]
[[Category:Debut novels]]
[[Category:Postmodern literature]]
[[Category:Existentialist works]]
[[Category:Satirical books]]
[[Category:Cacophony Society]]
[[Category:Fiction with unreliable narrators]]
[[Category:Philosophical films]]

[[ar:نادي القتال (رواية)]]
[[da:Fight Club (roman)]]
[[de:Fight Club]]
[[es:El club de lucha]]
[[fr:Fight Club (roman)]]
[[he:מועדון קרב]]
[[it:Fight Club (romanzo)]]
[[ja:ファイト・クラブ]]
[[no:Fight Club]]
[[pl:Podziemny krąg]]
[[uk:Бійцівський клуб (роман)]]
[[ru:Бойцовский клуб (роман)]]
[[tr:Fight Club]]

Jenny Macklin

2007-09-22T04:08:37Z

Recurring dreams: remove unsourced, irrelevant statement

{{Infobox_Politician
| name =Jenny Macklin
| image =jennymacklin.JPG|200px
| caption =
| birth_date ={{Birth date and age|1953|9|29|df=y}}
| birth_place =[[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]], [[Australia]]
| residence =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = Deputy Leader of the <br>Australian Labor Party
| salary =
| term_start = [[2001]]
| term_end = [[December]] [[1]], [[2006]]
| predecessor =
| successor = [[Julia Gillard]]
| party = [[Australian Labor Party]]
| religion =
| constituency = [[Division of Jagajaga]]
| majority =
| spouse =
| children =
| website = [http://www.jennymacklin.com Official site]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Jennifer Louise Macklin''' (born [[29 December]] [[1953]]), is an [[Australia]]n politician. She has been a member of the [[Australian House of Representatives]] since March [[1996]], representing the [[Division of Jagajaga]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]].

Born in [[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]], Macklin grew up in country Victoria. She spent time in [[Japan]] as a student before graduating from the [[University of Melbourne]] with an honours degree in [[economics]]. A [[Marxist]] in her youth, she is a member of the [[Socialist Left]] [[political faction|faction]] of the Labor Party.

Macklin was a researcher at the [[Australian National University]] in [[1976]]-[[1978|78]], an economics research specialist with the Parliamentary Library in [[Canberra]] [[1978]]-[[1981|81]], Research Coordinator at the Labour Resource Centre in [[Melbourne]] [[1981]]-[[1985|85]], an adviser to the Victorian Minister for Health [[1985]]-[[1988|88]], director of the federal government's National Health Strategy [[1990]]-[[1993|93]] and director of the Australian Urban and Regional Development Review [[1993]]-[[1995|95]]. She is one of the federal Parliament's most highly qualified members on matters of social policy.

On her election to Parliament Macklin was immediately elected a member of the Opposition Shadow Cabinet, where she served in a number of roles, including Shadow Minister for Aged Care, Social Security and the Status of Women. After the [[Australian legislative election, 1998|1998 election]], Macklin became Shadow Minister for Health.

After the ALP's defeat at the [[Australian legislative election, 2001|2001 election]], Macklin was elected Deputy Leader to [[Simon Crean]]. She was the first woman to hold a leadership position in either Australian major party. She took on the position of Shadow Minister for Education. Following Crean's replacement as leader by [[Mark Latham]] in December [[2003]], and Latham's subsequent resignation in January [[2005]], Macklin retained her position. Remaining as deputy leader under [[Kim Beazley]], Macklin became the first person to be deputy to three leaders of the ALP since [[Frank Forde]]. She is currently Shadow Minister for Families and Community Services, Indigenous Affairs and Reconciliation.

On 1 December 2006, Macklin's position as deputy leader of the [[Australian Labor Party]] came under threat after Kim Beazley called for a spill of all the leadership positions in a bid to end growing speculation over the issue. Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade, [[Kevin Rudd]], and Shadow Minister for Health, [[Julia Gillard]], announced their intentions to run against Beazley and Macklin as a team for the positions of leader and deputy leader respectively of the party. On the day of the ballot, Macklin effectively stepped down from the position, choosing not to contest the deputy leadership after [[Kevin Rudd]] was elected as the new party leader.

==References==
{{Refimprove|date=August 2007}}

==External links==

* [http://www.jennymacklin.com Official site]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=Deputy Leader of the<br>[[Australian Labor Party]] | before=[[Simon Crean]] | after=[[Julia Gillard]] | years=2001–2006}}
{{end box}}
{{AustraliaCurrentMPsVic}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macklin, Jenny}}
[[Category:1953 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Australian Labor Party politicians]]
[[Category:Federal politicians from Victoria]]
[[Category:Members of the Australian House of Representatives for Jagajaga]]

[[fr:Jenny Macklin]]

Squam Lake

2007-09-14T12:21:29Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 4 edits by 64.115.154.99 identified as vandalism to last revision by Docu. using TW

{{Infobox lake
| lake_name = Squam Lake
| image_lake = SquamLake.JPG
| caption_lake = View of Squam Lake from East Rattlesnake
| image_bathymetry =
| caption_bathymetry =
| location = [[Grafton County, New Hampshire|Grafton County]], [[Carroll County, New Hampshire|Carroll County]], and [[Belknap County, New Hampshire]]
| coords = {{coor at dms|43|44|43|N|71|31|34|W|type:waterbody_region:US}}
| type =
| inflow =
| outflow = [[Squam River]]
| catchment =
| basin_countries = United States
| length = 7.0 miles
| width = 4.6 miles
| area = 6,791 acres
| depth =
| max-depth =
| volume =
| residence_time =
| shore =
| elevation = 561 feet
| islands =
| cities = [[Holderness, New Hampshire|Holderness]]; [[Sandwich, New Hampshire|Sandwich]]; [[Moultonborough, New Hampshire|Moultonborough]]; [[Center Harbor, New Hampshire|Center Harbor]]
}}
'''Squam Lake''' is a [[lake]] located in central [[New Hampshire]] south of the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Mountains]], straddling the borders of [[Grafton County, New Hampshire|Grafton]], [[Carroll County, New Hampshire|Carroll]], and [[Belknap County, New Hampshire|Belknap Counties]]. The largest town on the lake is [[Holderness, New Hampshire|Holderness]]. The lake is located northwest of much larger [[Lake Winnipesaukee]].

It drains via a short natural channel into [[Little Squam Lake]], and then through a dam at the head of the short [[Squam River]] into the [[Pemigewasset River|Pemigewasset]] at [[Ashland, New Hampshire|Ashland]]. Covering 6,791 acres (27.5 km²)<ref>[http://www.granit.sr.unh.edu New Hampshire GRANIT database]</ref>, Squam is the second-largest lake located entirely in New Hampshire.

Squam Lake was originally called Keeseenunknipee, which meant "the goose lake in the highlands". The white settlers that followed shortened the name to Casumpa, Kusumpy and/or Kesumpe around [[1779]]. In the early [[1800s]], the lake was given another [[Abenaki]] name, Asquam, which means "water". Finally, in the early [[1900s]], Asquam was shortened to its present version, Squam.

The [[1981]] film ''[[On Golden Pond]]'' was filmed on Squam Lake. There are two tour boat outfits on the lake, both based in Holderness, that will show visitors where all the filming locations are situated.

==Islands==
Squam Lake has 28 named islands and numerous smaller, unnamed islets. The named islands are:
<div style='-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;'>
* Basin Island
* Birch Island
* Bowman Island
* Chocorua (Church) Island
* Duck Island
* Great Island
* Groton Island
* High Haith <small>(largest island on Squam; 243 acres)</small>
* Hoag Island
* Hubble Island
* Kate Island
* Kent Island
* Kimball Island
* Laurel Island
* Little Loon Island
* Long Island
* Loon Island
* Merrill Island
* Mink Island
* Mooney Island
* Mouse Island
* Otter Island
* Perch Island
* Potato Island
* Sheep Island
* Three Sisters
* Utopia Island
* Yard Island<ref>[http://geonames.usgs.gov/domestic/index.html U.S. Board on Geographic Names: Geographic Names Information System]</ref>
</div>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Lakes of New Hampshire]]

{{NewHampshire-geo-stub}}

Roberto Clemente

2007-09-14T12:06:22Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 1 edit by 74.92.24.22 identified as vandalism to last revision by DeadEyeArrow. using TW

{{Mlbretired
|bgcolor1=#EAC117
|bgcolor2=#000000
|textcolor1=black
|textcolor2=white
|name=Roberto Clemente
|image=200-roberto.jpg
|width=150 px
|position=[[Outfielder]]
|bats=Right
|throws=Right
|birthdate={{birth date|1934|8|18|mf=y}}
|deathdate={{death date and age|1972|12|31|1934|8|18}}
|debutdate=[[April 17]]
|debutyear=[[1955]]
|debutteam=[[Pittsburgh Pirates]]
|finaldate=[[October 3]]
|finalyear=[[1972]]
|finalteam=[[Pittsburgh Pirates]]
|stat1label=[[Batting average|AVG]]
|stat1value=.317
|stat2label=[[Home run|HR]]
|stat2value=240
|stat3label=[[Hit (baseball)|Hits]]
|stat3value=3000
|teams=<nowiki></nowiki>
*[[Pittsburgh Pirates]] ([[1955 in baseball|1955]]-[[1972 in baseball|1972]])
|highlights=<nowiki></nowiki>
* 12 [[Gold Glove Awards]] ([[1961 in sports|1961]]–[[1972 in sports|1972]])
* 12 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] appearances
* Four NL Batting Championships (1961, 1964, 1965 and 1967)
* One NL [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP Award]] ([[1966 in sports|1966]])
* Two [[World Series]] rings ([[1960 in sports|1960]] and [[1971 in sports|1971]])
* One World Series MVP ([[1971 in sports|1971]])
* Pittsburgh Pirates Career Leader in Games (Shares with Honus Wagner), At Bats, Hits, Total Bases, Singles and Grounding into Double Plays
|hofdate=[[1973 in baseball|1973]]
|hofvote=92.7% (first ballot)
}}

'''Roberto Clemente Walker''' ([[August 18]], [[1934]] – [[December 31]], [[1972]]) was a [[Major League Baseball]] [[right fielder]] and right-handed batter. He was elected to the [[United States Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] posthumously in [[1973 in sports|1973]] as the first Latin American to be selected, and the only exception to the mandatory five-year post-retirement waiting period since it was instituted in [[1954 in sports|1954]].

Clemente was born in [[Carolina, Puerto Rico|Carolina]], [[Puerto Rico]], the youngest of seven children. On November 14, 1964 he married Vera Zabala at San Fernando Church in Carolina, PR. The Clementes had three children, Roberto Jr., Luis Roberto and Enrique Roberto. Clemente played 18 seasons in the majors from [[1955 in sports|1955]] to [[1972 in sports|1972]], all with the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], winning the [[National League]] [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award]] in 1966. He was very helpful in his native Puerto Rico and in other Latin American countries, often delivering baseball supplies and food to them. He died in a [[Accidents and incidents in aviation|plane crash]] on [[December 31]], 1972 while en route to deliver aid to earthquake victims in [[Nicaragua]]. His [[body]] was never recovered. His dream of a sports city for the youth of Puerto Rico was realized two years later with the opening of Ciudad Deportiva Roberto Clemente in San Juan, PR.

==Baseball accomplishments==

Clemente also had one of the most powerful throwing arms in baseball history. Broadcaster [[Vin Scully]] colorfully claimed, "Clemente could field the ball in New York and throw out a guy in Pennsylvania."<ref>{{cite news|author=Peter Leo|work=[[w:Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]]|title=He just can't kick the baseball habit|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06192/704891-294.stm|date=July 11, 2006}}</ref> Clemente won 12 [[Gold Glove Award]]s for his outstanding defense (a record among outfielders, which he shares with fellow legend [[Willie Mays]]); he was reported to be able to throw out a runner from his knees. He recorded 266 [[assist (baseball)|outfield assists]] during his career.

Perhaps Clemente's greatest feat was leading the Pittsburgh Pirates to a seven-game [[World Series]] victory over the [[Baltimore Orioles]] in 1971. He played in two World Series ([[1960 World Series|1960]] and [[1971 World Series|1971]]) and got a hit in all 14 games.

He is one of only four players (as of the end of the [[2006 in baseball|2006]] season) to have 10 or more Gold Gloves and a .300+ lifetime batting average. He is the only player to have ever scored a [[Walk-off home run|walk-off]] [[Home run#Inside-the-park home run|inside-the-park]] [[Grand slam (baseball)|grand slam]].

Long time broadcaster [[Tim McCarver]] calls Roberto Clemente "the greatest right fielder of all time".<ref>{{Citation |last= |first= |title=Life of Baseball Hero and Humanitarian Celebrated in New Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition |url=http://newsdesk.si.edu/releases/sites_baseball-hero-celebrated-in-new-exhibition.htm |accessdate=08-28-2007}}</ref>

==The 1960s==
While Clemente had begun to fulfill his potential, the Pirates continued to struggle through the 1950s, although they did manage their first winning season since [[1948 in sports|1948]] in 1959. During the winter season of 1958-59 Clemente didn't play winter baseball in Puerto Rico; instead, he served in the [[United States Marine Corps Reserves]]. He spent six months in his military commitment at [[Parris Island]], [[South Carolina]], and [[Camp LeJeune]] in [[North Carolina]]. In Camp Lejeune he served as an [[infantryman]]. The rigorous training program helped Clemente physically. He added strength by gaining 10 pounds and said his back troubles had disappeared. He would remain in the reserves until September 1964. <ref>"Clemente to Start Six-Month Marine Corps Hitch, Oct. 4," The Sporting News, September 24, 1958, p. 7; "Buc Flyhawk Now Marine Rookie," The Sporting News, November 19, 1958, p. 13; The Sporting News, January 21, 1959, p. 9, Retrieved July 1, 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.usmc-mccs.org/sports/hof/2003-clemente.cfm Marine Corps Sports Hall of Fame], Retrieved July 1, 2007</ref> In [[1960 in sports|1960]], however, the team broke through to a 95-59 record, a National League pennant, and a thrilling seven-game [[1960 World Series|World Series]] victory over the [[Mickey Mantle|Mantle]]-[[Roger Maris|Maris]] [[New York Yankees]]. Clemente batted .310 in the series, hitting safely at least once in every game. His .314 batting average, 16 home runs, and stellar defense earned him his first trip to the [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star game]]. Through the rest of the decade, Clemente firmly established himself as one of the premier players in baseball. For the rest of his career, he batted over .300 in every year save [[1968 in sports|1968]], when he hit .291; he was selected to every All-Star game; and he was given a [[Gold Glove Award|Gold Glove]] after every season from [[1961 in sports|1961]] onwards. He led the National League in batting average four times (1961, [[1964 in sports|1964]], [[1965 in sports|1965]], and [[1967 in sports|1967]]), led the NL in hits twice (1964 and 1967), and won the MVP award for his 1966 season, when he hit .317 while setting career highs in home runs (29) and RBI (119).

Regardless of his unquestionable success, some (including, supposedly, Clemente himself) felt that the media did not give him the recognition he deserved. Despite being the offensive and defensive leader of the strong 1960 Pirates club, he finished only eighth in voting for the MVP that season; teammate [[Dick Groat]] received the award. In protest Clemente reportedly never wore his 1960 World Series ring. He was also labeled a [[hypochondriac]] due to nagging injuries early in his career, although he played in 144 or more games in each season from 1960 to 1967. The 1966 MVP award was, in the eyes of many Pittsburgh fans, a long overdue acknowledgment of his greatness.

In 1969, Pirates owner [[John W. Galbreath]] named one of his [[Thoroughbred]] horses [[Roberto (horse)|Roberto]]. The [[Colt (horse)|colt]] raced in [[Ireland]] and [[United Kingdom|England]] where he earned 1971 and 1972 champion honors and won the famed [[Epsom Derby]].

==The 1970s==
In [[1971 in sports|1971]], the Pirates again won the National League pennant behind [[Willie Stargell]]'s 48 home runs and Clemente's .341 batting average and faced the Baltimore Orioles in the [[1971 World Series|World Series]]. Baltimore had won 100 games and swept the [[American League Championship Series]], both for the third consecutive year, and were the defending World Series champions. Undaunted, Pittsburgh came back from down two games to none in the series to win it in seven for the second time in Clemente's career. He was the clear star of the series, with an incredible .414 batting average (12 hits in 29 [[at bat|at-bats]]), typically spectacular defense, and a crucial solo home run in the deciding 2-1 Game 7 victory. His efforts earned him the World Series MVP award.

[[Chuck Thompson]] (working for [[NBC Sports]] along with [[Curt Gowdy]]) describing the Game 7 home run in the fourth inning off of the Orioles' [[Mike Cuellar]]: ''That ball is hit well...a Clemente home run and the Pirates lead 1-0!''

Struggling with injuries, Clemente managed to appear in only 102 games in 1972, but still hit .312 for his final .300 season. On [[September 30]] in a game at Three Rivers Stadium, he hit a [[double (baseball)|double]] off [[Jon Matlack]] of the [[New York Mets]] for his 3,000th hit. It was the last at-bat of his career during a regular season, though he did play in the 1972 NLCS playoffs against the Cincinnati Reds. In the playoffs, he batted .235 as he went 4 for 17. His last game ever was at Cincinnati's [[Riverfront Stadium]] in the 5th game of the playoff series.

==Death in airplane crash==

A hero in his native Puerto Rico, Clemente spent much of his time during the off-season involved in charity work.

[[Image:Managua antes del Terremoto.jpg|thumb|A view of Managua, prior to the 1972 earthquake which destroyed the city]]
When the city of [[Managua]], the capital of [[Nicaragua]], was reduced to rubble by a massive earthquake on [[December 23]], [[1972]], Clemente (who had been visiting Managua three weeks before the quake) immediately set to work arranging emergency relief flights. He soon learned, however, that the aid packages on the first two flights had been diverted by corrupt officials of the [[Anastasio Somoza Debayle|Somoza]] regime, never reaching victims of the quake.

Clemente decided to accompany the fourth relief flight, hoping that his presence would ensure that the aid got delivered to quake survivors. But the airplane he chartered for a New Year's eve flight had a history of mechanical problems and sub-par flight personnel, and was overloaded by 5,000 pounds. It crashed into the ocean off the coast of Isla Verde, Puerto Rico immediately after takeoff on [[December 31]], [[1972]]. Clemente's body was never found, and his briefcase was the only thing recovered.Teammate Manny Sanguillen,a catcher and Clemente's best friend, was the only member of the Pirates not to attend Roberto's funeral.He chose instead to dive the waters where Clemente's plane had crashed,in a futile effort to find his friend.

==Posthumous honors==
[[Image:Roberto Clemente Coliseum.JPG|right|200px|thumb|[[Roberto Clemente Coliseum]], named in honor of the baseball player]]
On [[March 20]], [[1973 in baseball|1973]], the [[Baseball Writers Association of America]] held a special election for the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum|Baseball Hall of Fame]]. They voted to waive the waiting period for Clemente, due to his death, and posthumously elected him for induction into the Hall of Fame, giving him 393 of the 420 available votes, or 92% of the vote. Since then, the Writers Association has made this exemption for all eligible players that die before their waiting period lapses, though it has only been exercised in practice for [[Darryl Kile]], who died of a heart attack during the [[2002 in baseball|2002]] season.

Puerto Rico has honored Roberto Clemente's memory by naming the coliseum in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]] ''[[Coliseo Roberto Clemente]]'' and a baseball stadium in [[Carolina, Puerto Rico]] ''[[Estadio Roberto Clemente]]''. His native city, Carolina, named an avenue after him and realized his dream of establishing a sports complex where the youth could learn and practice sports in a healthy environment. Today this sports complex is called "Ciudad Deportiva Roberto Clemente" (Roberto Clemente Sports City). There is also a monument in his likeness created by Puerto Rican sculptor [[Jose Buscaglia Guillermety]] situated in Carolina.

The state of [[New York]] named a state park after him almost immediately after his death; he now has several schools and parks named after him.[http://www.robertoclemente21.com/Namesakes/namesakes.html] The city of [[Miami, Florida]] named Roberto Clemente Park in the Hispanic neighborhood of Wynwood after him. Also, the Wynwood and the Beaches [[ASPIRA]] chapter named the Roberto Clemente Youth Club (RCYC) after him. This club is aimed at helping at-risk hispanic youth by instilling confidence and teaching them how to become successful while avoiding drugs and crime.

In an article in 1976 in ''[[Esquire]]'' magazine, sportswriter Harry Stein published an "All Time All-Star Argument Starter," consisting of five ethnic baseball teams. The [[Puerto Rican]] Clemente was the center fielder on Stein's Latin team.

In [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], the [[Roberto Clemente Bridge|6th Street Bridge]] was renamed in his memory, and the Pirates retired his number 21 at the start of the 1973 season. The right field wall at the Pirates' [[PNC Park]] is 21 feet high in honor of Clemente. A statue of the outfielder stands outside the park; Clemente was the second Pirate so honored ([[Honus Wagner]] was the first). The City of Pittsburgh maintains [[Roberto Clemente Memorial Park]] along North Shore Drive in the city's North Side. In 2007 the [[Roberto Clemente Museum]] opened in the [[Lawrenceville (Pittsburgh)|Lawrenceville]] section of Pittsburgh. On the other side of the state, in eastern Pennsylvania, the [[Roberto Clemente Charter School]], in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], is named in Clemente's honor. A street in Pittsburgh's [[Oakland (Pittsburgh)|Oakland]] section is also named Roberto Clemente Place.

Two [[Connecticut]] cities honor Roberto Clemente with [http://www.homestead.com/hartford/clemente1.html memorials]: Hartford's Colt Park ball field and Bridgeport's Seaside Park. On January 1st of each year, Clemente fans gather at the Bridgeport memorial to honor his life and achievements.

Composer and pianist [[David Thomas Roberts]] wrote composition in new ragtime (now often referred to as [[Terra Verde]]) style titled ''"Roberto Clemente"'' (1979).

[[Image:PresMedalFreedom.jpg|thumb|95px|right|'''Posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2002''']]
MLB presents the [[Roberto Clemente Award]] every year to the player who best follows Clemente's example with humanitarian work. In 1973, Clemente was awarded the [[Congressional Gold Medal]]. In 2002, Clemente was posthumously awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]. In 2003, he was inducted into the [[U.S. Marine Corps]] Sports Hall of Fame. There is also currently a campaign underway to have all major league teams retire Clemente's number. Supporters cite an influence on baseball at least as strong as that of [[Jackie Robinson]], whose number is also retired throughout MLB.

In 1999, he ranked Number 20 on ''[[The Sporting News]]''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, the highest-ranking Latino player. Later that year, Clemente was nominated as a finalist for the [[Major League Baseball All-Century Team]]. Several Latino fans wrote letters saying that, as the greatest of all Latino players, he should have been awarded a spot on the team.

In 2003, Clemente was inducted into the Marine Corps Sports Hall of Fame. On [[October 26]], [[2005]], Clemente was named a member of Major League Baseball's [[Latino Legends Team]]. As mentioned above, the 5-year waiting period for the baseball Hall of Fame was waived to allow him to be elected there immediately.

On [[August 17]], [[1984]], the day before what would have been his 50th birthday, the [[United States Postal Service]] issued a [[postage stamp]] honoring Clemente. Designed by [[Juan Lopez-Bonilla]], the spare clean design shows Clemente wearing his Pirates cap, with the Puerto Rican flag in the background.

The film ''[[Chasing 3000]]'' (2006) chronicles two brothers who travel across country to see Clemente get this 3,000th hit. It was scheduled to be released in the [[United States]] on [[October 1]], [[2006 in film|2006]], but has since been delayed. The film stars [[Ray Liotta]], [[Keith David]], [[Trevor Morgan (actor)|Trevor Morgan]], and [[Rory Culkin]].

At the [[Major League Baseball]] [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star game]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] on [[July 11]], [[2006]] many of the players on both teams wore yellow wristbands with the initials "RCW" in honor of Clemente. At the end of the 4th inning, Clemente was awarded the Commissioner's Historical Achievement Award by the Commissioner of Baseball, given to his widow. "Roberto was a hero in every sense of the word", Selig said.

Roberto Clemente Community Academy (commonly known as, Clemente High School or, Clemente) is a public secondary school located in the West Town community area of Chicago, Illinois, United States.

The school is a part of the Small School Initiative of Chicago Public Schools. The school was opened in between the academic year of 1974-1975 and was named in honor of Roberto Clemente.

==References==
<references/>

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
* [[Roberto Clemente, Jr.]]
* [[List of players from Puerto Rico in Major League Baseball|Players from Puerto Rico in MLB]]
* [[List of famous Puerto Ricans]]
* [[List of people who have disappeared]]
* [[Top 500 home run hitters of all time]]
* [[List of Major League Baseball players with 400 doubles]]
* [[List of Major League Baseball players with 100 triples]]
* [[List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 runs]]
* [[List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 RBI]]
* [[3000 hit club]]
* [[List of Major League Baseball batting champions]]
* [[Major League Baseball hitters with three home runs in one game]]

==Further reading==
*[[David Maraniss]], ''Clemente: The Passion and Grace of Baseball's Last Hero,'' New York: [[Simon & Schuster]], 2006

*[[Stew Thornley]], ''Roberto Clemente's Entry into Organized Baseball: Hidden in Montreal?,'' "The National Pastime," Cleveland: [[Society for American Baseball Research]], 2006

== External links==
* {{baseball-reference|id=c/clemero01}}
* {{bbhof|id=112391}}
* [http://www.latinosportslegends.com/clemente.htm Latino Sports Legends]
* [http://bioproj.sabr.org/bioproj.cfm?a=v&v=l&bid=1255&pid=2553 Society of American Baseball Research BioProject biography of Clemente]

{| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" width=45% align="center"
|-
! style="background:#ccccff"| Accomplishments
|-
|
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Major League Baseball batting champions|National League Batting Champion]] | before= [[Dick Groat]] <br> [[Tommy Davis]] <br> [[Matty Alou]] | years=1961 <br> 1964–1965 <br> 1967 | after= [[Tommy Davis]] <br> [[Matty Alou]] <br> [[Pete Rose]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Willie Mays]] | title = [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|National League Most Valuable Player]]| years = 1966 | after = [[Orlando Cepeda]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Eddie Mathews]] <br> [[Pete Rose]] <br> [[Ron Santo]] | title = [[Player of the Month|Major League Player of the Month]]| years = May 1960 <br> May 1967 <br> July 1969 | after = [[Lindy McDaniel]] <br> [[Hank Aaron]] <br> [[Willie Davis (baseball player)|Willie Davis]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Brooks Robinson]] | title = [[World Series MVP Award|World Series MVP]]| years = 1971 | after = [[Gene Tenace]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Brooks Robinson]] | title = [[Babe Ruth Award]] | years = [[1971 in baseball|1971]] | after = [[Gene Tenace]]}}
{{end box}}
|}
{{1960 Pittsburgh Pirates}}
{{1971 Pittsburgh Pirates}}
{{MLBLLT}}
{{3000 hit club}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clemente, Roberto}}
[[Category:People from Carolina, Puerto Rico]]
[[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame]]
[[Category:Major league right fielders]]
[[Category:Pittsburgh Pirates players]]
[[Category:National League All-Stars]]
[[Category:Puerto Rican baseball players]]
[[Category:Gold Glove Award winners]]
[[Category:National League batting champions]]
[[Category:United States Marines]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients]]
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients]]
[[Category:Plane crash victims]]
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:1972 deaths]]
[[Category:Puerto Rican sportspeople]]

[[es:Roberto Clemente]]
[[fr:Roberto Clemente]]
[[it:Roberto Clemente]]
[[ja:ロベルト・クレメンテ]]

Sydney-Felsgravuren

2007-09-04T09:32:35Z

Recurring dreams: bold title

The '''Sydney Rock Engravings''' are a form of [[Australian Aboriginal]] [[Rock Art]] consisting of carefully drawn images of people, animals, or symbols, in the sandstone around [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]]. Many thousands of such engravings are known to exist in the [[Sydney]] region, although the locations of most are not publicised to prevent damage by vandalism, and to retain their sanctity, as they are still regarded as sacred sites by [[Indigenous Australians]].

[[Image:Terrey Hills public.jpg|frame|Engravings at Terrey Hills, near Sydney, NSW. The two kangaroos suggest this was used for an increase ceremony, whilst the well-endowed man may be [[Baiame]].]]

They are comparable with the [[petroglyphs]] of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] and the [[Rock Art]] found elsewhere in Australia, and yet have their own distinctive style which is quite unlike [[Rock Art]] found anywhere else in Australia.

==Who made them?==

The engravings were made by the [[Aboriginal Australians]] who have lived in the Sydney region from about 25000 years ago until the present day.

==How old are they?==

The engravings cannot be dated directly with current archaeological techniques. Instead, we must rely on indirect dating techniques.

The [[Aboriginal Australians]] arrived in the North of [[Australia]] around 50000 years ago, but the earliest evidence of occupation in the [[Sydney]] region is dated to about 10000 BC, in the [[Bidjigal Reserve]] in the [[Hills District]] of North-West [[Sydney]]. However, dates of over 20000 years have been found in the [[Blue Mountains]], and so it is reasonable to suppose that Aboriginal people were also in the [[Sydney]] region around then: we just haven't come across their settlements.

The [[Sydney]] engravings are of a style known as "simple figurative", which conventional archaeological thinking dates to the last 5000 years. Other engravings show [[European]] [[sailing ships]], and so cannot be more than about 200 years old. Thus we are left with a date range of 5000-200 years ago. It is likely that some of the freshest engravings represent the later part of that time range, whilst the most worn represent the earliest part. However, the situation is complicated by the fact that we know the engravings were sometimes "re-grooved" during ceremonies.

It has been claimed that some engravings appear to show [[Thylacine]]s and other mammals which have been extinct in the [[Sydney]] region for many thousands of years, and so are presumably that old. In support of this, it is certainly true that rock art elsewhere (e.g. [[Kakadu National Park]]) does show extinct animals, and so must be tens of thousands of years old. However, at the moment there is no cast-iron evidence to support these claims for [[Sydney]] rock art.

==How were they made?==

From examining the grooves we can see that they were made in several stages as follows:

Presumably, a sketched outline was scratched on to the surface of the rock.

Then a series of holes was drilled along the line, using a pointed stone or shell. This is easier than it sounds because the [[Sydney Basin]] [[sandstone]] is very soft.

Finally, the holes were joined by rubbing a sharp stone along the line.

This results in a U-shaped groove which is typically about 2 centimetres deep and 2 centimetres wide. It is easily distinguished from natural grooves in the sandstone, which are usually V-shaped, and modern grooves made with steel tools, which are usually narrower and deeper, or those made by bulldozers, which usually have a square section.

The grooves were often maintained by "re-grooving" during ceremonies, which complicates attempts at dating them.

==Why were they made?==

The short answer is: we don't know. However, by analogy with the culture of other indigenous groups who survived into modern times, we can make some educated guesses.

Some sites may have been "increase sites", where a ceremony would be held to increase the availability of a food source such as kangaroos or fish. It is thought that most of the sites depicting animals are of this type.

Another group of sites may have been where initiation ceremonies were held, to celebrate and facilitate the transition of a young boy into manhood. In other parts of [[Australia]], we know that an initiation ceremony often involves a ceremonial path from childhood into manhood, and so the lines of steps, or [[mundoes]], may indicate initiation sites.

Other sites show "Culture Heroes" or "Ancestral Beings" such as [[Baiame]], who has a striped head-dress and often a striped body, and [[Daramulan]] who has a large club foot and may have been part-emu.

Some sites also show evidence of [[Australian Aboriginal Astronomy|Aboriginal Astronomy]].

It should also be recognised that increase sites, initiation sites, culture-hero sites, and astronomical sites are not necessarily distinct, and one site may fall into any or all of these categories.

==Further reading==

* [http://www.atnf.csiro.au/people/rnorris/SydneyRockArt/index.html Sydney Rock Engravings]
* Stanbury & Clegg, 1990, 'A Field Guide to Aboriginal Rock Engravings', Oxford University Press.
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal mythology]]
[[Category:Indigenous Australian culture]]
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal culture]]
[[Category:Prehistoric art]]
[[Category:Rock art]]
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal art]]

[[fr:Mythologie aborigène]]

Pauline Hanson’s One Nation

2007-08-19T00:29:23Z

Recurring dreams: /* Notes */ That's not a note; if it needs inclusion, it should be in the body of the article

{{Infobox_Australian_Political_Party
| party_name = One Nation Party|
| party_logo = [[Image:onenationlogo.jpg]]
| party_wikicolourid= One Nation
| leader =
| foundation = 1997
| ideology = [[Populism]], [[Nationalism]], [[Conservatism]]
| international =
| headquarters =
| holds_government =
| website = http://www.onenation.com.au/
}}

'''One Nation''' is a [[nationalist]] and [[protectionist]] political group in [[Australia]]. It gained 22 percent of the vote translating to 11 of 89 seats in [[Queensland]]'s [[unicameral]] legislative assembly at the [[Queensland general election, 1998|1998 state election]] and made major inroads into the vote of the existing parties. Federally, the party peaked at the [[Australian general election, 1998|1998 election]] on 9 percent but progressively lost ground at the [[Australian general election, 2001|2001]] and [[Australian general election, 2004|2004 elections]]. By 2005 the federal party ceased to exist after suffering many damaging internal conflicts.

==Overview==
One Nation was formed in 1997 by [[Pauline Hanson]], [[David Oldfield]] and [[David Ettridge]]. Hanson, an endorsed [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] candidate for the seat of [[Division of Oxley|Oxley]] at the [[Australian legislative election, 1996|1996 federal election]], had been disendorsed by the party shortly before the elections due to comments against what she saw as "race-based welfare," made to a local newspaper in [[Ipswich, Queensland|Ipswich]], Queensland. Oldfield, a Councillor on [[Manly, New South Wales|Manly]] Council in suburban [[Sydney]] and at one time an employee of Liberal minister [[Tony Abbott]], was the organisational architect of the new party. He and Ettridge were known as "the two Davids" and were seen as the brains behind Hanson's populist image<ref>Loane, S. & Kingston, M. 1998. One Nation, two Davids. ''[[The Age]]''. 17 June.</ref>.

The name "One Nation" was chosen to signify national unity, in contrast to what Hanson saw as an increasing division in Australian society caused by government policies favouring migrants ([[multiculturalism]]) and [[Australian Aborigine|indigenous Australians]]. The term was used in British politics (where it is used in a quite different sense: see [[One Nation Conservatism]]), but was last used in Australian political life to describe a tax reform package by the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] government of [[Paul Keating]], whose urban-based, Asia-centric, free-market, and pro-[[affirmative action]] policies were representational of exactly what One Nation voters were opposing.

Believing the other parties were out of touch with ordinary Australians, One Nation promised to reduce immigration and to abolish "divisive and discriminatory policies... attached to aboriginal and multicultural affairs." The party condemned multiculturalism as a "threat to the very basis of the Australian culture, identity and shared values." Multiculturalism and high immigration, One Nation argued, were leading to "the Asianisation of Australia." <ref>[http://www.australianpolitics.com/parties/onenation/immigration-policy-98.shtml One Nation's Immigration, Population and Social Cohesion Policy 1998 ]</ref> The party also denounced [[economic rationalism]] and [[globalisation]], reflecting working-class dissatisfaction with the neo-liberal economic policies embraced by the major parties. Adopting a strong [[protectionism|protectionist]] platform, One Nation advocated the restoration of import [[tariffs]], a revival of Australia's [[manufacturing]] industry, and an increase in support for small business and the rural sector. <ref>Charlton, P. 1998. Full Circle. ''[[The Courier-Mail]]'', 13 June.</ref>

==Electoral performance==
One Nation's peak was the 1998 Queensland state election, at which the party won 22.7% of the vote and 11 of the 89 seats. This was more support than received by the Liberal Party of Australia, and third only to the ALP and the [[National Party of Australia|National Party]]. Subsequently, the One Nation contingent in the Queensland Parliament split, with dissident members forming the rival [[City Country Alliance|City-Country Alliance]] in late 1999.

At the [[Australian legislative election, 1998|1998 federal election]], Hanson lost her seat to ALP candidate [[Bernie Ripoll]], but One Nation candidate [[Heather Hill]] was elected as a senator for Queensland. Hill's eligibility to sit as a senator was successfully challenged under the [[Australian Constitution]] on the basis that she had failed to renounce her childhood British citizenship, despite being a naturalised Australian citizen. The seat subsequently went to the party's [[Len Harris]] following a recount. At the 1999 [[New South Wales]] election, David Oldfield was elected to the New South Wales Legislative Council.

In the 2001 Queensland state election, One Nation won only three seats and 8.69% of the primary vote. The City-Country Alliance won no seats.

At the 2001 state election in [[Western Australia]], One Nation won three seats in the state's Legislative Council. One Nation was unable to obtain any seats in state elections in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[South Australia]] or [[Tasmania]] in the following year.

At the [[Australian legislative election, 2001|2001 federal election]], the party's vote fell and Hanson failed in a bid to win a Senate seat from Queensland. She also failed to win a seat in the [[New South Wales Legislative Council]] at the 2003 state election. She then withdrew from the party's leadership.

== Internal disputes and decline ==
Since the 1998 peak, One Nation has been plagued by internal divisions and has split several times. Lawsuits from ex-members forced Hanson to repay approximately A$500,000 of public funding won at the 1998 Queensland election amid claims that the party was fraudulently registered. The suits alleged that the party was undemocratically constituted in order to concentrate all power in the hands of three rulers - [[Pauline Hanson]], David Ettridge and David Oldfield (in particular Oldfield), and that it technically had only two members - Ettridge and Hanson.

In [[October 2000]], [[Pauline Hanson]] expelled David Oldfield, co-founder of One Nation and the sole representative of that party in the NSW state Parliament. Oldfield had been accused of abusing his authority, usurping power and setting up alternative political parties under his control. His expulsion created even more instability in a party which was constantly embroiled in scandal and internal strife. Oldfield engineered a split within the party, thereby creating [[One Nation NSW]] in 2001. The new party took advantage of electoral party registration laws to register itself as political party under the ‘One Nation’ name with the NSW electoral commission, and achieved registration in [[April 2002]]. The effect of this was that the original One Nation party was now unable to gain registration for NSW elections, and therefore any candidates which that party chose to represent them at state elections could not use the party name. Consequently, the original One Nation could only contest Federal elections in NSW under the 'One Nation' banner, whilst the Oldfield group could present itself as 'One Nation' only at state elections.

At the 2004 Queensland election, One Nation polled less than 5% of the vote and its sole elected representative, [[Rosa Lee Long]], acted as an independent. One Nation attempted to defend its Queensland Senate seat at the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 federal election]], but lost it (effectively to the National Party). Len Harris's Senate term expired on [[30 June]] 2005.

On [[8 February]] 2005, One Nation lost federal party status<ref> [http://www.aec.gov.au/_content/what/media_releases/2005/02-09_onenation.htm Australia Election Commission]</ref>. It still had state parties in Queensland and New South Wales. Soon after it created another state party in Western Australia. In the February 2005 Western Australian election, the One Nation vote collapsed.

In the [[South Australian legislative election, 2006|2006 South Australian state election]], six One Nation candidates stood for the lower house. Their highest levels of the primary vote was 4.1% in the district of [[electoral district of Hammond|Hammond]] and 2.7% in [[electoral district of Goyder|Goyder]], with the other four hovering around 1%. They attracted 0.8% (7559 votes) of the upper house vote. One Nation consequently won no seats in that election.

In the [[Queensland legislative election, 2006|2006 Queensland state election]], the party's vote collapsed, largely because it only contested 4 seats of the total 89. It suffered a swing of 4.3% to be left with just 0.6% of the vote. Despite this, their only remaining seat in the state (and country), [[Electoral district of Tablelands|Tablelands]], was retained with an increased majority. [http://www.abc.net.au/elections/qld/2006/results/tabl.htm]

On [[27 December]] [[2006]] the Queensland and Western Australian divisions lost federal registration. <ref>http://www.aec.gov.au/_content/what/media_releases/2006/12_22.htm</ref>

==Impact==
During its brief period of popularity, One Nation had a great impact on Australian politics. The appeal of its policies to the National Party's constituency put great pressure on that party.

For the rest of Australian politics, the party revealed a substantial minority of discontented voters dissatisfied with the major parties. Political commentator [[B.A. Santamaria]] attributed One Nation's rise to a "sense of alienation" that many Australians felt towards the political system in the 1990s and the failure of mainstream political parties to respond to this disaffection. <ref>Santamaria, B.A. 1996. Beware the mass revolt. ''[[The Australian]]''. 21 September.</ref> Other media views emphasised One Nation's unequivocal views on immigration, multiculturalism, and indigenous Australians.

One Nation was subject to a political campaign by Government MP [[Tony Abbott]] who established a trust fund called "Australians for Honest Politics Trust" to help bankroll civil court cases against the Party. (''see [[Tony Abbott#Action against One Nation Party|Tony Abbott - Action against One Nation Party]]'') He was also accused of offering funds to One Nation dissident Terry Sharples to support his court battle against the party. Abbott conceded that the political threat One Nation posed to the [[Howard Government]] was "a very big factor" in his decision to pursue the legal attack, but he also claimed to be acting "in Australia's national interest".

Prime Minister John Howard's campaigning on issues of "border protection" at the 2001 federal election was widely seen as a successful effort to win One Nation voters back to the Liberal and National parties. {{Fact|date=August 2007}}

== Election Results ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Election
! Chamber
! %
of vote
! Seats
won
|-
|rowspan=1 valign=top | Queensland state election
June 1998
| Legislative Assembly
| 22.7%
| 11
|-
| rowspan=2 valign=top | Australian federal election
October 1998
| House of Representatives
| 8.4%
|
|-
| Senate
| 9%
| 1
|-
| rowspan=2 valign=top | New South Wales state election
March 1999
|Legislative Assembly
|7.5%
|
|-
|Legislative Council
| 6.3%
| 1
|-
| rowspan=2 valign=top |Victoria state election
September 1999
|Legislative Assembly
|0.29%
|
|-
| Legislative Council
| n.a
|
|-
| rowspan=2 valign=top |Western Australia state election
February 2001
| Legislative Assembly
| 9.6%
|
|-
| Legislative Council
| 9.9%
| 3
|-
|rowspan=1 valign=top | Queensland state election
February 2001
| Legislative Assembly
| 8.7%
|3
|-
|rowspan=1 valign=top |Northern Territory state election
August 2001
| Legislative Assembly
|1.3%
|-
| rowspan=2 valign=top | Australian federal election
November 2001
| House of Representatives
| 4.3%
|
|-
| Senate
| 5.5%
|
|-
| rowspan=2 valign=top |South Australia state election
February 2002
|House of Assembly
|2.4%
|
|-
|Legislative Council
|1.8%
|
|-
|rowspan=1 valign=top | Queensland state election
February 2004
| Legislative Assembly
|4.9%
|1
|-
| rowspan=2 valign=top | Australian federal election
October 2004
| House of Representatives
| 1.2%
|
|-
| Senate
| 1.7%
|
|-
| rowspan=2 valign=top |Western Australia state election
February 2005
| Legislative Assembly
| 1.6%
|
|-
| Legislative Council
| 1.6%
|
|-
| rowspan=2 valign=top |South Australia state election
March 2006
|House of Assembly
|0.3%
|
|-
|Legislative Council
|0.8%
|
|-
|rowspan=1 valign=top | Queensland state election
September 2006
| Legislative Assembly
|0.6%
|1
|}

==Notes==
*For the offshoot One Nation Party in New South Wales see: [[One Nation NSW]]
*One Nation is not to be confused with the '''One Nation''' program of infrastructure works carried out from 1991 to 1996 by the Keating Labor Government.

==References==

{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.onenation.com.au/ One Nation official website]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20031208021934/http://www.crikey.com.au/whistleblower/2000/02/13-onenation.html How the Victorian branch imploded]

{{Politics of Australia}}

[[Category:Political parties established in 1997]]
[[Category:Political parties in Australia]]
[[Category:Conservative parties]]
[[Category:Nationalist parties]]
[[Category:One Nation politicians|One Nation politicians]]

[[no:One Nation Party]]
[[zh:一國黨]]

420 (Cannabis-Kultur)

2007-08-18T08:53:22Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 1 edit by 205.206.246.157 identified as vandalism to last revision by Unexplainedbacon. using TW

__NOTOC__
[[Image:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|right|170px| [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]] 4/20 celebration at Porter Meadow on [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UCSC]] campus in 2007]]
[[Image:2007 April 20th 420 celebration Victoria BC.jpg|thumb|right|170px|On April 20th 2007, at 4:20pm PST more than 700 people gathered at City Hall in [[Victoria, BC]] to celebrate Victoria's 10th annual 4/20 celebration. Victoria police were not visibly in attendance<ref>{{Citation
| last = Lavigne
| first = Andrea
| title = Celebration up in smoke: Pot supporters celebrate 10th anniversary
| newspaper = Victoria News
| year = 2007
| date = April 25th, 2007
| url = http://www.mapinc.org/newstcl/v07/n525/a08.html}}</ref>]]
[[Image:420Louis.jpg|thumb|right|Statue of Louis Pasteur, at San Rafael High School.]]

'''4:20''' or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a term used in [[North America]] as a discreet way to refer to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with [[cannabis culture]]. Phrases such as "'''420 friendly'''" sometimes appear in roommate advertisements, indicating that the current occupants are tolerant of cannabis users.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Boulder Renters Seek Pot-Smoking Roommates: Boulder Still a Bastion of Hippies and Radicals, Apparently
| work = New West (Living section) - The Voice of the Rocky Mountains
| date = [[2006-05-08]]
| url = http://www.newwest.net/index.php/topic/article/boulder_still_a_bastion_of_hippies_and_radicals_apparently/C82/L40/
| accessdate = 2007-03-30 }}
</ref>

==Origins and observances==
Although many diverse theories exist to explain the origin of the term, it is widely accepted that in [[1971]], a group of teenagers at [[San Rafael High School]] in [[San Rafael, California]] used to meet after school at 4:20 p.m. to smoke cannabis at the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue.<ref>{{cite web
| title = 420 (Language)
| work = Snopes.com - Urban Legends Reference Pages
| date = [[2005-04-19]]
| url = http://www.snopes.com/language/stories/420.asp
| accessdate = 2007-03-30 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = 420 Timeline
| work = High Times
| date = [[2005]]
| url = http://www.hightimes.com/ht/lounge/index.php?page=420
| accessdate = 2007-03-30 }}
</ref> The term became part of their group's salute, "420 Louis!",<ref>{{cite web
| title = Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael: Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon
| author = Maria Alicia Gaura
| work = San Francisco Chronicle
| date = [[2000-04-20]]
| url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL
| accessdate = 2007-04-20 }}
</ref> and became popularized in the late 1980s by fans of The [[Grateful Dead]].<ref>{{cite web
| title = '420' enthusiasts honor cannabis on high holiday
| work = cbs5.com
| date = [[2007]]
| url = http://cbs5.com/local/local_story_110193512.html
| accessdate = 2007-04-20 }}
</ref> Many cannabis users continue to observe 4:20 as a time to smoke communally. By extension [[April 20]] ("4/20" in [[United States|U.S.]] [[Date and time notation by country#United States|dating shorthand]]) has evolved into a [[counterculture]] holiday, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref>[http://youtube.com/watch?v=5_6FKdld1rs Steven Hager discusses 4/20 on ABC News as a "counterculture holiday"]</ref><ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uLEMD5iJXnA Students gathering on 4/20 at Colorado University in Boulder]</ref><ref>[http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday]</ref> In some cities, this celebration coincides with the celebrations of [[Earth Day|Earth Week]]. <ref>[http://www.guamepa.govguam.net/earthweek/ Earth Week in Guam]</ref><ref>[http://earthweek.ucsd.edu/index.html Earth Week in San Diego]</ref><ref>[http://www.earthwalkvictoria.ca/ Earth Week in Victora, BC]</ref>

==420 campaign==
{{see also|Arguments for and against drug prohibition|Decriminalization of marijuana in the United States}}
The 420 Campaign urges individuals to become involved in the political process and the [[drug policy reform]] movement. Specifically, the Campaign calls for leveraging "April 20th as a focal point every year to concentrate pressure on [[United States Congress]] to legalize marijuana."<ref>[http://www.hightimes.com/ht/legal/content.php?bid=1446&aid=22 420 Campaign: The Strategy for Legalization]</ref> University chapters of [[NORML]], [[Safer Alternative for Enjoyable Recreation|SAFER]], and [[Students for Sensible Drug Policy|SSDP]] have started to use 4/20 as a day to educate their campuses and advocate for marijuana policy reform.<ref>[http://stopthedrugwar.org/chronicle/483/420_campus_events_denver_arrests_las_vegas_foiled Cannabis Nation Celebrates 4/20 -- Dozens of Campus Actions]</ref><ref>[http://www.saferchoice.org/content/view/553/1 SAFER taking nation by storm on 4/20]</ref>

== Cultural references ==
*''420'' is the title of a comic book series featuring the alternative superhero Captain Cannabis.<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/420-001-Verne-Andru/dp/0973883707/ref=sr_11_1/104-2544877-0039142?ie=UTF8 Captain Cannabis comic book]</ref><ref>High Times Magazine, February 2007, The Buzz section page 13, "Sensi Superman"</ref><ref>Skunk Magazine, Volume 2, Issue 8, Cool Stuff section, "420 Verne Signature Series"</ref><ref>QsHouse Radio/iPod [http://qshouse.slackertown.com/wp-media/VerneAndruFull.mp3 Interview - Verne Andru: the George Lucas of the comic world]</ref>
*Noting that "the national weed smoking day is 4/20," rapper [[Method Man]] named his (2006) album ''[[4:21...The Day After]]'' <ref>{{cite news |title = New Method Man Album 4:21...The Day After
|url = http://www.sixshot.com/articles/6239/
|publisher = Sixshot
|date =
|accessdate = 2007-04-19
|language = English}}</ref>
* [[WWE]] wrestler [[Rob Van Dam]], an avid marijuana smoker, has used the catchphrase "RVD 4:20 says I just smoked your ass," in a parody of a catchphrase originating with [[Stone Cold Steve Austin]].<ref>[http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/5-31-2001-3475.asp An Interview with Rob Van Dam]</ref>

==References==

<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2"><references/></div>

==External links==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2">
* [http://youtube.com/watch?v=VyRSW0yvZ7M Vansterdam British Columbia 420 Celebration: Video Length-10min April 20 2007]
* [http://hempfest.org/420.php The Power of 420: Transforming the universal code into a collective consciousness for stoners]. Karen Bettez Halnon, originally published in [[High Times]], May 2003.
* [http://www.hightimes.com/ht/lounge/index.php?page=420 420 Timeline/When's Your 420?] High Times
* [http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,51986-0.html High Holy Day for Potheads]. Wired News, April 20, 2001.
* [http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/viperslair/lair_ready/tales/420revealed.htm 4:20 Revealed]. Viper's Lair, March 22, 2004.
* [http://www.phish.net/faq/420.html What does the number 420 signify, and why?] Phish.net FAQ
* [http://www.hightimes.com/ht/legal/index.php?cat=5&categ=34 420 Campaign: Strategy for Legalization] archive of related articles
* [http://www.ocolly.com/read_story.php?a_id=32670 World goes up in smoke each April 20]. Greg Gotcher
</div>

{{Cannabis resources}}

[[Category:April observances]]
[[Category:Numbers in pop culture]]
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]

[[ja:420 (大麻)]]
[[fi:420 (kannabiskulttuuri)]]
[[sv:420 (cannabis)]]

Becky Fischer

2007-07-16T09:08:10Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 1 edit by 208.101.79.133 identified as vandalism to last revision by 64.61.13.82. using TW

[[Image:Becky Fischer Jesus Camp.jpg|right]]
'''Becky Fischer''' (born 1951) is a [[Pentecostal]] children's pastor. She is best known for her role in the 2006 documentary film ''[[Jesus Camp]].''

Fischer is a third-generation Pentecostal on her father's side and a fourth-generation Pentecostal on her mother's side. Her grandfather was an ordained minister with the [[Assemblies of God]] for 75 years. Fischer was a businesswoman in her native [[Bismarck, North Dakota]] for 23 years, the last eight as part-time children's pastor of her church. In [[1999]], she moved to [[North Wilkesboro, North Carolina]] to join [http://www.taschministries.com/ Tasch Ministries International], a ministry that specializes in [[Mission (Christian)|mission]] trips for children. After serving as a children's pastor for [[Rick Joyner]]'s [http://www.morningstarministries.org/ MorningStar Ministries] in Wilkesboro, she returned to North Dakota to begin her own ministry, Kids in Ministry International. She also pastors a church in [[Mandan, North Dakota|Mandan]], just outside Bismarck and is the author of several [http://kidsinministry.com/OnlineResources/index.html Sunday School curricula] for churches and the book [http://kidsinministry.com/OnlineResources/RedefiningCM21Century.html ''Redefining Children's Ministry in the 21st Century''.]

==Jesus Camp==
{{wikinews|Jesus Camp shuts down}}

Fischer was approached in 2004 by Heidi Ewing and Rachel Grady about filming her "Kids on Fire" camp outside Devils Lake, North Dakota, as well as portions of her "Changing the World through Prayer Conference" at Christ Triumphant Church in Lee's Summit, Missouri (a suburb of Kansas City), where Fischer is ordained.

When the film debuted at the Tribeca Film Festival in the summer of 2006, it generated a lot of controversy for what was perceived by filmmakers as overtly political content and crazy subject matter. For example, in one scene shot at Christ Triumphant Church, a guest speaker brought a cutout of George W. Bush and asked several children assembled there to stretch their hands out toward him. Some press accounts erroneously suggested that the children were worshiping him, though the speaker in the film clearly tells them to "pray for" and "speak a blessing to" the President and pray for the Dallas Cowboys. The laying on of hands and its derivative of stretching hands towards someone is a common practice in Pentecostal and charismatic churches.

While somewhat uncomfortable with some elements of the final product (which led to accusations that she was indoctrinating children), Fischer has refused to disown the film. In fact, she has used it as a tool to publicize her ministry and its work. She claims to see the real message of the film embedded amidst the political overtones. To Fischer, the real message of Jesus Camp is to show how passionate children can be when given the right opportunities.

Fischer complains the average Sunday School is content to merely give them a roll-over of Bible stories for the first twelve years of their lives, causing them to lose interest in God and the church by their teen years, and opting out of the church culture as a result. Fischer declares, "As a result, we have a crisis in Christianity resulting in as many as 70% of our own children are starting to think for themselves and leaving the Church and never returning. We are losing money very quickly." Her ministry explores ways to keep them engaged in their faith through adulthood.

==Theology==
Although not advertised in the film, Fischer's ministry is part of an "apostolic network" of charismatic churches and ministries known as [http://www.harvestim.org Harvest International Ministries.] This organization is an offshoot of the [[charismatic movement]] that believes in the existence of present-day "[[apostles]]" and "[[prophets]]. While her ministry's statement of faith doesn't make any reference to this, <ref>http://www.kidsinministry.com/WeBelieve.html</ref> its Website includes teachings from many prominent Latter Rain ministers, including [[Cindy Jacobs]], [[Kim Clement]], Bill Hamon and [[Rick Joyner]].

==Closing of the Camp==
Fischer has since announced that due to negative reactions to the camp after the film, including telephone calls and vandalism, the camp, which was held once a year for three weeks, will be discontinued indefinitely and will be replaced by other events. <ref>http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2003365311_jesuscamp08.html</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.kidsinministry.com Kids in Ministry International], Fischer's ministry
*[http://www.country95radio.com/JesusCamp Media Reports on Jesus Camp], TV, Radio, Print Reviews & Reports
*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/main.jhtml?xml=/health/2006/11/18/ftjesus18.xml Telegraph Magazine: Kindergarten of Christ], extensive article about Kids in Ministry

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fischer, Becky}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1951 births]]
[[Category:American religious leaders]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian religious leaders]]
[[Category:Christian ministers]]
[[Category:People from Bismarck, North Dakota]]

Australian Museum

2007-07-14T07:34:52Z

Recurring dreams: /* History */ sp

[[Image: AustralianMuseum.jpg|250px|right|thumb| The Australian Museum, Sydney]]{{Otheruses4|the museum in Sydney|the museum in Canberra opened in 2001|National Museum of Australia}}
The '''Australian Museum''' is the oldest [[museum]] in [[Australia]], with an international reputation in the fields of [[natural history]] and [[anthropology]]. It features collections of [[vertebrate]] and [[invertebrate]] [[zoology]], as well as [[mineralogy]], [[palaeontology]], and [[anthropology]]. Apart from exhibitions, the museum is also involved in indigenous studies research and community programs.

It is located in [[College Street, Sydney|College Street]], [[Sydney]] and was originally known as the '''Colonial Museum''' or '''Sydney Museum'''. The museum was renamed in June 1836 by a Sub-Committee meeting, when it was resolved during an argument that it should be renamed the Australian Museum.

== History ==
The museum was founded on [[March 30]] [[1827]], by [[Earl Bathurst]], then the [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]], who wrote to the Governor of [[New South Wales]] of his intent to found a public museum, and provisions to provide £200 yearly towards its upkeep.

The establishment of a museum had been planned in [[1821]] by the [[Philosophical Society of Australasia]], and although specimens were collected, the Society folded in [[1822]]. In [[1826]], however, upon the arrival of [[entomologist]] and Fellow of the [[Linnean Society of London]] [[Alexander Macleay]], who, after being appointed New South Wales [[Colonial Secretary]], began lobbying for a museum.
[[Image:AustralianMuseum_gobeirne.jpg|200px|left|thumb|The Australian Museum, College Street, [[Sydney]].]]
The first location of the museum was likely a room in the offices of the Colonial Secretary, although for the next 30 years it moved to several other locations in [[Sydney, Australia|Sydney]], until moving into its current location in [[1849]]. This handsome [[sandstone]] building on the corner of College and Park Streets, opposite [[Hyde Park, Sydney|Hyde Park]], was first opened to the public in May [[1857]]. It was designed by the [[New South Wales Government Architect|New South Wales Colonial Architect]] [[James Barnet]]. The first chairman of the museum was William Holmes, who was appointed on [[June 16]] [[1829]]. He was accidentally shot while at [[Moreton Bay]] on assignment, in August [[1831]].

The Museum was administered directly by the colonial government until June [[1836]], until the establishment of a Committee of Superintendence of the Australian Museum and Botanical Garden. Sub-committees were established for each institution. Members of these committees were generally the ruling members of the political and scientific elite of Sydney; and scions of the Macleay served until [[1853]], at which point the Committee was abolished. In that year, the government drafted the Australian Museum Act, thereby [[incorporation (business)|incorporating]] it and establishing a [[board of trustees|Board of Trustees]] consisting of 24 members. William Sharp Macleay, the former Committee chairman, continued to serve as the Chairman of this committee.

The first curator of the Australian Museum was well-known [[Natural history|naturalist]] [[George Bennett]], appointed in [[1835]], who was the first to catalogue the Museum's collections. After his [[1841]] resignation, he was succeeded by Rev. W.B. Clarke until [[1843]], and then by William Sheridan Wall, a longtime collector with the Museum.In these early years, collecting was the main priority of the Museum. Specimens were commonly traded with English and European institutions.

The scientific stature of the Museum was established under the curatorship of [[Gerard Krefft]], who served until [[1874]], himself a well-published scientist. His successor, [[Edward Pierson Ramsay]], who served until [[1894]], greatly increased the recruitment of scientific staff within the institution. The museum catalogues, first documented by Bennett, were the first scientific publications by the Museum, but with the addition of science staff, and thereby, research output, in [[1890]] Ramsay started the ''[[Records of the Australian Museum]]'' a publication which continues to this day.

In [[1918]], the position of ''Curator'' was renamed ''Director and Curator'', and from [[1921]], ''Director''. In 1948, the ''Scientific Assistants'' (the scientific staff) were redesignated ''Curators'' and ''Assistant Curators''. In 1983, during a period of reorganisation, the position of ''Curator'' was changed, becoming ''Collection Manager''.

During the 19th century, galleries mainly included large display cases overly filled with specimins and artifacts. Displays grew to include [[diorama]]s showing [[habitat group]]s beginning in the [[1920s]], but otherwise, the Museum was largely unchanged during the timespan beginning with the curatorship of Robert Etheridge Jr (1895-1919), until [[1954]], with the appointment of John Evans. Under his direction, additional buildings were built, several galleries were entirely overhauled, and a new Exhibitions department was created. The size of the education staff was also radically increased. By the end of the 1950s, all of the galleries had been completely overhauled.

The Museum's growth in the field of [[scientific research]] continued with Frank Talbot, who succeeded Evans in [[1966]], and a new department of [[environmental science|Environmental Studies]] was created in [[1968]]. The museum support society TAMS (''The Australian Museum Society'') was formed in [[1972]], and in [[1973]] the [[Lizard Island Research Station]] (LIMS), was established near [[Cairns, Queensland|Cairns]].

Director [[Des Griffin]], the successor to Talbot, oversaw extensions to the original Musum building, which were completed in [[1988]]. His direction saw increased cooperation with [[Australian Aborigine|Aborigines]], leading to new exhibitions and policies, as well as repatriations of artefacts.

In [[1995]], the museum established new research centres in [[Conservation ecology|Conservation]], [[Biodiversity]], [[evolution|Evolutionary Research]], [[Geodiversity]], and People and Places. In [[1998]], the [[djamu]] gallery opened at [[Customs House, Sydney|Customs House]], [[Circular Quay]], the first major new venue for the Museum beyond College Street site. A series of exhibitions on Indigenous culture were displayed until the gallery closed at the end of 2000.

The current director is [[Frank Howarth]].

== See also ==
*[[Sydney Explorer]]
==External links==
*[http://www.austmus.gov.au/ Australian Museum Online]
*[http://www.austmus.gov.au/visiting/whatson/ Events calendar]
*[http://www.amonline.net.au/fishes/about/research/staff.htm#paststaff Past staff details]
{{geolinks-AU-streetscale|-33.874321|151.212732}}

{{Sydney landmarks}}
[[Category:Museums in Sydney]]
[[Category:New South Wales government agencies]]
[[Category:Natural history museums]]
[[Category:National museums of Australia]]

[[fr:Australian Museum]]

Marblehead (Massachusetts)

2007-07-05T03:28:56Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 1 edit by 76.24.190.19 identified as vandalism to last revision by TXiKiBoT. using TW

{{Unreferenced|date=March 2007}}
{{Infobox City
|official_name = Marblehead, Massachusetts
|nickname =
|motto =
|image_skyline = Marbleheadneck.jpg
|image_caption = Marblehead Neck as viewed from the Landing on State Street.
|image_seal = marblehead_seal.jpg
|image_flag =
|image_map = Marblehead_ma_highlight.png
|map_caption = Location in Massachusetts
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = State
|subdivision_name1 = [[Massachusetts]]
|subdivision_type2 = County
|subdivision_name2 = [[Essex County, Massachusetts|Essex County]]
|established_title = Settled
|established_date = 1629
|established_title2 = Incorporated
|established_date2 = 1639
|established_title3 =
|established_date3 =
|government_type = [[Open town meeting]]
|leader_title = 
|leader_name =
|leader_title1 = 
|leader_name1 =
|area_total = 50.8
|TotalArea_sq_mi = 19.6
|area_land = 11.7
|LandArea_sq_mi = 4.5
|area_water = 39.1
|WaterArea_sq_mi = 15.1
|population_as_of = 2000
|settlement_type = [[New England town|Town]]
|population_total = 20377
|population_density = 1737.0
|population_density_mi2 = 4498.9
|elevation = 20
|elevation_ft = 65
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd=42 |latm=30 |lats=00 |latNS=N
|longd=70 |longm=51 |longs=30 |longEW=W
|website = http://www.marblehead.org
|postal_code_type = ZIP code
|postal_code = 01945
|area_code = [[Area code 339|339]] / [[Area code 781|781]]
|footnotes = [http://www.marblehead.com Town Website]|
}}
'''Marblehead''' is a [[New England town|town]] in [[Essex County, Massachusetts|Essex County]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States]]. As of the [[as of 2000|2000]] [[census]], the town population was 20,377. It is home to the Marblehead Neck Wildlife Sanctuary. A [[yachting]] resort, Marblehead includes the unincorporated community of [[Clifton, Massachusetts (neighborhood)|Clifton]].

== History ==

Marblehead was first settled as a plantation of [[Salem, Massachusetts|Salem]] in [[1629]] by John Peach Sr., then set off and incorporated in [[1639]]. Originally called Massebequash after the river which ran between it and Salem, the land was inhabited by the Naumkeag [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indians]] under the [[sachem]], Nanepashemet. But [[epidemic]]s in [[1615]]–[[1619]] and [[1633]], believed to be [[smallpox]], devastated the tribe. Heirs of Nanepashemet would sell their 3,700 acres on [[September 16]], [[1684]], the deed preserved today at the town hall.

At times called Marvell Head, Marble Harbour (by Captain [[John Smith of Jamestown|John Smith]]) and Foy (by immigrants from [[Fowey]], [[Cornwall]]), the town would be named Marblehead by settlers who mistook its [[granite]] ledges for [[marble]]. It began as a [[fishing]] village with narrow, crooked streets, and grew inland from the harbor. The shoreline smelled of [[fish flake|drying fish]], typically [[cod]], which were exported abroad and to Salem. The town peaked economically just prior to the [[American Revolution|Revolution]], as locally financed [[privateering]] vessels pirated the seas for bounty from large [[European]] ships. Much early [[architecture]] survives from the era, including the [[Jeremiah Lee Mansion]].

A large percentage of residents became involved early in the fight for American freedom, and the sailors of Marblehead, under General [[John Glover (general)|John Glover]], are generally recognized by scholars as forerunners of the [[U.S. Navy|American Navy]]. The first vessel commissioned for the navy, the ''Hannah'', was equipped with [[cannon]]s, [[rope]], provision (including the indigenous "Joe Frogger" molasses/sea water cookie)—and a crew from Marblehead. Many who set out for war, however, did not return. Indeed, the community lost a substantial portion of its population and economy. After the conflict, fishing would remain important, with 98 vessels (95 of which exceeded 50 tons) putting to sea in [[1837]]. But a [[gale]] or [[hurricane]] at the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]] on [[September 19]], [[1846]] sank 11 vessels and damaged others. With 65 men and boys lost in the storm, the town's fishing industry began a decline.

During the late [[1800s]], Marblehead experienced a short-term boom from shoe-making factories. At the same time, the exceptional harbor attracted yachting and [[yacht club]]s. It would become home to the Boston Yacht Club, Corinthian Yacht Club, Eastern Yacht Club, Marblehead Yacht Club, Dolphin Yacht Club, and the oldest junior yacht club in America, the Pleon Yacht Club.

<gallery>
Image:Front Street, Marblehead, MA.jpg|Front Street in [[1914]]
Image:Lee Mansion, Marblehead, MA.jpg|Lee Mansion in c. 1905
Image:NY Fleet in Marblehead Harbor.jpg|The Harbor in [[1908]]
Image:La Fayette House, Marblehead, MA.jpg|Lafayette House, c. 1908
</gallery>

==Geography==
Marblehead is located at {{coor dms|42|29|49|N|70|51|47|W|city}} (42.497146, -70.863236).{{GR|1}}

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 50.8 [[km²]] (19.6 [[square mile|mi²]]). 11.7 km² (4.5 mi²) of it is land and 39.1 km² (15.1 mi²) of it (76.92%) is water. Marblehead is situated on [[Massachusetts Bay]] and Salem Bay. The town is comprised of a rocky [[peninsula]] that extends into the [[Atlantic Ocean]], with a [[isthmus|neck]] connected by a long [[bar (landform)|sandbar]]. This ring of land defines Marblehead's deep, sheltered harbor.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Old Bowen House, Marblehead, MA.jpg|thumb|left|Old Bowen House in c. 1905]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 20,377 people, 8,541 households, and 5,679 families residing in the town. The [[population density]] was 1,736.8/km² (4,498.9/mi²). There were 8,906 housing units at an average density of 759.1/km² (1,966.3/mi²). The racial makeup of the town was 97.56% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.44% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (United States Census)|African American]], 0.08% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.98% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.03% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.19% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 0.73% from two or more races. Only [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 0.88% of the population.

There were 8,541 households out of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.5% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.5% were non-families. 28.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.94.

[[Image:The Old Spite House, Marblehead, MA.jpg|thumb|right|The Old Spite House in c. [[1912]]]]
In the town the population was spread out with 23.9% under the age of 18, 3.5% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 29.0% from 45 to 64, and 15.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 89.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.3 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $73,968, and the median income for a family was $99,892. Males had a median income of $70,470 versus $44,988 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the town was $46,738. About 3.2% of families and 4.3% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 5.7% of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 or over.

==School Sports==
The Marblehead High School sports teams have been very successful in recent years. In 2007, the Marblehead Fishwagons won the Massachusetts State Championships, at MIT. They sailed Tech Dinghies, but normally race Club 420s and occasionally Club FJs. The Cheerleading squad also won states and nationals that year. The Marblehead Magicians football team beat rival Swampscott 6-0 in the 2006 Thanksgiving day game, but that is a very rare occasion, as their football team is usually quite bad.

[[Image:View from Crocker Park.jpg|thumb|right|Crocker Park view in c. [[1907]]]]

==Points of interest==
* Crocker Park, the gift of Uriel Crocker
* Crowninshield Island
* Devereux Beach
* [[Herreshoff Castle]]
* Marblehead Neck Wildlife Sanctuary [http://www.massaudubon.org/marbleheadneck/]
* The Driftwood
* [[Marblehead Light|The Lighthouse]]
* Pleon Yacht Club, the oldest junior yacht club in the United States. [http://pleon.org/2006/history.php]

===Historical Sites & Museums===
* [[Abbot Hall (Marblehead, Massachusetts)|Abbot Hall]] ([[1877]]), containing ''The Spirit of '76'' by [[Archibald MacNeal Willard]]
* [http://www.essexheritage.org/sites/fort_sewall.shtml Fort Sewall] ([[1644]])
* [http://www.marbleheadmuseum.org/FrostArtGallery.htm Frost Folk Art Museum]
* [http://www.marbleheadmuseum.org/GARMuseum.htm G.A.R. & Civil War Museum]
* King Hooper Mansion ([[1768]])
* [http://www.marbleheadmuseum.org/LeeMansion.htm Jeremiah Lee Mansion] (1768)

==Notable residents==
* [[Frank Black]], contemporary musician
* W. Starling Burgess, yacht designer & [[Burgess Company|aircraft manufacturer]]
* [[Uriel Crocker]], publisher, businessman
* [[Shalane Flanagan]], American-record holding distance runner
* [[Elbridge Gerry]], politician
* [[John Glover (general)|John Glover]], [[Revolutionary War]] general
* [[Tyler Hamilton]], cyclist
* [[Ted Hood]], yachtsman, [[America's Cup]] winner
* [[Harry Kemelman]], novelist
* [[Peter Lynch]], investor, author
* [[Joseph Story]], [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] justice
* [[Cory Schneider]], [[Vancouver Canucks]] top-prospect goaltender

==Arts==
[[Image:Thunderstorm at Marblehead, MA.jpg|thumb|right|Thunderstorm in c. [[1910]]]]
Movies filmed in Marblehead include:
* ''Autumn Heart'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Hocus Pocus (film)|Hocus Pocus]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Moonlight Mile]]'' ([[2002]])
* ''Treading Water'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[The Good Son (1993 movie)|The Good Son]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Coma]]'' (1974)
* ''[[The Witches of Eastwick]]''
* ''[[What's the Worst That Could Happen?]]'' (although filmed in [[Manchester-by-the-Sea, Massachusetts|Manchester-by-the-Sea]], scenes are said to be set in town)

[[H.P. Lovecraft]] based his fictional Massachusetts town [[Kingsport (Lovecraft)|Kingsport]] on Marblehead. The real Marblehead, as well as Lovecraft himself, appears in the [[1985 in literature|1985]] [[Richard A. Lupoff]] novel ''Lovecraft's Book''. It also features in the eponymous [[1978 in literature|1978]] ''Marblehead'' by Joan Thompson.

Lovecraft once visited Marblehead in December [[1922]] and described his voyage as:
:"…the most powerful single emotional climax experienced during my nearly forty years of existence. In a flash all the past of New England--all the past of Old England—all the past of Anglo-Saxondom and the Western World—swept over me and identified me with the stupendous totality of all things in such a way as it never did before and never did again. That was the high tide of my life.".<ref>H. P. Lovecraft, ''Selected Letters'' Vol. 3, pp. 126-127; cited in Joshi and Schultz, ''An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia'', p. 92.</ref>

Author Ben Sherwood set his acclaimed novel ''[[The Death and Life of Charlie St. Cloud]]'' in Marblehead, featuring the Waterside Cemetery. Harry Kemelman wrote a series of mystery novels around a character, "Rabbi Small", who solves various murder cases in a town very similar to Marblehead, nicknamed "Barnard's Crossing". Kemelman lived in Marblehead for 50 years. Marblehead is referred to as the Birthplace of the American Navy.

[[Robert B. Parker]] supposedly based the fictional town of Paradise on Marblehead in his Jesse Stone book series, going so far as to include the annual Race Week yachting event.

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.marblehead.org/ Town of Marblehead]
* [http://www.abbotlibrary.org/ Abbot Public Library]
* [http://www.marblehead.com/ Marblehead.com]
* [http://www.marbleheadmuseum.org/ Marblehead Museum & Historical Society]
* [http://www.mheadrace.org/ Marblehead Racing Association]
* [http://www.marbleheadreporter.com/ Marblehead Reporter]
* [http://www.visitmarblehead.com/ Marblehead Travel Guide]
* [http://www.marbleheadchamber.org/ Marblehead Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.symphonybythesea.org/ Symphony by the Sea]

{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.497146|-70.863236}}

{{Massachusetts}}

[[Category:Towns in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Coastal towns of Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Essex County, Massachusetts]]

[[fr:Marblehead (Massachusetts)]]
[[lmo:Marblehead, Massachusetts]]
[[nl:Marblehead (Massachusetts)]]
[[sv:Marblehead]]
[[vo:Marblehead]]

West Wycombe Park

2007-07-04T10:58:51Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 1 edit by 212.219.232.86 identified as vandalism to last revision by DWaterson. using TW

[[Image:West Wycombe 3 (Giano).gif|thumb|300px|The double [[colonnade]] on the south front of West Wycombe is highly unusual in English architecture. (''Marked '''M''' on plan below'')]]

[[Image:Sirfrancisdashwood.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sir [[Francis Dashwood, 15th Baron le Despencer|Francis Dashwood]], 2nd Baronet (1708–1781), notorious "bon vivant" and builder of West Wycombe, dressed in his "Ottoman" dining club garb.]]

'''West Wycombe Park''' is a luxurious [[English country house|country house]] near the [[village]] of [[West Wycombe]] in [[Buckinghamshire]], [[England]]. Built between 1740 and 1800 as a pleasure palace for the decadent 18th century [[libertine]] and [[wikt:dilettante|dilettante]] Sir [[Francis Dashwood, 15th Baron le Despencer|Francis Dashwood]], the house is a long rectangle with four [[façade]]s that are [[column]]ed and [[pediment]]ed, three theatrically so. The house encapsulates the entire progression of British 18th century architecture from early idiosyncratic [[Palladian]] to the [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]], although anomalies in the design of the house make it architecturally unique. The mansion is set within an 18th century landscaped park, containing many small [[temple]]s and [[folly|follies]] which act as satellites to the greater temple, the house.

The house, which is a Grade I [[listed building]],<ref>{{IoEentry|46157|Imagesofengland.org.uk entry}}</ref> was given to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] in 1943 by Sir John Dashwood, 10th [[Baronet]] (1896–1966), an action strongly resented by his heir.<ref>Knox p 62.</ref> Dashwood retained ownership of the contents of the house, much of which he sold; after his death, the house was restored at the expense of his son, Sir Francis Dashwood. Today, while the structure is owned by the National Trust, the house is the home of Sir Edward Dashwood and his family. The house is open to the public during the summer months and a venue for civil weddings and corporate entertainment, which help to fund its maintenance and upkeep.

==Architecture==
===Ethos===
[[Image:Palazzo Chiericati.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Palazzo Chiericati]] (above) by [[Palladio]] (c.1550) has a superposed colonnade similar to that at West Wycombe, but the inspiration for the south front may have been Palladio's reconstruction of [[Vitruvius]]'s Roman villa illustrated in his ''[[Quattro Libri]]''.]]

[[Image:Villa La Rotonda.JPG|thumb|150px|right|Palladio's [[Villa Capra "La Rotonda"|Villa Capra detta La Rotonda]] was the inspiration for [[Mereworth Castle]], the home of Dashwood's uncle, [[John Fane, 7th Earl of Westmorland|Lord Westmorland]]. West Wycombe's east front was in turn built as a homage to Westmorland's artistic taste at Mereworth.<ref>Knox p 9.</ref>]]

West Wycombe Park, architecturally inspired by the villas of the Veneto constructed during the late [[renaissance]] period, is not one of the largest, grandest or best-known of England's many country houses. Compared to its [[Palladian]] contemporaries, such as [[Holkham Hall]], [[Woburn Abbey]] and [[Ragley Hall]], it is quite small, yet it is architecturally important as it encapsulates a period of 18th century English social history, when young men, known as [[dilettanti]], returning from the nearly obligatory [[Grand Tour]] with newly purchased acquisitions of art, often built a country house to accommodate their new collections and display in stone the learning and cultivation they had acquired during their travels.<ref>Girouard p 177.</ref>

The West Wycombe estate was acquired by [[Sir Francis Dashwood, 1st Baronet]] and his brother Samuel in 1698. Dashwood demolished the existing [[manor house]] and built a modern mansion on higher ground nearby. This mansion forms the core of the present house. Images of the house on early estate plans show a quite conventional square house in the contemporary late [[Carolean]] style. In 1724, Dashwood bequeathed this unremarkable house to his 16-year-old son, the 2nd Baronet, also Francis, later Lord le Despencer, who is perhaps best known for establishing the [[Hellfire Club]] close to the mansion, in the [[West Wycombe Caves]]. Two years later, he embarked on a series of Grand Tours: the ideas and manners he learned during this period influenced him throughout his life and were pivotal in the rebuilding of his father's simple house, transforming it into the classical edifice that exists today. [[Image:Farnesina frescoes.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Fresco]]es in the [[Villa Farnesina]] (c.1510), which inspired the decoration of West Wycombe's interior.]]

West Wycombe has been described as "one of the most theatrical and Italianate mid-18th century buildings in England".<ref>All about Britain.com</ref> Of all the country houses of the 18th century, its [[façade]]s replicate in undiluted form not only the [[Classical architecture|classical]] [[villa]]s of Italy on which [[Palladianism]] was founded, but also the [[temple]]s of [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]] on which [[Neoclassicism]] was based. The [[Doric order|Greek Doric]] of the house's west portico is the earliest example of the [[Greek revival]] in Britain.

The late 18th century was also a period of change in the interior design of English country houses. The [[Baroque]] conception of the principal floor, or ''[[piano nobile]]'', with a large bedroom suite known as the [[state apartments]] and only one large hall or [[state room|saloon]] for common use, was gradually abandoned in favour of smaller, more comfortable bedrooms on the upper floors. This revised floor plan allowed the principal floor to become a series of reception rooms, each with a designated purpose, creating separate areas such as the [[withdrawing room]], dining room, music room, and ballroom. In this way, West Wycombe perfectly reflects the changes and ideals of the late 18th century. This arrangement of reception and public rooms on a lower floor, with bedrooms and more private rooms above, survives unchanged.

===Exterior===
[[Image:West Wycombe 2 (Giano).gif|thumb|right|300px|The North Front of West Wycombe. (''Marked '''O''' on plan below'')]]

The builder of West Wycombe, Sir [[Francis Dashwood, 15th Baron le Despencer|Francis Dashwood]], 2nd Baronet (later [[Baron le Despencer]]), employed three different [[architect]]s and two [[landscape architect]]s in the design of the house and its grounds. He also had a huge input himself: he had made the [[Grand Tour]], seen the villas of the [[Italian renaissance]] first hand, and wished to emulate them.

Work began in 1740 and finished c.1800, when the older house had been fully transformed inside and out. This long building time explains the flaws and variations in design: when building commenced in 1740, Palladianism was the height of fashion, but, by the time of its completion, Palladianism had been completely succeeded by Neoclassicism; thus, the house is a [[marriage]] of both styles. While the marriage is not completely unhappy, the Palladian features are marred by the lack of [[Palladio]]'s proportions: the east portico is asymmetrical with the axis of the house, and trees were planted either side to draw the eye away from the design flaw.

[[Image:East Portico, West Wycombe.gif|thumb|left|250px|1781 view of the south façade, showing the trees planted to hide the asymmetrical east [[portico]]. The building to the left is the "Temple of [[Apollo]]".]]

The finest architects of the day submitted plans to transform the older family house into a modern architectural extravaganza. Among them was [[Robert Adam]], who submitted a plan for the west portico, but his idea was dropped;<ref>Pevsner p 286 attributes the adjoining, but now semi-demolished, service block and stables to [[Robert Adam]]. This attribution is not repeated in other reference books.</ref> finally, the architect [[Nicholas Revett]] was consulted and created the present west portico. Today, the first sight of the house as one approaches from the drive is this large west portico: from this direction, the entire end of the house appears as a Grecian temple. This eight-columned portico, inspired by the [[Temple of Bacchus]] in [[Baalbek]] and completed by 1770, is considered to be the earliest example of [[Greek revival architecture]] in Britain.<ref>Knox p 7.</ref> The opposite (east) end of the house, designed by [[John Donowell]] and completed c.1755, appears equally temple-like, but this time the muse was the [[Villa Rotunda]]. Thus the two opposing porticos, east and west, illustrate perfectly the period of architectural transformation of the late 18th century from the earlier Roman inspired Palladian architecture to the more Greek inspired Neoclassicism.

[[Image:West Wycombe Park 1 (Giano).gif|thumb|right|250px|West Wycombe's east portico, with planting attempting to hide its asymmetrical alignment with the house. (''Marked '''N''' on plan below'')]]

The principal façade is the great south front, a two-storey [[colonnade]] of [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] columns superimposed on [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]], the whole surmounted by a [[pediment]] in the centre. The [[column]]s are not stone, but wood coated in [[stucco]]. This is particularly interesting, as cost was no object in the construction of the house. The architect of this elevation was John Donowell, who executed the work between 1761 and 1763 (although he had to wait until 1775 for payment<ref>Wallace p 12.</ref>). The façade, which has similarities to the main façade of Palladio's [[Palazzo Chiericati]] of 1550, was originally the entrance front. The front door is still in the centre of the ground floor leading into the main entry hall. This in itself is a substantial deviation from the classical form: West Wycombe does not have a first floor ''[[piano nobile]]'': had the architect truly followed Palladio's ideals, the main entrance and principal rooms would have been on the first floor reached by an outer staircase, giving the main reception rooms elevated views, and allowing the ground floor to be given over to service rooms.

The more severe north front is of 11 [[Bay (architecture)|bays]], with the end bays given significance by [[rustication (architecture)|rustication]] at ground floor level. The centre of this façade has [[Ionic order|Ionic]] columns supporting a pediment and originally had the Dashwood [[coat of arms]]. This façade is thought to date from around 1750–1751, although the segmented windows of this facade suggest it was one of the first of the 2nd Baronet's improvements to the original house to be completed, as the curved or segmented window heads are symbolic of the earlier part of the 18th century.<ref>Pevsner p 283.</ref>

===Interior===
[[Image:WWPlan&key.gif|thumb|right|400px|Room plan of the ground floor. Key: '''A''' Hall; '''B''' Saloon; '''C''' Red Drawing room; '''D''' Study; '''E''' Music room; '''F''' Blue Drawing Room; '''G''' Staircase; '''H''' Dining Room; '''J''' Tapestry Room; '''K''' King's Room (former principal bedroom); '''L''' West Portico; '''M''' South Front and colonnade; '''N''' East Portico; '''O''' North Front; '''P''' service wing.]]

The principal reception rooms are on the ground floor with large [[sash window]]s opening immediately into the porticos and the colonnades, and therefore onto the gardens, a situation unheard of in the grand villas and palaces of [[Renaissance]] Italy. The mansion contains a series of 18th century salons decorated and furnished in the style of that period, with [[polychrome]] marble floors, and painted ceilings depicting classical scenes of [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]]. Of particular note is the entrance hall, which resembles a Roman [[Atrium (architecture)|atrium]] with marbled columns and a painted ceiling copied from Robert Wood's ''Ruins of Palmyra''.

Many of the reception rooms have painted ceilings copied from Italian [[palazzo|palazzi]], most notably from the [[Palazzo Farnese]] in [[Rome]]. The largest room in the house is the Music Room, which opens onto the east portico. The ceiling fresco in this room depicts the "Banquet of the Gods" and was copied from the [[Villa Farnesina]]. The Saloon, which occupies the centre of the north front, contains many marbles, including statuettes of the four seasons. The ceiling depicting "The Council of the Gods and the Admission of Psyche" is also a copy from [[Villa Farnesina]].

[[Image:WWP ceiling.gif|thumb|left|150px|[[Giuseppe Borgnis]]' 1752 ceiling in West Wycombe's Blue Drawing Room ceiling is a direct copy of [[Annibale Carracci]]'s original work at the [[Palazzo Farnese]].]]

The Dining Room walls are painted faux [[jasper]] and hold paintings of the house's patron — [[Sir Francis Dashwood]] — and his fellow members of the [[Divan Club]] (a society for those who had visited the [[Ottoman Empire]]). The room also has a painted ceiling from Wood's ''Palmyra''.

The Blue Drawing Room is dominated by the elaborate painted ceiling depicting "The Triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne" (''illustrated left''). This room houses a plaster statuette of the [[Venus de' Medici]] and marks the 2nd Baronet's risqué devotion to that goddess of love. The room has walls of blue [[flock]] hung in the 1960s bearing paintings from various Italian schools of the 17th century.

The relatively small study contains plans for the house and potential impressions for various elevations. One is reputed to have been drawn by Sir Francis Dashwood himself, while the Tapestry Room, once ante-room to the adjoining former principal bedroom, is hung with tapestries given to [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|the 1st Duke of Marlborough]] to celebrate his victories in the [[Low Countries]]. Marlborough was a distant kinsman of the Dashwoods. The [[tapestry|tapestries]], woven c.1710, depicting peasant scenes by [[Teniers]], have been cut and adapted to fit the proportions and features of the room.

In spite of the grandeur of the interior decoration, the interior of the house is not overpowering. The rooms are not cavernously large nor the ceilings gigantically high. The many large windows in each room allow light to flood in illuminating the colours of the many paintings, silk hangings on the walls and antique furniture.

==The gardens and the Park==
[[Image:West Wycombe 4 (Giano).gif|thumb|right|300px|The Temple of Music situated on one of the islands of the swan-shaped lake. In the background, on the hill, are the Dashwood [[mausoleum]] and church.]]
The gardens at West Wycombe Park are among the finest and most idiosyncratic 18th century gardens surviving in [[England]].<ref>Knox, p30.</ref> The park is unique in its consistent use of Classical architecture from both Greece and Italy. The two principal architects of the gardens at West Wycombe were John Donowell and [[Nicholas Revett]]. They designed all of the ornamental [[List of garden structures at West Wycombe Park|buildings in the park]]. The landscape architect [[Thomas Cook (landscape architect)|Thomas Cook]] began to execute the plans for the park, with a nine-[[acre]] man-made lake created from the nearby [[River Wye, Buckinghamshire|River Wye]] in the form of a swan. The lake originally had a Spanish [[galleon]] for the amusement of Dashwood's guests, complete with a resident captain on board.<ref>Knox p 4.</ref> Water leaves the lake down a [[waterfall|cascade]] and into a canal pond.

One of the most important landmarks in the late [[Georgian period in British history|Georgian]] period was the introduction of many new species of trees and flora from around the world, which [[Horace Walpole]] described as giving the "richness and colouring so peculiar to the modern landscape".<ref>Jackson-Stops, p208.</ref> The new species also allowed changes of mood through changes of planting, so an area could be dark and melancholic, or light and ebullient, or mysterious; thus, contemporary gardens such as West Wycombe and [[Stourhead]], both arranged as a walk around a lake, took the visitor through a range of locations, each with its own specific character and quite separate from the last. [[Humphry Repton]] later extended the 5,000 acres (20 km²) of grounds to the east, towards the nearby town of [[High Wycombe]], until they appeared much as they do today.

[[Image:West wycome Temple.JPG|thumb|left|200px|The "Temple of Apollo" was originally a gateway and later used for [[cock fighting]]; it also screened the view of the domestic [[service wing]] from the main house. (''Marked '''P''' on plan above'')]]

The park still contains many [[folly|follies]] and temples. The "Temple of Music" is on an island in the lake, inspired by the [[Temple of Vesta]] in [[Rome]]. It was designed for Dashwood's [[fête champêtre|fêtes champêtres]],<ref>Jackson-Stops, p192</ref> with the temple used as a theatre; the remains of the stage survive.<ref>Knox, p37.</ref> Opposite the temple is the garden's main cascade which has statues of two [[Nymph|water nymphs]]. The present cascade has been remade, as the original was demolished in the 1830s. An [[octagonal]] tower known as the "Temple of the Winds" is based in design on the [[Tower of the Winds]] in [[Athens]].<ref>Knox p 36.</ref>

Classical architecture continues along the path around the lake, with the "Temple of [[Flora (mythology)|Flora]]", a hidden [[summerhouse]], and the "Temple of [[Daphne (mythology)|Daphne]]", both reminiscent of a small temple on the [[Acropolis]]. Another hidden temple, the "Round Temple", has a curved [[loggia]]. Nearer the house, screening the service wing from view, is a Roman [[triumphal arch]], the "Temple of [[Apollo]]", also known (because of its former use a venue for [[cock fighting]]) as 'Cockpit Arch', which holds a copy of the famed [[Apollo Belvedere]]. Close by is the "Temple of [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]]", with a small niche containing a statue of the goddess. Another goddess is celebrated in the "Temple of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]". Below this is an [[Exedra]], a [[grotto]] (known as Venus's Parlour) and a statue of [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]]. This once held a copy of the [[Venus de' Medici]]; it was demolished in the 1820s but has recently been reconstructed and now holds a replica of the [[Venus de Milo]].

Later structures that break the classical theme include the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic]] style [[boathouse]], a Gothic Alcove — now a romantic ruin hidden amongst undergrowth — and a Gothic [[Chapel]], once home of the village [[cobbler]] but later used as the estate [[kennel]]s. A monument dedicated to [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] was erected on her 60th birthday in 1986.

==The Dashwoods of West Wycombe==
[[Image:Dashwoods of West Wycombe.gif|thumb|300px|right|Painting titled "Sir Francis and Lady Dashwood at West Wycombe Park", painted in 1776, with the newly completed house behind the couple.<ref>In the background on the hill is the newly completed church, yet curiously the mausoleum constructed c.1764 (by a member of the [[Bastard brothers|Bastard family]] is absent, suggesting the attribution of date to the painting is wrong. If the date 1776 was correct then the lady portrayed is likely to be not Lady Dashwood, who died in 1769, but Frances Barry, Dashwood's [[mistress (lover)|mistress]] and mother of his two children, with whom he lived after the death of his wife.</ref>]]

Sir Francis Dashwood built West Wycombe to entertain, and there has been much speculation on the kind of entertainment he provided for his guests. Judged against the sexual [[moral]]s of the late 18th century, Dashwood and his [[clique]] were regarded as promiscuous; while it is likely that the contemporary reports of the [[bacchanalia]]n [[orgy|orgies]] over which Dashwood presided in the [[Hellfire Club|Hellfire]] caves above West Wycombe were exaggerated, [[free love]] and heavy drinking did take place there.<ref>Knox p 50.</ref> Dashwood often had himself depicted in [[portrait]]s in fancy dress (in one, dressed as the [[pope]] toasting a female [[Herme]]<ref>Knox p 50.</ref>), and it is his love of fancy dress which seems to have pervaded through to his parties at West Wycombe Park. Following the dedication of the West portico as a bacchanalian temple in 1771, Dashwood and his friends dressed in skins adorned with vine leaves and went to party by the lake for "[[Paean]]s and [[libation]]s".<ref>Jackson-Stops p 148.</ref> On another occasion, during a [[naumachia|mock sea battle]] on the lake, the "captain" of one of the [[yacht]]s masquerading as a battle ship was nearly killed when he was struck by a cannon ball of wadding fired at him from an opposing ship. Dashwood seems to have mellowed in his later years and devoted his life to charitable works. He died in 1781, bequeathing West Wycombe to his half-brother [[Sir John Dashwood-King, 3rd Baronet]].

Dashwood-King spent little time at West Wycombe. On his death in 1793, the estate was inherited by his son [[Sir John Dashwood-King, 4th Baronet|Sir John Dashwood, 4th Baronet]], [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Wycombe (UK Parliament constituency)|Wycombe]] and a friend of the [[George IV of the United Kingdom|Prince of Wales]], although their friendship was tested when Sir John accused his wife of an affair with the prince.<ref>Knox p 57.</ref> Like his father, Sir John cared little for West Wycombe and held a five-day sale of West Wycombe's furniture in 1800. In 1806, he was prevented from selling West Wycombe by the [[trustee]]s of his son, to whom the estate was [[entailed]]. He became religious in the last years of his life, holding ostentatiously [[teetotal]] parties in the West Wycombe's gardens in aid of the "Friends of Order and Sobriety" — these would have been vastly different to the bacchanalian fêtes given by his uncle in the grounds. In 1847, Sir John was bankrupt and [[bailiff]]s possessed the furniture from his home at [[Halton House|Halton]]. He died estranged from his wife and surviving son in 1849.

[[Image:West Wycombe 5 (Giano).gif|thumb|right|300px|Overlooking the gardens and park are the tower of West Wycombe Church (left), and the [[mausoleum]] (right). In the hexagonal structure, more a walled enclosure than mausoleum, were entombed the hearts of associates of the [[Hellfire Club]]. The family are buried in a [[burial vault|vault]] beneath the church.<ref>Knowles</ref>]]

Sir John was succeeded by his estranged son [[Sir George Dashwood, 5th Baronet]]. For the first time since the death of the 2nd Baronet in 1781, West Wycombe became again a favoured residence. However, the estate was heavily in debt and Sir George was forced to sell the unentailed estates, including Halton, which was sold to [[Lionel de Rothschild]] for the then huge sum of £54,000. The change in the Dashwoods' fortunes allowed for the refurbishment and restoration of West Wycombe. Sir George died childless in 1862, and left his wife, Elizabeth, a [[life tenancy]] of the house while the title and ownership passed briefly to his brother and then a nephew. Lady Dashwood's continuing occupation of the house prevented the nephew, [[Sir Edwin Dashwood, 7th Baronet|Sir Edwin Hare Dashwood, 7th Baronet]], an [[alcoholic]] sheep farmer in the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]], from living in the mansion until she died in 1889, leaving a neglected and crumbling estate.

The 7th Baronet's son, Sir Edwin Dashwood, 8th Baronet, arrived from New Zealand to claim the house, only to find Lady Dashwood's heirs claiming the house's contents and family jewellery, which they subsequently sold. As a consequence, Sir Edwin was forced to [[mortgage]] the house and estate in 1892. He died suddenly the following year, and the heavily indebted estate passed to his brother, Sir Robert Dashwood, 9th Baronet. Sir Robert embarked on a costly legal case against the executors of Lady Dashwood, which he lost, and raised money by denuding the estate's woodlands and selling the family town house in London. On his death in 1908, the house passed to his 13-year-old son Sir John Dashwood, 10th Baronet, who in his adulthood sold much of the remaining original furnishings (including the state bed, for £58 — this important item of the house's history complete with its gilded pineapples is now lost). In 1922, he attempted to sell the house itself. He received only one offer, of £10,000, so the house was withdrawn from sale. Forced to live in a house he disliked,<ref>Knox p 61.</ref> the village of West Wycombe was sold in its entirety to pay for renovations. Not all these renovations were beneficial: painted 18th century ceilings were overpainted white, and the dining room was divided into service rooms, allowing the large service wing to be abandoned to rot.

A form of salvation for West Wycombe was Sir John's wife: Lady Dashwood, the former Helen Eaton, was a [[socialite]] who loved entertaining, and did so in some style at West Wycombe throughout the 1930s. Living a semi-estranged life from her husband, occupying opposite ends of the mansion, she frequently gave "large and stylish"<ref>Knox p 61.</ref> house parties funded by further sales of land from the estate.

During [[World War II]], the house saw service as a depository for the evacuated [[Wallace Collection]] and a convalescent home. A troop of gunners occupied the decaying service wing, and the park was used for the inflation of [[barrage balloon]]s. During this turmoil, the Dashwoods retreated to the upper floor and took in [[lodger]]s to pay the bills, albeit very superior lodgers, who included [[Nancy Mitford]] and [[James Lees-Milne]].

Lees-Milne was secretary of the Country House Committee of the National Trust, which had a wartime office based at West Wycombe. Sir John, appreciating the historical importance of the house, if not the house itself, gave the property to the National Trust in 1943, together with an endowment of £2,000.

==West Wycombe in the 21st century==
Today, West Wycombe Park serves a combined role of public [[museum]], family home, and film set. During the summer months, the paying public can tour the ground floor room to view the architecture and the [[antique]] contents of the house still owned by the Dashwoods, many of which have been re-purchased and restored to the house by Sir Francis Dashwood, 11th Baronet, in the late 20th century, following their dispersal during the various sales of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

The present head of the Dashwood family, Sir Edward Dashwood (born 1964), lives in the mansion with his wife and three young children. Sir Edward runs the estate and house as a commercial concern, in order that the entire estate can be retained and maintained. The house is frequently let out as a filming location, and, in addition to agricultural [[enterprise]]s, there is a large [[Pheasant|pheasant shoot]] with paying guns.

West Wycombe is not just maintained today, but continues to be improved. For example, a huge [[equestrian sculpture]] has been installed as the focal point of a long tree lined [[vista]] from the house. On close inspection, it proves to be a [[fibre glass]] [[Theatrical property|prop]] found at [[Pinewood Studios]], acquired in the late 20th century by Sir Francis Dashwood (11th Baronet) who paid for it with 12 bottles of champagne.<ref>Knox p 35.</ref> The local [[Local government in the United Kingdom|Planning Authority]] was furious but lost their [[Lawsuit|action]] to have it removed. Today, from a distance, it has been "''known to fool experts''".<ref>Knox p 35. Knox does not name these experts</ref>

The park, a natural [[amphitheatre]],<ref>Knox p 5</ref> is often the setting for large public [[concert]]s and [[firework]] displays. In this way, the mansion, often used for weddings and corporate entertainment, and its park are still the setting for the lavish entertaining that their creator planned. In the stewardship of both the National Trust and Sir Edward Dashwood, West Wycombe Park is not only a well-preserved monument to the tastes and foibles of the late 18th century but also a much-used public venue.

==Notes==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">
<references />
</div>

==References==
*{{cite book
| last = Girouard
| first = Mark
| year = 1978
| title = Life in the English country house
| publisher = Yale University
| location = Yale

}}
*{{cite book
| last = Jackson-Stops
| first = Gervase
| year = 1988
| title = The Country House Garden (A grand tour)
| publisher = Pavilion Book Ltd
| location = London
| id = ISBN 1-85145-123-4
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Knox
| first = Tim
| year = 2001
| title = West Wycombe Park
| publisher = The National Trust
| location = Bromley, Kent.

}}
*{{cite book
| last = Pevsner
| first = Nikolaus
| year = 1973
| title = Buckinghamshire
| publisher = Penguin Books Ltd
| location = England
| id = ISBN 0-14-071019-1
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Wallace
| first = Carew
| year = 1967
| title = West Wycombe Park
| publisher = National Trust
| location = England

}}
*[http://www.aboutbritain.com/WestWycombePark.htm All about Britain.com] Retrieved [[18 August]] [[2006]]
*[http://www.dicamillocompanion.com/Houses_hgpm.asp?ID=2093 The di Camillo Companion, database of houses.] Retrieved [[18 August]] [[2006]]
*[http://www.controverscial.com/Sir%20Francis%20Dashwood.htm Knowles George. ''Sir Francis Dashwood'' Controverscial.Com] Retrieved [[20 August]] [[2006]]

==See also==
*[[List of garden structures at West Wycombe Park]]
*[[List of films shot at West Wycombe Park]]
*[[Dashwood Baronets]]

==External links==
*[http://www.west-wycombe-estate.co.uk/ West Wycombe Estate]
*[http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-vh/w-visits/w-findaplace/w-westwycombepark/ West Wycombe Park information from the National Trust]

{{featured article}}
{{coor title d|51.643|N|0.808|W}}

[[Category:1800s architecture]]
[[Category:Gardens in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Houses in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:National Trust properties in England]]
[[Category:Neoclassical architecture]]
[[ru:Уест-Уикомб парк]]

Hamilton College (New York)

2007-07-04T07:44:47Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 1 edit by 71.60.231.57 identified as vandalism to last revision by Recurring dreams. using TW

{{For|other colleges with the same name}}
{{Infobox_University
|name = Hamilton College
|image_name = Hamilton_College_seal.jpg
|motto = Γνωθι Σεαυτον ([[Know thyself|Know Thyself]])
|established = [[1793]] as Hamilton-Oneida Academy, [[1812]] as Hamilton College
|type = [[Private school|Private]] [[coeducational]]
|president = [[Joan Hinde Stewart]]
|address = 198 College Hill Road
|city = [[Clinton, Oneida County, New York|Clinton]]
|state = [[New York|NY]]
|country = [[United States|USA]]
|undergrad = 1,780
|postgrad =
|staff= 183
|free_label =
|free =
|campus = [[rural]]
|nickname = Continentals
|colors = [[Buff (colour)|Buff]] and [[Blue]]
|website= [http://www.hamilton.edu www.hamilton.edu]
}}

'''Hamilton College''' is a private, independent, highly selective [[liberal arts college]] located in [[Clinton, Oneida County, New York|Clinton]], [[New York]]. The college is known for its emphasis on writing and speaking. Hamilton was founded as a men's college in 1812, and has been [[coeducational]] since [[1978]], when it merged with [[Kirkland College]].

Hamilton is sometimes referred to as the 'College on the Hill', due to the school's location on top of College Hill, just outside of downtown Clinton. Hamilton College is one of the top liberal arts colleges in the country, and is considered one of the "[[Little Ivies]]."

==Academics==
Hamilton currently offers the [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in any of over 50 areas of concentration.<ref>[http://www.hamilton.edu/academics/ Hamilton College - Academics]</ref> Additionally, Hamilton students may study abroad. The College runs programs in [[China]], [[France]], and [[Spain]], as well as programs closer to home in [[New York City]] and [[Washington, DC]]. Hamilton is well known for its unique "open" curriculum, for which there are no distributional requirements; students have nearly total freedom over their course selection. Hamilton College, Brown University and Smith College are institutions with such a policy. The college has a tradition of adherence to an academic honor code. Every student matriculating at Hamilton must sign a pledge to observe the Honor Code, and many examinations are not proctored. Hamilton has been part of the [[SAT#SAT optional movement|SAT optional movement]] for undergraduate admission since [[2002]]{{Fact|date=May 2007}}.

==History==
Hamilton began in 1793 as the '''Hamilton-Oneida Academy''', a K-12 school, and was chartered as Hamilton College in [[1812]]. [[Samuel Kirkland]] founded the College as part of his missions work with the [[Oneida tribe]]. The college is named for [[Alexander Hamilton]], who was a member of the first Board of Trustees of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy (though he never set foot on campus). [[Baron von Steuben]], acting as Hamilton's surrogate, laid the college's cornerstone.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

In [[1978]], the all-male Hamilton College merged with the [[Women's colleges in the United States|all-female]] [[Kirkland College]], which had been located adjacent to and founded by Hamilton; the primary public reason for the merger was Kirkland's imminent insolvency. It took nearly 7 years to fully complete the merger; female students were given the option of receiving a Kirkland diploma instead of a Hamilton diploma until [[1979]]. Several former Kirkland faculty members teaching at Hamilton still fondly remember being part of a very different academic community prior to the merger.

Hamilton College is the third oldest college established in New York, after [[Columbia University|Columbia]] and [[Union College|Union]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

Since the 1970s, Hamilton has been a member of the NESCAC athletic conference (despite being located outside of New England), which includes [[Amherst College|Amherst]], [[Bates College|Bates]], [[Bowdoin College|Bowdoin]], [[Colby College|Colby]], [[Connecticut College]], [[Middlebury College|Middlebury]], [[Trinity College (Connecticut)|Trinity]], [[Tufts University|Tufts]], [[Wesleyan University|Wesleyan]], and [[Williams College|Williams]].

Today, the original Hamilton campus is referred to by students and some school literature as the "light side" or "north side" of the campus. Formerly that side of campus was referred to as the "Stryker Campus" after its former president, [http://www.iment.com/maida/familytree/henry/bios/cmdrmtw.htm#mbwstryker Melancthon Woolsey Stryker] (or incorrectly "Striker Campus"). On the other side of the street separating the two campuses, the former Kirkland campus is referred to as the "dark side."

==Campus Life==

The current Hamilton College campus consists of the original Hamilton College campus and the neighboring former campus of Kirkland College. The campus is located within walking distance of downtown Clinton, New York.

In the mid [[1990s]], the administration and the trustees enacted a policy requiring all underclassmen to live in college housing (which caused the closure of all of the fraternity and sorority houses, as well as the Emerson Literary Society, a nonselective residential alternative to the Greek system), created social spaces for student use, improved funding for on-campus events, and pursued several other changes. This process caused a great deal of controversy — mostly surrounding the decision to preclude fraternities from exercising any use of their houses. As a result, the majority of fraternities felt they had no choice but to sell their houses to the college, though some fraternities refused to sell their houses until well into the next decade. As the college purchased the houses, it has carried out extensive renovations. Since the discussion, a few [[fraternities and sororities]] have had their charters revoked or suspended for extreme behavior (causing additional controversy among the students and alumni). Only one sorority on campus (Omega Phi Beta) has national affiliation.
{{Geolinks-US-buildingscale|43.05|-75.40694}}

=== Housing ===
Nearly all students live in college-owned dorms. There are a variety of styles of residence halls, including former fraternity houses, suites, apartment style housing, and more traditional dormitory style housing. Hamilton currently offers a cooperative living option to students, as well as substance-free and quiet housing.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

=== On campus events ===
The changes have allowed the student community to increase the number and types of activities available on campus. The college has also provided significant funding for student activities through student-run organizations. College-sponsored student-run groups routinely bring music, movies, plays, and other performers to the college. The Hamilton College Student Assembly allocates over one quarter of a million dollars to student groups each year. The Student Activities Office, the President's Office, and other College offices provide additional funds for student groups.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

===Campus Media===
'''[[WHCL]] FM''': During the academic year, Hamilton students, faculty, and community members produce a variety of music, news, sports, and talk radio programs at FM frequency 88.7 The station is available through most of the [[Mohawk Valley]] region and online at [http://www.whcl.org WHCL.org]. It is the only radio station in Clinton.

'''The Spectator''': Hamilton College's primary news publication is published weekly and is freely available in the campus dining halls, mail center, and library. The Spectator covers campus, local, and national news as well as Hamilton sports and campus life. It is older than the [[New York Times]], which is the paper's official slogan.

'''The Daily Bull''': A daily bulletin that features humor pieces, campus satire, cultural commentary, classified advertisements, and local weather. The Daily Bull is noted for being printed on yellow [[legal size]] paper, and is distributed on dining hall tables every morning.

'''The Wag''': Hamilton's biannual satire magazine, published near the end of every semester. Featuring written and graphical satire of campus news and life. The Wag has also produced short feature films about the "Hamilton experience" in the past.

'''The Duel Observer''': A weekly humor and satire publication that adopts the format of a [[parody]] [[newspaper]] (i.e. [[the Onion]]). The name "Duel Observer" is a reference to the [[duel]] between [[Aaron Burr]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]] which resulted in Hamilton's death.

'''The Continental''': A student-run magazine published a few times a semester. The magazine features fashion advice, party photos, and articles on a variety of subjects.

====Annual Events and Traditions====
'''Class and Charter Day''': On the last day of spring term classes, all afternoon classes are cancelled for a campus wide picnic and party. Additionally, a ceremony is held during which students, faculty, and other members of the Hamilton community are recognized for their academic, leadership, and community-development accomplishments. During the ceremony, chosen students are also inducted into Hamilton's three secret honor societies: Doers and Thinkers, Was Los, and Pentagon. Class and Charter Day is also the biggest party day of the year at Hamilton.

'''Citrus Bowl''': The Citrus Bowl is the first men's home hockey game of the season. Traditionally, upon the first Hamilton-scored goal, oranges and other citrus fruits that students had smuggled into the rink were thrown onto the ice at the visiting goalie. This often resulted in a delay-of-game penalty against Hamilton while the ice was cleaned. In recent years, the orange throwing has been very strongly discouraged by the College administration and by NESCAC officials, but the event is still well attended. Orange T-shirts commemorating the event have been distributed in recent years.

'''FebFest''': Rooted in the long standing tradition of the winter carnival at Hamilton, FebFest is a relatively recent revival at Hamilton. A week-long combination of performances, parties, free food, fireworks, and various other events, FebFest intends to keep student morale high during the winter.

'''[[May Day Music Festival]]''': Started in [[2004]], May Day is an outdoor music festival sponsored by several on-campus organizations including:
* The Hamilton College Independent Music Fund
* WHCL
* The Hamilton College Campus Activities Board
Past performers have included: [[Citizen Cope]], [[The New Pornographers]], [[The Pharcyde]], [[Dead Meadow]], [[Tim Reynolds]], [[The Virginia Coalition]], [[Jennifer Gentle]], [[Rainer Maria]], [[Ted Leo]], [[The Unicorns]], [[J-Live]], [[Catch-22 (band)|Catch-22]] and [[Sleater-Kinney]]. It should be noted that the name "May Day" has no association with other May Day events and activities elsewhere in the world. Rather, the name simply refers to the fact that the festival is staged in early May or late April.

'''HamTrek''': Started in [[2004]], HamTrek is an annual sprint-triathlon consisting of a 525-yard swim, 9-mile bike ride, and 3.1-mile run. Participants can compete individually, in unisex teams of 3, or co-ed teams of 3. Prizes are awarded to the winners of the different competing groups. Also, many athletic coaches now require their teams to compete. HamTrek takes place on Class and Charter day.

=== Diversity ===
Like most small colleges in the United States, Hamilton is working to increase the diversity of its student body.

''See [[#College Statistics|Statistics]] for more information.''

==Athletics==
Hamilton is a [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] [[Division III]] school and has been a member of the [[New England Small College Athletic Conference]] since [[1971]]. The college sports teams are known as the Hamilton Continentals. Hamilton sponsors 28 sports, including: [[Baseball]] (M), [[Basketball]] (M&W), [[Crew]] (M&W), [[Cross country running|Cross Country]] (M&W), [[Field Hockey]] (W), [[American football|Football]] (M), [[Golf]] (M), [[Ice Hockey]] (M&W), [[Lacrosse]] (M&W), [[Track and Field|Outdoor and Indoor Track & Field]] (M&W), [[Soccer]] (M&W), [[Softball]] (W), [[Squash (sport)|Squash]] (M&W), [[Swimming]] & [[Diving]] (M&W), [[Tennis]] (M&W), [[Volleyball]] (W).

About 30% of the Hamilton student body participates on the athletics program. In addition to varsity sports, Hamilton sponsors several club sports and intramural activities each year. All students have the opportunity to participate at a level enjoyable to them, including the creation of a [[streaking]] team in [[2002]].

==Facilities==
Hamilton has a large library for a school of its size{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. During the summer of 2006, the school completed a 56 million dollar science building. The art department has separate studios for each of the studio arts taught, which is scheduled soon receive a 37.5 million dollar renovation. Hamilton's athletic facilities include an ice rink, swimming pool, several athletics fields, a golf course, a three-story climbing wall, and a state of the art 10 Court Squash Center (opened in 2006), all of which are open to use by the student body. Hamilton also has a world class concert hall.

===Carol Woodhouse Wellin Performance Hall===
The 700 seat hall features some of the best acoustics on the East Coast of the United States.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Wellin Hall hosts the College Orchestra, Choir, Jazz Band, and Oratorio Society, as well as guest artists from around the globe.

===The Sage Rink===
The Sage Rink is the nation's second oldest indoor college hockey rink only after Northeastern's{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. It was renovated in [[1993]], when it received better lighting, ice-making equipment, and structural enhancements. The rink houses the college's Men's and Women's varsity hockey teams, intramural ice hockey, physical education classes, and local youth hockey games.

===Bristol Swimming Pool===
Complete in [[1988]], the pool was christened by a [[Guinness Book of World Records]] setting event in April 1989 when the world's longest swim relay was completed in the Bristol pool.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

===Steuben Field===
Home to the Hamilton College football team, Steuben Field was founded in [[1897]], and is one of the ten oldest collegiate football fields in the United States.<ref name=steuben> [http://www.nescac.com/Records/fbrecordbook.htm NESCAC Football Record Book]</ref>

===Litchfield Observatory===
IAU code 789, from which [[C. H. F. Peters]] discovered some 48 asteroids{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. The observatory, a quarter of a mile from campus, is powered by solar energy and is open for student use.

==Campus Speakers==
Hamilton hosts many different speakers on many different subjects. Notable recent speakers have included [[Salman Rushdie]], [[Jared Diamond]], [[Stanley Lombardo]], [[Peter Meineck]], [[Kenneth Miller]], and the speakers of the Great Names series (see below).

===The Sacerdote Great Names Series at Hamilton===
Starting in [[1996]] ''the Sacerdote Great Names Series'' has brought some of the most sought after speakers to campus for presentations. While most of these have been in the form of speeches, they have also included a concert by [[B. B. King]].

To-date the speakers that have been part of this series are:
* [[Al Gore]], [[April 26]], [[2007]]
* [[Tom Brokaw]], [[April 27]], [[2006]]
* [[Bill Clinton]], [[November 9]], [[2004]]
* [[Bill Cosby]], [[October 15]], [[2003]]
* [[Rudolph Giuliani]], [[September 24]], [[2002]]
* [[Madeleine Albright]], [[March 6]], [[2002]]
* [[Jimmy Carter]], [[April 30]], [[2001]]
* [[Desmond Tutu]], [[April 11]], [[2000]]
* Lady [[Margaret Thatcher]], [[December 9]], [[1999]]
* [[B.B. King]], [[October 20]], [[1998]]
* [[F.W. de Klerk]], [[April 8]], [[1998]]
* [[Elie Wiesel]], [[April 3]], [[1997]]
* [[James Carville]], and [[Mary Matalin]] [[October 15]], [[1996]]
* [[Colin Powell]], [[April 1]], [[1996]]

==College Statistics==
[[Image:Hamilton college chart.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Source: Hamilton College<ref name=HamStats>http://www.hamilton.edu/hamilton_at_a_glance/default.html?CFID=5421169&CFTOKEN=41523729</ref>]]
{|
!General Information:
|-
|! Align="left"|Enrollment:
|~1,780
|-
! Align="left"|Applicants for class of 2009
|~4,200
|-
! Align="left"|Percentage Male:
|50%
|-
! Align="left"|Percentage Female:
|50%
|-
! Align="left"|Target Entering Class Size:
|435 (as of 2007)
|-
! Align="left"|Applicants for class of 2008:
|4,444
|-
! Align="left"|Acceptance Rate:
|27% (for the Class of 2011)
|-
! Align="left"|SAT Scores:
|-
| -75th percentile:
|1480
|-
| -25th percentile:
|1320
|-
! Align="left"|High School Rank:
|79% were in the top 10%
|-
! Align="left"|High School public to private ratio:
|60-40
|}

{|
! Align="left" colspan="2"|Ethnic Diversity:
|-
! Align="left"|International
|5%
|-
! Align="left"|African-American
|5%
|-
! Align="left"|Native American
|1%
|-
! Align="left"|Asian/Pacific Islander
|8%
|-
! Align="left"|Hispanic
|4%
|-
! Align="left"|Caucasian
|69%
|-
! Align="left"|Unknown
|8%
|}
'''Geographic Diversity:'''
Hamilton students come from 44 U.S. states and 40 countries
<ref name=ham_stats />

==Historical Landmarks on Campus==
===Hamilton College Chapel===
The college's chapel is a historically protected landmark and is the only three story chapel still standing in New York.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The chapel is topped by a signature [[quill pen]] [[weather vane]], which represents Hamilton College's long standing commitment to producing graduates with exceptional writing and communication abilities.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

===Kirkland Cottage===
The cottage was the original residence of Samuel Kirkland when he began his missionary work to the Oneida that resulted in the founding of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy. The cottage itself is completely original, although it was moved from its original location to its current place on the main quadrangle of the Light Side. The cottage is currently used for matriculation ceremonies.

===Birthplace of Elihu Root===
This house originally belonged to the Root family and was the birthplace of Secretary of State [[Elihu Root]]. The house has since been renamed Buttrick Hall. Originally built in 1812 as the student dining hall, in 1834 it became the home of Horatio Buttrick, then superintendent of the Buildings and Grounds Department as well as registrar. Through Oren Root’s marriage to a daughter of Horatio Buttrick, the building became the birthplace of Elihu Root, U.S. secretary of state and recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The house currently serves as office space for the President of the College and the Dean of Faculty.

===Elihu Root House===
This house originally belonged to [[Elihu Root]] and served as his summer home. It currently houses the Office of Admission, though it will house the president's offices when the Office of Admission is relocated to the former Sigma Phi house, renamed the Siuda House.

==College songs==
* [[Carissima]]
* ''We Never Will Forget Thee'', the [[fight song]] of Hamilton College, often performed by the Hamilton College Buffers, an all-male student [[a cappella]] group. The Hamilton College Football team also sings a slightly modified version of this song upon winning a football game.

==Notable people==
{{unreferenced|article|date=June 2007}}
===Alumni===

====Arts====

*Paul Lieberstein '89: [[The Office]] ("Toby", Producer, Writer), Emmy Winner: 2006 Best Comedy Series
*[[William H. Luers]] '51: Former President, Metropolitan Museum of Art; Former Ambassador to Czechoslovakia & Venezuela.
*[[Thomas Meehan]] '51: Tony Award-Winning Playwright ([[The Producers]], [[Hairspray]]).
*[[Richard T. Nelson]] '72: Playwright ([[Some Americans Abroad]]).
*[[John Nichols]], author of ''[[The Sterile Cuckoo]]'' which as turned into the [[Academy Award]]-nominated 1969 film starring [[Liza Minnelli]]. A fictionalized version of Hamilton was the setting for most of the action and portions of the film were shot on campus.
*[[Ezra Pound]], [[Modernism|modernist]] poet. Pound graduated from Hamilton in 1905, was granted an honorary degree in 1939, and returned to a standing ovation at commencement in 1969.
*[[Kamila Shamsie]], novelist. Shamsie later returned to Hamilton as a member of the faculty.
*[[Michael Shapiro]] '71: Director, High Museum of Art, Atlanta.
*[[Josh Simpson]] '72: Internationally renowned glass sculptor.
*[[Melinda Wagner]]: Pulitzer Prize Winner (1999) - Music Composition
*[[Alexander Woollcott]] : Radio personality. Woollcott graduated from Hamilton in 1909 and was a member of the [[Algonquin Round Table]].

====Business====

*J. Carter Bacot '55: Bank of New York (former Chairman)
*Richard Bernstein '80: Merrill Lynch (Chief Investment Strategist)
*William M. Bristol, Class of 1882: Bristol-Myers Squibb, Co. (Co-founder)
*Amy Owens Goodfriend '82: Goldman, Sachs & Co. (Partner)
*Joel W. Johnson '65: Hormel Co. (retired President & CEO)
*Kevin W. Kennedy '70: Goldman, Sachs & Co. (Managing Director)
*A.G. Lafley '69: Procter & Gamble (President & CEO)
*Matthew M. McKenna '72: PepsiCo Inc. (CFO)
*John G. Rice '78: GE Co. (President of Infrastructure)
*Stephen Sadove '73: Saks, Co. (CEO)

====Government and activists====

*Mary L. Bonauto '83: Civil Rights Attorney (Gay Marriage Amendment)
*[[Michael N. Castle]] '61: Congressman, Former Governor of Delaware
*[[Drew S. Days]]: Former U.S. Solicitor General, Professor of Law (Yale University)
*[[Sol M. Linowitz]] '35: Former Ambassador to the Organization of American States, Chairman of the Board (Xerox), Co-Negotiator of the Panama Canal Treaties, Presidential Medal of Freedom (recipient)
*[[Robert P. Moses]] '56: Civil Rights Leader ([[Freedom Summer]]), [[The Algebra Project]] (founder)
*[[Elihu Root]]: Secretary of War, Secretary of State, U.S. Senator, Nobel Peace Prize Winner (1912)
*[[Tom Vilsack]] '72: Former Governor of Iowa, Former Presidential Candidate (2008)
*Edward S. Walker '62: Former Ambassador to Israel, Egypt, and the UAE

====Media====

*Stephanie Abarbanel K'63: Women's Day (Senior Editor)
*Henry S. Allen IV '63: The Washington Post (writer, 2000 Pulitizer Prize Winner)
*Fabio Freyre '83: Time Inc. (Group VP), Sports Illustrated (former publisher)
*David Grubin '65: Independent Film Producer
*[[Joe A. Kelly]], ''[[Lubbock Avalanche-Journal]]'' editor and sports writer. His column "Between the Lines," focused on the [[Texas Tech Red Raiders]].
*[[Leigh and Leslie Keno|Leigh Keno]] '79: [[Antiques Road Show]], [[Find!]]
*Joanna Langfield K'76: Syndicated radio personality, film critic, television commentator
*Jane B. Mason '89: LucasFilm Ltd. (Senior Editor)
*[[Barrett Seaman]], author and former ''[[Time Magazine]]'' editor. His book, ''[[Binge: What Your College Student Won't Tell You]]'', was inspired by the changes that have occurred at Hamilton since he graduated in the late 1960s.
*Steven I. Wulf '72: [[ESPN Magazine]] (Founding Executive Editor)

===Faculty===
*[[Shelby Foote]], historian and novelist
*[[Alex Haley]], former professor, author of ''[[Roots: The Saga of an American Family|Roots]]''.
*[[Jim Lehrer]], journalist and newscaster
*[[Jack F. Matlock, Jr.]], former U.S. Ambassador to the U.S.S.R and principal advisor to President Reagan on Soviet and European affairs
*[[Howard Nemerov]], poet
*[[Agha Shahid Ali]], poet

==Trivia==
{{Trivia|date=June 2007}}
*In Act III of [[Thornton Wilder]]'s play, ''[[Our Town]]'', the character, Mr. Webb, was returning on the early-morning train after having been away for several days in Clinton, New York, to make a speech at Hamilton College, his alma mater.
*Hamilton was cited as the second most "preppy" college in the United States in Lisa Birnbach's ''[[Official Preppy Handbook]]''.

==See also==
* [[List of Hamilton College people]]

==References==

<references />

==External links==
*[http://www.hamilton.edu/ Hamilton College official site]
*[http://www.hamilton.edu/hamilton_at_a_glance/studentbody.html Hamilton's "Student Body at a Glance"]
{{Liberty League}}
{{NESCAC}}
{{Annapolis Group}}

[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 1790s]]
[[Category:Alexander Hamilton|College]]
[[Category:Hamilton College| ]]

[[ja:ハミルトン・カレッジ]]

Hamilton College (New York)

2007-07-04T07:41:35Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted to revision 142414548 by Recurring dreams; rvv. using TW

Hamilton College (New York)

2007-07-04T07:40:49Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 2 edits by 71.61.35.227 identified as vandalism to last revision by 71.60.231.57. using TW

{{For|other colleges with the same name}}
{{Infobox_University
|name = Hamilton College
|image_name = Hamilton_College_seal.jpg
|motto = Γνωθι Σεαυτον ([[Know thyself|Know Thyself]])
|established = [[1793]] as Hamilton-Oneida Academy, [[1812]] as Hamilton College
|type = [[Private school|Private]] [[coeducational]]
|president = [[Joan Hinde Stewart]]
|address = 198 College Hill Road
|city = [[Clinton, Oneida County, New York|Clinton]]
|state = [[New York|NY]]
|country = [[United States|USA]]
|undergrad = 1,780
|postgrad =
|staff= 183
|free_label =
|free =
|campus = [[rural]]
|nickname = Continentals
|colors = [[Buff (colour)|Buff]] and [[Blue]]
|website= [http://www.hamilton.edu www.hamilton.edu]
}}

'''Hamilton College''' is a private, independent, highly selective [[liberal arts college]] located in [[Clinton, Oneida County, New York|Clinton]], [[New York]]. The college is known for its emphasis on writing and speaking. Hamilton was founded as a men's college in 1812, and has been [[coeducational]] since [[1978]], when it merged with [[Kirkland College]].

Hamilton is sometimes referred to as the 'College on the Hill', due to the school's location on top of College Hill, just outside of downtown Clinton. Hamilton College is one of the top liberal arts colleges in the country, and is considered one of the "[[Little Ivies]]."

==Academics==
Hamilton currently offers the [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in any of over 50 areas of concentration.<ref>[http://www.hamilton.edu/academics/ Hamilton College - Academics]</ref> Additionally, Hamilton students may study abroad. The College runs programs in [[China]], [[France]], and [[Spain]], as well as programs closer to home in [[New York City]] and [[Washington, DC]]. Hamilton is well known for its unique "open" curriculum, for which there are no distributional requirements; students have nearly total freedom over their course selection. Hamilton College, Brown University and Smith College are institutions with such a policy. The college has a tradition of adherence to an academic honor code. Every student matriculating at Hamilton must sign a pledge to observe the Honor Code, and many examinations are not proctored. Hamilton has been part of the [[SAT#SAT optional movement|SAT optional movement]] for undergraduate admission since [[2002]]{{Fact|date=May 2007}}.

==History==
Hamilton began in 1793 as the '''Hamilton-Oneida Academy''', a K-12 school, and was chartered as Hamilton College in [[1812]]. [[Samuel Kirkland]] founded the College as part of his missions work with the [[Oneida tribe]]. The college is named for [[Alexander Hamilton]], who was a member of the first Board of Trustees of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy (though he never set foot on campus). [[Baron von Steuben]], acting as Hamilton's surrogate, laid the college's cornerstone.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

In [[1978]], the all-male Hamilton College merged with the [[Women's colleges in the United States|all-female]] [[Kirkland College]], which had been located adjacent to and founded by Hamilton; the primary public reason for the merger was Kirkland's imminent insolvency. It took nearly 7 years to fully complete the merger; female students were given the option of receiving a Kirkland diploma instead of a Hamilton diploma until [[1979]]. Several former Kirkland faculty members teaching at Hamilton still fondly remember being part of a very different academic community prior to the merger.

Hamilton College is the third oldest college established in New York, after [[Columbia University|Columbia]] and [[Union College|Union]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

Since the 1970s, Hamilton has been a member of the NESCAC athletic conference (despite being located outside of New England), which includes [[Amherst College|Amherst]], [[Bates College|Bates]], [[Bowdoin College|Bowdoin]], [[Colby College|Colby]], [[Connecticut College]], [[Middlebury College|Middlebury]], [[Trinity College (Connecticut)|Trinity]], [[Tufts University|Tufts]], [[Wesleyan University|Wesleyan]], and [[Williams College|Williams]].

Today, the original Hamilton campus is referred to by students and some school literature as the "light side" or "north side" of the campus. Formerly that side of campus was referred to as the "Stryker Campus" after its former president, [http://www.iment.com/maida/familytree/henry/bios/cmdrmtw.htm#mbwstryker Melancthon Woolsey Stryker] (or incorrectly "Striker Campus"). On the other side of the street separating the two campuses, the former Kirkland campus is referred to as the "dark side."

==Campus Life==

The current Hamilton College campus consists of the original Hamilton College campus and the neighboring former campus of Kirkland College. The campus is located within walking distance of downtown Clinton, New York.

In the mid [[1990s]], the administration and the trustees enacted a policy requiring all underclassmen to live in college housing (which caused the closure of all of the fraternity and sorority houses, as well as the Emerson Literary Society, a nonselective residential alternative to the Greek system), created social spaces for student use, improved funding for on-campus events, and pursued several other changes. This process caused a great deal of controversy — mostly surrounding the decision to preclude fraternities from exercising any use of their houses. As a result, the majority of fraternities felt they had no choice but to sell their houses to the college, though some fraternities refused to sell their houses until well into the next decade. As the college purchased the houses, it has carried out extensive renovations. Since the discussion, a few [[fraternities and sororities]] have had their charters revoked or suspended for extreme behavior (causing additional controversy among the students and alumni). Only one sorority on campus (Omega Phi Beta) has national affiliation.
{{Geolinks-US-buildingscale|43.05|-75.40694}}

=== Housing ===
Nearly all students live in college-owned dorms. There are a variety of styles of residence halls, including former fraternity houses, suites, apartment style housing, and more traditional dormitory style housing. Hamilton currently offers a cooperative living option to students, as well as substance-free and quiet housing.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

=== On campus events ===
The changes have allowed the student community to increase the number and types of activities available on campus. The college has also provided significant funding for student activities through student-run organizations. College-sponsored student-run groups routinely bring music, movies, plays, and other performers to the college. The Hamilton College Student Assembly allocates over one quarter of a million dollars to student groups each year. The Student Activities Office, the President's Office, and other College offices provide additional funds for student groups.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

===Campus Media===
'''[[WHCL]] FM''': During the academic year, Hamilton students, faculty, and community members produce a variety of music, news, sports, and talk radio programs at FM frequency 88.7 The station is available through most of the [[Mohawk Valley]] region and online at [http://www.whcl.org WHCL.org]. It is the only radio station in Clinton.

'''The Spectator''': Hamilton College's primary news publication is published weekly and is freely available in the campus dining halls, mail center, and library. The Spectator covers campus, local, and national news as well as Hamilton sports and campus life. It is older than the [[New York Times]], which is the paper's official slogan.

'''The Daily Bull''': A daily bulletin that features humor pieces, campus satire, cultural commentary, classified advertisements, and local weather. The Daily Bull is noted for being printed on yellow [[legal size]] paper, and is distributed on dining hall tables every morning.

'''The Wag''': Hamilton's biannual satire magazine, published near the end of every semester. Featuring written and graphical satire of campus news and life. The Wag has also produced short feature films about the "Hamilton experience" in the past.

'''The Duel Observer''': A weekly humor and satire publication that adopts the format of a [[newspaper]] (i.e. [[the New York Times]]). The name "Duel Observer" is a reference to the [[duel]] between [[Aaron Burr]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]] which resulted in Hamilton's death.

'''The Continental''': A student-run magazine published a few times a semester. The magazine features fashion advice, party photos, and articles on a variety of subjects.

====Annual Events and Traditions====
'''Class and Charter Day''': On the last day of spring term classes, all afternoon classes are cancelled for a campus wide picnic and party. Additionally, a ceremony is held during which students, faculty, and other members of the Hamilton community are recognized for their academic, leadership, and community-development accomplishments. During the ceremony, chosen students are also inducted into Hamilton's three secret honor societies: Doers and Thinkers, Was Los, and Pentagon. Class and Charter Day is also the biggest party day of the year at Hamilton.

'''Citrus Bowl''': The Citrus Bowl is the first men's home hockey game of the season. Traditionally, upon the first Hamilton-scored goal, oranges and other citrus fruits that students had smuggled into the rink were thrown onto the ice at the visiting goalie. This often resulted in a delay-of-game penalty against Hamilton while the ice was cleaned. In recent years, the orange throwing has been very strongly discouraged by the College administration and by NESCAC officials, but the event is still well attended. Orange T-shirts commemorating the event have been distributed in recent years.

'''FebFest''': Rooted in the long standing tradition of the winter carnival at Hamilton, FebFest is a relatively recent revival at Hamilton. A week-long combination of performances, parties, free food, fireworks, and various other events, FebFest intends to keep student morale high during the winter.

'''[[May Day Music Festival]]''': Started in [[2004]], May Day is an outdoor music festival sponsored by several on-campus organizations including:
* The Hamilton College Independent Music Fund
* WHCL
* The Hamilton College Campus Activities Board
Past performers have included: [[Citizen Cope]], [[The New Pornographers]], [[The Pharcyde]], [[Dead Meadow]], [[Tim Reynolds]], [[The Virginia Coalition]], [[Jennifer Gentle]], [[Rainer Maria]], [[Ted Leo]], [[The Unicorns]], [[J-Live]], [[Catch-22 (band)|Catch-22]] and [[Sleater-Kinney]]. It should be noted that the name "May Day" has no association with other May Day events and activities elsewhere in the world. Rather, the name simply refers to the fact that the festival is staged in early May or late April.

'''HamTrek''': Started in [[2004]], HamTrek is an annual sprint-triathlon consisting of a 525-yard swim, 9-mile bike ride, and 3.1-mile run. Participants can compete individually, in unisex teams of 3, or co-ed teams of 3. Prizes are awarded to the winners of the different competing groups. Also, many athletic coaches now require their teams to compete. HamTrek takes place on Class and Charter day.

=== Diversity ===
Like most small colleges in the United States, Hamilton is working to increase the diversity of its student body.

''See [[#College Statistics|Statistics]] for more information.''

==Athletics==
Hamilton is a [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] [[Division III]] school and has been a member of the [[New England Small College Athletic Conference]] since [[1971]]. The college sports teams are known as the Hamilton Continentals. Hamilton sponsors 28 sports, including: [[Baseball]] (M), [[Basketball]] (M&W), [[Crew]] (M&W), [[Cross country running|Cross Country]] (M&W), [[Field Hockey]] (W), [[American football|Football]] (M), [[Golf]] (M), [[Ice Hockey]] (M&W), [[Lacrosse]] (M&W), [[Track and Field|Outdoor and Indoor Track & Field]] (M&W), [[Soccer]] (M&W), [[Softball]] (W), [[Squash (sport)|Squash]] (M&W), [[Swimming]] & [[Diving]] (M&W), [[Tennis]] (M&W), [[Volleyball]] (W).

About 30% of the Hamilton student body participates on the athletics program. In addition to varsity sports, Hamilton sponsors several club sports and intramural activities each year. All students have the opportunity to participate at a level enjoyable to them, including the creation of a [[streaking]] team in [[2002]].

==Facilities==
Hamilton has a large library for a school of its size{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. During the summer of 2006, the school completed a 56 million dollar science building. The art department has separate studios for each of the studio arts taught, which is scheduled soon receive a 37.5 million dollar renovation. Hamilton's athletic facilities include an ice rink, swimming pool, several athletics fields, a golf course, a three-story climbing wall, and a state of the art 10 Court Squash Center (opened in 2006), all of which are open to use by the student body. Hamilton also has a world class concert hall.

===Carol Woodhouse Wellin Performance Hall===
The 700 seat hall features some of the best acoustics on the East Coast of the United States.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Wellin Hall hosts the College Orchestra, Choir, Jazz Band, and Oratorio Society, as well as guest artists from around the globe.

===The Sage Rink===
The Sage Rink is the nation's second oldest indoor college hockey rink only after Northeastern's{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. It was renovated in [[1993]], when it received better lighting, ice-making equipment, and structural enhancements. The rink houses the college's Men's and Women's varsity hockey teams, intramural ice hockey, physical education classes, and local youth hockey games.

===Bristol Swimming Pool===
Complete in [[1988]], the pool was christened by a [[Guinness Book of World Records]] setting event in April 1989 when the world's longest swim relay was completed in the Bristol pool.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

===Steuben Field===
Home to the Hamilton College football team, Steuben Field was founded in [[1897]], and is one of the ten oldest collegiate football fields in the United States.<ref name=steuben> [http://www.nescac.com/Records/fbrecordbook.htm NESCAC Football Record Book]</ref>

===Litchfield Observatory===
IAU code 789, from which [[C. H. F. Peters]] discovered some 48 asteroids{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. The observatory, a quarter of a mile from campus, is powered by solar energy and is open for student use.

==Campus Speakers==
Hamilton hosts many different speakers on many different subjects. Notable recent speakers have included [[Salman Rushdie]], [[Jared Diamond]], [[Stanley Lombardo]], [[Peter Meineck]], [[Kenneth Miller]], and the speakers of the Great Names series (see below).

===The Sacerdote Great Names Series at Hamilton===
Starting in [[1996]] ''the Sacerdote Great Names Series'' has brought some of the most sought after speakers to campus for presentations. While most of these have been in the form of speeches, they have also included a concert by [[B. B. King]].

To-date the speakers that have been part of this series are:
* [[Al Gore]], [[April 26]], [[2007]]
* [[Tom Brokaw]], [[April 27]], [[2006]]
* [[Bill Clinton]], [[November 9]], [[2004]]
* [[Bill Cosby]], [[October 15]], [[2003]]
* [[Rudolph Giuliani]], [[September 24]], [[2002]]
* [[Madeleine Albright]], [[March 6]], [[2002]]
* [[Jimmy Carter]], [[April 30]], [[2001]]
* [[Desmond Tutu]], [[April 11]], [[2000]]
* Lady [[Margaret Thatcher]], [[December 9]], [[1999]]
* [[B.B. King]], [[October 20]], [[1998]]
* [[F.W. de Klerk]], [[April 8]], [[1998]]
* [[Elie Wiesel]], [[April 3]], [[1997]]
* [[James Carville]], and [[Mary Matalin]] [[October 15]], [[1996]]
* [[Colin Powell]], [[April 1]], [[1996]]

==College Statistics==
[[Image:Hamilton college chart.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Source: Hamilton College<ref name=HamStats>http://www.hamilton.edu/hamilton_at_a_glance/default.html?CFID=5421169&CFTOKEN=41523729</ref>]]
{|
!General Information:
|-
|! Align="left"|Enrollment:
|~1,780
|-
! Align="left"|Applicants for class of 2009
|~4,200
|-
! Align="left"|Percentage Male:
|50%
|-
! Align="left"|Percentage Female:
|50%
|-
! Align="left"|Target Entering Class Size:
|435 (as of 2007)
|-
! Align="left"|Applicants for class of 2008:
|4,444
|-
! Align="left"|Acceptance Rate:
|27% (for the Class of 2011)
|-
! Align="left"|SAT Scores:
|-
| -75th percentile:
|1480
|-
| -25th percentile:
|1320
|-
! Align="left"|High School Rank:
|79% were in the top 10%
|-
! Align="left"|High School public to private ratio:
|60-40
|}

{|
! Align="left" colspan="2"|Ethnic Diversity:
|-
! Align="left"|International
|5%
|-
! Align="left"|African-American
|5%
|-
! Align="left"|Native American
|1%
|-
! Align="left"|Asian/Pacific Islander
|8%
|-
! Align="left"|Hispanic
|4%
|-
! Align="left"|Caucasian
|69%
|-
! Align="left"|Unknown
|8%
|}
'''Geographic Diversity:'''
Hamilton students come from 44 U.S. states and 40 countries
<ref name=ham_stats />

==Historical Landmarks on Campus==
===Hamilton College Chapel===
The college's chapel is a historically protected landmark and is the only three story chapel still standing in New York.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The chapel is topped by a signature [[quill pen]] [[weather vane]], which represents Hamilton College's long standing commitment to producing graduates with exceptional writing and communication abilities.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

===Kirkland Cottage===
The cottage was the original residence of Samuel Kirkland when he began his missionary work to the Oneida that resulted in the founding of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy. The cottage itself is completely original, although it was moved from its original location to its current place on the main quadrangle of the Light Side. The cottage is currently used for matriculation ceremonies.

===Birthplace of Elihu Root===
This house originally belonged to the Root family and was the birthplace of Secretary of State [[Elihu Root]]. The house has since been renamed Buttrick Hall. Originally built in 1812 as the student dining hall, in 1834 it became the home of Horatio Buttrick, then superintendent of the Buildings and Grounds Department as well as registrar. Through Oren Root’s marriage to a daughter of Horatio Buttrick, the building became the birthplace of Elihu Root, U.S. secretary of state and recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The house currently serves as office space for the President of the College and the Dean of Faculty.

===Elihu Root House===
This house originally belonged to [[Elihu Root]] and served as his summer home. It currently houses the Office of Admission, though it will house the president's offices when the Office of Admission is relocated to the former Sigma Phi house, renamed the Siuda House.

==College songs==
* [[Carissima]]
* ''We Never Will Forget Thee'', the [[fight song]] of Hamilton College, often performed by the Hamilton College Buffers, an all-male student [[a cappella]] group. The Hamilton College Football team also sings a slightly modified version of this song upon winning a football game.

==Notable people==
{{unreferenced|article|date=June 2007}}
===Alumni===

====Arts====

*Paul Lieberstein '89: [[The Office]] ("Toby", Producer, Writer), Emmy Winner: 2006 Best Comedy Series
*[[William H. Luers]] '51: Former President, Metropolitan Museum of Art; Former Ambassador to Czechoslovakia & Venezuela.
*[[Thomas Meehan]] '51: Tony Award-Winning Playwright ([[The Producers]], [[Hairspray]]).
*[[Richard T. Nelson]] '72: Playwright ([[Some Americans Abroad]]).
*[[John Nichols]], author of ''[[The Sterile Cuckoo]]'' which as turned into the [[Academy Award]]-nominated 1969 film starring [[Liza Minnelli]]. A fictionalized version of Hamilton was the setting for most of the action and portions of the film were shot on campus.
*[[Ezra Pound]], [[Modernism|modernist]] poet. Pound graduated from Hamilton in 1905, was granted an honorary degree in 1939, and returned to a standing ovation at commencement in 1969.
*[[Kamila Shamsie]], novelist. Shamsie later returned to Hamilton as a member of the faculty.
*[[Michael Shapiro]] '71: Director, High Museum of Art, Atlanta.
*[[Josh Simpson]] '72: Internationally renowned glass sculptor.
*[[Melinda Wagner]]: Pulitzer Prize Winner (1999) - Music Composition
*[[Alexander Woollcott]] : Radio personality. Woollcott graduated from Hamilton in 1909 and was a member of the [[Algonquin Round Table]].

====Business====

*J. Carter Bacot '55: Bank of New York (former Chairman)
*Richard Bernstein '80: Merrill Lynch (Chief Investment Strategist)
*William M. Bristol, Class of 1882: Bristol-Myers Squibb, Co. (Co-founder)
*Amy Owens Goodfriend '82: Goldman, Sachs & Co. (Partner)
*Joel W. Johnson '65: Hormel Co. (retired President & CEO)
*Kevin W. Kennedy '70: Goldman, Sachs & Co. (Managing Director)
*A.G. Lafley '69: Procter & Gamble (President & CEO)
*Matthew M. McKenna '72: PepsiCo Inc. (CFO)
*John G. Rice '78: GE Co. (President of Infrastructure)
*Stephen Sadove '73: Saks, Co. (CEO)

====Government and activists====

*Mary L. Bonauto '83: Civil Rights Attorney (Gay Marriage Amendment)
*[[Michael N. Castle]] '61: Congressman, Former Governor of Delaware
*[[Drew S. Days]]: Former U.S. Solicitor General, Professor of Law (Yale University)
*[[Sol M. Linowitz]] '35: Former Ambassador to the Organization of American States, Chairman of the Board (Xerox), Co-Negotiator of the Panama Canal Treaties, Presidential Medal of Freedom (recipient)
*[[Robert P. Moses]] '56: Civil Rights Leader ([[Freedom Summer]]), [[The Algebra Project]] (founder)
*[[Elihu Root]]: Secretary of War, Secretary of State, U.S. Senator, Nobel Peace Prize Winner (1912)
*[[Tom Vilsack]] '72: Former Governor of Iowa, Former Presidential Candidate (2008)
*Edward S. Walker '62: Former Ambassador to Israel, Egypt, and the UAE

====Media====

*Stephanie Abarbanel K'63: Women's Day (Senior Editor)
*Henry S. Allen IV '63: The Washington Post (writer, 2000 Pulitizer Prize Winner)
*Fabio Freyre '83: Time Inc. (Group VP), Sports Illustrated (former publisher)
*David Grubin '65: Independent Film Producer
*[[Joe A. Kelly]], ''[[Lubbock Avalanche-Journal]]'' editor and sports writer. His column "Between the Lines," focused on the [[Texas Tech Red Raiders]].
*[[Leigh and Leslie Keno|Leigh Keno]] '79: [[Antiques Road Show]], [[Find!]]
*Joanna Langfield K'76: Syndicated radio personality, film critic, television commentator
*Jane B. Mason '89: LucasFilm Ltd. (Senior Editor)
*[[Barrett Seaman]], author and former ''[[Time Magazine]]'' editor. His book, ''[[Binge: What Your College Student Won't Tell You]]'', was inspired by the changes that have occurred at Hamilton since he graduated in the late 1960s.
*Steven I. Wulf '72: [[ESPN Magazine]] (Founding Executive Editor)

===Faculty===
*[[Shelby Foote]], historian and novelist
*[[Alex Haley]], former professor, author of ''[[Roots: The Saga of an American Family|Roots]]''.
*[[Jim Lehrer]], journalist and newscaster
*[[Jack F. Matlock, Jr.]], former U.S. Ambassador to the U.S.S.R and principal advisor to President Reagan on Soviet and European affairs
*[[Howard Nemerov]], poet
*[[Agha Shahid Ali]], poet
*[[Robert Pinsky]], former poet laureate

==Trivia==
{{Trivia|date=June 2007}}
*In Act III of [[Thornton Wilder]]'s play, ''[[Our Town]]'', the character, Mr. Webb, was returning on the early-morning train after having been away for several days in Clinton, New York, to make a speech at Hamilton College, his alma mater.
*Hamilton was cited as the second most "preppy" college in the United States in Lisa Birnbach's ''[[Official Preppy Handbook]]''.

==See also==
* [[List of Hamilton College people]]

==References==

<references />

==External links==
*[http://www.hamilton.edu/ Hamilton College official site]
*[http://www.hamilton.edu/hamilton_at_a_glance/studentbody.html Hamilton's "Student Body at a Glance"]
{{Liberty League}}
{{NESCAC}}
{{Annapolis Group}}

[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 1790s]]
[[Category:Alexander Hamilton|College]]
[[Category:Hamilton College| ]]

[[ja:ハミルトン・カレッジ]]

Hamilton College (New York)

2007-07-04T07:34:28Z

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Hamilton College (New York)

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Hamilton College (New York)

2007-07-04T07:31:28Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 1 edit by 71.60.231.57 identified as vandalism to last revision by 71.61.35.227. using TW

{{For|other colleges with the same name}}
{{Infobox_University
|name = Hamilton College
|image_name = Hamilton_College_seal.jpg
|motto = Γνωθι Σεαυτον ([[Know thyself|Know Thyself]])
|established = [[1793]] as Hamilton-Oneida Academy, [[1812]] as Hamilton College
|type = [[Private school|Private]] [[coeducational]]
|president = [[Joan Hinde Stewart]]
|address = 198 College Hill Road
|city = [[Clinton, Oneida County, New York|Clinton]]
|state = [[New York|NY]]
|country = [[United States|USA]]
|undergrad = 1,780
|postgrad =
|staff= 183
|free_label =
|free =
|campus = [[rural]]
|nickname = Continentals
|colors = [[Buff (colour)|Buff]] and [[Blue]]
|website= [http://www.hamilton.edu www.hamilton.edu]
}}

'''Hamilton College''' is a private, independent, highly selective [[liberal arts college]] located in [[Clinton, Oneida County, New York|Clinton]], [[New York]]. The college is known for its emphasis on writing and speaking. Hamilton was founded as a men's college in 1812, and has been [[coeducational]] since [[1978]], when it merged with [[Kirkland College]].

Hamilton is sometimes referred to as the 'College on the Hill', due to the school's location on top of College Hill, just outside of downtown Clinton. Hamilton College is one of the top liberal arts colleges in the country, and is considered one of the "[[Little Ivies]]."

==Academics==
Hamilton currently offers the [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in any of over 50 areas of concentration.<ref>[http://www.hamilton.edu/academics/ Hamilton College - Academics]</ref> Additionally, Hamilton students may study abroad. The College runs programs in [[China]], [[France]], and [[Spain]], as well as programs closer to home in [[New York City]] and [[Washington, DC]]. Hamilton is well known for its unique "open" curriculum, for which there are no distributional requirements; students have nearly total freedom over their course selection. Hamilton College, Brown University and Smith College are institutions with such a policy. The college has a tradition of adherence to an academic honor code. Every student matriculating at Hamilton must sign a pledge to observe the Honor Code, and many examinations are not proctored. Hamilton has been part of the [[SAT#SAT optional movement|SAT optional movement]] for undergraduate admission since [[2002]]{{Fact|date=May 2007}}.

==History==
Hamilton began in 1793 as the '''Hamilton-Oneida Academy''', a K-12 school, and was chartered as Hamilton College in [[1812]]. [[Samuel Kirkland]] founded the College as part of his missions work with the [[Oneida tribe]]. The college is named for [[Alexander Hamilton]], who was a member of the first Board of Trustees of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy (though he never set foot on campus). [[Baron von Steuben]], acting as Hamilton's surrogate, laid the college's cornerstone.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

In [[1978]], the all-male Hamilton College merged with the [[Women's colleges in the United States|all-female]] [[Kirkland College]], which had been located adjacent to and founded by Hamilton; the primary public reason for the merger was Kirkland's imminent insolvency. It took nearly 7 years to fully complete the merger; female students were given the option of receiving a Kirkland diploma instead of a Hamilton diploma until [[1979]]. Several former Kirkland faculty members teaching at Hamilton still fondly remember being part of a very different academic community prior to the merger.

Hamilton College is the third oldest college established in New York, after [[Columbia University|Columbia]] and [[Union College|Union]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

Since the 1970s, Hamilton has been a member of the NESCAC athletic conference (despite being located outside of New England), which includes [[Amherst College|Amherst]], [[Bates College|Bates]], [[Bowdoin College|Bowdoin]], [[Colby College|Colby]], [[Connecticut College]], [[Middlebury College|Middlebury]], [[Trinity College (Connecticut)|Trinity]], [[Tufts University|Tufts]], [[Wesleyan University|Wesleyan]], and [[Williams College|Williams]].

Today, the original Hamilton campus is referred to by students and some school literature as the "light side" or "north side" of the campus. Formerly that side of campus was referred to as the "Stryker Campus" after its former president, [http://www.iment.com/maida/familytree/henry/bios/cmdrmtw.htm#mbwstryker Melancthon Woolsey Stryker] (or incorrectly "Striker Campus"). On the other side of the street separating the two campuses, the former Kirkland campus is referred to as the "dark side."

==Campus Life==

The current Hamilton College campus consists of the original Hamilton College campus and the neighboring former campus of Kirkland College. The campus is located within walking distance of downtown Clinton, New York.

In the mid [[1990s]], the administration and the trustees enacted a policy requiring all underclassmen to live in college housing (which caused the closure of all of the fraternity and sorority houses, as well as the Emerson Literary Society, a nonselective residential alternative to the Greek system), created social spaces for student use, improved funding for on-campus events, and pursued several other changes. This process caused a great deal of controversy — mostly surrounding the decision to preclude fraternities from exercising any use of their houses. As a result, the majority of fraternities felt they had no choice but to sell their houses to the college, though some fraternities refused to sell their houses until well into the next decade. As the college purchased the houses, it has carried out extensive renovations. Since the discussion, a few [[fraternities and sororities]] have had their charters revoked or suspended for extreme behavior (causing additional controversy among the students and alumni). Only one sorority on campus (Omega Phi Beta) has national affiliation.
{{Geolinks-US-buildingscale|43.05|-75.40694}}

=== Housing ===
Nearly all students live in college-owned dorms. There are a variety of styles of residence halls, including former fraternity houses, suites, apartment style housing, and more traditional dormitory style housing. Hamilton currently offers a cooperative living option to students, as well as substance-free and quiet housing.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

=== On campus events ===
The changes have allowed the student community to increase the number and types of activities available on campus. The college has also provided significant funding for student activities through student-run organizations. College-sponsored student-run groups routinely bring music, movies, plays, and other performers to the college. The Hamilton College Student Assembly allocates over one quarter of a million dollars to student groups each year. The Student Activities Office, the President's Office, and other College offices provide additional funds for student groups.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

===Campus Media===
'''[[WHCL]] FM''': During the academic year, Hamilton students, faculty, and community members produce a variety of music, news, sports, and talk radio programs at FM frequency 88.7 The station is available through most of the [[Mohawk Valley]] region and online at [http://www.whcl.org WHCL.org]. It is the only radio station in Clinton.

'''The Spectator''': Hamilton College's primary news publication is published weekly and is freely available in the campus dining halls, mail center, and library. The Spectator covers campus, local, and national news as well as Hamilton sports and campus life. It is older than the [[New York Times]], which is the paper's official slogan.

'''The Daily Bull''': A daily bulletin that features humor pieces, campus satire, cultural commentary, classified advertisements, local weather and post-Beat blank verse poetry a la Richard Brautigan. The Daily Bull is noted for being printed on yellow [[legal size]] paper, and is distributed on dining hall tables every morning.

'''The Wag''': Hamilton's biannual satire magazine, published near the end of every semester. Featuring written and graphical satire of campus news and life. The Wag has also produced short feature films about the "Hamilton experience" in the past.

'''The Duel Observer''': A weekly humor and satire publication that adopts the format of a [[parody]] [[newspaper]] (i.e. [[the Washington Post]]). The name "Duel Observer" is a reference to the [[duel]] between [[Aaron Burr]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]] which resulted in Hamilton's boner.

'''The Continental''': A student-run magazine published a few times a semester. The magazine features fashion advice, party photos, and articles on a variety of subjects.

====Annual Events and Traditions====
'''Class and Charter Day''': On the last day of spring term classes, all afternoon classes are cancelled for a campus wide picnic and party. Additionally, a ceremony is held during which students, faculty, and other members of the Hamilton community are recognized for their academic, leadership, and community-development accomplishments. During the ceremony, chosen students are also inducted into Hamilton's three secret honor societies: Doers and Thinkers, Was Los, and Pentagon. Class and Charter Day is also the biggest party day of the year at Hamilton.

'''Citrus Bowl''': The Citrus Bowl is the first men's home hockey game of the season. Traditionally, upon the first Hamilton-scored goal, oranges and other citrus fruits that students had smuggled into the rink were thrown onto the ice at the visiting goalie. This often resulted in a delay-of-game penalty against Hamilton while the ice was cleaned. In recent years, the orange throwing has been very strongly discouraged by the College administration and by NESCAC officials, but the event is still well attended. Orange T-shirts commemorating the event have been distributed in recent years.

'''FebFest''': Rooted in the long standing tradition of the winter carnival at Hamilton, FebFest is a relatively recent revival at Hamilton. A week-long combination of performances, parties, free food, fireworks, and various other events, FebFest intends to keep student morale high during the winter.

'''[[May Day Music Festival]]''': Started in [[2004]], May Day is an outdoor music festival sponsored by several on-campus organizations including:
* The Hamilton College Independent Music Fund
* WHCL
* The Hamilton College Campus Activities Board
Past performers have included: [[Citizen Cope]], [[The New Pornographers]], [[The Pharcyde]], [[Dead Meadow]], [[Tim Reynolds]], [[The Virginia Coalition]], [[Jennifer Gentle]], [[Rainer Maria]], [[Ted Leo]], [[The Unicorns]], [[J-Live]], [[Catch-22 (band)|Catch-22]] and [[Sleater-Kinney]]. It should be noted that the name "May Day" has no association with other May Day events and activities elsewhere in the world. Rather, the name simply refers to the fact that the festival is staged in early May or late April.

'''HamTrek''': Started in [[2004]], HamTrek is an annual sprint-triathlon consisting of a 525-yard swim, 9-mile bike ride, and 3.1-mile run. Participants can compete individually, in unisex teams of 3, or co-ed teams of 3. Prizes are awarded to the winners of the different competing groups. Also, many athletic coaches now require their teams to compete. HamTrek takes place on Class and Charter day.

=== Diversity ===
Like most small colleges in the United States, Hamilton is working to increase the diversity of its student body.

''See [[#College Statistics|Statistics]] for more information.''

==Athletics==
Hamilton is a [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] [[Division III]] school and has been a member of the [[New England Small College Athletic Conference]] since [[1971]]. The college sports teams are known as the Hamilton Continentals. Hamilton sponsors 28 sports, including: [[Baseball]] (M), [[Basketball]] (M&W), [[Crew]] (M&W), [[Cross country running|Cross Country]] (M&W), [[Field Hockey]] (W), [[American football|Football]] (M), [[Golf]] (M), [[Ice Hockey]] (M&W), [[Lacrosse]] (M&W), [[Track and Field|Outdoor and Indoor Track & Field]] (M&W), [[Soccer]] (M&W), [[Softball]] (W), [[Squash (sport)|Squash]] (M&W), [[Swimming]] & [[Diving]] (M&W), [[Tennis]] (M&W), [[Volleyball]] (W).

About 30% of the Hamilton student body participates on the athletics program. In addition to varsity sports, Hamilton sponsors several club sports and intramural activities each year. All students have the opportunity to participate at a level enjoyable to them, including the creation of a [[streaking]] team in [[2002]].

==Facilities==
Hamilton has a large library for a school of its size{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. During the summer of 2006, the school completed a 56 million dollar science building. The art department has separate studios for each of the studio arts taught, which is scheduled soon receive a 37.5 million dollar renovation. Hamilton's athletic facilities include an ice rink, swimming pool, several athletics fields, a golf course, a three-story climbing wall, and a state of the art 10 Court Squash Center (opened in 2006), all of which are open to use by the student body. Hamilton also has a world class concert hall.

===Carol Woodhouse Wellin Performance Hall===
The 700 seat hall features some of the best acoustics on the East Coast of the United States.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Wellin Hall hosts the College Orchestra, Choir, Jazz Band, and Oratorio Society, as well as guest artists from around the globe.

===The Sage Rink===
The Sage Rink is the nation's second oldest indoor college hockey rink only after Northeastern's{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. It was renovated in [[1993]], when it received better lighting, ice-making equipment, and structural enhancements. The rink houses the college's Men's and Women's varsity hockey teams, intramural ice hockey, physical education classes, and local youth hockey games.

===Bristol Swimming Pool===
Complete in [[1988]], the pool was christened by a [[Guinness Book of World Records]] setting event in April 1989 when the world's longest swim relay was completed in the Bristol pool.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

===Steuben Field===
Home to the Hamilton College football team, Steuben Field was founded in [[1897]], and is one of the ten oldest collegiate football fields in the United States.<ref name=steuben> [http://www.nescac.com/Records/fbrecordbook.htm NESCAC Football Record Book]</ref>

===Litchfield Observatory===
IAU code 789, from which [[C. H. F. Peters]] discovered some 48 asteroids{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. The observatory, a quarter of a mile from campus, is powered by solar energy and is open for student use.

==Campus Speakers==
Hamilton hosts many different speakers on many different subjects. Notable recent speakers have included [[Salman Rushdie]], [[Jared Diamond]], [[Stanley Lombardo]], [[Peter Meineck]], [[Kenneth Miller]], and the speakers of the Great Names series (see below).

===The Sacerdote Great Names Series at Hamilton===
Starting in [[1996]] ''the Sacerdote Great Names Series'' has brought some of the most sought after speakers to campus for presentations. While most of these have been in the form of speeches, they have also included a concert by [[B. B. King]].

To-date the speakers that have been part of this series are:
* [[Al Gore]], [[April 26]], [[2007]]
* [[Tom Brokaw]], [[April 27]], [[2006]]
* [[Bill Clinton]], [[November 9]], [[2004]]
* [[Bill Cosby]], [[October 15]], [[2003]]
* [[Rudolph Giuliani]], [[September 24]], [[2002]]
* [[Madeleine Albright]], [[March 6]], [[2002]]
* [[Jimmy Carter]], [[April 30]], [[2001]]
* [[Desmond Tutu]], [[April 11]], [[2000]]
Gary Paulsen, February 2, 2000
* Lady [[Margaret Thatcher]], [[December 9]], [[1999]]
* [[B.B. King]], [[October 20]], [[1998]]
* [[F.W. de Klerk]], [[April 8]], [[1998]]
* [[Elie Wiesel]], [[April 3]], [[1997]]
* [[James Carville]], and [[Mary Matalin]] [[October 15]], [[1996]]
* [[Colin Powell]], [[April 1]], [[1996]]

==College Statistics==
[[Image:Hamilton college chart.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Source: Hamilton College<ref name=HamStats>http://www.hamilton.edu/hamilton_at_a_glance/default.html?CFID=5421169&CFTOKEN=41523729</ref>]]
{|
!General Information:
|-
|! Align="left"|Enrollment:
|~1,780
|-
! Align="left"|Applicants for class of 2009
|~4,200
|-
! Align="left"|Percentage Male:
|50%
|-
! Align="left"|Percentage Female:
|50%
|-
! Align="left"|Target Entering Class Size:
|435 (as of 2007)
|-
! Align="left"|Applicants for class of 2008:
|4,444
|-
! Align="left"|Acceptance Rate:
|27% (for the Class of 2011)
|-
! Align="left"|SAT Scores:
|-
| -75th percentile:
|1480
|-
| -25th percentile:
|1320
|-
! Align="left"|High School Rank:
|79% were in the top 10%
|-
! Align="left"|High School public to private ratio:
|60-40
|}

{|
! Align="left" colspan="2"|Ethnic Diversity:
|-
! Align="left"|International
|5%
|-
! Align="left"|African-American
|5%
|-
! Align="left"|Native American
|1%
|-
! Align="left"|Asian/Pacific Islander
|8%
|-
! Align="left"|Hispanic
|4%
|-
! Align="left"|Caucasian
|69%
|-
! Align="left"|Unknown
|8%
|}
'''Geographic Diversity:'''
Hamilton students come from 44 U.S. states and 40 countries
<ref name=ham_stats />

==Historical Landmarks on Campus==
===Hamilton College Chapel===
The college's chapel is a historically protected landmark and is the only three story chapel still standing in New York.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The chapel is topped by a signature [[quill pen]] [[weather vane]], which represents Hamilton College's long standing commitment to producing graduates with exceptional writing and communication abilities.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

===Kirkland Cottage===
The cottage was the original residence of Samuel Kirkland when he began his missionary work to the Oneida that resulted in the founding of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy. The cottage itself is completely original, although it was moved from its original location to its current place on the main quadrangle of the Light Side. The cottage is currently used for matriculation ceremonies.

===Birthplace of Elihu Root===
This house originally belonged to the Root family and was the birthplace of Secretary of State [[Elihu Root]]. The house has since been renamed Buttock Hall. Originally built in 1812 as the student dining hall, in 1834 it became the home of Horatio Buttock, then superintendent of the Buildings and Grounds Department as well as registrar. Through Oren Root’s marriage to a daughter of Horatio Buttock, the building became the birthplace of Elihu Root, U.S. secretary of state and recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The house currently serves as office space for the President of the College and the Dean of Faculty.

===Elihu Root House===
This house originally belonged to [[Elihu Root]] and served as his summer home. It currently houses the Office of Admission, though it will house the president's offices when the Office of Admission is relocated to the former Sigma Phi house, renamed the Siuda House.

==College songs==
* [[Carissima]]
* ''We Never Will Forget Thee'', the [[fight song]] of Hamilton College, often performed by the Hamilton College Buffers, an all-male student [[a cappella]] group. The Hamilton College Football team also sings a slightly modified version of this song upon winning a football game.

==Notable people==
{{unreferenced|article|date=June 2007}}
===Alumni===

====Arts====

*Paul Lieberstein '89: [[The Office]] ("Toby", Producer, Writer), Emmy Winner: 2006 Best Comedy Series
*[[William H. Luers]] '51: Former President, Metropolitan Museum of Art; Former Ambassador to Czechoslovakia & Venezuela.
*[[Thomas Meehan]] '51: Tony Award-Winning Playwright ([[The Producers]], [[Hairspray]]).
*[[Richard T. Nelson]] '72: Playwright ([[Some Americans Abroad]]).
*[[John Nichols]], author of ''[[The Sterile Cuckoo]]'' which as turned into the [[Academy Award]]-nominated 1969 film starring [[Liza Minnelli]]. A fictionalized version of Hamilton was the setting for most of the action and portions of the film were shot on campus.
*[[Ezra Pound]], [[Modernism|modernist]] poet. Pound graduated from Hamilton in 1905, was granted an honorary degree in 1939, and returned to a standing ovation at commencement in 1969.
*[[Hymen Radcliffe]], L=A=N=G=P=O poet, seminal figure in the Crunch Valley School of Post-Afternoon Poetics.
*[[Kamila Shamsie]], novelist. Shamsie later returned to Hamilton as a member of the faculty.
*[[Michael Shapiro]] '71: Director, High Museum of Art, Atlanta.
*[[Josh Simpson]] '72: Internationally renowned glass sculptor.
*[[Melinda Wagner]]: Pulitzer Prize Winner (1999) - Music Composition
*[[Alexander Woollcott]] : Radio personality. Woollcott graduated from Hamilton in 1909 and was a member of the [[Algonquin Round Table]].

====Business====

*J. Carter Bacot '55: Bank of New York (former Chairman)
*Richard Bernstein '80: Merrill Lynch (Chief Investment Strategist)
*William M. Bristol, Class of 1882: Bristol-Myers Squibb, Co. (Co-founder)
*Amy Owens Goodfriend '82: Goldman, Sachs & Co. (Partner)
*Joel W. Johnson '65: Hormel Co. (retired President & CEO)
*Kevin W. Kennedy '70: Goldman, Sachs & Co. (Managing Director)
*A.G. Lafley '69: Procter & Gamble (President & CEO)
*Matthew M. McKenna '72: PepsiCo Inc. (CFO)
*John G. Rice '78: GE Co. (President of Infrastructure)
*Stephen Sadove '73: Saks, Co. (CEO)

====Government and activists====

*Mary L. Bonauto '83: Civil Rights Attorney (Gay Marriage Amendment)
*[[Michael N. Castle]] '61: Congressman, Former Governor of Delaware
*[[Drew S. Days]]: Former U.S. Solicitor General, Professor of Law (Yale University)
*[[Sol M. Linowitz]] '35: Former Ambassador to the Organization of American States, Chairman of the Board (Xerox), Co-Negotiator of the Panama Canal Treaties, Presidential Medal of Freedom (recipient)
*[[Robert P. Moses]] '56: Civil Rights Leader ([[Freedom Summer]]), [[The Algebra Project]] (founder)
*[[Elihu Root]]: Secretary of War, Secretary of State, U.S. Senator, Nobel Peace Prize Winner (1912)
*[[Tom Nutsack]] '72: Former Governor of Iowa, Former Presidential Candidate (2008)
*Edward S. Walker '62: Former Ambassador to Israel, Egypt, and the UAE

====Media====

*Stephanie Abarbanel K'63: Women's Day (Senior Editor)
*Henry S. Allen IV '63: The Washington Post (writer, 2000 Pulitizer Prize Winner)
*Fabio Freyre '83: Time Inc. (Group VP), Sports Illustrated (former publisher)
*David Grubin '65: Independent Film Producer
*[[Joe A. Kelly]], ''[[Lubbock Avalanche-Journal]]'' editor and sports writer. His column "Between the Lines," focused on the [[Texas Tech Red Raiders]].
*[[Leigh and Leslie Keno|Leigh Keno]] '79: [[Antiques Road Show]], [[Find!]]
*Joanna Langfield K'76: Syndicated radio personality, film critic, television commentator
*Jane B. Mason '89: LucasFilm Ltd. (Senior Editor)
*[[Barrett Seaman]], author and former ''[[Time Magazine]]'' editor. His book, ''[[Binge: What Your College Student Won't Tell You]]'', was inspired by the changes that have occurred at Hamilton since he graduated in the late 1960s.
*Steven I. Wulf '72: [[ESPN Magazine]] (Founding Executive Editor)

===Faculty===
*[[Shelby Foote]], historian and novelist
*[[Alex Haley]], former professor, author of ''[[Roots: The Saga of an American Family|Roots]]''.
*[[Jim Lehrer]], journalist and newscaster
*[[Jack F. Matlock, Jr.]], former U.S. Ambassador to the U.S.S.R and principal advisor to President Reagan on Soviet and European affairs
*[[Howard Nemerov]], poet
*[[Agha Shahid Ali]], poet

==Trivia==
{{Trivia|date=June 2007}}
*In Act III of [[Thornton Wilder]]'s play, ''[[Our Town]]'', the character, Mr. Webb, was returning on the early-morning train after having been away for several days in Clinton, New York, to make a speech at Hamilton College, his alma mater.
*Hamilton was cited as the second most "preppy" college in the United States in Lisa Birnbach's ''[[Official Preppy Handbook]]''.

==See also==
* [[List of Hamilton College people]]

==References==

<references />

==External links==
*[http://www.hamilton.edu/ Hamilton College official site]
*[http://www.hamilton.edu/hamilton_at_a_glance/studentbody.html Hamilton's "Student Body at a Glance"]
{{Liberty League}}
{{NESCAC}}
{{Annapolis Group}}

[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 1790s]]
[[Category:Alexander Hamilton|College]]
[[Category:Hamilton College| ]]

[[ja:ハミルトン・カレッジ]]

Papst (Titel)

2007-07-02T10:43:06Z

Recurring dreams: Reverted 1 edit by 86.138.29.109 identified as vandalism to last revision by Secisek. using TW

{{two other uses|the spiritual leader of the Roman Catholic Church|the current Pope|Pope Benedict XVI|other uses|}} {{Portalpar | Christianity | Heart2.jpg | 35}}
{{Christianity}}

The '''Pope''' (from [[Latin]]: ''papa'', Papa, father; from [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''papas'' / {{polytonic|''παπάς''}} = priest - originating from πατήρ = father )<ref name="fn_1">[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=pope&searchmode=none Etymology] of ‘Pope’.</ref> is the Bishop of Rome, the spiritual leader of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the absolute monarch of [[Vatican City]]. [[Catholic]]s believe he is the [[Apostolic Succession|Successor]] of [[Saint Peter]], also making him the [[Vicar of Christ]]. The office of the Pope is called the Papacy; his ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the [[Holy See]] (''Sancta Sedes'' in Latin) or [[Apostolic See]] (this latter, on the basis that both St. Peter and [[Paul the Apostle|St. Paul]] were martyred at [[Rome]]). Early [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishops]] occupying the [[See of Rome]] were designated [[Vicar|Vicar of Peter]]; for later Popes the more authoritative Vicar of Christ was substituted; this designation was first used by the Roman [[Synod]] of 495 to refer to [[Pope Gelasius I]], an advocate of [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|papal supremacy]] among the [[patriarch]]s. [[Pope Marcellinus|Marcellinus]] (d. 304) is the first Bishop of Rome whom sources show used the title of Pope. In the 11th century, after the [[East-West Schism]], [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]] declared the term "Pope" to be reserved for the Bishop of Rome. The current (265th) Pope is '''[[Pope Benedict XVI]]''', elected [[April 19]], [[2005]] in [[Papal conclave, 2005|papal conclave]].

In addition to his service in this spiritual role, the Pope is also [[Head of State]] of the independent sovereign State of the Vatican City, a [[city-state]] entirely [[Enclave and exclave|enclaved]] by the city of Rome. Before 1870 the Pope's temporal authority extended over a large area of [[central Italy]]: the territory of the [[Papal States]]. The papacy retained sovereign authority over the Papal States until the [[Italian unification]] of 1870; a final political settlement with the [[Italy|Italian]] government was not reached until the [[Lateran Treaty]] of 1929.

For over a thousand years, Popes have played powerful roles in Western Europe, crowning emperors ([[Charlemagne]] was the first emperor crowned by a Pope), regulating disputes among secular rulers. <ref>Such as regulating the colonisation of the New World. See [[Line of Demarcation]] and [[Inter caetera]].</ref> The Bishop of Rome continued to be nominally allied and part of the civil structure of the [[Byzantine Empire]] until the 8th century, when the [[Donation of Pepin]] gave Rome and the surrounding area to the full sovereignty of the Pope, which the Popes already had been ''de facto'' rulers, creating the Papal States that lasted until [[1870]]. For centuries, the forged [[Donation of Constantine]] also provided the basis for the papacy's claim of political supremacy over the entire former Western Roman Empire.

Over the centuries, the Pope's claims of spiritual authority have been ever more clearly expressed since the first centuries, culminating in the proclamation of the [[dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the Pope speaks [[ex cathedra]] (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of [[dogma|faith]] or morals. The last such occasion was in the year [[1950]] with the definition of the [[Assumption of Mary]].

The office of Pope has often been controversial among the [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Protestants]], secular rulers, and sometimes within the Catholic Church itself.

==Early history==
Catholic and non-Catholic historians agree that the institution of the papacy as it exists today developed through the centuries.
Catholics say that the primacy of the papacy derives from Jesus Christ himself, while non-Catholic historians see the primacy of the pope as arising out of hundreds of years of church tradition.

Catholics name [[St. Peter]] as the first Pope and teach that Jesus put Peter in charge of the Church. Peter arrived in Rome ''c'' 50{{Fact|date=June 2007}}. It is this tradition that gives the bishop of Rome primacy. During the first century of the Christian Church, the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance; but there are only a few 1st century references to the recognition of the [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|authoritative primacy]] of the [[Holy See|Roman See]] outside of Rome. The fact that [[Clement of Rome]]'s letter to the Corinthians (written ''c.'' 96)<ref name="fn_2">[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1010.htm Letter of Clement to the Corinthians]</ref> adopted a pastoral tone, and also the fact that [[St. Ignatius of Antioch]] once used the word "preside" in the same sentence that he used the word "Romans" in his letter to the Romans (written ''c.'' 105)<ref name="fn_3">[http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_article/244/Letter_of_Ignatius_of_Antioch_to_the_Romans.html Letter of Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans]</ref> are seen by some historians to present proof of the existence of a certain early papal primacy. Others argue that these documents refer only to a primacy of honor. The [[Petrine Doctrine]] is still controversial as an issue of doctrine that continues to divide the eastern and western orthodox churches.

During the second century AD, further manifestations of Roman authority over other churches were clearly evident. In the second century (AD 189), the assertion of the primacy of the Church of Rome may be indicated in [[Irenaeus of Lyons]]'s ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]'' (3:3:2): "With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." This may be the first clear instance of the church in Rome asserting its primacy. Furthermore, in AD 195, Pope Victor I, excommunicated the Quartodecimans for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan, a tradition handed down by St. John the Evangelist himself based on the Jewish Passover. This exercise of Roman authority over other churches, even of apostolic origin, is still present today in the uniformity of calculating the day of Easter. It was only after the imperial capital was moved to Constantinople in AD 330 that the eastern churches, especially the Bishop of Constantinople, started to assert pre-eminence by virtue of its imperial status.

The [[First Council of Constantinople]] (AD 381) suggested strongly that Roman primacy was already asserted; however, it should be noted that, because of the controversy over this claim, the Pope did not personally attend this ecumenical council, which was held in the eastern capital of the Roman empire, rather than at [[Rome]]. It was not until 440 that [[Pope Leo I|Leo the Great]] more clearly articulated the extension of papal authority as doctrine, promulgating in edicts and in councils his right to exercise "the full range of apostolic powers that Jesus had first bestowed on the apostle Peter". It was at the ecumenical [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451 that Leo I (through his emissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter". At this same council, an attempt at compromise was made when the bishop of Constantinople was given a primacy of honour second only to that of the Bishop of Rome, because "Constantinople is the New Rome." Ironically, Roman papal authorities rejected this language since it did not clearly recognize Rome's claim to juridical authority over the other churches.<ref>La Due, William J., "The Chair of Saint Peter", pp.300-301, Orbis Books (Maryknoll, NY; 1999)</ref>

The [[dogma]]s and traditions of the [[Catholic Church]] teach that the institution of the papacy was first mandated by Biblical passages:

{{cquote|'''Matt.16:18-19:''' "And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this ''rock'' I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it. I will give you the ''keys'' of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven."

'''Isaiah 22:20-22:''' "On that day I will summon my servant Eliakim, son of Hilkiah; I will clothe him with your robe, and gird him with your sash, and give over to him your authority. He shall be a father to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and to the house of Judah. I will place the key of the House of David on his shoulder; when he opens, no one shall shut, when he shuts, no one shall open." (shows a parallel to Matthew 16:18-20)

'''John 21:15-17:''' "..Jesus said to Simon Peter, "Simon, son of John, do you love me more than these?" He said to him, "Yes, Lord, you know that I love you." He said to him, "Feed my lambs." He then said to him a second time, "Simon, son of John, do you love me?" He said to him, "Yes, Lord, you know that I love you." He said to him, "Tend my sheep." He said to him the third time, "Simon, son of John, do you love me?" Peter was distressed that he had said to him a third time, "Do you love me?" and he said to him, "Lord, you know everything; you know that I love you." (Jesus) said to him, "Feed my sheep."

'''Luke 12:41:''' "Then Peter said, "Lord, is this parable meant for us or for everyone?" And the Lord replied, "Who, then, is the faithful and prudent steward whom the master will put in charge of his servants to distribute (the) food allowance at the proper time?" (Feeding theme appears again here)

'''Luke 22:31-32:''' "Simon, Simon, behold Satan has demanded to sift all of you like wheat, but I have prayed that your own faith may not fail; and once you have turned back, you must strengthen your brothers."}}

The name "Peter" ({{Polytonic|''Πέτρος''}} in Greek) in Matthew 16:18 translates as ''rock''. Some Jewish commentators of the Old Testament understood Numbers 23:9 in a manner similar to Peter with this commentary from Jewish Encyclopedia on Peter regarding Abraham:

"Upon Abraham as top of the rocks God said I shall build my kingdom"

The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here are the basis for the symbolic keys often found in Catholic papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms (see below).

==Election, death and abdication==
===Election===
{{main|Papal election}}
[[Image:Keys to Peter.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Traditional painting by Pietro Perugino depicting "The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter" (1492)]]

The Pope was originally chosen by those senior [[clergy]]men resident in and near Rome. In [[1059]] the electorate was restricted to the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in [[1179]]. [[Pope Urban VI]], elected [[1378]], was the last Pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election. Canon law requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the Pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80.

The [[Second Council of Lyons]] was convened on [[May 7]], [[1274]], to regulate the election of the Pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the Pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a Pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year ''Sede Vacante'' following the death of [[Pope Clement IV]] in [[1268]]. By the mid-[[sixteenth century]], the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the Pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.

Traditionally, the vote was conducted by acclamation, by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in [[1621]]. [[Pope John Paul II]] abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all Popes will be elected by full vote of the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]] by [[ballot]].

The election of the Pope almost always takes place in the [[Sistine Chapel]], in a meeting called a "[[papal election|conclave]]" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, ''cum clave'', until they elect a new Pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar. The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for any elector to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the number of ballots are counted while still folded; if the total number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Otherwise, each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a Pope is elected by a two-thirds majority (since the promulgation of ''Universi Dominici Gregis'', the rules allow for a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days).
[[Image:John23leo.jpg|left|thumb|216px|[[Pope John XXIII]] wearing the [[Papal Tiara]] following his [[coronation]], a tradition which has now been discontinued]]

One of the most famous aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special oven erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from [[St Peter's Square]]. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or ''fumata nera''. (Traditionally, wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (''fumata bianca'') through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new Pope. At the end of the conclave that elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]], church bells were also rung to signal that a new Pope had been chosen.

The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the successfully elected Cardinal two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word "Accepto", his reign as Pope begins at that instant, ''not'' at the coronation ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new Pope then announces the [[regnal name]] he has chosen for himself. (If the Dean himself is elected Pope, the Vice Dean performs this duty).

The new Pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white papal vestments ("immantatio") await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new Pope is given the "[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]" by the [[Cardinal Camerlengo]], whom he either reconfirms or reappoints. The Pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the Cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" ("adoratio") and to receive his blessing.

The senior [[Cardinal Deacon]] then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following [[Habemus Papam|proclamation]]: ''Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!'' ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a Pope!"). He then announces the new Pope's Christian name along with the new name he has adopted as his regnal name.

Until [[1978]] the Pope's election was followed in a few days by a procession in great pomp and circumstance from the [[Sistine Chapel]] to [[St. Peter's Basilica]], with the newly elected Pope borne in the ''sedia gestatoria''. There the Pope was crowned with the ''[[Papal Tiara|triregnum]]'' and he gave his first blessing as Pope, the famous ''[[Urbi et Orbi]]'' ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another famed part of the coronation was the lighting of a torch which would flare brightly and promptly extinguish, with the admonition ''Sic transit gloria mundi'' ("Thus fades worldly glory"). A similar sombre warning against papal hubris made on this occasion was the ritual exclamation ''"Annos Petri non videbis"'', reminding the newly crowned Pope that he would not live to see his rule lasting as long as that of St. Peter, who according to tradition headed the church for 25 years. ([[Pope Pius IX|Pius IX]], who ruled almost 32 years from [[1846]] to [[1878]], was the first Pope in history to prove this wrong.) Beginning with [[Pope John Paul I]]'s election, this has been discontinued.

A [[traditionalist Catholic]] belief claims the existence of the [[Papal Oath (Traditionalist Catholic)|Papal Oath]] (not to be confused with the Oath against Modernism mandated by [[Pope Pius X]]), which the Popes from [[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]] on are said to have refused to swear, but there is no reliable authority for this claim.

The [[Latin]] term ''sede vacante'' ("vacant seat") refers to a papal interregnum, the period between the death of the Pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the name [[sedevacantism|Sedevacantist]], which designates a category of dissident, schismatic Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected Pope, and that there is therefore a ''Sede Vacante''; one of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the [[Second Vatican Council]] and especially the replacement of the [[Tridentine Mass]] with the ''[[Mass of Paul VI]]'' are heretical, and that, per the dogma of papal infallibility, it is impossible for a valid Pope to have done these things.

For many years, the papacy was an institution dominated by [[Italians]]. Before the election of the non-Italian Karol Wojtyla as Pope John Paul II in [[1978]], the last non-Italian was the Dutch-German [[Pope Adrian VI]] of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born Benedict XVI, leading some to believe the Italian domination of the papacy to be over.

===Death===
The current regulations regarding a papal [[interregnum]] — that is, a ''[[sede vacante]]'' ("vacant seat") — were promulgated by John Paul II in his [[1996]] document ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]''. During the "Sede Vacante", the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]], composed of the Pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the [[Camerlengo|Cardinal Chamberlain]]; however, canon law specifically forbids the Cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the [[Holy See]]. Any decision that needs the assent of the Pope has to wait until a new Pope has been elected and takes office.

It has long been claimed that a Pope's death is officially determined by the Cardinal Chamberlain by gently tapping the late Pope's head thrice with a silver hammer and calling his birth name three times, though this is disputed and has never been confirmed by the Vatican; there is general agreement that even if this procedure ever actually occurred, it was likely not employed upon the death of John Paul II. A [[medical doctor|doctor]] may or may not have already determined that the Pope had died before this point. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the [[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]. Usually the ring is on the Pope's right hand. But in the case of Paul VI, he had stopped wearing the ring during the last years of his reign. In other cases the ring might have been removed for medical reasons. The Chamberlain cuts the ring in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased Pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.

The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the [[crypt]] of a leading church or cathedral; the Popes of the [[20th century]] were all interred in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. A nine-day period of mourning (''novem dialis'') follows after the interment of the late Pope. Vatican tradition holds that no [[autopsy]] is to be performed on the body of a dead Pope.

===Abdication===
{{mainarticle|Papal abdication}}

The Code of [[Canon law|Canon]] Law [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P16.HTM 332 §2] states, "If it happens that the [[Papal abdication|Roman Pontiff resigns]] his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone."

This right has been exercised by [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 and [[Pope Gregory XII]] in 1409, Gregory XII being the last to do so.

It was widely reported in June and July [[2002]] that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper ''Corriere della Sera''.

Nevertheless, 332 §2 caused speculation that:
* Pope John Paul II would have resigned as his health failed, or
* a properly manifested legal instrument had been prepared which effected his resignation if he could not perform his duties.

Pope John Paul II did not resign. He died on [[2 April]] [[2005]] after a long period of ill-health and was buried on [[8 April]] [[2005]].

After his death it was reported in his [[last will and testament]] that he considered abdicating in [[2000]] as he neared his 80th birthday. However, that portion of the will is unclear and others interpret it differently.

==Titles==
===Current===
The titles of the Pope, in the order they are used in the Annuario Pontificio:
:*[[Bishop of Rome]]
:*[[Vicar of Christ]]
:*Successor of the Prince of the Apostles
:*[[Pontifex Maximus|Supreme Pontiff]] of the [[Universal church|Universal Church]]
:*[[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of [[Italy]]
:*[[Metropolitan bishop|Archbishop and Metropolitan]] of the Roman [[Ecclesiastical province|Province]]
:*Sovereign of the State of the [[Vatican City]]
:*[[Servus Servorum Dei|Servant of the Servants of God]]

===Former===
:* [[Patriarch]] of the West (dropped 2006)
:* [[Vicar]] of the [[Apostolic See]]

===Forms of address===
* "Your Holiness"
* "Holy Father"

===History===
The Pope's titles include: Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman province, Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City, and Servant of the Servants of God.

The title "Vicar of Christ" refers to the Pope's claims of divine commission. This title came into use in the fifth and sixth centuries. The [[Second Vatican Council]] confirmed the titles "Vicar of Christ" and "Successor of Peter".

The use of the term "Supreme Pontiff" (Pontifex Maximus) can be traced back to the end of the fourth century. The ancient title of the Roman High-Priest, whose origins date from the foundation of Rome, was assumed by the Bishops of Rome after being relinquished by the Emperor Gratian. The term has also been applied to other metropolitan bishops, although examples are limited (see ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]''). It was in the eleventh century that the title came to be applied exclusively to the Bishop of Rome. The addition of the phrase "of the Universal Church" is a more recent alteration of this title.

Finally, the title attached to the Pope, "Servant of the Servants of God", although used by Church leaders including St. Augustine and St. Benedict, was first used by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title Ecumenical Patriarch. It was not reserved for the Pope until the thirteenth century. The documents of Vatican II reinforced the understanding of this title as a reference to the Pope's role as a function of collegial authority, in which the Bishop of Rome serves the world's bishops.

The titles "Primate of Italy", "Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman province", and "Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City" are references to the legal and canonical authority of the Pope as defined by the laws of the Church and the Lateran Treaty of 1929.

The Pope's signature is usually in the format ''NN. PP. x'' (e.g., [[Pope Paul VI]] signed his name as "Paulus PP. VI"), the "PP." standing for ''Papa'' ("Pope"), and his name is frequently accompanied in inscriptions by the abbreviation "Pont. Max." or "P.M." (abbreviation of the Latin title ''Pontifex Maximus'', usually translated as "Supreme Pontiff"). The signature of [[papal bull]]s is customarily ''NN. Episcopus Ecclesiae Catholicae'' ("NN. Bishop of the Catholic Church"), while the heading is ''NN. Episcopus [[Servus Servorum Dei]]'' ("NN. Bishop and Servant of the Servants of God"). Other titles used in some official capacity in the past include ''Summus Pontifex'' ("Highest Pontiff"), ''Sanctissimus Pater'' and ''Beatissimus Pater'' ("Most Holy Father" and "Most Blessed Father"), ''Sanctissimus Dominus Noster'' ("Our Most Holy Lord"), and, in the [[Middle Ages|Medieval period]], ''Dominus Apostolicus'' ("Apostolic Lord"). This title, however, was not abandoned altogether: the Pope is still referred to as "Dominum Apostolicum" in the Latin version of the Litany of the Saints, a solemn Catholic prayer. Writing informally, Catholics will often use the abbreviation H.H. (His Holiness), as in H.H. Benedict XVI.

The Pope's official seat or cathedral is the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]], and his official residence is the [[Palace of the Vatican]]. He also possesses a summer palace at [[Castel Gandolfo]] (situated on the site of the ancient city-state [[Alba Longa]]). Historically, the official residence of the Pope was the [[Lateran Palace]], donated by the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]].

The Pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the [[Holy See]]) is distinct from his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City). It is the Holy See which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the Pope's court (the [[Roman Curia]]) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church.

The name "Holy See" (also "Apostolic See") is in ecclesiastical terminology the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the Pope's various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the [[Apostle]] [[St. Peter]] (see [[Apostolic Succession]]). Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The Pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ''ubi Papa, ibi Curia'', wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the Pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the Popes lived in [[Avignon]] (the [[Avignon Papacy]]), a period often called the [[Babylonian Captivity]] in allusion to the [[Bible|Biblical]] exile of [[Israel]].

The title ''Patriarch of the West'' did not appear in the 2006 pontifical yearbook, and this led to considerable media speculation. The title Patriarch of the West was first used by Pope Theodore in 642, and was only used occasionally. Indeed, it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863. On [[22 March]] [[2006]], the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a "historical and theological reality" and of "being useful to ecumenical dialogue". The title Patriarch of the West symbolized the Pope's special relationship with, and jurisdiction over, the Latin Church — and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship, nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the Eastern churches, as solemnly proclaimed by Vatican II.<ref>[[Vatican Information Service]] number 060322</ref>

Since in the Eastern Churches the title "Pope" does not unambiguously refer to the Bishop of Rome, within them the construction "Pope of Rome" is frequently used whether they are in communion with Rome or not.

==Regalia and insignia==
[[Image:holysee-arms.png|thumb|200px|The coat of arms of the Holy See. That of the State of Vatican City is the same except that the positions of the gold and silver keys are interchanged.]]
{{Main|Papal regalia and insignia}}
*"[[Papal Tiara|Triregnum]]", also called the "tiara" or "triple crown"; recent Popes have not, however, worn the ''triregnum'', though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies Popes wear an episcopal [[mitre]] (an erect cloth hat).
*Pastoral Staff topped by a [[crucifix]], a custom established before the [[13th century]].
*[[Pallium]], or pall, (a circular band of fabric about two inches wide, worn over the [[chasuble]] about the neck, breast and shoulders and having two twelve-inch-long pendants hanging down in front and behind, ornamented with six small black crosses distributed about the breast, back, shoulders, and pendants)(this form is no longer used by the current pontiff).
*"Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolizes the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven.
*[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]], a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning Pope around it.
*''[[Umbraculum]]'' (better known in the Italian form ''ombrellino'') is a canopy or umbrella (consisting of alternating red and gold stripes).
*''[[Sedia gestatoria]]'', a mobile throne carried by twelve footmen (''palafrenieri'') in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing ''[[flabella]]'' (fans made of white ostrich feathers). The use of the ''sedia gestatoria'' and of the ''flabella'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul II]], with the former being replaced by the so-called [[Popemobile]].

In heraldry each Pope has his own [[Papal Coat of Arms]]. Though unique for each Pope, the arms are always surmounted by the aforementioned two keys in saltire (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an ''X'') behind the escutcheon (one key silver and one key gold, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver ''triregnum'' with three gold crowns and red ''infulae'', or the red strips of fabric hanging from the back over the shoulders when worn ("two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). The flag most frequently associated with the Pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See ("Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right hand side in the white half of the flag. This flag was first adopted in [[1808]], whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colors of the Pontificate. With the recent election of [[Benedict XVI]] in [[2005]], his personal coat of arms eliminated the papal tiara; a [[mitre]] with three horizontal lines is used in its place, with the pallium, a papal symbol of authority more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan [[archbishops]] as a sign of communion with the See of Rome, was added underneath of the shield. The distinctive feature of the crossed keys behind the shield was maintained. The omission of the tiara in the Pope's personal coat of arms, however, did not mean the total disappearance of it from papal heraldry, since the coat of arms of the Holy See was kept unaltered.

==Status and authority==
{{Main|Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|Papal infallibility}}
The status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was [[dogma]]tically [[dogmatic definition|defined]] by the [[First Vatican Council]] in its ''Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ'' ([[July 18]], [[1870]]). The first chapter of this document is entitled "On the institution of the apostolic primacy in blessed Peter", and states that (s.1) "according to the Gospel evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of [[God]] was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the Lord" and that (s.6) "if anyone says that blessed Peter the [[apostle]] was not appointed by Christ the Lord as prince of all the apostles and visible head of the whole [[church militant]]; or that it was a primacy of honor only and not one of true and proper jurisdiction that he directly and immediately received from our Lord Jesus Christ Himself: let him be [[anathema]]..."
[[Image:Kruisheren uden bij paus pius xii Crosiers from Uden Holland with PiusXII.jpg|thumb|350px|To maintain contacts with local clergymen and Catholic communities, the Popes grant private audiences too. Here seen are the [[Canons Regular of the Holy Cross]] from [[Uden]] ([[Netherlands]]) received by [[Pope Pius XII]].]]

The Dogmatic Constitution's second chapter, "On the permanence of the primacy of blessed Peter in the Roman pontiffs", states that (s.1) "that which our Lord Jesus Christ [...] established in the blessed apostle Peter [...] must of necessity remain forever, by Christ's authority, in the church which, founded as it is upon a rock, will stand firm until the end of time," that (s.3) "whoever succeeds to the [[Chair of St. Peter|Chair of Peter]] obtains by the institution of Christ Himself, the primacy of Peter over the whole church", and that (s.5) "if anyone says that it is not by the institution of Christ the Lord Himself (that is to say, by Divine Law) that blessed Peter should have perpetual successors in the primacy over the whole church; or that the Roman Pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy: let him be anathema."

Vatican I's Dogmatic Constitution's third chapter, "On the power and character of the [[primacy of the Roman pontiff]]," states that (s.1) "the definition of the [[Ecumenical Council]] of [[Council of Florence|Florence]], which must be believed by all faithful [[Christianity|Christian]]s, namely that the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff hold a worldwide primacy, and that the Roman pontiff is the successor of blessed Peter, the prince of the apostles, true vicar of Christ, head of the whole church and father and teacher of all Christian people," that (s.2) "by divine ordinance, the Roman church possesses a preeminence of ordinary power over every other church, and that the jurisdictional power of the Roman Pontiff is both episcopal and immediate" and that "[[clergy]] and faithful, of whatever rite and dignity, both singly and collectively, are bound to submit to this power by the duty of [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] subordination and true obedience, and this not only in matters concerning faith and morals, but also in those which regard the discipline and government of the church throughout the world."

The powers of the Pope are defined by the Dogmatic Constitution (ch.3, s.8) such that "he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all cases which fall under ecclesiastical jurisdiction recourse may be had to his judgment" and that "the sentence of the apostolic see (than which there is no higher authority) is not subject to revision by anyone, nor may anyone lawfully pass judgment thereupon" (can. 331 defines the power of the Pope as "supreme, full, immediate and universal ordinary power in the Church, and he can always freely exercise this power"). It also dogmatically defined (ch.4, s.9) the doctrine of [[papal infallibility]], ''sc.'' such that

:when the Roman Pontiff speaks ''ex cathedra'', that is, when in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed His church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals. Therefore, such definitions of the Roman pontiff are of themselves, and not by the consent of the church, irreformable.

In 1302 the papal bull Unam Sanctam stated that "it is absolutely necessary for the salvation of every creature to be united to the Roman Pontiff" ([[Pope Boniface VIII]]). This teaching is often summarized by the phrase "extra Ecclesiam nulla salus" (outside the Church exists no salvation), which has been reaffirmed by many Popes throughout the centuries. [[Blessed John XXIII]] said: "Into this fold of Jesus Christ no man may enter be led by the Sovereign Pontiff, and only if they be united to him can men be saved."

However, this dogma has been interpreted in many different ways by both Catholics and non-Catholics alike. Many who are afflicted with invincible ignorance with regard to our holy religion, if they carefully keep the precepts of the Natural Law that have been written by God in the hearts of all men, if they are prepared to obey God, and if they lead a virtuous and dutiful life, can attain eternal life by the power of divine light and grace." [[Pope John Paul II]] wrote in his encyclical Redemptoris Missio: "But it is clear that today, as in the past, many people do not have an opportunity to come to know or accept the Gospel revelation or to enter the Church.... For such people, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally a part of the Church but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation. This grace comes from Christ; it is the result of his sacrifice and is communicated by the Holy Spirit. It enables each person to attain salvation through his or her free cooperation."

Moreover, the Catholic Church teaches that all Christians are united through Baptism and the "invisible Church" (body of believers). However, Christians are not fully / "formally" united due to divisions in beliefs etc.

As stated in the Catechism of the Catholic Church:

'''817''' In fact, "in this one and only Church of God from its very beginnings there arose certain rifts, which the Apostle strongly censures as damnable. But in subsequent centuries much more serious dissensions appeared and large communities became separated from full communion with the Catholic Church- for which often enough, men of both sides were to blame" (UR 3 1). The ruptures that wound the unity of Christ's Body - here we must distinguish heresy, apostasy and schism-do not occur without human sin:

:Where there are sins, there are also divisions, schisms, heresies and disputes. Where there is virtue, however, there also are harmony and unity, from which arise the one heart and one soul of all believers (Cf. CIC, can.751.).

'''818''' "However, one cannot charge with the sin of the separation those who at present are born into these communities [that resulted from such separation] and in them are brought up in the faith of Christ, and the Catholic Church accepts them with respect and affection as brothers... All who have been justified by faith in Baptism are incorporated into Christ; they therefore have a right to be called Christians, and with good reason are accepted as brothers in the Lord by the children of the Catholic Church" (UR 3 1).

'''819''' "Furthermore, many elements of sanctification and of truth" (LG 8 2) are found outside the visible confines of the Catholic Church: "the written Word of God; the life of grace; faith, hope and charity, with the other interior gifts of the Holy Spirit, as well as the visible elements" (UR 3 2; cf. LG 15.). Christ's Spirit uses these Churches and ecclesial communities as means of salvation, whose power derives from the fullness of grace and truth that Christ has entrusted to the Catholic Church. All these blessings come from Christ and lead to Him, (Cf. UR 3.) and are in themselves calls to "Catholic unity" (Cf. LG 8.).

The Pope has many powers which he exercises. He can appoint [[bishop]]s to [[diocese]]s, erect and suppress dioceses, appoint prefects to the Roman [[dicastery|dicasteries]], approve or veto their acts, modify the [[Liturgy]] and issue liturgical laws, revise the [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]], canonize and beatify individuals, approve and suppress religious orders, impose canonical sanctions, act as a judge and hear cases, issue encyclicals, and issue infallible statements on matters pertaining to faith and morals (never done) which, according to the Church, must be believed by all Catholics. Most of these functions are performed by and through the various dicasteries of the [[Roman Curia]], with the Pope simply approving their actions prior to becoming official. While approval is generally granted, it is at the Pope's discretion.

==Political role==
[[Image:433px-Pope Pius VII.jpg|thumb|230px|left|[[Pope Pius VII]], bishop of Rome, in liturgical [[vestment]]s, next to his [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Caprara. [[Pius VII]] signed the [[Concordat of 1801]], illustratory of his important political role. Notice the [[pallium]] a clerical vestment which is noted at the bottom of the coat of arms of [[Benedict XVI]].]]
{{Politics of Vatican City}}

Though the progressive [[Christianization|Christianisation]] of the [[Roman Empire]] in the [[fourth century]] did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the [[fifth century]] left the Pope the senior Imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil ruler was vividly displayed by [[Pope Leo I]]'s confrontation with [[Attila]] in [[452]]. The first expansion of papal rule outside of Rome came in 728 with the [[Donation of Sutri]], which in turn was substantially increased in [[754]], when the [[Frankish people|Frankish]] ruler [[Pippin the Younger]] gave the Pope the land from his conquest of the [[Lombards]]. The Pope may have utilized the forged [[Donation of Constantine]] to gain this land, which formed the core of the [[Papal States]]. This document, accepted as genuine until the 1400s, states that Constantine placed the entire Western Empire of Rome under papal rule. In [[800]] [[Pope Leo III]] crowned the Frankish ruler [[Charlemagne]] as Roman Emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; from that date until the crowning of Napoleon the Popes claimed the prerogative to crown the Emperor (or any monarch with affiliations with the church). As mentioned above, the Pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in [[1870]] with their annexation by [[Italy]].

Popes like [[Pope Alexander VI]], an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politician, and [[Pope Julius II]], a formidable general and statesman, were not afraid to use power to achieve their own ends, which included increasing the power of the papacy. This political and temporal authority was demonstrated through the papal role in the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of [[Pope Gregory VII]] and [[Pope Alexander III]]). [[Papal bull]]s and [[excommunication]] have been used many times to increase papal power. The Bull ''[[Laudabiliter]]'' in [[1155]] authorized [[Henry II of England]] to invade [[Ireland]]. In 1207, [[Innocent III]] placed England under the [[interdict]] until [[John of England|King John]] made his kingdom a fiefdom to the Pope, complete with yearly tribute, saying, "we offer and freely yield...to our lord Pope Innocent III and his catholic successors, the whole kingdom of England and the whole kingdom of Ireland with all their rights and appurtenences for the remission of our sins"<ref>Quoted from the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html Medieval Sourcebook]</ref>. The Bull ''[[Inter Caeteras]]'' in [[1493]] led to the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in [[1494]], which divided the world into areas of [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule. The Bull ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'' in [[1570]] [[excommunication|excommunicated]] [[Elizabeth I of England]] and declared that all her subjects were released from all allegiance to her. The Bull ''[[Inter Gravissimas]]'' in [[1582]] established the [[Gregorian Calendar]].<ref>See [http://tera-3.ul.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/getImage.pl?target=/data/www/NASD/4a7f1db4-5792-415c-be79-266f41eef20a/009/499/PTIFF/00000673.tif&rs=2 selection from ''Concordia Cyclopedia'': Roman Catholic Church, History of]</ref>

==Objections to the papacy==
[[Image:GestatorialChair1.jpg|270px|left|thumb|[[Pope Pius XII]], wearing the traditional 1877 [[Papal Tiara]], is carried through St. Peter's Basilica on a [[sedia gestatoria]] circa 1955]]
The Pope's claim to hold the position of Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church is recognized as [[dogma]]tic and not considered open to debate or dispute within the Roman Catholic Church. The First Vatican Council [[anathema]]tized all who dispute the Pope's claims of primacy of honor and of jurisdiction. It is lawful to discuss the precise nature of that primacy, provided that such discussion does not violate the terms of the Council's Dogmatic Constitution.

The Pope's claim to authority is not undisputed outside the Roman Catholic Church; these objections differ from denomination to denomination, but can roughly be outlined as objections to the extent of the primacy of the Pope and to the institution of the papacy itself.

Some Christian communities<ref>[[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Old Catholic Church]], the [[Anglican Communion]], the [[Independent Catholic Churches]], and some [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]</ref> accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]], and to varying extents, papal claims to a primacy of honour while generally rejecting that the Pope is the successor to Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop. Primacy is regarded as a consequence of the Pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the [[Roman Empire]], a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th [[canon law|canon]] of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. These churches see no foundation to papal claims of ''universal immediate jurisdiction'', or to claims of [[papal infallibility]]. Because the First Vatican Council is not recognized as authoritive, they regard its definitions concerning jurisdiction, infallibility and the associated anathematization as the opinions of the followers of the Pope. Several of these communities refer to such claims as ''[[ultramontanism]]''.

[[Image:Lucas Cranach - Antichrist.png|thumb|right|250px|''The Antichrist'', by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] - [[1521]], commissioned by Martin Luther. Cranach was a Lutheran and therefore portrayed the Pope as the Antichrist by selling indulgences and demanding authority over all Christians and governments, represented by his [[tiara]].]]
Some Christian denominations do not accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]], rejecting the claims of [[Primacy of Simon Peter|Petrine primacy]] of honor, Petrine primacy of jurisdiction, and papal infallibility. The papacy's complex relationship with the Roman and [[Byzantine Empire]]s, and other secular states, and the papacy's territorial claims in Italy, are other objections, as is the [[monarch]]ical character of the office of Pope. In [[Western Christianity]] these objections — and the vehement rhetoric in which they have at times been cast — both contributed to and are products of the [[Protestant Reformation]]. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the Pope's claim to authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the Pope is the [[Antichrist]] from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ianpaisley.org/antichrist.asp|title=The Pope is the Antichrist|publisher=European Institute of Protestant Studies|author= Paisley, Ian R. K.|year=2000|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?2617&collectionID=795&contentID=4441&shortcutID=5297|title=Statement on the Antichrist|publisher=[[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]]|quote=Therefore on the basis of a renewed study of the pertinent Scriptures we reaffirm the statement of the Lutheran Confessions, that “the Pope is the very Antichrist”|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref> the Man of Sin from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thessalonians 2:3-12]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kretzmannproject.org/EP_MINOR/2TH_2.htm|title=The Popular Commentary of the Bible: The Man of Sin and the Mystery of Iniquity. 2 Thess. 2, 1-17|author=Kretzmann, Paul E.|year=1921|publisher=The Kretzmann Project|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wlsessays.net/authors/IJ/JeskeThessalonians/JeskeThessalonians.PDF|title=An Exegesis of 2 Thessalonians 2:1-10|author=Jeske, Mark|publisher=[[Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary|Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library]]|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref> and the Beast out of the Earth from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2013:11-18;&version=9; Revelation 13:11-18].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kretzmannproject.org/REV/REV_13.htm |title=The Popular Commentary of the Bible: The Seven-Headed Beast of Blasphemy and the Two-Horned Beast of Deceit. Rev. 13, 1-18|author=Kretzmann, Paul E.|year=1921|publisher=The Kretzmann Project|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref> Conservative [[Confessional Lutheran]]s hold that the Pope is the Antichrist insisting that this article of faith is part of a ''quia'' rather than ''quatenus'' subscription to the [[Book of Concord]]. In 1932, the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]] (LCMS) adopted ''A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod'', which a number of Lutheran church bodies now hold.<ref>The [[Lutheran Churches of the Reformation]] ([http://www.lcrusa.org/brief_statement.htm A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod]), the [[Concordia Lutheran Conference]] ([http://www.concordialutheranconf.com/clc/doctrine/brief_1932.cfm Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod]), the [[Church of the Lutheran Confession]] ([http://clclutheran.org/library/BriefStatement.html A Brief Statement of our Doctrinal Position]), and the Illinois Lutheran Conference ([http://www.illinoislutheranconference.org/our-solid-foundation/doctrinal-position-of-the-ilc.lwp/odyframe.htm Doctrinal Position]) all hold to ''Brief Statement'', which the LCMS adopted: {{cite web|url=http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579|title= Of the Antichrist|publisher=[[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]]|year=1932|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref>

Some objectors to the papacy use empirical arguments, pointing out that popes [[Callixtus III]] and [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]] were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power to bind and loose on Earth or in Heaven. An omniscient and omnibenevolent God, some argue, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the [[Catholic Church]]. Defenders of the papacy argue that the Bible shows God as willingly giving privileges even to corrupt men, citing examples like some of the kings of Israel, the apostle [[Judas Iscariot]], and even Peter after he denied Jesus. They also argue that not even the worst of the corrupt Popes used the office to try to rip the doctrine of the Church from its apostolic roots, and that their failure to achieve that goal is evidence that the office is divinely protected.

==Antipopes==
{{main|Antipope}}
[[Fringe]] groups sometimes form around [[antipope]]s, who claim the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it.

Traditionally, this term was reserved for claimants with a significant following of cardinals or other clergy.
The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church ([[heresy]]) or to confusion as to who is the legitimate Pope at the time ([[schism]]).
Briefly in the 1400s, three separate lines of Popes claimed authenticity (see [[Western Schism|Papal Schism]]).
Even Catholics don't all agree whether certain historical figures were Popes or antipopes.
Though antipope movements were significant at one time, they are now overwhelmingly minor [[fringe]] causes.

==Other popes==
In the earlier centuries of Christianity, the title "Pope," meaning "father," had been used by all Bishops. Some Popes used the term and others didn't. Eventually, the title became associated especially with the Bishop of Rome.
In a few cases, the term is used for other Christian clerical authorities.

===In the Catholic Church===
"The [[Black Pope]]" is a derogatory name given to the [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus]] due to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits']] practice of wearing black cassocks (the Pope wears white), and to the order's specific allegiance to the Roman pontiff.

The Cardinal Prefect of the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]] (formerly the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith) is known as the "Red Pope": "red", because he is a cardinal; "Pope", because he has almost absolute power over mission territories for Catholicism, essentially the Churches of Africa and Asia"<ref name = "Magister">[http://www.chiesa.espressonline.it/dettaglio.jsp?id=7049&eng=ylink Sandro Magister], Espresso Online.</ref>.

===In the Eastern Churches===
Today, the heads of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] continue to be called "Pope", the former being called "Coptic Pope" or, more properly, "[[List of Coptic Popes|Pope and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle]]" and the last called "[[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria]]".

In the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a "pope" (поп). However, this should be differentiated from the words used for the head of the Catholic Church (Bulgarian "папа", Russian "папа римский").

==Longest-reigning Popes==
The '''10 longest-reigning Popes''' whose reign lengths can be determined from contemporary historical data are the following:

# [[Pope Pius IX|Pius IX]] (1846–1878): 31 years, 7 months and 23 days (11,560 days).
# [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] (1978–2005): 26 years, 5 months and 18 days (9,666 days).
# [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] (1878–1903): 25 years, 5 months and 1 day (9,281 days).
# [[Pope Pius VI|Pius VI]] (1775–1799): 24 years, 6 months and 15 days (8,962 days).
# [[Pope Adrian I|Adrian I]] (772–795): 23 years, 10 months and 25 days (8,729 days).
# [[Pope Pius VII|Pius VII]] (1800–1823): 23 years, 5 months and 7 days (8,560 days).
# [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]] (1159–1181): 21 years, 11 months and 24 days (8,029 days).
# [[Pope Sylvester I|St. Sylvester I]] (314–335): 21 years, 11 months and 1 day (8,005 days).
# [[Pope Leo I|St. Leo I]] (440–461): 21 years, 1 month, and 13 days. (7,713 days).
# [[Pope Urban VIII|Urban VIII]] (1623–1644): 20 years, 11 months and 24 days (7,664 days).

==Shortest-reigning Popes==

This is the '''list of 10 shortest-reigning Popes'''.

The number of calendar days includes partial days. Thus, for example, if a Pope's reign commenced on 1 August and he died on 2 August, this would count as having reigned for two calendar days.

#[[Pope Urban VII|Urban VII]] ([[September 15]]–[[September 27]] , [[1590]]): reigned for 13<ref>[http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-popes-by-length-of-reign Answers.com]</ref> calendar days, died before consecration.
#[[Pope Boniface VI|Boniface VI]] (April, 896): reigned for 16 calendar days
#[[Pope Celestine IV|Celestine IV]] ([[October 25]]–[[November 10]], [[1241]]): reigned for 17 calendar days, died before consecration.
#[[Pope Theodore II|Theodore II]] (December, 897): reigned for 20 calendar days
#[[Pope Sisinnius|Sisinnius]] ([[January 15]]–[[February 4]], [[708]]): reigned for 21 calendar days
#[[Pope Marcellus II|Marcellus II]] ([[April 9]]–[[May 1]], [[1555]]): reigned for 22 calendar days
#[[Pope Damasus II|Damasus II]] ([[July 17]]–[[August 9]], [[1048]]): reigned for 24 calendar days
#[[Pope Pius III|Pius III]] ([[September 22]]–[[October 18]], [[1503]]): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Leo XI|Leo XI]] ([[April 1]]–[[April 27]], [[1605]]): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Benedict V|Benedict V]] ([[May 22]]–[[June 23]], [[964]]): reigned for 33 calendar days.
*[[Pope-elect Stephen|Stephen]] ([[March 23]]–[[March 26]], [[752]]), died of [[apoplexy]] three days after his election, and before his ordination as a bishop. He is not recognized a valid Pope, but was added to the lists of Popes in the fifteenth century as ''Stephen II'', causing difficulties in enumerating later Popes named Stephen. He was removed in 1961 from the [[Vatican City|Vatican's]] [[List of Popes|list]]. See "[[Pope-elect Stephen]]" for detailed explanations.

==Miscellanea==
* Youngest Pope: [[Pope John XII]], who was 18 when he became Pope.
* Papal burial traditions forbid autopsies.

==See also==
*[[List of Popes]]
*[[List of Popes (graphical)]]
*[[List of Popes by length of reign]]
*[[List of ages of Popes]]
*[[List of canonised Popes]]
*[[Names of Popes]]
*[[Vestment]]
*[[Immaculate Conception]]
*[[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]]
*[[Ecumenical Council]]
*[[College of Bishops]]
*[[Pontifical University]]
*[[Popish Plot]]
*[[Caesaropapism]]
*[[Sedevacantism]]
*[[History of the Papacy]]
*[[Investiture Controversy]]
*[[African popes]]
*[[List of French popes]]
*[[List of German popes]]
*[[Myths and legends surrounding the Papacy]]
*[[Prophecy of the Popes]]
*[[Regnal name]]
*[[Papal Slippers]]
*[[Papal Coronation]]
*[[Papal Inauguration]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==Histories==
*Brusher, Joseph H. ''Popes Through The Ages''. Princeton: D. Van Nostland Company, Inc. 1959.
*Chamberlain, E.R. ''The Bad Popes''. 1969. Reprint: Barnes and Noble. 1993.
*Dollison, John ''Pope - Pourri''. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1994.
*Kelly, J.N.D. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Popes''. Oxford: University Press. 1986. ISBN 0-19-213964-9
*Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. ''Chronicles of the Popes - The Reign By Reign Record of The Papacy From St. Peter To The Present''. London: Thames and Hudson. 1997. ISBN 0-500-01798-0

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Loomis, Louise Ropes | title=The Book of the Popes (Liber Pontificalis): To the Pontificate of Gregory I | location=[[Evolution Publishing]] | publisher=[[Merchantville, NJ]] | year=2006 | id=ISBN 1-889758-86-8}}. Reprint of an English translation originally published in 1916.
*[[Ludwig von Pastor]], ''History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the [[Vatican Secret Archives|Secret Archives of the Vatican]] and other original sources'', 40 vols. St. Louis, B. Herder 1898 - ([http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/b92040657d7c02f6.html World Cat entry])
* Hartmann Grisar (1845-1932), ''History of Rome and the Popes in the Middle Ages'', AMS Press; Reprint edition (1912). ISBN 0-404-09370-1
*[[James Joseph Walsh]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC22760194&id=B-cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22popes+and+science%22 ''The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time''], Fordam University Press, 1908, reprinted 2003, Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3646-9

==External links==
{{Commons|Pope}}
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm The Holy See - The Holy Father] – website for the past and present Holy Fathers (since [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]])
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
*[http://thepopeblog.blogspot.com/ The Pope Blog] – Unofficial weblog about the Pope
*[http://kolonisera.rymden.nu/pope/popes.php?l=1 Pope Endurance League - Sortable list of Popes]
*[http://www.wlsessays.net/subjects/R/rsubind.htm#RomanCCPapacy Scholarly articles on the Roman Catholic Papacy from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library]

{{Popes}}
{{Papal symbols and ceremonial}}
[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:Holy See|*]]
[[Category:Popes|*]]
[[Category:Religious leadership roles]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Roman Catholicism]]

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Bingara

2007-07-01T11:39:02Z

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'''Bingara''' ({{coor dm|29|52|S|150|34|E|region:AU-NSW_type:town}}) (Aboriginal for 'shallow river crossing') is a small town on the [[Gwydir River]] in the [[New England (Australia)|New England]] region of [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]]. Bingara has a population of 2,061 (2001 Census) and is currently the Administrative centre for the [[Gwydir Shire]] that was created in 2003. The residents of Bingara are mostly of Anglo-Celtic background. 4.2% of the population was born overseas and 1.8% is of indigenous background.

Bingara is one of the few places in Australia where [[diamond]]s have been found. The Gwydir River being a main highlight of the town is a main catchment of the Murray-Darling System.

==Location==
Bingara is located 150km north of Tamworth, 70km west of Inverell, 604km north of Sydney and 500km south of Brisbane.

==History==
The discovery of gold in 1852 brought prospectors to the area. In the 1880's, copper and [[diamond]]s were discovered also, causing a rapid development of the town. Bingara is one of the few places in Australia where [[diamond]]s have been found. In fact, Bingara was the largest producer of [[diamond]]s in Australia at that time. Bingara changed the spelling of its name from "Bingera" to "Bingara" in 1890.

==Climate==
Bingara enjoys a climate of beautiful spring and autumn days through April, May and September, October. During the months of June to August the days are sunny while the nights are cold and frosty. Days during November to January are dry and hot with low humidity.

[[Category:Towns in New South Wales]]

{{NewSouthWales-geo-stub}}

Bingara

2007-07-01T11:36:08Z

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Bingara

2007-07-01T11:34:13Z

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Ragley Hall

2007-06-27T09:16:07Z

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[[Image:Ragleyhall by Kip edited.jpg|thumb|295px|A birdseye view of Ragley Hall published in the late 1690s. The house was not then complete and the drawing may in part show the proposed form of the house and garden rather than their actual state at that time.]]
'''Ragley Hall''' ({{gbmapping|SP073555}}) is located south of [[Alcester]], [[Warwickshire]], eight miles west of [[Stratford-upon-Avon]]. It is the family home of the Marchioness and [[Marquess of Hertford]], and is one of the great houses of [[England]].

==The present day==

The House and the 400-acre grounds are seasonally open to the public. The Hall abounds with fine paintings, ceramics and antique furniture. It is the site of the [[Jerwood Sculpture Park]], opened July 2004. The Park includes works that won the Jerwood Sculpture Prizes, and the work of Dame [[Elizabeth Frink]], among others.

==History==

Ragley Hall was designed by [[Robert Hooke]] in [[1680]], and belatedly completed in the mid [[1700s]]. The architect [[James Gibbs]] was involved in the later stages of the project. The grounds were landscaped by [[Capability Brown]]. During both world wars Ragley Hall served as a hospital.

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [http://www.ragleyhall.com/ Official site of Ragley Hall]
* [http://www.jerwood.org.uk/?lid=332 Jerwood Sculpture Park]

{{coor title d|52.19769|N|1.89461|W|region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(SP073555)}}

[[Category:Historic houses in Warwickshire]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Warwickshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Warwickshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed houses]]
[[Category:1680s architecture]]

Papst (Titel)

2007-06-25T11:00:58Z

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{{two other uses|the spiritual leader of the Roman Catholic Church|the current Pope|Pope Benedict XVI|other uses|}} {{Christianity}}

The '''Pope''' (from [[Latin]]: ''papa'', Papa, father; from [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''papas'' / {{polytonic|''παπάς''}} = priest originating from πατήρ = father )<ref name="fn_1">[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=pope&searchmode=none Etymology] of ‘Pope’.</ref> is the Bishop of Rome, the spiritual leader of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the absolute monarch of [[Vatican City]]. [[Catholic]]s believe he is the [[Apostolic Succession|Successor]] of [[Saint Peter]], also making him the [[Vicar of Christ]]. The office of the Pope is called the Papacy; his ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the [[Holy See]] (''Sancta Sedes'' in Latin) or [[Apostolic See]] (this latter, on the basis that both St. Peter and [[Paul the Apostle|St. Paul]] were martyred at [[Rome]]). Early [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishops]] occupying the [[See of Rome]] were designated [[Vicar|Vicar of Peter]]; for later Popes the more authoritative Vicar of Christ was substituted; this designation was first used by the Roman [[Synod]] of 495 to refer to [[Pope Gelasius I]], an advocate of [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|papal supremacy]] among the [[patriarch]]s. [[Pope Marcellinus|Marcellinus]] (d. 304) is the first Bishop of Rome whom sources show used the title of Pope. In the 11th century, after the [[East-West Schism]], [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]] declared the term "Pope" to be reserved for the Bishop of Rome. The current (265th) Pope is '''[[Pope Benedict XVI]]''', elected [[April 19]], [[2005]] in [[Papal conclave, 2005|papal conclave]].

In addition to his service in this spiritual role, the Pope is also [[Head of State]] of the independent sovereign State of the Vatican City, a [[city-state]] entirely [[Enclave and exclave|enclaved]] by the city of Rome. Before 1870 the Pope's temporal authority extended over a large area of [[central Italy]]: the territory of the [[Papal States]]. The papacy retained sovereign authority over the Papal States until the [[Italian unification]] of 1870; a final political settlement with the [[Italy|Italian]] government was not reached until the [[Lateran Treaty]] of 1929.

For over a thousand years, Popes have played powerful roles in Western Europe, crowning emperors ([[Charlemagne]] was the first emperor crowned by a Pope), regulating disputes among secular rulers. <ref>Such as regulating the colonisation of the New World. See [[Line of Demarcation]] and [[Inter caetera]].</ref> The Bishop of Rome continued to be nominally allied and part of the civil structure of the [[Byzantine Empire]] until the 8th century, when the [[Donation of Pepin]] gave Rome and the surrounding area to the full sovereignty of the Pope, which the Popes already had been ''de facto'' rulers, creating the Papal States that lasted until [[1870]]. For centuries, the forged [[Donation of Constantine]] also provided the basis for the papacy's claim of political supremacy over the entire former Western Roman Empire.

Over the centuries, the Pope's claims of spiritual authority have been ever more clearly expressed since the first centuries, culminating in the proclamation of the [[dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the Pope speaks [[ex cathedra]] (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of [[dogma|faith]] or morals. The last such occasion was in the year [[1950]] with the definition of the [[Assumption of Mary]].

==Early history==
Catholic and non-Catholic historians agree that the institution of the papacy as it exists today developed through the centuries.

Catholics name [[St. Peter]] as the first Pope. He arrived in Rome ''c'' 50. It is this tradition that gives the bishop of Rome primacy. During the first century of the Christian Church, the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance; but there are only a few 1st century references to the recognition of the [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|authoritative primacy]] of the [[Holy See|Roman See]] outside of Rome. The fact that [[Clement of Rome]]'s letter to the Corinthians (written ''c.'' 96)<ref name="fn_2">[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1010.htm Letter of Clement to the Corinthians]</ref> adopted a pastoral tone, and also the fact that [[St. Ignatius of Antioch]] once used the word "preside" in the same sentence that he used the word "Romans" in his letter to the Romans (written ''c.'' 105)<ref name="fn_3">[http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_article/244/Letter_of_Ignatius_of_Antioch_to_the_Romans.html Letter of Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans]</ref> are seen by some historians to present proof of the existence of a certain early papal primacy. Others argue that these documents refer only to a primacy of honor. The [[Petrine Doctrine]] is still controversial as an issue of doctrine that continues to divide the eastern and western orthodox churches.

During the second century AD, further manifestations of Roman authority over other churches were clearly evident. In the second century (AD 189), the assertion of the primacy of the Church of Rome may be indicated in [[Irenaeus of Lyons]]'s ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]'' (3:3:2): "With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." This may be the first clear instance of the church in Rome asserting its primacy. Furthermore, in AD 195, Pope Victor I, excommunicated the Quartodecimans for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan, a tradition handed down by St. John the Evangelist himself based on the Jewish Passover. This exercise of Roman authority over other churches, even of apostolic origin, is still present today in the uniformity of calculating the day of Easter. It was only after the imperial capital was moved to Constantinople in AD 330 that the eastern churches, especially the Bishop of Constantinople, started to assert pre-eminence by virtue of its imperial status.

The [[First Council of Constantinople]] (AD 381) suggested strongly that Roman primacy was already asserted; however, it should be noted that, because of the controversy over this claim, the Pope did not personally attend this ecumenical council, which was held in the eastern capital of the Roman empire, rather than at [[Rome]]. It was not until 440 that [[Pope Leo I|Leo the Great]] more clearly articulated the extension of papal authority as doctrine, promulgating in edicts and in councils his right to exercise "the full range of apostolic powers that Jesus had first bestowed on the apostle Peter". It was at the ecumenical [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451 that Leo I (through his emissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter". At this same council, an attempt at compromise was made when the bishop of Constantinople was given a primacy of honour second only to that of the Bishop of Rome, because "Constantinople is the New Rome." Ironically, Roman papal authorities rejected this language since it did not clearly recognize Rome's claim to juridical authority over the other churches.<ref>La Due, William J., "The Chair of Saint Peter", pp.300-301, Orbis Books (Maryknoll, NY; 1999)</ref>

The [[dogma]]s and traditions of the [[Catholic Church]] teach that the institution of the papacy was first mandated by Biblical passages:

{{cquote|'''Matt.16:18-19:''' "And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this ''rock'' I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it. I will give you the ''keys'' of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven."

'''Isaiah 22:20-22:''' "On that day I will summon my servant Eliakim, son of Hilkiah; I will clothe him with your robe, and gird him with your sash, and give over to him your authority. He shall be a father to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and to the house of Judah. I will place the key of the House of David on his shoulder; when he opens, no one shall shut, when he shuts, no one shall open." (shows a parallel to Matthew 16:18-20)

'''John 21:15-17:''' "..Jesus said to Simon Peter, "Simon, son of John, do you love me more than these?" He said to him, "Yes, Lord, you know that I love you." He said to him, "Feed my lambs." He then said to him a second time, "Simon, son of John, do you love me?" He said to him, "Yes, Lord, you know that I love you." He said to him, "Tend my sheep." He said to him the third time, "Simon, son of John, do you love me?" Peter was distressed that he had said to him a third time, "Do you love me?" and he said to him, "Lord, you know everything; you know that I love you." (Jesus) said to him, "Feed my sheep."

'''Luke 12:41:''' "Then Peter said, "Lord, is this parable meant for us or for everyone?" And the Lord replied, "Who, then, is the faithful and prudent steward whom the master will put in charge of his servants to distribute (the) food allowance at the proper time?" (Feeding theme appears again here)

'''Luke 22:31-32:''' "Simon, Simon, behold Satan has demanded to sift all of you like wheat, but I have prayed that your own faith may not fail; and once you have turned back, you must strengthen your brothers."}}

The name "Peter" ({{Polytonic|''Πέτρος''}} in Greek) in Matthew 16:18 translates as ''rock''. Some Jewish commentators of the Old Testament understood Numbers 23:9 in a manner similar to Peter with this commentary from Jewish Encyclopedia on Peter regarding Abraham:

"Upon Abraham as top of the rocks God said I shall build my kingdom"

The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here are the basis for the symbolic keys often found in Catholic papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms (see below).

==Election, death and abdication==
===Election===
{{main|Papal election}}
[[Image:Keys to Peter.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Traditional painting by Pietro Perugino depicting "The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter" (1492)]]

The Pope was originally chosen by those senior [[clergy]]men resident in and near Rome. In [[1059]] the electorate was restricted to the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in [[1179]]. [[Pope Urban VI]], elected [[1378]], was the last Pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election. Canon law requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the Pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80.

The [[Second Council of Lyons]] was convened on [[May 7]], [[1274]], to regulate the election of the Pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the Pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a Pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year ''Sede Vacante'' following the death of [[Pope Clement IV]] in [[1268]]. By the mid-[[sixteenth century]], the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the Pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.

Traditionally, the vote was conducted by acclamation, by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in [[1621]]. [[Pope John Paul II]] abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all Popes will be elected by full vote of the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]] by [[ballot]].

The election of the Pope almost always takes place in the [[Sistine Chapel]], in a meeting called a "[[papal election|conclave]]" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, ''cum clave'', until they elect a new Pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar. The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for any elector to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the number of ballots are counted while still folded; if the total number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Otherwise, each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a Pope is elected by a two-thirds majority (since the promulgation of ''Universi Dominici Gregis'', the rules allow for a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days).
[[Image:John23leo.jpg|left|thumb|216px|[[Pope John XXIII]] wearing the [[Papal Tiara]] following his [[coronation]], a tradition which has now been discontinued]]

One of the most famous aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special oven erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from [[St Peter's Square]]. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or ''fumata nera''. (Traditionally, wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (''fumata bianca'') through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new Pope. At the end of the conclave that elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]], church bells were also rung to signal that a new Pope had been chosen.

The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the successfully elected Cardinal two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word "Accepto", his reign as Pope begins at that instant, ''not'' at the coronation ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new Pope then announces the [[regnal name]] he has chosen for himself. (If the Dean himself is elected Pope, the Vice Dean performs this duty).

The new Pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white papal vestments ("immantatio") await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new Pope is given the "[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]" by the Cardinal Camerlengo, whom he either reconfirms or reappoints. The Pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the Cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" ("adoratio") and to receive his blessing.

The senior [[Cardinal Deacon]] then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following [[Habemus Papam|proclamation]]: ''Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!'' ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a Pope!"). He then announces the new Pope's Christian name along with the new name he has adopted as his regnal name.

Until [[1978]] the Pope's election was followed in a few days by a procession in great pomp and circumstance from the [[Sistine Chapel]] to [[St. Peter's Basilica]], with the newly elected Pope borne in the ''sedia gestatoria''. There the Pope was crowned with the ''[[Papal Tiara|triregnum]]'' and he gave his first blessing as Pope, the famous ''[[Urbi et Orbi]]'' ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another famed part of the coronation was the lighting of a torch which would flare brightly and promptly extinguish, with the admonition ''Sic transit gloria mundi'' ("Thus fades worldly glory"). A similar sombre warning against papal hubris made on this occasion was the ritual exclamation ''"Annos Petri non videbis"'', reminding the newly crowned Pope that he would not live to see his rule lasting as long as that of St. Peter, who according to tradition headed the church for 25 years. ([[Pope Pius IX|Pius IX]], who ruled almost 32 years from [[1846]] to [[1878]], was the first Pope in history to prove this wrong.) Beginning with [[Pope John Paul I]]'s election, this has been discontinued.

A [[traditionalist Catholic]] belief claims the existence of the [[Papal Oath (Traditionalist Catholic)|Papal Oath]] (not to be confused with the Oath against Modernism mandated by [[Pope Pius X]]), which the Popes from [[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]] on are said to have refused to swear, but there is no reliable authority for this claim.

The [[Latin]] term ''sede vacante'' ("vacant seat") refers to a papal interregnum, the period between the death of the Pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the name [[sedevacantism|Sedevacantist]], which designates a category of dissident, schismatic Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected Pope, and that there is therefore a ''Sede Vacante''; one of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the [[Second Vatican Council]] and especially the replacement of the [[Tridentine Mass]] with the ''[[Mass of Paul VI]]'' are heretical, and that, per the dogma of papal infallibility, it is impossible for a valid Pope to have done these things.

For many years, the papacy was an institution dominated by [[Italians]]. Before the election of the non-Italian Karol Wojtyla as Pope John Paul II in [[1978]], the last non-Italian was the Dutch-German [[Pope Adrian VI]] of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born Benedict XVI, leading some to believe the Italian domination of the papacy to be over.

===Death===
The current regulations regarding a papal [[interregnum]] — that is, a ''[[sede vacante]]'' ("vacant seat") — were promulgated by John Paul II in his [[1996]] document ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]''. During the "Sede Vacante", the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]], composed of the Pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the [[Camerlengo|Cardinal Chamberlain]]; however, canon law specifically forbids the Cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the [[Holy See]]. Any decision that needs the assent of the Pope has to wait until a new Pope has been elected and takes office.

It has long been claimed that a Pope's death is officially determined by the Cardinal Chamberlain by gently tapping the late Pope's head thrice with a silver hammer and calling his birth name three times, though this is disputed and has never been confirmed by the Vatican; there is general agreement that even if this procedure ever actually occurred, it was likely not employed upon the death of John Paul II. A [[medical doctor|doctor]] may or may not have already determined that the Pope had died before this point. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the [[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]. Usually the ring is on the Pope's right hand. But in the case of Paul VI, he had stopped wearing the ring during the last years of his reign. In other cases the ring might have been removed for medical reasons. The Chamberlain cuts the ring in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased Pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.

The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the [[crypt]] of a leading church or cathedral; the Popes of the [[20th century]] were all interred in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. A nine-day period of mourning (''novem dialis'') follows after the interment of the late Pope. Vatican tradition holds that no [[autopsy]] is to be performed on the body of a dead Pope.

===Abdication===
{{mainarticle|Papal abdication}}

The Code of [[Canon law|Canon]] Law [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P16.HTM 332 §2] states, "If it happens that the [[Papal abdication|Roman Pontiff resigns]] his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone."

This right has been exercised by [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 and [[Pope Gregory XII]] in 1409, Gregory XII being the last to do so.

It was widely reported in June and July [[2002]] that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper ''Corriere della Sera''.

Nevertheless, 332 §2 caused speculation that:
* Pope John Paul II would have resigned as his health failed, or
* a properly manifested legal instrument had been prepared which effected his resignation if he could not perform his duties.

Pope John Paul II did not resign. He died on [[2 April]] [[2005]] after a long period of ill-health and was buried on [[8 April]] [[2005]].

After his death it was reported in his [[last will and testament]] that he considered abdicating in [[2000]] as he neared his 80th birthday. However, that portion of the will is unclear and others interpret it differently.

==Titles==
===Current===
The titles of the Pope, in the order they are used in the Annuario Pontificio:
:*[[Bishop of Rome]]
:*[[Vicar of Christ]]
:*Successor of the Prince of the Apostles
:*[[Pontifex Maximus|Supreme Pontiff]] of the [[Universal church|Universal Church]]
:*[[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of [[Italy]]
:*[[Metropolitan bishop|Archbishop and Metropolitan]] of the Roman [[Ecclesiastical province|Province]]
:*Sovereign of the State of the [[Vatican City]]
:*[[Servus Servorum Dei|Servant of the Servants of God]]

===Former===
:* [[Patriarch]] of the West (dropped 2006)
:* [[Vicar]] of the [[Apostolic See]]

===Forms of address===
* "Your Holiness"
* "Holy Father"

===History===
The Pope's titles include: Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman province, Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City, and Servant of the Servants of God.

The title "Vicar of Christ" refers to the Pope's claims of divine commission. This title came into use in the fifth and sixth centuries. The [[Second Vatican Council]] confirmed the titles "Vicar of Christ" and "Successor of Peter".

The use of the term "Supreme Pontiff" (Pontifex Maximus) can be traced back to the end of the fourth century. The ancient title of the Roman High-Priest, whose origins date from the foundation of Rome, was assumed by the Bishops of Rome after being relinquished by the Emperor Gratian. The term has also been applied to other metropolitan bishops, although examples are limited (see ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]''). It was in the eleventh century that the title came to be applied exclusively to the Bishop of Rome. The addition of the phrase "of the Universal Church" is a more recent alteration of this title.

Finally, the title attached to the Pope, "Servant of the Servants of God", although used by Church leaders including St. Augustine and St. Benedict, was first used by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title Ecumenical Patriarch. It was not reserved for the Pope until the thirteenth century. The documents of Vatican II reinforced the understanding of this title as a reference to the Pope's role as a function of collegial authority, in which the Bishop of Rome serves the world's bishops.

The titles "Primate of Italy", "Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman province", and "Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City" are references to the legal and canonical authority of the Pope as defined by the laws of the Church and the Lateran Treaty of 1929.

The Pope's signature is usually in the format ''NN. PP. x'' (e.g., [[Pope Paul VI]] signed his name as "Paulus PP. VI"), the "PP." standing for ''Papa'' ("Pope"), and his name is frequently accompanied in inscriptions by the abbreviation "Pont. Max." or "P.M." (abbreviation of the Latin title ''Pontifex Maximus'', usually translated as "Supreme Pontiff"). The signature of [[papal bull]]s is customarily ''NN. Episcopus Ecclesiae Catholicae'' ("NN. Bishop of the Catholic Church"), while the heading is ''NN. Episcopus [[Servus Servorum Dei]]'' ("NN. Bishop and Servant of the Servants of God"). Other titles used in some official capacity in the past include ''Summus Pontifex'' ("Highest Pontiff"), ''Sanctissimus Pater'' and ''Beatissimus Pater'' ("Most Holy Father" and "Most Blessed Father"), ''Sanctissimus Dominus Noster'' ("Our Most Holy Lord"), and, in the [[Middle Ages|Medieval period]], ''Dominus Apostolicus'' ("Apostolic Lord"). This title, however, was not abandoned altogether: the Pope is still referred to as "Dominum Apostolicum" in the Latin version of the Litany of the Saints, a solemn Catholic prayer. Writing informally, Catholics will often use the abbreviation H.H. (His Holiness), as in H.H. Benedict XVI.

The Pope's official seat or cathedral is the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]], and his official residence is the [[Palace of the Vatican]]. He also possesses a summer palace at [[Castel Gandolfo]] (situated on the site of the ancient city-state [[Alba Longa]]). Historically, the official residence of the Pope was the [[Lateran Palace]], donated by the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]].

The Pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the [[Holy See]]) is distinct from his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City). It is the Holy See which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the Pope's court (the [[Roman Curia]]) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church.

The name "Holy See" (also "Apostolic See") is in ecclesiastical terminology the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the Pope's various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the [[Apostle]] [[St. Peter]] (see [[Apostolic Succession]]). Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The Pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ''ubi Papa, ibi Curia'', wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the Pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the Popes lived in [[Avignon]] (the [[Avignon Papacy]]), a period often called the [[Babylonian Captivity]] in allusion to the [[Bible|Biblical]] exile of [[Israel]].

The title ''Patriarch of the West'' did not appear in the 2006 pontifical yearbook, and this led to considerable media speculation. The title Patriarch of the West was first used by Pope Theodore in 642, and was only used occasionally. Indeed, it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863. On [[22 March]] [[2006]], the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a "historical and theological reality" and of "being useful to ecumenical dialogue". The title Patriarch of the West symbolized the Pope's special relationship with, and jurisdiction over, the Latin Church — and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship, nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the Eastern churches, as solemnly proclaimed by Vatican II.<ref>[[Vatican Information Service]] number 060322</ref>

Since in the Eastern Churches the title "Pope" does not unambiguously refer to the Bishop of Rome, within them the construction "Pope of Rome" is frequently used whether they are in communion with Rome or not.

==Regalia and insignia==
[[Image:holysee-arms.png|thumb|200px|The coat of arms of the Holy See. That of the State of Vatican City is the same except that the positions of the gold and silver keys are interchanged.]]
{{Main|Papal regalia and insignia}}
*"[[Papal Tiara|Triregnum]]", also called the "tiara" or "triple crown"; recent Popes have not, however, worn the ''triregnum'', though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies Popes wear an episcopal [[mitre]] (an erect cloth hat).
*Pastoral Staff topped by a [[crucifix]], a custom established before the [[13th century]].
*[[Pallium]], or pall, (a circular band of fabric about two inches wide, worn over the [[chasuble]] about the neck, breast and shoulders and having two twelve-inch-long pendants hanging down in front and behind, ornamented with six small black crosses distributed about the breast, back, shoulders, and pendants)(this form is no longer used by the current pontiff).
*"Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolizes the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven.
*[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]], a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning Pope around it.
*''[[Umbraculum]]'' (better known in the Italian form ''ombrellino'') is a canopy or umbrella (consisting of alternating red and gold stripes).
*''[[Sedia gestatoria]]'', a mobile throne carried by twelve footmen (''palafrenieri'') in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing ''[[flabella]]'' (fans made of white ostrich feathers). The use of the ''sedia gestatoria'' and of the ''flabella'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul II]], with the former being replaced by the so-called [[Popemobile]].

In heraldry each Pope has his own [[Papal Coat of Arms]]. Though unique for each Pope, the arms are always surmounted by the aforementioned two keys in saltire (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an ''X'') behind the escutcheon (one key silver and one key gold, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver ''triregnum'' with three gold crowns and red ''infulae'', or the red strips of fabric hanging from the back over the shoulders when worn ("two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). The flag most frequently associated with the Pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See ("Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right hand side in the white half of the flag. This flag was first adopted in [[1808]], whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colors of the Pontificate. With the recent election of [[Benedict XVI]] in [[2005]], his personal coat of arms eliminated the papal tiara; a [[mitre]] with three horizontal lines is used in its place, with the pallium, a papal symbol of authority more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan [[archbishops]] as a sign of communion with the See of Rome, was added underneath of the shield. The distinctive feature of the crossed keys behind the shield was maintained. The omission of the tiara in the Pope's personal coat of arms, however, did not mean the total disappearance of it from papal heraldry, since the coat of arms of the Holy See was kept unaltered.

==Status and authority==
{{Main|Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|Papal infallibility}}
The status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was [[dogma]]tically [[dogmatic definition|defined]] by the [[First Vatican Council]] in its ''Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ'' ([[July 18]], [[1870]]). The first chapter of this document is entitled "On the institution of the apostolic primacy in blessed Peter", and states that (s.1) "according to the Gospel evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of [[God]] was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the Lord" and that (s.6) "if anyone says that blessed Peter the [[apostle]] was not appointed by Christ the Lord as prince of all the apostles and visible head of the whole [[church militant]]; or that it was a primacy of honor only and not one of true and proper jurisdiction that he directly and immediately received from our Lord Jesus Christ Himself: let him be [[anathema]]..."
[[Image:Kruisheren uden bij paus pius xii Crosiers from Uden Holland with PiusXII.jpg|thumb|350px|To maintain contacts with local clergymen and Catholic communities, the Popes grant private audiences too. Here seen are the [[Canons Regular of the Holy Cross]] from [[Uden]] ([[Netherlands]]) received by [[Pope Pius XII]].]]

The Dogmatic Constitution's second chapter, "On the permanence of the primacy of blessed Peter in the Roman pontiffs", states that (s.1) "that which our Lord Jesus Christ [...] established in the blessed apostle Peter [...] must of necessity remain forever, by Christ's authority, in the church which, founded as it is upon a rock, will stand firm until the end of time," that (s.3) "whoever succeeds to the Chair of Peter obtains by the institution of Christ Himself, the primacy of Peter over the whole church", and that (s.5) "if anyone says that it is not by the institution of Christ the Lord Himself (that is to say, by Divine Law) that blessed Peter should have perpetual successors in the primacy over the whole church; or that the Roman Pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy: let him be anathema."

Vatican I's Dogmatic Constitution's third chapter, "On the power and character of the [[primacy of the Roman pontiff]]," states that (s.1) "the definition of the [[Ecumenical Council]] of [[Council of Florence|Florence]], which must be believed by all faithful [[Christianity|Christian]]s, namely that the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff hold a worldwide primacy, and that the Roman pontiff is the successor of blessed Peter, the prince of the apostles, true vicar of Christ, head of the whole church and father and teacher of all Christian people," that (s.2) "by divine ordinance, the Roman church possesses a preeminence of ordinary power over every other church, and that the jurisdictional power of the Roman Pontiff is both episcopal and immediate" and that "[[clergy]] and faithful, of whatever rite and dignity, both singly and collectively, are bound to submit to this power by the duty of [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] subordination and true obedience, and this not only in matters concerning faith and morals, but also in those which regard the discipline and government of the church throughout the world."

The powers of the Pope are defined by the Dogmatic Constitution (ch.3, s.8) such that "he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all cases which fall under ecclesiastical jurisdiction recourse may be had to his judgment" and that "the sentence of the apostolic see (than which there is no higher authority) is not subject to revision by anyone, nor may anyone lawfully pass judgment thereupon" (can. 331 defines the power of the Pope as "supreme, full, immediate and universal ordinary power in the Church, and he can always freely exercise this power"). It also dogmatically defined (ch.4, s.9) the doctrine of [[papal infallibility]], ''sc.'' such that

:when the Roman Pontiff speaks ''ex cathedra'', that is, when in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed His church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals. Therefore, such definitions of the Roman pontiff are of themselves, and not by the consent of the church, irreformable.

In 1302 the papal bull Unam Sanctam stated that "it is absolutely necessary for the salvation of every creature to be united to the Roman Pontiff" ([[Pope Boniface VIII]]). This teaching is often summarized by the phrase "extra Ecclesiam nulla salus" (outside the Church exists no salvation), which has been reaffirmed by many Popes throughout the centuries. [[Blessed John XXIII]] said: "Into this fold of Jesus Christ no man may enter be led by the Sovereign Pontiff, and only if they be united to him can men be saved."

However, this dogma has been interpreted in many different ways by both Catholics and non-Catholics alike. Many who are afflicted with invincible ignorance with regard to our holy religion, if they carefully keep the precepts of the Natural Law that have been written by God in the hearts of all men, if they are prepared to obey God, and if they lead a virtuous and dutiful life, can attain eternal life by the power of divine light and grace." [[Pope John Paul II]] wrote in his encyclical Redemptoris Missio: "But it is clear that today, as in the past, many people do not have an opportunity to come to know or accept the Gospel revelation or to enter the Church.... For such people, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally a part of the Church but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation. This grace comes from Christ; it is the result of his sacrifice and is communicated by the Holy Spirit. It enables each person to attain salvation through his or her free cooperation."

Moreover, the Catholic Church teaches that all Christians are united through Baptism and the "invisible Church" (body of believers). However, Christians are not fully / "formally" united due to divisions in beliefs etc.

As stated in the Catechism of the Catholic Church:

'''817''' In fact, "in this one and only Church of God from its very beginnings there arose certain rifts, which the Apostle strongly censures as damnable. But in subsequent centuries much more serious dissensions appeared and large communities became separated from full communion with the Catholic Church- for which often enough, men of both sides were to blame" (UR 3 1). The ruptures that wound the unity of Christ's Body - here we must distinguish heresy, apostasy and schism-do not occur without human sin:

:Where there are sins, there are also divisions, schisms, heresies and disputes. Where there is virtue, however, there also are harmony and unity, from which arise the one heart and one soul of all believers (Cf. CIC, can.751.).

'''818''' "However, one cannot charge with the sin of the separation those who at present are born into these communities [that resulted from such separation] and in them are brought up in the faith of Christ, and the Catholic Church accepts them with respect and affection as brothers... All who have been justified by faith in Baptism are incorporated into Christ; they therefore have a right to be called Christians, and with good reason are accepted as brothers in the Lord by the children of the Catholic Church" (UR 3 1).

'''819''' "Furthermore, many elements of sanctification and of truth" (LG 8 2) are found outside the visible confines of the Catholic Church: "the written Word of God; the life of grace; faith, hope and charity, with the other interior gifts of the Holy Spirit, as well as the visible elements" (UR 3 2; cf. LG 15.). Christ's Spirit uses these Churches and ecclesial communities as means of salvation, whose power derives from the fullness of grace and truth that Christ has entrusted to the Catholic Church. All these blessings come from Christ and lead to Him, (Cf. UR 3.) and are in themselves calls to "Catholic unity" (Cf. LG 8.).

The Pope has many powers which he exercises. He can appoint [[bishop]]s to [[diocese]]s, erect and suppress dioceses, appoint prefects to the Roman [[dicastery|dicasteries]], approve or veto their acts, modify the [[Liturgy]] and issue liturgical laws, revise the [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]], canonize and beatify individuals, approve and suppress religious orders, impose canonical sanctions, act as a judge and hear cases, issue encyclicals, and issue infallible statements on matters pertaining to faith and morals (never done) which, according to the Church, must be believed by all Catholics. Most of these functions are performed by and through the various dicasteries of the [[Roman Curia]], with the Pope simply approving their actions prior to becoming official. While approval is generally granted, it is at the Pope's discretion.

==Political role==
[[Image:433px-Pope Pius VII.jpg|thumb|230px|left|[[Pope Pius VII]], bishop of Rome, in liturgical [[vestment]]s, next to his [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Caprara. [[Pius VII]] signed the [[Concordat of 1801]], illustratory of his important political role. Notice the [[pallium]] a clerical vestment which is noted at the bottom of the coat of arms of [[Benedict XVI]].]]
{{Politics of Vatican City}}

Though the progressive [[Christianization|Christianisation]] of the [[Roman Empire]] in the [[fourth century]] did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the [[fifth century]] left the Pope the senior Imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil ruler was vividly displayed by [[Pope Leo I]]'s confrontation with [[Attila]] in [[452]]. The first expansion of papal rule outside of Rome came in 728 with the [[Donation of Sutri]], which in turn was substantially increased in [[754]], when the [[Frankish people|Frankish]] ruler [[Pippin the Younger]] gave the Pope the land from his conquest of the [[Lombards]]. The Pope may have utilized the forged [[Donation of Constantine]] to gain this land, which formed the core of the [[Papal States]]. This document, accepted as genuine until the 1400s, states that Constantine placed the entire Western Empire of Rome under papal rule. In [[800]] [[Pope Leo III]] crowned the Frankish ruler [[Charlemagne]] as Roman Emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; from that date until the crowning of Napoleon the Popes claimed the prerogative to crown the Emperor (or any monarch with affiliations with the church). As mentioned above, the Pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in [[1870]] with their annexation by [[Italy]].

Popes like [[Pope Alexander VI]], an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politician, and [[Pope Julius II]], a formidable general and statesman, were not afraid to use power to achieve their own ends, which included increasing the power of the papacy. This political and temporal authority was demonstrated through the papal role in the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of [[Pope Gregory VII]] and [[Pope Alexander III]]). [[Papal bull]]s and [[excommunication]] have been used many times to increase papal power. The Bull ''[[Laudabiliter]]'' in [[1155]] authorized [[Henry II of England]] to invade [[Ireland]]. In 1207, [[Innocent III]] placed England under the [[interdict]] until [[John of England|King John]] made his kingdom a fiefdom to the Pope, complete with yearly tribute, saying, "we offer and freely yield...to our lord Pope Innocent III and his catholic successors, the whole kingdom of England and the whole kingdom of Ireland with all their rights and appurtenences for the remission of our sins"<ref>Quoted from the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html Medieval Sourcebook]</ref>. The Bull ''[[Inter Caeteras]]'' in [[1493]] led to the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in [[1494]], which divided the world into areas of [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule. The Bull ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'' in [[1570]] [[excommunication|excommunicated]] [[Elizabeth I of England]] and declared that all her subjects were released from all allegiance to her. The Bull ''[[Inter Gravissimas]]'' in [[1582]] established the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. However, papal bulls have had little effect on the modern State.<ref>See [http://tera-3.ul.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/getImage.pl?target=/data/www/NASD/4a7f1db4-5792-415c-be79-266f41eef20a/009/499/PTIFF/00000673.tif&rs=2 selection from ''Concordia Cyclopedia'': Roman Catholic Church, History of]</ref>

==Objections to the papacy==
The Pope's claim to hold the position of Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church is recognized as [[dogma]]tic and not considered open to debate or dispute within the Roman Catholic Church. The First Vatican Council [[anathema]]tized all who dispute the Pope's claims of primacy of honor and of jurisdiction. It is lawful to discuss the precise nature of that primacy, provided that such discussion does not violate the terms of the Council's Dogmatic Constitution.

The Pope's claim to authority is not undisputed outside the Roman Catholic Church; these objections differ from denomination to denomination, but can roughly be outlined as objections to the extent of the primacy of the Pope and to the institution of the papacy itself.
[[Image:GestatorialChair1.jpg|270px|thumb|[[Pope Pius XII]], wearing the traditional 1877 [[Papal Tiara]], is carried through St. Peter's Basilica on a [[sedia gestatoria]] circa 1955]]

Some Christian communities<ref>[[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Old Catholic Church]], the [[Anglican Communion]], the [[Independent Catholic Churches]], and some [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]</ref> accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]], and to varying extents, papal claims to a primacy of honour while generally rejecting that the Pope is the successor to Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop. Primacy is regarded as a consequence of the Pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the [[Roman Empire]], a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th [[canon law|canon]] of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. These churches see no foundation to papal claims of ''universal immediate jurisdiction'', or to claims of [[papal infallibility]]. Because the First Vatican Council is not recognized as authoritive, they regard its definitions concerning jurisdiction, infallibility and the associated anathematization as the opinions of the followers of the Pope. Several of these communities refer to such claims as ''[[ultramontanism]]''.

Some Christian denominations do not accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]], and therefore do not accept the claim that the Pope is heir either to Petrine primacy of honor or to Petrine primacy of jurisdiction, or they reject both claims of honor or jurisdiction, as well as claims of papal infallibility, as unscriptural. The papacy's complex relationship with the Roman and [[Byzantine Empire]]s, and other secular states, and the papacy's territorial claims in Italy, are another focal point of these objections; as is the [[monarch]]ical character of the office of Pope. In [[Western Christianity]] these objections — and the vehement rhetoric they have at times been cast in — both contributed to and are products of the [[Protestant Reformation]]. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the Pope's claim to authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the Pope is the [[Antichrist]] from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ianpaisley.org/antichrist.asp|title=The Pope is the Antichrist|publisher=European Institute of Protestant Studies|author= Paisley, Ian R. K.|year=2000|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?2617&collectionID=795&contentID=4441&shortcutID=5297|title=Statement on the Antichrist|publisher=[[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]]|quote=Therefore on the basis of a renewed study of the pertinent Scriptures we reaffirm the statement of the Lutheran Confessions, that “the Pope is the very Antichrist”|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref> the Man of Sin from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thessalonians 2:3-12]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kretzmannproject.org/EP_MINOR/2TH_2.htm|title=The Popular Commentary of the Bible: The Man of Sin and the Mystery of Iniquity. 2 Thess. 2, 1-17|author=Kretzmann, Paul E.|year=1921|publisher=The Kretzmann Project|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wlsessays.net/authors/IJ/JeskeThessalonians/JeskeThessalonians.PDF|title=An Exegesis of 2 Thessalonians 2:1-10|author=Jeske, Mark|publisher=[[Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary|Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library]]|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref> and the Beast out of the Earth from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2013:11-18;&version=9; Revelation 13:11-18].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kretzmannproject.org/REV/REV_13.htm |title=The Popular Commentary of the Bible: The Seven-Headed Beast of Blasphemy and the Two-Horned Beast of Deceit. Rev. 13, 1-18|author=Kretzmann, Paul E.|year=1921|publisher=The Kretzmann Project|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref> Conservative [[Confessional Lutheran]]s hold that the Pope is the Antichrist insisting that this article of faith is part of a ''quia'' rather than ''quatenus'' subscription to the [[Book of Concord]]. In 1932, the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]] (LCMS) adopted ''A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod'', which a number of Lutheran church bodies now hold.<ref>The [[Lutheran Churches of the Reformation]] ([http://www.lcrusa.org/brief_statement.htm A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod]), the [[Concordia Lutheran Conference]] ([http://www.concordialutheranconf.com/clc/doctrine/brief_1932.cfm Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod]), the [[Church of the Lutheran Confession]] ([http://clclutheran.org/library/BriefStatement.html A Brief Statement of our Doctrinal Position]), and the Illinois Lutheran Conference ([http://www.illinoislutheranconference.org/our-solid-foundation/doctrinal-position-of-the-ilc.lwp/odyframe.htm Doctrinal Position]) all hold to ''Brief Statement'', which the LCMS adopted: {{cite web|url=http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579|title= Of the Antichrist|publisher=[[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]]|year=1932|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref>
[[Image:Lucas Cranach - Antichrist.png|thumb|left|250px|''The Antichrist'', by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] - [[1521]], commissioned by Martin Luther. Cranach was a Lutheran and therefore portrayed the Pope as the Antichrist by selling indulgences and demanding authority over all Christians and governments, represented by his [[tiara]].]]

<blockquote>43. As to the Antichrist we teach that the prophecies of the Holy Scriptures concerning the Antichrist, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thess.%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thess. 2:3-12];[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18], have been fulfilled in the Pope of Rome and his dominion. All the features of the Antichrist as drawn in these prophecies, including the most abominable and horrible ones, for example, that the Antichrist "as God sitteth in the temple of God," [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thess.%202:4;&version=9; 2 Thess. 2:4]; that he anathematizes the very heart of the Gospel of Christ, that is, the doctrine of the forgiveness of sins by grace alone, for Christ's sake alone, through faith alone, without any merit or worthiness in man ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rom.%203:20-28;&version=9; Rom. 3:20-28]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Gal.%202:16;&version=9; Gal. 2:16]); that he recognizes only those as members of the Christian Church who bow to his authority; and that, like a deluge, he had inundated the whole Church with his antichristian doctrines till God revealed him through the Reformation — these very features are the outstanding characteristics of the Papacy. (Cf. Smalcald Articles,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4|title=The Smalcald Articles|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref> Triglot, p. 515, Paragraphs 39-41; p. 401, Paragraph 45; M. pp. 336, 258.) Hence we subscribe to the statement of our Confessions that the Pope is "the very Antichrist." (Smalcald Articles, Triglot, p. 475, Paragraph 10; M., p. 308.)</blockquote>

Some objectors to the papacy use empirical arguments, pointing to the corrupt characters of some of the holders of that office. For instance, some argue that [[Callixtus III]] and [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]] from the [[Borgia]] family, were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power to bind and loose on Earth or in Heaven. An omniscient and omnibenevolent God, some argue, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the [[Catholic Church]]. Defenders of the papacy argue that the Bible shows God as willingly giving privileges even to corrupt men (citing examples like some of the kings of Israel, the apostle [[Judas Iscariot]], and even St. Peter after he denied Jesus). They also argue that not even the worst of the corrupt Popes used the office to try to rip the doctrine of the Church from its apostolic roots, and that their failure to achieve that goal is evidence that the office is divinely protected.

Those who believe the Pope is the Beast note how this fits with [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2013:11;&version=9; Revelation 13:11], where the Beast is given "two horns like a lamb," but, "he spake as a dragon". This means that the Beast looks like Jesus, the Lamb, but teaches false doctrine, as Satan is the father of lies.

Some objectors to the papacy habitually refer to the Catholic Church and its members by the [[pejorative]] term ''[[papist]]'' because they believe that the infallibility the Pope claims ''ex officio'' belongs only to God, and that those who have faith in his powers are holding him as more authoritative than God.{{fact|date=June 2007}} They refer to this practice of the Pope as "sitting in the temple," a reference to [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:4;&version=9; 2 Thessalonians 2:4]

==Antipopes==
{{main|Antipope}}
[[Fringe]] groups sometimes form around [[antipope]]s, who claim the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it.

Traditionally, this term was reserved for claimants with a significant following of cardinals or other clergy.
The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church ([[heresy]]) or to confusion as to who is the legitimate Pope at the time ([[schism]]).
Briefly in the 1400s, three separate lines of Popes claimed authenticity (see [[Western Schism|Papal Schism]]).
Even Catholics don't all agree whether certain historical figures were Popes or antipopes.
Though antipope movements were significant at one time, they are now overwhelmingly minor [[fringe]] causes.

==Other popes==
In the earlier centuries of Christianity, the title "Pope," meaning "father," had been used by all Bishops. Some Popes used the term and others didn't. Eventually, the title became associated especially with the Bishop of Rome.
In a few cases, the term is used for other Christian clerical authorities.

===In the Catholic Church===
"The [[Black Pope]]" is a derogatory name given to the [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus]] due to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits']] practice of wearing black cassocks (the Pope wears white), and to the order's specific allegiance to the Roman pontiff.

The Cardinal Prefect of the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]] (formerly the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith) is known as the "Red Pope": "red", because he is a cardinal; "Pope", because he has almost absolute power over mission territories for Catholicism, essentially the Churches of Africa and Asia"<ref name = "Magister">[http://www.chiesa.espressonline.it/dettaglio.jsp?id=7049&eng=ylink Sandro Magister], Espresso Online.</ref>.

===In the Eastern Churches===
Today, the heads of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] continue to be called "Pope", the former being called "Coptic Pope" or, more properly, "[[List of Coptic Popes|Pope and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle]]" and the last called "[[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria]]".

In the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a "pope" (поп). However, this should be differentiated from the words used for the head of the Catholic Church (Bulgarian "папа", Russian "папа римский").

==Longest-reigning Popes==
The '''10 longest-reigning Popes''' whose reign lengths can be determined from contemporary historical data are the following:

# [[Pope Pius IX|Pius IX]] (1846–1878): 31 years, 7 months and 23 days (11,560 days).
# [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] (1978–2005): 26 years, 5 months and 18 days (9,666 days).
# [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] (1878–1903): 25 years, 5 months and 1 day (9,281 days).
# [[Pope Pius VI|Pius VI]] (1775–1799): 24 years, 6 months and 15 days (8,962 days).
# [[Pope Adrian I|Adrian I]] (772–795): 23 years, 10 months and 25 days (8,729 days).
# [[Pope Pius VII|Pius VII]] (1800–1823): 23 years, 5 months and 7 days (8,560 days).
# [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]] (1159–1181): 21 years, 11 months and 24 days (8,029 days).
# [[Pope Sylvester I|St. Sylvester I]] (314–335): 21 years, 11 months and 1 day (8,005 days).
# [[Pope Leo I|St. Leo I]] (440–461): 21 years, 1 month, and 13 days. (7,713 days).
# [[Pope Urban VIII|Urban VIII]] (1623–1644): 20 years, 11 months and 24 days (7,664 days).

==Shortest-reigning Popes==

This is the '''list of 10 shortest-reigning Popes'''.

The number of calendar days includes partial days. Thus, for example, if a Pope's reign commenced on 1 August and he died on 2 August, this would count as having reigned for two calendar days.

#[[Pope Urban VII|Urban VII]] ([[September 15]]–[[September 27]] , [[1590]]): reigned for 13<ref>[http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-popes-by-length-of-reign Answers.com]</ref> calendar days, died before consecration.
#[[Pope Boniface VI|Boniface VI]] (April, 896): reigned for 16 calendar days
#[[Pope Celestine IV|Celestine IV]] ([[October 25]]–[[November 10]], [[1241]]): reigned for 17 calendar days, died before consecration.
#[[Pope Theodore II|Theodore II]] (December, 897): reigned for 20 calendar days
#[[Pope Sisinnius|Sisinnius]] ([[January 15]]–[[February 4]], [[708]]): reigned for 21 calendar days
#[[Pope Marcellus II|Marcellus II]] ([[April 9]]–[[May 1]], [[1555]]): reigned for 22 calendar days
#[[Pope Damasus II|Damasus II]] ([[July 17]]–[[August 9]], [[1048]]): reigned for 24 calendar days
#[[Pope Pius III|Pius III]] ([[September 22]]–[[October 18]], [[1503]]): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Leo XI|Leo XI]] ([[April 1]]–[[April 27]], [[1605]]): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Benedict V|Benedict V]] ([[May 22]]–[[June 23]], [[964]]): reigned for 33 calendar days.
*[[Pope-elect Stephen|Stephen]] ([[March 23]]–[[March 26]], [[752]]), died of [[apoplexy]] three days after his election, and before his ordination as a bishop. He is not recognized a valid Pope, but was added to the lists of Popes in the fifteenth century as ''Stephen II'', causing difficulties in enumerating later Popes named Stephen. He was removed in 1961 from the [[Vatican City|Vatican's]] [[List of Popes|list]]. See "[[Pope-elect Stephen]]" for detailed explanations.

==Miscellanea==
* Youngest Pope: [[Pope John XII]], who was 18 when he became Pope.
* Papal burial traditions forbid autopsies.

==See also==
*[[List of Popes]]
*[[List of Popes (graphical)]]
*[[List of Popes by length of reign]]
*[[List of ages of Popes]]
*[[List of canonised Popes]]
*[[Names of Popes]]
*[[Vestment]]
*[[Immaculate Conception]]
*[[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]]
*[[Ecumenical Council]]
*[[College of Bishops]]
*[[Pontifical University]]
*[[Popish Plot]]
*[[Caesaropapism]]
*[[Sedevacantism]]
*[[History of the Papacy]]
*[[Investiture Controversy]]
*[[African popes]]
*[[List of French popes]]
*[[List of German popes]]
*[[Myths and legends surrounding the Papacy]]
*[[Prophecy of the Popes]]
*[[Regnal name]]
*[[Papal Slippers]]
*[[Papal Coronation]]
*[[Papal Inauguration]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==Histories==
*Brusher, Joseph H. ''Popes Through The Ages''. Princeton: D. Van Nostland Company, Inc. 1959.
*Chamberlain, E.R. ''The Bad Popes''. 1969. Reprint: Barnes and Noble. 1993.
*Dollison, John ''Pope - Pourri''. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1994.
*Kelly, J.N.D. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Popes''. Oxford: University Press. 1986. ISBN 0-19-213964-9
*Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. ''Chronicles of the Popes - The Reign By Reign Record of The Papacy From St. Peter To The Present''. London: Thames and Hudson. 1997. ISBN 0-500-01798-0

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Loomis, Louise Ropes | title=The Book of the Popes (Liber Pontificalis): To the Pontificate of Gregory I | location=[[Evolution Publishing]] | publisher=[[Merchantville, NJ]] | year=2006 | id=ISBN 1-889758-86-8}}. Reprint of an English translation originally published in 1916.
*[[Ludwig von Pastor]], ''History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the [[Vatican Secret Archives|Secret Archives of the Vatican]] and other original sources'', 40 vols. St. Louis, B. Herder 1898 - ([http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/b92040657d7c02f6.html World Cat entry])
* Hartmann Grisar (1845-1932), ''History of Rome and the Popes in the Middle Ages'', AMS Press; Reprint edition (1912). ISBN 0-404-09370-1
*[[James Joseph Walsh]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC22760194&id=B-cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22popes+and+science%22 ''The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time''], Fordam University Press, 1908, reprinted 2003, Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3646-9

==External links==
{{Commons|Pope}}
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm The Holy See - The Holy Father] – website for the past and present Holy Fathers (since [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]])
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
*[http://web.globalserve.net/~bumblebee/ecclesia/patriarchs.htm Eastern Church Defends Petrine Primacy and the Papacy]
*[http://thepopeblog.blogspot.com/ The Pope Blog] – Unofficial weblog about the Pope
*[http://kolonisera.rymden.nu/pope/popes.php?l=1 Pope Endurance League - Sortable list of Popes]
*[http://www.wlsessays.net/subjects/R/rsubind.htm#RomanCCPapacy Scholarly articles on the Roman Catholic Papacy from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library]

{{Popes}}
{{Papal symbols and ceremonial}}
[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:Holy See|*]]
[[Category:Popes|*]]
[[Category:Religious leadership roles]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Roman Catholicism]]

{{Link FA|fi}}
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[[zh:教宗]]

Fight Club (Roman)

2007-05-27T11:12:39Z

Recurring dreams: Revert to revision 133652457 dated 2007-05-26 15:20:53 by ShelfSkewed using popups

: ''This is about the novel. For the film, see [[Fight Club (film)]]. For other uses, see [[Fight Club (disambiguation)]].''
{{infobox Book | 
| name = Fight Club
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Fightclubcvr.jpg|200px]]
| image_caption = First edition cover
| author = [[Chuck Palahniuk]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist = Jacket design by Michael Ian Kaye<br>Photograph by Melissa Hayden<br>Soap by Proverbial Inc.
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Novel]]
| publisher = [[W. W. Norton & Company]]
| release_date = August 1996
| english_release_date =
| media_type = Print ([[hardcover]], [[paperback]], & library binding) & audio cassette
| pages = 208 pp (first edition, hardcover)
| isbn = ISBN 0-393-03976-5 (first edition, hardcover)
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}
'''''Fight Club'''''<ref name="lowercase">Throughout the novel, Palahniuk writes the name of the club in [[lowercase]]. The only occurrence of "Fight Club" as a proper noun is in the novel's title. Thus, all occurrences to "fight club" in this article refer to the fictional club, while all occurrences of "''Fight Club''" refer to the novel itself.</ref> (1996) is the first published [[novel]] by [[United States|America]]n [[author]] [[Chuck Palahniuk]]. The plot is based around an unnamed [[protagonist]] who struggles with his growing discomfort with [[consumerism]] and changes in the state of [[masculinity]] in [[American culture]]. In an attempt to overcome this, he creates an underground [[fighting]] club as a radical form of [[psychotherapy]]. It was made into a [[Fight Club (film)|movie of the same name]] in 1999 by director [[David Fincher]]. The movie became a pop culture phenomenon. In the wake of the film's popularity, the novel has become a target of criticism, mainly for its explicit depictions of [[Graphic violence|violence]].

==History==
When Palahniuk made his first attempt at publishing a novel (''[[Invisible Monsters]]'') publishers rejected it for being too disturbing. This led him to work on ''Fight Club'', which he wrote as an attempt to disturb the publisher even more for rejecting him. Palahniuk wrote this story while working for [[Freightliner (truck)|Freightliner]]. After initially publishing it as a short story (which became chapter 6 of the novel) in the compilation ''Pursuit of Happiness'', Palahniuk expanded it into a full novel, which, contrary to what he expected, the publisher was willing to publish.<ref name="tomlinson">Tomlinson, Sarah. "[http://www.salon.com/ent/movies/int/1999/10/13/palahniuk/index.html Is it fistfighting, or just multi-tasking?]". ''Salon.com''. October 13, 1999.</ref> While the original, hardcover edition of the book received positive reviews and some awards, it had a short shelf life. Nevertheless, the book had made its way to [[Hollywood]], where interest in adapting it to film was growing. It was eventually adapted in 1999 by screenwriter Jim Uhls and director David Fincher. The film was a box office disappointment (although it was #1 at the U.S. box office in its first weekend) and critical reaction was mostly favorable, but a [[Cult film|cult following]] soon emerged as the DVD of the film was popular upon release. As a result of the film, the original hardcover edition became a collector's item.<ref name="offman">Offman, Craig. "[http://archive.salon.com/books/log/1999/09/03/fight_club/ Movie makes "Fight Club" book a contender]". ''[[Salon.com]]''. September 3, 1999.</ref> This film is now widely considered to be a defining work and an uncompromising critique of humanity's loss of identity through mass consumerism. Two paperback rereleases of the novel, one in 1999 and the other in 2004 (the latter of which begins with an introduction by the author about the conception and popularity of both the novel and the movie), were later made. This success helped launch Palahniuk's career as a popular [[novelist]], as well as establish a writing style that would appear in many of his future novels.

Despite popular belief, Palahniuk was not inspired to write the novel by any actual fight club. The club itself was based on a series of [[fight]]s that Palahniuk got into over previous years (most notably one that he got into during a [[camping]] trip).<ref name="jemielity">Jemielity, Sam. "[http://www.playboy.com/arts-entertainment/comversation/palahniuk/ Chuck Palahniuk:The Playboy.Comversation]". ''[[Playboy]].com''. Retrieved June 30, 2005.</ref> Even though he has mentioned this in many interviews, Palahniuk is still often approached by fans wanting to know where their local fight club takes place. Palahniuk insists that there is no real, singular organization like the one in his book. He does admit however that some fans have mentioned to him that some fight clubs (albeit much smaller than the one in the novel) exist or previously existed (some having existed long before the novel was written). Also, in the introduction to the current edition of the novel, Palahniuk refers to a few of the many actual instances of mischief being carried out in the style of fight club, most notably, a "Waiter from one of London's two finest restaurants" alleging that he ejaculated into [[Margaret Thatcher|Margaret Thatcher's]] food on multiple occasions.

Many other events in the novel were also based on events that Palahniuk himself had experienced. The [[support groups]] that the narrator attends are based on support groups to which the author brought terminally ill people as part of a volunteer job he did for a local hospital. Project Mayhem is loosely based on the [[Cacophony Society]], of which Palahniuk is a member. Various events and characters are based on friends of the author. Other events came as a result of stories told to him by various people he had talked to.<ref name="palahniukstf228229">''Palahniuk (''Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories''), pp. 228–229.''</ref> This method of combining various stories from various people into novels has become a common way of writing novels for Palahniuk ever since.

Outside of Palahniuk's professional and personal life, the novel's impact has been felt elsewhere. Several individuals in various locations of the [[United States]] (and possibly in other countries), ranging from teenagers to people in technical careers, have set up their own fight clubs based on the one mentioned in the novel.<ref name="usatoday">"[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-05-29-fight-club_x.htm Fight club draws techies for bloody underground beatdowns]". ''[[Associated Press]]''. May 29, 2006.</ref> Some of Tyler's on-the-job pranks (such as food tampering) have been repeated by fans of the book (although these same pranks existed well before the novel was published). Palahniuk eventually documented this phenomenon in his essay "Monkey Think, Monkey Do",<ref name="palahniukstf212215">''Palahniuk (''Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories''), pp. 212–215.''</ref> which was published in his book ''[[Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories]]'', as well as in the introduction to the 2004 paperback edition of ''Fight Club''. Other fans of the book have been inspired to non-anti-social activity as well; Palahniuk has claimed that fans tell him that they have been inspired to go back to college after reading the book.<ref name="tomlinson" />

Other than the film, a few other adaptations have been attempted. In 2004 ''Fight Club'' was in development as a [[musical theater|musical]], developed by Palahniuk, Fincher, and [[Trent Reznor]].<ref name="chang">Chang, Jade. "[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/collective/A2799633 tinseltown: fight club and fahrenheit]". ''[[BBC]].co.uk''. July 2, 2004.</ref> [[Brad Pitt]], who played the role of Tyler Durden in the film, expressed interest in being involved. A video game loosely based on the film was published by [[Vivendi Universal Games]] in 2004, receiving poor reviews from gaming critics (see [[Fight Club (video game)|''Fight Club'' (video game)]].

==Plot summary==
The book centers on a nameless narrator who hates his job and his life. The narrator works for a car company, also unnamed, organizing [[product recall]]s on defective models if, and only if, the cost of the [[product recall|recall]] is less than the cost of [[out-of-court settlement]]s paid to relatives of the deceased (which parallels the [[1970s]] story of the [[Ford Pinto#Safety problems|Ford Pinto's safety problems and recall]]). At the same time, he is becoming disenchanted with the "nesting instinct"<ref name="palahniukfc43">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 43.''</ref> of consumerism that has absorbed his life, forcing him to define himself by the furniture, clothes, and other material things that he owns. This dissatisfaction, combined with his frequent business trips across multiple time zones, disturb him to the point that he suffers from chronic [[insomnia]].

At the recommendation of his physician (who does not consider his insomnia to be a serious ailment), the narrator goes to a support group for men with [[testicular cancer]] to "see what real suffering is like". After finding that crying at these support groups and listening to emotional outpourings from the suffering allows him to sleep at night, he becomes dependent on them. At the same time, he befriends a cancer victim named Bob. Although he does not really suffer from any of the ailments that the other attendants have, he is never caught being a "tourist" until he meets Marla Singer, a woman who also attends support groups for alternative reasons. Her presence reflects the narrator's "tourism", and only reminds him that he doesn't belong at the support groups. He begins to hate Marla for keeping him from crying, and therefore from sleeping. After a short confrontation, they begin going to separate support groups in order to avoid meeting again.

Shortly before this incident, his life changes radically after meeting Tyler Durden, a beach artist who works low-paying jobs at night in order to perform deviant behavior on the job. After his confrontation with Marla, the narrator's condo is destroyed by an explosion and he asks Tyler if he can stay at his house. Tyler agrees, but asks for something in return, in a now-famous line: "I want you to hit me as hard as you can."<ref name="palahniukfc46">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 46.''</ref> The resulting fight in a bar's parking lot attracts more disenchanted males, and a new form of support group, the first "Fight Club," is born. The fight club becomes a new type of therapy through [[bare-knuckle]] fighting, controlled by a set of rules:

{{quotation|
#You don't talk about fight club.
#You don't talk about fight club.<ref name="2rules">The first rules of both fight club and Project Mayhem are repeated for emphasis. Fans of the novel and the film have latched on to the first two rules of fight club as a [[meme]] and have made it into a [[catchphrase]] (although slightly changed to "you do not talk about fight club", based on the variation in the film).</ref>
#When someone says stop, or goes limp, even if he's just faking it, the fight is over.<ref name="lostrule">Shortly after the third rule is introduced, it is dropped from the club and the other rules move up one numbered position. It is mentioned by the narrator the first time he states the rules, but it is not mentioned by Tyler when he states them. Tyler also adds the eighth rule, which becomes the seventh rule in his version of the rule set.This may have been the result of a [[continuity error]], though it is also possible that Tyler changed the rules to allow the narrator to break the third rule later in the novel. ''Palahniuk (1999), pp. 49–50.''</ref>
#Only two guys to a fight.
#One fight at a time.
#They fight without shirts or shoes.
#The fights go on as long as they have to.
#If this is your first night at fight club, you have to fight.|''Fight Club''|pages 48-50<ref name="palahniukfc4850">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), pp. 48–50.''</ref>}}

Later in the book the mechanic tells the narrator two new rules to fight club. The first new rule is that nobody is the center of fight club except for the two men fighting. The second new rule is that fight club will always be free.

Meanwhile, Tyler rescues Marla from a suicide attempt and the two initiate an affair that confounds the narrator. Throughout this affair, Marla is mostly unaware of the existence of fight club, and completely unaware of Tyler and the narrator's interaction with one another.<ref name="tylermarla">Because Tyler and Marla are never seen at the same time, the narrator wonders if Tyler and Marla are the same person. This foreshadows the later revelation of Tyler and the narrator being the same person. Palahniuk may have also meant for this detail to be a [[red herring (plot device)|red herring]]. ''Palahniuk (1999), p. 65.''</ref>

As the fight club's membership grows (and, unbeknownst to the narrator, spreads to other cities across the country), Tyler begins to use it to spread anti-consumerist ideas and recruits its members to participate in increasingly elaborate attacks on [[corporate America]]. This was originally the narrator's idea, but Tyler takes control from him. Tyler eventually gathers the most devoted fight club members (referred to as "[[Monkeys in space|space monkey]]s") and forms "Project Mayhem", a [[cult]]-like organization that trains itself as an army to bring down modern civilization. This organization, like the fight club, is controlled by a set of rules:

{{quotation|
#You don't ask questions.
#You don't ask questions.
#No excuses.
#No lies.
#You have to trust Tyler.|''Fight Club''|pages 119, 122, 125<ref name="palahniukfc119122125">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), pp. 119, 122 & 125.''</ref>}}

The narrator starts off as a loyal participant in Project Mayhem, seeing it as the next step for fight club. However, he becomes uncomfortable with the increasing destructiveness of their activities after it results in the death of Bob.

As the narrator endeavors to stop Tyler and his followers, [[anagnorisis|he learns]] that he ''is'' Tyler;<ref name="unreliable">The narrator's inability to explain Tyler's existence earlier on in the story is a classic example of an [[unreliable narrator]].</ref> Tyler is not a separate person, but a [[Dissociative identity disorder|separate personality]]. As the narrator struggled with his hatred for his job and his consumerist lifestyle, his mind began to form a new personality that was able to escape from the problems of his normal life. The final straw came when he met Marla; Tyler was truly born as a distinct personality when the narrator's unconscious desire for Marla clashed with his conscious hatred for her. Having come to the surface, Tyler's personality has been slowly taking over the narrator's mind, which he planned to take over completely by making the narrator's real personality more like his. The narrator's bouts of insomnia had actually been Tyler's personality surfacing; Tyler would be active whenever the narrator was "sleeping". This allowed Tyler to manipulate the narrator into helping him create fight club; Tyler learned recipes for creating explosives when he was in control, and used this knowledge to blow up his own condo.

The narrator also learns that Tyler plans to blow up the Parker-Morris building (the fictional "tallest building in the world") in the downtown area of the city using [[homemade bomb]]s created by Project Mayhem. The actual reason for the explosion is to destroy the nearby national museum. During the explosion, Tyler plans to die as a [[martyr]] for Project Mayhem, taking the narrator's life as well. Realizing this, the narrator sets out to stop Tyler, although Tyler is always thinking ahead of him. In his attempts to stop Tyler, he makes peace with Marla (who always knew the narrator as Tyler) and explains to her that he is not Tyler Durden. The narrator is eventually forced to confront Tyler on the roof of the building. The narrator is held captive at gunpoint by Tyler, forced to watch the destruction wrought on the museum by Project Mayhem. Marla comes to the roof with one of the support groups. Tyler vanishes, because “Tyler was ''his'' hallucination, not hers.” <ref name="palahniukfc195">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 195.''</ref>

With Tyler gone, the narrator waits for the bomb to explode and kill him. However, the bomb malfunctions because Tyler mixed paraffin into the explosives, which "never, ever works." Still alive and holding the gun that Tyler used to carry on him, the narrator decides to make the first decision that is truly his own: he puts the gun in his mouth and shoots himself. Some time later, he awakens in a mental institution, believing that he is dead and has gone to heaven. The book ends with members of Project Mayhem who work at the institution telling the narrator that their plans still continue, and that they are expecting Tyler to come back.

==Characters in ''Fight Club''==
; Narrator : Some fans of the film refer to the narrator as "Jack", which is in reference to a scene in which he reads stories written from the perspective of a man's organs (e.g. "Jack's [[medulla oblongata]]"); the protagonists' lines in the official movie script also use the name "Jack" to denote them. Furthermore, a number of props from the film (such as a paycheck for the narrator) have the name "Jack Moore" on them, indicating that members of the film's crew also thought the narrator's name was Jack. The name "Jack" was "Joe" in the novel, which was changed in the film to avoid conflicts with ''[[Reader's Digest]]'' over the use of the name (the articles read by the narrator were featured in the magazine). The narrator of ''Fight Club'' set a precedent for the protagonists of later novels by Palahniuk, especially in the case of male protagonists, as they often shared his anti-heroic and [[transgressional fiction|transgressive]] behavior.
; Tyler Durden : A [[Neo-luddism|neo-luddite]], [[Nihilism|nihilist]] with a strong hatred for consumer culture. "Because of his nature"<ref name="palahniukfc25">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 25.''</ref>, Tyler works night jobs where he causes problems for the companies; he also does beach art to find "perfection". He is the co-founder of fight club (it was his idea to have the fight that led to it). He later launches Project Mayhem, from which he and the members make various attacks on consumerism. Tyler is blond, as by the narrator's comment "in his everything-blond way." The unhinged but magnetic Tyler could also be considered an antihero (especially since he and the narrator are technically the same person), although he becomes the [[antagonist]] of the novel later in the story. Few characters like Tyler have appeared in later novels by Palahniuk, though the character of Oyster from ''[[Lullaby (novel)|Lullaby]]'' shares many similarities.
; Marla Singer : A woman that the narrator meets during a support group. The narrator no longer receives the same release from the groups when he realizes Marla is faking her problems just like he is. After he leaves the groups, he meets her again when she meets Tyler and becomes his lover. She is a [[nymphomaniac]], and she shares many of Tyler's thoughts on consumer culture. In later novels by Palahniuk in which the protagonist is male, a female character similar to Marla has also appeared. Marla and these other female characters have helped Palahniuk to add romantic themes into his novels.
; Robert "Bob" Paulson : A man that the narrator meets at a support group for [[testicular cancer]]. A former [[bodybuilding|bodybuilder]], Bob lost his testicles to cancer caused by the [[steroids]] he used to bulk up his muscles, and had to undergo testosterone injections; this resulted in his body increasing its [[estrogen]], causing him to grow large [[breasts]] ([[Gynecomastia]]) ("Bitch-tits") and develop a softer voice. The narrator befriends Bob and, after leaving the groups, meets him again in fight club. Bob's death later in the story while carrying out an assignment for Project Mayhem causes the narrator to turn against Tyler, because the members of Project Mayhem treat Robert's death as a trivial matter instead of a tragedy. When the narrator explains that the dead man had a name and was a real person, a member of Project Mayhem points out that only in death do members of Project Mayhem have a name. The unnamed member begins chanting, "his name was Robert Paulson", and this phrase becomes a [[meme]] and mantra that the narrator encounters later on in the story multiple times. This differs from the book which only states that people in other fight clubs were chanting "Robert Paulson" for the same reason as mentioned above. When the narrator goes to a fight club to shut it down for this reason, Tyler orders them to make him a "homework assignment".

==Motifs==
At two points in the novel, the narrator claims he wants to "wipe [his] ass with the ''[[Mona Lisa]]''"; a mechanic who joins fight club also repeats this to him in one scene.<ref name="palahniukfc124141200">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), pp. 124, 141 & 200.''</ref> This [[motif (literature)|motif]] shows his desire for chaos, later explicitly expressed in his urge to "destroy something beautiful". Additionally, he mentions at one point that "Nothing is static. Even the ''Mona Lisa'' is falling apart."<ref name="palahniukfc49">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 49.''</ref> University of Calgary literary scholar Paul Kennett claims that this want for chaos is a result of an [[Oedipus complex]], as the narrator, Tyler, and the mechanic all show disdain for their fathers.<ref name="kennett5051">''Kennett, pp. 50–51.''</ref> This is most explicitly stated in the scene that the mechanic appears in:

{{quotation|
The mechanic says, “If you’re male and you’re Christian and living in America, your father is your model for God. And if you never know your father, if your father bails out or dies or is never at home, what do you believe about God?<br>
...<br>
How Tyler saw it was that getting God’s attention for being bad was better than getting no attention at all. Maybe because God’s hate is better than His indifference.<br>
If you could be either God’s worst enemy or nothing, which would you choose?<br>
We are God’s middle children, according to Tyler Durden, with no special place in history and no special attention.<br>
Unless we get God’s attention, we have no hope of damnation or redemption.<br>
Which is worse, hell or nothing?<br>
Only if we’re caught and punished can we be saved.<br>
“Burn the [[Louvre]],” the mechanic says, “and wipe your ass with the Mona Lisa. This way at least, God would know our names.”|''Fight Club''|page 141<ref name="palahniukfc141">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 141.''</ref>}}

Kennett further argues that Tyler wants to use this chaos to change history so that "God’s middle children" will have some historical significance, whether or not this significance is "damnation or redemption".<ref name="kennett5152">''Kennett, pp. 51–52.''</ref> This will figuratively return their absent fathers, as judgement by future generations will replace judgement by their fathers.

After reading stories written from the perspective of the organs of a man named Joe, the narrator begins using similar quotations to describe his feelings, often replacing organs with feelings and things involved in his life.

The narrator often repeats the line "I know this because Tyler knows this." This is used to [[foreshadowing|foreshadow]] the novel's major plot twist in which Tyler is revealed to be the same person as the narrator.

The color [[cornflower blue]] first appears as the color of an icon on the narrator's boss's computer.<ref name="palahniukfc49" /> Later, it is mentioned that his boss has eyes of the same color.<ref name="palahniukfc98">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 98.''</ref> These mentions of the color are the first of many uses of cornflower blue in Palahniuk's books, which all feature the color at some point in the text.

The theme of masculinity is also a motif throughout the book. Different symbols lead to this reoccurring theme, such as violence, and testes. Fighting is perceived as a masculine characteristic.

==Subtext==
Throughout the novel, Palahniuk uses the narrator and Tyler to comment on how people in modern society try to find meaning in their lives through commercial culture. Several lines in the novel make reference to this lifestyle as meaningless. Usually Palahniuk delivers this through overt methods, but there are also some allegorical references as well; for instance, the narrator, upon looking at the contents of his refrigerator, notices he has "a house full of condiments and no food."<ref name="palahniukfc45">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 45.''</ref>

Additionally, much of the novel comments on how many men in modern society have found dissatisfaction with the state of masculinity as it currently exists. The characters of the novel lament the fact that many of them were raised by their mothers because their fathers either abandoned their family or divorced their mothers. As a result, they see themselves as being "a generation of men raised by women,"<ref name="palahniukfc50">''Palahniuk (''Fight Club'', 1999), p. 50.''</ref> being without a male role model in their lives to help shape their masculinity. This ties in with the anti-consumer culture theme, as the men in the novel see their "[[IKEA]] nesting instinct" as resulting from the feminization of men in a matriarchal culture.

Maryville University of St. Louis professor Jesse Kavadlo, in an issue of the literary journal ''Stirrings Still'', claimed that the narrator's opposition to emasculation is a form of projection, and that the problem that he fights is himself.<ref name="kavadlo5">''Kavadlo, p. 5.''</ref> He also claims that Palahniuk uses [[existentialism]] in the novel to conceal subtexts of [[feminism]] and romance in order to convey these concepts in a novel that is mainly aimed at a male audience.<ref name="kavadlo7">''Kavadlo, p. 7.''</ref>

Palahniuk himself gives a much simpler assertion about the theme of the novel, stating "all my books are about a lonely person looking for some way to connect with other people."<ref name="palahniukstfxv">''Palahniuk (''Stranger Than Fiction: True Stories''), p. xv.''</ref>

Paul Kennett claims that, because the narrator's fights with Tyler are fights with himself, and because he fights himself in front of his boss at the hotel, the narrator is using the fights as a way of asserting himself as his own boss. He argues that these fights are a representation of the struggle of the [[Proletariat|proletarian]] at the hands of a higher capitalist power, and by asserting himself as capable of having the same power he thus becomes his own master. Later, when fight club is formed, the participants are all dressed and groomed similarly, thus allowing them to symbolically fight themselves at the club and gain the same power.<ref name="kennett5354">''Kennett, pp. 53–54.''</ref>

Afterwards, Kennett says, Tyler becomes nostalgic for patriarchical power controlling him, and creates Project Mayhem to achieve this. Through this proto-fascist power structure, the narrator seeks to learn "what, or rather, who, he might have been under a firm patriarchy."<ref name="kennett55">''Kennett, p. 55.''</ref> Through his position as leader of Project Mayhem, Tyler uses his power to become a "God/Father" to the "space monkeys", who are the other members of Project Mayhem (although by the end of the novel his words hold more power than he does, as is evident in the space monkeys' threat to castrate the narrator when he contradicts Tyler's rule). According to Kennett, this creates a paradox in that Tyler pushes the idea that men who wish to be free from a controlling father-figure are only [[self-actualization|self-actualized]] once they have children and become a father themselves.<ref name="kennett56">''Kennett, p. 56.''</ref> This new structure is, however, ended by the narrator's elimination of Tyler, allowing him to decide for himself how to determine his freedom.

{{endspoiler}}

==Literary significance and criticism==
While ''Fight Club'' has been praised for its insights into contemporary American culture, it has also received criticism from various academics and cultural commentators. Much of this surrounds the possibility that the novel promotes [[misogyny]] and [[self-destructive behaviour]]. Some passages in the novel seem to suggest that men have something to gain by ridding themselves of feminine characteristics and engaging in more masculine activities. Furthermore, these critics believe these activities, mainly fighting, are self-destructive. Even more problematic to some critics is ''Fight Club'''s role in pop culture, as such a role makes it easy to infer that the ideas presented in the novel are influencing the general populace. However, there is much polarization on this issue. Supporters of the novel have responded by noting that the narrator finally rejects Tyler and fight club, and seems to also place great importance on developing a more authentic relationship with Marla.

Many critics have also claimed there are [[homoerotic]] elements in ''Fight Club''. Amongst these were David
Denby of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and Laura Miller of ''[[Salon.com]]''.<ref name="kavadlo6">''Kavadlo, p. 6.''</ref> Additionally, Robert Alan Brookey and Robert Westerfelhaus published ''Hiding Homoeroticism in Plain View: The Fight Club DVD as Digital Closet'' to make similar claims.<ref name="brookeywestfelhaus">Brookey, Robert Alan & Westerfelhaus, Robert. "Hiding Homoeroticism in Plain View: The Fight Club DVD as Digital Closet". ''Critical Studies in Media Communication''. March 2002.</ref>

==''Fight Club'' in pop culture==
:''Main article: [[Fight Club in popular culture]]''

Because of the film's popularity, ''Fight Club'' is sometimes referenced in [[pop culture]], having been referred to in [[television program|television shows]], films, [[music]], [[video game]]s, and other forms of media. Though many references came as a result of the film, the majority of them make reference to elements found in both the novel and the film.

==Awards==
The novel won the following awards:
*the 1997 Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Award<ref name="pnba">Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Awards. http://www.pnba.org/awards.htm. Retrieved June 20, 2005.</ref>
*the 1997 Oregon Book Award for Best Novel<ref name="oba">[http://www.literary-arts.org/oba_poetry.htm#fiction Oregon Book Awards]. Literary Arts, Inc. Retrieved June 20, 2005.</ref>

==U.S. editions==
*New York: [[W. W. Norton & Company]], August 1996. [[Hardcover]] first edition. ISBN 0-393-03976-5
*New York: [[Henry Holt|Owl Books]], 1997. First [[Paperback#Trade paperback|trade paperback]]. ISBN 0-8050-5437-5
*New York: Owl Books, 1999. Trade paperback reissue (film tie-in cover). ISBN 0-8050-6297-1
*Minneapolis, MN: HighBridge Company, 1999. Unabridged [[audiobook]] on 4 cassettes, read by Todd J. Adams. ISBN 1-56511-330-6
*Minneapolis, MN: Tandem Books, 1999. School & library binding. ISBN 0-613-91882-7
*New York: Owl Books, 2004. Trade paperback reissue, with a new introduction by the author (bloody lip cover). ISBN 0-8050-7647-6
*New York: Owl Books, 2004. Trade paperback reissue, with a new introduction by the author (film tie-in cover). ISBN 0-8050-7655-7
*New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. Trade paperback (fist cover). ISBN 0-393-32734-5

==See also==
* [[1996 in literature]]
* [[Anarcho-primitivism]]
* [[Generation X]]
* [[Neo-luddism]]
* [[Transgressional fiction]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
*Avni, Sheerly. "[http://www.alternet.org/mediaculture/24026/ Ten Hollywood Movies That Get Women Right]". ''[[AlterNet]]''. August 12, 2005.
*Brookey, Robert Alan & Westerfelhaus, Robert. "Hiding Homoeroticism in Plain View: The Fight Club DVD as Digital Closet". ''Critical Studies in Media Communication''. March 2002.
*Chang, Jade. "[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/collective/A2799633 tinseltown: fight club and fahrenheit]". ''[[BBC]].co.uk''. July 2, 2004.
*"[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-05-29-fight-club_x.htm Fight club draws techies for bloody underground beatdowns]". ''[[Associated Press]]''. May 29, 2006.
*Jemielity, Sam. "[http://www.playboy.com/arts-entertainment/dotcomversation/palahniuk/index.html Chuck Palahniuk:The Playboy.Conversation]". ''[[Playboy]].com''. Retrieved September 28, 2006.
*Kavadlo, Jesse. "The Fiction of Self-destruction: Chuck Palahniuk, Closet Moralist". ''Stirrings Still: The International Journal of Existential Literature''. Volume 2, Number 2. Fall/Winter 2005. [http://www.stirrings-still.org/ss22.pdf PDF link]
*Kennett, Paul. "Fight Club and the Dangers of Oedipal Obsession". ''Stirrings Still: The International Journal of Existential Literature''. Volume 2, Number 2. Fall/Winter 2005. [http://www.stirrings-still.org/ss22.pdf PDF link]
*Offman, Craig. "[http://archive.salon.com/books/log/1999/09/03/fight_club/ Movie makes "Fight Club" book a contender]". ''[[Salon.com]]''. September 3, 1999.
*[http://www.literary-arts.org/oba_poetry.htm#fiction Oregon Book Awards]. Literary Arts, Inc. Retrieved June 20, 2005.
*Pacific Northwest Booksellers Association Awards. http://www.pnba.org/awards.htm. Retrieved June 20, 2005.
*Palahniuk, Chuck. ''Stranger Than Fiction : True Stories''. New York: [[Doubleday]], 2004. ISBN 0-385-50448-9
*Straus, Tamara. "[http://www.alternet.org/story/11049/ The Unexpected Romantic: An Interview with Chuck Palahniuk]". ''AlterNet''. June 19, 2001.
*Tomlinson, Sarah. "[http://www.salon.com/ent/movies/int/1999/10/13/palahniuk/index.html Is it fistfighting, or just multi-tasking?]". ''Salon.com''. October 13, 1999.
In addition, the following editions of the novel were used as references for this article:
*Palahniuk, Chuck. ''Fight Club''. New York: Owl Books, 1999. ISBN 0-8050-6297-1
*Palahniuk, Chuck. ''Fight Club''. New York: Owl Books, 2004. ISBN 0-8050-7647-6

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.chuckpalahniuk.net/books/fightclub/ Chuck Palahniuk.Net section for ''Fight Club'']
*[http://www.chuckpalahniuk.net/downloads/audio/bumbershoot_portland_fightclub_audioreading.mp3 Audio recording of Chuck Palahniuk reading Chapter 6 of ''Fight Club'']

{{ChuckPalahniuk}}

[[Category:Fight Club| {{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:1996 novels]]
[[Category:American novels]]
[[Category:American short stories]]
[[Category:Books by Chuck Palahniuk]]
[[Category:Fictional clubs]]
[[Category:Debut novels]]
[[Category:Postmodern literature]]
[[Category:Existentialist works]]
[[Category:Satirical books]]
[[Category:Cacophony Society]]
[[Category:Fiction with unreliable narrators]]
[[ar:نادي القتال (رواية)]]
[[da:Fight Club (roman)]]
[[es:El club de lucha]]
[[fr:Fight Club (roman)]]
[[he:מועדון קרב]]
[[it:Fight Club (romanzo)]]
[[ja:ファイト・クラブ]]
[[no:Fight Club]]
[[pl:Podziemny krąg]]
[[uk:Бійцівський клуб (роман)]]
[[ru:Бойцовский клуб (роман)]]
[[tr:Fight Club]]

Nitish Kumar

2007-05-07T09:43:40Z

Recurring dreams: Remove as per justification on talk page.

{{Infobox_Indian_politician
| name = Nitish Kumar
| image =
| birth_date = [[March 1]], [[1951]]
| birth_place =[[Bakhtiarpur]], [[Patna district|Patna]]
| residence =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| constituency =
| office = [[List of Chief Ministers of Bihar|Chief Minister of Bihar]]
| salary =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor = Incumbent
| party =[[Janata Dal (United)]]
| spouse = Smt. Manju Kumari Sinha
| children = One son
| website =
| footnotes =
| date = June 18 |
| year = 2006 |
| source = http://164.100.24.208/ls/lsmember/biodata.asp?mpsno=277 Government of India
}}
'''Nitiś Kumār''' ({{lang-hi|नितीश कुमार}}) (born [[March 1]], [[1951]], [[Bakhtiarpur]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]) is the [[Chief Minister]] of the north Indian state of [[Bihar]]. He is one of the leaders of [[Janata Dal (United)]] party.

==Political career==
Kumar graduated from [[Bihar College of Engineering]] with a Bachelor's degree in Engineering. He was involved in the movement led by [[Jayaprakash Narayan]] between 1974 and 1977, and was close, among others, to [[Satyendra Narayan Sinha]], a prominent leader of the time.

He was first elected to the [[Bihar legislative assembly]] in [[1985]]. In [[1987]], he became the president of the [[Yuva Lok Dal]]. In [[1989]], he became the [[Secretary-General]] of the [[Janata Dal]] in Bihar. He was also elected to the 9th [[Lok Sabha]] that year.

In [[1990]], he became the Union [[Minister of State]] for Agriculture. In [[1991]], he was re-elected to the Lok Sabha and became General Secretary of the Janata Dal at the national level and Deputy Leader of Janata Dal in Parliament. He represented Barh parliamentary constituency (Bihar) in the Lok Sabha between 1989 and 2004. He briefly served as the Union Cabinet Minister for Railways and Surface Transport and then as the Minister for Agriculture in 1998-99. In August 1999, he resigned following the railway accident at Gaisal in North East India.

In [[2000]], he was made the Chief Minister of Bihar but had to resign in 7 days. Later that year, he rejoined the Union Cabinet as Minister for Agriculture. From [[2001]] to May [[2004]], he served as the Union Cabinet Minister for Railways in the [[NDA]] government of [[Atal Behari Vajpayee]]. In the 2004 Lok Sabha elections, he contested elections from two constituencies, [[Barh]] and [[Nalanda]]. He was elected from Nalanda but lost from his traditional constituency, Barh. He was the leader of the [[Janata Dal (United)]] Parliamentary Party in the Lok Sabha.

In November [[2005]], he led the[[National Democratic Alliance]] to a victory in the Bihar Assembly elections bringing to an end the 15-year rule of the [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]]-led [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]] in the state. He was sworn in as chief minister of Bihar on November 24, 2005. As the Chief Minister of Bihar he also holds the Chairmanship of the [[L.N. Mishra Institute of Economic Development and Social Change]] a prominent business school of Bihar.
[[Image:Nitish Kumar On India Today Cover.JPG|thumb|180px|right|Nitish Kumar on India Today]]

<div align=center>
{| border
| width="30%" align="center"|'''Preceded by''':<br/>
[[President's rule]]
| width="40%" align="center"|[[Chief Minister of Bihar|Chief Ministers
of Bihar]]
| width="30%" align="center"|'''Succeeded by''':<br/>
[[Incumbent]]
|}
</div>

==External links==
* [http://164.100.24.208/ls/lsmember/biodata.asp?mpsno=277 Biography on website of Lok Sabha]

[[Category:1951 births|Nitish, Kumar]]
[[Category:Living people|Nitish, Kumar]]
[[Category:Bihar politics|Nitish, Kumar]]
[[Category:Indian politicians|Nitish, Kumar]]
[[Category:Chief Ministers of Bihar|Nitish, Kumar]]
[[Category:Incumbent Indian Chief Ministers|Nitish, Kumar]]

{{India-politician-stub}}

[[ta:நிதிஷ் குமார்]]

32nd Indiana Monument

2007-05-07T05:58:40Z

Recurring dreams: Punctuation

[[Image:Union Monument Louisville.jpg|thumb|280px|The Monument, currently under restoration]]
The '''32nd Indiana Monument''', also known as the '''Union Monument of Louisville''' in [[Louisville, Kentucky]], within [[Cave Hill Cemetery]], honors the fallen soldiers of the 32nd Indiana Volunteer Infantry Regiment, also known as the "1st German" at a battle at [[Battle of Rowlett's Station]], near [[Munfordville, Kentucky]]. On December 17, 1863, they had successfully defended a crucial bridge, but had 13 killed and 30 wounded. The designer, [[Christian Bloedner]], was a private at the battle and wished to honor his fallen comrades, so he took a chunk of limestone and constructed the monument, completing it in January of 1862. It is the oldest surviving memorial to the [[American Civil War]].<ref>http://www.cem.va.gov/CEM/cems/nchp/cavehill.asp</ref>

The German translates roughly to "''Here rest the first martyrs of the Thirty-second, the first German regiment of Indiana. They were fighting nobly in defense of the free Constitution of the United States of America. They fell on the 17th day of December, 1861, in the battle at Rowlett's Station, in which one regiment of Texas Rangers, two regiments of infantry, and six pieces of rebel artillery, in all over three thousand men, were defeated by five hundred German soldiers.''"<ref>http://www-lib.iupui.edu/kade/peake/p31.html#edn46</ref>

When the national cemetery was created at Cave Hill, the fallen soldiers and the monument was moved to its current location in June 1867. The monument was meant to be flat on the ground, but when moved it was placed standing up. Due to the monument being moved, the [[National Park Service]] considers a monument at [[Stones River National Battlefield]], the Hazen Brigade Monument, to be the oldest, even through it was constructed a year after.

On July 17, 1997, it was added to the [[National Register of Historic Places]] as the "Union Monument in Louisville", along with several other monuments to the [[American Civil War]] in [[Kentucky]], although most had honor fallen Confederates, not Union forces. Two of these were also in [[Jefferson County, Kentucky]]: the [[Confederate Martyrs Monument in Jeffersontown]] and the [[Louisville Confederate Monument]].

The monument has been severely damaged by time, as limestone is porous and the marker has been damaged by artificial pollutants and natural weathering. Most of the inscription has faded away, including that which was written in German. The current wooden protection of the marker is to prevent further decay of the marker. One plan to preserve it would be to house it in a museum at Munfordville, in the new [[Hart County Historical Society Museum]], and make two copies of it to place at it's original location, and at its current location.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Union Monument Louisville M1.jpg|Marker by memorial
Image:Union Monument Louisville M2.jpg|Closeup of marker
Image:Union Monument Louisville M3.jpg|Closeup of marker
</gallery>

==References==
<references/>
*[http://www.civilwarnews.com/archive/articles/gemindiana_peake.htm German Indiana Regt. Monument To be Preserved] Civil War News article
*[http://www.geocities.com/inkyger/inmon.html INDIANA'S and KENTUCKY'S GERMAN-AMERICANS IN THE CIVIL WAR] Article features an unobstructed view of the monument.

[[Category:Registered Historic Places in Louisville]]

Der Malayische Archipel

2007-05-07T00:19:50Z

Recurring dreams: /* Publication and Reception */ Fix ref

'''The Malay Archipelago''' is a book by the British naturalist [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] that chronicles his scientific exploration, during the eight year period [[1854]] to [[1862]], of the southern portion of the [[Malay Archipelago]] including [[Malaysia]],[[Singapore]], the islands of [[Indonesia]], then known as the [[Dutch East Indies]], and the island of [[New Guinea]]. Its full title was ''The Malay Archipelago: The land of the orang-utan, and the bird of paradise. A narrative of travel, with sketches of man and nature''.

==Publication and Reception==
It was first published in 1869 in two volumes by Macmillan and Company, and was revised through 10 editions with the last published in 1890. It is considered to be one of the most influential books ever written about the Indonesian islands.<ref>{{cite web|title=Preface to the Papuaweb illustrated edition|url=http://www.papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/wallace/archipelago.html|[publisher=http://www.papuaweb.org/index.html PapuaWeb Project]|accessdate=2007-05-01}}</ref>

==Contents==

The preface summarizes Wallace’s travels, the thousands of specimens he collected, and some of the results from their analysis after his return to [[England]]. The first chapter describes the [[physical geography]] and [[geology]] of the islands with particular attention to the role of [[volcanoes]] and earthquakes. It also discusses the overall pattern of the flora and fauna including the fact that the islands can be divided, by what would eventually become known as the [[Wallace line]], into 2 parts, those whose animals are more closely related to those of Asia and those whose fauna is closer to that of Australia. The following chapters then describe in detail the places Wallace visited. Wallace includes numerous observations on the people, their languages, ways of living, and social organization, as well as on the plants and animals found in each location. He talks about the [[biogeographic]] patterns he observes and their implications for [[natural history]], both in terms of biology ([[evolution]] ) and the geologic history of the region. He also narrates some of his personal experiences during his travels. The final chapter is an overview of the ethnic, linguistic, and cultural divisions among the people who live in the region and speculation about what such divisions might indicate about their history. The book is dedicated to [[Charles Darwin]].

==Influence on later works==

[[Joseph Conrad]] was very impressed with the ''Malay Archipelago'', and used it as source material for some of his novels including [[Lord Jim]].<ref> {{cite web|last=Rosen|first=Jonathen|title=Missing Link: Alfred Russel Wallace, Charles Darwin’s neglected double|url=http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/atlarge/2007/02/12/070212crat_atlarge_rosen|publisher=The New Yorker Feb 2007|accessdate=2007-04-25}}</ref> More recently it has influenced a number of books including:
* ''The Song of the Dodo'' by [[David Quammen]] published in 1996, which discusses Wallace’s Indonesian explorations in the context of the development of the scientific discipline of island biogeography.<ref>{{cite web|title=Review of 'The Song of the Dodo'|url=http://www.smithsonianmagazine.com/issues/1996/april/book_apr96.php|publisher= from [http://www.smithsonianmagazine.com Smithsonian Magazine]|date=1996|accessdate=2007-05-04}} </ref>
* ''The Spice Islands Voyage'' by [[Tim Severin]], which was published in 1997, and was subtitled ''The Quest for Alfred Wallace, the Man Who Shared Darwin's Discovery of Evolution'' attempts to retrace Wallace's travels.
* ''Archipelago: The Islands of Indonesia: From the Nineteenth-Century Discoveries of Alfred Russel Wallace to the Fate of Forests and Reefs in the Twenty-First Century'', by Gavan Daws and Marty Fujita, published in 1999, which uses Wallace's observations as a baseline of comparison to better understand environmental issues in modern Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Book Review or Archipelago|url=http://dannyreviews.com/h/Archipelago.html|publisher= from [http://dannyreviews.com Danny Yee's Book Reviews]|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Malay Archipelago]]
*[[Wallacea]]
*[[Wallace Line]]
*[[Operation Wallacea]]
*[[:Category:Fauna of Indonesia|Fauna of Indonesia]]
*[[:Category:Flora of Indonesia|Flora of Indonesia]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
''The Spice Islands Voyage: The Quest for Alfred Wallace, the Man Who Shared Darwin's Discovery of Evolution'' by Tim Severin ISBN 0-7867-0721-6

===External Links===
[http://www.papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/wallace/cover.html''The Malay Archipelago'' illustrated edition at Papua WebProject]

[http://books.google.com/books?id=geEBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR11&dq=The+Malay+Archipelago ''The Malay Archipelago'' at Google Books]

[[Category:1869 books]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biology literature]]
[[Category:Biology books]]
[[Category:English non-fiction literature]]

History Wars

2007-02-20T05:38:05Z

Recurring dreams: /* National Library of Australia controversy */ punctuation

{{Mergefrom|Black armband view of history|date=February 2007}}
The '''History wars''' are an ongoing public debate in [[Australia]] over the interpretation of the history of the European [[colonization|colonisation]] of Australia, and its impact on [[Indigenous Australians|Aborigines]] and [[Torres Strait Islanders]].

The debate centres around whether Australia's history of settlement since [[1788]] was:<br>
a) humane, with the country being peacefully settled, with specific instances of mistreatment of [[Indigenous Australians]] being aberrations;<br>
b) marred by both official and unofficial [[imperialism]], [[exploitation]], ill treatment, [[colonial]] dispossession, violent conflict and [[cultural genocide|cultural]] [[genocide]]; or<br>
c) somewhere in between.

The History Wars also relates to broader themes concerning [[national identity]], as well as methodological questions concerning the value and reliability of written records (of the authorities and settlers) and the [[oral tradition]] (of the Indigenous Australians), along with the [[ideological]] [[biases]] of those who interpret them.

Similar debates have also occurred in the [[USA]] (see [[culture wars]]) and [[Canada]].

==Background==
In [[1968]] Professor [[Bill Stanner|W. E. H. "Bill" Stanner]], an Australian [[anthropology|anthropologist]], coined the term the "Great Australian Silence" in a [[Boyer Lectures|Boyer Lecture]] entitled "After the Dreaming"<ref>"After the Dreaming" in White Man Got No Dreaming: Essays 1938-1973, W.E.H. Stanner, 1979, pp. 198-248, ed. W.E.H. Stanner, ISBN 0-7081-1802-X, pp. 198-248.</ref>, where he argued that the writing of [[History of Australia|Australian history]] was incomplete. He asserted that Australian national history as documented up to that point had largely been presented in a positive light, but that [[Indigenous Australians]] had been virtually ignored. He saw this as a structural and deliberate process to omit "… several hundred thousand Aborigines who lived and died between 1788 and 1938…(who were but) … negative facts of history and … were in no way consequential for the modern period".<ref>"After the Dreaming" in White Man Got No Dreaming: Essays 1938-1973, W.E.H. Stanner, 1979, pp. 198-248, ed. W.E.H. Stanner, ISBN 0-7081-1802-X, p. 214.</ref>

A new strand of Australian [[historiography]] subsequently emerged which gave much greater attention to the negative experiences wrought on Indigenous Australians by the European settlement of Australia. In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], a number of [[left-wing|progressive]] historians such as [[Henry Reynolds (historian)|Henry Reynolds]] began to publish books and articles which they saw as a corrective to the narrow, selective historiography which had, in their view, hitherto misrepresented or simply ignored Indigenous Australian history.

During these years, a small circle of people grouped around the [[Conservatism|conservative]] literary and political journal ''[[Quadrant]]'' resisted these arguments. Chief among these critics was Australian [[historian]] Professor [[Geoffrey Blainey]], who in his [[1993]] ''Sir John Latham Memorial Lecture'' coined the phrase "[[Black armband view of history]]". This phrase began to be used [[pejorative]]ly by some [[right-wing]] and conservative [[Australia]]n [[social scientist]]s, [[politician]]s, [[commentator]]s and [[intellectual]]s about historians whom they viewed as having presented an overly critical portrayal of Australian [[history of Australia|history]], and as being preoccupied with mourning, [[grief|grieving]] or [[shame]].

These critics gained greater prominence after the election of the conservative federal Coalition government in [[1996]], with [[Prime Minister of Australia]] [[John Howard]] publicly championing their views. Conservative scholars, intellectuals, journalists and politicians have publicly challenged historians and others who interpret Australian settlement as being characterised by extensive violent conflict between the white settlers and Indigenous Australians.

Though originally waged primarily in the academic environment, an increasingly large proportion of the History Wars has been played out in the Australian [[print media]], with regular opinion pieces being published in major [[broadsheet]]s such as ''[[The Australian]]'', ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'' and ''[[The Age]]''. Recently, arguments surrounding the History Wars have become intertwined with the debates about the content of [[high school]] history cirricula.

==The Windschuttle debate==
In 2002 historian and journalist, [[Keith Windschuttle]], in his book ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', disputed whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread [[genocide]] against Indigenous Australians, especially focusing on the [[Black War]] in Tasmania, and denied the claims by historians such as [[Henry Reynolds (historian)|Henry Reynolds]] and Professor [[Lyndall Ryan]] that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Particular historians and histories that are challenged include Henry Reynolds and the histories of [[massacre]]s, particularly in [[Tasmania]] but also elsewhere in Australia. Windschuttle's claims are based upon the argument that the 'orthodox' view of Australian history were founded on hearsay or the misleading use of evidence by historians.

Windschuttle's claims and research have been disputed by other historians, in ''Whitewash. On Keith Windschuttle's Fabrication of Aboriginal History'', an anthology edited and introduced by [[Robert Manne]], professor of politics at [[La Trobe University]].

This anthology has itself been the subject of examination by author, John Dawson, in ''Washout: On the academic response to The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'', which minutely dissects "Whitewash" and argues that "Whitewash" leaves Windschuttle's claims and research unrefuted.

==The Stolen Generations debate==
{{main|Stolen Generation}}
Despite the lengthy and detailed findings set out in the 1997 ''[[Bringing Them Home]]'' report into the [[Stolen Generation]], which documented the removal of Aboriginal children from their families by [[Australian government]] agencies and [[church]] missions, the nature and extent of the removals have been disputed within Australia, with some commentators questioning the findings contained in the report and asserting that the Stolen Generation has been exaggerated. Not only has the number of children removed from their parents been questioned, but also the intent and effects of the government policy.

Some conservative critics, such as [[Andrew Bolt]], have publicly questioned the very existence of the Stolen Generation. Bolt considers that it is a "preposterous and obscene" myth and that there was actually no policy in any state or territory at any time for the systematic removal of "half-caste" Aboriginal children. Robert Manne has responded that Bolt's failure to address the wealth of documentary evidence demonstrating the existence of the Stolen Generations amounts to a clear case of [[historical revisionism (negationism)|historical]] [[denialism]].<ref>http://www.theage.com.au/news/robert-manne/the-cruelty-of-denial/2006/09/08/1157222325367.html</ref>

==Stuart Macinty're's ''The History Wars''==
In 2003 Australian historian [[Stuart Macintyre]] published ''The History Wars'', written with Anna Clark.<ref>Macintyre, Stuart & Clark, Anna, ''The History Wars'' Melbourne University Publishing, Carlton, Victoria, 2003, ISBN 0-522-85091-X.</ref> This was a study of the background of, and arguments surrounding, recent developments in Australian historiography. The book was launched by former Prime Minister [[Paul Keating]], who took the opportunity to criticise conservative views of Australian history, and those who hold them (such as the current Prime Minister John Howard), saying that they suffered from "a failure of imagination", and said that ''The History Wars'' "rolls out the canvas of this debate."<ref>http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/05/1062549021882.html</ref> Macintyre's critics, such as Greg Melluish (History Lecturer at the [[University of Wollongong]]), responded to the book by declaring that Macintyre was a partisan history warrior himself, and that "its primary arguments are derived from the pro-Communist polemics of the [[Cold War]]."<ref>http://www.cis.org.au/Policy/summer03-04/polsumm0304-7.htm.</ref> Keith Windschuttle said that Macintyre attempted to "caricature the history debate."<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2003/s938399.htm.</ref> In a foreword to the book, former [[Chief Justice of Australia]] Sir [[Anthony Mason]] said that the book was "a fascinating study of the recent endeavours to rewrite or reinterpret the history of European settlement in Australia."<ref>Macintyre, Stuart & Clark, Anna, ''The History Wars'' Melbourne University Publishing, Carlton, Victoria, 2003, ISBN 0-522-85091-X.</ref>

==National Library of Australia controversy==
In 2003 the Howard Government commissioned a review of the National Museum of Australia. The investigating panel found that many of the historical narratives contained within the Museum exhibits were incoherent, confusing and unbalanced. While the report concluded that there was no systemic bias, it recommended that there be more recognition in the exhibits of European achievements.<ref>http://www.nma.gov.au/about_us/exhibitions_and_public_programs_review/review_report/>.</ref>

The report drew the ire of some historians in Australia, who claimed that it was a deliberate attempt on the part of the Government to politicise the museum and move it more towards a position which Geoff Blainey called "the three cheers" version of Australian history (all the good things), rather than the so-called "black armband" view.<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2003/s902872.htm.</ref>

==See also==
*[[History of Australia]]
*[[Indigenous Australians]]
*[[Black armband view of history]]
*[[Tasmanian Aborigine]]
*[[Black War]]
*[[List of massacres of indigenous Australians]]
*[[Stolen generation]]

===Protagonists===
*[[Geoffrey Blainey]]
*[[Stuart Macintyre]]
*[[Robert Manne]]
*[[Henry Reynolds (historian)|Henry Reynolds]]
*[[Lyndall Ryan]]
*[[Keith Windschuttle]]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==Sources==
===Articles===
* [http://www.quadrant.org.au/php/article_view.php?article_id=252 Foster, S.G. ''Contra Windschuttle'', '''Quadrant''', March 2003, 47:3]
*Francis, P., ''The Whole Truth...?'', (2000) , ''The Journal of GEOS''

===Books===
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Keith Windschuttle, 2002, ISBN 1-876492-05-8
* ''The History Wars'', Stuart Macintyre and Anna Clark, 2003, ISBN 0-522-85091-X
* ''Whitewash. On Keith Windschuttle's Fabrication of Aboriginal History''. Robert Manne (ed), 2003 ISBN 0-9750769-0-6
* ''Washout: On the academic response to The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'', John Dawson, 2004 ISBN 1-876492-12-0
* ''Telling The Truth About Aboriginal History '', Bain Attwood, 2005 ISBN 1-74114-577-5
* "After the Dreaming" in ''White Man Got No Dreaming: Essays 1938-1973'', W.E.H. Stanner, 1979, pp. 198-248, ed. [[Bill Stanner|W.E.H. Stanner]], ISBN 0-7081-1802-X

===External links===
* [http://www.smh.com.au/specials/historywars/ History Wars Special] in the [[Sydney Morning Herald]]
* [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/16/1063625030438.html Who plays Stalin in our History Wars?] Stuart Macintyre

[[Category:History of Australia]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of Australia]]
[[Category:Historical revisionism (political)]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Australian political controversies]]

[[es:History Wars]]

History Wars

2007-02-20T05:37:00Z

Recurring dreams: /* Stuart Macinty're's ''The History Wars'' */ punctuation

{{Mergefrom|Black armband view of history|date=February 2007}}
The '''History wars''' are an ongoing public debate in [[Australia]] over the interpretation of the history of the European [[colonization|colonisation]] of Australia, and its impact on [[Indigenous Australians|Aborigines]] and [[Torres Strait Islanders]].

The debate centres around whether Australia's history of settlement since [[1788]] was:<br>
a) humane, with the country being peacefully settled, with specific instances of mistreatment of [[Indigenous Australians]] being aberrations;<br>
b) marred by both official and unofficial [[imperialism]], [[exploitation]], ill treatment, [[colonial]] dispossession, violent conflict and [[cultural genocide|cultural]] [[genocide]]; or<br>
c) somewhere in between.

The History Wars also relates to broader themes concerning [[national identity]], as well as methodological questions concerning the value and reliability of written records (of the authorities and settlers) and the [[oral tradition]] (of the Indigenous Australians), along with the [[ideological]] [[biases]] of those who interpret them.

Similar debates have also occurred in the [[USA]] (see [[culture wars]]) and [[Canada]].

==Background==
In [[1968]] Professor [[Bill Stanner|W. E. H. "Bill" Stanner]], an Australian [[anthropology|anthropologist]], coined the term the "Great Australian Silence" in a [[Boyer Lectures|Boyer Lecture]] entitled "After the Dreaming"<ref>"After the Dreaming" in White Man Got No Dreaming: Essays 1938-1973, W.E.H. Stanner, 1979, pp. 198-248, ed. W.E.H. Stanner, ISBN 0-7081-1802-X, pp. 198-248.</ref>, where he argued that the writing of [[History of Australia|Australian history]] was incomplete. He asserted that Australian national history as documented up to that point had largely been presented in a positive light, but that [[Indigenous Australians]] had been virtually ignored. He saw this as a structural and deliberate process to omit "… several hundred thousand Aborigines who lived and died between 1788 and 1938…(who were but) … negative facts of history and … were in no way consequential for the modern period".<ref>"After the Dreaming" in White Man Got No Dreaming: Essays 1938-1973, W.E.H. Stanner, 1979, pp. 198-248, ed. W.E.H. Stanner, ISBN 0-7081-1802-X, p. 214.</ref>

A new strand of Australian [[historiography]] subsequently emerged which gave much greater attention to the negative experiences wrought on Indigenous Australians by the European settlement of Australia. In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], a number of [[left-wing|progressive]] historians such as [[Henry Reynolds (historian)|Henry Reynolds]] began to publish books and articles which they saw as a corrective to the narrow, selective historiography which had, in their view, hitherto misrepresented or simply ignored Indigenous Australian history.

During these years, a small circle of people grouped around the [[Conservatism|conservative]] literary and political journal ''[[Quadrant]]'' resisted these arguments. Chief among these critics was Australian [[historian]] Professor [[Geoffrey Blainey]], who in his [[1993]] ''Sir John Latham Memorial Lecture'' coined the phrase "[[Black armband view of history]]". This phrase began to be used [[pejorative]]ly by some [[right-wing]] and conservative [[Australia]]n [[social scientist]]s, [[politician]]s, [[commentator]]s and [[intellectual]]s about historians whom they viewed as having presented an overly critical portrayal of Australian [[history of Australia|history]], and as being preoccupied with mourning, [[grief|grieving]] or [[shame]].

These critics gained greater prominence after the election of the conservative federal Coalition government in [[1996]], with [[Prime Minister of Australia]] [[John Howard]] publicly championing their views. Conservative scholars, intellectuals, journalists and politicians have publicly challenged historians and others who interpret Australian settlement as being characterised by extensive violent conflict between the white settlers and Indigenous Australians.

Though originally waged primarily in the academic environment, an increasingly large proportion of the History Wars has been played out in the Australian [[print media]], with regular opinion pieces being published in major [[broadsheet]]s such as ''[[The Australian]]'', ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'' and ''[[The Age]]''. Recently, arguments surrounding the History Wars have become intertwined with the debates about the content of [[high school]] history cirricula.

==The Windschuttle debate==
In 2002 historian and journalist, [[Keith Windschuttle]], in his book ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', disputed whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread [[genocide]] against Indigenous Australians, especially focusing on the [[Black War]] in Tasmania, and denied the claims by historians such as [[Henry Reynolds (historian)|Henry Reynolds]] and Professor [[Lyndall Ryan]] that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Particular historians and histories that are challenged include Henry Reynolds and the histories of [[massacre]]s, particularly in [[Tasmania]] but also elsewhere in Australia. Windschuttle's claims are based upon the argument that the 'orthodox' view of Australian history were founded on hearsay or the misleading use of evidence by historians.

Windschuttle's claims and research have been disputed by other historians, in ''Whitewash. On Keith Windschuttle's Fabrication of Aboriginal History'', an anthology edited and introduced by [[Robert Manne]], professor of politics at [[La Trobe University]].

This anthology has itself been the subject of examination by author, John Dawson, in ''Washout: On the academic response to The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'', which minutely dissects "Whitewash" and argues that "Whitewash" leaves Windschuttle's claims and research unrefuted.

==The Stolen Generations debate==
{{main|Stolen Generation}}
Despite the lengthy and detailed findings set out in the 1997 ''[[Bringing Them Home]]'' report into the [[Stolen Generation]], which documented the removal of Aboriginal children from their families by [[Australian government]] agencies and [[church]] missions, the nature and extent of the removals have been disputed within Australia, with some commentators questioning the findings contained in the report and asserting that the Stolen Generation has been exaggerated. Not only has the number of children removed from their parents been questioned, but also the intent and effects of the government policy.

Some conservative critics, such as [[Andrew Bolt]], have publicly questioned the very existence of the Stolen Generation. Bolt considers that it is a "preposterous and obscene" myth and that there was actually no policy in any state or territory at any time for the systematic removal of "half-caste" Aboriginal children. Robert Manne has responded that Bolt's failure to address the wealth of documentary evidence demonstrating the existence of the Stolen Generations amounts to a clear case of [[historical revisionism (negationism)|historical]] [[denialism]].<ref>http://www.theage.com.au/news/robert-manne/the-cruelty-of-denial/2006/09/08/1157222325367.html</ref>

==Stuart Macinty're's ''The History Wars''==
In 2003 Australian historian [[Stuart Macintyre]] published ''The History Wars'', written with Anna Clark.<ref>Macintyre, Stuart & Clark, Anna, ''The History Wars'' Melbourne University Publishing, Carlton, Victoria, 2003, ISBN 0-522-85091-X.</ref> This was a study of the background of, and arguments surrounding, recent developments in Australian historiography. The book was launched by former Prime Minister [[Paul Keating]], who took the opportunity to criticise conservative views of Australian history, and those who hold them (such as the current Prime Minister John Howard), saying that they suffered from "a failure of imagination", and said that ''The History Wars'' "rolls out the canvas of this debate."<ref>http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/05/1062549021882.html</ref> Macintyre's critics, such as Greg Melluish (History Lecturer at the [[University of Wollongong]]), responded to the book by declaring that Macintyre was a partisan history warrior himself, and that "its primary arguments are derived from the pro-Communist polemics of the [[Cold War]]."<ref>http://www.cis.org.au/Policy/summer03-04/polsumm0304-7.htm.</ref> Keith Windschuttle said that Macintyre attempted to "caricature the history debate."<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2003/s938399.htm.</ref> In a foreword to the book, former [[Chief Justice of Australia]] Sir [[Anthony Mason]] said that the book was "a fascinating study of the recent endeavours to rewrite or reinterpret the history of European settlement in Australia."<ref>Macintyre, Stuart & Clark, Anna, ''The History Wars'' Melbourne University Publishing, Carlton, Victoria, 2003, ISBN 0-522-85091-X.</ref>

==National Library of Australia controversy==
In 2003 the Howard Government commissioned a review of the National Museum of Australia. The investigating panel found that many of the historical narratives contained within the Museum exhibits were incoherent, confusing and unbalanced. While the report concluded that there was no systemic bias, it recommended that there be more recognition in the exhibits of European achievements..<ref>http://www.nma.gov.au/about_us/exhibitions_and_public_programs_review/review_report/>.</ref>

The report drew the ire of some historians in Australia, who claimed that it was a deliberate attempt on the part of the Government to politicise the museum and move it more towards a position which Geoff Blainey called "the three cheers" version of Australian history (all the good things), rather than the so-called "black armband" view.<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2003/s902872.htm.</ref>

==See also==
*[[History of Australia]]
*[[Indigenous Australians]]
*[[Black armband view of history]]
*[[Tasmanian Aborigine]]
*[[Black War]]
*[[List of massacres of indigenous Australians]]
*[[Stolen generation]]

===Protagonists===
*[[Geoffrey Blainey]]
*[[Stuart Macintyre]]
*[[Robert Manne]]
*[[Henry Reynolds (historian)|Henry Reynolds]]
*[[Lyndall Ryan]]
*[[Keith Windschuttle]]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==Sources==
===Articles===
* [http://www.quadrant.org.au/php/article_view.php?article_id=252 Foster, S.G. ''Contra Windschuttle'', '''Quadrant''', March 2003, 47:3]
*Francis, P., ''The Whole Truth...?'', (2000) , ''The Journal of GEOS''

===Books===
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Keith Windschuttle, 2002, ISBN 1-876492-05-8
* ''The History Wars'', Stuart Macintyre and Anna Clark, 2003, ISBN 0-522-85091-X
* ''Whitewash. On Keith Windschuttle's Fabrication of Aboriginal History''. Robert Manne (ed), 2003 ISBN 0-9750769-0-6
* ''Washout: On the academic response to The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'', John Dawson, 2004 ISBN 1-876492-12-0
* ''Telling The Truth About Aboriginal History '', Bain Attwood, 2005 ISBN 1-74114-577-5
* "After the Dreaming" in ''White Man Got No Dreaming: Essays 1938-1973'', W.E.H. Stanner, 1979, pp. 198-248, ed. [[Bill Stanner|W.E.H. Stanner]], ISBN 0-7081-1802-X

===External links===
* [http://www.smh.com.au/specials/historywars/ History Wars Special] in the [[Sydney Morning Herald]]
* [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/16/1063625030438.html Who plays Stalin in our History Wars?] Stuart Macintyre

[[Category:History of Australia]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of Australia]]
[[Category:Historical revisionism (political)]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Australian political controversies]]

[[es:History Wars]]

History Wars

2007-02-20T05:36:25Z

Recurring dreams: /* Stuart Macinty're's ''The History Wars'' */ punctuation

{{Mergefrom|Black armband view of history|date=February 2007}}
The '''History wars''' are an ongoing public debate in [[Australia]] over the interpretation of the history of the European [[colonization|colonisation]] of Australia, and its impact on [[Indigenous Australians|Aborigines]] and [[Torres Strait Islanders]].

The debate centres around whether Australia's history of settlement since [[1788]] was:<br>
a) humane, with the country being peacefully settled, with specific instances of mistreatment of [[Indigenous Australians]] being aberrations;<br>
b) marred by both official and unofficial [[imperialism]], [[exploitation]], ill treatment, [[colonial]] dispossession, violent conflict and [[cultural genocide|cultural]] [[genocide]]; or<br>
c) somewhere in between.

The History Wars also relates to broader themes concerning [[national identity]], as well as methodological questions concerning the value and reliability of written records (of the authorities and settlers) and the [[oral tradition]] (of the Indigenous Australians), along with the [[ideological]] [[biases]] of those who interpret them.

Similar debates have also occurred in the [[USA]] (see [[culture wars]]) and [[Canada]].

==Background==
In [[1968]] Professor [[Bill Stanner|W. E. H. "Bill" Stanner]], an Australian [[anthropology|anthropologist]], coined the term the "Great Australian Silence" in a [[Boyer Lectures|Boyer Lecture]] entitled "After the Dreaming"<ref>"After the Dreaming" in White Man Got No Dreaming: Essays 1938-1973, W.E.H. Stanner, 1979, pp. 198-248, ed. W.E.H. Stanner, ISBN 0-7081-1802-X, pp. 198-248.</ref>, where he argued that the writing of [[History of Australia|Australian history]] was incomplete. He asserted that Australian national history as documented up to that point had largely been presented in a positive light, but that [[Indigenous Australians]] had been virtually ignored. He saw this as a structural and deliberate process to omit "… several hundred thousand Aborigines who lived and died between 1788 and 1938…(who were but) … negative facts of history and … were in no way consequential for the modern period".<ref>"After the Dreaming" in White Man Got No Dreaming: Essays 1938-1973, W.E.H. Stanner, 1979, pp. 198-248, ed. W.E.H. Stanner, ISBN 0-7081-1802-X, p. 214.</ref>

A new strand of Australian [[historiography]] subsequently emerged which gave much greater attention to the negative experiences wrought on Indigenous Australians by the European settlement of Australia. In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], a number of [[left-wing|progressive]] historians such as [[Henry Reynolds (historian)|Henry Reynolds]] began to publish books and articles which they saw as a corrective to the narrow, selective historiography which had, in their view, hitherto misrepresented or simply ignored Indigenous Australian history.

During these years, a small circle of people grouped around the [[Conservatism|conservative]] literary and political journal ''[[Quadrant]]'' resisted these arguments. Chief among these critics was Australian [[historian]] Professor [[Geoffrey Blainey]], who in his [[1993]] ''Sir John Latham Memorial Lecture'' coined the phrase "[[Black armband view of history]]". This phrase began to be used [[pejorative]]ly by some [[right-wing]] and conservative [[Australia]]n [[social scientist]]s, [[politician]]s, [[commentator]]s and [[intellectual]]s about historians whom they viewed as having presented an overly critical portrayal of Australian [[history of Australia|history]], and as being preoccupied with mourning, [[grief|grieving]] or [[shame]].

These critics gained greater prominence after the election of the conservative federal Coalition government in [[1996]], with [[Prime Minister of Australia]] [[John Howard]] publicly championing their views. Conservative scholars, intellectuals, journalists and politicians have publicly challenged historians and others who interpret Australian settlement as being characterised by extensive violent conflict between the white settlers and Indigenous Australians.

Though originally waged primarily in the academic environment, an increasingly large proportion of the History Wars has been played out in the Australian [[print media]], with regular opinion pieces being published in major [[broadsheet]]s such as ''[[The Australian]]'', ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'' and ''[[The Age]]''. Recently, arguments surrounding the History Wars have become intertwined with the debates about the content of [[high school]] history cirricula.

==The Windschuttle debate==
In 2002 historian and journalist, [[Keith Windschuttle]], in his book ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', disputed whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread [[genocide]] against Indigenous Australians, especially focusing on the [[Black War]] in Tasmania, and denied the claims by historians such as [[Henry Reynolds (historian)|Henry Reynolds]] and Professor [[Lyndall Ryan]] that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Particular historians and histories that are challenged include Henry Reynolds and the histories of [[massacre]]s, particularly in [[Tasmania]] but also elsewhere in Australia. Windschuttle's claims are based upon the argument that the 'orthodox' view of Australian history were founded on hearsay or the misleading use of evidence by historians.

Windschuttle's claims and research have been disputed by other historians, in ''Whitewash. On Keith Windschuttle's Fabrication of Aboriginal History'', an anthology edited and introduced by [[Robert Manne]], professor of politics at [[La Trobe University]].

This anthology has itself been the subject of examination by author, John Dawson, in ''Washout: On the academic response to The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'', which minutely dissects "Whitewash" and argues that "Whitewash" leaves Windschuttle's claims and research unrefuted.

==The Stolen Generations debate==
{{main|Stolen Generation}}
Despite the lengthy and detailed findings set out in the 1997 ''[[Bringing Them Home]]'' report into the [[Stolen Generation]], which documented the removal of Aboriginal children from their families by [[Australian government]] agencies and [[church]] missions, the nature and extent of the removals have been disputed within Australia, with some commentators questioning the findings contained in the report and asserting that the Stolen Generation has been exaggerated. Not only has the number of children removed from their parents been questioned, but also the intent and effects of the government policy.

Some conservative critics, such as [[Andrew Bolt]], have publicly questioned the very existence of the Stolen Generation. Bolt considers that it is a "preposterous and obscene" myth and that there was actually no policy in any state or territory at any time for the systematic removal of "half-caste" Aboriginal children. Robert Manne has responded that Bolt's failure to address the wealth of documentary evidence demonstrating the existence of the Stolen Generations amounts to a clear case of [[historical revisionism (negationism)|historical]] [[denialism]].<ref>http://www.theage.com.au/news/robert-manne/the-cruelty-of-denial/2006/09/08/1157222325367.html</ref>

==Stuart Macinty're's ''The History Wars''==
In 2003 Australian historian [[Stuart Macintyre]] published ''The History Wars'', written with Anna Clark.<ref>Macintyre, Stuart & Clark, Anna, ''The History Wars'' Melbourne University Publishing, Carlton, Victoria, 2003, ISBN 0-522-85091-X.</ref> This was a study of the background of, and arguments surrounding, recent developments in Australian historiography. The book was launched by former Prime Minister [[Paul Keating]], who took the opportunity to criticise conservative views of Australian history, and those who hold them (such as the current Prime Minister John Howard), saying that they suffered from "a failure of imagination", and said that ''The History Wars'' "rolls out the canvas of this debate."<ref>http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/05/1062549021882.html</ref> Macintyre's critics, such as Greg Melluish (History Lecturer at the [[University of Wollongong]]), responded to the book by declaring that Macintyre was a partisan history warrior himself, and that "its primary arguments are derived from the pro-Communist polemics of the [[Cold War]].".<ref>http://www.cis.org.au/Policy/summer03-04/polsumm0304-7.htm.</ref> Keith Windschuttle said that Macintyre attempted to "caricature the history debate."<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2003/s938399.htm.</ref> In a foreword to the book, former [[Chief Justice of Australia]] Sir [[Anthony Mason]] said that the book was "a fascinating study of the recent endeavours to rewrite or reinterpret the history of European settlement in Australia."<ref>Macintyre, Stuart & Clark, Anna, ''The History Wars'' Melbourne University Publishing, Carlton, Victoria, 2003, ISBN 0-522-85091-X.</ref>

==National Library of Australia controversy==
In 2003 the Howard Government commissioned a review of the National Museum of Australia. The investigating panel found that many of the historical narratives contained within the Museum exhibits were incoherent, confusing and unbalanced. While the report concluded that there was no systemic bias, it recommended that there be more recognition in the exhibits of European achievements..<ref>http://www.nma.gov.au/about_us/exhibitions_and_public_programs_review/review_report/>.</ref>

The report drew the ire of some historians in Australia, who claimed that it was a deliberate attempt on the part of the Government to politicise the museum and move it more towards a position which Geoff Blainey called "the three cheers" version of Australian history (all the good things), rather than the so-called "black armband" view.<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2003/s902872.htm.</ref>

==See also==
*[[History of Australia]]
*[[Indigenous Australians]]
*[[Black armband view of history]]
*[[Tasmanian Aborigine]]
*[[Black War]]
*[[List of massacres of indigenous Australians]]
*[[Stolen generation]]

===Protagonists===
*[[Geoffrey Blainey]]
*[[Stuart Macintyre]]
*[[Robert Manne]]
*[[Henry Reynolds (historian)|Henry Reynolds]]
*[[Lyndall Ryan]]
*[[Keith Windschuttle]]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==Sources==
===Articles===
* [http://www.quadrant.org.au/php/article_view.php?article_id=252 Foster, S.G. ''Contra Windschuttle'', '''Quadrant''', March 2003, 47:3]
*Francis, P., ''The Whole Truth...?'', (2000) , ''The Journal of GEOS''

===Books===
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Keith Windschuttle, 2002, ISBN 1-876492-05-8
* ''The History Wars'', Stuart Macintyre and Anna Clark, 2003, ISBN 0-522-85091-X
* ''Whitewash. On Keith Windschuttle's Fabrication of Aboriginal History''. Robert Manne (ed), 2003 ISBN 0-9750769-0-6
* ''Washout: On the academic response to The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'', John Dawson, 2004 ISBN 1-876492-12-0
* ''Telling The Truth About Aboriginal History '', Bain Attwood, 2005 ISBN 1-74114-577-5
* "After the Dreaming" in ''White Man Got No Dreaming: Essays 1938-1973'', W.E.H. Stanner, 1979, pp. 198-248, ed. [[Bill Stanner|W.E.H. Stanner]], ISBN 0-7081-1802-X

===External links===
* [http://www.smh.com.au/specials/historywars/ History Wars Special] in the [[Sydney Morning Herald]]
* [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/16/1063625030438.html Who plays Stalin in our History Wars?] Stuart Macintyre

[[Category:History of Australia]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of Australia]]
[[Category:Historical revisionism (political)]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Australian political controversies]]

[[es:History Wars]]

Nikolaos von Griechenland

2007-01-06T02:00:02Z

Recurring dreams: spelling + wikilink

{|align=right
|{{Infobox_Person | name = Prince Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark
| other_names =
| image =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1969|10|1}}
| birth_place = [[Rome]], [[Italy]]
| title = Prince of Greece, Prince of Denmark
| spouse =
| children =
| relations= [[Constantine II of Greece]], [[Queen Anne-Marie of Greece|Anne-Marie of Denmark]]
}}
|-
|{{Greek Royal Family}}
|}

'''Prince Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark''' (born [[1 October]] [[1969]]) is the second son and third child of [[Constantine II of the Hellenes|King Constantine]], the former king of Greece and [[Queen Anne-Marie of Greece|Queen Anne-Marie]], who was born a Princess of Denmark as the youngest daughter of the late King [[Frederik IX of Denmark]] and [[Ingrid of Sweden|Queen Ingrid]] and is the sister of the current [[Queen Margrethe II]].

He was born in Rome due to the coup which ousted the monarchy from Greece and caused the royal family to flee to Italy in December 1967.

In 1993, he graduated from [[Brown University]] with an A.B. in International Relations.

Prince Nikolaos has an older sister [[Princess Alexia of Greece and Denmark|Princess Alexia]], an older brother [[Pavlos, Crown Prince of Greece|Crown Prince Pavlos]], a younger sister [[Princess Theodora of Greece and Denmark| Princess Theodora]] and a younger brother, [[Prince Philippos of Greece and Denmark| Prince Philippos]].

Prince Nikolaos was one of a group of European royals at the Slip Inn in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]] during the 2000 Summer Olympics. He was there with his cousins [[Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark|Crown Prince Frederik]] and [[Prince Joachim of Denmark]] and [[Princess Märtha Louise of Norway]]. It was at the Slip Inn that Frederik met his future bride [[Mary, Crown Princess of Denmark|Mary Donaldson]].

{{infobox hrhstyles|
image=[[Image:RoyGrec.png|centre|60px]] |
royal name=Prince Nikolaos|
dipstyle=[[HRH|His Royal Highness]]|
offstyle=Your Royal Highness|
altstyle=Sir|}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Princess Maria Olympia of Greece and Denmark]] |
title=[[Line of succession to the British throne]] |
after=[[Prince Philippos of Greece and Denmark]] |
years=}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Princess Maria Olympia of Greece and Denmark]] |
title=Line of succession to the Titular Greek throne |
after=[[Prince Philippos of Greece and Denmark]] |
years=}}

{{end box}}

==References==
* {{cite web | author=Miroslav Marek | title=Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg | work=Genealogy.Eu | url=http://www.genealogy.euweb.cz/oldenburg/oldenburg7.html#G1 | accessdate=September 26| accessyear=2005 }}

[[Category:Greek princes|Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark]]
[[Category:Danish princes|Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark]]
[[Category:House of Glücksburg|Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark]]
[[Category:Natives of Rome|Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark]]
[[Category:1969 births|Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark ]]
[[Category:Living people|Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark ]]

[[de:Nikolaos von Griechenland]]