Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Arben Minga

2011-03-24T19:34:28Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Arben Minga

'''Arben Minga''' (* [[16. März]] [[1959]] in [[Tirana]], [[Albanien]]; † [[30. Januar]] [[2007]] in [[Windsor (Ontario)|Windsor]], [[Ontario]], Kanada) war ein albanischer [[Fußball]]nationalspieler.

== Laufbahn ==
Der Mittelstürmer Minga startete seine Karriere bereits als 18jähriger in der albanischen Liga für den Klub [[KF Tirana|17 Nëntori Tirana]]. 1980 wurde Minga in die [[Albanische Fußballnationalmannschaft]] berufen, für die er in zehn Jahren 20 Länderspiele absolvierte und dabei zwei Tore erzielte.

Mit seinem Verein Nëntori Tirana konnte Minga mehrfacher Meister und Pokalsieger werden. Im [[Europapokal der Pokalsieger 1986/87]] gelang ihn mit Nëntori Tirana durch zwei Siege über [[Dinamo Bukarest]] eine kleine Sensation. Er blieb bis 1992 seinem Verein treu, wechselte dann für zwei Jahre nach [[Rumänien]], kehrte aber 1994 wieder zu Nëntori zurück, ehe er 1996 seine aktive Laufbahn beendete.<ref>vgl. Quelle: http://www.albania-sport.com/a/2007/01/3131.php/</ref>

Danach verließ Minga seine Heimat [[Albanien]] und wanderte nach [[Kanada]] aus. Dort wurde eine unheilbare Erkrankung festgestellt, an der Minga 2007 verstarb. Er hinterlässt seine Frau, eine ehemalige Basketballspielerin, sowie zwei Söhne, die in Kanada zur Welt kamen.

== Erfolge ==
* ''Albanischer Meister'' mit Nentori Tirana: [[1982]], [[1985]], [[1988]], [[1989]], [[1995]], [[1996]])
* ''Albanischer Pokalsieger'' (Nentori Tirana): [[1983]], [[1984]], [[1986]], [[1996]]
* ''Albanischer Supercupsieger'': [[1994]]

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.google.de/imgres?imgurl=http://www.giovanniarmillotta.it/albania/calcio/1984alb-bel1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.giovanniarmillotta.it/albania/calcio/football063.html&h=503&w=1177&sz=48&tbnid=wVAtgdVelLCsPM:&tbnh=64&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dperlat%2Bmusta&hl=de&usg=___KkDz6s3DXISCS2dUUP3dmjGNKs=&ei=nfyGS9_ZEMf__Qbqj72vDw&sa=X&oi=image_result&resnum=5&ct=image&ved=0CBgQ9QEwBA Mannschaftsfoto der albanischen Nationalmannschaft 1984]

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

{{SORTIERUNG:Minga, Arben}}
[[Kategorie:Fußballnationalspieler (Albanien)]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1959]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 2007]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Minga, Arben
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=albanischer Fußballspieler
|GEBURTSDATUM=16. März 1959
|GEBURTSORT=[[Tirana]], Albanien
|STERBEDATUM=30. Januar 2007
|STERBEORT=[[Windsor (Ontario)|Windsor]], Ontario, Kanada
}}

[[en:Arben Minga]]
[[ro:Arben Minga]]
[[sq:Arben Minga]]

Kategorie:Architektur (Niederlande)

2011-03-23T08:15:49Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Categorie:Arhitectura în Olanda

{{Kategoriewartung|Portal:Niederlande}}
{{Commonscat|Architecture of the Netherlands}}

[[Kategorie:Architektur nach Staat|Niederlande]]
[[Kategorie:Niederlande]]

[[el:Κατηγορία:Αρχιτεκτονική στην Ολλανδία]]
[[en:Category:Dutch architecture]]
[[es:Categoría:Arquitectura de los Países Bajos]]
[[eu:Kategoria:Herbehereetako arkitektura]]
[[fr:Catégorie:Architecture aux Pays-Bas]]
[[id:Kategori:Arsitektur Belanda]]
[[it:Categoria:Architetture dei Paesi Bassi]]
[[ko:분류:네덜란드의 건축]]
[[nl:Categorie:Architectuur in Nederland]]
[[pl:Kategoria:Architektura Holandii]]
[[pt:Categoria:Arquitetura dos Países Baixos]]
[[ro:Categorie:Arhitectura în Olanda]]
[[ru:Категория:Архитектура Нидерландов]]
[[sk:Kategória:Architektúra v Holandsku]]
[[tr:Kategori:Hollanda mimarisi]]
[[uk:Категорія:Архітектура Нідерландів]]

Kategorie:Kultur (Niederlande)

2011-03-23T08:13:57Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Categorie:Cultura Olandei

{{Kategoriewartung|Portal:Niederlande}}
{{Commonscat|Culture of the Netherlands|Kultur der Niederlande}}

[[Kategorie:Niederlande]]
[[Kategorie:Kultur nach Staat|Niederlande]]
[[Kategorie:Kultur (Europa)|Niederlande]]

[[be-x-old:Катэгорыя:Нідэрляндзкая культура]]
[[bg:Категория:Култура на Нидерландия]]
[[br:Rummad:Sevenadur an Izelvroioù]]
[[ca:Categoria:Cultura dels Països Baixos]]
[[cs:Kategorie:Nizozemská kultura]]
[[cy:Categori:Diwylliant yr Iseldiroedd]]
[[da:Kategori:Kultur i Nederlandene]]
[[el:Κατηγορία:Ολλανδικός πολιτισμός]]
[[en:Category:Dutch culture]]
[[eo:Kategorio:Kulturo de Nederlando]]
[[es:Categoría:Cultura de los Países Bajos]]
[[et:Kategooria:Hollandi kultuur]]
[[eu:Kategoria:Herbehereetako kultura]]
[[fa:رده:فرهنگ در هلند]]
[[fi:Luokka:Alankomaalainen kulttuuri]]
[[fr:Catégorie:Culture néerlandaise]]
[[fy:Kategory:Kultuer yn Nederlân]]
[[gl:Categoría:Cultura dos Países Baixos]]
[[he:קטגוריה:הולנד: תרבות]]
[[hu:Kategória:Holland kultúra]]
[[id:Kategori:Budaya Belanda]]
[[it:Categoria:Cultura dei Paesi Bassi]]
[[ja:Category:オランダの文化]]
[[ko:분류:네덜란드의 문화]]
[[lt:Kategorija:Nyderlandų kultūra]]
[[lv:Kategorija:Nīderlandes kultūra]]
[[mk:Категорија:Холандска култура]]
[[mwl:Catadorie:Cultura de ls Países Baixos]]
[[nl:Categorie:Cultuur in Nederland]]
[[nn:Kategori:Nederlandsk kultur]]
[[no:Kategori:Nederlandsk kultur]]
[[oc:Categoria:Cultura neerlandesa]]
[[pl:Kategoria:Kultura Holandii]]
[[pt:Categoria:Cultura dos Países Baixos]]
[[ro:Categorie:Cultura Olandei]]
[[ru:Категория:Культура Нидерландов]]
[[sco:Category:Dutch cultur]]
[[sk:Kategória:Kultúra v Holandsku]]
[[sl:Kategorija:Nizozemska kultura]]
[[sv:Kategori:Kultur i Nederländerna]]
[[szl:Kategoria:Kultura Ńiderlandůw]]
[[tr:Kategori:Hollanda'da kültür]]
[[uk:Категорія:Культура Нідерландів]]
[[vi:Thể loại:Văn hóa Hà Lan]]
[[zh:Category:荷兰文化]]

Kategorie:Tourismus (Niederlande)

2011-03-23T08:08:15Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Categorie:Turism în Olanda

{{Kategoriewartung|Portal:Niederlande}}
{{Commonscat|Tourism in the Netherlands}}

[[Kategorie:Tourismus nach Staat|Niederlande]]
[[Kategorie:Wirtschaft (Niederlande)]]
[[Kategorie:Kultur (Niederlande)]]

[[en:Category:Tourism in the Netherlands]]
[[fr:Catégorie:Tourisme aux Pays-Bas]]
[[id:Kategori:Pariwisata di Belanda]]
[[ja:Category:オランダの観光]]
[[ko:분류:네덜란드의 관광]]
[[mk:Категорија:Туризам во Холандија]]
[[pt:Categoria:Turismo nos Países Baixos]]
[[ro:Categorie:Turism în Olanda]]
[[ru:Категория:Туризм в Нидерландах]]
[[sv:Kategori:Turism i Nederländerna]]
[[vi:Thể loại:Du lịch Hà Lan]]

Kategorie:Museum in den Niederlanden

2011-03-23T08:00:32Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Categorie:Muzee din Olanda

{{Kategoriewartung|Portal:Niederlande}}
{{Commonscat|Museums in the Netherlands}}

[[Kategorie:Museum nach Staat|Niederlanden, Museum in den]]
[[Kategorie:Museum in Europa|Niederlanden, Museum in den]]
[[Kategorie:Kultur (Niederlande)]]
[[Kategorie:Bauwerk in den Niederlanden]]

[[ar:تصنيف:متاحف هولندا]]
[[br:Rummad:Mirdioù an Izelvroioù]]
[[ca:Categoria:Museus dels Països Baixos]]
[[cs:Kategorie:Muzea v Nizozemsku]]
[[cy:Categori:Amgueddfeydd yr Iseldiroedd]]
[[da:Kategori:Museer i Nederlandene]]
[[en:Category:Museums in the Netherlands]]
[[eo:Kategorio:Muzeoj de Nederlando]]
[[es:Categoría:Museos de los Países Bajos]]
[[fi:Luokka:Alankomaiden museot]]
[[fr:Catégorie:Musée néerlandais]]
[[fy:Kategory:Museum yn Nederlân]]
[[gl:Categoría:Museos dos Países Baixos]]
[[he:קטגוריה:הולנד: מוזיאונים]]
[[id:Kategori:Museum di Belanda]]
[[it:Categoria:Musei dei Paesi Bassi]]
[[ja:Category:オランダの博物館]]
[[ka:კატეგორია:ნიდერლანდის მუზეუმები]]
[[ko:분류:네덜란드의 박물관]]
[[nl:Categorie:Museum in Nederland]]
[[no:Kategori:Museer i Nederland]]
[[pl:Kategoria:Muzea w Holandii]]
[[pt:Categoria:Museus dos Países Baixos]]
[[ro:Categorie:Muzee din Olanda]]
[[ru:Категория:Музеи Нидерландов]]
[[sk:Kategória:Múzeá v Holandsku]]
[[sv:Kategori:Museer i Nederländerna]]
[[tr:Kategori:Hollanda'daki müzeler]]
[[uk:Категорія:Музеї Нідерландів]]
[[zh:Category:荷兰博物馆]]

Abraham Pais

2011-03-21T22:07:15Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Abraham Pais

[[Datei:Abraham Pais.jpg|miniatur|Abraham Pais.]]
'''Abraham „Bram“ Pais''' (* [[19. Mai]] [[1918]] in [[Amsterdam]]; † [[28. Juli]] [[2000]] in [[Kopenhagen]]) war ein [[Niederlande|niederländischer]] [[Physiker]] und Quantenfeldtheoretiker. Als Kenner der Physik des 20. Jahrhunderts und ihrer Entwicklung genießt er internationalen Ruf; als Kollege, früherer Mitarbeiter und Freund [[Albert Einstein]]s gehört er zu den führenden Einstein-Biographen.

== Leben und Werk ==
Pais Eltern waren Schullehrer (die Vorfahren seines Vaters waren [[Sephardim|sephardische]] Juden) und er wuchs in Amsterdam auf, wo er mit [[Max Dresden]] die Schule besuchte. Ab 1935 studierte er Physik, Chemie und Mathematik an der [[Universität Amsterdam]] und spezialisierte sic dann bei [[George Uhlenbeck]] an der [[Universität Utrecht]] in Physik. Dieser war Ende der 1930er Jahre allerdings überwiegend in den USA und Pais hörte u.a. bei [[Hendrik Casimir]] (aus Leiden), [[Leonard Ornstein]] und [[Hendrik Anthony Kramers]] (ebenfalls in Leiden). 1940 machte er seinen Abschluss und war danach der Assistent von [[Léon Rosenfeld]], der als Uhlenbecks Nachfolger damals aus Lüttich nach Leiden kam. Nach der Besetzung der Niederlande durch deutsche Truppen im Mai 1940 wurden Juden schrittweise aus dem akademischen Leben gedrängt. Zunächst erfolgte im November 1940 der Verbot der Anstellung im öffentlichen Dienst – insgeheim blieb Pais aber weiter Assistent unter Rosenfelds Nachfolger. Ab Juni 1941 sollten Juden auch nicht mehr promovieren können, Pais gelang es aber wenige Tage vorher seine Promotion einzureichen (''Projective theory of meson fields and electromagnetic properties of atomic nuclei'').

Seine Arbeit zog die Aufmerksamkeit von [[Niels Bohr]] auf sich, der ihn nach Kopenhagen holen wollte. Als im Frühjahr 1943 auch Juden mit Universitätsstellen deportiert werden sollten tauchte Pais unter und lebte etwa zweieinhalb Jahre in den Niederlanden im Untergrund, unterstützt von seiner Freundin Tineke Buchter. Kurz vor Kriegsende wurde er im März 1945 von der Gestapo festgenommen, zu einer Zeit als wegen der alliierten Militärvorstösse keine Deportation mehr möglich war. Wenige Tage vor Kriegsende ließ man ihn nach einem Monat Haft wieder frei. Kramers, der die Kontakte zu Pais während dessen Untertauchen aufrechterhielt, hatte an [[Werner Heisenberg]] um Hilfe geschrieben, und obwohl dieser sich machtlos erklärte, konnte Pais Freundin Buchter mit Heisenbergs Antwortbrief die Freilassung von Pais erreichen. Seine Eltern konnten ebenfalls untertauchen, seine Schwester Annie wurde dagegen mit ihrem Mann nach Sobibor deportiert, wo sie umkam. Ebenso wurde sein Studienkollege und Freund Lion Nordheim, mit dem er zuletzt zusammen untergetaucht war und der mit ihm verhaftet wurde, zehn Tage vor Kriegsende erschossen. Dokumente der zionistischen Jugendbewegung, der Pais und Nordheim seit Studententagen angehörten, waren bei ihm gefunden worden.

[[Datei:Pais,Abraham 1963 Kopenhagen-a.jpg|thumb|left|Abraham Pais, 1963 in Kopenhagen]]
Nach dem Krieg arbeitete er zunächst am Institut für Theoretische Physik in Kopenhagen und für ein Jahr 1946 als persönlicher Assistent von Niels Bohr. 1947 wechselte er zum [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton (New Jersey)|Princeton]], wo er unter [[Robert Oppenheimer]] arbeitete und Albert Einstein kennenlernte. 1956 wurde er US Staatsbürger. Ab 1963 war er Professor für theoretische Physik an der [[Rockefeller University]], die zuvor hauptsächlich eine Medizinische Hochschule war. 1981 wurde er dort „Detlev W. Bronk Professor“. Nach seiner Emeritierung 1988 lebte er mit seiner zweiten Frau Ida Nicolaisen teilweise in Dänemark, wo er in Kopenhagen am Niels Bohr Institute arbeitete und 2000 an einem Herzanfall starb. Sein Sohn Josh Pais ist Schauspieler.

Seine eigenen wichtigsten fachlichen Beiträge betreffen die Teilchenphysik. In den 1930er Jahren arbeitete er auch über die Mesonentheorie der Kernkräfte. Von Pais stammt sowohl der Name [[Lepton]]<ref>Georgi, Nachruf in Biographical Memoirs National Academy of Sciences</ref> als auch [[Baryon]] (1953)<ref>{{Internetquelle|url=http://www.jlab.org/~wmelnitc/hadronic/hadronic_hist.html|titel=History of Hadron-Physics|zugriff=20. Februar 2010|hrsg=Wally Melnitchouk, [[Jefferson Lab]]|sprache=englisch}}</ref>. 1952 klärte er die relative Stabilität einiger [[Hadron]]en und die Tatsache, das in einigen Prozessen nur Paare bestimmter Hadronen erzeugt werden (associated production), durch Einführung der [[Strangeness]] Quantenzahl, gleichzeitig mit [[Murray Gell-Mann]].<ref>Explizit durch Gell-Mann, in Pais „associated production“ Regeln war sie aber implizit enthalten</ref>
<ref>Pais: In ''Physical Review''. Band 86, 1952, S. 663.</ref> Mit Gell-Mann entwickelte er 1955 auch die Theorie des [[Kaon]]enzerfalls, die die Existenz der „langlebigen“ neutralen K-Meson-Systems vorhersagte und die kurzlebige Komponente erklärte als Mischungszustände der neutralen Kaons und dessen Antiteilchens<ref>Gell-Mann, Pais: In: ''Physical Review''. Band 97, 1955, S. 1387.</ref>, dem ersten Beispiel solcher quantenmechanischen oszillierender Zweizustandssysteme (Mischungszustände) von Elementarteilchen.<ref>von Feynman in dessen Buch ''Theory of fundamental processes'' von 1962 als eine der größten Errungenschaften der theoretischen Physik bezeichnet</ref> Die dort beschriebenen Erkenntnisse nahmen die Physiker [[Val Fitch]] und [[James Cronin]] einige Jahre später als Grundlage für Experimente zur [[CP-Verletzung]], für die sie den Nobelpreis erhielten. Ab den 1970er Jahren beschäftigte sich Pais zunehmend mit der Geschichte der Physik.

In einer Arbeit von 1950 mit Uhlenbeck zeigte er, dass Lagrange-Feldtheorien mit höheren Ableitungen das Problem mit Divergenzen in der Quantenfeldtheorie nicht beseitigen können. 1952 führte er mit [[Res Jost]] die [[G-Parität]] und die dazugehörigen [[Auswahlregel]]n in der Theorie der Mesonen ein.<ref>Jost, Pais: In ''Physical Review''. Band 87, 1952, S. 871.</ref> In den 1960er Jahren arbeitete er u.a. an SU(6)-Modellen von Hadronen im Rahmen des Quarkmodells.

Für seine erste Einstein-Biographie „Subtle Is the Lord ... The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein“ (deutsch: „Raffiniert ist der Herrgott“) erhielt er 1983 den ''Science Writing Award'' des [[American Institute of Physics]], das Buch wurde vom [[New York Times]] Book Review zu einem der besten Bücher dieses Jahres gewählt. Sein Buch „Inward Bound“ ist eine wissenschaftliche Geschichte der Elementarteilchenphysik.

Ihm zu Ehren stiftete die [[American Physical Society]] 2005 den [[Abraham-Pais-Preis]] für Physikgeschichte.

== Werke ==

; Originalausgaben

* ''Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein''. Oxford University Press, New York 1982.
* ''Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World''. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986.
* ''Niels Bohr's Times: In Physics, Philosophy, and Polity''. Oxford University Press, New York 1991.
* ''Einstein lived here''. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1994.
* mit Laurie Brown, Brian Pippard (Hrsg.): ''Twentieth Century Physics''. 2. Auflage. Institute of Physics Publishing, 1995. Darin in Band 1 den Abschnitt ''Introducing atoms and their nuclei''.
* ''A Tale of two continents: A Physicist's Life in a Turbulent World''. Autobiografie. Princeton University Press, 1997.
* mit [[Maurice Jacob]], [[David Olive]], [[Michael Atiyah]]: ''Paul Dirac: The Man and His Work''. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
* ''The Genius of Science: A Portrait Gallery of 20th-Century Physicists''. Oxford University Press, 2000.
* ''J. Robert Oppenheimer''. Oxford University Press. Erschien postum 2006 unter Mitarbeit von Robert P. Crease.
*''Theory of the Electron 1897–1947''. In Wigner, Salam (Hrsg.): ''Aspects of Quantum Theory''. 1972.
*''Einstein and the quantum theory''. In: ''Reviews of Modern Physics''. Band 51, 1979.
*''Theoretical Physics''. In: ''Reviews of Modern Physics''. Centennial Edition 1999.

; Deutschsprachige Ausgaben

* ''Ich vertraue auf Intuition, Der andere Albert Einstein''. Spektrum, Heidelberg 1998, ISBN 3-8274-0394-4.
* ''Raffiniert ist der Herrgott, Albert Einstein. Eine wissenschaftliche Biographie''. Spektrum, Heidelberg 2000, ISBN 3-8274-0529-7.

== Literatur ==
*Nachruf von [[Martinus Veltman]] im Jahrbuch der Königlich Niederländischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 2002, holländisch.

== Weblinks ==
* {{DNB-Portal|119512882}}
* [http://noorderlicht.vpro.nl/wetenschap/index.shtml?3626936+3823365+4032610+4106329 Pais, Einstein, Bohr, Artikel des VPRO Wissenschaftprogramms ''Noorderlicht'']
* [http://sorrel.humboldt.edu/~rescuers/book/Strobos/BramPais/BramPaisStory1.html „The Bram Pais Story“ (Bram Pais erzählt seine Geschichte, 1986)]

== Verweise ==
<references />

{{Normdaten|PND=119512882|LCCN=n/82/18084|VIAF=59138517}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Pais, Abraham}}
[[Kategorie:Physiker (20. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Wissenschaftshistoriker]]
[[Kategorie:Hochschullehrer (Rockefeller University)]]
[[Kategorie:US-Amerikaner]]
[[Kategorie:Niederländer]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1918]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 2000]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Pais, Abraham
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Pais, Abraham "Bram" (vollständiger Name)
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=niederländischer Physiker und Quantenfeldtheoretiker
|GEBURTSDATUM=19. Mai 1918
|GEBURTSORT=[[Amsterdam]]
|STERBEDATUM=28. Juli 2000
|STERBEORT=[[Kopenhagen]]
}}

[[da:Abraham Pais]]
[[en:Abraham Pais]]
[[ht:Abraham Pais]]
[[nl:Bram Pais]]
[[pms:Abraham Pais]]
[[pt:Abraham Pais]]
[[ro:Abraham Pais]]
[[ru:Пайс, Абрахам]]
[[sv:Abraham Pais]]
[[zh:亞伯拉罕·派斯]]

Inkscape

2011-03-21T11:53:34Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Inkscape

{{Infobox Software
| Logo = [[Datei:Inkscape Logo.svg|80px]]
| Screenshot = [[Datei:Inkscape_0.47_de.png|250px]]
| Beschreibung = Inkscape 0.47
| Hersteller = Inkscape Community
| AktuelleVersion = 0.48.1-2
| AktuelleVersionFreigabeDatum = 7. März 2011
| Betriebssystem = [[FreeBSD]], [[Linux]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Apple Mac OS X|Mac OS X]]
| Programmiersprache = [[C++]]
| Kategorie = [[Grafikbearbeitungs-Software#Vektorgrafik-Programme|Vektorgrafik-Programm]]
| Lizenz = [[GNU General Public Licence|GPL]] ([[Freie Software]])
| Deutsch = ja
| Website = [http://inkscape.org/?lang=de inkscape.org]
}}

'''Inkscape''' (aus [[Englische Sprache|engl.]] ''ink'', „Tinte“ und ''-scape'' wie in ''landscape'', „Landschaft“) ist eine [[Freie Software|freie]], [[Plattformunabhängigkeit|plattformunabhängige]] [[Software]] zur Bearbeitung und Erstellung von [[Vektorgrafik]]en.<ref>[http://wiki.inkscape.org/wiki/index.php/DeFAQ#Was_ist_Inkscape.3F DeFAQ – Inkscape Wiki] (Was ist Inkscape? – Antwort auf der Offiziellen Inkscape-Website)</ref>

== Allgemeines ==
Inkscape eignet sich zum Erstellen von einseitigen Dokumenten wie [[Firmenlogo|Logos]], Vektorkunst, technischen [[Diagramm]]en, [[Landkarte]]n, [[Stadtplan|Stadtplänen]], [[Flugblatt|Flugblättern]], CD-Motiven, Postern, Schriftzügen, [[Comic]]s usw.

Ein primäres Ziel dieses Projektes ist die Konformität zum [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]]-Standard. Weiterhin wird auch großer Wert auf den freien Zugriff des Quelltextes für Entwickler und Mitwirkende gelegt.

Weitere Funktionen von Inkscape:
* Erstellen von Diagrammen mit beweglichen Verbindungen
* [[Unicode]], Fließtext und Text-auf-Pfad
* Effekte, Klonen und Ebenen
* Hinzufügen von Lizenz- und anderen Metainformationen als [[Resource Description Framework|RDF]] zur Grafik
* Seit Version 0.46 wird das [[Portable Document Format|PDF]]-Format für [[Datenaustausch|Import und Export]] unterstützt.

Inkscape beinhaltet zudem eine grafische [[Frontend und Backend|Schnittstelle]] für [[Potrace]], mit dessen Hilfe [[Rastergrafik]]en in [[Vektorgrafik]]en konvertiert werden können (automatische Vektorisierung).

== Geschichte ==
Inkscape entstand 2003 als [[Abspaltung (Softwareentwicklung)|Abspaltung]] des Vektorzeichenprogramms [[Sodipodi]] auf Grund von Unstimmigkeiten über die Ziele und den Entwicklungsweg.<ref>[http://wiki.inkscape.org/wiki/index.php/DeFAQ#Warum_die_Trennung_von_Sodipodi.3F DeFAQ – Inkscape Wiki] (Warum die Trennung von Sodipodi?)</ref> Im Zuge der Aufspaltung wechselte man von der Programmiersprache [[C (Programmiersprache)|C]] zu [[C++]] und von der Bibliothek [[GTK+]] zur C++-Variante [[gtkmm]]. Eine weitere große Änderung betraf die [[Grafische Benutzeroberfläche|Benutzeroberfläche]]: Die Benutzeroberfläche von Sodipodi orientierte sich an [[GIMP]] und [[CorelDRAW Graphics Suite|CorelDRAW]], die neu gestaltete Benutzeroberfläche von Inkscape hingegen an [[Xara Xtreme]]. Zudem wurde Inkscape gegenüber Sodipodi um eine Vielzahl neuer Funktionen ergänzt.

Das Autorenteam bestand zum Zeitpunkt der Abspaltung aus drei US-Amerikanern; zusammen mit einem Kanadier bilden sie momentan die Administrationsebene. Die Anzahl weiterer gleichzeitig aktiver Autoren war bisher nicht größer als ein bis zwei Dutzend – insgesamt haben jedoch inzwischen an die hundert Autoren Programm- und Übersetzungsbeiträge geleistet.

== Literatur ==
* Uwe Schöler: ''Inkscape: Professionelle Vektorgrafiken gestalten'', Addison-Wesley, München, 2010, ISBN 978-3-8273-2911-0
* René Gäbler: ''Inkscape kompakt – Neuauflage'', Bomots Verlag, 2008, ISBN 978-3-939316-45-9
* Katharina Sckommodau: ''Inkscape. Vektorgrafiken gestalten – Für Mac, PC und Linux'', dpunkt.verlag, Heidelberg, 2008, ISBN 978-3-89864-553-9
* Dimitry Kirsanov: ''The Book of Inkscape – The Definitive Guide to the Free Graphics Editor'', no starch press, San Francisco, 2009, ISBN 978-1-59327-181-7
* Carlos Alberto Rodriguez Behning: ''Ilustritas – Zeichnen mit dem Computer für Kinder'', Amazon.com, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4452-1064-3

== Weblinks ==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikibooks}}
* [http://www.inkscape.org/ Offizielle Website]
* [http://wiki.inkscape-forum.de/ Inoffizielle deutsche Dokumentation]
* [http://lp.uni-goettingen.de/get/text/6356 LP: Skizzen zeichnen mit Inkscape], Georg-August-Universität Göttingen. Tutorial (deutsch)

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

[[Kategorie:Freie Vektorgrafik-Software]]
[[Kategorie:Anwendungssoftware]]

[[als:Inkscape]]
[[ar:إنكسكيب]]
[[ast:Inkscape]]
[[bar:Inkscape]]
[[br:Inkscape]]
[[ca:Inkscape]]
[[cs:Inkscape]]
[[da:Inkscape]]
[[el:Inkscape]]
[[en:Inkscape]]
[[eo:Inkscape]]
[[es:Inkscape]]
[[et:Inkscape]]
[[eu:Inkscape]]
[[fa:اینک‌اسکیپ]]
[[fi:Inkscape]]
[[fr:Inkscape]]
[[gl:Inkscape]]
[[he:אינקסקייפ]]
[[hu:Inkscape]]
[[id:Inkscape]]
[[is:Inkscape]]
[[it:Inkscape]]
[[ja:Inkscape]]
[[ka:Inkscape]]
[[ko:잉크스케이프]]
[[lt:Inkscape]]
[[ml:ഇങ്ക്‌സ്കേപ്പ്]]
[[ms:Inkscape]]
[[nl:Inkscape]]
[[no:Inkscape]]
[[pl:Inkscape]]
[[pt:Inkscape]]
[[ro:Inkscape]]
[[ru:Inkscape]]
[[simple:Inkscape]]
[[sk:Inkscape]]
[[sl:Inkscape]]
[[sr:Инкскејп]]
[[sv:Inkscape]]
[[th:อิงก์สเคป]]
[[tr:Inkscape]]
[[uk:Inkscape]]
[[vi:Inkscape]]
[[zh:Inkscape]]

Mikronation

2011-03-20T18:46:55Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Micronațiune

{{Belege fehlen}}

[[Datei:Kristiana.jpg|miniatur|[[Freistadt Christiania]] (Kopenhagen)]]
[[Datei:Sealand fortress.jpg|miniatur|[[Sealand]] (Nordsee)]]

Als '''Mikronation''' oder '''Scheinstaat''' werden Gebilde bezeichnet, die wie eigenständige [[Souveränität|souveräne]] Staaten auftreten und den Anschein erwecken, mit staatlicher Autorität zu handeln, obwohl bei ihnen Eigenschaften fehlen oder wenigstens stark umstritten sind, die einen Staat nach [[Völkerrecht]] ausmachen. International anerkannte souveräne Staaten oder Institutionen verweigern daher die Anerkennung oder reagieren gar nicht, weil sie diese Gebilde und deren Ansprüche nicht ernst nehmen. Teilweise nehmen sich die Gründer selbst nicht ernst oder betreiben die Mikronation lediglich als Staatssimulation im Internet.

Die ''Staatshandlungen'' einer Mikronation und von dieser herausgegebene Ausweise, Urkunden und Dokumente gelten im Rechtsverkehr als unwirksam oder bestenfalls als das [[Zivilrecht|zivilrechtliche]] Auftreten der privaten Interessengruppe oder Einzelperson, die hinter der Mikronation steht. Überwiegend handelt es sich dabei um Personen, die als [[Exzentriker|exzentrisch]] gelten, oder damit eigentlich ganz andere, meist wirtschaftliche oder lokalpolitische Interessen verfolgen.

Die Herkunft und Bedeutung des Begriffs ''Mikronation'' ist umstritten. Vor allem im deutschsprachigen Internet bezeichnen sich [[virtuelle Nation]]en, die lediglich als Simulation oder Computerspiel existieren, selbst als ''Mikronationen'' oder abgekürzt ''MN'' bzw. ''µN''. Seit einigen Jahren setzt sich ''Mikronation'' jedoch zunehmend als Oberbegriff für alle Erscheinungsformen von ''Schein- und Fantasiestaaten'' bis hin zu ''Cybernationen'' und ''Staatssimulationen'' durch und findet sogar für vergleichbare historische Gebilde und staatsähnliche [[Anomalie (allgemein)|Anomalien]] der jüngeren Vergangenheit Verwendung.

== Abgrenzung ==

''Mikronationen'' sind nicht mit [[Zwergstaat]]en zu verwechseln. Auch wenn deren [[Staatsgebiet]] nur relativ klein ist, handelt es sich ganz unzweifelhaft um ''richtige'' Staaten. Im Unterschied zur Mikronation erfüllen sie alle Voraussetzungen für einen Staat und sie werden international anerkannt.

Daneben bestehen weitere atypische Völkerrechtssubjekte, wie z. B. der [[Heiliger Stuhl|Heilige Stuhl]], der [[Souveräner Malteserorden|Souveräne Malteserorden]] oder das [[Internationale Rotkreuz- und Rothalbmond-Bewegung|Internationale Komitee vom Roten Kreuz]], denen es ebenso an den Voraussetzungen zu einem Staat fehlt. Im Unterschied zu den Mikronationen werden diese jedoch international anerkannt.

Problematischer ist die Unterscheidung bei ''nicht anerkannten Staaten'' beziehungsweise bei Staaten, die nur von wenigen Staaten offiziell als Staat anerkannt werden. Diese Länder werden auch als stabilisiertes [[De-facto-Regime]] bezeichnet (z. B. [[Abchasien]] oder [[Republik China]] (Taiwan)). Hier werden die Grenzen fließend. Auch bei De-facto-Regimen sind die Voraussetzungen für einen Staat gelegentlich zweifelhaft. Mikronationen sind jedoch in der Regel nicht in der Lage, ein vergleichbares Maß an tatsächlicher Kontrolle ([[Staatsgewalt]]) über das beanspruchte Herrschaftsgebiet auszuüben.

== Erscheinungsformen ==
=== Territoriale Scheinstaaten ===
Meist findet sich eine kleine Gruppe von Menschen oder gar eine Einzelperson, die den Herrschaftsanspruch für einen neuen Staat erklärt. Das neue Gebilde beansprucht entweder ein völkerrechtlich unklares Gebiet oder behauptet die Unabhängigkeit durch [[Sezession|Abspaltung]] aus einem bestehenden Staat. Charakteristisch für viele Mikronation-Projekte ist das Erklären von unbewohnten Inseln bzw. Atollen anderer anerkannter Staaten zum eigenen Staatsgebiet. Der Besitz eines [[Territorium]]s soll die Legitimität des Anspruchs als Staat unterstreichen. Aus demselben Grund haben die meisten Mikronationen eine Flagge, Nationalhymne oder auch Ehrenzeichen und geben Pässe, Briefmarken und Münzen heraus.

Die bekanntesten Beispiele für territoriale Scheinstaaten sind die [[Hutt-River-Provinz]] (eine Farm in [[Western Australia]], die sich von [[Australien]] für unabhängig und zu einem freien [[Fürstentum]] erklärt hat), [[Sealand]] (eine ehemalige [[Maunsell Fort|Seefestung]] vor der [[Vereinigtes Königreich|britischen]] Südost-Küste in der [[Nordsee]]) und die [[Conch Republic]] ([[Key West]] in [[Florida]]).

An der deutschen Grenze bei [[Aachen]] existierte bis 1919 die Mikronation [[Neutral-Moresnet]], die durch Uneinigkeit bei der Grenzziehung zwischen Preußen/Deutschland und den Niederlanden/Belgien über hundert Jahre lang keinem der Länder zugeordnet werden konnte.

=== Virtuelle Mikronationen ===
''Siehe Hauptartikel:'' [[Virtuelle Nation]]

Oft ist es schwierig, eine Mikronation von einem imaginären Land zu unterscheiden. Rein [[virtuelle Nation]]en bezeichnen sich besonders in Deutschland selbst oft als Mikronationen und existieren nur im Internet als [[Website]]. Sie nehmen für sich allerdings keine staatlichen Rechte in Anspruch, sondern sind lediglich zumeist forenbasierte Rollenspiele oder Politik-Simulationen.

Die Mitglieder der virtuellen Mikronationen können dort beispielsweise virtuelle Bürgerrechte erwerben und [[Simulation|simulieren]] dort ein komplettes Staatswesen inklusive der wirtschaftlichen Beziehungen ([[Wirtschaftssimulation]]). Es gibt [[Demokratie|demokratische]] und [[Diktatur|diktatorische]] Mikronationen.

Man schätzt, dass es derzeit alleine im [[Deutschland|deutschsprachigen]] Internet ungefähr 80 Mikronationen gibt. Diese unterhalten zum Teil auch [[Diplomatie|diplomatische]] Beziehungen und sind auf virtuellen Weltkarten von Internet-Welt-Organisationen verzeichnet. Einige virtuelle Mikronationen betreiben auch die Erforschung des virtuellen [[Weltraum]]s.

== Liste von territorialen Scheinstaaten ==
{{Lückenhaft|Kurzbeschreibung der Micronationen oder Einteilung in Kategorien zur Unterscheidung, ob aktuell oder historisch, bzw. ob Micronation mit territorialen Anspruch oder nur virtuelles Projekt/Webseite) + Ergänzung der Liste um weitere Mikronationen und Quellen, aus der die Bedeutung/Relevanz ersichtlich ist (Langlebigkeit, sehr viele oder prominente Beteiligte, Aussenwirkung/Wahrnehmung etc.|3=ja )}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Bezeichnung !! class="unsortable" | Flagge !! Zeitraum !! Einwohner/Beteiligte !! Beanspruchtes Gebiet
|-
| [[Akhzivland]] (Achsivland)
|
| seit 1950
| 2
| 10,117 km²
|-
| [[Demokratische Republik Angelland]] <ref>[http://www.d_r_angelland.repage8.de/ Angelland] auf D-R-Angelland.de </ref>
|
| seit Februar 2005
| ca. 20
| ca. 400 m²
|-
| [[Republik Freies Wendland]]
|
| 1980
|
|
|-
| [[Conch Republic]]
| [[Datei:Conchrepublic.svg|30px]]
| seit 1982
|
| 15,4 km²
|-
| [[Freistadt Christiania]]
| [[Datei:Flag of Christiania.svg|30px]]
| seit 1971
| ca. 850
| 0,34 km²
|-
| [[Hay-on-Wye]]
|
|
| 1.846
|
|-
| [[Neue Slowenische Kunst]] Staat
|
| seit 1991
|
|
|-
| [[Principality of Hutt River]]
|
| seit 1970
| ca. 20 (13.000-18.000 weltweit)
| 75 km²
|-
| [[Königreich von Araukanien und Patagonien]]
| [[Datei:Flag of the Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia.svg|30px]]
| seit 1860
|
|
|-
| Republik [[Kugelmugel]]
|
| seit 1976
| 389
|
|-
| [[Freie Republik Sombora]]
|
| seit 2006
| 323
| 4 km²
|-
| Freie Republik von [[Saugeais]]
|
|
|
|
|-
| Fürstentum [[Sealand]]
| [[Datei:Flag of Sealand.svg|30px]]
| seit 1967
|
| 550 m²
|-
| Antikes Fürstentum [[Seborga]]
|
| seit 1994
|
|
|-
| [[Gay & Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands]]
| [[Datei:Gay flag.svg|30px]]
| seit 2004
|
|
|-
| [[Ladonien]]
| [[Datei:Flag of Ladonia with contours.svg|30px]]
| seit 1996
| 14299
| 1 km²
|-
| [[Churfürstentum Diefenbach-Sechshaus]]
|
| seit 1986
|
|
|-
| [[Oecusse (Distrikt)#Der fiktive Staat Ocussi-Ambeno|Sultanat Occusi Ambeno]]
|
| seit 1968
|
|
|-
| [[Autonome Republik Utopia]]
|
| Berlin, 3. Oktober 1990
| historisch
|
|-
| [[Bunte Republik Neustadt]]
|
| 1990–1993
| historisch
|
|-
| [[Rüterberg#Dorfrepublik Rüterberg|Dorfrepublik Rüterberg]]
| [[Datei:Flagge Rueterberg bis 2004.png|30px]]
| bis 2002: „Dorfrepublik 1961/1967–1989“
| historisch
|
|-
| [[Republik Minerva]]
| [[Datei:Flag Minerva.png|30px]]
| 1972
| historisch
| Minerva-Riffe, Südpazifik
|-
| [[Freie Republik Schwarzenberg]]
|
| 1945; 48 Tage lang
| historisch
|
|-
| [[Neutral-Moresnet]]
| [[Datei:Flag of Moresnet.svg|30px]]
| 1815–1919
| historisch
| 2,7 km²
|-
| [[Užupis|Republik Užupis]]
|
| seit 1997
|
| 0,6 km²
|-
| [[Global State of Waveland]]
|
| 1997-1999
| historisch
| 784,3 m²
|-
| [[Königreich Redonda]]
| [[Datei:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Redonda.svg|30px]]
| seit 1880
|
| 1,5 km²
|-
|}

== Literatur ==
* J. Ryan, G. Dunford und S. Sellars: ''Micronations.'' [[Lonely Planet]] Publications, September 2006.
* ''Micronations: Castles in the air.,'' in: [[The Economist]], December 24th 2005 – January 6:
* Fabrice O'Driscoll: ''Ils ne siégent pas á l'ONU'' [[ÉDITIONS DES PRESSES DU MIDI]] Publications, März 2000.

== Weblinks ==
{{Commonscat|Micronations|{{PAGENAME}}}}
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20071206110528/http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/5111/archive/patsilor.htm Liste von Scheinstaaten] (Version aus dem [[Internet Archive]], da Original nicht mehr verfügbar)
* [http://www.zehn.de/die-10-widerspenstigsten-zwergstaaten-der-welt-197641-0 Die 10 widerspenstigsten Zwergstaaten der Welt]
* [http://www.listofmicronations.com Liste von Micronations]

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

[[Kategorie:Mikronation| ]]

[[ar:دولة مجهرية]]
[[be-x-old:Віртуальная дзяржава]]
[[ca:Micronació]]
[[cs:Mikronárod]]
[[da:Mikronation]]
[[en:Micronation]]
[[eo:Mikronacio]]
[[es:Micronación]]
[[fa:ریزملت]]
[[fi:Mikrovaltio]]
[[fr:Micronation]]
[[he:מדינה לכאורה]]
[[hi:लघुराष्ट्र]]
[[hu:Mikronemzet]]
[[id:Negara mikro]]
[[it:Micronazione]]
[[ja:ミクロネーション]]
[[ko:초소형국민체]]
[[lt:Netikra valstybė]]
[[mk:Микронација]]
[[nl:Micronatie]]
[[no:Mikronasjon]]
[[pl:Micronation]]
[[pt:Micronacionalismo]]
[[ro:Micronațiune]]
[[ru:Микрогосударство]]
[[sah:Микро ил]]
[[sco:Micronation]]
[[sk:Mikronárod]]
[[sv:Mikronation]]
[[zh:私人国家]]
[[zh-yue:蚊型國家]]

Deiphobos (Sohn des Priamos)

2011-03-20T16:39:53Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Deifobos

'''Deiphobos''' ({{ELSalt|Δηΐφοβος}}) ist eine Gestalt der [[Griechische Mythologie|griechischen Mythologie]] aus dem [[Sage]]nkreis des [[Trojanischer Krieg|Trojanischen Krieges]].

Als Sohn des [[König]]s [[Priamos]] und der [[Hekabe]] ist er einer der wichtigsten und stärksten Kämpfer für [[Troja]]. [[Hektor]] bezeichnet ihn (laut ''[[Ilias]]'' XXII 233) als den „liebsten“ seiner Brüder. In der Gestalt des Deiphobos täuscht die Göttin [[Athene]] den vor Achill fliehenden Hektor und überredet ihn, sich Achill im Kampf zu stellen (was Hektor mit dem Leben bezahlt). Nach dem Tod des [[Paris (Mythologie)|Paris]] wird Deiphobos Gatte der [[Helena (Mythologie)|Helena]] und fällt bei der Eroberung [[Troja]]s der Rache des [[Menelaos]] zum Opfer.

Der [[Schatten]] des Deiphobos erscheint dem [[Aeneas|Aineias]] in der Unterwelt ''([[Aeneis]]'' 6, 494 – 547).

[[Kategorie:Person der griechischen Mythologie]]

[[ar:دوفيوس]]
[[bg:Деифоб]]
[[cs:Déifobos]]
[[el:Δηίφοβος]]
[[en:Deiphobus]]
[[es:Deífobo]]
[[fi:Deifobos]]
[[fr:Déiphobe]]
[[hu:Déiphobosz]]
[[it:Deifobo]]
[[ja:デーイポボス]]
[[ko:데이포보스]]
[[nl:Deïphobus]]
[[pl:Deifobos]]
[[pt:Dêifobo]]
[[ro:Deifobos]]
[[ru:Деифоб]]
[[sr:Дејфоб]]
[[uk:Деїфоб]]
[[zh:得伊福玻斯]]

Exile on Main St

2011-03-20T12:58:31Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Exile on Main St.

{{Infobox Musikalbum
| Typ = Studioalbum
| Künstler = [[The Rolling Stones]]
| Titel = Exile on Main St.
| Genre = [[Rock (Musik)|Rock]]
| Jahr = 22. Mai 1972 (USA), 26. Mai 1972 (UK)
| Label = [[Rolling Stones Records]], [[EMI Group|Virgin Records]]
| Formate = LP, CD
| AnzahlTitel = 18
| Laufzeit = 66:48
| Besetzung =
* [[Mick Jagger]]
* [[Keith Richards]]
* [[Bill Wyman]]
* [[Mick Taylor]]
* [[Charlie Watts]]
| Produzent = [[Jimmy Miller]]
| Studio = Stargroves (Berkshire) Olympic Studios (London) Villa Nellcote (Côte d’ Azur) Sunset Sound (Los Angeles)
| Vorheriges = [[Sticky Fingers]] (1971)
| Nächstes = [[Goats Head Soup]] (1973)
| 14 =
}}
'''Exile on Main St.''' ist das zehnte in [[Vereinigtes Königreich|Großbritannien]] erschienene [[Musikalbum|Studioalbum]] der [[The Rolling Stones|Rolling Stones]], produziert von [[Jimmy Miller]]. Es wurde am 12. Mai 1972 veröffentlicht.

== Zum Album ==
Zum Zeitpunkt seines Erscheinens wurde ''Exile on Main St.'' von vielen Musikkritikern angegriffen, da diese sich nicht mit dem recht rauen, unfertig wirkenden Produktionsstil anfreunden konnten.<ref name="Wyman394">Wyman: ''Rolling with the Stones'', S. 394 f.</ref> Zudem enthält es – anders als die Vorgängeralben – keine ausgesprochenen Hitsongs. Nur ''[[Tumbling Dice]]'' (Platz 5 in GB, Platz 7 in den USA) und ''Happy'' (Platz 22 in den USA) erschienen als [[Single (Musik)|Single]]-Auskopplungen.

Heute gilt die Platte als eine der besten Veröffentlichungen der Band<ref>[http://www.rp-online.de/kultur/musik/Rolling-Stones-legen-ihr-Meisterwerk-neu-auf_aid_856422.html rp-online.de (Rheinische Post vom 12. Mai 2010, Seite A8)]</ref>. Es sind weniger die einzelnen Stücke, die das Album ausmachen, als vielmehr die Konsistenz der Songqualität und die durchgehende Stimmung voller Kraft und [[Groove (Musik)|Groove]]. Bemerkenswert ist die in den Hintergrund gemischte Stimme von [[Mick Jagger]]. Dieser selbst ist aber im Rückblick nicht so überzeugt von den Qualitäten der Doppel-LP; in einem [[Rolling Stone|Rolling-Stone]]-Interview von 1995 schätzt er die beiden Vorgänger-Alben höher ein.

Der Song ''Happy'', von [[Keith Richards]] gesungen, wurde im Laufe der Zeit zu dessen „Markensong“, der heute noch im Konzertprogramm seinen festen Platz hat. Auch ''Rip This Joint'' gibt es in einer von Keith Richards gesungenen Version, wurde jedoch in dieser Form nie veröffentlicht. ''All Down The Line'' existiert in zwei verschiedenen Fassungen: Version I auf den LP/CD-Versionen ist in Mono, Version II (US-amerikanische Single-Version) dagegen in Stereo abgemischt.

Anfang 1971 hatten die Stones aus steuerlichen Gründen England verlassen und sich in Frankreich angesiedelt. Im feuchten Keller der von Keith Richards für 2400 Dollar wöchentlich angemieteten Villa Nellcôte, Avenue Louise Bordes in [[Villefranche-sur-Mer]] an der [[Côte d’Azur]], wurden ab März 1971 die Lieder eingespielt (während der Besetzung durch die [[Nationalsozialisten]] im [[2. Weltkrieg]] wurde das Gebäude als [[Gestapo]]-Hauptquartier genutzt). Der Strom für das Equipment wurde illegal von einer Stromleitung, die durch den Villenpark führte, abgezapft. Ab Oktober 1971 wurde gegen die Stones wegen Drogenhandels ermittelt, im Dezember des gleichen Jahres führten die Vorwürfe dazu, dass Keith Richards mit einem Einreiseverbot nach Frankreich belegt wurde. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt lagen die Songs nur als Rohmaterial vor, das Hinzufügen der [[Overdub|Overdubs]] und das endgültige [[Mastering]] erfolgte bis Mai 1972 in den Sunset Sound Recorders Studios in [[Los Angeles]]. Das von [[Gram Parsons]] beeinflusste ''Torn and Frayed'' sowie ''Loving Cup'' entstanden gänzlich in Los Angeles. <ref name="Wyman394"/><ref>Keith Richards: Life, S 422 ff.</ref><ref>Steve Appleford: Rip This Joint, S. 121</ref>

Einige Aufnahmen reichen allerdings bis in das Jahr 1969 zurück, wie zum Beispiel ''Sweet Virginia'', ''Loving Cup'', ''Shine a Light'' (1969), ''All Down the Line'' oder ''Tumbling Dice'' (1970). Zum Teil wurden die originalen Aufnahmen als Basis verwendet ''(Sweet Virginia)'', andere Stücke wie zum Beispiel ''Tumbling Dice'' (das 1970 als ''Good Time Women'' für das Album ''[[Sticky Fingers]]'' entstand) wurden neu eingespielt. Der Song ''Shine a Light'' war Titelgeber des Films ''[[Shine a Light]]'' von Martin Scorsese über die Rolling Stones.

Wie auch bei vielen anderen ihrer Aufnahmen wurden die Rolling Stones von zahlreichen Gastmusikern unterstützt: [[Ian Stewart (Musiker)|Ian Stewart]], [[Dr. John]], [[Billy Preston]], [[Bill Plummer]], [[Nicky Hopkins]] und anderen. Für den [[Gospel]]chor bei ''Let It Loose'' engagierten die Stones unter anderem [[Tammi Lynn]] und [[Shirley Goodman]].

''Exile on Main St.'' erreichte in den britischen und US-amerikanischen Hitparaden Platz 1 und konnte sich in den Charts für 16 beziehungsweise 17 Wochen halten.<ref name="Wyman394"/> In der Liste der [[Die 500 besten Alben aller Zeiten (laut Rolling Stone)|500 besten Alben]] des Musikmagazins [[Rolling Stone]] wird das Album auf Platz sieben geführt.

2007 wurde ein Buch des amerikanischen Journalisten Robert Greenfield veröffentlicht, in dem dieser die Zeit des Entstehens des Doppelalbums in Südfrankreich beschreibt. Der Titel: ''Exile on Main St. – A season in hell with the Rolling Stones'' (deutsche Ausgabe: ''Exile on Main St. – Ein höllischer Sommer mit den Rolling Stones'').

[[Universal Music Group|Universal]], die neue Plattenfirma der Rolling Stones, legte am 14. Mai 2010 die Doppel-LP in überarbeiteter Fassung vor - als Doppel-CD - und fügte zehn weitere Songs aus den damaligen Aufnahmesitzungen dazu, darunter ''Pass the Wine'' oder ''Plundered My Soul''. Daraufhin stieg ''Exile on Main St.'' in zahlreichen Ländern wieder in die Charts ein und erreichte in Großbritannien und Norwegen Platz 1.

Etwa zur gleichen Zeit erschien auch die Dokumentation ''[[Stones in Exile]]'' von [[Stephen Kijak]], in der neben den Rolling Stones auch die ehemaligen Bandmitglieder Mick Taylor und Bill Wyman über die Entstehung des Albums berichten.

== Titelliste ==
Seite 1 (ursprüngliche Verteilung auf der LP)
#''Rocks Off'' (Jagger/Richards) – 4:31
#''Rip This Joint'' (Jagger/Richards) – 2:23
#''Shake Your Hips'' ([[Slim Harpo|Harpo]]) – 2:59
#''Casino Boogie'' (Jagger/Richards) – 3:33
#''Tumbling Dice'' (Jagger/Richards) – 3:45

Seite 2
#''Sweet Virginia'' (Jagger/Richards) – 4:25
#''Torn and Frayed'' (Jagger/Richards) – 4:17
#''Sweet Black Angel'' (Jagger/Richards) – 2:54
#''Loving Cup'' (Jagger/Richards) – 4:23

Seite 3
#''Happy'' (Jagger/Richards) – 3:04
#''Turd on the Run'' (Jagger/Richards) – 2:36
#''Ventilator Blues'' (Jagger/Richards/Taylor) – 3:24
#''I Just Want to See His Face'' (Jagger/Richards) – 2:52
#''Let It Loose'' (Jagger/Richards) – 5:16

Seite 4
#''All Down the Line'' (Jagger/Richards) – 3:49
#''Stop Breaking Down'' (Traditional) – 4:34
#''Shine a Light'' (Jagger/Richards) – 4:14
#''Soul Survivor'' (Jagger/Richards) – 3:49
Spieldauer: 66 Minuten, 48 Sekunden

== Literatur ==
*Bill Wyman: ''Rolling with the Stones''. Bandbiographie und -dokumentation. Dorling Kindersley Ltd., London 2002. ISBN 0-7513-4646-2 (englisch)

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references/>

== Weblinks ==
*[http://www.unrast-verlag.de/unrast,6,1,178.html Michael Koltan: Exile on Main Street]
*[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=A4kq4g40ttv6z Review bei Allmusicguide.com]
*[http://www.rollingstone.com/reviews/album/236885/review/5940372?utm_source=Rhapsody&utm_medium=CDreview Review bei RollingStone.com]
*[http://www.popmatters.com/music/reviews/r/rollingstones-exile.shtml Review bei Popmatters.com]

{{Navigationsleiste Alben von The Rolling Stones}}
[[Kategorie:Album (Rock)|Exile On Main Street]]
[[Kategorie:Album 1972]]
[[Kategorie:The-Rolling-Stones-Album]]

{{Link GA|es}}

[[ca:Exile on Main Street]]
[[cs:Exile on Main St.]]
[[da:Exile on Main St.]]
[[en:Exile on Main St.]]
[[es:Exile on Main St.]]
[[fi:Exile on Main St.]]
[[fr:Exile on Main St.]]
[[he:Exile on Main Street]]
[[hr:Exile on Main St.]]
[[hu:Exile on Main St.]]
[[it:Exile on Main St.]]
[[ja:メイン・ストリートのならず者]]
[[nl:Exile On Main St.]]
[[nn:Exile on Main St.]]
[[no:Exile On Main St.]]
[[pl:Exile on Main St.]]
[[pt:Exile on Main St.]]
[[ro:Exile on Main St.]]
[[ru:Exile on Main St.]]
[[simple:Exile on Main St.]]
[[sv:Exile on Main St.]]

Laurent Koscielny

2011-03-14T03:34:08Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Laurent Koscielny

{{Infobox Fußballspieler
| kurzname = Laurent Koscielny
| bildname =
| bildunterschrift =
| langname =
| geburtstag = [[10. September]] [[1985]]
| geburtsort = [[Tulle]]
| geburtsland = [[Frankreich]]
| größe = 185 cm
| position = [[Abwehr (Fußball)|Abwehr]]
| jugendjahre = 1993–1995 1995–1997 1997–1998 1998–2002 2002–2003 2003–2004
| jugendvereine = Tulle Corrèze Foot [[ESA Brive]] Tulle Corrèze Foot ESA Brive [[FC Limoges]] [[EA Guingamp]]
| jahre = 2004–2007 2007–2009 2009–2010 2010–
| vereine = EA Guingamp [[FC Tours]] [[FC Lorient]] [[FC Arsenal]]
| spiele (tore) = 40 (0)67 (6)35 (3)15 (1)
| nationaljahre =
| nationalmannschaft =
| länderspiele (tore) =
| lgupdate = 1. Januar 2011
| nmupdate = 17. Dezember 2010
}}

'''Laurent Koscielny''' (* [[10. September]] [[1985]] in [[Tulle]]) ist ein französischer [[Fußball|Fußballspieler]], der zurzeit beim [[FC Arsenal]] unter Vertrag steht.

== Werdegang ==
Koscielny begann seine Profikarriere bei [[EA Guingamp]] als Verteidiger. Ab der Saison 2007/08 spielte er beim [[FC Tours]], wo er in der Saison 2008/09 als Abwehrspieler in 34 Spielen 5 Tore erzielte. Im Mai 2009 wurde Koscielny von der UNFP in die Top Elf der [[Ligue 2]] Saison 2008/09 gewählt.<ref name=11best>{{cite news | author = | url = http://www.francefootball.fr/Football/breves2009/20090524_185137_alo-o-efoulou-meilleur-joueur-de-l2.html | title = Meilleurs joueurs de L2 | date = 2009-05-24 | work = France Football | accessdate = 2010-07-20 | language = französisch}}</ref> Am 16. Juni unterzeichnete Koscielny einen 4-Jahresvertrag bei dem in der [[Ligue 1]] spielenden [[FC Lorient]].<ref>{{cite news | author = | url = http://www.lequipe.fr/Football/breves2010/20100629_083025_koscielny-presque-gunner.html | title = Koscielny presque Gunner | date = 29 June 2010 | work = [[L'Équipe]] | accessdate = 20 Juli 2010 | language = französisch}}</ref> Nach einer Saison in der Ligue 1 wechselte Koscielny für 9.700.000 £ zum [[FC Arsenal]] in die [[Premier League]].<ref>{{cite news | author = | url = http://www.skysports.com/story/0,19528,12874_6236754,00.html | title = Gunners close on Koscielny | date = 2010-06-29 | work = Sky Sports | accessdate =| language = englisch}}</ref> Sein erstes Pflichtspiel für Arsenal machte er am 15. August 2010 im Premier League Spiel gegen den [[FC Liverpool]], in dem er in der fünften Minute der Nachspielzeit die gelb-rote Karte sah.<ref>{{cite news | author = | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng_prem/8909559.stm| title = Liverpool 1-1 Arsenal | date = 2010-08-15 | work = BBC Sports | accessdate =| language = englisch}}</ref>

Im Februar 2011 berief Frankreichs Nationaltrainer [[Laurent Blanc]] Koscielny, der aufgrund seiner Vorfahren auch für [[Polnische Fußballnationalmannschaft|Polen]] spielen dürfte,<ref>nach [http://www.francefootball.fr/bleus/#!/news/2011/02/07/212222_koscielny-ca-a-ete-vite.html diesem Artikel] bei France Football</ref> erstmals in den [[Französische Fußballnationalmannschaft|A-Nationalmannschaftskader]] für das Freundschaftsspiel gegen [[Brasilianische Fußballnationalmannschaft|Brasilien]]. Zum Einsatz kam er dort allerdings nicht.

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.fff.fr/individus/selections/visu_fiche.php?in_no=1129346271&id_cat=1 Spielerdaten auf der Seite des französischen Verbands]
* [http://www.soccerbase.com/players_details.sd?playerid=53837 Spielerdaten der soccerbase]
* [http://laurent-koscielny.com Offizielle Website von Koscielny ( laurent-koscielny.com )]
* [http://lequipe.fr/Football/FootballFicheJoueur21840.html lequipe.fr]
* [http://www.arsenal.com/first-team/players/laurent-koscielny Laurent Koscielny profile] bei Arsenal.com

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

{{Navigationsleiste Kader des FC Arsenal}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Koscielny, Laurent}}
[[Kategorie:Fußballspieler (Frankreich)]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1985]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Koscielny, Laurent
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=französischer Fußballspieler
|GEBURTSDATUM=10. September 1985
|GEBURTSORT=[[Tulle]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[ar:لورينت كوستشيلني]]
[[ca:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[cs:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[da:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[en:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[es:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[et:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[fi:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[fr:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[hu:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[it:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[ja:ローラン・コシールニー]]
[[ko:로랑 코시엘니]]
[[nl:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[no:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[pl:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[pt:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[ro:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[ru:Косельни, Лоран]]
[[sl:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[sv:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[th:โลร็อง โกเซียลนี]]
[[tr:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[vi:Laurent Koscielny]]
[[zh:羅倫·哥斯尼]]

Samir Nasri

2011-03-14T03:22:35Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Samir Nasri

{{Infobox Fußballspieler
| kurzname = Samir Nasri
| bild = [[Datei:Samir Nasri Arsenal corner kick.jpg|250px]]
| bildunterschrift = Samir Nasri beim Eckstoß
| langname =
| geburtstag = [[26. Juni]] [[1987]]
| geburtsort = [[Marseille]]
| geburtsland = [[Frankreich]]
| position = [[Mittelfeldspieler|Mittelfeld]]
| größe = 178 cm
| jahre = 2004–2008 2008–
| vereine = [[Olympique Marseille]] [[Arsenal London]]
| spiele (tore) = 121 (11) 68 (16)
| nationaljahre = 2007–
| nationalmannschaft = [[Französische Fußballnationalmannschaft|Frankreich]]
| länderspiele (tore) = 16 {{0}}(2)
| lgupdate = 17. Dezember 2010
| nmupdate = 11. August 2010
}}
'''Samir Nasri''' (* [[26. Juni]] [[1987]] in [[Marseille]]) ist ein [[Fußball in Frankreich|französischer Profifußballer]] [[Algerien|algerischer]] Herkunft, der derzeit bei [[Arsenal London]] spielt. Der [[Spielmacher]] gilt als großes Talent des französischen Fußballs.

== Karriere ==
=== Verein ===
[[Datei:Samir Nasri vs Chelsea.jpg|miniatur|links|Nasri 2009]]
Aufgewachsen im Quartier Gavotte Peyret fing er mit fünf Jahren für den lokalen Klub, welcher ebenfalls Gavotte Peyret hieß, zu spielen an. Nach einiger Zeit wechselte er zwei Saisons zu Pennes Mirabeau, ehe ihn die Scouts von [[Olympique Marseille]] entdeckten. Nach dem Einverständnis seiner Eltern wechselte er als 13-jähriger zu dem französischen Spitzenverein.

Bereits mit 17 Jahren spielte er in Marseilles A-Team, konnte sich aber noch nicht durchsetzen und wurde überwiegend eingewechselt. Erst als er bei der [[Junioren-Fußballweltmeisterschaft#WM 2005|U-20-Weltmeisterschaft 2005]] gute Leistungen zeigte, wurde er auch in seinem Verein eine feste Größe.

In der Saison 2006/07 absolvierte er 37 von 38 Spielen und war eine der auffälligsten Figuren bei den Blau-Weißen. Er wurde von den Fans zum Spieler der Saison 2006/07 gewählt und auch von etlichen Topklubs umworben. Darüber hinaus erhielt er auch die Auszeichnung als bester junger Spieler des Jahres in der [[Ligue 1]], welche ihm sein Freund und Mentor [[Zinédine Zidane]] überreichte.

Zu Beginn der darauffolgenden Saison 2007/08 erlitt er eine kleine Blessur, wodurch er einige Spiele ausfiel. In dieser Saison bestritt er ferner seine ersten Spiele in der [[UEFA Champions League]]. Bislang kam er in der Ligue 1 auf 121 Einsätze.

Im Mai 2008 verlängerte Nasri zunächst den Vertrag mit Olympique Marseille bis 2012, wechselte im Juli aber dennoch zu [[Arsenal London]]. Dort soll er den zum [[FC Barcelona]] abgewanderten [[Aliaksandr Hleb]] ersetzen. Arsenal bezahlte für den Franzosen 15 Mio. € an Olympique Marseille.<ref>[http://www.kicker.de/news/fussball/intligen/startseite/artikel/378851/ Arsenal schnappt sich Nasri] vom 21. Mai 2008 auf kicker.de</ref> Am 16. August 2008, beim Ligaauftakt gegen [[West Bromwich Albion]], gab der Offensivspieler sein Debüt in der [[Premier League]]. In der gleichen Partie erzielte Nasri seinen ersten Pflichtspieltreffer für die ''Gunners''. Elf Tage später, am 27. August, kam er erstmalig auch international für die ''Rot-Weißen'' zum Zug. Im Qualifikationsspiel zur Champions League konnte Nasri, wie schon in der Premier League, ein Tor erzielen. Während der Vorbereitung auf die Saison 2009/10 verletzte sich der Mittelfeldspieler. Im österreichischen Trainingslager brach sich der französische Youngstar das Wadenbein und fehlte seinem Team drei Monate.<ref>[http://www.kicker.de/news/fussball/intligen/startseite/511690/artikel_Nasri-erleidet-Wadenbeinbruch.html Nasri erleidet Wadenbeinbruch] vom 21. Juni 2009 auf kicker.de</ref>

=== Nationalmannschaft ===
Anlässlich des Länderspiels gegen [[Österreichische Fußballnationalmannschaft|Österreich]] am 28. März 2007 wurde er zum ersten Mal von Nationaltrainer [[Raymond Domenech|Domenech]] in der [[Französische Fußballnationalmannschaft|französischen A-Nationalelf]] eingesetzt und bereitete auch gleich den Siegtreffer von [[Karim Benzema]] vor. Sein erstes Tor für Frankreich gelang ihm während des EM-Qualifikationsspiels gegen Georgien am 6. Juni 2007.

Bei der [[Fußball-Europameisterschaft 2008|EM-Endrunde 2008]] gehörte er zum [[Fußball-Europameisterschaft 2008/Frankreich|französischen Aufgebot]]. Er kam allerdings nur zu zwei Kurzeinsätzen. Bemerkenswert war vor allem der letzte. Nasri wurde im entscheidenden Spiel gegen [[Italienische Fußballnationalmannschaft|Italien]] für den verletzten Franck Ribèry ein- und nur 15 Minuten später aus taktischen Gründen für [[Jean-Alain Boumsong]] wieder ausgewechselt. In seinem ersten Einsatz gegen [[Rumänische Fußballnationalmannschaft|Rumänien]] spielte er 12 Minuten als er für Benzema eingewechselt wurde.

Zur [[Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft 2010]] wurde er nicht nominiert; nach dem [[Eklat von Knysna|französischen Debakel in Südafrika]] berief ihn Domenechs Nachfolger [[Laurent Blanc]] aber wieder regelmäßig in das Aufgebot, und am Ende dieses Jahres wurde Nasri zu [[Frankreichs Fußballer des Jahres]] gewählt.

=== Erfolge/Titel ===
''' In der Nationalmannschaft '''
* [[U-17-Fußball-Europameisterschaft]]: [[U-17-Fußball-Europameisterschaft 2004|2004]]

''' Mit dem Verein '''
* [[UEFA Intertoto Cup]]: [[UEFA Intertoto Cup 2005|2005]]
* Finalist der [[Französischer Fußballpokal|Coupe de France]]: 2006, 2007

''' Persönliche Erfolge '''
* Spieler des Monats in der Ligue 1: März 2007
* Bester Nachwuchsspieler der [[Ligue 1]]: 2006/07
* [[Frankreichs Fußballer des Jahres]]: 2010

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.soccerbase.com/players_details.sd?playerid=40640 Spielerdaten der soccerbase]
{{Commonscat}}
* [http://www.samirnasri.fr Offizielle Website]
* [http://wassermair.net/texte/zidanes_erbe Zidanes Erbe]

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

{{Navigationsleiste Kader des FC Arsenal}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Nasri, Samir}}
[[Kategorie:Fußballnationalspieler (Frankreich)]]
[[Kategorie:Person (Marseille)]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1987]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Nasri, Samir
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=französischer Fußballspieler
|GEBURTSDATUM=26. Juni 1987
|GEBURTSORT=[[Marseille]], Frankreich
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[ar:سمير ناصري]]
[[bg:Самир Насри]]
[[br:Samir Nasri]]
[[ca:Samir Nasri]]
[[cs:Samir Nasri]]
[[da:Samir Nasri]]
[[en:Samir Nasri]]
[[es:Samir Nasri]]
[[et:Samir Nasri]]
[[fa:سمیر نصری]]
[[fi:Samir Nasri]]
[[fr:Samir Nasri]]
[[he:סמיר נאסרי]]
[[hr:Samir Nasri]]
[[hu:Samir Nasri]]
[[id:Samir Nasri]]
[[it:Samir Nasri]]
[[ja:サミル・ナスリ]]
[[ko:사미르 나스리]]
[[lt:Samir Nasri]]
[[mk:Самир Насри]]
[[mn:Самир Насри]]
[[mr:समीर नास्री]]
[[ms:Samir Nasri]]
[[nl:Samir Nasri]]
[[no:Samir Nasri]]
[[pl:Samir Nasri]]
[[pt:Samir Nasri]]
[[ro:Samir Nasri]]
[[ru:Насри, Самир]]
[[simple:Samir Nasri]]
[[sk:Samir Nasri]]
[[sl:Samir Nasri]]
[[sr:Самир Насри]]
[[sv:Samir Nasri]]
[[sw:Samir Nasri]]
[[th:ซาเมียร์ นาสรี]]
[[tr:Samir Nasri]]
[[uk:Самір Насрі]]
[[vi:Samir Nasri]]
[[zh:萨米尔·纳斯里]]
[[zh-yue:拿斯利]]

David Luiz

2011-03-14T03:10:20Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:David Luiz

{{Infobox Fußballspieler
| kurzname = David Luiz
| bild =
| langname = David Luiz Moreira Marinho
| geburtstag = [[22. April]] [[1987]]
| geburtsort = [[Diadema (Brasilien)|Diadema]], [[São Paulo (Bundesstaat)|São Paulo]]
| geburtsland = [[Brasilien]]
| sterbedatum =
| sterbeort =
| sterbeland =
| größe = 185 cm
| position = [[Innenverteidiger|Innenverteidigung]]
| jugendvereine =
| jugendjahre =
| vereine = [[Esporte Clube Vitória]] [[Benfica Lissabon]] [[FC Chelsea]]
| jahre = 2005–2007 2007–2011 2011–
| spiele (tore) = 47 (7) 82 (4) 4 (1)
| nationalmannschaft = Brasilien U-20 [[Brasilianische Fußballnationalmannschaft|Brasilien]]
| nationaljahre = 2010–
| länderspiele (tore) = 4 (0)
| lgupdate = 6. März 2011
| nmupdate = 17. November 2010
}}

'''David Luiz Moreira Marinho''' (* [[22. April]] [[1987]] in [[Diadema (Brasilien)]]) ist ein [[Brasilien|brasilianischer]] [[Fußball]]spieler. Er steht derzeit beim [[FC Chelsea]] unter Vertrag und spielt üblicherweise auf der Position des [[Innenverteidiger]]s.

== Karriere ==
=== Verein ===
David Luiz begann seine Karriere 2005 beim brasilianischen Klub [[Esporte Clube Vitória]]. Bereits in seiner ersten Saison gewann er die [[Campeonato Baiano|Staatsmeisterschaft von Bahia]]. Anfang 2007 wurde er zunächst für ein halbes Jahr vom portugiesischen Klub [[Benfica Lissabon]], als Ersatz für [[Ricardo Rocha]], ausgeliehen. Vor der Saison 2007/08 verpflichtete Benfica das Abwehrtalent endgültig und David Luiz unterschrieb einen Vertrag bis 2013.

Am 31. Januar 2011 wechselte David Luiz für rund 20 Millionen Pfund zum [[FC Chelsea]]. Sein Debüt für seinen neuen Verein feierte er am 6. Februar 2011 bei der 0:1 Heimniederlage des [[FC Chelsea]] gegen den [[FC Liverpool]] über 17 Minuten, nachdem er in der 73. für [[José Bosingwa]] eingewechselt worden war.

=== Nationalmannschaft ===
Bei der [[Junioren-Fußballweltmeisterschaft 2007]] stand David Luiz in zwei Vorrundepartien in der Startaufstellung. Beim Achtelfinalaus gegen Spanien kam er nicht zum Einsatz.

== Erfolge ==
* '''[[SL Benfica]]'''
** [[SuperLiga|Portugiesische Meisterschaft]]: 2010
** [[Taça da Liga]]: 2009, 2010

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.portugoal.net/PlayerProfiles/David-Luiz.htm Profil auf portugoal.net] (engl.)
* [http://www.weltfussball.de/spieler_profil/david-luiz/2/ Spielstatistiken] auf weltfussball.de
* [http://www.goal.com/de/news/968/transfermarkt/2011/01/31/2332030/der-n%C3%A4chste-hammer-david-luiz-doch-zum-fc-chelsea Profil bei goal.com]

{{Navigationsleiste Kader des FC Chelsea}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Luiz, David}}
[[Kategorie:Fußballspieler (Brasilien)]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1987]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Luiz, David
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=David Luiz Moreira Marinho
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=brasilianischer Fußballspieler
|GEBURTSDATUM=22. April 1987
|GEBURTSORT=[[Diadema (Brasilien)]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[cs:David Luiz]]
[[da:David Luiz]]
[[en:David Luiz]]
[[es:David Luiz]]
[[et:David Luiz]]
[[fa:دیوید لوییز]]
[[fi:David Luiz]]
[[fr:David Luiz Moreira Marinho]]
[[he:דוד לואיז]]
[[hu:David Luiz]]
[[it:David Luiz]]
[[ja:ダヴィド・ルイス・モレイラ・マリーニョ]]
[[ko:다비드 루이스]]
[[nl:David Luiz]]
[[pl:David Luiz]]
[[pt:David Luiz]]
[[ro:David Luiz]]
[[ru:Давид Луис]]
[[sv:David Luiz]]
[[th:ดาวิด ลูอีซ]]
[[vi:David Luiz]]
[[zh:大衛·雷斯]]

Liste der Fluggeschwindigkeitsrekorde

2011-03-08T10:52:59Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

[[Image:Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[SR-71 Blackbird]] is the current record-holder for a manned airbreathing jet aircraft.]]
An '''air speed record''' is the highest [[airspeed]] attained by an [[aircraft]] of a particular class. The rules for all official aviation records are defined by [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] (FAI),<ref>[http://www.fai.org/ FAI Web sie Accessed 25 Jan 2011]</ref> which also ratifies any claims. Speed records are divided into multiple classes with sub-divisions. There are three classes of aircraft: landplanes, [[seaplane]]s and [[amphibious aircraft|amphibians]]; then within these classes, there are records for aircraft in a number of weight categories. There are still further sub-divisions for piston-engined, [[turbojet]], [[turboprop]] and rocket-engined aircraft. Within each of these groups, records are defined for speed over a straight course and for closed circuits of various sizes carrying various payloads. There are still further records for the speed between specified cities such as [[London]] and [[New York]].

==Timeline==
{| class=wikitable
|-
! width="120px" rowspan="2" | Date
! width="120px" rowspan="2" | Pilot
! colspan="2" | Airspeed
! width="150px" rowspan="2" | Aircraft
! width="150px" rowspan="2" | Location
|-
! width="50px" | mph
! width="50px" | km/h
|-
| 1903 || [[Wilbur Wright]] || 6.82 || 10.98 || [[Wright Flyer]] || [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina|Kitty Hawk]], NC, USA
|-
| 1905 || [[Wilbur Wright]] || 37.85 || 60.91 || [[Wright Flyer III]] ||
|-
|12 November 1906 || [[Alberto Santos-Dumont]] || 25.65 || 41.292 || Santos-Dumont ||First officially recognised airspeed record<ref name="Cooper p619">Cooper ''Flight'' 25 May 1951, p. 619.</ref>
|-
| 26 October 1907 || [[Henry Farman]] || 32.73 || 52.700 || [[Aéroplanes Voisin|Voisin biplane]] ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 1908 || [[Henry Farman]] || 40.26 || 64.79 || [[Aéroplanes Voisin|Voisin biplane]] ||{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}
|-
| 25 May 1909 || P Tissander || 34.04 || 54.810 || Wright ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 23 August 1909 || [[Glenn Curtiss]] || 43.367 || 69.821 || [[Curtiss No. 2]] ||1909 [[Gordon Bennett Cup]], [[Reims]], France<ref name="Cooper p619"/><ref name="Curtiss p37-8">Bowers 1979, pp. 37–38</ref>
|-
| 24 August 1909 || [[Louis Blériot]] || 46.160 || 74.318 || [[Blériot XI]] ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 28 August 1909 || Louis Blériot || 47.823 || 76.995 || [[Blériot XI]] ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 23 April 1910 || [[Hubert Latham]] || 48.186 || 77.579 || Antoinette ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 10 July 1910 || L Morane || 66.154 || 106.508 || Blériot ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 29 October 1910 || [[Alfred Leblanc]] || 68.171 || 109.756 || [[Blériot XI]] ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 12 April 1911 || Alfred Leblanc || 69.442 || 111.801 || Blériot Blériot||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 11 May 1911 || [[Edouard Nieuport]] || 73.385 || 119.760 || Nieuport||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 12 June 1911 || Alfred Leblanc || 77.640 || 125.000 || Blériot||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 16 June 1911 || Edouard Nieuport || 80.781 || 130.057|| Nieuport||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 21 June 1911 || Edouard Nieuport || 82.693 || 133.136 || [[Nieuport Nie-2 N]] ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 13 January 1912 || [[Jules Vedrines]] || 87.68 || 145.161 ||[[Deperdussin Monocoque]] ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 22 February 1912 || Jules Vedrines ||100.18 || 161.290 || Deperdussin Monocoque ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
|29 February 1912 || Jules Vedrines ||100.90 || 162.454 || Deperdussin Monocoque ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
|1 March 1912 || Jules Vedrines || 103.62 || 166.821 || Deperdussin Monocoque ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
|2 March 1912 || Jules Vedrines || 104.29 || 167.910 || Deperdussin Monocoque ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
|13 July 1912 || Jules Vedrines || 106.07 || 170.777|| Deperdussin Monocoque ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
|9 September 1912 || Jules Vedrines || 108.14 || 174.100 || Deperdussin Monocoque ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 17 June 1913 || [[Maurice Prévost]] || 111.69 || 179.820 || Deperdussin Monocoque ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 27 September 1913 || Maurice Prévost || 119.19 || 191.897 || Deperdussin Monocoque ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 29 September 1913 || Maurice Prévost || 126.61 || 203.850 || Deperdussin Monocoque ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 1914 || [[Norman Spratt]] || 134.5 || 216.5 || [[RAF SE.4]] ||
|-
| August 1918 || [[Roland Rohlfs]] || 163 || 262.3 || [[Curtiss Wasp]] ||<ref name="Curtiss p140">Bowers 1979, p. 140.</ref> Not officially recognised.
|-
| 1919 || [[Joseph Sadi-Lecointe]] || 191.1 || 307.5 || [[Nieuport-Delage 29v]] ||
|-
| 8 February 1920 || [[Joseph Sadi-Lecointe]] || 171.0 || 275.264 || [[Nieuport-Delage NiD 29]] ||[[Villacoublay]], France.<ref name="Fight 20 p1274">[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1920/1920%20-%201272.html?tracked=1 The Royal Aero Club of the U.K.:Official Notices to Members]". ''[[Flight International|Flight]]'', 16 December 1920. p. 1274.</ref> First official record post World War 1.<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 28 February 1920 || J Casale || 176.1 || 283.464 || Spad-Herbemont || Villacoublay, France<ref name="Cooper p619"/><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1920/1920%20-%200256.html?tracked=1 "Speed Records in France"]. ''Flight'', 4 March 1920.</ref>
|-
|9 October 1920 || [[Bernard Barny de Romanet|Bernard de Romanet]] || 181.8 || 292.682 || Spad-Herbemont || Buc, France<ref name="Cooper p619"/><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1920/1920%20-%201088.html?tracked=1 "Meeting at Buc"]. ''Flight'', 14 October 1920, pp. 1090–1091.</ref>
|-
|10 October 1920 || Joseph Sadi-Lecointe || 184.3 || 296.694 || Nieuport-Delage 29||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
|20 October 1920 || Joseph Sadi-Lecointe || 187.9 || 302.529 || Nieuport-Delage 29 ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
|4 November 1920 || Bernard de Romanet || 191.9 || 309.012|| [[Spad S.20]] ||Buc, France<ref name="Cooper p619"/><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1920/1920%20-%201164.html?tracked=1 "De Romanet Breaks Records"]. ''Flight'', 11 November 1920, p. 1166.</ref>
|-
| 12 December 1920 || Joseph Sadi-Lecointe || 194.4 || 313.043 ||Nieuport-Delage 29||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 26 September 1921 || Joseph Sadi-Lecointe || 205.2 || 330.275 || Nieuport-Delage ||<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1921/1921%20-%200710.html "Some Records Homologated"]. ''Flight'', 3 November 1921, p. 710.</ref>
|-
| 13 October 1922 || [[Billy Mitchell]] || 222.88 || 358.836 || Curtiss R||Detroit<ref name="Cooper p619"/><ref name="eighteen p75">''Flight'' 7 February 1924, p. 75.</ref>
|-
| 18 October 1922 || Billy Mitchell || 224.28 || 360.93 || [[Curtiss R-6]] ||<ref name="Curtiss p232-3">Bowers 1979, pp. 232–233.</ref><ref>"[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1923/1923%20-%200026.html American World's Speed Record Homologated]". ''Flight'', 11 January 1923, p. 26.</ref>
|-
| 15 February 1923 || Joseph Sadi-Lecointe || 232.91 || 375.00 || Nieuport-Delage ||Istres<ref name="eighteen p75"/>
|-
| 29 March 1923 || [[Russell Maughan]] ||236.587 || 380.74 || Curtiss R-6 || <ref name="Curtiss p233">Bowers 1979, p.233.</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1923/1923%20-%200356.html "Records Homologated"]. ''[[Flight International|Flight]]'', 28 June 1923, p. 356.</ref>
|-
| 2 November 1923 || H. J. Rowe || 259.16 || 417.07 || Curtiss R2C-1 ||<ref name="Curtiss p235"/>
|-
| 4 November 1923 || [[Alford J. Williams]] || 266.59 || 429.02 || [[Curtiss R2C-1]] ||<ref name="Curtiss p235">Bowers 1979, p. 235.</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1923/1923%20-%200776.html ''Flight'']. 27 December 1923, p.776.</ref>
|-
| 11 November 1924 || [[Florentin Bonnet]] || 278.37 || 448.171 || [[Bernard Ferbois V2]] ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 4 November 1927 || [[Mario de Bernardi]] || 297.70 || 479.290 || [[Macchi M.52]] ||<ref name="Cooper p619"/>
|-
| 30 March 1928 || Mario de Bernardi || 318.620 || 512.776 || [[Macchi M.52bis]] ||<ref>Robertson, F.A. de V. "[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1928/1928%20-%201043.html The Attempt on the World's Speed Record]". ''[[Flight International|Flight]]'', 8 November 1928, pp. 965–967.</ref>
|-
| 10 September 1929 || [[George Stainforth|George H. Stainforth]]|| 336.3 || 541.4 || [[Gloster VI]] || [[Calshot]], UK<ref>James 1971, p.188.</ref>
|-
| 12 September 1929 || [[Augustus Orlebar]] || 357.7 || 575.5 || [[Supermarine S.6]] seaplane || Calshot, UK<ref>Andrews and Morgan 1987, p.194.</ref>
|-
| 1929 || [[Giuseppe Motta (pilot)|Giuseppe Motta]] || 362.0 || 582.6 || [[Macchi M.67]] ||
|-
| 13 September 1931 || George H. Stainforth || 407.5 || 655.8 || [[Supermarine S.6B]] seaplane || [[Lee-on-the-Solent]], UK<ref>Andrews and Morgan 1987, p. 201.</ref>
|-
| 1933 || [[Francesco Agello]] || 424 || 682 || [[Macchi M.C.72]] seaplane ||
|-
| 1934 || [[Francesco Agello]] || 440.6 || 709.0 || [[Macchi M.C.72]] seaplane ||
|-
| 1935 || [[Howard Hughes]] || 352 || 566 || [[Hughes H-1 Racer]] landplane – Not an Official FAI record||
|-
| 26 April 1939 || [[Fritz Wendel]] ||469.220 || 755.138 || [[Me 209]] V1 || [[Augsburg]]<ref name="Janes 65 p346"/>
|-
| 1941 ||[[Heini Dittmar]] || 623.65 || 1003.67 || Rocket powered – Not an Official FAI record but over the 3 km FAI distance [[Messerschmitt Me 163#Me 163 A|Messerschmitt Me 163]]A V4 || [[Peenemünde]]<ref>Ferdinand C.W. Käsmann, Die schnellsten Jets der Welt p.122 ISBN 3-925505-26-1 1994</ref><ref>[http://www.sportflug-noervenich.de/html/heini_dittmar.php Heini Dittmar]</ref><ref>Wolfgang Späte, Der streng geheime Vogel Me 163 p.32,33 ISBN 3-895-55142-2 1983</ref>
|-
| 1944 || [[Heinz Herlitzius]] || 624 || 1004||Not an Official FAI record [[Messerschmitt Me 262]] S2 || [[Leipheim]] <ref name="Ferdinand C.W p.122">Ferdinand C.W. Käsmann Die schnellsten Jets der Welt p.122 ISBN 3-925505-26-1 1994</ref>
|-
| 1944 ||[[Heini Dittmar]] || 702 || 1130 || Rocket powered – Not an Official FAI record [[Messerschmitt Me 163]]B V18 || [[Lagerlechfeld]] <ref name="Ferdinand C.W p.122"/>
|-
| 7 November 1945 || [[H. J. Wilson]] || 606.4 || 975.9 || [[Gloster Meteor|Gloster Meteor F Mk4]] || [[Herne Bay, Kent|Herne Bay]], UK<ref name="Mason fighter p340">Mason 1992, p. 340.</ref>
|-
| 7 September 1946 || [[Edward Mortlock Donaldson]] || 615.78 || 990.79 || [[Gloster Meteor|Gloster Meteor F Mk4]] || [[Littlehampton]], UK<ref name="Mason fighter p340"/>
|-
| 19 June 1947 || Col. [[Albert Boyd]] || 623.74 || 1003.60 || [[P-80 Shooting Star|Lockheed P-80R Shooting Star]] || [[Edwards Air Force Base|Muroc]], California, USA<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-080123-063.pdf
| title = Milestones in Aerospace History at Edwards AFB
| accessdate = 2008-07-14
| last = Young | first = James O.
| year = 2007| month =
| publisher = Air Force Flight Test Center History Office
| format = [[PDF]]
}}</ref>
|-
| 20 August 1947 || Cmdr. Turner Caldwell || 640.663 || 1031.049 || [[Douglas Skystreak]] || [[Edwards Air Force Base|Muroc]], California, USA<ref name="Frnc Doug p438">Francillon 1979, p.438.</ref>
|-
| 25 August 1947 || Major [[Marion Eugene Carl]] USMC || 650.796 || 1047.356 || [[Douglas Skystreak]] || [[Edwards Air Force Base|Muroc]], California, USA<ref name="Frnc Doug p438"/>
|-
| 1947 || [[Chuck Yeager]] || 670.0 || 1078 || [[Bell X-1]] – Rocket powered – Not an official FAI C-1 record ||[[Edwards Air Force Base|Muroc]], California,
USA
|-
| 1948 || Maj. [[Richard L. Johnson]], USAF || 670.84 || 1079.6 || [[F-86 Sabre|North American F-86A-3 Sabre]] || [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]], USA<ref>{{cite book|author=Jackson, Robert|title=F-86 Sabre: The Operational Record|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|year=1994}}</ref>
|-
| 1952 || [[J. Slade Nash]] || 698.5 || 1,124.1 || [[F-86D Sabre|North American F-86D Sabre]] || [[Salton Sea]], USA
|-
| 1953 || [[William Barnes]] || 715.7 || 1,151.8 || [[F-86D Sabre|North American F-86D Sabre]] || [[Salton Sea]], USA
|-
| 7 September 1953 || [[Neville Duke]] || 727.6 || 1,171 || [[Hawker Hunter|Hawker Hunter F Mk3]] || [[Littlehampton]], UK<ref name="Mason fighter p370">Mason 1992, p. 370.</ref>
|-
| 26 September 1953 || [[Mike Lithgow]] || 735.7 || 1,184 || [[Supermarine Swift|Supermarine Swift F4]] || Castel Idris, [[Tripoli]], [[Libya]]<ref name="Mason fighter p366">Mason 1992, p. 366.</ref>
|-
| 3 October 1953 || [[James B. Verdin]], US Navy || 752.9 || 1,211.5 || [[F4D Skyray|Douglas F4D Skyray]]|| Salton Sea, USA<ref name="Frnc Doug p476">Francillon 1979, p.476.</ref>
|-
| October 1953 || [[Frank K. Everest]] USAF || 755.1 || 1,215.3 || [[F-100 Super Sabre|North American F-100 Super Sabre]]|| Salton Sea, USA
|-
| colspan=6 | ''From this point records are set at altitude and not sea level.''
|-
| October 1955 || [[Horace A. Hanes]] || 822.1 || 1,323 || [[F-100 Super Sabre|North American F-100C Super Sabre]] || [[Palmdale, California|Palmdale]], USA
|-
| 10 March 1956 || [[Peter Twiss]] || 1,132 || 1,822 || [[Fairey Delta 2]] || [[Chichester]], UK<ref name="Taylor Fairey p432">Taylor 1974, p. 432.</ref>
|-
| December 1957 || [[USAF]] || 1,207.6 || 1,943.5 || [[F-101_Voodoo#Variants|McDonnell F-101A Voodoo]] || Edwards Air Force Base, USA<ref name="Frnc Doug p544">Francillon 1979, p. 544.</ref>
|-
|May 1958 || Cap. [[WW Irwin]], USAF || 1,404 || 2,259.5 || [[F-104 Starfighter#Variants|Lockheed F-104C Starfighter]] || Edwards Air Force Base, USA
|-
| 31 October 1959 || Col. [[Georgii Mosolov]] || 1,484 || 2,388 || Ye-66 (proto [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21]]) || USSR<ref name="MiG p298,0">Belyakov and Marmain 1994, pp. 298, 300.</ref>
|-
| December 1959 || Maj. [[Joseph Rogers]], USAF|| 1,525.9 || 2,455.7 || [[F-106 Delta Dart|Convair F-106 Delta Dart]] || Edwards Air Force Base, USA
|-
| 22 November 1961 || [[Robert G. Robinson]], US Navy || 1606.3 || 2585.1 || Modified [[F-4 Phantom II|McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II]] || Edwards Air Force Base, USA<ref name="Frnc Doug p572">Francillon 1979, p. 572.</ref>
|-
| 7 July 1962 || Col. [[Georgii Mosolov]] || 1665.9 || 2681 || Mikoyan Gurevich Ye-166 – name adopted for the record attempt, originally a version of a [[Ye-152]] || USSR<ref name="Janes 65 p346">Taylor 1965, p. 346.</ref><ref name="MiG p274-5">Belyakov and Marmain 1994, pp. 274–275.</ref>
|-
| 1 May 1965 || [[Robert L. Stephens]] and [[Daniel Andre]] || 2,070.1 || 3,331.5 || [[Lockheed YF-12|Lockheed YF-12A]] || [[Edwards Air Force Base|Edwards AFB]], USA<ref name="Janes 76 p72">Taylor 1976, p. 72.</ref>
|-
| 28 July 1976 || Capt. [[Eldon W. Joersz]] and Maj. George T. Morgan || 2,193.2 || 3,529.6 || [[Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird]] #61-7958|| [[Beale AFB]], USA<ref name="Janes 88 p[51]">Taylor 1988, p. [51].</ref>
|}

==Official records versus unofficial==
The [[SR-71 Blackbird|Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird]] holds the official Air Speed Record for a manned airbreathing jet aircraft with a speed of 3,530 km/h (2,194 mph). It was capable of taking off and landing unassisted on conventional runways. The record was set on 28 July 1976 by Eldon W. Joersz near Beale Air Force Base, [[California]], [[USA]].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://records.fai.org/general_aviation/current.asp?id1=21&id2=4
| title = Current air speed record
| accessdate = 2006-10-18
}}</ref>

For a period of time, during and immediately following World War II, the unpublicised and unofficial speed record of 1004.5 km/h (623.8 mph) set by the [[Messerschmitt Me 163#Me_163_A|Messerschmitt Me 163]]AV4 (the third prototype) rocket aircraft, on October 2, 1941 was actually the fastest velocity any aircraft had been measured as traveling to that time. That figure, set during wartime when no records were being ratified, was achieved by the Me 163A V4 at altitude rather than sea-level as it had been towed by a [[Messerschmitt Bf 110|Bf 110]] to set the record. Many record attempts were stated as being "set" after World War II by such aircraft as the [[Gloster Meteor]], which exceeded the 755 km/h (469 mph) velocity record of the pre-war holder (the [[Messerschmitt Me 209]] V1 piston engined aircraft) but the first to actually exceed the Me 163 A V4 claim was the [[Douglas Skystreak]] on August 20, 1947.

The fastest manned atmospheric vehicle of all time was the [[command module|Apollo command module]] as it returned from the moon, reaching speeds of around [[Mach number|Mach]] 30. Although it used the air largely as a brake, it did also achieve a [[lift to drag ratio]] of around 0.368<ref>[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19690029435_1969029435.pdf Hillje, Ernest R., "Entry Aerodynamics at Lunar Return Conditions Obtained from the Flight of Apollo 4 (AS-501)," NASA TN D-5399, (1969).]</ref> which was used to control the flight trajectory. However this is probably very different from most people's idea of an 'aircraft'.

==Other air speed records==
{| class=wikitable
|-
! rowspan="2" | Year
! rowspan="2" | Pilot
! colspan="2" | Airspeed
! rowspan="2" | Aircraft
! rowspan="2" | Comments
|-
!mph
!km/h
|-
| 1960 || Ivan Soukhomline (USSR)|| 541.45 || 871.38 || [[Tu-114|Tupolev Tu-114]] || [[Fastest propeller-driven aircraft]]
|-
| 1967 ||[[William Joseph Knight|'Pete' Knight]]|| 4,510 || 7,274 || [[North American X-15]] || [[Rocket plane]]; incapable of breathing air
|-
| 1981-''present''|| Multiple || 17,500 || 28,000 || [[Space Shuttle]] || Speed attained during [[atmospheric reentry]]
|-
| August 11, 1986 || John Egginton || 249.1 || 400.87 || [[Westland Lynx|Westland Lynx 800 ''G-LYNX'']] || Fastest helicopter<ref>[http://records.fai.org/rotorcraft/absolute.asp FAI rotorcraft absolute record]</ref>
|-
| December 31, 1988 || L.P. Krantov || 258.8 || 415 || [[Tupolev Tu-134|Tupolev Tu-134A]] || Fastest landing speed record (76 passengers aboard, no one harmed)<ref>[http://www.svavia.ru/info/lib/sel_chsm13.html Л.Л. Селяков. "Человек, среда, машина"] Самолет Ту-134А №65011</ref>
|-
|August 21, 1989 || Lyle Shelton || 528 ||850 || [[Rare Bear|F8F Bearcat ''Rare Bear'']] || Fastest straight-line piston-engined aircraft
|-
| November 16, 2004 || Unmanned || 7,546 || 12,144 || [[NASA X-43]]a || Air-launched [[hypersonic]] [[scramjet]]
|-
|December 22, 2006 || [[Klaus Ohlmann]] & Matias Garcia Mazzaro || 190.6 ||306.8 || [[Schempp-Hirth Nimbus-4|Schempp-Hirth Nimbus-4DM]] || Fastest [[glider (sailplane)]] over 500km<ref>[http://records.fai.org/file?i=2&f=14392 FAI web-site - Accessed 25 Jan 2011]</ref>
|-
| September 15, 2010 || Kevin Bredenbeck || 299 || 481 || [[Sikorsky X2]] || Fastest [[compound helicopter]] (unofficial)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2010/09/15/347379/sikorsky-x2-hits-250kt-goal.html |title=Sikorsky X2 hits 250kt goal |author= Croft, John |publisher = Flight International |date= September 15, 2010 |accessdate=2010-09-16 }}</ref>
|}

==See also==

* [[List of vehicle speed records]]
* [[Lockheed X-7|Lockheed X-7 - Mach 4.31 (2,881mph) in the 1950s]]
* [[World record]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

* Andrews, C.F. and E.B. Morgan. ''Supermarine Aircraft since 1914''. London:Putnam, 1987. ISBN 0-85177-800-3.
* Belyakov, R.A. and J. Marmain. ''MiG: Fifty Years of Secret Aircraft Design''. Shrewsbury, UK:Airlife, 1994. ISBN 1-85310-488-4.
* Bowers, Peter M. ''Curtiss Aircraft 1907–1947''. London:Putnam, 1979. ISBN 0-370-10029-8.
* Cooper, H.J. [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1951/1951%20-%200986.html "The World's Speed Record"]. ''[[Flight International|Flight]]'', 25 May 1951, pp. 617–619.
* [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1924/1924%20-%200073.html?tracked=1 "Eighteen Years of World's Records"]. ''Flight'', 7 February 1924, pp. 73–75.
* Francillon, René J. ''McDonnell Douglas Aircraft since 1920''. London:Putnam, 1979. ISBN 0-370-00050-1.
* James, Derek N. ''Gloster Aircraft since 1917''. London:Putnam, 1971. ISBN 0-370-00084-6.
* Mason, Francis K. ''The British Fighter since 1912''. Annapolis Maryland, USA: Naval Instute Press, 1992. ISBN 1-55750-082-7.
* Taylor, H. A. ''Fairey Aircraft since 1915''. London:Putnam, 1974. ISBN 0-370-00065-x.
* [[John W. R. Taylor|Taylor, John W. R.]] ''Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1965–66''. London:Sampson Low, Marston & Company, 1965.
* [[John W. R. Taylor|Taylor, John W. R.]] ''Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1976–77''. London:Jane's Yearbooks, 1976. ISBN 0-354-00538-3.
* [[John W. R. Taylor|Taylor, John W. R.]] ''Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89''. Coulsdon, UK:Jane's Defence Data, 1988. ISBN 0-7106-0867-5.

== External links ==
*[http://records.fai.org/general_aviation/ web site] of the [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] (FAI)
*[http://www.speedrecordclub.com/outair.php Speed records time line]

{{extreme motion}}
{{Aviation lists}}

[[Category:Aviation records]]
[[Category:Air racing]]
[[Category:Airspeed]]

[[it:Primati mondiali di velocità di volo]]
[[hu:Repülőgépek sebességi rekordjai]]
[[ja:航空機の速度記録]]
[[vi:Kỷ lục tốc độ bay]]
[[zh:飛行速度記錄]]

Eridania (Gradfeld)

2011-03-08T08:05:08Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

The '''Eridania [[quadrangle (geography)|quadrangle]]''' is one of a series of [[list of quadrangles on Mars|30 quadrangle maps of Mars]] used by the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) [[Astrogeology Research Program]]. The Eridania quadrangle is also referred to as MC-29 (Mars Chart-29).<ref>Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. “Geodesy and Cartography” in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. ''Mars.'' University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.</ref>

The '''Eridania quadrangle''' lies between 30° and 65° south latitude and 180° and 240° west longitude on the planet [[Mars]]. Most of the classic region named [[Terra Cimmeria]] is found within this quadrangle. Part of the [[Electris deposits]], a 100-200 meters thick, light-toned deposit covers the Eridania quadrangle. <ref>Grant, J. and P. Schultz. 1990. Gradational epochs on Mars: Evidence from west-northwest of Isidis Basin and Electric. Icarus: 84. 166-195.</ref>

==[[Martian Gullies]]==

The Eridania quadrangle is the location of gullies that may be due to recent flowing water. Gullies occur on steep slopes, especially on the walls of craters. Gullies are believed to be relatively young because they have few, if any craters. Moreover, they lie on top of sand dunes which themselves are considered to be quite young. Usually, each gully has an alcove, channel, and apron. Some studies have found that gullies occur on slopes that face all directions,<ref>Edgett, K. et al. 2003. Polar-and middle-latitude martian gullies: A view from MGS MOC after 2 Mars years in the mapping orbit. Lunar Planet. Sci. 34. Abstract 1038.</ref> others have found that the greater number of gullies are found on poleward facing slopes, especially from 30-44 S.<ref>http://www.planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/3138.pdf</ref><ref>Dickson, J. et al. 2007. Martian gullies in the southern mid-latitudes of Mars Evidence for climate-controlled formation of young fluvial features based upon local and global topography. Icarus: 188. 315-323</ref>

Although many ideas have been put forward to explain them,<ref>http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Aug03/MartianGullies.html</ref> the most popular involve liquid water coming from an [[aquifer]], from melting at the base of old [[glaciers]], or from the melting of ice in the ground when the climate was warmer.<ref>Heldmann, J. and M. Mellon. Observations of martian gullies and constraints on potential formation mechanisms. 2004. Icarus. 168: 285-304.</ref><ref>Forget, F. et al. 2006. Planet Mars Story of Another World. Praxis Publishing. Chichester, UK.</ref> Because of the good possibility that liquid water was involved with their formation and that they could be very young, scientists are excited. Maybe the gullies are where we should go to find life.

There is evidence for all three theories. Most of the gully alcove heads occur at the same level, just as one would expect of an [[aquifer]]. Various measurements and calculations show that liquid water could exist in aquifers at the usual depths where gullies begin.<ref>Heldmann, J. and M. Mellon. 2004. Observations of martian gullies and constraints on potential formation mechanisms. Icarus. 168:285-304</ref> One variation of this model is that rising hot [[magma]] could have melted ice in the ground and caused water to flow in aquifers. Aquifers are layer that allow water to flow. They may consist of porous sandstone. The aquifer layer would be perched on top of another layer that prevents water from going down (in geological terms it would be called impermeable). Because water in an aquifer is prevented from going down, the only direction the trapped water can flow is horizontally. Eventually, water could flow out onto the surface when the aquifer reaches a break—like a crater wall. The resulting flow of water could erode the wall to create gullies.<ref>http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/mars_aquifer_041112.html</ref> Aquifers are quite common on Earth. A good example is "Weeping Rock" in [[Zion National Park]] [[Utah]].<ref>Harris, A and E. Tuttle. 1990. Geology of National Parks. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, Iowa</ref>

As for the next theory, much of the surface of Mars is covered by a thick smooth mantle that is thought to be a mixture of ice and dust.<ref>Malin, M. and K. Edgett. 2001. Mars Global Surveyor Mars Orbiter Camera: Interplanetary cruse through primary mission. J. Geophys. Res: 106> 23429-23570</ref><ref>Mustard, J. et al. 2001. Evidence for recent climate change on Mars from the identification of youthful near-surface ground ice. Nature: 412. 411-414.</ref><ref>Carr, M. 2001. Mars Global Surveyor observations of fretted terrain. J. Geophys. Res: 106. 23571-23595.</ref> This ice-rich mantle, a few yards thick, smooths the land, but in places it has a bumpy texture, resembling the surface of a basketball. The mantle may be like a glacier and under certain conditions the ice that is mixed in the mantle could melt and flow down the slopes and make gullies.<ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15702457?</ref><ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/105/36/13258.full</ref><ref>Head, J. et al. 2008. Formation of gullies on Mars: Link to recent climate history and insolation microenvironments implicate surface water flow origin. PNAS: 105. 13258-13263.</ref> Because there are few craters on this mantle, the mantle is relatively young. An excellent view of this mantle is shown below in the picture of the Ptolemaeus Crater Rim, as seen by [[HiRISE]].<ref>Christensen, P. 2003. Formation of recent martian gullies through melting of extensive water-rich snow deposits. Nature: 422. 45-48.</ref>
The ice-rich mantle may be the result of climate changes.<ref>http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/03/080319-mars-gullies_2.html</ref> Changes in Mars's orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water comes back to ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor will condense on the particles, then fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When Mars is at its greatest tilt or obliquity, up to 2 cm of ice could be removed from the summer ice cap and deposited at midlatitudes. This movement of water could last for several thousand years and create a snow layer of up to around 10 meters thick.<ref>Jakosky B. and M. Carr. 1985. Possible precipitation of ice at low latitudes of Mars during periods of high obliquity. Nature: 315. 559-561.</ref><ref>Jakosky, B. et al. 1995. Chaotic obliquity and the nature of the Martian climate. J. Geophys. Res: 100. 1579-1584.</ref> When ice at the top of the mantling layer goes back into the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulating the remaining ice.<ref>MLA NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (2003, December 18). Mars May Be Emerging From An Ice Age. ScienceDaily. Retrieved February 19, 2009, from http://www.sciencedaily.com /releases/2003/12/031218075443.htmAds by GoogleAdvertise</ref> Measurements of altitudes and slopes of gullies support the idea that snowpacks or glaciers are associated with gullies. Steeper slopes have more shade which would preserve snow.<ref>http://www.planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/3138.pdf</ref><ref>Dickson, J. et al. 2007. Martian gullies in the southern mid-latitudes of Mars Evidence for climate-controlled formation of young fluvial features based upon local and global topography. Icarus: 188. 315-323.</ref>
Higher elevations have far fewer gullies because ice would tend to sublimate more in the thin air of the higher altitude.<ref>Hecht, M. 2002. Metastability of liquid water on Mars. Icarus: 156. 373-386.</ref>

The third theory might be possible since climate changes may be enough to simply allow ice in the ground to melt and thus form the gullies. During a warmer climate, the first few meters of ground could thaw and produce a "debris flow" similar to those on the dry and cold Greenland east coast.<ref>Peulvast, J. Physio-Geo. 18. 87-105.</ref> Since the gullies occur on steep slopes only a small decrease of the shear strength of the soil particles is needed to begin the flow. Small amounts of liquid water from melted ground ice could be enough.<ref>Costard, F. et al. 2001. Debris Flows on Mars: Analogy with Terrestrial Periglacial Environment and Climatic Implications. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXII (2001). 1534.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.spaceref.com:16090/news/viewpr.html?pid=7124,</ref> Calculations show that a third of a mm of runoff can be produced each day for 50 days of each Martian year, even under current conditions.<ref>Clow, G. 1987. Generation of liquid water on Mars through the melting of a dusty snowpack. Icarus: 72. 93-127.</ref>

<gallery>

Image:Gullies and tongue-shaped glacier.jpg|Gullies in a crater in Eridania, north of the large crater Kepler. Also, features that may be remains of old [[glaciers]] are present. One, to the right, has the shape of a tongue. Image taken with [[Mars Global Surveyor]].

Image:ESP_020330gulliesandmantlelayers.jpg|HiRISE image showing gullies. The scale bar is 500 meters. Picture taken under the [[HiWish program]].

</gallery>

==Surface ==

Some surfaces in Eridania are covered with a mantling unit that is believed to be water ice-rich. In some places the surface displays a pitted or dissected texture; these textures are suggestive of material that once held ice that has since disappeared allowing the remaining soil to collapse into the subsurface.<ref>http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_006736_1325</ref>

==Dust Devil Tracks ==

Many areas on Mars, including Eridania, experience the passage of giant [[dust devils]]. A thin coating of fine bright dust covers most of the Martian surface. When a dust devil goes by it blows away the coating and exposes the underlying dark surface.

Dust devils occur when the sun warms up the air near a flat, dry surface. The warm air then rises quickly through the cooler air and begins spinning while moving ahead. This spinning, moving cell may pick up dust and sand then leave behind a clean surface. <ref>http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_00481_2410</ref>

Dust devils have been seen from the ground and high overhead from orbit. They have even blown the dust off of the [[solar panels]] of the two [[Mars Exploration Rover|Rovers]] on Mars, thereby greatly extending their lives.<ref>http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/press/spirit/20070412a.html</ref> The twin Rovers were designed to last for 3 months, instead they have lasted more than six years and are still going. The pattern of the tracks have been shown to change every few months.<ref>http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/spotlight/KenEdgett.html</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Kepler Crater.JPG|[[Kepler (Martian crater)]] showing dust devil tracks, as seen by [[Mars Global Surveyor]].

Image:Dust devil tracks in Eridania.JPG|Pattern of large and small tracks made by giant dust devils as seen by Mars Global Surveyor.

</gallery>

== Palemagnetism ==

The [[Mars Global Surveyor]] (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and [[Eridania quadrangle]]s ([[Terra Cimmeria]] and [[Terra Sirenum]]).<ref>Barlow, N. 2008. Mars: An Introduction to its Interior, Surface and Atmosphere. Cambridge University Press</ref> <ref>ISBN 978-0-387-48925-4</ref>The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down.<ref>ISBN 978-0-521-82956-4</ref> When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960's, they were taken as evidence of [[plate tectonics]]. Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity.<ref>http:www.space.com/scienceastronomy/mars-plate-tectonics-recent-past-110103.html</ref> When the rocks became solid they retained the magnetism that existed at the time. A magnetic field of a planet is believed to be caused by fluid motions under the surface. <ref>Connerney, J. et al. 1999. Magnetic lineations in the ancient crust of Mars. Science: 284. 794-798.</ref> <ref>Langlais, B. et al. 2004. Crustal magnetic field of Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research. 109: EO2008</ref> <ref>Connerney, J. et al. 2005. Tectonic implications of Mars crustal magnetism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 102: 14970-14975</ref> However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone.
Because the area containing the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life, when the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo. There are no magnetic fields near large impact basins like Hellas. The shock of the impact may have erased the remnant magnetization in the rock. So, magnetism produced by early fluid motion in the core would not have existed after the impacts. <ref>Acuna, M. et al. 1999. Global distribution of crustal magnetization discovered by the Mars Global Surveyor MAG/ER Experiment. Science. 284: 790-793.</ref>

When molten rock containing magnetic material, such as [[hematite]] (Fe2O3), cools and solidifies in the presence of a magnetic field, it becomes magnetized and takes on the polarity of the background field. This magnetism is lost only if the rock is subsequently heated above a particular temperature (the Curie point which is 770°C for iron). The magnetism left in rocks is a record of the magnetic field when the rock solidified.<ref>http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=31028&fbodylongid=645</ref>

== Gallery ==

<gallery>
Image:Chart 29- Eridania.JPG|Map of Eridania quadrangle, with major craters.

Image:Ariadne Colles Chaos.JPG|Ariadne Colles Chaos, as seen by [[HiRISE]]. The original image displays many interesting details. The scale bar is 500 meters long.

Image:Ariadness Colles Hummocks.JPG|Hummocks in Ariadness Colles, as seen by HiRISE. Right picture is an enlargement of a portion of the other picture.
</gallery>

==See also==

* [[Climate of Mars]]
* [[Water on Mars]]
* [[Dust Devil Tracks]]
* [[Chaos terrain]]
* [[Martian Gullies]]

===External links===
* [http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Aug03/MartianGullies.html] Gives a general review of many of the theories involving the origin of gullies.
* [http://www.planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/3138.pdf] Gives a good review of the history of the discovery of gullies.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Mars quadrangle layout}}

[[Category:Eridania quadrangle|*]]

[[fr:Quadrangle d'Eridania]]

Environmental Investigation Agency

2011-03-08T07:48:54Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{primarysources|date=February 2010}}
The '''Environmental Investigation Agency''' (EIA) is an [[NGO]] founded in 1984 by [[Dave Currey (environmentalist)|Dave Currey]], Jennifer Lonsdale and Allan Thornton, three environmental activists in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>"Green Gumshoes", Sunday Times Mag, 17/6/1990</ref> Its stated goal is to investigate and expose [[crime]]s against [[wildlife]] and the [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]].<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/index.shtml Welcome to EIA]</ref> Full-time EIA investigators work [[undercover]] gathering film, photos and information from around the world.
The evidence they collect is presented to the media, government and policy makers in order to inform and persuade that action must be taken in order to protect the planet's most precious [[species]], [[habitat]]s and vital [[ecosystem]]s.<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/cgi/news/news.cgi?t=template&a=453&source= Environmental Crime]</ref>

EIA also campaigns to prevent [[environmental crime]]. Currently EIA is working to:

* Prevent the illegal trade of [[ozone]] depleting substances,
* Reduce and phase out the use of certain [[climate change]] gases and various other harmful chemicals (HFCs/F-gases etc).
* Stop the [[Deforestation|destruction of rainforests]] by [[illegal logging]].
* Shut down the market for illegally [[Ivory trade|traded ivory]].
* Maintain the ban on commercial [[whaling|whale hunting]].
* Halt to the illegal trade in Asian [[big cats]] for skins, bones and items such as [[tiger bone wine]].

== Campaigns ==
'''Forests'''

EIA's [[Forest]] Team recently carried out a scoping project in [[South East Asia]], where the wooden garden furniture industry is booming. Undercover EIA investigators, posing as timber traders and furniture buyers, documented evidence of illegal timber feeding furniture factories on a large scale.

EIA published its evidence in April 2008<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/cgi/news/news.cgi?t=template&a=447 Borderlines]</ref> with the aim of raising awareness of cross-border timber smuggling among both consumers and the international community. Similar work in [[Indonesia]] has successfully reduced the amount of illegal timber leaving the country and led to international action to protect [[endangered species]].<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/campaigns/forests Forests for the World]</ref>

In November 2007, Indonesian NGOs launched a set of films, made with [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papuan]] villagers, to tell the stories of how their communities had been adversely affected by destructive [[logging]] and [[oil palm]] plantations. By training the local NGOs in research, filming and editing skills, EIA and their Indonesian partner [[Telapak]], were able to empower those most vulnerable to the threats of [[deforestation]] - the forest-reliant communities themselves - and enable them to have their voice heard internationally.<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/showpic.php?pictitle=Poster%20for%20the%20event.%20Click%20for%20larger%20image.&dirname=news&picno=454-1 People of the Forest]</ref>

'''Asian Big Cats'''

EIA is presently working with a coalition of organisations to ensure [[China]] maintains its internal ban on [[tiger]] trading. 2007's meeting of the [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]] ([[CITES]]) in the [[Netherlands]] resulted in a strong resolution stating that "tigers should not be bred for the trade in their parts and derivatives".<ref>[http://www.cites.org/eng/res/all/12/E12-05.pdf CITES]</ref>

The ban was introduced in 1993, but EIA claims powerful business lobbies connected to tiger 'farms' are currently pressing the Chinese Authorities to allow the sale of skins and body parts from captive-bred tigers – with potentially devastating consequences for the remaining wild populations.<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/campaigns/species/tigers/reports/ Tiger Briefings]</ref>
EIA states that it will continue to investigate, document and [[Investigative journalism|expose]] illegal trade in tiger parts and their derivatives, and the criminals who profit from their slaughter. They also call upon [[India]] and [[China]] to adopt intelligence-led enforcement methods and work with the International Tiger Coalition to urge the Chinese authorities to phase out tiger 'farms' and destroy the stockpiles of tiger parts.<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/campaigns/species/tigers/ Tigers]</ref>

'''Cetaceans'''

EIA continues to work through the [[International Whaling Commission]] ([[IWC]]) to ensure that the ban on [[commercial whaling]] remains in place despite the pressure from [[Japan]] and [[Norway]] to over-turn it. The ban is one of the most successful conservation measures of all times and has given great whales time to recover from the decimation of the past.

Japan legally kills minke and great whales for 'scientific research', however EIA has reported that Japan also kills up to 20,000 small [[whales]], [[dolphins]] and [[porpoises]] ([[cetaceans]]) each year in its coastal waters.<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/cgi/background/background.cgi?t=template&a=18 Cetaceans - Japan]</ref> EIA's work is focused on reducing the demand for cetacean products on sale in Japan. They have exposed the threats to those consuming cetacean products from the [[pollutants]] found in the meat and [[blubber]]. As a result they claim that over 2,500 supermarket stores no longer sell these products, and enormous pressure is being placed on corporations with links to this trade to end their involvement.<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/cgi/news/news.cgi?t=template&a=448&source= We Don't Buy It]</ref>

'''Elephants'''

EIA carried out its first pioneering undercover investigations into the [[ivory trade]] in 1987. Investigators travelled through parts of Africa, the Middle East and Asia uncovering the true nature of a business that had reduced the population of African elephants from 1.3 million to only 600,000 in ten years. The ivory ban (1990) would not have been in place without EIA.<ref>"To Save An Elephant" by Allan Thornton & Dave Currey, Doubleday 1991 ISBN 0-385-40111-6</ref><ref name="Indie">Return of the Ivory Trade, Independent Newspaper 12 July 2008 http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/return-of-the-ivory-trade-865797.html</ref> Two founding directors - [[Dave Currey (environmentalist)|Dave Currey]] and Allan Thornton were awarded the Albert Schweitzer Medal for their work by the [[Animal Welfare Institute]].<ref>[http://www.awionline.org/ht/d/Contents/contenttype_id/14/order/date/direction/desc/pid/211 Schweitzer Medalists]</ref>

Since then investigators have continued to uncover the unpalatable truth about some aspects of this trade. Military involvement in South Africa, Zimbabwe and ivory used as currency to buy arms in conflict areas.<ref>"Zimbabwe smugglers kill another officer" New african Nov 1991</ref><ref>New Scientist, 26 Aug 1989</ref>

EIA continues to add a real ground-truthing to the debates that surround elephants and the ivory trade. Recent reports have focused on China's new role in providing an insatiable demand in ivory since it was officially allowed to buy ivory stockpiles in 2008 by CITES; a decision EIA vehemently opposed.<ref name="Indie"/>

'''Global Environment'''

EIA was presented with two prestigious awards at the 20th anniversary meeting of the [[Montreal Protocol]] acknowledging the work done to expose and close down an illicit international trade in [[CFCs]] and other chemicals that damage the [[ozone layer]]. Having received the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) Stratospheric Ozone Protection Award in 2006, EIA was presented the EPA's 'Best-of-the-Best' Stratospheric Ozone Protection Award, selected from more than 500 projects between 1990 and 2007. EIA received the award for "Leadership and Heroism in Preventing Illegal Trade."<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/cgi/news/news.cgi?t=template&a=416 Best of the Best]</ref>

In 2007 the Parties to the [[Montreal Protocol]] agreed to a faster phase out of [[HCFC]]'s (a common chemical [[refrigerant]]), not only because these chemicals damage the [[ozone layer]], but because of their potent [[global warming]] potential. EIA is continuing this work by advising parties to the [[Kyoto Protocol]] and the [[Montreal Protocol]] to ensure the transition away from [[HCFC]]'s is towards climate friendly natural refrigerant solutions and not [[hydrofluorocarbons]] or HFCs, the highly potent global warming, man-made chemicals that industry currently favours. EIA is extending their work to improve public awareness of the global warming impact of HFCs through their "Chilling Facts" <ref>"Chilling Facts" [http://www.chillingfacts.org] </ref> campaign which analyses and ranks UK supermarkets efforts to move beyond HFCs and install natural refrigerant commercial refrigeration systems using carbon dioxide or hydrocarbons or ammonia.

For over a decade the Environmental Investigation Agency has been at the forefront of efforts to curb illegal trade in ozone-depleting chemicals.<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/cgi/background/background.cgi?t=template&a=26 Global Environment Campaign]</ref> Having achieved considerable success, EIA now seeks to apply its experience to other categories of controlled chemicals, which are harmful to the environment, principally [[hazardous waste]] and [[pesticides]]. This project will conduct scoping research into the illicit trade in controlled chemicals and, using this information, prepare for a series of investigations. This work proposes to raise awareness and understanding of the issues at a governmental and institutional level, with an eventual aim to achieve improved enforcement of international conventions regulating trade in harmful chemicals and foster cross-border cooperation.

== Animal Detectives TV Series ==

In 1995, Independent Television Network (ITV) broadcast a TV series called The Animal Detectives in the UK. The series commissioned by Carlton Television was produced by Goldhawk together with Ecodetectives, a company owned by directors of EIA. The series, based on EIA's undercover investigation work into the trade in endagered species, showed footage from EIA's undercover filming. The series had seven episodes, each covering a different group of animals-

Episodes
BEARS (01/06/1995)
WHALES (25/05/1995)
PARROTS (18/05/1995)
WALRUS (11/05/1995)
RHINOS (04/05/1995)
TURTLES (30/03/1995)
MONKEYS (23/02/1995)<ref>[http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/series/24687 British Film Institute]</ref>

The series won the Media Natura award for best film, the Brigitte Bardot International Genesis Award (Los Angeles), and the Gold Plaque at the Chicago Documentary Film Festival.<ref>http://www.goldhawkmedia.co.uk/?page=programmes Goldhawk Media</ref>

== Quotes ==
* ''"EIA's track record of investigative work, scientific documentation, and representation at international conventions has earned EIA a reputation for highly effective and successful campaigning. EIA continues to share these skills with local groups and government officials to help empower them in the fight against environmental crime."''
- The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2007<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/Ozone/awards/bestofthebest/2007_botb_winners.html EPA Quote]</ref>

* ''"EIA is a highly-respected, hard-hitting, dirt-digging organisation".''
- BBC Wildlife Magazine<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/files/content70-1.pdf BBC Quote 1]</ref>

* ''"The reason for their success is not just the information gathered, it is the way they use it as a political lobbying tool. One of Britain's most effective conservation groups."''
- BBC Wildlife Magazine<ref>[http://www.eia-international.org/about/campaigning_methods/ BBC Quote 2]</ref>

* ''"I am proud to support EIA. Thanks to their brave and pioneering methods of undercover work to expose crimes against wildlife and the environment, they have made a great difference to the world in which we all live"''
- Sting

* ''"EIA performs an extremely important role in investigating various abuses of the natural world. I believe it deserves support from anyone concerned about the future of the living world."''
- Sir Peter Scott

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web | url = http://www.eia-international.org/ | title = Environmental Investigation Agency (UK) |accessdate = 2007-06-18}}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.eia-global.org/ | title = Environmental Investigation Agency (US) |accessdate = 2007-06-27}}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.douglasadams.com/news/ | title = Douglas Adams Memorial Lecture |}}
* [http://www.wild-photos.co.uk EIA co-founder Dave Currey's website showcasing his photography and services]

[[Category:Environmental organisations based in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Non-governmental organizations]]

[[it:Environmental Investigation Agency]]

Else Mayer

2011-03-08T06:52:49Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

'''Else Mayer''' (1891–1962) was a [[Germany|German]] [[nun]] and [[Feminist movement|women's liberation]] activist during the period of the [[First-wave feminism]]. She was one of the pioneers of the German Women's Liberation Movement.

Else Mayer is the daughter of the German jeweler [[Victor Mayer]]. She spent her childhood and youth in the family business before she became a nun. After she visited several nunneries she decided to found her own, '''Erlöserbund''', in 1916. With the support of her family she bought buildings in [[Bonn]] and started to support young female students who received housing from her.

Erlöserbund was closed in 2005 and reorganized as a charitable foundation. The [[Else Mayer Foundation]] presents an annual award, the '''Else Mayer Award''', to applicants who are deemed to qualify as ideological successors to Else Mayer. The award constitutes in 4000 [[euro]]. [[Germany|German]] [[Education Minister]] [[Annette Schavan]] was the inaugural recipient of this award in 2006. The German [[feminist]] [[Alice Schwarzer]] received the award in 2007.

== Publications ==

* The Else Mayer Foundation official Website [http://stiftungelsemayer.org/stiftung.html]

*The Donation Else Mayer ISBN 3-00-020628-0/ISBN 978-3-00-020628-3

*Else Mayer Award [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=de&u=http://www.pz-news.de/pforzheim/87667/index.html&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=4&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3Delse%2Bmayer%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26sa%3DG]

*Bonn Newspaper [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=de&u=http://www.general-anzeiger-bonn.de/index.php%3Fk%3Dnews%26itemid%3D10490%26detailid%3D257179&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=5&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3Delse%2Bmayer,%2Bbonn%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26sa%3DG]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Mayer, Else
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1891
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1962
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mayer, Else}}
[[Category:German Roman Catholic nuns]]
[[Category:German activists]]
[[Category:German women's rights activists]]
[[Category:Christian feminists]]
[[Category:1891 births]]
[[Category:1962 deaths]]

El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico

2011-03-08T05:55:12Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{Refimprove|date=April 2008}}
{{Refimprove|date=July 2010}}
{{Infobox musical artist 
| Name = El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico
| Img = 
| Img_capt = El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico
| Img_size =
| Landscape =
| Background = group_or_band
| Alias =
| Origin = [[Puerto Rico]]
| Genre = [[Salsa music]]
| Years_active = 1962–present
| Label =
| Associated_acts =
| URL = [http://www.elgrancombodepuertorico.net www.elgrancombodepuertorico.net/]
| Current_members =
| Past_members =
| Notable_instruments =
}}
'''El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico''', commonly known as '''El Gran Combo''' (and sometimes abbreviated as '''EGC'''), is a [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican]] [[Salsa music]] orchestra. It is [[Puerto Rico]]'s most successful musical group, and one of the most popular salsa orchestras across Latin America. The group received the moniker ''La Universidad de la Salsa'' (''The University of Salsa'') in Colombia, due to the sheer number of famous salsa musicians and singers who developed their careers with it, who started with the group (particularly [[Andy Montañez]]), or who were occasionally backed up by the band (including [[Celia Cruz]], [[Héctor Lavoe]] and [[La India]]).

El Gran Combo was founded in May 1962,<ref>Keeling and Rough Guides: "The Rough Guide to Puerto Rico", page 377. Rough Guides, 2008.</ref> by [[Rafael Ithier]]. Ithier is still nominally its musical director, and he and saxophonist Eddie ''"La Bala"'' Pérez are the only remaining members from the band's original lineup. {{As of|2010|lc=on}} Willie Sotelo, who joined the group in 2006 as pianist, has become the band's ''de facto'' musical director on tours, with Ithier conducting the group and playing occasionally in select live performances. They are still actively performing after 47 years together.<ref>Frommer's Puerto Rico: Marino, p. 37</ref>

==History==
===Inception===
Rafael Ithier had been a member of [[Rafael Cortijo]]'s "Cortijo y su Combo" orchestra. After singer [[Ismael Rivera]] faced legal problems in [[Panama]], some of the group's musicians departed, with Ithier relocating temporarily to the eastern United States before returning to Puerto Rico. Rafael Alvarez Guedes, the [[Cuba|Cuban-born]] owner of the Gema recording label (and brother of comedic actor [[Guillermo Alvarez Guedes|Guillermo]]), needed a backing band to record an album for legendary [[Dominican Republic|Dominican]] [[merengue]] singer [[Joseíto Mateo]]. He asked Ithier for assistance, and Ithier responded by bringing in many of his former colleagues to the studio. For their first recording sessions, the orchestra included some musicians from Cortijo's original lineup, including saxophonist [[Hector Santos]], trumpet player Rogelio "Kito" Velez, and percussionists Martín Quiñones, Miguel Cruz and [[Roberto Roena]]. Alvarez Guedes was told by Ithier that the name of the group was El Gran Combo, as to refer to the musicians' former affiliation, but addressing their regrouping as a "new and improved" version of Cortijo's orchestra. The album they recorded was titled ''[[Menéame Los Mangos]], El Gran Combo con Joseito Mateo'' (the phrase translates as ''Shake My Handles'' or ''Shake My Mangoes,'' a play on words).

The group met again to define the foundations of a proper orchestra and chose singers Daniel Vázquez, [[Pellin Rodríguez|Pellín Rodríguez]] and [[Chiqui García|Chiquitín García]] (who later composed, among other major EGC hits, ''"No Hago Más Ná",'' or ''"I Don't Do A Thing"''). On May 21, 1962, El Gran Combo was heard for the first time on Puerto Rican radio. Later on, they became the in-studio musicians of the live television show, "La Taberna India", sponsored by [[Compañía Cervecera de Puerto Rico|India Beer]].

After their live debut at [[Hotel La Concha]] in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]], Chiquitín García left the orchestra. Vocalist [[Sammy Ayala]], who had also played with Ithier in the Cortijo orchestra, recommended the hiring of [[Andy Montañez]]. [[Felipe Rodríguez]], a legendary singer of romantic music, also followed the group's career closely, sometimes even making suggestions to Ithier.

===First albums===
On November 20, 1963, El Gran Combo released their first group album, ''[[Acángana]]'', with Rodríguez and Montañez as lead singers. The album became a number one hit in [[New York]], [[Panama]] and [[Puerto Rico]]. Their success opened doors for them in many [[Latin American]] markets and they gained an exclusivity spot on the [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican]] television show ''[[El Show de las 12]]''. The album also reached gold status.

On 1964, trumpet player and arranger [[Elías Lopés]] joined the orchestra, coinciding with the group's first popularity wave. With their daily TV appearances and extensive touring, however, demand for the group declined due to overexposure. Still, in 1967, their album ''[[Boogaloo con el Gran Combo]]'' also reached gold status. In 1969, Roena and Lopés left the orchestra to form the ''Apollo Sound'' together. Despite all this, that same year the group was awarded an ''Agüeybana de Oro'' in Puerto Rico.

===Near death experience===

On February 15, 1970, the members of ''El Gran Combo'' shared a near death experience. They were returning to Puerto Rico from [[Curaçao]], and had to stop at [[Las Américas International Airport]] in [[Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic|Santo Domingo]]. One of the band's members had a bad premonition about the flight they were about to embark on, and the orchestra decided not to take that flight, which would turn out to be [[Dominicana DC-9 air disaster|the Dominicana Airlines DC-9 that crashed off the Caribbean coast]].

===The 1970s===

In 1970, their contract with Gema Records wasn't renewed. Despite offers from the renowned [[Motown]] label, El Gran Combo decided to produce their own albums, under the label "Combo Records". Their first album under their label, EGC, is titled ''[[Estamos Primeros]]''.

In 1971, El Gran Combo introduced the [[trombone]] to their instrument mix. The trombone was played by [[Fanny Ceballos]]. Soon after, their production named ''[[De Punta a Punta]]'' (slang for "From Coast to Coast") was released. In 1973, Pellín Rodriguez left the group to embark on a solo career. Rodríguez was replaced by [[Charlie Aponte]] at the recommendation of [[Jerry Concepción]] and the well known [[sports]]caster [[Rafael Bracero]], both friends of Ithier.

In 1973, El Gran Combo sang in front of 50,000 fans at the famous [[Yankee Stadium]] in New York City as the opening act for the [[Fania All-Stars]]' sold out concert.

Montañez left the band in early 1977 and went to live in [[Venezuela]], where he received a good contract to replace [[Oscar D'León]] in another orchestra, '''[[Dimension Latina]]'''. [[Jerry Rivas]] was then chosen to join the orchestra. Both Rivas and Aponte are still members of the orchestra to this day. The success of this new duo was proved with their 1977 album ''[[International]]'' and 1978's ''[[En Las Vegas]]'' which reached gold record status.

In 1975, ''El Gran Combo en Navidad'', a [[Christmas]] album, was released, with [[Martín Quiñones]] appearing as [[Santa Claus]] in the album's cover. After an automobile accident in early 1977, Quiñones was replaced in the band by his son, Martín Quiñones Jr. He stayed until 1979, being replaced by [[Luis Díaz]].

===Recent years===
The band continues to receive numerous awards throughout Latin America. In 1984, they traveled to [[Alaska]] where they received a great welcome soon after they released their album titled ''[[Breaking the Ice (album)|Breaking the Ice]]'' which garnered them their first [[Grammy]] nomination.

In 1982 they celebrated their 20th anniversary playing at [[Madison Square Garden]]. They also reached Europe that year playing in Paris, France.

In the early 90s, they were honored in the city of Madrid, Spain to open the decade on the right track. On March 29, 1992, they celebrated a huge concert in the [[Hiram Bithorn Stadium]] in front of 30,000 people.

===The new millennium===
In 2002, ''El Gran Combo'' celebrated their 40th anniversary with two sold-out concerts at the [[Coliseo Rubén Rodríguez|Ruben Rodríguez Coliseum]] in [[Bayamón, Puerto Rico]]. This celebration spawned a renowned album that was recognized as one of the best of the year. A year later, they received a [[Grammy for Best Tropical Album]]. Among other musicians, they are one of the "enduring superstars of the island"<ref>Lonely Planet Puerto Rico: Peffer Published, p. 42</ref>

{{As of|2006}}, the orchestra has released over 40 albums or [[CD]]'s, and it has received many awards, including golden albums, a "Calendario de Plata" in Mexico, a "Golden Combo" in [[Colombia]], a "[[Paoli Award]]" in their native Puerto Rico, an honorable distinction in Spain and countless others.

In 2006, they released their latest album titled ''[[Arroz con Habichuela]]'' ("Rice and Beans"). It has already spawned three hit singles. The first one titled "No Hay Manera" ("There's No Way"), the title song, and "Si La Vez Por Ahí".

In 2007, El Gran Combo performed two massive concerts at the [[José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum]] to celebrate their 45th anniversary.

In 2010, two tribute albums were released, one by former member Andy Montañez and another by the bank Banco Popular, as part of their annual music series.

==Discography==
{| cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2
|- bgcolor=#cccccc
! Album !! Year !! Label
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Menéame los Mangos]], el Gran Combo con Joseito Mateo'' || 1962 || [[Gema Records]]
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[El Gran Combo... de Siempre]]'' || 1963 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Acángana]]'' || 1963 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Ojos Chinos, Jala Jala]]'' || 1964 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[El Caballo Pelotero]]'' || 1965 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Traigo un Tumba'o, Meneíto Me]]'' || 1965 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[El Swing del Gran Combo]] con Pellín y Andy'' || 1966 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[El Gran Combo En Navidad]]'' || 1967 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Maldito Callo]]'' || 1967 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Esos Ojitos Negros]]'' || 1967 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Fiesta Con El Gran Combo]]'' || 1967 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Boleros Románticos Con El Gran Combo]]'' || 1967 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Tú Querías Boogaloo, Toma Boogaloo]]'' || 1967 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Pata Pata, Jala Jala Y Boogaloo]]'' || 1967 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Boogaloos Con El Gran Combo]]'' || 1967 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Tangos]]'' || 1967 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Merengues]]'' || 1968 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Guarachas]]'' || 1968 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Bombas, Bombas, Bombas]]'' || 1968 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Los Nenes Sicodélicos]]'' || 1968 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Latin Power]]'' || 1968 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Smile, It's El Gran Combo]]'' || 1968 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Este Si Que Es El Gran Combo]]'' || 1969 || Gema Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Estamos Primeros]]'' || 1970 || EGC Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[De Punta A Punta]]'' || 1971 || EGC Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Por El Libro]]'' || 1972 || EGC Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[En Acción]]'' || 1973 || EGC Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Número 5]]'' || 1973 || EGC Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Disfrútelo Hasta El Cabo]]'' || 1974 || EGC Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Número 7]]'' || 1975 || EGC Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Los Sorullos]]'' || 1975 || EGC Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Mejor Que Nunca]]'' || 1976 || EGC Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Internacional]]'' || 1977 || EGC Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[En Las Vegas]]'' || 1978 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Aquí No Se Sienta Nadie]]'' || 1979 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Unity]]'' || 1980 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Happy Days]]'' || 1981 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Nuestro Aniversario]]'' || 1982 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[20th Anniversary]]'' || 1982 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[La Universidad De La Salsa]]'' || 1983 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[In Alaska: Breaking The Ice]]'' || 1984 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Innovations (album)|Innovations]]'' || 1985 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Nuestra Musica]]'' || 1985 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Y Su Pueblo]]'' || 1986 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[25th Anniversary]]'' || 1987 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Romántico Y Sabroso]]'' || 1988 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Amame (El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico album)|Amame]]'' || 1989 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Latin Up!]]'' || 1990 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Erupción]]'' || 1991 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Gracias]]'' || 1992 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[First Class International]]'' || 1993 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[La Ruta Del Sabor]]'' || 1994 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Para Todos Los Gustos]]'' || 1995 || Fonovisa Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Por Todo Lo Alto]]'' || 1996 || Fonovisa Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[35 Years Around The World]]'' || 1997 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Pasaporte Musical]]'' || 1998 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Nuevo Milenio, El Mismo Sabor]]'' || 2001 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[40 Aniversario]]'' || 2002 || Combo Records
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Estamos Aqui...¡Y De Verdad!]]'' || 2004 || Sony Discos Norte
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Arroz con Habichuela]]'' || 2006 || Sony Discos Norte
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
| ''[[Sin Salsa No Hay Paraiso]]'' || 2009 || Sony Discos Norte
|}

==Current members==
===Singers===
* Charlie Aponte (1973–present)
* Jerry Rivas (1977–present)
* Luis "Papo" Rosario (1980–present)

===Orchestra===
* Rafael Ithier - leader, director (1962–present); [[piano]] (1962–2006; except on live performances)
* Willie Sotelo [[piano]] (2006–present)
* Eddie "La Bala" Pérez - [[saxophone]] (1962–present). Pérez has a well-known [[Compulsive behavior|compulsion]] for shaking his left shoulder before playing a part, a custom he says he acquired from wearing a bad instrument strap that clinged to his clothing. He was unable to do away with the custom, as many fans actually look forward to watching him perform this by-now ritual.
* Freddie Miranda - [[saxophone]] (1980–present)
* Luis "Taty" Maldonado - [[trumpet]] (1970–present)
* Victor "Cano" E. Rodriguez - [[trumpet]](1980–present)
* Moisés Nogueras - [[trombone]] (1991–present)
* Freddy Rivera - [[bass guitar]] (1989–present)
* Domingo "Cuqui" Santos - [[timbales]] (1988–present)
* Miguel "Pollo" Torres - [[conga]] (1979–present)
* Richie Bastar - [[Bongo drum|bongo]] (2001–present). Richie is the son of legendary percussionist Francisco "Kako" Bastar.
* Jorge Torres - [[sound engineer]]
* David Marrero - support personnel

==Former members==
===Singers===
* Pellín Rodríguez (1962–1973)
* Andy Montañez (1962–1977)
* Marcos Montañez (1973)
* "Chiqui" Rivera (1962)

===Percussion===
* Milton Correa - timbales (1962–1970)
* Miguel Marrero - timbales (1970–1979)
* Edgardo Morales - timbales (1979–1988)
* Roberto Roena - bongos (1962–1969)
* Martín Quiñones - conga (1962–1977)
* Martín Quiñones, Jr. - conga (1962–1979)
* Luis Díaz - conga (1979)

===Bass===
* Miguel Cruz - bass guitar (1962–1975)
* Fernando Perez - bass guitar (1975–1989)
* Jaime Valentin - bass guitar (1995–1997)

===Brass section===
* Mike Torres - trumpet (1969)
* Epifanio "Fanny" Ceballos - trombone (1971–1991)
* Toñito Vázquez - trombone (1991)

===Others===
* Hector Santos (1962–1969)
* Rogelio "Kito" Vélez (1962–1964)
* Daniel Vázquez (1962)
* Mickey Duchesne (1962–1969)
* Elias Lopez (1964–1969)
* Edwin Cortés (1969)
* "Baby" Serrano - Bongos (1969–1984)
* José "Keko" Duchesne - Saxophone (1969–1980)
* Tommy Sánchez (1969)
* Gerardo "Grillo" Cruz-Trumpet (1969–1979)
* Miguel Laboy-Bongos (1984–2001)
* Mike Ramos-Coro (1969–1980)
* Edwin González (1979)
* Nelson Feliciano-Trumpet (1979–1980)
* Paquito Guzman (Coros; Recording Sessions 1971–1976)
* Elliot Romero (Coros; Recording Sessions 1973–1977)
* Yayo "El Indio" (Coros; Recording Sessions 1977–1979)
* Tito Henriquez (Coros; Recording Sessions 1978)
* Eddie W. Feyjoo (Trumpet; Recording 1980s-????)

==Bibliography==

* Keeling, Stephen: Rough Guides, Rough Guides, 2008, ISBN 978-1-85828-354-8
* Marino, John: Wiley Publishing Inc., 2008, ISBN 978-0-470-25711-1
* Let's Go Inc: MacMillan, 2007, ISBN 978-0-312-37447-1 ISBN 10-0-312-3744-X Third Edition
* Peffer, Randal: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd, 2002, ISBN 1-74059-274-3

==See also==
*[[List of famous Puerto Ricans]]

==References==
{{Portal box|Puerto Rico|Music}}
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.elgrancombodepuertorico.net/ Official website]
*[http://www.salsaclasica.com/elgrancombo Biography, Discography, Photos, Lyrics (SalsaClasica.com)]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Combo}}
[[Category:Puerto Rican musical groups]]
[[Category:Salsa music groups]]
[[Category:Latin Grammy Award winners]]

[[es:El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico]]
[[fr:El Gran Combo]]
[[gl:El Gran Combo]]
[[sv:El Gran Combo]]

Halb-Ulan

2011-03-08T00:01:53Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

[[File:Armour of prince Krzysztof Mikołaj Radziwiłł Sierotka.JPG|thumb|right|Half-armour with a burgonet helmet, often worn by the demi-lancer]]
The "'''Demi-lancer'''" or demilancer was a type of [[heavy cavalry]]man found in Western Europe in the 16th and early 17th centuries.

==Characteristics==
Demi-lancer is a term used in 16th century military parlance, especially in [[England]], to designate cavalrymen mounted on unarmoured horses, armed with the heavy [[lance]] of a [[man-at-arms]] but wearing three-quarter or half-armour, as opposed to the full [[plate armour]] of the [[knight]] or [[Gendarme (historical)|gendarme]]. The breastplate and shoulder defences of the demi-lancer were intended to be at least pistol proof. Often an open faced helmet, such as the [[burgonet]], was worn in place of the fully enclosing [[close helm]]. The armour for the leg was replaced by long, cuff-topped, riding boots. In addition to the lance the demi-lancer would be armed with one or two pistols, housed in saddle holsters, and a sword.<ref name="Ref-1">Tincey and Turner, pp. 7-11.</ref> Demi-lancers were representative of the early modern trend of reducing the coverage of armour while increasing its thickness to provide protection for the vital areas against the fire of [[gunpowder]]-based [[firearm]]s of the time, such as the [[arquebus]] and [[musket]]. This abbreviated armour was also meant to increase the mobility of the men and horses, as well as reducing the expense inherent in equipping and maintaining them throughout a long campaign.<ref name="Ref-1"/> In common with other 16th-century cavalrymen, the demi-lancers were frequently used to strike the enemy's flank and to chase down routing troops.

==Recruitment==
Demi-lancers were prominent in the English troops who fought in the [[Dutch War of Independence]], and were mobilised as part of the defences of England against the invasion threat posed by the [[Spanish Armada]]. In all 2,711 demi-lancers were raised in England in 1588, the Armada year.<ref>Tincey and Turner, pp. 11.</ref> The English demi-lancers were raised using the "Trained Band" system, and from the feudal levy on nobles and ecclesiastics.<ref>Tincey and Turner, pp. 9-12.</ref>

==Demise==
The demi-lancer was replaced by similarly armoured cavalry whose primary armament was pistols, variously termed ''pistoleers'', ''[[cuirassiers]]'' or ''[[reiter]]s,'' or cavalry with less armour using longer firearms ([[doglock]] [[carbine]]s) called "''[[harquebusier]]s.''" The trend towards the loss of the lance began in [[Germany]] in the mid 16th century, [[France]] had largely abandoned the lance by 1580, and England by 1600. The use of the heavy lance was found in military treatises up to the mid 17th century but its practical use had died out well before this date. The [[Battle of Coutras]] (October 20, 1587), between [[Henry IV of France|Henry of Navarre]], and the [[Anne, Duke of Joyeuse|Duc de Joyeuse]], during the [[French Wars of Religion]] illustrated the demise of the heavy lancer. Navarre's cavalry were 1,300 armoured pistoleers whilst the Royalists under Joyeuse were 2,000 heavy lancers (gendarmes). Within a few minutes of combat the lancers had been routed, many being captured and held for ransom. <ref>Oman, p 475.</ref> Only the [[Polish hussars|hussars]] of [[Poland]] retained the heavy lance into the late 17th century. The use of the heavy lance required great skill and constant practice, the use of pistols in battle was far less demanding. This is probably one factor behind the disappearance of the heavy lancer in Western Europe, another being the widespread adoption of the [[infantry]] [[pike (weapon)|pike]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*Tincey, J. and Turner, G. (2002) ''Ironsides: English cavalry, 1588-1688'', Osprey Publishing ISBN 1-84176-213-X
*Oman, Sir Charles W. C. (reprinted 1998) ''History of the Art of War in the 16th Century'', Greenhill Books. ISBN 0947898697
[[Category:Cavalry]]
[[Category:Military units and formations of the Early Modern era]]
[[Category:16th and 17th century warrior types]]

DarkOrbit

2011-03-07T22:39:59Z

RebelRobot: iw: -: ca:Darkorbit, es:Darkorbit, ro:Darkorbit

'''DarkOrbit''' ist ein Online-Browser-Spiel der Firma [[Bigpoint]]. Es ist seit November 2006 online und hat nach eigenen Angaben über 51 Millionen angemeldete Benutzer.<ref>www.darkorbit.de, Stand: Januar 2011</ref> Es ist in diversen Sprachen weltweit verfügbar.

== Aufbau des Spiels ==
In DarkOrbit spielt man als Pilot eines virtuellen [[Raumschiff]]s auf Raumkarten, auf denen [[Außerirdische Lebensform|Aliens]], Nicht-Spieler-Charaktere (NPCs) oder feindliche Mitspieler abgeschossen werden können. Durch das Sammeln von sogenannten Erfahrungspunkten und das Lösen von Aufgaben, sogenannten Quests, kann man immer höhere [[Level (Spielabschnitt)|Level]] erreichen und sich bessere Ausrüstung kaufen,
was allerdings nichts miteinander zu tun hat, da man die beste Ausrüstung auch schon am Anfang des Spiels durch echtes Geld erreichen kann, indem man Spielgeld, sogenanntes Uridium, mit echtem Geld kaufen kann.

Die Darstellung des Spiels ist [[2D|zweidimensional]] und basiert auf [[Adobe Flash]]. DarkOrbit kann mit allen gängigen [[Browser]]n gespielt werden.

== Spielziel ==
Ziel des Spieles ist die Auszahlung in bar des eigenen [[Jackpot]] oder das Schlagen anderer Mitspieler und das Erreichen eines höheren Levels. In einer monatlichen Schlacht kämpfen alle Spielteilnehmer gleichzeitig gegeneinander um einen Betrag von maximal 10.000 Euro.
Der Gewinner ist derjenige, der als letzter auf der Karte übrig bleibt.
In über die Karte verteilten sogenannten Bonus-Boxen kann der Spieler zufällig kleine Beträge für seinen Jackpot finden, der bei Gewinn der Schlacht ausgezahlt wird. Der eigene Jackpot kann bis zu einem Maximum von 10.000 Euro steigen. Jedoch ist das sammeln von 10.000 Euro sehr zeitaufwändig.
Für DarkOrbit wurden mehrere [[Add-on]]s auf CD veröffentlicht, darunter auch eines in der Zeitschrift [[Computer Bild Spiele]] Ausgabe 06/2009<ref>[http://www.welt.de/webwelt/article3804666/Mit-Dark-Orbit-kostenlos-durchs-All-fliegen.html Mit "Dark Orbit" kostenlos durchs All fliegen], Welt Online, 3. Juni 2009</ref>, die jeweils neben exklusiven Schiffdesigns auch kostenlose Ausstattungselemente und Premiumzugang für einen gewissen Zeitraum enthalten. Ein Testprojekt verknüpft auch per [[GPS]] das Spiel durch eine Applikation mit dem [[iPhone]]. Hierbei kann sich der Spieler in der realen Welt zu markierten Orten begeben, um Munition und Güter für das Spiel aufzusammeln.<ref>[http://www.golem.de/0910/70649.html Dark Orbit: Außenmission mit iPhone in der echten Welt] Golem.de, 22. Oktober 2009</ref>

== Spieldetails ==

=== Unternehmen ===
Es kämpfen drei Firmen gegeneinander. Der Spieler muss bei der Registrierung für das Spiel eine der drei Firmen auswählen.
Die Firmen heißen Mars Mining Operations (MMO), Earth Industries Corporation (EIC) und Venus Resources Unlimited (VRU).
Je nach Wahl seiner Heimat-Firma starten Spieler auf unterschiedlichen Spielkarten.

=== Clans ===
Jeder Spieler kann gegen eine bestimmte Menge Spielgeld eine neue Gruppe ([[Clan]]) erstellen oder einem bereits bestehenden Clan beitreten. Tritt man einem Clan bei, so unterstützt man sich dort meistens gegenseitig, um gemeinsam Quests zu lösen oder gegen feindliche Unternehmen oder NPC (Außerirdische) anzutreten. Clanmitglieder müssen (wenn vom Clanoberhaupt angeordnet) einen bestimmten Prozentsatz ihres Spielgelds täglich in die Clankasse einzahlen, die später das Clanoberhaupt einem Mitglied bei Bedarf auszahlen kann. Auch Mitglieder mit einer entsprechenden Berechtigung können Credits auszahlen. Meistens sind die Clans auf eine Firma beschränkt. Es gibt jedoch auch die Möglichkeit firmenübergreifende Clans zu gründen.

=== Ränge und Titel ===
In Dark Orbit gibt es Ränge, die anzeigen, wie „gut“ der Spieler ist. Der Rang, mit dem jeder neue Spieler startet, nennt sich „Basic Space Pilot“. Der höchste Rang ist der eines „Generals“; in jedem Unternehmen gibt es nur einen General.
Ränge erarbeitet sich der Spieler durch sogenannte „Rangpunkte“. Diese bekommt man z.B. durch das Abschießen von Aliens, durch Quests oder aber man schießt feindliche Raumschiffe einer anderen Firma ab.

Es gibt 18 verschiedene sogenannte „Titel“ im Spiel, die man erhält, wenn man andere Spieler mit Titel oder Aliens abschießt. Man verliert seinen Titel, wenn man selbst abgeschossen wird.

== Spielkosten und Suchtfaktor ==
Die Anmeldung und das Spielen von DarkOrbit ist kostenlos. PC-Welt zufolge müsse der Slogan von Bigpoint eigentlich für ambitionierte Spieler allerdings nur "alle Spiele kostenlos testen" heißen.<ref name="PC-Welt-S4">[http://www.pcwelt.de/start/gaming_fun/pc-spiele/news/126900/kostenfalle_online_spiele/index4.html Kostenfalle Online-Spiele] PC-Welt, 23. November 2007</ref>
Die Suche nach Respekt und die Erwartungen von Clans können auf den Spieler Druck ausüben sich einen starken Avatar anzulegen.<ref name="PC-Welt-S3">[http://www.pcwelt.de/start/gaming_fun/pc-spiele/news/126900/kostenfalle_online_spiele/index3.html Kostenfalle Online-Spiele] PC-Welt, 23. November 2007</ref>
Hochwertige virtuelle Ausrüstung kann man sich nur mit Uridium kaufen.<ref name=PC-Welt-S1>[http://www.pcwelt.de/start/gaming_fun/pc-spiele/news/126900/kostenfalle_online_spiele/ Kostenfalle Online-Spiele] PC-Welt, 23. November 2007</ref> Jedoch findet man den hochwertigen Rohstoff Uridium im Weltraum von "Dark Orbit" nur selten und in geringer Menge.<ref name="PC-Welt-S2">[http://www.pcwelt.de/start/gaming_fun/pc-spiele/news/126900/kostenfalle_online_spiele/index2.html Kostenfalle Online-Spiele] PC-Welt, 23. November 2007</ref>
Uridium lässt sich dagegen auch mit echtem Geld kaufen.<ref name=PC-Welt-S1 />
Für Spitzenausstattung geben ambitionierte Spieler teilweise bis zu 1000€ aus.<ref> [http://www.kleinezeitung.at/allgemein/multimedia/2113737/gratisspiele-teurer-spass.story Gratisspiele als teurer Spaß], Kleine Zeitung, 28. August 2008</ref>. Die [[Verbraucherzentrale]] Nordrhein-Westfalen warnte in einer Pressemitteilung 2009 vor mehreren Spielen, unter anderem Dark Orbit,
als "perfide Abzocke von Kindern und Jugendlichen".<ref>[http://www.vz-nrw.de/UNIQ128344604206927/link620541A Warnung vor Gratisspielen im Internet: Perfide Abzocke mit kindlichem Spieltrieb] Verbraucherzentrale Nordrhein-Westfalen, 8. Oktober 2009 </ref>
Spieler haben die Wahl zu bezahlen oder können leicht während des Sammelns von Uridium abgeschossen werden.<ref name="PC-Welt-S2" />
Für die Reparatur nach einem Abschuss ohne Premiumpaket wird ebenfalls Uridium verlangt. Ein Premiumpaket kostet 30 € mit einer Laufzeit von 6 Monaten oder 50 € mit einer Laufzeit für 12 Monate,<ref name="PC-Welt-S3" />
womit nach den AGB vertraglich für die Fortsetzung des Pakets ein Abo abgeschlossen wird.
Möglich sei laut Geschäftsführer aber auch das Erspielen von allem ohne Geldeinsatz, es koste nur umso mehr Zeit.<ref name="PC-Welt-S4" />
Das Unternehmen Bigpoint erzielte 2009 einen Gesamtumsatz in dreistelliger Millionenhöhe, wobei Dark Orbit zu einem der drei häufigst gespielten Spiele des Anbieters zählt.<ref>
[http://www.derbund.ch/digital/internet/Das-juengste-Erfolgsrezept-im-Internet-/story/14597487 Das jüngste Erfolgsrezept im Internet], Der Bund, 28. Juli 2010</ref>

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.darkorbit.de Webseite des Spiels]

[[Kategorie:Computerspiel 2006]]
[[Kategorie:Browserspiel]]

[[fi:DarkOrbit]]
[[fr:Dark Orbit]]
[[pt:Darkorbit]]
[[ru:DarkOrbit]]
[[tr:Darkorbit]]
[[uk:DarkOrbit]]

Cramond Tower

2011-03-07T20:36:34Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

[[Image:Cramond Tower.jpg|thumb|Cramond Tower]]
'''Cramond Tower''' is a fifteenth century [[tower house]] in the village of [[Cramond]] to the north-west of [[Edinburgh]], Scotland.

==History==
The castle was at one stage part of the [[bishop of Dunkeld]]’s residence. It became the property of John Inglis, an English merchant, in 1662. His grandson moved to the nearby Cramond House and the tower was abandoned. By the twentieth century it had become ruinous and dangerous, but it was subsequently restored and reoccupied.<ref name=Lindsay>Lindsay, p.167</ref>

==Description==

The castle was originally a four-storey rectangular tower, with a first-floor hall. There is a vaulted basement room, approached from the main entrance. A pitched roof has been re-erected as part of the restoration.<ref name=Lindsay/>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*Lindsay, Maurice (1994) ''The Castles of Scotland''. Constable. ISBN 0-09-473430-5

==External links==

*[http://www.rampantscotland.com/castles/blcastles_cramond.htm Photograph of Cramond Tower]

[[Category:Castles in City of Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Category B listed buildings]]
[[Category:Listed buildings in Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Listed castles in Scotland]]

{{coord |55.9773|N|3.2995|W|display=title}}

{{scotland-castle-stub}}

Couston Castle

2011-03-07T20:26:44Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

'''Couston Castle''', is an [[L-plan castle|L-plan]] [[tower house]] dating from the late sixteenth or early seventeenth centuries, just north east of [[Dalgety Bay]], at the edge of Otterston Loch in [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]. It is built on the site of an earlier building.<ref name=Lindsay>Lindsay, Maurice (1986) ''The Castles of Scotland''. Constable. ISBN 0-09-473430-5 p.154</ref>

==History==

Couston Castle was built on lands granted to Robert de London, an illegitimate son of [[William I of Scotland|King William the Lion]] (1143–1214) in 1199.<ref name=Scotgaz>{{cite web |url=http://www.scottish-places.info/features/featurefirst10916.html |title=Couston Castle|work=Gazetteer of Scotland|accessdate=2009-04-15}}</ref> The land was granted in turn to Roger Frebern.<ref name=HistoricScotland>{{cite web |url=http://hsewsf.sedsh.gov.uk/hslive/hsstart?P_HBNUM=3606 |title=Couston Castle, Listed Building Report |publisher=Historic Scotland |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref>

The castle was firstly the property of the Logans of [[Restalrig]], but passed later to the [[Earl of Moray|Earls of Moray]].<ref name=Scotgaz/> By the sixteenth century there was a fortified castle protected by artillery. [[james V of Scotland|King James V]] confirmed a charter to James Logan of Couston, whose family were resident at that period, during which the castle was remodelled to the form that it generally now has.<ref name=HistoricScotland/> For part of the second half of the seventeenth century it was occupied by [[Robert Blair]], a [[Presbyterian]] [[clergyman]], who was a former tutor of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]],<ref name=Lindsay/> and who died there in 1666.<ref name=HistoricScotland/>

The north wing is thought to date from the eighteenth century. The castle was in reasonable condition until the 1830s when the greater part of the south end was demolished to provide stones used in building farm buildings.<ref name=Lindsay/> The castle was purchased by a [[Dunfermline]] businessman, Alastair Harper, in 1980, who set about its restoration.<ref name=HistoricScotland/> After having been derelict for many years, the castle was restored by architect Ian Begg in 1985, who converted it into a family home. In 2002 further refurbishments and extensions were finished.<ref name=Scotgaz/>

==References==
<references/>

{{coord |56.0506|N|3.3373|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Castles in Fife]]

Concordia (Schiff, 1696)

2011-03-07T19:25:02Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

The '''''Concordia''''' was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]] sailing ship that left [[Jakarta|Batavia]] on 15 January 1708 with two other vessels, ''Zuiderburg'' and ''Mercurius''. ''Concordia'' had 130 people on board and was bound for the [[Cape of Good Hope]], and then the [[Netherlands]]. She was last sighted by ''Mercurius'' in open seas to the south of [[Sunda Strait]] on 5 February 1708, in bad weather.

== History ==

Built in 1696, ''Concordia'' was a large ship for her day, being approximately 900 tons.
On 15 January 1708, under the command of Joris Vis, the ''Concordia'' set out from Batavia on a return trip to the Netherlands with two other VOC ships; ''Zuiderberg'' and ''Mercurius''.<ref name=Institute>Instituut voor Nederlandse Geschiedenis (2008). [http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/DAS/detailVoyage/97069 Details of voyage 6183.3 from Batavia]. Retrieved on 10 June 2008.</ref> Of the 130 passengers and crew on board, there were several women returning home and some [[Balinese people|Balinese]] being deported from the [[Dutch East Indies]] to the Cape of Good Hope, due to bad conduct.<ref name=Tom>Ammerlaan, Tom (2004). [http://www.ammerlaan.demon.nl/EARLY.HTM ''Early Dutch emigrants to Australia: Chapter 8'']. Retrieved on 10 June 2008.</ref>

Only the ''Mercurius'' reached the Cape of Good Hope. The Captain of ''Mercurius'' reported that ''Concordia'' and ''Zuiderburg'' had last been sighted together in open seas to the south of Sunda Strait on 5 February 1708, in bad weather. On 22 February, the crew of ''Mercurius'' found floating debris. They saw several goods in the water, some firewood, a chest of tea, a Chintz piece of cotton, a carpenters boor, white candles, and the staves for barrels.<ref name=Tom/> The ''Concordia'' was officially listed as being lost somewhere near [[Mauritius]] in 1708.<ref name=Dutch>[http://www.lifeonperth.com/dutchshipwrecks.htm Dutch Shipwrecks on the Western Australian Coastline] (2008). Dutch Shipwrecks: Concordia. Retrieved on 10 June 2008.</ref><ref name=Bruijn>Bruijn, J.R. et al. (1987). [http://books.google.com/books?id=l4oTAAAAYAAJ&dq Dutch-Asiatic Shipping in the 17th and 18th Centuries]. The Hague Nijhoff. {{OCLC|6166608}} ISBN 9024722829.</ref><ref>VOC Shipwrecks (2008). [http://www.vocshipwrecks.nl/list_10.html ''6183.3 Concordia'']. Retrieved on 10 June 2008.</ref>

One known passenger aboard the ''Concordia'' was Mr Constantijn van Baerle, a VOC official.<ref name=Tom/><ref>Constantijn van Baerle (2008). [http://members.chello.nl/m.schaap11/stamboom/html/constantijn_van_baerle.html Constantijn van Baerle]. Retrieved on 10 June 2008.</ref>

== Mystery ==

In 1832, a [[Secrecy|covert]] [[England|English]] expedition to inland [[Australia]] commanded by a Lieutenant Nixon reportedly discovered a group of white [[Dutch (ethnic group)|Dutch]] people (80 men and 10 females) living in a desert [[oasis]] believed to be [[Palm Valley (Northern Territory)|Palm Valley]] in the [[Northern Territory]]. The existence was first reported in February 1834, in an English newspaper called ''The Leeds Mercury''.<ref name=VOC>VOC Historical Society (2008). [http://www.voc.iinet.net.au/palmv.html ''What happened to the white settlers at Palm Valley?''] Retrieved online 12 June 2008</ref> There were other articles in a Dutch scientific journal, and the ''[[Perth Gazette]]'' of 1837.<ref name=Tom/><ref name=Dutch/>

The Leeds Mercury story claimed that Lt. Nixon had spoken to the settlers in a broken form of old Dutch and the leader or chief of the group, was a descendant of an officer whose name was "van Baerle". The party remained with the group for eight days.

Nixon stated:

{{Cquote| ... ''their fathers were compelled by famine, after the loss of their great vessel, to travel towards the rising sun, carrying with them as much of the stores as they could, during which many died; and by the wise advice of their ten sisters they crossed a ridge of land, and meeting with a rivulet on the other side, followed its course and were led to the spot they now inhabit, where they have continued ever since''.<ref name=Tom/><ref name=VOC/>}}

Despite extensive research, no trace or direct evidence of the settlers has ever been found. Most historians now believe the original 1834 ''Leeds Mercury'' story was a [[hoax]].<ref name=Dutch/><ref>VOC Historical Society (2006). [http://members.iinet.net.au/~tjv/public_html/voc/NHU%20%20SEP%2006.pdf ''The White Tribe Story'']. Volume 6, Number 3, September 2006. Retrieved on 10 June 2008.</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Age of Sail merchant ships of the Dutch Republic]]
[[Category:Exploration ships of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Hoaxes]]
[[Category:Ships of the Dutch East India Company]]

[[nl:Concordia (schip)]]

Clan Sutherland

2011-03-07T17:52:22Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{Infobox Clan
|image badge =Clan member crest badge - Clan Sutherland.svg
|clan name =Clan Sutherland
|chiefs crest = A cat-a-mountain saliant Proper
|chiefs motto = Sans Peur
|chiefs slogan = Ceann na Drochaide Bige!
|region=[[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]]
|district =[[Sutherland]]
|origins =
|gaelic names = Sutharlainn
|image arms = Countess of Sutherland arms.svg
|plant badge = Butcher's Broom, Cotton Sedge
|pipe music = The Earl of Sutherland's March
|chiefs name =[[Elizabeth Sutherland, 24th Countess of Sutherland|Elizabeth Millicent Sutherland]]
|chiefs title =The 24th [[Countess of Sutherland]]
|chiefs gaelic title=
|seat = House of Tongue (by [[Lairg]])<ref>[http://www.clanchiefs.org/p/chiefs.html clanchiefs.org]</ref>
|historic seat =[[Dunrobin Castle]]
}}
'''Clan Sutherland''' is a Highland [[Scottish clan]] whose traditional territory is located in the region of [[Sutherland]] in northern highlands of [[Scotland]] and was one of the most powerful Scottish clans. The clan seat is at [[Dunrobin Castle]], [[Sutherland]]. The chief of the clan was also the powerful [[Earl of Sutherland]].

==History==
===Origins of the clan===

The progenitor of the Clan Sutherland was also the progenitor of the [[Clan Murray]] who was a [[Flemish people|Flemish]] nobleman by the name of [[Freskin]] the son or possibly grandson of Ollec. Freskin's grandson was Hugh de Moravia who was granted lands in Sutherland and was known as Lord de Sudrland. Hugh's brother, William was progenitor of the Clan Murray. Hugh's eldest son (also called William) was William de Moravia, 1st Earl of Sutherland. The place name and clan name of "Sutherland" came from it being the land to the 'south' of the Norse Earldom of Orkney and Caithness. Although the senior line of chiefs who were Earls of Sutherland were known by the surname 'de Moravia', the younger sons of the family would take the surname 'Sutherland', creating the cadet branches of the Clan Sutherland.<ref name="Sutherland1">"A Fighting Clan, Sutherland Officers: 1250 – 1850” by Malcolm Sutherland. Page 3. Avon Books. ISBN 1897960476.</ref>

===Wars of Scottish Independence===

*[[Battle of Bannockburn]], 1314, During the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]], the Clan Sutherland under chief William de Moravia, 3rd Earl of Sutherland fought at Bannockburn in 1314 where the English army was defeated.<ref name="Sutherland2">"A Fighting Clan, Sutherland Officers: 1250 – 1850” by Malcolm Sutherland. Page 7 - 9. Avon Books. ISBN 1897960476.</ref>

*[[Battle of Halidon Hill]], 1333, [[Kenneth de Moravia, 4th Earl of Sutherland]] later led the Clan Sutherland where the Scottish army was defeated.<ref name="Sutherland2"/>

*William de Moravia, 5th Earl of Sutherland, whose wife was the daughter of Robert the Bruce and sister of King [[David II of Scotland]], led the clan at Kilblene where he participated in the siege of Cupar Castle Fife. Along with the Earl of March took foray into England.<ref name="Sutherland2"/>

*[[Battle of Neville's Cross]], 1346, William de Moravia Earl of Sutherland accompanied King David II of Scotland into England where both were captured in battle by Durham.<ref name="Sutherland2"/> They remained in prison for over ten years before being released. John, the son of the Earl and Princess Margaret, was designated the heir to the Throne over Robert [[House of Stuart|Stewart]], who eventually became King Robert II in 1371.

[[File:SutherlandTraditional.png|thumb|200px|right|The modern day district of [[Sutherland]]]]

===Branches of the clan===

*The two branches of Clan Sutherland most closely related to the Sutherland Earls, or Clan Chiefs, were the Lairds of and later [[Lord Duffus|Lords of Duffus]] and the Lairds of Forse. The Duffus Lairds descended from Nicholas Sutherland, only brother of William de Moravia, 5th Earl of Sutherland (d. 1370). The Forse Lairds stem from Kenneth Sutherland, only brother of Robert de Moravia, 6th Earl of Sutherland (d. 1427). (Robert's half brother John, who was already a grandson of King [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]], predeceased his father.) Duffus, as already noted, is outside the country of Sutherland. So also is Forse, which is in Caithness.<ref name="Sutherland3">"A Fighting Clan, Sutherland Officers: 1250 – 1850” by Malcolm Sutherland. Page 12. Avon Books. ISBN 1897960476.</ref>

===14th century clan conflicts===

*Raid of Dornoch 1372; The habitual enemies of Clan Sutherland were the [[Clan Sinclair]] of Caithness, [[Clan MacKay]] and the [[Clan McLeod]] to the west of Sutherland. The long dispute with the MacKays came to a head when Nicholas Sutherland of Duffus, head of one of the junior branches, murdered Mackay and his heir in their beds at [[Dingwall Castle]] where they had met in an attempt to patch up the feud. Much bloodshed followed, including a retaliatory raid on Dornoch. The cathedral was once again set on fire and many Sutherland men were hanged in the town square. After this, the feud quieted down as both sides were called away to fight against the English.

*In 1388 the Earl of Sutherland was a leader of the Scots invading into the west of England. He married Margaret Stewart, daughter of Alexander, Earl of Buchan, a younger son of King [[Robert II of Scotland]].

===15th century and clan conflicts===

*[[Battle of Drumnacoub]], 1431, Angus Dubh Mackay defeats Angus Murray and the Sutherlanders on the slopes of the mountain [[Ben Loyal]] near [[Tongue, Highland|Tongue]].<ref>"Genealogical History of the Earldom of Sutherland. p.65 - 66, by Sir Robert Gordon (1580 -1656).</ref>

*[[Battle of Skibo and Strathfleet]], 1480, [[John of Islay, Earl of Ross|John MacDonald of Islay, Earl of Ross]] invaded Sutherland and fought against men of the Clan Sutherland and [[Clan Murray]]. The Sutherlanders were victorious.<ref>’Conflicts of the Clans’ published in 1764 by the Foulis press, written from a manuscript wrote in the reigh of James VI of Scotland. [http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/conflict/]</ref>

*[[Battle of Auldicharish]], 1487, To take revenge on the [[Clan Ross]], chief Ian MacKay of Clan MacKay helped by a force from Clan Sutherland marched south invading the territory of Clan Ross and began laying waste to it. Chief Alistair Ross gathered his forces of 2,000 men and engaged in a long and desperate battle with the invading forces. In the end, the battle went against the Rosses with the MacKays and Sutherlands gaining the upper hand. The Ross chief was killed along with many of his clan.<ref> "History of the Clan and House of the Name MacKay" (1829). p.P.86. by Robert MacKay: Quoting from the "Geanealogical History of the Earldom of Sutherland" by Sir Robert Gordon (1580 - 1656)</ref>

===16th century and clan conflicts===
[[Image:Clan Sutherland (MacIan).jpg|thumbnail|right|Clan Sutherland Highlander]]
*1513 - [[Battle of Flodden Field]], William Sutherland, 4th Laird of Duffus is killed leading the clan against the English.<ref name="Sutherland4">"A Fighting Clan, Sutherland Officers: 1250 – 1850” by Malcolm Sutherland. Page 11. Avon Books. ISBN 1897960476.</ref>

*1517 - Elizabeth de Moravia, 10th Countess of Sutherland married Adam Gordon, son of Gordon of Huntly. Their son Alexander Gordon would become the legal heir to the Earldom of Sutherland and overall chieftainship of the Clan Sutherland.

*1517 - [[Battle of Torran Dubh]], the Clan Sutherland, encountered John Mackay and his company at a place called Torran Dubh, beside Rogart, in Strathfleet, where there ensued a fierce and cruel conflict and the MacKays were defeated.<ref>"History of the House and Clan of the Name MacKay" by Robert MacKay (1829). p.100 - 106: Quoting from "Genealogical history of the Earldom of Sutherland" by Sir Robert Gordon (1580 -1656)</ref>

*1542 - [[Battle of Alltan-Beath]], Chief Donald MacKay of Strathnaver decided to invade and molest the lands of Clan Sutherland. He burned the village of Knockarthur and looted Strathbrora. The Clan Sutherland and [[Clan Murray]], led by Hutcheon Murray of Abirscors with Gilbert Gordon of Garty, decided to attack the MacKays. They attacked the MacKays at a place called Ailtan-Beath. After the battle the MacKays fled and much of the stolen booty was recovered. Donald MacKay was captured and imprisoned in [[Foulis Castle]], Ross-shire by commandment of the Queen Regent.<ref>"History of the House and Clan of the Name MacKay" by Robert MacKay (1829). p.114 - 118: Quoting from "Genealogical history of the Earldom of Sutherland" by Sir Robert Gordon (1580 -1656)</ref>

*1545 - at [[Dingwall]], the [[Earl of Sutherland]] entered into a bond of [[manrent]] with John Mackenzie of Kintail for mutual defense against all enemies, reserving only their allegiance to the youthful [[Mary, Queen of Scots]].<ref>History of the Mackenzies, with genealogies of the principal families of the name, by Mackenzie, Alexander, 1833-1898[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofthemack03652gut]</ref>

*1547 - [[Battle of Pinkie Cleugh]], John Gordon, 11th Earl of Sutherland leads clan against the English army.<ref name="Sutherland2"/>

*1555 - [[Battle of Garbharry]], the last battle between the Clan Mackay and the Clan Sutherland.<ref>"History of the House and Clan of the Name MacKay" (1829). p.126 - 127 by Robert MacKay: Quoting "Genealogical History of the Earldom of Sutherland" by Sir Robert Gordon (1580 - 1656)</ref>

*1586 - [[Battle of Leckmelm]], The Sutherlands, Mackays and MacLeods defeat the Clan Gunn.<ref>"Genealogical History of the Earldom of Sutherland" .p.183. By Sir Robert Gordon (1580 - 1656).</ref>

*1588 - Battle near Wick, Alexander Gordon, 12th Earl of Sutherland divorced his obnoxious Sinclair wife in 1573. He waged all-out war with her father and [[Clan Sinclair]] before gaining a decisive victory outside Wick in 1588, when more than a hundred Sinclair clansmen were killed in a pitched battle on the seashore. Earl Alexander later married the divorced wife of the Earl of Bothwell, third husband to Mary, Queen of Scots. [[Sinclair & Girnigoe Castle]] withstood a siege by the Earl of Sutherland 1588. In 1589, George Sinclair, 4th Earl of Caithness, invaded and laid waste the lands of the Clan Sutherland.

===17th century and Civil War===

In Sir Robert Gordon's time during the 17th century the '''Clan Sutherland''' began to acquire the reputation for enthusiastic and pious Protestantism. This is probably what made the Gordon Earls of Sutherland begin to distance themselves from their '''Gordon of Huntly''' cousins who were Catholics and later Jacobites. Sir Robert's nephew, for example, was known as the Covenanting Earl and the clan was involved with the troubles through the 17th and 18th centuries but was supportive of the British Crown.

[[Battle of Auldearn]], 1645, John Gordon, 14th Earl of Sutherland leads the clan against the royalists but is defeated.<ref name="Sutherland2"/>

[[Battle of Carbisdale]], 1650, the Clan Sutherland along with the [[Clan Munro]] and the [[Clan Ross]] joined forces with the Scottish Argyll Government to fight against [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose]] and his Royalist Army of foreigners, who they defeated.

In 1685, John Gordon, 16th Earl of Sutherland, raised men of the Clan Sutherland to oppose the [[Earl of Argyll]]'s expedition. The Earl of Sutherland also raised two regiments from the clan after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The second of which he was a Colonel in command in Flanders in 1694.<ref name="Sutherland2"/>

===18th century and Jacobite Uprisings===

In 1719, a detachment of men from the Clan Sutherland fought for the British government at the [[Battle of Glenshiel]] where they helped to defeat the Jacobites. The Clan Sutherland also supported the British government during the Jacobite uprisings in 1745-1746. The Earl and chief of Clan Sutherland had been of the surname Gordon ever since the early 16th century and their now distant cousins, the chiefs of [[Clan Gordon]] were themselves divided with half supporting the Jacobites and half supporting the government. The 2nd Duke of Gordon had followed the Jacobites in 1715, but the 3rd Duke of Gordon supported the British government by the time of the 1745 uprising. However, his brother raised two regiments against him to fight as Jacobites at the [[Battle of Falkirk (1746)]] and the [[Battle of Culloden]].

In 1745, the fighting force of the Clan Sutherland was given as 2,000 men.<ref>"The Scottish Clans and Their Tartans”. W. & A. K. Johnston Limited. Edinburgh and London. 1886. Page 95.</ref> Unfortunately when the Jacobite Uprisings began in 1745 the Jacobites, under the Earl of Cromarty, stormed Clan Sutherland's [[Dunrobin Castle]] without warning. The [[Earl of Sutherland]] who had changed his surname from Gordon to Sutherland; William Sutherland, 17th Earl of Sutherland narrowly escaped them through a back door. He sailed for [[Aberdeen]] where he joined the [[Duke of Cumberland]]'s army.<ref name="Sutherland2"/>

The redeeming parts of the Jacobite Uprising came for Clan Sutherland when they defeated the same Jacobite force under the [[Earl of Cromartie]], chief of [[Clan MacKenzie]] as it made its way to join Prince Charlie at Culloden, in what became known as the [[Battle of Littleferry]]. However despite all these efforts by the Earl of Sutherland to defeat the Jacobites, including his victory at Littleferry, he struggled to prove to the parliament in London that he had not had Jacobite sympathies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clansutherland.org/|title=www.clansutherland.org/}}</ref><ref name="Sutherland5">"A Fighting Clan, Sutherland Officers: 1250 – 1850” by Malcolm Sutherland. Page 32. Avon Books. ISBN 1897960476.</ref>

==Chiefs==

The [[Scottish clan chief|chief of Clan]] Sutherland was whoever held the title [[Earl of Sutherland]] and unlike many Scottish clan chiefs, they did not necessarily have the name of Sutherland. The family who are first known to have been in possession of this title was a line who were known by the surname "de Moravia". The Earldom passed by right of marriage to a younger son of the chief of [[Clan Gordon]] early in the 16th century (although not without opposition from her bastard half-brother, Alexander Sutherland of Beridale, a natural son of her father, the Earl John. He married a daughter of Iye Roy-Mackay of Strathnaver and had descendants).

This line of Gordons who were Earls of Sutherland changed their surname from Gordon to Sutherland in the 18th century during the Jacobite Uprisings. However, later on during the 18th century, the Earldom which was promoted to the rank of "Duke" passed to various people from different family lines within the Clan Sutherland.

{{cquote|The Earl of Sutherland was the chief of the clan, but on the accession to the earldom in 1766, of Countess Elizabeth, the infant daughter of the eighteenth earl, and afterward Duchess of Sutherland, as the chiefship could not descend to a female, William Sutherland of Killipheder, who died in 1832, and enjoyed a small annuity from her grace, was accounted the eldest male descendant of the old earls. John Campbell Sutherland, Esq, of Fors, was afterwards considered the real chief.<ref name="electricscotland.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/stoz/sutherl2.html|title=www.electricscotland.com/webclans/stoz/sutherl2.html}}</ref>}}

{{cquote|These almost obliterated remains are associated with the domestic as well as the traditionary history of the '''Strath Uillidh Sutherlands''', a nobly-descended and gigantic race. Their first ancestor was '''Alexander, son of John, 8th Earl of Sutherland''', by his second Countess, a daughter of Ross of Balnagown. His sister Elizabeth, by his father's first marriage, on the death of her brother John, 9th Earl, who died unmarried, succeeded to the titles and estates, to the prejudice of her half-brother Alexander, on the plea-in-law that his father and mother being cousins-germain, their marriage, by the canon law, was illegal, and that he was therefore, illegitimate. Elizabeth married Adam, Viscount of Aboyne, second son of the Earl of Huntly. With him and his wife, Alexander, by force of arms, disputed the right to the titles and estate of Sutherland. He was killed in a battle fought at Alltachuilain, below Kintradwell, in the parish of Loth. Kilphedder was the place of his residence, and his descendants, occupied the lands for generations on payment of a merely nominal rent to the Earls of Sutherland. With the melancholy and affecting death of one of his descendants, the ruins at Kilphedder are more immediately connected. This individual, a William Sutherland of Kilphedder, was a man of gigantic strength and stature. He repaired and extended the residence of his ancestors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.electricscotland.com/history/parishlife/chapter6.htm|title=www.electricscotland.com/history/parishlife/chapter6.htm}}</ref>}}

{{cquote|The line of the Gordon Earls of Sutherland, who afterwards held high offices and honours in the State, came to an end with the death of William, nineteenth Earl, at Bath in 1766. The title and estates were then claimed by Sir Robert Gordon of Gordonstown and '''George Sutherland of Fors''', and the case, in which the celebrated Lord Hailes took part, remains among the most famous in our legal annals. It was finally decided, however, by the House of Lords in 1771 in favour of the late Earl’s only surviving daughter, Elizabeth. This lady married, in 1785, George Granville Leveson-Gower, Viscount Trentham, afterwards second Marquess of Stafford, who was, in 1833, created Duke of Sutherland. From that time to this the distinguished holders of the Sutherland titles have been of the Leveson-Gower family, ''and only distantly related, through the two heiresses named Elizabeth, of the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries respectively, to the original heads of the clan of the name of Murray or Suther''land. Meanwhile the actual chiefship of the clan by male descent was believed to be vested in '''William Sutherland of Killipheder''', who enjoyed a small annuity from the Duchess-Countess, and died at a great age in 1832, and after him in '''John Campbell Sutherland of Fors''', in the county of Caithness. The last-named died about '''1917''', leaving five daughters but no son. In the course of the intervening centuries the race of the famous Freskin the Fleming has made a mighty record in the history of Scotland.<ref name="electricscotland.com"/>}}

The current Chief of Clan Sutherland is Elizabeth Millicent, Countess of Sutherland

==Castles==

*[[Dunrobin Castle]] is the seat of the Earl of Sutherland, chief of the Clan Sutherland.
*[[Dornoch Castle]] given to John Gordon, 11th Earl of Sutherland in 1557 by the Bishop of Caithness.
*[[Duffus Castle]] was the seat of the [[Lord Duffus|Sutherland of Duffus]] branch of the clan.
*[[Forse|Forse Castle]] was the seat of the Sutherland of Forse branch of the clan.

==Clan Profile==

*Gaelic Names: ''Suithearlarach'' (Singular) & ''Na Suithearlaraichean'' (Collective)
*Motto: "''Sans Peur''" ([[French language|French]] for "Without Fear")
*[[Slogan (heraldry)|Slogan]]: "''Ceann na Drochaide Bige!''" ([[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] for "The Head of the Little Bridge!")
*Pipe Music: "The Earl of Sutherland's March"
*Crest: A cat-a-mountain saliant Proper
*Supporters: Two savages wreathed head and middle with laurel, holding batons in their hands proper.
*Plant Badge: Butcher's Broom, Cotton Sedge
*Animal Symbol: Cat.
*Arms (Earl of Sutherland as recorded for the fifteenth Earl, 1719):
*Shield: Gules, three mullets Or, on a bordure of the second a double tressure flory counterflory of the first.

==Tartans==
* Old Sutherland (Ancient)
* Old Sutherland (Dress)
* Old Sutherland (Modern)
* Old Sutherland (Muted)
* Old Sutherland (Weathered)
* Sutherland (Modern)

==Septs==
* Cheney
* Cheyne
* Chiene
* Clyne
* Duffes
* Duffus
* Federith
* Gray
* Grey
* Keith
* Mouat
* Mowat(t)
* Murray
* Norman
* O'May

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.clansutherland.org/ Clan Sutherland Society of North America]
* [http://clansutherland.org.uk/welcome.htm Clan Sutherland Society in Scotland]
* [http://sites.google.com/site/fivegateways/alphabetical-index-s/sutherland Genealogical notes on some of the clan members]

{{Scottish clans}}

[[Category:Scottish clans|Sutherland]]
[[Category:Clan Sutherland]]
[[Category:Leveson-Gower family]]

[[ru:Клан Сазерленд]]

Chillagoe

2011-03-07T16:37:43Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{Infobox Australian Place | type = town
| name = Chillagoe
| state = qld
| image = Chillagoe-limestone-boulders-north-queensland-australia.jpg
| caption =
| latd =17|latm =09 |lats =
| longd =144 |longm =31 |longs =
| pushpin_label_position = left
| lga = [[Tablelands Region]]
| postcode = 4871
| est =
| pop = 227
| pop_footnotes = <ref name="ABS"/>
| elevation=
| maxtemp =
| mintemp =
| rainfall =
| stategov = [[Electoral district of Cook|Cook]]
| fedgov = [[Division of Kennedy|Kennedy]]
| dist1 = 1834
| dir1 = NW
| location1= [[Brisbane]]
| dist2 = 205
| dir2 = W
| location2= [[Cairns, Queensland|Cairns]]
| dist3 = 140
| dir3 = W
| location3= [[Mareeba, Queensland|Mareeba]]
}}
'''Chillagoe''' in northern [[Queensland]], [[Australia]], was once a thriving mining town for a range of minerals,<ref>'''''The Chillagoe Railway and Mining Company''''' Ellis, R.F. [[Australian Railway History|Australian Railway Historical Society Bulletin]] December 1976; January-April, 1977 pp 270-291; 16-23; 36-48; 62-81</ref> but is now reduced to a small zinc mine and some [[marble]] quarries. At the 2006 [[Census in Australia|census]], Chillagoe had a population of 227.<ref name="ABS">{{Census 2006 AUS
|id=UCL312850
|name=Chillagoe (L) (Urban Centre/Locality)
|accessdate=2007-01-27
|quick=on}}</ref>

Just out of town is the [[Chillagoe-Mungana Caves National Park]] containing [[limestone]] caves. There are between 600 and 1,000 [[caves]] in the Chillagoe-Mungana area. The caves, the spectacular [[karst]] landscape and the mining and [[smelter|smelting]] history are the main tourist attractions to the region.

It has been stated by leading [[geologist]] Professor [[Ian Plimer]] that the Chillagoe region has the most diverse [[geology]] in the world.

==History==
Chillagoe was named by William Atherton in 1888. The name is taken from the refrain of a [[sea shanty]]: "Hikey, Tikey, Psyche, Crikey, Chillagoe, Walabadorie".<ref> Bolton, G.C. (1975) ''A Thousand Miles Away: A History of North Queensland to 1920'', Australian National University Press, ISBN 0708100910</ref> James Mulligan had explored the area in 1873 and Atherton backed up his reports of rich copper outcrops in the area. [[John_Moffat_(mining_pioneer)]] sent prospectors to the field in 1888 and quickly monopolised the field. A receiving office opened in 1891 (with W. Atherton as Receiving Office Keeper) but closed in 1893. A [[post office]] opened in 1900 with F. Donner as the storekeeper and postmaster. The Chillagoe Railway and Mining Company's line opened from [[Mareeba, Queensland|Mareeba]] in 1901 and a Town Reserve was proclaimed 27 October 1910.<ref> Frew, Joan (1981) ''Queensland Post Offices 1842-1980 and Receiving Offices 1869-1927'', p. 235. Fortitude Valley, Queensland: published by the author, ISBN 0-9593973-0-2</ref>

Chillagoe is sometimes remembered for its involvement in the [[Mungana affair]], a mining scandal which brought down the government. In 1919, after fluctuating fortunes and closures, ownership of the smelter was transferred to the Queensland Government. This acquisition by the Labor Government brought allegations of political corruption which persisted for many years. Closures plagued the smelter again in the late 1920s. When the [[Australian Labor Party]] lost power in 1929, the new government ordered a [[Royal Commission]] into the incident. The political careers of two former [[Queensland Premiers]], 'Red' [[Ted Theodore]] and [[McCormack]], were ruined by the Commission’s report.
Read the famous book by [[Frank Hardy]]'s "[[Power without Glory]]".

[[Woothakata]] is a property on beautiful Chillagoe creek named after the early [[Tableland]] shire which Chillagoe was apart of.
Woothakata an [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] word which describes the way they traveled to [[Ngarrabullgan]] [[Mount Mulligan]] an important meeting place.

The [[heritage listed]] [[Chillagoe smelters]], the cemetery and the many old mines attract history buffs to the area.

==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://queenslandplaces.com.au/chillagoe-and-chillagoe-shire University of Queensland: Queensland Places: Chillagoe and Chillagoe Shire]

{{coord|17|09|S|144|31|E|type:city(227)_region:AU-QLD|display=title}}

[[Category:Mining towns in Queensland]]
[[Category:Towns in Queensland]]
[[Category:Far North Queensland]]

{{FarNorthQueensland-geo-stub}}

[[nl:Chillagoe]]

Charles Powell

2011-03-07T15:56:43Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{Otherpersons|Charles Powell}}

'''Charles David Powell, Baron Powell of Bayswater''', [[Order of St Michael and St George|KCMG]], [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] (born 6 July 1941), is a diplomat, politician and businessman.<ref>Preferred pronunciation rhymes with "bowl", not "bowel" (as in [[Colin Powell]]) -- see Alexander Chancellor, "You Say Tomato," ''New Yorker.'' August 9, 1993, p. 27.</ref> He served as a key foreign policy advisor to [[British Prime Minister]] [[Margaret Thatcher]] during the [[1980s]]. His brother, [[Jonathan Powell (chief of staff to Tony Blair)|Jonathan Powell]], was chief of staff to [[Tony Blair]] throughout his period as Prime Minister from 1997 to 2007, and his father was [[Air Vice-Marshal]] [[John Frederick Powell]].

==Biography==
Powell was educated at [[The Cathedral Choir School, Canterbury]], [[The King's School, Canterbury]] and [[New College, Oxford]], from where he graduated in 1963 with a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] in [[Modern History]].

===Diplomatic career===
Charles Powell joined the [[Her Majesty's Diplomatic Service]] in 1963. His first posting was as [[Third Secretary]] to [[Helsinki]] in 1965, where he was promoted to [[Second Secretary]]. In 1968, he returned to London, spending three years at the [[FCO]]. He was posted as [[Diplomatic rank|First Secretary]] to [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1971, and became the [[Ambassador]]'s [[Private Secretary]]. Subsequent postings were to [[Bonn]] in 1974 and, as [[Minister-counselor|Counsellor]], to UKREP [[Brussels]] in 1980.<ref>The Diplomatic Service List 1989 (page 278), [[HMSO]], ISBN 0-11-591707-1.</ref> He was seconded to [[10 Downing Street]] and served as Private Secretary to [[Margaret Thatcher]] (1983 to 1990) and then as Private Secretary to [[John Major]] (1990 to 1991). During his time working for Mrs Thatcher, he became one of her most trusted foreign policy aides, and helped broker the controversial [[al-Yamamah]] arms deal with Saudi Arabia.<ref name="bae files">{{cite news |title=BAE Files: Charles Powell|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/jun/07/bae20|publisher=BBC|date=2007-06-07|accessdate=2008-03-18 | location=London | first=David | last=Leigh}}</ref>

===Business career===
Since 1992 he has been an international businessman. Using the experience gained during his years in government, he has picked up several lucrative directorships and consultancies.<ref name="bae files"/> He is chairman of [[Sagitta Asset Management Limited]] and the luxury goods company [[Louis Vuitton|Louis Vuitton U.K. Ltd]]. Prior to these positions, he was chairman of [[Phillips Fine Art Auctioneers]] and senior director of [[Jardine Matheson Holdings Ltd]]. He has also held directorships of [[Caterpillar Inc.]], [[LVMH Moet-Hennessy Louis Vuitton]], [[Mandarin Oriental International Ltd]], [[Schindler Holding Ltd]], [[Tiphook|Tiphook plc]], [[Textron Corporation]] and [[Yell Group plc]]. He is also a signatory of the [[Henry Jackson Society]].

===Brunei controversy===
In 2005, it was revealed that Powell had been acting as [[Tony Blair]]'s special envoy to [[Brunei]], an unpaid role, for several years. This was controversial because Powell was on the payroll of [[BAE Systems]], and the company was at the time in dispute with Brunei over the purchase of three warships. Lord Powell denied a conflict of interest over both his links to BAE and the fact his brother [[Jonathan Powell (chief of staff to Tony Blair)|Jonathan Powell]] was serving as Tony Blair's chief of staff.<ref>{{cite news |title=Blair's special envoy to Brunei on BAE payroll|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/oct/08/bae.whitehall|publisher=Guardian|date=2005-10-08|accessdate=2008-03-18 | location=London | first=Ewen | last=MacAskill}}</ref>

===House of Lords===
He currently sits as a life peer in the [[House of Lords]]. Although associated with the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], Lord Powell sits as a [[crossbench]] peer.

===Personal life===
He married [[Carla Bonardi]] in 1964. They have two sons (1967 and 1968).

He has three brothers, [[Sir Chris Powell (co-founder of DDB Advertising Agency, and currently chair of NESTA)|Chris]] (co-founder of DDB Advertising Agency, and currently chair of [[NESTA]]), Roderick, and [[Jonathan Powell (chief of staff to Tony Blair)|Jonathan]], the Chief of Staff to Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]], a member of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]. He pronounces his surname 'pole',<ref>{{cite news |title=What Happened to Team Blair?|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7138065.stm|publisher=BBC|date=2007-12-27|accessdate=2007-12-07}}</ref> although his brother Jonathan pronounces his to rhyme with 'towel'.

==Honours==
*He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ([[Order of St Michael and St George|KCMG]]) in the Prime Minister's retirement honours list of December 1990.
*In 2001 he was awarded the [[Bintang Bakti Masyarakat|Public Service Star]] by the government of [[Singapore]].
*He was created a [[life peer]] in the 2000 [[New Year Honours List]] as '''Baron Powell of Bayswater''', of Canterbury in the County of Kent.

==In the media==
Powell was interviewed about the rise of [[Thatcherism]] for the [[2006 in television|2006]] [[BBC]] TV documentary series ''[[Tory! Tory! Tory!]]''.

==In popular culture==
Powell was portrayed by [[Terence Harvey]] in the 2004 [[BBC]] production of ''[[The Alan Clark Diaries]]'' and by [[James Fox (actor)|James Fox]] in 2009's ''[[Margaret (television film)|Margaret]]''. His brother Jonathan Powell was played by [[Adam Godley]] in the 2010 TV film ''[[The Special Relationship (film)|The Special Relationship]]''.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.atlanticpartnership.org/index.php?fuseaction=StaffBio&id=38 Atlantic Partnership Staff Biography]
* [http://www.dodonline.co.uk/engine.asp?lev1=4&lev2=38&menu=81&biog=y&id=26501 Dod's personal biography]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Powell, Charles
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1941-07-06
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Powell, Charles}}
[[Category:1941 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Cross bench life peers]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George]]
[[Category:Members of HM Diplomatic Service]]
[[Category:Caterpillar people]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2011-03-07T09:39:32Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumb|350px|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

The concentration of '''[[carbon dioxide]] (CO2) in [[atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]]''' is approximately 390 ppm (parts per million) by volume {{As of|2010|lc=on}}<ref name="Carbon Trends">{{ cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref> and rose by 1.9 ppm/yr during 2000-2009.<ref name="carbon budget">http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/carbonbudget/09/hl-full.htm Carbon Budget 2009 Highlights</ref> Carbon dioxide is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]]. Despite its relatively small overall concentration in the atmosphere, CO2 is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>Petty, G.W.: ''A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', pages 229–251, Sundog Publishing, 2004</ref> The present level is higher than at any time during the last 800 thousand years,<ref name="deep ice">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm | work=BBC News | title=Deep ice tells long climate story | date=2006-09-04 | accessdate=2010-04-28 | first=Jonathan | last=Amos}}</ref> and likely higher than in the past 20 million years.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref>

==Current concentration==
In 2009, the CO2 global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]].<ref name="Carbon Trends"/><ref>{{ cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric CO2 concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
[[File:Global Carbon Emissions.svg|left|thumb|250px|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2007.]]
[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[False-color]] image of smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
[[File:Biosphere_CO2_Flux_08072006.gif|left|thumb|250px|Biosphere CO2 Flux in the summer (NOAA Carbon Tracker)]]
[[File:Biosphere_CO2_Flux_23122006.gif|left|thumb|250px|Biosphere CO2 Flux in the winter (NOAA Carbon Tracker)]]

Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They gain the energy needed for this reaction through the absorption of sunlight by pigments such as [[Chlorophyll]]. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms and other plants, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

Many sources of CO2 emissions are natural. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands, such as dead trees, results in the release of about 220 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year. In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of [[fossil fuels]] around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming]</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist]</ref> Although the initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[tonne|megatonnes]] of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>Gerlach, T.M., 1992, Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249, and 254 – 255</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "[http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html Volcanic Gases and Their Effects]", [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov volcanoes.usgs.gov]</ref>

These natural sources are nearly balanced by natural sinks, physical and biological processes which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water, and some is directly removed from the atmosphere by land plants for photosynthesis.

There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans.<ref>G. Cappelluti, H. Bösch and P.S. Monks, [http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2009/12/15084401/0 "Use of remote sensing techniques for the detection and monitoring of GHG emissions from the Scottish land use sector"], Scottish Government, ISBN 978-0-7559-7738-3</ref> In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>[http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18866.abstract Abstract], ''Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO2 growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks ''.</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.

Burning fossil fuels such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[anthropogenic]] CO2; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. In 2008, 8.67 gigatonnes of carbon (31.8 [[gigatonne]]s of CO2) were released from fossil fuels worldwide, compared to 6.14 gigatonnes in 1990.<ref name="Le Quere">[http://lgmacweb.env.uea.ac.uk/lequere/co2/carbon_budget.htm Global carbon budget 2008], [http://lgmacweb.env.uea.ac.uk lgmacweb.env.uea.ac.uk]</ref> In addition, land use change contributed 1.20 gigatonnes in 2008, compared to 1.64 gigatonnes in 1990.<ref name="Le Quere"/>

This addition, about 3% of annual natural emissions {{As of|1997|lc=on}}, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "[http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html Common Questions about Climate Change]"</ref> As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, and {{As of|2009|lc=on}}, its concentration is 39% above pre-industrial levels.<ref name="carbon budget">[http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/carbonbudget/09/hl-full.htm Carbon Budget 2009 Highlights], [http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/ The Global Carbon Project].</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

==Past variation==
The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels were about 260 – 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[Annum|ka]]). In 1832 Antarctic ice core levels were 284 ppmv.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Historical CO2 record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>

[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|380px|CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]
[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|380px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

One study disputed the claim of stable CO2 levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 ka. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric O2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011–12014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmc = 129389 | pmid = 12202744 }}</ref> argued that CO2 levels during the period 7 – 10 ka were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a | accessdate = May 26, 2005 }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g. H. J Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1–4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 }}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO2 measurements.

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 ka.<ref name="deep ice"/> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180 – 210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280 – 300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html Chemical & Engineering News: Latest News - Ice Core Record Extended]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html Vostok Ice Core Data], [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref>

On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and volcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO2 response to emissions over the next hundred years.

Various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida"/> In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, the time of the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]] and when the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] started to take its current form, CO2 is found to have been about 760 ppm,<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation] September 13th, 2009</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma.

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
{{see also|Solubility pump}}
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|300px|Air-sea exchange of CO2]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water, a process which has been termed [[ocean acidification]]. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

Ultimately, most of the CO2 emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean,<ref name=arch05>Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time. ''J. Geophys. Res.'', '''110''', doi:10.1029/2004JC002625.</ref> however the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.

==Irreversibility and uniqueness of carbon dioxide==
Carbon dioxide has unique long-term effects on climate change that are largely "irreversible" for one thousand years after emissions stop (zero further emissions). The greenhouse gases [[methane]] and [[nitrous oxide]] do not persist over time in the same way as carbon dioxide. Even if carbon emissions were to completely cease, atmospheric temperatures are not expected to decrease significantly.<ref>[http://www.pnas.org/content/106/6/1704.full.pdf+html Irreversible climate change due to carbon dioxide emissions — PNAS]</ref><ref>[http://www.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/press_releases/pr_904_en.html WMO statement on the globa climate in 2010]</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/26/opinion/26cohen.html | work=The New York Times | first=Judah | last=Cohen | title=Bundle Up, It's Global Warming | date=2010-12-25}}</ref>

== Carbon dioxide management ==
Carbon dioxide concentrations are growing rapidly and accelerating. The observed concentration rise is through multiple lines of evidence directly attributable to the use of gas, oil and coal. Of any emitted carbon dioxide, about 40% remains semi-permanent in the atmosphere. According to a 2007 report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, "About 50% of a CO2 increase will be removed from the atmosphere within 30 years, and a further 30% will be removed within a few centuries. The remaining 20% may stay in the atmosphere for many thousands of years."<ref name="Inman2008">{{cite web |url=http://www.nature.com/climate/2008/0812/full/climate.2008.122.html |title=Carbon is forever |work=Nature Reports Climate Change |publisher=[http://www.nature.com nature.com] |date=20 November 2008 |doi=10.1038/climate.2008.122| first=Mason | last=Inman}}</ref>

Three longer term processes are recognized to redistribute and eventually dissipate currently emitted carbon dioxide.<ref name="Inman2008"/> The first will be ocean invasion (300 years), which can only reduce concentration by a factor of ~4, because of the establishment of a new equilibrium. The second will be a new equilibrium with carbon carbonate, which can reduce the concentration by a factor of ~3 over a 5,000 year timescale. The third stage is eventual reaction with igneous rock with a time-constant of 400,000 years. These processes are so slow, that practically zero-emissions are at some point unavoidable in order to not exceed any practical carbon dioxide concentration limit.

To avoid a [[global warming]] of 2.1°C, it is estimated that a concentration of less than 450 ppm needs to be maintained if other gasses were to return to pre-industrial levels. Currently a global warming of 0.7°C is measured, with another 0.6°C increase expected even without any further increased concentrations because the oceans are still getting warmed up along with the atmosphere. At the current accelerated growth rate, exponentially [[extrapolating]] the Keeling curve, this concentration will be reached in 22 years. Even with constant concentration growth, with the current 2.2 ppm/yr, this concentration will be reached in (450-390 ppm)/(2.2 ppm/yr)=27 years. These timescales are so short with respect to the timescale of the evolution such there is little doubt these concentrations will be reached soon barring any drastic behavior changes.{{citation needed|date=December 2010|reason=assertions prior to this point are not supported by source cited at the end of the paragraph}} Indeed, the lifetime of for instance power plants can be 40 to 60 years.<ref>[http://www.naruc.org/Publications/Section%2021-Wyoming-Depreciable%20life%20of%20new%20coal%20generating%20plant.doc Depreciable life of new coal generating plant], Wyoming Office of Consumer Advocate, September 2007.</ref> To avoid these concentrations, an immediate reduction of the concentration growth of 3.5% per year rather than a growth of the concentration growth of 1.7% per year needs to be achieved for the foreseeable future. Reducing the concentration growth can be done by restricting emissions or with carbon sequestration. The concentration growth is dominantly affected by the net human emissions.

The current increase to 386 ppm from 280 ppm causes a radiative forcing of 1.66 W/m^2, and 1.34 W/m^2 from increases in other gasses, totalling 3.00 W/m^2[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/current_ghg.html]. The current concentration of greenhouse gasses already have a heating power equaling that of a concentration of (386-280)*3.00/1.66+280=472 ppm C02-eq (carbon dioxide equivalent). Therefore, the current concentrations are high enough for over a 2 degrees Celsius temperature rise.

To be able to reduce carbon dioxide concentration with [[Carbon sequestration]] back to pre-industrial levels, (390-280 ppm)/390ppm/(40%/100) = 70% of all the existing air needs to be scrubbed off any carbon dioxide, removing about (390-280 ppm)/(40%/100)=0.03% of the air, an immense task.

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] - A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]
*[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]
*[[Climate change]]
*[[Eddy covariance]] flux (aka eddy correlation, eddy flux)
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Ocean acidification]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change]]

[[ru:Углекислый газ в атмосфере Земли]]

Benutzer:NearEMPTiness/Campbeltown and Machrihanish Light Railway; 762 mm

2011-03-07T09:08:53Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{Infobox rail|railroad_name=Campbeltown and Machrihanish Light Railway|gauge={{RailGauge|27}}|start_year=1876|end_year=1931|hq_city=Campbeltown|locale=[[Scotland]]|successor_line=abandoned}}

The '''Campbeltown and Machrihanish Light Railway''' was a {{RailGauge|27}} [[narrow gauge railway]] in [[Kintyre]], [[Scotland]], between the towns of [[Campbeltown]] and [[Machrihanish]]. Only three other passenger-carrying lines in the UK operated on the same gauge, all of them in [[Wales]] - the [[Corris Railway]], the short-lived [[Plynlimon and Hafan Tramway]] and the [[Talyllyn Railway]].

== History ==
===Canal===

Coal has been mined on the [[Kintyre]] peninsula since at least 1498. Although not of the highest quality, the coal found there is abundant and relatively cheap to extract. In the middle of the eighteenth century the [[coal mining|collieries]] of the area were kept busy supplying the many [[whisky]] distilleries in the Campbeltown area. In 1773 [[James Watt]] surveyed a canal to connect the coal mines to Campbeltown to reduce the costs of transportation. The {{convert|3|mi|km|1|adj=on}} [[Campbeltown and Machrihanish Canal]] was opened in 1794.

This early transportation link fell into disuse and had been virtually abandoned by 1856. In 1875 the Argyll Coal and Canal Co. acquired the main colliery and found the canal in a state of disrepair. They decided a better transportation system was required and began to investigate the building of a railway to Campbeltown.

===Colliery railway===

As rail transport developed in the 19th century, the colliery owners sought to build a tramway to replace the canal. In 1876 a lightly constructed [[industrial railway]] was built connecting Kilkivan Pit to Campbeltown, a distance of {{convert|4+1/2|mi|km|2}}. For a short length the line ran on the formation of the canal before reaching Campbeltown, where it ended on a pier.

The colliery railway only ever carried coal traffic and used two locomotives, ''Princess'' and ''Chevalier'' to haul the trains of mine tubs.

===Light railway===

The colliery railway's traffic was largely seasonal as most of the colliery output was consumed locally. Around the turn of the century the mine owners began to search for additional traffic for the summer season. At the same time, new [[steam ship]]s began bringing tourists to the remote Kintyre peninsula. This led to the formation of the Association of Argyll Railway Co. Ltd. which applied for an order under the [[Light Railways Act 1896|Light Railways Act]] to build a railway connecting Campbeltown with Machrihanish, on the west coast of the peninsula.

Construction of the Campbeltown and Machrihanish Light Railway began in November 1905. The majority of the route of the new railway followed the colliery tramway, but with several of the steeper gradients and sharper curves eased. The colliery line was also extended west to the new terminus at Machrihanish.

The work was completed in 1906 and the railway opened on 18 August 1906. It was an immediate success, attracting 10,000 passengers in its first three weeks of operation and replacing the horse-drawn tourist charabanc traffic in Campbeltown.

In the years leading up to the [[First World War]] the railway thrived on a mixture of coal and passenger traffic. However, after the war, competition from new motor buses began to reduce the railway's profitable tourist trade. By 1931 the summer tourist trade had dwindled significantly. Although passenger trains did run in late spring of 1932, the railway was failing and it abandoned passenger services in early summer of that year. By November 1933 the railway had been wound up and in May 1934 the last trains ran, assisting in the scrapping of the line.

===Maisel Oil Company===
According to Davies<ref>Davies, W.J.K., ''ABC Narrow Gauge Railways'', Ian Allan, c.1961, pp 39-40</ref> both the railway and the colliery were acquired about 1929 by the Maisel Oil Company, which had a [[patent]] for a process to produce [[Coal liquefaction|oil from coal]]. This concern was not successful and the line closed to passengers in September 1931 and to all traffic in November 1932.

Macmillan<ref>Macmillan, Nigel S.C., ''The Campbeltown & Machrihanish Light Railway'', Plateway Press, third edition 2000, page 12, ISBN 1-871980-17-8</ref> gives a slightly different version:

<blockquote>
"In June (1928) the Franco British Co. acquired the Argyll colliery and at a Campbeltown Town Council meeting on 13th August, Mr. Maisel, a director, said that gas could be got from a proposed coal distillation plant and bought by the town. A report to the shareholders stated that a testing plant of the Aicher low temperature carbonisation process had been in operation for a fortnight, under the supervision of Mr. Aicher. Tests gave yields of between 34½ and 74 gallons of crude oil per ton of coal [154–331 L/t or 37–79 US gal/short ton]. In addition 2350 cubic feet/ton [65.5 m3/t or 2,100 cu ft/short ton] of gas and the residual coke were available from the process. In June 1929 the Franco British Company re-emerged as the Coal Carbonisation Trust and their prospectus mentioned carbonising 1,000 tons [1,016 t or 1120 short tons] of coal per day yielding 11 cwt of coke per ton [550 kg/t]. Almost immediately afterwards the pit at Kilkivan was abandoned and the whole project 'melted like snow aff (sic) a dyke'."
</blockquote>

It seems that there was some concern about the company's conduct and a question was asked about the matter in Parliament <ref>[http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1933/feb/14/parent-coal-carbonisation-company Parent Coal Carbonisation Company. (Hansard)]</ref> on 14 February 1933.

== Rolling stock ==
===Locomotives===

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!Name
!Builder
!Type
!Works Number
!Built
!Notes
|-
|''Pioneer''
|{{nowrap|[[Andrew Barclay & Sons Co.|Andrew Barclay & Co]]}}
|0-4-0 WT {{nowrap|(converted to 0-4-2 WT)}}
|unknown
|1876
|align="left"|Delivered for the original colliery railway; never ran on the C&MLR.
|-
|''Chevalier''
|[[Andrew Barclay & Sons Co.|Andrew Barclay & Co]]
|0-4-0 ST (converted to 0-4-2 ST)
|269
|1885
|align="left"|Rebuilt in 1926 using parts from Princess
|-
|''Princess''
|[[Kerr Stuart]]
|0-4-2 T
|717
|1900
|align="left"|Skylark class, scrapped before 1931
|-
|''Argyll''
|[[Andrew Barclay & Sons Co.|Andrew Barclay & Co]]
|0-6-2 T
|1049
|1906
|align="left"|
|-
|''Atlantic''
|[[Andrew Barclay & Sons Co.|Andrew Barclay & Co]]
|0-6-2 T
|1098
|1907
|align="left"|Identical design to Argyll.
|}

===Passenger stock===
R.Y. Pickering & Co. of [[Wishaw]] supplied four passenger [[bogie]] carriages for the line in 1906. Each carriage had a central saloon with wooden tramway style seating for 64 passengers and open end platforms. Two further carriages were supplied by Pickering in 1907, the second of which had a central luggage compartment.

The carriages survived the closure of the line and in 1934 were moved to Trench Point on the other side of Campbeltown Loch where they were used as holiday homes. During the [[Second World War]] they were used by the Admiralty. After the war they were left to deteriorate until the remaining underframes were finally scrapped in 1958.

There are six saloon coaches on the {{convert|15|in|abbr=on}} gauge [[Ravenglass & Eskdale Railway]] in [[Cumbria]] which are based on the exterior designs of the Campbeltown passenger stock, built in 1989 and 1990 for the [[Gateshead Garden Festival]].

===Freight stock===
====Colliery railway====
The colliery railway probably used mine tubs from the collieries' internal lines when it opened in 1876. By 1902, 18 flat four-wheeled wagons were in use, each of which carried four mine "hutches". The hutches were small mine tubs each of which carried 9½ cwt (480 kg) of coal. The hutches were mounted transversely on short lengths of rail on the main railway wagons.

====Light railway====

With the rebuilding of the colliery line in 1906 the opportunity was taken to replace the hutch carrying wagons with more conventional stock. A set of 3¼ ton four-wheel open-sided coal wagons were purchased from Hurst Nelson Ltd. of Motherwell. Like the earlier colliery wagons, these had [[dumb buffers]] and centre couplings. Later batches of wagons were built to a 4½ ton design. In all the railway used approximately 150 coal wagons, all owned by the Campbeltown Coal Co. rather than the railway.

In addition to the coal wagons, the railway also had a small number of other freight stock, all owned by the railway company itself. A 7 ton brake van was supplied by R.Y. Pickering. The same company supplied an open-sided milk wagon based on the design for the 4½ ton wagon but with open spars extending above the sides to provide extra support for carrying milk churns. Finally the railway had a detachable snow plough and a small [[platelayer]]s' trolley for maintenance work.

== See also ==
*[[List of 2 ft 3 in gauge railways]]
*[[British narrow gauge railways]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==

* A.D. Farr ''The Campbeltown & Machrihanish Light Railway'', The Oakwood Press, 1967, ISBN 0-85361-351-6
* Nigel S.C. Macmillan ''The Campbeltown & Machrihanish Light Railway'', David & Charles: Newton Abbot, 1970

== External links==
* [http://www.railscot.co.uk/Campbeltown_and_Machrihanish_Light_Railway/frame.htm Railscot - Campbeltown and Machrihanish Light Railway]
*[http://users.eggconnect.net/canda.stell/CaM.html Website by Aidan Stell]

{{Historical Scottish railway companies}}

{{coord|55.42093|N|5.67718|W|type:landmark_region:GB_dim:2000|display=title}}

[[Category:Portages]]
[[Category:Closed railway lines in Scotland]]
[[Category:Railway lines in Scotland]]
[[Category:Transport in Argyll and Bute]]
[[Category:Two foot three inch gauge railways]]
[[Category:Narrow gauge railways in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Railway lines opened in 1876]]
[[Category:Railway lines opened in 1906]]

Burg Burgajet

2011-03-07T07:57:04Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

'''Castle Burgajet''' was a large fortified house, located in the [[Mat District]] of [[Albania]]. It was the birth-place, and family seat, of [[King Zog I]] of the [[Albania]]ns <ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078426/Zog%20I Encyclopedia Britannica Online]</ref>.

[[File:AlbaniaMat.png|right|frame|Map showing Mat within Albania]]

[[Jason Tomes]] described it thus; <blockquote>a solid rectangular building with two small wings facing into a courtyard. This was Castle Burgajet, citadel of the chieftain of Mati...the biggest house for miles and the only one with glazed windows. The interior was even more distinctive...Fancy furnishings, imported from Austria, had recently become the hallmark of wealth. Salon chairs, draperies, table-lamps, and bric-a-brac...<ref name="King Zog P. 8">"King Zog; Self-Made Monarch of Albania, Jason Tomes P. 8, ISBN 0-7509-3077-2</ref></blockquote>

His family were the traditional [[feudal]] rulers of the [[Mat District]] of Albania and were large [[landowner]]s.

On ascending the Throne, Zog took up residence in a palace in [[Tirana]] (with a [[Ahmet Zogu's Palace of Durrës|Summer Palace]] in [[Durrës]] - see [[:File:Palace of king Zog durres.jpg|image]]). This (along with it being looted and set alight '''to be cont.''') was a factor leading to Castle Burgajet falling into ruin.

Before King Zog was forced to flee Albania he had an ambitious plan to rebuild the Castle but this never transpired; during his reign, however, a plaque commemorated his birth there.<ref name="King Zog P. 8"/> When asked why he did not rebuild Burgajet, Zog replied "I was too busy rebuilding my country."

==References==
<references/>

{{coord missing|Albania}}

{{Castles in Albania}}

[[Category:Castles in Albania]]

{{Albania-castle-stub}}

[[mk:Тврдина Бургајет]]

Buekorps

2011-03-07T07:39:53Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

[[Image:Buekorps2.jpg|right|thumb|390px|Representatives of the different buekorps brigades in 2005.]]

'''Buekorps''' (literally "Bow Corps" or "Archery Brigade") are traditional marching neighbourhood [[youth organization]]s in [[Bergen, Norway]].

The tradition, which is unique to [[Bergen]], dates back at least to the 19th century when children would imitate the adult militia soldiers performing [[Parade (military)|close order drill]]. The organizations, which are called "bataljoner" ("battalions"), were first formally organized in the 1850s and are run entirely by the youths themselves. 14 different such "battalions" are active in Bergen, each usually belonging to a certain part of town.

In the past brigades were also formed in other Norwegian cities. But probably from the lacking city- and neighbourhood-patriotism, these were mostly defunct by the early 20th century.

Though the structure and ceremony of the Buekorps has military roots, the brigades are active in various other ways, ranging from physical activity and play to charitable work. Members range in age from about 7 to over 20, and adult veterans play a role in supporting the organizations and during certain events.
[[Image:SandvikensBuekorps 1932.JPG|thumb|270px|A section of Sandvikens Buekorps in 1932.]]

The groups consist of privates (usually carrying wooden rifles or crossbows), officers (the oldest kids with most seniority) and [[drummer]]s. The buekorps have their official season from March through the summer, but are most active during spring, with [[Norwegian Constitution Day]] on May 17th as the high point of the season. On that day they are a prominent and popular part of the parade through the streets of Bergen.

In addition, the buekorps have their own celebratory days. One of these is the day they celebrate the founding date of their battalion. Every fourth year is ''Buekorpsenes Dag'' (The Buekorps Day), a series of competitions and pageantry.

Traditionally an activity exclusively for boys, the first girl buekorps was formed in 1991. This stirred some controversy in Bergen, but the girl and mixed gender battalions are now accepted by most people.

The buekorps tradition, even with many battalions experiencing trouble in keeping up the recruiting of new soldiers, continues to be a popular and proud feature of Bergen, excepting the odd complaint about noise.

==Background==
[[Image:Borgervaepningen 1814.jpg|thumb|260px|Members of the real city militia which children of Bergen eventually would imitate.]]
Even from back to the days of [[Ludvig Holberg]] it is told of boys playing and marching on the streets of [[Bergen]]. The city [[militia]] fascinated boys in the 18th and 19th century. They would build their own "fortresses" where they would play and engage in "warfare" against other boy-[[gang]]s. Consul August Konow tells from his lifetime that at the end of the 18th century there existed boy-gangs and companies who marched around and engaded in "warfare" with each other. These gangs were called "Nordnæs Kompani" and "Nykirkealmeningens Kompani" and were direct copies of the town militia.

Governor Fredrik Hauch also tells from the same time about boy-gangs who were copying the town milita. Names like "fjeldeguttene" ("the Fjeldet-boys"), "markeguttene" ("the Marken-boys") and "dræggaguttene" ("the Dræggen-boys") were known at the end of the 18th century.

[[Johan Sebastian Welhaven]] with his poem "børnelege" ("child doctor") from 1839 gives a picture of his childhood-years in 1814: 
''"Vi stilledes os siden i lange Rader, marsjerende tappert i byens gader ;vi plyndrede Søstrenes Dukkeskrin og gjorde Mundurer av silke og lin. I krigsraadet taltes med megen vekt om fienden stilling og skjulte planer, paa chefens kommando, vi stormede kjækt med skillingstrompeter, karduspapirfaner".''

''("We organized ourselves in long rows, marched bravely the streets of the city; we plundered our sisters doll-boxes and made coats out of [[silk]] and [[linen]]. In the council of war we gravely discussed the enemy's position and secret plans, and on the command of the chief we charged with shilling trumpets and paper banners".)''

Nils Hertzberg says of the 1830s: There were organized boy-gangs in the different neighbourhoods which under changing alliances delivered each other full-blown [[battle]]s: The Nordnæs-, Drægge-, Nøste- and Skive-Boys. They employed guards and scouts who made strategic moves to surprise the enemy.

In the 1850s these boy-gangs still rampaged, but the violent and hostile line had to come to an end. Who it was that finally ended these hostilities and turned into more like the current peaceful boy-organizations of ''buekorps'' is uncertain.<ref>[http://www.buekorps.no/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=12 Buekorps - Historikk - Når, hvor og på hvilken måte ble Buekorpsene til i Bergen]</ref>

==Lørdagskorps and Søndagskorps==
''Lørdagskorps'' ("Saturday-brigades") and ''Søndagskorps'' ("Sunday-brigades") is historically the two main types of buekorps. These terms originates from which day the brigades marched on.
Saturday-brigades were composed of the sons of those who could afford to take a day off on Saturday to march. The three surviving Saturday-brigades are ''Nordnæs Bataillon'', ''Nygaards Bataljon'' and ''Dræggens Buekorps''.

Sunday-brigades were the ones from [[working-class]] neighbourhoods where the children had to work on Saturdays, and thus couldn't march on any other day. Most of the brigades were Sunday-brigades. Some of these brigades came from such poor families that they couldn't afford real uniforms. They did therefore instead wear ornated shirts. Today, ''Laksevågs Bueskyttere'' and ''Løvstakkens Jægerkorps'' still marches in these shirts.<ref>[http://buekorpsene.com/ombuekorps/ Buekorpsene - Hva er buekorps?]</ref>

==The current brigades==
* '''Dræggens Buekorps''' (24 March 1856), – ''Dræggens Archery Company'', boys brigade [http://www.dreggens.no/]
* '''Eidsvaags Kompani''' (28 April 2008) "Eidsvaags Værve Kompani", Boys brigade.
* '''Fjeldets Bataljon''' (22 May 1857), ''Fjeldets Battalion'', boys brigade [http://www.fjeldetsbataljon.com/]
* '''Laksevågs Bueskyttere''' (8 May 1894), ''Laksevåg's Archerers'', boys brigade [http://www.laksevaagsbueskyttere.no/]
* '''Lungegaardens Buekorps''' (7 October 1994), ''Lungegaarden's Archery Company'', girls brigade [http://www.lungegaardens.com/]
* '''[[Løvstakkens Jægerkorps]]''' (11 May 1903-18, 30 April 1928-64, 11 May 1999-<ref>[https://www.bergen.kommune.no/organisasjonsenhet/gronn?articleId=38524&artSectionId=2095&sectionId=2095 Bergen Kommune - Vannfestival program 22. mars]</ref><ref>[http://www.lovstakkensjaegerkorps.com/Templates/Historie.htm Løvstakkens Jægerkorps - Stiftet i 1928 og i 1903.]</ref>), ''Løvstakken's Jeger Company'', mixed brigade [http://www.lovstakkensjaegerkorps.com/]
* '''Markens Bataljon''' (4 June 1859), ''Marken's Battalion'', boys brigade [http://www.markens-bataljon.com/]
* '''Mathismarkens Bataljon''' (15 June 1887), ''Mathismarken's Battalion'', boys brigade
* '''[[Nordnæs Bataillon]]''' (3 May 1858), ''Nordnæs' Battalion'', boys brigade [http://www.nordnes-bataillon.no/]
* '''Nygaards Bataljon''' (14 June 1857), ''Nygaard's Battalion'', boys brigade [http://www.nygaards-bataljon.com/]
* '''Sandvikens Bataljon''' (17 May 1857), ''Sandviken's Battalion'', boys brigade [http://www.sandvikensbataljon.no/]
* '''[[Skansens Bataljon]]''' (22 May 1860), ''Skansen's Battalion'', boys brigade [http://www.skansensbataljon.com/]
* '''Skutevikens Buekorps''' (8 July 1853), ''Skuteviken's Archery Company'', boys brigade [http://www.skutevikensbuekorps.com/]
* '''Sydnæs Bataljon''' (7 June 1863), ''Sydnæs' Battalion'', boys brigade [http://www.sydnaesbataljon.com/]
* '''Wesselengens Bataljon''' (24 April 1873), ''Wesselengen's Battalion'', boys brigade [http://www.wesselengen.no/]

==Former brigades in Bergen==
Since the 1850s there may have existed more than 200 different brigades overall. Dates of foundation and discontinuation are very scarcely known. Known brigades are listed here:<ref>[http://www.buekorps.no/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=25 Buekorps - Andre Buekorps som ble borte]</ref><ref>[http://www.buekorps.no/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=14 Buekorps - Buekorpsene som ble borte]</ref><ref name="BuekorpsMuseum">[http://www.buekorps.museum.no/pdf/db_buekorps.pdf BuekorpsMuseum - Buekorps med registrerte gjenstander]</ref><ref>Buekorpsene i Bergen: i tekst og bilder gjennom hundre år, Torstein Sletten, ED.B. GIERTSENS FORLAG, 1972, ISBN 82-90073-00-3</ref>
{{columns
|width=266px
|col1 =
* Allegatens Bataljon
* Asylplass Bataljon
* Baglergatens Kompani (1911-18?)
* Baneveiens Bataljon
* Bingen Hellebardkorps
* Bingen Jegerkorps
* Blauengens Kompani
* Blekebakkens Kompani
* Bispengens Kompani
* Bjørgvin Compagni (1869)
* Bjørgvins Kompani (1932-36)
* Boligens Kordekorps (Ladegårdskorpset) (?-1895)
* Boligens Kårdekorps (Henrik Wergelands korpset) (?-1888)
* Borgerskolens (Buekorps?)
* Breistølsveiens Kompani (1889-1925?)
* Bødkergadens Kompagni
* Bønes Batalion
* Christinegaard Bataljon (1938-40)
* Damsgårds Batalion
* Det raske Fjellkorps (1876-79)
* Dokkens Kompagni
* Dragefjellskorpset (1881-?)
* Eidemarkens (Buekorps?)
* Ekrenbakkens Kompani
* Elvegatens Kompagni
* Engens Buekorps
* Fastings Buekorps (?-1860s?)
* Fjeldets Kompani (1895-?)
* Fjellborgs Kompani (1924-29)
* Fjøsanger Kompani (1950-60s?)
* Fredrikbergsgatens Kompani
* Fridalens Kompani (1950s?)
* Fæstningens Buekorps (?-1862)
* Granbakken Jægerkorps
* Granesmugets Kompani (1913-39?)
* Grønnevoldgatens Kompagni
* Grønnevolds Kompagni
* Gyldenpris Kompani
* Gørbitzgatens Kompani
* Hans Haugesgate Kompani (1920-33)
* Haugens Bataljon
* Haugens Buekorps
* Haugesmugets Kompani
* Haugeveiens Kompani
* Heiens Kompani
* Holmens Kompani
* Hop Bataljon (1918-22)
|col2 =
* Høggeblokkens Kompani (1912-20?)
* Isdalens Kårdekorps
* Jektevikens Kompani
* Kalmarhavens Compagni
* Kippersmauets Bataljon (1930-33)
* Kirkegatens Jægerkorps (1920-47)
* Kleivens Buekorps (1850s?-?)
* Klokkerhagens Kompani
* Korskirkealmeningens Kompani (1904?-13)
* Krohnengens Bataljon
* [[Krohnvikens Bataljon]] (1852-1916)
* Kronstad Bataljon (1922-63)
* Ladegaardens Bataljon (21 April 1880-85, 1889-1921, 1924-70)
* Ladegårdens Compagni (1891-1917?)
* Laksevåg Bataljon (1872-1940)
* Langeveiens Kompani (1920-26)
* Langhauens Kompani
* Legdenes Kompani (1 April 1956-61)
* Lille Markens Kompagni
* Lille Dræggens Buekorps
* Løvstakkveien Kompani
* Markeveiens Compagni
* Markeveiens Jægerkorps (1880s)
* Martin Vahlsgates Kompani (1901-28)
* Meyermarkens Kompani (1905-20)
* Minde Bataljon (1950s?)
* Mulelvens Bataljon
* Mulens Bataljon (14 June 1898-1903, 1911-17, 1920-57, 1980-84)
* Muralmendingens Companie (1880s)
* Møhlenpris Kompani (1895-1912, ?-1923)
* Natland Bataljon (1959-63)
* Nedre Stølens Kompani (1898-1904?)
* Nessets Bataljon
* Nordnes Lekeplads Kompani (1918-28)
* Nordre Møhlenpris Kompani
* Nordre Skutevikens Kompani (1928-39)
* Nordre Skuteviksveiens Kompani (1928-39)
* Nye Sandviksvei Kompani
* Nykirkealmeningens Kompani (1875?-1916)
* Nymarks Kompani
* Nøstets Batalion (7 May 1870-1961)
* Nøstets Kårdekorps (bef. 1855-70)
* Olav Rustiesgates Kompani (1972-80)
* Paaschemarkens Bataljon
|col3 =
* Paradis Bataljon
* Parkens Compagni
* Persenbakkens Kompani (1928-32)
* Planens Kompani (1956-65, 1974-82)
* Rennebanens Kompani (1920-25?)
* Repslagersgatens Jægerkompani (1918-38)
* Rosenbergsgatens Bataljon
* Rothaugens Kompani (1932-34, 1988-90?)
* Sandviksveiens Buekorps
* Scjadenbergshavens Kompani (1910-30)
* Skanseliens Kompani (1932-57?)
* Skivens Kårdekorps
* Skytterbanens bataljon
* Slettens Bataljon (1959-65?)
* Slottsgatens Kompani
* Smaa-Skansens Bataljon
* Smørsalmendingens Companie (1880s)
* [[Solheims Bataljon]] (1927-30s, 1946-50s)
* Storemøllens Compani
* Strandveiens Bataillon
* Strandgatens Jægerkorps
* Strangehagens Kompani
* Stupets Bataljon (1952-56)
* Stølens Kompani (1860-65?, 1947-48)
* Svanevikens Kompani
* Sverresborg Jegerkorps (1902-12)
* Sverresgatens Jægerkorps
* Sydnæskleivens Kårdekorps
* Tamburengens Jægerkorps (1904-10?)
* Teatergatens (Kompani?)
* Toldbodalmendingens Compagni
* Trangesmauets Kompani (1875?-1932)
* Tverrgatens Kompani (1918-31, 1955-57)
* Utsiktens Kompani (1974-75)
* Vardens Kompagni (1965-75)
* Vaskerelvssmugets Compagnie
* Verftets Kompani ((1871-73, 18 March 1894-1961)
* Verftets Kompani II (1874-?)
* Verftets Kårdekorps (1873-74)
* Victor Müllers (Buekorps?)
* Vognstølbakken Bataljon
* Vågens Bataljon (1 June 1991-27 April 2008)
* Ytre Sandvikens Bataljon
* Øvregadens Buekorps (1875-1912?)
}}

==Former brigades in other cities==
In the past there have also existed buekorps in other cities. However, they were mostly defunct by the early 20th century. It is somewhat uncertain to what degree all of these were to the original tradition of buekorps. They did anyways start after inspiration of the buekorps of Bergen. Known ones are listed here:<ref name="BuekorpsMuseum"/>
{{columns
|width=400px
|col1 =
[[Arendal]]
* Arendals Yngre Guttekompani
[[Bodø]]
* Bodø Guttekorps
[[Drammen]]
* Bragerøens Buekorps
* Guttekorpset Birkebeineren
* St. Olafklevens Buekorps
[[Flekkefjord]]
* 1:ste Buekorps Flekkefjord
* Fjeldgatens Guttekorps
* Flekkefjord Buekorps
[[Fredrikstad]]
* Fredrikstad Buekorps
[[Gjøvik]]
* Gjøvik Guttekorps
[[Grimstad]]
* Grimstad Guttekorps
|col2 =
[[Hamar]]
* Hamar Guttegarde
[[Haugesund]]
* Grønhaugens Turnforening (buekorps)
* Haraldsgadens Buekorps
* Hasseløens Buekorps
* Haugesunds Buekorps
* Haugesunds Garde
* Risøens Buekorps
[[Hemnesberget]]
* Hemnes Guttekorps
[[Kristiansund]]
* Storgatens Guttekorps
[[Levanger]]
* Levanger Buekorps
[[Molde]]
* Molde Guttekorps
|col3 =
[[Nordfjordeid]]
* Eids Guttegarde
* Eids Guttekorps
[[Oslo]]
* Christiania Garde
* Løven (1868-?)
* Urania Garde (?-1905)
[[Sandnes]]
* Sandnes Buekorps
[[Sandnessjøen]]
* Sandnessjøen Guttekorps
[[Stavanger]]
* Kongsgaard Buekorps
* Nylunds Buekorps
* Stavanger Buekorps
* Svithuns Buekorps
|col4 =
[[Steinkjer]]
* Nordsiden Buekorps
* Stenkjær Guttekorps
[[Tingvold]]
* Tingvolds Guttekorps
[[Tromsø]]
* Tromsø Guttekorps
[[Vardø]]
* Løvepatruljen
[[Volden]]
* Voldens Guttekorps
[[Ålesund]]
* Rød Garden Tiger
* Viking Garden
* Aalesunds Garde
}}

==References==
1 - 12 Individual web pages for the brigades
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|Bergen Buekorps}}
*[http://buekorpsene.com/english/whatisbuekorps.php Buekorpsene.com]

[[Category:Youth organisations based in Norway]]
[[Category:Buekorps| ]]

{{Link FA|no}}

[[ca:Buekorps]]
[[nl:Buekorps]]
[[no:Buekorps]]
[[nn:Buekorps]]
[[sv:Buekorps]]

Brit HaBirionim

2011-03-07T06:59:16Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

[[Image:Birion2.jpg|right|thumb|[[Abba Ahimeir]], [[Uri Zvi Greenberg]], and [[Joshua Yeivin]].]]
'''Brit HaBirionim''' ([[Hebrew]]: ברית הבריונים, ''The Strongmen Alliance'') was a clandestine, self-declared [[Fascism|fascist]] faction of the [[Revisionist Zionism|Revisionist Zionist Movement]] (ZRM) in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], active between 1930 and 1933.<ref name="Kaplan 2005. p15">Kaplan, The Jewish Radical Right. University of Wisconsin Press, 2005. p15</ref><ref name="Shindler, Colin 2006. p13">Shindler, Colin. ''The Triumph of Military Zionism: Nationalism and the Origins of the Israeli Right''. I.B.Tauris, 2006. p13.</ref> It was founded by the trio of [[Abba Ahimeir]], [[Uri Zvi Greenberg]] and Dr. [[Joshua Yeivin]].

==Background==
The [[1929 Palestine riots|1929 Arab riots]] and the [[Haganah]]'s inability to successfully prevent the [[1929 Hebron massacre]] and the [[Safed massacre]] led to the creation of the first militant organization characterized by its complete disassociation from the existing Zionist establishment dominated by the [[Labor Zionism|Labor Zionist movement]].<ref name=weinberg97>{{Cite book
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0714654922, 9780714654928
| page = 97
| last = Weinberg
| first = Leonard
| coauthors = Ami Pedahzur
| title = Religious fundamentalism and political extremism
| year = 2004
}}</ref>

==Ideology==
The organization's official ideology, was [[Revisionist Maximalism]] which was modeled upon [[Italian Fascism]].<ref name="Kaplan 2005. p15" /><ref name="Shindler, Colin 2006. p13"/><ref name="Ofira Seliktar 1986. Pp. 84">Ofira Seliktar. New Zionism and the foreign policy system of Israel. Beckenham, England, UK: Croom Helm, Ltd., 1986. Pp. 84</ref> It sought to create a fascist [[Corporatism|corporatist]] state.<ref name="Ofira Seliktar 1986. Pp. 84"/> It is also influenced by the [[Canaanism|Canaanite]] ideology of [[Yonatan Ratosh]] and the theories of [[Oswald Spengler]] in ''[[The Decline of the West]]'' (1918).<ref name="Ofira Seliktar 1986. Pp. 84"/> It called for the Zionist Revisionist Movement (ZRM) to adopt the fascist principles of the regime of [[Benito Mussolini]] in [[Italy]] to create an [[Integralism|integralist]] "pure nationalism" amongst Jews.<ref>Larsen, p364-365.</ref> Revisionist Maximalism rejects [[communism]], [[humanism]], [[Internationalism (politics)|internationalism]], [[liberalism]], [[pacifism]] and [[socialism]]; condemned liberal [[Zionism|Zionists]] for only working for middle-class Jews rather than the Jewish nation as a whole.<ref>Kaplan, p15</ref><ref>Shindler, Colin. ''The Triumph of Military Zionism: Nationalism and the Origins of the Israeli Right''. I.B.Tauris, 2006. p156.</ref> Revisionist Maximalism's minimal goals were presented in 1932 where Ahimeir officially called for the leadership of the Zionist Revisionist Movement to be redesigned into the form of a dictatorship, called for the creation of an independent Zionist federation, called for a "war on funds" to end corruption in the Zionist movement, and called for a war on [[anti-Semitism]].<ref>Larsen, Stein Ugelvik (ed.). Fascism Outside of Europe. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. ISBN 0880339888. p378.</ref> The movement's psychology was emphasized in its motto of "conquer or die".<ref name="Ofira Seliktar 1986. Pp. 84"/>

==Activities==
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 1123 Israel Defense Forces פעילי ברית הבריונים מובאים למשפט .jpg|thumb|200px|right|Abba Ahimeir (the man in [[handcuffs]] and over members of ''Brit HaBirionim'', among them [[Haim Dviri]], as being brought before a court of law by law enforcement in [[Jerusalem]].]]
Members of ''Brit HaBirionim'' carried out several operations, including demonstrations against visiting British dignatories, rallies against the British arrest and deportation to Europe of Jewish refugees who overstaid their tourist visas, attempts to interrupt a census conducted by the British, and other illegal activities intended as public provocations such as blowing the [[Shofar]] at the [[Western Wall]] (forbidden to Jews at that time), and removing the Nazi flags from two German consulates.<ref>Golan, Zev. ''Free Jerusalem: Heroes, Heroines and Rogues Who Created the State of Israel'', (Israel: Devora, 2003), pp. 49-53, 66-77.</ref><ref name=experts>{{Cite web
| title = Terrorism Experts
| accessdate = 2007-12-02
| url = http://terrorismexperts.org/terrorism_research_roots1.htm
}}</ref>

In 1933, the British Mandatory Authority arrested several members, including Ahimeir, and charged them with the murder of [[Chaim Arlosoroff]]. Though acquitted of the charges in 1934, the trial tarnished the group's reputation and led to its isolation by former political supporters among the Jewish populace, and eventually to its demise.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Brit Habirionim}}
[[Category:Jews in Ottoman and British Palestine]]
[[Category:1930 establishments]]
[[Category:Fascist parties]]

[[fr:Brit Ha'birionim]]
[[he:ברית הבריונים]]

Bogan River

2011-03-07T05:30:23Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

[[File:Bogan River-Nyngan.JPG|thumb|300px|The Bogan River at Nyngan, NSW.]]
The '''Bogan River''' is an inland river in the [[Central West (New South Wales)|central west]] of [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]].

This river rises at Goonumbla, 19 kilometres north-west of [[Parkes, New South Wales|Parkes]] and flows in a generally north-north-westerly direction past [[Tottenham, New South Wales| Tottenham]], [[Peak Hill, New South Wales| Peak Hill]] and through [[Nyngan]]. The [[Bogan]] River is about 590 km in length and is a [[tributary]] of the [[Darling River]].<ref name="AE">Chisholm, Alec H. (ed.), The Australian Encyclopaedia, Vol. 2, p. 46, ''Bogan River'', Halstead Press, Sydney, 1963</ref> The main tributaries are: Bugwah Cowal, Bulbodney Creek, Burrill Creek, Duck Creek, and Gunningbar Creek.<ref>[http://maps.bonzle.com/c/a?a=p&p=210025&cmd=sp Bonzle maps] Retrieved 2010-5-5</ref>

Unlike the other main rivers of inland [[New South Wales]], the Bogan does not rise in the well-watered highland areas, so its flow is low and erratic and not much use for [[irrigation]].

==History==
The river was crossed by [[John Oxley]] in 1817, but was named by [[Charles Sturt]] in his 1828-9 expedition as New Years Creek on 1 January 1829. It was also called the Bogen prior to [[Thomas Mitchell (explorer)|Major Sir Thomas Mitchell]] reaching here in [[1835 in Australia|1835]]. On 17 April 1835 [[Richard Cunningham (botanist)]] wandered away from the Mitchell party near the Bogan River and it is believed that he was killed here by Aborigines.<ref name="Australian Places">''Readers Digest Guide to Australian Places'', Reader’s Digest (Australia) Pty. Limited, Surry Hills N.S.W., 1993, ISBN 0864383991</ref>

In April 1990, major flooding occurred along the river and in Nyngan, and despite a massive effort by local people to build levee walls using sandbags, 2,500 people had to be evacuated from the town.<ref>[http://www.emergency.nsw.gov.au/content.php/624.html 1990 Nyngan flood] Retrieved 2010-5-5</ref>

The name, Bogan is thought to be an Aboriginal term for the birthplace of a leader of a local tribe.<ref name="Australian Places"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord|33|00|30|S|148|02|00|E|display=title|region:AU_type:river_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Rivers of New South Wales]]
[[Category:Tributaries of the Darling River]]

Bentley S3

2011-03-07T03:11:45Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{Infobox Automobile
|image=[[Image:BentleyS3.jpg|250px]]
|name=Bentley S3
|manufacturer=[[Bentley]]
|production=1962–1965 1630 produced
|predecessor=[[Bentley S2]]
|successor=[[Bentley T-series|Bentley T1]]
|aka=Bentley S3 Continental
|related=[[Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud|Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud III]]
|engine=6.2 L [[Rolls-Royce V8 engine|Rolls-Royce V8]]
|wheelbase=3124.2 mm (123 in) 3225.8 mm (127 in)
}}
The '''Bentley S3''' was a [[luxury car]] produced by [[Bentley Motors Limited|Bentley]] from 1962 until 1965.

The S3 looked very similar to the S2. The most-visible difference was a new turn indicator light in the nose rather than on the side, along with a four-headlamp layout that paved the way for the radically new [[Bentley T1]] in 1965, a lower bonnet line and an altered grille. The interior was modified with individual seats for front passengers and increased leg room in the rear. The S3 continued the 6.2 L (6230 cc/380 in³) V8 engine introduced with the S2 but the carbs were larger and the induction system and compression ratios were modified. The power steering was also improved.

==S3 Continental==
In 1959, [[Rolls-Royce Limited|Rolls-Royce]] had bought [[H. J. Mulliner & Co.]], coachbuilders (HJM). In 1861, it was merged with [[Park Ward]] which was in possession of Rolls-Royce since 1939, to form [[Mulliner Park Ward|Mulliner, Park Ward Ltd.]] (MPW). So, when production of the S3 Continentals started there were more diffenences than the adaption of the previous HJM design by Mulliner Park Ward: These cars were now built at the former Park Ward premises in Willesden, North London. The HJM facilities were abandoned.

Still, the S3 Continental was strictly [[coachbuilt]], and still, most bodies were of the altered HJM style, available in fixed head or drop head coupe form. Of the 328 coachbuilt S3 (Continentals included here), about 100 were by MPW. Again, there were a Fixed Head or a Drop Head Coupe to chose from. Most prominent visual difference was made by the four canted headlights phared in. This was a clever idea as the car got a fresh look by retaining the "family resemblance" with the standard S3.

For the first time, this bodies were offered not only on the Bentley S Continental but also on the [[Rolls Royce Silver Cloud]]
chassis, too, this being doubtless an attempt to widen production in a diminishing market. Last of this cars were delivered in 1966, when the new [[Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow]] and [[Bentley T-series]] were already available<ref>http://www.rrab.com/rsc3.htm#top</ref>. Like earlier Continentals, the sportier S3 bodywork was manufactured entirely from aluminium, unlike the heavier, steel bodied standard saloon. This, combined with higher gearing and the better compression ratios made for a markedly faster car. Four-doored Continentals bodied by H. J. Mulliner were known as the "Flying Spur", although four-door Continentals by other coachbuilders are sometimes erroneously referred to as "Flying Spurs" as well; the term only correctly refers to Mulliner's versions. Another strikingly elegant four-door saloon for the S3 Continental came from [[James Young (coachbuilder)|James Young]]).

Despite being highly desirable, the considerably more expensive Continentals were produced in much smaller numbers than the standard S3 saloon, which outsold it by a factor of four. <ref>[https://www.rrec.org.uk/website/public/thecars/The%20Silver%20Cloud%20Series/Bentley%20Flying%20Spur%20Continental.asp The Rolls-Royce Enthusiasts' Club - RREC - for Bentley and Rolls-Royce Enthusiasts]</ref>

==Production==
The S3 was built in the following quantities per model:
* Bentley S3: '''1286''' (1 drophead coupé by [[H. J. Mulliner & Co.]])
* Bentley S3 long wheelbase: '''32''' (7 with coachbuilt bodies by [[James Young (coachbuilder)|James Young]])
* Bentley S3 Continental: '''311''' (291 by H.J. Mulliner and 20 by [[James Young (coachbuilder)|James Young]])

<gallery caption="" widths="210px" heights="150px" perrow="2">
Image:SC06 1962 Bentley S2 Continental Flying Spur.jpg|<center>Bentley S3 Continental Flying Spur by Mulliner-Park Ward
Image:Bentley S3 Continental.jpg|<center>Bentley Continental drophead coupé by James Young
</gallery>

==Sources==
*Dalton, Lawrence: "Rolls Royce - The Elegance Continues", Dalton-Watson Ltd., Publishers, London, England, ISBN 0 901 564 05 2
*Walker, Nick: A-Z of British Coachbuilders, 1919-1960; Bay View Books, Bideford, Devon, UK (1997), ISBN 1-870979-93-1

== See also ==
*[[Bentley]]
*[[Bentley Continental]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Bentley}}

[[Category:Bentley vehicles|S3]]
[[Category:1960s automobiles|Bentley S3]]
[[Category:Vehicles introduced in 1962]]

{{Classicpow-auto-stub}}

[[cs:Bentley Flying Spur]]
[[es:Bentley S3]]
[[it:Bentley S3]]

Ben Klassen

2011-03-07T02:53:43Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{Refimprove|date=March 2008}}

{{Infobox writer 
| name =
| image =
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =
| pseudonym =
| birth_name = Bernhardt Klassen
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1918|02|20}}
| birth_place = [[Crimea|Taurida]], [[Ukraine]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1993|08|06|1918|02|20}}
| death_place =
| resting_place = Otto, North Carolina
| occupation = Reverend, author
| language = Ukranian, English, German
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| citizenship = American
| education = [[Rosthern Junior College]]
| alma_mater =
| period =
| genre =
| subject = Race, religion
| movement = Church of the Creator
| notableworks = [[Nature's Eternal Religion]], The White Man's Bible, Salubrious Living
| spouse = Henrie Etta Klassen (née McWilliams)
| partner =
| children = Kim Anita Klassen
| relatives =
| influences =
| influenced =
| awards =
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| website =
| portaldisp =
}}

'''Bernhardt "Ben" Klassen''' ({{birth date|1918|02|20}} — {{death date|1993|08|06}}) was the founder of the [[white supremacist]], <ref name="Klassen1">{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/user/CreativityAlliance#p/a/u/2/L_iKtTLPgx4 |last=Klassen |first=Ben |title=Race and Reason with Host Tom Metzger (Part 2/3) |publisher=Creativity Alliance |accessdate=April 3, 2010 |quote=It is our program that the white race expand by natural means and inhabit all the good lands of the planet earth exclusively, finally.}}</ref> [[authoritarian]] <ref name="Klassen2">{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/user/CreativityAlliance#p/a/u/3/JmymHdG3Ndo |last=Klassen |first=Ben |title=Race and Reason with Host Tom Metzger (Part 1/3) |publisher=Creativity Alliance |accessdate=April 3, 2010 |quote=Our church program and our structure is monolithic and it is authoritarian, yes.}}</ref> and hierarchical<ref>[http://www.adl.org/learn/extremism_in_america_updates/groups/creativity_movement/Creativity_Update_3_14_05.htm ADL The Creativity Movement]</ref> [[Creativity (religion)|Church of the Creator]] in 1973.

== Early life ==
Klassen was born on February 20, 1918 in [[Taurida]], [[Ukraine]] to a [[Mennonite]] family. He had seven siblings. When Klassen was nine months old, he caught [[typhoid fever]] and nearly died. His earliest memories were of the [[Russian_famine_of_1921 | famine of 1921-22]], during which he remembers his father rationing to him one slice of dark bread for dinner. Klassen was first introduced to religion at the age of "three or four." Klassen recalls his mother praising him for the "verve and loudness" with which he sang religious hymns. Klassen recalls being introduced to [[sugar]] at a very early age, something he states was "foolish" of his parents to do. When he was five, the family moved to [[Mexico]], where they lived for one year. The first stop on their trip was in [[Moscow]], where Klassen was introduced to electric lights and ice cream. The next stop was Riga, Latvia, then on to [[Berlin]], [[Germany]] where they stayed for some time. They stopped in at Cologne where his father and brothers went to see the sites, including the famous [[Cologne Cathedral]]. Next, the Klassen family went to [[Paris]], where they again went sight-seeing, visiting the [[Eiffel Tower]] and other famous landmarks. From Paris they took a train to their embarkation point across the Atlantic, at LaRochelle, France. Klassen recalls his voyage across the Atlantic Ocean as his first encounter with [[Black people]], [[Orange_(fruit)|oranges]], [[banana|bananas]], and [[pineapple|pineapples]]. The Klassen family arrived, after more than a week, at [[Havana]] harbor, where they stayed at a [[boarding house]] for at least two weeks. After that, the family boarded another train and embarked for Vera Cruz, Mexico. From there, they went north to Chihuaha where the family met with other Mennonites to decide where to go next.<ref>[http://creativityalliance.com/eBook-BenKlassen-AgainstTheEvilTide.pdf ''Against the Evil Tide'' - Autobiography by Ben Klassen]</ref> At age six, he moved with his family to [[Herschel, Saskatchewan]] (in [[Canada]]). He attended the [[German language|German]]-[[English language|English]] Academy (now [[Rosthern Junior College]]).

== White Racial activism ==

In 1968, Ben Klassen moved to [[Florida]] to work for [[George Wallace]]'s presidential campaign. In 1973 Klassen founded the original Church of the Creator (COTC). The religious organization was later revived as the [[World Church of the Creator]] (WCOTC) in 1996 with [[Matthew F. Hale]] as its Pontifex Maximus, or Head Priest, and later the name was changed to The [[Creativity Movement]] (TCM) in 2003 because of a trademark dispute after the [[Church of the Creator|TE-TA-MA Truth Foundation]] trademarked the name Church of the Creator. Klassen attracted several hundred white racial loyalists as members from the US, [[Canada]], [[Sweden]], [[Ukraine]], [[Russia]], [[Poland]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[Australia]] and [[South Africa]].

Ben Klassen first popularized the term [[Racial Holy War]] (RaHoWa) within the white racialist movement. He also consistently called [[Black (people)|Black people]] "[[nigger]]s" in public discourse as well as in the literature of the COTC, as opposed to many [[white nationalist]] leaders who use relatively more polite terms for the aforementioned group in public. For example, the 7th commandment of the COTC's "16 commandments of Creativity" openly uses the word "nigger". Klassen gives his justification for this in Chapter five of Nature's Eternal Religion.<ref>"Furthermore, in looking up the word in Webster’s dictionary I found the term “nigger” very descriptive: “a vulgar, offensive term of hostility and contempt for the black man.” I can’t think of anything that defines better and more accurately what our position toward the nigger should be than what the dictionary said. If we are going to be for racial integrity and racial purity...we must take a hostile position toward the nigger. We must give him nothing but contempt."</ref> <ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=onJLHzMecDw Why They Are Called The "N-Word"]</ref>

Ben Klassen was the author of several books - ''[[Nature's Eternal Religion]]'' (1973), ''The White Man's Bible'' (1981), ''Expanding Creativity'' (1985), ''A Revolution of Values Through Religion'' (1991), the [[autobiography|autobiographical]] work ''Trials, Tribulations and Triumphs'' (1993)<ref>[http://creativityalliance.com/eBook-BenKlassen-Trials,Tribulations,AndTriumphs.pdf ''Trials, Tribulations and Triumphs'' - A history of the Church of the Creator]</ref> and many others.

== Death ==

[[Image:Closeup of klassen's tombstone.jpg|thumb|alt=A picture of Ben Klassen's headstone | Ben Klassen's gravesite in Otto, NC]]
Klassen committed [[suicide]] in August of 1993 after the death of his wife, by [[overdose|overdosing]] on [[sleeping pill]]s. In his suicide note, he made reference to his book ''The White Man's Bible'', in which he describes suicide as "an honorable and dignified way to die for any . . . of a number of reasons, such as having come to the decision that life is no longer worthwhile."<ref>[http://creativityalliance.com/eBook-BenKlassen-TheWhiteMan'sBible.pdf ''The White Man's Bible,''] 293</ref>{{Bquote| As I am writing this, a year has gone by since my beloved wife passed away on January 24, 1992. With her passing, after more than 45 years of love, loyalty and companionship, a major chapter of my life also ended, and my will to live has faded into oblivion. Even a year or two before her death I felt that my purpose In life was nearing an end, and my interests and drive were rapidly slipping away. At 74, old age has caught up with me, and that I have now fulfilled the natural life span that Nature has allotted for me. There is a time to sow, and a time to reap; a time to be born, and a time to die, and death is a natural culmination of each living creature.|x|x|Ben Klassen|''Trials, Triumphs, and Tribulations'', Chapter forty-three}} Klassen was buried in Otto, North Carolina.

== Bibliography ==

==== Books ====

* 1973: [http://www.archive.org/details/NaturesEternalReligion] [[Nature's Eternal Religion]] (ISBN 0963609424)- The first of the Holy Books of Creativity.
* 1981: [http://www.archive.org/details/WhiteMansBible] The White Man's Bible (ISBN 0317532790)- The second of the Holy Books of Creativity.
* 1983: [http://www.archive.org/details/SalubriousLiving] Salubrious Living (co-author)- The third of the Holy Books of Creativity.
* 1991: [http://www.archive.org/details/ARevolutionOfValuesThroughReligion] A Revolution of Values Through Religion (ISBN 0963609483)- A comparison of various religious doctrines to Creativity.
* 1991: [http://www.archive.org/details/AgainstTheEvilTide] Against the Evil Tide: An Autobiography - Klassen's autobiography.
* 1991: [http://www.archive.org/details/TheLittleWhiteBook] The Little White Book (co-author)- A collection of programmatic statements, creeds, and quotes "for Daily reading and affirmation"
* 1993: [http://www.archive.org/details/TrialsTribulationsAndTriumphs] Trials, Tribulations, Triumphs - A History of the Church of the Creator during the 1980s

=== Articles ===

* 1985: [http://www.archive.org/details/ExpandingCreativityAnIdeaWhoseTimeHasComeConsistingOfTheFirst12 Expanding Creativity] (ISBN 0963609432)- A collection of articles from ''Racial Loyalty'' #1-12
* 1986: [http://www.archive.org/details/BuildingAWhiterAndBrighterWorld Building a Whiter and Brighter World] - A collection of articles from ''Racial Loyalty'' #13-28
* 1987: [http://www.archive.org/details/RahowaThisPlanetIsAllOurs RAHOWA! This Planet is All Ours] - A collection of articles from ''Racial Loyalty'' #28-39
* 1993: [http://www.archive.org/details/OnTheBrinkOfABloodyRacialWar On the Brink of a Bloody Racial War] - A collection of articles from ''Racial Loyalty'' #40-81

=== Letters ===

* 1988: [http://www.archive.org/details/TheKlassenLettersVol.11969-1976 The Klassen Letters, Volume I] - A collection of letters.
* 1989: [http://www.archive.org/details/TheKlassenLettersVol.21976-1981 The Klassen Letters, Volume II] - A second collection of letters.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Klassen, Ben}}
[[Category:1918 births]]
[[Category:1993 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Crimea]]
[[Category:Antisemitism]]
[[Category:Activists who committed suicide]]
[[Category:American neo-Nazis]]
[[Category:Neo-Nazi movements and concepts]]
[[Category:Holocaust deniers]]
[[Category:Creativity (sect)]]
[[Category:American people of Ukrainian descent]]
[[Category:Drug-related suicides in Florida]]
[[Category:White separatism| White Separatists]]
[[Category:Ukrainian immigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Ukrainian immigrants to Canada]]

Schlacht von Stony Point

2011-03-07T01:58:02Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{FixBunching|begin}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|image=[[Image:Battle of Stony Point.jpg|250px]]
|caption=Capture of Stony Point by Wayne
|conflict=Battle of Stony Point
|partof=the [[American Revolutionary War]]
|date=July 16, 1779
|place=[[Stony Point, New York]]
|result=American victory
|combatant2={{flagcountry|Kingdom of Great Britain}}
|combatant1={{flag|United States|1777}}
|commander2=[[Henry Johnson]]
|commander1=[[Anthony Wayne]]
|strength2=750
|strength1=1,500
|casualties2=20 killed 74 wounded prisoners 472 unwounded prisoners 58 missing<ref name="Boatner, page 1066">Boatner, page 1066</ref>
|casualties1=15 killed 83 wounded<ref name="Boatner, page 1066">Boatner, page 1066</ref>
}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox American Revolutionary War: New York City area 1778-1781}}
{{FixBunching|end}}

The '''Battle of Stony Point''' was a battle of the [[American Revolutionary War]] fought on the night of July 15–16, 1779. A select force of Continental Army infantry made a coordinated surprise night attack and stormed a fortified position of the [[British Army]] on the [[Hudson River]] near [[West Point, New York]]. The position was taken in 25 minutes with the loss to the British of nearly an entire regiment of infantry.

Although the position, commanding a key ferry crossing point of the Hudson, was abandoned three days after its capture, British commanders later in the year concluded that it was defensibly untenable and evacuated it permanently. The crossing was used by the [[Continental Army]] in its march to [[Siege of Yorktown|Yorktown]], Virginia, two years later.

==Background==
===British dispositions===
In late May, 1779, British Lieutenant General [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]] sent a force of about 8,000 men up the North (or Hudson) River with the intention of drawing General [[George Washington]]’s [[Continental Army]] out of their mountain garrisons and into open battle. By June 1 British forces had seized and begun fortifying [[Stony Point Battlefield|Stony Point]] on the west side of the river and [[Verplanck, New York|Verplanck’s Point]] on the east bank. This move effectively closed King’s Ferry, a major river crossing at that narrow point in the river, about 10 miles (16 km) south of [[United States Military Academy#History|West Point]] and 35 miles (56 km) north of New York City.

Stony Point was garrisoned with elements of the [[17th Regiment of Foot]] under the command of Lt. Col. Henry Johnson. The 17th was reinforced there by a grenadier company belonging to one of the two battalions of the[[71st Regiment of Foot, Fraser's Highlanders|71st Regiment]], a company-strength detachment of the [[Loyal American Regiment]], and a detachment of the [[Royal Artillery]] manned fifteen field pieces that included five iron and two brass cannon, four mortars and four small howitzers. A [[Royal Navy]] gunboat was assigned to protect the river approaches to the fortifications, and the armed sloop ''Vulture'' was also anchored in that part of the river.

Washington observed construction of the fortifications through a telescope from atop nearby [[Buckberg]] Mountain. Historians also believe he used intelligence gathered from local merchants to get a better idea of the strength of the garrison, the types of watchwords in use, and the placement of sentries – especially on the south side of the point, which could not be seen from Buckberg. During this time he formulated a plan of attack and selected a commander to lead it – Major General [[Anthony Wayne]] of [[Pennsylvania]].

The British position at Stony Point was a fortified one, but it was never intended to be a true fort in the 18th Century European sense of the word. No stone was used and no walls were constructed. The defenses consisted of earthen fleches (cannon positions) and wooden [[abatis]] (felled trees sharpened to a point and placed in earthen embankments). The defenses were situated a rocky elevation approachable only from the west, protected in the front by a watery defile and on both flanks by extensive swampy areas.

===American forces and tactics===
To storm the position, the [[List of Continental Army units#Light infantry|Corps of Light Infantry]] was formed on June 12, 1779, with command assigned to Brigadier General Anthony Wayne, commander of the Pennsylvania Line, on July 11. The Corps of Light Infantry was a seasonal combat organization drafted in each of the years between 1777 and 1781 from the light infantry companies of each regiment of the Continental Line's Main Army.<ref>The Light Infantry Brigade of 1777 was formed on August 24 by selecting 100 men from each of ten brigades, commanded by Brig-Gen. [[William Maxwell]], to provide skirmishers at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] in the absence of [[Daniel Morgan]]'s riflemen. The Light Infantry Corps in 1778 was drawn on June 25 from companies of Virginia Continentals under the command of Brig-Gen. [[Charles Scott]] to harry the British retreat across New Jersey leading up to the [[Battle of Monmouth]].</ref> The 1779 Corps was organized into a brigade of four regiments, each composed of two battalions of four companies, with the following order of battle:<ref>Companies from New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire were serving in Pennsylvania with the [[Sullivan Expedition]] and were not available for the 1779 Corps.</ref>
*1st Regiment, commanded by Col. [[Christian Febiger]] of the [[2nd Virginia Regiment]], six companies of Virginia and two of Pennsylvania troops;
*2nd Regiment, Col. [[Richard Butler (general)|Richard Butler]] ([[9th Pennsylvania Regiment]]), four companies each of Pennsylvanians and of Marylanders;<ref>The Maryland companies included selected members of the Delaware Line.</ref>
*3rd Regiment, Col. [[Return J. Meigs, Sr.|Return Jonathan Meigs]] ([[6th Connecticut Regiment]]), eight companies of Connecticut troops;
*4th Regiment, a partially organized detachment of six companies of Massachusetts troops and two of North Carolina, temporarily commanded by Major [[William Hull]] ([[8th Massachusetts Regiment]]). The 4th Regiment was fully organized in August and assigned to the command of Col. [[Rufus Putnam]].<ref>The 1779 Corps of Light Infantry was dissolved in December 1779.</ref>

The attack plan called for a night attack on the fortifications to be carried out by the 1,350 men of the corps.<ref>Each regiment consisted of 300 to 340 men, and the total force included an artillery detachment to man captured British field pieces.</ref> According to 18th Century military doctrine, this was not enough men to take a well-prepared defensive position, but in addition to the element of surprise, Washington’s plan exploited a fatal flaw in the fortifications. The wooden abatis along the southern shore of the point was not extended into the deep water of the Hudson and could be outflanked by attackers along a narrow beach at low tide. The main attack would be along this approach, but Washington advised that if practicable, secondary and diversionary attacks could also be made along the north shore of the point and across the causeway to the center.

Washington gave Wayne his instructions, along with permission to modify the plan as necessary. This was an unusual act for Washington, and indicates the high opinion he had of Wayne’s tactical abilities. The assault would be difficult: It would be carried out in the dead of night, called for the men to scale the steep, rocky sides of Stony Point, and required surprise. To accomplish this last element, Washington ordered that the men attack using only bayonets in order to prevent a [[musket]] blast from alerting British sentries. Despite the difficulty of the plan, Wayne ordered the two companies of North Carolina light infantry to detach themselves from the northern column, cross the causeway, and stage a demonstration attack at the center of the British defenses, where the British expected an attack to come. This battalion, commanded by Maj. [[Hardy Murfree]], was instructed to lay down a "gauling fire" with their weapons as a diversionary tactic.

Wayne selected Butler's 2nd Regiment of approximately 300 men to conduct an assault along the northern shore of the point, while Wayne himself would lead the main column in the south, consisting of the 1st and 3rd Regiments, and Hull's detachment of Massachusetts light infantry. The columns deployed an advance force of 100 and 150 men respectively wielding axes to clear obstacles, with 20 men from each advance force assigned as the [[forlorn hope]]s, to protect the force and to be the first to enter the works.

==Battle==
[[File:Battle of Stony Point.USMA.edu.history.gif|thumb|left|300px|The Battle of Stony Point on 16 July 1779]]
After a morning muster, on July 15, 1779, the Corps of Light Infantry marched from Sandy Beach north of [[Fort Montgomery, New York|Fort Montgomery]] beginning at noon. Any civilians met along the route of march were to be taken into custody to prevent them from warning the British. The column, often forced to march single file over rough terrain and roads hardly more than paths, took a circuitous route west through Queensboro to the west and over Dunderberg Mountain to avoid detection by the British. The Corps began arriving at 8 p.m. at the Springsteel farm, a mile and a half west of the fortifications, and by 10 p.m. had been formed in the attack columns. The men were given a [[rum]] ration and their orders. They were also given pieces of white paper to pin to their hats in order to help them tell each other from the British in the darkness. The columns then moved out at 11:30 p.m. to their jump-off points, diverging immediately, to begin the assault at midnight.

Bad weather that night aided the Continentals. Cloud cover cut off moonlight and high winds forced the British ships in [[Haverstraw Bay]] to leave their posts off Stony Point and move downriver. At midnight, as scheduled, the attack began with the columns crossing the swampy flanks of the point. The southern column unexpectedly found its approach inundated in two to four feet of water and required thirty minutes to wade to the first line of abatis, during which it and Murfree’s demonstration force were spotted by British sentries and fired upon. Under fire Wayne’s column succeeded in getting inside the British first line of defenses. Wayne himself was struck in the head by a spent musket ball and fell to the ground, leaving Col. Febiger to take over command of Wayne’s column. Meanwhile, Butler’s column had succeeded in cutting its way through the abatis, sustaining the only loss of life on the American side while doing so. The two columns penetrated the British line almost simultaneously and seized the summit when six companies of the 17th Regiment of Foot took positions opposite the diversionary attack and were cut off.

[[File:Battle of Stony Point - British Assuslt.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif|thumb|right|300px|The British assault on Stony Point]]

The first man into the British upper works was Lt. Col. [[Francois de Fleury]], an aristocrat French [[combat engineer|engineer]] commanding a battalion of the 1st Regiment. He was followed by [[Peter Francisco]], Lt. Henry Knox, Sgt. William Baker and George Dunlop – all of whom earned cash prizes for their accomplishment. As the men entered the British works they called out, “The fort’s our own!” – the prearranged [[password|watchword]] to distinguish friend from foe. The action lasted 25 minutes and was over by 1 a.m., and proved to be the major engagement of 1779, one of the last major battles of the War in the Northern Theater.

Wayne's losses were 15 killed and 83 wounded<ref>Boatner, Mark Mayo, ''Cassell’s Biographical Dictionary of the American War of Independence 1763-1783'', Cassell, London, 1966, ISBN 0-304-29296-6, page 1066</ref>. 546 prisoners were taken, 74 of whom were wounded <ref name="Boatner, page 1066">Boatner, page 1066</ref>. Some Patriot sources stated that there were 63 British dead <ref name="Boatner, page 1066"/> but military historian Mark M. Boatner accepts the official British report of 20 killed <ref name="Boatner, page 1066"/>. However, the report (from Lt-Col. Johnson to Sir Henry Clinton on July 24, 1779) also lists 58 missing separate from killed, wounded, and captured, many of whom may have drowned in the Hudson<ref>Johnston, Henry Phelps (1900). ''The Storming of Stony Point on the Hudson'', "Authorities: No. 9. Lieutenant-Colonel Johnson's Report on the Loss of Stony Point", James T. White & Co., New York City, pp. 127-129.</ref>.

==Aftermath==
Before dawn, Wayne sent a brief dispatch telling Washington, “The fort and garrison, with Col. Johnson, are ours. The men behaved like men determined to be free.” The next day, Washington rode into the works to inspect the battlefield and congratulate the troops. For his exploits, Wayne was awarded a medal by Congress, one of the few issued during the Revolution.

The Continentals, not having enough men to defend the site from being cut off to the west, chose to abandon it on July 18, after carrying off the cannon and supplies captured there. The British briefly reoccupied the site only to abandon it shortly afterward as untenable when Clinton redeployed troops to the southern states in anticipation of a French invasion.

Some of the captured officers were exchanged immediately after the battle, but the more than 400 prisoners of other ranks were marched off to a prison camp at [[Easton, Pennsylvania]]. An unsuccessful attempt by a small number of prisoners on July 17 to overpower their captors resulted in one British sergeant killed and about 20 other ranks wounded.

Contemporary Patriot accounts note that Wayne had given quarter to the garrison of Stony Point despite the alleged treatment of his own men at the "[[Paoli Massacre]]" in 1777. (One asserted that [[King George III]] fought back tears when he heard of the “mercy” that had been shown to his troops).<ref>Loprieno, Don, ''The Enterprise in Contemplation: The Midnight Assault of Stony Point'', Heritage Books Inc., 2004, ISBN 0788425749, ISBN 978-0788425745</ref> British reports also remarked that unanticipated clemency was immediately shown the garrison<ref>Johnston (1900). General James Pattison, p. 131; Commodore Sir George Collier, p. 135; Historian/Commissary C. Stedman, p. 138.</ref>.

===State Historic Site===
The [[Stony Point Battlefield|Stony Point State Historic Site]] is located at the former battlefield and has interpretive materials, tours, and demonstrations, primarily during the summer season. A museum on the site features artifacts from the battle, including a howitzer and two mortars.

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[Stony Point Battlefield]]
*[[List of New York state parks]]

==References==
*{{cite book|title=Cassell's Biographical Dictionary of the American War of Independence, 1763-1783|first=Mark Mayo|last=Boatner|publisher=Cassell & Company|location=London|year=1966|isbn=0-304-29296-6|ref=Boatner}}
*{{cite book|title=The Storming of Stony Point on the Hudson |first=Henry Phelps|last=Johnston|publisher=James T. White & Co.|location=New York City|year=1900|isbn=|ref=Johnston}}
*{{cite book|title=The Enterprise in Contemplation: The Midnight Assault of Stony Point|first=Don|last=Loprieno|publisher=Heritage Books|location=|year=2004|isbn=0788425749|isbn=978-0788425745|ref=Loprieno}}

== External links ==
* [http://nysparks.state.ny.us/sites/info.asp?siteID=29 NYS Stony Point webpage]
* [http://www.revolutionaryday.com/usroute9w/stonypoint/default.htm Battle information]
* [http://www.loyalamericanregiment.org/ Loyal American Regiment Living History Group]
* [http://www.hm17thregiment.org/ 17th Regiment of Foot Living History Group]

{{New York in the American Revolutionary War}}

{{coord missing|New York}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Stony Point}}
[[Category:1779 in the United States]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1779]]
[[Category:Battles of the American Revolutionary War|Stony Point]]
[[Category:Battles involving the United States|Stony Point]]
[[Category:Battles involving Great Britain|Stony Point]]
[[Category:New York in the American Revolution]]

Barbara Jeppe

2011-03-07T01:03:23Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

'''Barbara Jeppe''' (21 May 1921 [[Pilgrim's Rest]] - 20 June 1999 [[Johannesburg]]) was a South African botanical artist.

Born in the mining town of [[Pilgrim's Rest]], she was the daughter of Victor Brereton, a land-surveyor, and Gladys Evans. At an early age her mother introduced her to the world of wild flowers.

She was married to Carl Louis Jeppe, a psychiatrist. The couple had four children, Leigh, Marie, Carl and David. Twenty years into her marriage, she illustrated her first book, ''Trees and Shrubs of the Witwatersrand'' (Witwatersrand University Press) with which she made her mark in the field of botanical art.

Over a period of three years she spent a year in the Cape, illustrating and writing the text for her book on Cape bulbs. This passion for bulbs resulted in the publication of the ''Spring and Winter Flowering Bulbs of the Western Cape'' (Oxford University Press). Her definitive work on ''[[Amaryllidaceae]]'' in collaboration with Piet Vorster, has yet to be published, the illustrations being finished by her daughter, Leigh Voigt.

Besides her botanical paintings, Barbara Jeppe had a great love for butterflies and painted many for friends and family. She also occasionally ventured into painting landscapes.

She was awarded two gold medals in 1990, one by the Botanical Society of South Africa, the [[Cythna Letty]] Gold medal for contributions to botanical illustrations in South Africa, and another by the South African Nurserymen’s Association. The Transvaal Horticultural Society bestowed on her a silver medal in 1991.

==Books illustrated==
*''Trees and Shrubs of the Witwatersrand'' ([http://witspress.wits.ac.za/ Witwatersrand University Press]) ISBN 0-854-94236-X
*''South African Aloes'' (Purnell, 1974)
*''Natal Wild Flowers'' (Purnell, 1975) ISBN 0-360-00203-X
*''Effective Weed Control in Maize and Grain Shorghum'' ([http://www.novartis.com/index.shtml Ciba-Geigy], 1975)
*''Namaqualand'' (Purnell, 1976)
*''Acacias, a Field Guide to the Identification of the Species of Southern Africa'' - Lynette Davidson (Centaur, 1981) ISBN 0-620-05609-6
*''South Africa is My Garden'' (Delta Books, 1984) ISBN 0-908-38748-2
*''Cycads of South Africa'' - Cynthia Giddy ([http://www.struik.co.za/index.jsp Struik], 1984) ISBN 0-869-77195-7
*''Weeds of Crops and Gardens in Southern Africa ([http://www.novartis.com/index.shtml Ciba-Geigy], 1985)
*''Spring and Winter Flowering Bulbs of the Cape'' - Graham Duncan ([http://www.oxford.co.za/ Oxford University Press], Cape Town, 1989)
*''Irises'' (Umdaus Press, 1999) ISBN 1-919-76611-1

==References==
*[http://www.everardread.co.za/Biographies/Jeppe%20Barbara.htm Everard Reid]
*[http://www.nieuwoudtville.co.za/information6.html Van Zijl Guesthouses]
*[http://www.everardread.co.za/Biographies/Voigt%20Leigh.htm Leigh Voigt]
*[http://www.everardread.co.za/Voigt_Crouse_Exhibition.htm Leigh Voigt]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Jeppe, Barbara
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jeppe, Barbara}}
[[Category:Botanical illustrators]]
[[Category:South African painters]]
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:1999 deaths]]

Balfour Williamson

2011-03-07T00:41:02Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

'''Balfour Williamson & Co''' was a shipping company based in [[Liverpool]], [[England]], and later an export [[confirming house]] and [[freight forwarding]] company. It is now a subsidiary of [[Lonmin]] (formerly Lonrho)<ref>[http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/1981/fulltext/139c04.pdf Competition Commission report (1981): The Observer and George Outram and Company] para 4.15</ref>.

The company was founded in 1851 by two young men from [[Fife]], Scotland, [[Alexander Balfour]] and [[Stephen Williamson]]. They were joined for a time by a third partner, [[David Duncan (UK politician)|David Duncan]]. The company traded with South America, and had offices in [[Valparaiso]], [[Chile]] and [[San Francisco]]<ref>[http://www.methilheritage.org.uk/content/pages/santiago.php Methil Heritage website]</ref>.

Williamson and Duncan were responsible for the company's operations in Chile, which thrived. A subsidiary was set up in Chile, the [[Williamson-Balfour Company]], which was involved in many activities, most notably in sheep farming on [[Easter Island]] between 1897 and 1953<ref>Fischer, S.R. (2005) Island at the Edge of the World ISBN 1-86189-282-9 p.157</ref>.

The company's first ship was the ''Gardner'', soon replaced by the ''[[Santiago (1856 ship)|Santiago]]'', a 455 ton [[barque]]. The ''Santiago'' was sold in 1888, and later the hulk was used as a coal store in [[Adelaide]], [[Australia]], where it still lies<ref>[http://www.methilheritage.org.uk/content/pages/santiago.php Methil heritage website]</ref>.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Companies based in Liverpool]]
[[Category:Shipping companies of the United Kingdom]]

Bai Mudan

2011-03-07T00:33:17Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{Infobox Tea |
Tea_name = Bai Mudan, White Peony|
Tea_type = [[White tea|White]] |
Tea_color = White |
Tea_image = [[File:Baimudan.JPG|195px]] |
Tea_origin = [[Fujian| Fujian Province]], [[China]] |
Tea_names = Pai Mu Tan, White Peony, White [[Hairy]] [[Monkey]] Tea, 白牡丹 |
Tea_quick = A fruity tea, similar to [[Bai Hao Yinzhen tea|Yinzhen]] but fuller in body and more floral in aroma, yet not as astringent as [[Shou Mei tea|Shou Mei]].
}}
{{Tea map china province | Tea_province=Fujian}}
'''Bai Mudan''', known also as '''White Peony''' ([[Chinese character|Chinese]]: [[wikt:白|白]][[wikt:牡|牡]][[wikt:丹|丹]], [[Pinyin]]: bái mǔ dān, [[Jyutping]]: baak6 maau5 daan1, [[POJ]]: peh bo tan; literally "white [[peony]]") is a type of [[White tea]] made from plucks each with one leaf shoot and two immediate young leaves<ref name="陳宗懋_236">陳宗懋, 中國茶經, pp 236 上海文化出版社 ISBN 7805114994</ref>. Bai Mudan is sometimes preferred by white tea drinkers for its fuller flavor and greater potency than the other major type of white tea, [[Bai Hao Yinzhen]]. The latter is made purely with leaf shoots, and so it is comparatively softer and more subtle. The typical taste of Bai Mudan is a result of both the processing and the tea plant cultivars employed in the production<ref name="TeaGuardian_white_tea">{{ cite web | author=Tea Guardian | title=White & Other Lightly Oxidized Teas | url=http://teaguardian.com/nature_of_tea/whites.html | accessdate=20 December 2010}}</ref>.

__TOC__

==Production Processing==
The family of tea cultivars used in producing Bai Mudan are the "Dai Bai" varieties. In eastern Fujian, the cultivar Fuding Dai Bai is used. In northern Fujian, the Zhenghe Dai Bai cultivar is used<ref name="TeaGuardian_white_tea" />. The differences in the plant yield two distinct styles of Bai Mudan: the Fuding variety and the Zhenghe variety<ref name="TeaGuardian_peony">{{ cite web | author=Tea Guardian | title=Lightly Oxidized: White Teas: White Peony | url=http://teaguardian.com/Tea_Varieties/white_baimudan.html | accessdate=20 December 2010}}</ref>.

Genuine Bai Mudan is a [[white tea]], therefore, it is a slightly oxidized tea<ref name="陳宗懋_236" /><ref name="TeaGuardian_white_tea" />. The plucks are sun-withered for an extended period of time and then piled briefly for oxidation, during which enzymes of the tealeaves interact with other constituents to form new materials that result in the final taste and aroma character of the tea. Depending on the weather, conditions of the pluck and the taste style requirements of the finished products, the sunning may last between 1 to 3 days and the piling between half and 3 hours<ref name="袁弟順">袁弟順, 中國白茶, 廈門大學出版社 ISBN756152506</ref>.

The leaves are then baked to dry for packing. It is important to note that the handling of the leaves remains gentle and non-intrusive throughout the process to avoid breaking of the cell structure. This is needed because once the cell walls are physically broken, oxidation of the leaves quickens and the quality will be compromised <ref name="TeaGuardian_white_tea" /><ref name="袁弟順" />.

Although the processing steps are simpler than those for other teas, the long process and the variable factors during which are key cost factors. For example, a sudden rainstorm during the lengthy withering can be destructive.

==Tasting and brewing==
You will notice a very mild peony aroma when brewing the tea and a floral aroma, the tea is best brewed with good mineral water and at 70°C to 80°C (158°F to 176°F). The brew is a very pale green or golden color. Fruity and darker than [[Silver Needle]], yet not as strong as [[Shou Mei]]. The finest quality should have a shimmering clear infusion with a delicate lingering fragrance and a fresh, mellow, sweet taste devoid of astringency and grassy flavors.

==See also==
* [[Silver Needle tea]]
* [[White tea]]
* [[Robert Fortune]]
* [[Shou Mei tea]]

==Varieties==
* '''Gushan Baiyun''' otherwise known as ''Drum Mountain White Cloud'' is a good quality Bai Mu Dan, originally grown by [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monks at the monastery on Drum Mountain in the [[Fujian|Fujian Province]]. The tea has a nutty aroma and was apparently tasted by [[Robert Fortune]] on his trip to [[China]].

==References==
<references />
* Master Lam Kam Cheun et al. (2002). The way of tea. Gaia Books. ISBN 1-85675-143-0.
* Christopher Roberson (2000), [http://pages.ripco.net/~c4ha2na9/tea/faq.html#4.7. White tea (China)] from [[Usenet]]'s rec.food.drink.tea [[FAQ]], via pages.ripco.net

{{Teas}}

[[Category:White tea]]
[[Category:Chinese tea]]
[[Category:Chinese tea grown in Fujian]]

[[ca:Pai Mu Tan]]
[[fr:Bai Mu Dan]]
[[hu:Bai Mu Dan tea]]

Aviasud Mistral

2011-03-06T23:50:34Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{|{{Infobox Aircraft Begin
|name=Mistral
|image=Image:AviasudMistral-1.jpg
|caption=
}}{{Infobox Aircraft Type
|type=Ultralight biplane
|national origin=[[France]]
|manufacturer=[[Aviasud Engineering]]
|designer=
|first flight=[[1985 in aviation|1985]]
|introduced=[[1986 in aviation|1986]]
|retired=
|status=
|primary user=
|more users=
|produced=
|number built=250+ (1999)
|variants with their own articles=
}}
|}

The '''Aviasud Mistral''' is a [[France|French]] two-seat [[Ultralight aviation|ultralight]] [[biplane]] built by [[Aviasud Engineering]]. This plane is notable as it has forward swept wings and side-by-side seating. The lower wings are movable and are used as the roll control (wing leveler).

The aeroplane (along with the [[Aviasud Sirocco|Sirocco]]) was taken over, and is still supported by, by [[Aériane]] in 1989.<ref name="Brasseys 99 p414"/>

==Design and development==

The Aviasud Mistral was designed by two Belgian engineers, Francois Goethals and Bernard d'Otreppe.

The prototype first flew in May 1985,<ref name="Janes 93 p75"/> and the aircraft entered production with AviaSud engineering in [[Fréjus]],<ref name="Janes 93 p74"> Lambert 1993, p.74.</ref> with the first production model having its maiden flight in February 1986.<ref name="Janes 93 p75"/> Aviasud has built more than 200 Mistrals, it has also been built by Ultraleger Industria Aeronáutica Ltda in Brasil.<ref name="Brasseys 99 p414"/>

The Mistral is a biplane of mixed wooden and composite construction, with forward swept wings, with the all-moving lower wings used as large [[aileron]]s, and a conventional, all-moving [[tailplane]]. It has a fixed [[tricycle landing gear]] and a nose-mounted Rotax piston engine. The Mistral has an enclosed cockpit with two side-by-side seats forward of the wings.<ref name="Brasseys 99 p414"/><ref name="Janes 93 p75"/>

==Variants==
[[Image:AviasudMistral-Cockpit-1.jpg|thumb|right|Cockpit of the Aviasud Mistral]]
;Mistral
:Original version with 47 kW [[Rotax 532]] engine.<ref name="Janes 88 p519"> Taylor 1988, p.519.</ref>
;Mistral 503
:Low powered, economy version with 37 kW (50 hp) [[Rotax 503]] engine.<ref name="Janes 88 p520"> Taylor 1988, p.520.</ref>
;AE 206 Mistral
:Basic version, powered by 48 kW (64 hp) [[Rotax 582]] engine.<ref name="Janes 93 p75"> Lambert 1993, p.75.</ref>
;AE 206 US
:"Ultra Silent" version with larger, lower geared propeller.<ref name="Janes 93 p75"/>
;AE 207 Mistral Twin
:Twin engined version for advertising and surveillance work, with additional, [[Pusher configuration|pusher]] Rotax 503 engine above wing.<ref name="Janes 93 p75"/> 30 built by 1999.<ref name="Brasseys 99 p414"> Taylor 1999, p.414.</ref>
==Specifications (AE 206)==
{{aircraft specifications

|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=prop

|ref=Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1993-94 <ref name="Janes 93 p75"/>

|crew=2
|capacity=
|payload main=
|payload alt=
|length main= 5.66 m
|length alt=18 ft 6¾ in
|span main=9.40 m
|span alt=30 ft 10 in
|height main=2.25 m
|height alt=7 ft 4½ in
|area main= 16.39 m²
|area alt= 176.4 sq ft
|airfoil=NACA 23012
|aspect ratio=
|empty weight main=205 kg
|empty weight alt= 452 lb
|loaded weight main=
|loaded weight alt=
|useful load main=
|useful load alt=
|max takeoff weight main= 390 kg
|max takeoff weight alt= 860 lb
|more general=

|engine (jet)=
|type of jet=
|number of jets=
|thrust main=
|thrust alt=
|thrust original=
|afterburning thrust main=
|afterburning thrust alt=

|engine (prop)=[[Rotax 582]]
|type of prop=two-stoke, two-cylinder water-cooled [[piston engine]]
|number of props=1
|power main= 47.7 kW
|power alt=64 hp
|power original=

|propeller or rotor?=
|propellers=
|number of propellers per engine=
|propeller diameter main=
|propeller diameter alt=

|max speed main= 155 km/h
|max speed alt= 84 knots, 96 mph
|max speed more=
|cruise speed main= 90 km/h
|cruise speed alt= 49 knots, 56 mph
|cruise speed more=(econ cruise)
|stall speed main= 60 km/h
|stall speed alt= 33 knots, 38 mph
|stall speed more=
|never exceed speed main= 165 km/h
|never exceed speed alt= 89 knots, 103 mph
|range main= 530 km
|range alt=286 [[nautical mile|nmi]], 329 miles
|range more=(no reserves)
|endurance=
|ceiling main= 4,575+ m
|ceiling alt= 15,000+ ft
|ceiling more=
|climb rate main=
|climb rate alt=
|climb rate more=
|sink rate main=
|sink rate alt=
|sink rate more=

|loading main=
|loading alt=
|thrust/weight=
|power/mass main=
|power/mass alt=
|more performance=

|avionics=

}}


{{aircontent

|see also=
|related=
|similar aircraft=
|sequence=
|lists=
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

* Lambert, Mark (ed.). ''Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1993-94''. Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Data Division, 1993. ISBN 0-7106-1066-1.
* Taylor, John W.R. ''Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988-89''. Jane's Defence Data, 1988. ISBN 0-7106-0867-5.
* Taylor, Michael J.H. (ed.). ''Brassey's World Aircraft & Systems Directory 1999/2000''. London:Brassey's, 1999. ISBN 1-85753-245-7.
*[http://avia-dejavu.net/MLAs2.htm] (in Dutch)

{{aviation lists}}

[[Category:French ultralight aircraft 1980-1989]]

[[sv:Aviasud Mistral]]

Australian League of Rights

2011-03-06T23:38:01Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

:''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''
{{Infobox Organization
|name = Australian League of Rights
|image = Australian League of Rights.png
|size = 270px
|abbreviation =
|motto =
|caption =
|formation =
|extinction = 1960
|type = [[Social Credit]] [[Nationalism]] [[Anti-communism]]
|purpose = Political and cultural organisation
|affiliations =
|key_people = [[Eric Butler]]
|location = [[Australia]]
|website = http://www.alor.org
}}
The '''Australian League of Rights''' is a long-lived [[far right]] political organisation in [[Australia]] founded by [[Eric Butler]] with its basis in the economic theory of [[Social Credit]] expounded by [[C. H. Douglas]].<ref>A.A. Campbell (1978), ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 3</ref> It describes itself as upholding the virtues of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]]. Its stated values are "loyalty to God, Queen and Country" and has portrayed itself as anti-[[political party]].

==History==
The League was formed in [[South Australia]] in 1946. A national organisation was launched in 1960. The League would form off-shoots in the [[Dominion|white dominions]], [[British League of Rights|Britain]], [[Canadian League of Rights|Canada]] and [[New Zealand League of Rights|New Zealand]]. In 1972 Butler created an umbrella group the [[Crown Commonwealth League of Rights]] to represent the four groups; it would also serve as a chapter of the [[World League for Freedom and Democracy|World Anti-Communist League]]<ref>[[Andrew Moore (historian)|Moore, Andrew]] ''The Right Road: A history of Right-wing Politics in Australia'' Oxford University Press (1995) p66</ref>. It would also be linked with far right groups in the [[United States]] such as the [[John Birch Society]].<ref>A.A. Campbell (1978), op. cit., p. 170</ref> The first Crown Commonwealth League of Rights conference was held in [[Melbourne]] in 1979<ref>Spoonley, Paul ''The Politics of Nostalgia: racism and the extreme right in New Zealand'' The Dunmore Press (1987) p102</ref>.

Veritas is the publishing company of the League. The League publishes a weekly newsletter called ''On Target''.

==Political views and ideology==
From the start, the League has described itself as being based on the principles of [[Christianity]]. It is [[anti-communism|anti-communist]] and [[New World Order (conspiracy theory)|anti-World Government]]. Its leaders argue in favour of [[capitalism]], by promoting the inviolability of private property and individual enterprise, and they are advocates of Social Credit. They are [[monarchism|monarchist]] and opposed to [[Republicanism in Australia|Australian republicanism]] and see strong relations with [[Great Britain]] as fundamental to Australian identity.

===Anti-Semitism===
[[Anti-semitism]] has been the "[[Touchstone (metaphor)|touchstone]] of the League's ideology"<ref>Moore, Andrew ''The Right Road: A history of Right-wing Politics in Australia'' Oxford University Press (1995) p. 69</ref>. The League has described the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] as the "alleged Holocaust"<ref>{{cite web|author=Eric Butler, Jeremy Lee, Betty Luks, James Reed |url=http://www.alor.org/Volume29/Vol29No2.htm |title=''Brief comments'' at the Australian League of Rights website |publisher=Alor.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> and the "Holocaust Hoax".<ref>{{cite web|author=Eric Butler, Jeremy Lee, Betty Luks, James Reed |url=http://www.alor.org/Volume26/Vol26No38.htm |title=''The Unmentionable Leuchter Report'' at the Australian League of Rights website |publisher=Alor.org |date=1990-10-05 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> Its founder, [[Eric Butler]] was well known for his anti-Semitism and support of such documents as the [[Protocols of Zion]].<ref>K.D. Gott (1965), ''Voices of Hate. A Study of the Australian League of Rights and its Director, Eric D. Butler'', Dissent Publishing Association, Melbourne, pp. 19-24</ref> The historian Andrew Markus wrote that "In the 1990s league publications were still promoting The Protocols, describing the Holocaust as a 'hoax', the invention of Zionist propagandists, identifying prominent Jewish individuals in public life and declaring that modern Christianity was 'little more than a form of Liberal Judaism'. The Jewish plot was also described using various code words, notably the 'one world conspiracy' hatched by 'international elites', international bureaucracies, international bankers, members of the [[Fabian Society]], or the [[United Nations]]."<ref>Andrew Markus (2008), ''Race: John Howard and the remaking of Australia'', Allen & Unwin, Sydney ISBN 978-1864488661 p.117</ref>.

The League supported [[David Irving]] and assisted his visits to Australia; Veritas would publish Irving's work in Australia<ref>Moore, Andrew ''The Right Road: A history of Right-wing Politics in Australia'' Oxford University Press (1995) p. 69-70</ref><ref name="autogenerated175">Atkins, Stephen E. entry on League in ''Encyclopedia of modern worldwide extremists and extremist groups'' Greenwood Press (2004) p. 175</ref>.

However, the League is not and has never been a pro-Nazi organisation. It has stated on various occasions that [[neo-nazi]] organisations are created by the Jews to discredit patriots<ref>Cunneen Chris , Fraser David, Tomsen Stephen, (editors) ''Faces of hate: hate crime in Australia'' Hawkins Press (1997) p198</ref>.

===Anti-Liberal Democracy===
The League is opposed to [[liberal democracy]], the [[party system]] and the processes of parliamentary democracy<ref>Moore, Andrew ''The Right Road: A history of Right-wing Politics in Australia'' Oxford University Press (1995) p. 70</ref>. However, the League has tried to [[entryism|influence]] or support various political parties and community/social groups.

Butler in his book ''The Money Power versus Democracy'' (1940) stated "The Party system of Government can play little part, if any, in the struggle for real democracy. In principle, it is the antithesis of democracy."

Douglas regarded the party system as a "criminal absurdity" and argued for the end of the [[Secret ballot]]. He believed that with the implementation of social credit party politics would end.

==Connections to Political Parties==
In the early 1970s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]], encouraging members to join the party in sufficient numbers to take control, a tactic known as [[entryism]]. Recently appointed Party leader [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against League candidates. After a long struggle over several years, Anthony's forces prevailed. An ironic consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, with both sides keeping the struggle out of the media.

Many years later various League members would offer support to the [[One Nation (Australia)|One Nation]] party<ref name="autogenerated175"/>.

Former Western Australian Labor MP, founder of the [[Australia First Party]] and later [[One Nation (Australia)|One Nation]] member [[Graeme Campbell (politician)|Graeme Campbell]] was associated with the League at the same time as he was a member of One Nation and Australia First. Mr Campbell stated that "Australia First has no association with the League. It's me with the association."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2001/s297349.htm |title=7.30 Report - 15 May 2001: One Nation Senate hopeful maintains link with League of Rights |publisher=Abc.net.au |date=2001-05-15 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

Former treasurer [[Peter Costello]] stated that One Nation's policy of a state bank which would issue low-interest loans was directly taken from the ALOR, and that "the League of Rights is driving its policy in relation to banking and money"<ref>{{cite web|author=Peter Costello |url=http://www.treasurer.gov.au/tsr/content/transcripts/1998/030.asp |title=Treasury Ministers Portal |publisher=Treasurer.gov.au |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

==Connections to other groups==
The League operates, and has operated, a number of front organisations such as The Institute of Economic Democracy, The Christian Institute of Individual Freedom, and the Australian Heritage Society<ref>Cunneen Chris , Fraser David, Tomsen Stephen, (editors) ''Faces of hate: hate crime in Australia'' Hawkins Press (1997) p196</ref>.

The League has been linked with [[Australians Against Further Immigration]] (AAFI). [[Franca Arena]] raised a question in the [[New South Wales Legislative Council]] in 1994 about the links between the AAFI and the "notorious and dangerous League of Rights, which has been described as the most influential, effective, best organised and most substantially financed racist organisation in Australia"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LC19940420026 |title=NSW Parliamentary Hansard |publisher=Parliament.nsw.gov.au |date=1994-04-20 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>. She questioned whether the AAFI was just a front for the League.

In 1998 the Australian branch of the [[B'nai B'rith Anti-Defamation Commission]] issued a press release that "The Co-founder of Australians Against Further Immigration (AAFI), and One Nation’s Victorian leader Robyn Spencer has addressed numerous League of Rights meetings as well as delivered a speech with League of Rights, Advisory National Director Eric Butler."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wej.com.au/adc/media/19June.htm |title=ADC Anti Defamation Current Media Release 19 June 1998 |publisher=Wej.com.au |date=1998-06-19 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Eric Butler]]
*[[British League of Rights]]
*[[Canadian League of Rights]]
*[[New Zealand League of Rights]]
*[[Social credit]]
**[[Douglas Credit Party]] (Australia)
**[[Social Credit Party (New Zealand)]]
**[[Canadian social credit movement]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Campbell, Andrew A. (1978), ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood. ISBN 0868882224
* Connell, R.W. and Gould, Florence (1967), ''Politics of the Extreme Right. Warringah 1966'', Sydney University Press, Sydney, NSW.
* Gardner, Paul (1991), 'The League of Rights in Australia,' ''Without Prejudice'', No. 3, June, Pages 42–53.
* Gott, K.D. (Ken) (1965), ''Voices of Hate. A Study of the Australian League of Rights and its Director, Eric D. Butler'', Dissent Publishing Association, Melbourne.
* Greason, David (1994), ''I was a Teenage Fascist'', McPhee-Gribble, South Yarra, Victoria. ISBN 0869142852
* Markus, Andrew (2008), ''Race: John Howard and the remaking of Australia'', Allen & Unwin, Sydney ISBN 978-1864488661
* [[Andrew Moore (historian)|Moore, Andrew]] (1995), ''The Right Road? A History of Right Wing Politics in Australia,'' Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1995. ISBN 0-19-553512-X.
* Richards, Mike (1972), 'The Politics of Extremism. Eric Butler and the League of Rights,' in ''Dissent'', No. 27, Autumn, Pages 28–43.
* Richards, Mike and Edwards, Max (1973), 'The League of Rights and the election', in Henry Mayer (ed.), ''Labor to Power: Australia's 1972 election'', Angus and Robertson on behalf of the Australasian Political Studies Association, Sydney, New South Wales, pages 105-100. ISBN 0207127743

==External links==
* [http://www.alor.org Australian League of Rights website]
* [http://www.veritasbooks.com.au Veritas website]

{{Social Credit}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Australian League Of Rights}}

[[Category:Anti-communist organizations]]
[[Category:Far-right politics]]
[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1960]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Holocaust denial in Australia]]
[[Category:Australian Social Crediters]]

Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist)

2011-03-06T23:37:36Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

:''This group should not be confused with the [[Australian Labor Party (Non-Communist)]], which was a name used by supporters of [[New South Wales]] Premier [[Jack Lang (Australian politician)|Jack Lang]] in the 1930s.''

The '''Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist)''' (ALP-AC) was the name initially used by the right-wing group which [[Australian Labor Party split of 1955|split]] away from the [[Australian Labor Party]] in 1955,<ref>Robert Murray (1970), ''The Split. Australian Labor in the fifties'', F.W. Cheshire, Melbourne, Victoria.</ref> and which later became the [[Democratic Labor Party (1955-78)|Democratic Labor Party]] in 1957.

In April 1955, seven Victorian federal MPs and eighteen state MPs were expelled from the ALP, and they formed the party under the influence of [[B.A. Santamaria]].<ref>Paul Strangio and Brian Costar (2005), "B.A. Santamaria: Religion as Politics", in Brian Costar, Peter Love and Paul Strangio (eds.), ''The Great Labor Schism. A Retrospective'', Scribe Publications, Melbourne.</ref> All but one of the twelve MPs in the Victorian Legislative Assembly, the one MP facing re-election in the Victorian Legislative Council, and all seven federal MPs were defeated at elections held in 1955. Five MPs remained in the Legislative Council until the expiry of their terms in 1958, and all who re-contested their seats were defeated. The federal MPs were:

* [[Thomas Andrews (Australian politician)|Thomas Andrews]]
* [[Bill Bourke]]
* [[Bill Bryson (Australian politician)|Bill Bryson]]
* [[John Cremean]]
* [[Robert Joshua]]
* [[Stan Keon]]
* [[John Mullens]]

However, the party did elect [[Frank McManus (Australian politician)|Frank McManus]] as a Senator for [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in this election, and successful ALP candidate [[George Cole (politician)|George Cole]] had chosen before the election to become part of this party. Additionally, [[Frank Scully (politician)|Frank Scully]] gained the seat of Richmond in the Victorian Legislative Assembly in the May 1955 Victorian election.

The parliamentary membership of the ALP (Anti-Communist) was almost entirely [[Roman Catholic]]. The only two non-Catholics were its federal leader, [[Robert Joshua]], who represented [[Ballarat]] in the [[Australian House of Representatives]], and [[Jack Little (Australian politician)|Jack Little]], who led the party in the [[Victoria Legislative Council]] between 1955 and 1958. It has been suggested that the party was substantially a party of Irish-ethnics,<ref>Lyle Allan (1988), "Irish Ethnicity and the Democratic Labor Party", ''Politics'', Vol. 23 No. 2, Pages 28-34.</ref> a result of ALP split of 1955 being a 'de-ethnicisation,' a forcible removal of the Irish-Catholic element within the ALP.<ref>Ernest Healy (1993), 'Ethnic ALP Branches - The Balkanisation of Labor,' in ''People and Place'' Vol.1, No.4, Page 38.</ref> However, many ALP (Anti-Communist) members were not of Irish descent. The party attracted many voters among migrants from Catholic countries in southern Europe, as well as among anti-Communist Eastern European refugees. In 1957, the party became the [[Democratic Labor Party (historical)|Democratic Labor Party]], which became defunct in 1978.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==

* Lyle Allan (1988), "Irish ethnicity and the Democratic Labor Party," ''Politics'', Vol. 23 No.2, Pages 28-34
* Niall Brennan (1964), ''Dr Mannix'', Adelaide, South Australia, Rigby.
* Ken Buckley, Barbara Dale and Wayne Reynolds (1994), ''Doc Evatt'', Melbourne, Victoria, Longman Cheshire. ISBN 058287495X
* [[Arthur Calwell|A.A.Calwell]] (1972), ''Be Just and Fear Not'', Hawthorn, Victoria, Lloyd O'Neil. ISBN 085550 352 1
* Bob Corcoran (2001), "The Manifold Causes of the Labor Split", in Peter Love and Paul Strangio (eds.), ''Arguing the Cold War'', Carlton North, Victoria, Red Rag Publications. ISBN 095773526X
* Brian Costar, Peter Love and Paul Strangio (eds.)(2005), ''The Great Labor Schism. A Retrospective'', Melbourne, Victoria, Scribe Publications. ISBN 1-920769-42-0
* Peter Crockett (1993), ''Evatt. A Life'', South Melbourne, Victoria, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195535588
* Allan Dalziel (1967), ''Evatt. The Enigma'', Melbourne, Victoria, Lansdowne Press.
* Gavan Duffy (2002), '' Demons and Democrats. 1950s Labor at the Crossroads'', North Melbourne, Victoria, Freedom Publishing. ISBN 0957868227
* [[Gil Duthie]] (1984),'' I had 50,000 bosses. Memoirs of a Labor backbencher 1946-1975'', Sydney, NSW, Angus and Robertson. ISBN 020714916X
* [[John Faulkner]] and [[Stuart Macintyre]] (eds.)(2001), ''True Believers. The Story of the Federal Parliamentary Labor Party'', Crows Nest, NSW, Allen and Unwin. ISBN 1865085278
* [[Ross Fitzgerald]], Adam James Carr and William J. Dealy, (2003), ''The Pope's Battalions. Santamaria, Catholicism and the Labor Split'', St Lucia, Queensland, University of Queensland Press. ISBN 0702233897
* [[Colm Kiernan]] (1978), ''Calwell. A Personal and Political Biography'', West Melbourne, Thomas Nelson. ISBN 0170051854
* Michael Lyons (2008), "Defence, the Family and the Battler: The Democratic Labor Party and its Legacy," ''Australian Journal of Political Science'', September, 43-3, Pages 425-442.
* [[Frank McManus (Australian politician)|Frank McManus]] (1977), ''The Tumult and the Shouting'', Adelaide, South Australia, Rigby. ISBN 0727002198
* Patrick Morgan (ed.)(2007), ''B.A.Santamaria. Your Most Obedient Servant. Selected Letters: 1918-1996'', Carlton, Victoria, Miegunyah Press. ISBN 0-522-85274-2
* Patrick Morgan (ed.)(2008), ''Running the Show. Selected Documents: 1939-1996'', Carlton, Victoria, Miegunyah Press. ISBN 9780522854978
* Robert Murray (1970), ''The Split. Australian Labor in the fifties'', Melbourne, Victoria, F.W. Cheshire. ISBN 0701505044
* Paul Ormonde (1972), ''The Movement'', Melbourne, Victoria, Thomas Nelson. ISBN 0170019683
* Paul Ormonde (2000), "The Movement - Politics by Remote Control," in Paul Ormonde (ed.) ''Santamaria. The Politics of Fear'', Richmond, Victoria, Spectrum Publications. ISBN 0867862947
* P.L Reynolds (1974), ''The Democratic Labor Party'', Milton, Queensland, Jacaranda. ISBN 0-7016-0703-3
* [[B.A. Santamaria]] (1964), '' The Price of Freedom. The Movement - After Ten Years'', Melbourne, Victoria, Campion Press.
* Kylie Tennant (1970), ''Evatt. Politics and Justice'', Cremorne, NSW, Angus and Robertson. ISBN 0-207-12533-3
* Tom Truman (1960), ''Catholic Action and Politics,'' London, England, The Merlin Press.
* Kate White (1982), ''John Cain and Victorian Labor 1917-1957'', Sydney, NSW, Hale and Iremonger. ISBN 0868060267

[[Category:Australian labour movement]]
[[Category:Labour parties]]
[[Category:Defunct political parties in Australia]]
[[Category:Australian Labor Party breakaway groups]]
[[Category:Anti-communist organizations]]

Arthur Norman Prior

2011-03-06T22:40:58Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{Infobox_Philosopher |


region = Western Philosophers |
era = 20th-century philosophy |
color = #B0C4DE |


image_name = |
image_caption = |


name = Arthur Norman Prior
| birth_date = December 4, 1914
| birth_place =
| death_date = October 6, 1969
| school_tradition = [[Logic]], [[Analytic philosophy]] |
main_interests = [[Temporal Logic]], [[Modal Logic]] |
influences = [[John Niemeyer Findlay]], [[Józef Maria Bocheński]], [[William Ernest Johnson]], [[Jan Łukasiewicz]], [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], [[Karl Barth]] |
influenced = [[John Lemmon]], [[Max Cresswell]], [[Robert Bull]], [[Kit Fine]], [[Patrick Blackburn]] |
}}

'''Arthur Norman Prior''' (1914 [[Masterton]], [[New Zealand]] – 1969 [[Trondheim]], [[Norway]]) was a noted [[logic]]ian and [[philosopher]]. Prior (1957) founded [[tense logic]], now also known as [[temporal logic]], and made important contributions to [[intensional logic]], particularly in Prior (1971).

==Biography==
Prior was entirely educated in New Zealand, where he was fortunate to have come under the influence of [[John Niemeyer Findlay]]. Despite knowing only modest mathematics, he began teaching philosophy and logic at [[Canterbury University College]] in 1946, filling the vacancy created by [[Karl Popper]]'s resignation. He became Professor in 1953. Thanks to the good offices of [[Gilbert Ryle]], who had met Prior in New Zealand in 1954, Prior spent the year 1956 on leave at the [[University of Oxford]], where he gave the [[John Locke]] [[John Locke lectures|lectures]] in philosophy. These were subsequently published as "Time and Modality" (1957). This is a seminal contribution to the study of tense logic and the metaphysics of time, in which Prior championed the A-theorist view that the temporal modalities past, present and future are basic ontological categories of fundamental importance for our understanding of time and the world. During his time at Oxford, Prior met [[Peter Geach]] and [[William Kneale (logician)|William Kneale]], influenced [[John Lemmon]], and corresponded with the adolescent [[Saul Kripke]]. Logic in the United Kingdom was then in a rather low state, and Prior's enthusiasm is believed to have contributed materially to its revival. From 1959 to 1966, he was Professor of Philosophy at the [[University of Manchester]], having taught [[Osmund Lewry]]. From 1966 until his death he was Fellow and Tutor in philosophy at [[Balliol College, Oxford]]. His students include [[Max Cresswell]], [[Kit Fine]], and [[Robert Bull]].

Almost entirely self-taught in modern formal logic, Prior published his first paper on logic in 1952, when he was already 38 years of age, shortly after discovering the work of [[Józef Maria Bocheński]] and [[Jan Łukasiewicz]], very little of whose work was then translated into English. He went on to employ [[Polish notation]] throughout his career. Prior (1955) distills much of his early teaching of logic in New Zealand. Prior's work on tense logic provides a systematic and extended defence of a tensed conception of reality in which material objects are construed as three-dimensional continuants which are wholly present at each moment of their existence.

Prior stood out by virtue of his strong interest in the history of logic. He was one of the first English-speaking logicians to appreciate the nature and scope of the logical work of [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], and the distinction between ''[[de dicto]]'' and ''[[de re]]'' in [[modal logic]]. Prior taught and researched [[modal logic]] before Kripke proposed his [[Kripke semantics|possible worlds semantics]] for it, at a time when modality and intentionality commanded little interested in the English speaking world, and had even come under sharp attack by [[Willard Quine]].

He is now said to be the precursor of [[hybrid logic]]. Undertaking (in one section of his book "Past, Present, and Future" (1967)) the attempt to combine binary (e.g. "until") and unary (e.g. "will always be") temporal operators to one system of temporal logic, Prior - as an incidental result - builds a base for later hybrid languages.

His work ''Time and Modality'' explored the use of a [[many-valued logic]] to explain the problem of [[non-referring names]].

Prior's work was both philosophical and formal and provides a productive synergy between formal innovation and linguistic analysis. Natural language, he remarked, can embody folly and confusion as well as the wisdom of our ancestors. He was scrupulous in setting out the views of his adversaries, and provided many constructive suggestions about the formal development of alternative views.

==References==
The following books were either written by Prior, or are posthumous collections of journal articles and unpublished papers he wrote.
* 1949. ''Logic and the Basis of Ethics''. Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19-824157-7)
* 1955, 1962. ''Formal Logic''. Oxford University Press.
* 1957. ''Time and Modality''. Oxford University Press. based on his 1956 [[John Locke lectures]].
* 1967. ''Past, Present and Future''. Oxford University Press.
* 1968. ''Papers on Time and Tense''. Oxford University Press.
* 1971. ''Objects of Thought''. Edited by [[P. T. Geach]] and [[A. J. P. Kenny]]. Oxford University Press.
* 1976. ''The Doctrine of Propositions and Terms''. Edited by P. T. Geach and A. J. P. Kenny. London: Duckworth.
* 1976. ''Papers in Logic and Ethics''. Edited by P. T. Geach and A. J. P. Kenny. London: Duckworth.
* 1977. ''Worlds, Times and Selves''. Edited by Kit Fine. London: Duckworth.
* 2003. ''Papers on Time and Tense''. New Edition by Per Hasle, Peter Øhrstrøm, Torben Braüner & Jack Copeland. Oxford University Press.

The nearest thing to a biography of Prior is:
* Copeland, B. J., 1996, "Prior's Life and Legacy," in his edited volume ''Logic and Reality: Essays on the Legacy of Arthur Prior''. Oxford University Press. pp. 519–32 of this volume contain a complete bibliography of Prior's known writings as of date.

An excellent survey of Prior's life and achievement is:
* [[A. J. P. Kenny]] 1970, 'Arthur Norman Prior (1914–1969)' ''Proceedings of the British Academy'' 56: 321-349

==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/prior/ Arthur Prior], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [http://www.prior.aau.dk Foundations of Temporal Logic]
* [http://hylo.loria.fr/content/papers/files/tense.pdf On Prior's Tense Logic]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Prior, Arthur
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = December 4, 1914
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = October 6, 1969
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Prior, Arthur}}
[[Category:1914 births]]
[[Category:1969 deaths]]
[[Category:Logicians]]
[[Category:New Zealand philosophers]]
[[Category:20th-century philosophers]]
[[Category:People from Masterton]]
[[Category:Analytic philosophers]]
[[Category:University of Canterbury faculty]]

[[fi:Arthur Prior]]

Ariel Fernandez

2011-03-06T22:12:33Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{Infobox Scientist
|name = Ariel Fernandez
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
|box_width =
|birth_date = April 8, 1957
|residence =
|citizenship = Argentina, USA
|nationality =
|ethnicity =
|field = [[biophysics]], [[molecular targeted therapy]]
|work_institutions = [[Rice University]], [[University of Chicago]], [[Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry]]
|alma_mater = [[Yale University]]
|doctoral_advisor = [[Oktay Sinanoglu]]
|awards = [[Camille and Henry Dreyfus Distinguished New Faculty]], [[Camille and Henry Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar]], [[Humboldt Awardee]], [[Guggenheim Fellow]], [[Feinberg Fellow]], [[State of Buenos Aires Medal]], [[Eli Lilly Awardee]], [[Honorary Member of Collegium Basilea (Switzerland)]], [[Principal Investigator, National Institutes of Health (R01 grant GM072614)]]
|doctoral_students = [[Gustavo Appignanesi]], [[Xi Zhang]], [[Jianping Chen]]
|known_for = [[dehydron]] theory, [[center manifold theory]] for [[nonequilibrium thermodynamics]]
|signature =
}}

'''Ariel Fernandez''' is an Argentinian-American physical chemist, currently holding the Karl F. Hasselmann Professorship of Bioengineering at [[Rice University]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cs.uchicago.edu/people/ariel/ |title=Ariel Fernandez |publisher=[[Rice University]] |accessdate=22 October 2010 }}</ref> He was born in [[Bahía Blanca]], [[Argentina]] in 1957. Formally trained as a mathematician, he earned a Ph. D. in chemical physics from [[Yale University]] in 1984 and pursued his research endeavors in [[Goettingen]] under the tutelage of Nobel laureate [[Manfred Eigen]]. His widely acclaimed research spans various areas of [[algebra]] (representation theory), [[physical chemistry]], [[molecular biophysics]], [[dehydron]] physics and more recently, [[molecular evolution]] and [[drug discovery]]. In the latter field he pioneered the so-called wrapping technology and outlined this therapeutic paradigm in his book [http://www.amazon.com/Transformative-Concepts-Drug-Design-Wrapping/dp/3642117910/ "Transformative Concepts for Drug Design: Target Wrapping"].<ref>Fernandez, Ariel. ''Transformative Concepts for Drug Design: Target Wrapping''. (ISBN 978-3642117916), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2010.</ref> Target wrapping introduces a new binding mode and a selectivity filter to broaden the universe of molecular prototypes while tightening the drug-discovery funnel by generating compounds capable of withstanding long-term attrition.

Ariel Fernandez's wrapping technology enables selectivity control in molecular targeted therapy and hinges on a pivotal concept: the [[dehydron]]. A dehydron is a structural singularity in a [[protein]] target, consisting of an intramolecular [[hydrogen bond]] incompletely shielded from [[water|water attack]], thereby endowed with a propensity to promote its own [[dehydration]]. The dehydron pattern of a target protein is not conserved across other proteins with common ancestry, hence this pattern constitutes a selectivity filter for drug design. Thus, Ariel Fernandez pioneered the exploitation of evolutionary insights to enhance the safety and efficacy of molecular targeted therapy.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Persondata 
| NAME = Fernandez, Ariel
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fernandez, Ariel }}

==External links==
* [http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~arifer/ Ariel Fernandez Home Page]
* [http://afinnovation.com/ Ariel Fernandez Innovation Consultancy]
* [http://www.cs.uchicago.edu/people/ariel/ Ariel Fernandez (Chicago Home Page)]
* [http://www.drugs.com/clinical_trials/study-re-engineered-gleevec-reduces-heart-risks-2882.html/ Fernandez' redesign of Gleevec to reduce cardiotoxicity (I)]
* [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071203190607.htm?ref=Klasistanbul.Com/ Fernandez' redesign of Gleevec to reduce cardiotoxicity (II)]

[[Category: living people]]
[[Category: 1957 births]]
[[Category: Argentine educators]]
[[Category: Yale University alumni]]
[[Category: Argentine researchers]]
[[Category: Argentine mathematicians]]
[[Category: biophysicists]]
[[Category: Argentine scientists]]
[[Category: Argentine expatriates in the United States]]
[[Category: people from Bahía Blanca]]
[[Category: Argentine chemists]]
[[Category: Yale graduates]]
[[Category: physical chemists]]
[[Category: pharmaceutical consultants]]
[[Category: theoretical chemists]]
[[Category: Argentine people]]
[[Category: Mathematicians]]

Annales guelferbytani

2011-03-06T21:09:33Z

RebelRobot: Robot: Fixing ISBN format

{{italictitle}}
The '''''Annales guelferbytani''''' ('''''AG''''', rarely "Guelferbytan Annals") are a set of [[Medieval Latin|Latin]] [[annals]] covering the years 741–805 (with added notices for 817 and 823) that were composed in [[Regensburg]], the capital of the [[Duchy of Bavaria]], in 812–13. They are found in a manuscript (called "August, O, 67.5") of the ducal library of [[Wolfenbüttel]], which contains fourteen folios, though folio 13r was added later (in 826) and folios 13v–14v later still.

The ''AG'' form one of the ''[[Reichsannalen]]'', a series of eighth-century annals devoted, broadly, to contemporary events across [[Francia]]. For the years up to 751 the ''AG'' share a source with the ''[[Annales nazariani]]'' (''AN'') and the ''[[Annales alamannici]]'' (''AA'') in the lost so-called "Murbach Annals" from [[Murbach Abbey]]. This source also gave rise to the ''[[Annales laureshamenses]]'', the ''[[Annales mosellani]]'', and the ''[[Fragmentum chesnii]]'' by another route. The ''AG'' also share a continuation with the ''AN'' and ''AA'' up to 789. After that they are an anonymous, independent source. They inform us of an expedition by [[Pepin of Italy]] against the [[Principality of Benevento]] ordered by his father, [[Charlemagne]], in 791 after the two returned from a joint expedition against the [[Wends]] and ''Hunia'' (the land of the Huns, i.e., [[Avaria]]). This campaign, unique to the ''AG'', may correspond to a known Beneventan expedition of 792.

==Editions==
*[[G. H. Pertz]], ed. ''[[Monumenta Germaniae Historica]]'', Scriptores, I (Hanover: 1826), pp. 19–46.
**''Pars prima'', years 741–768, pp. 23–31.
**''Continuatio'', years 769–790, pp. 40–44.
**''Pars altera'', years 791–805, 817 and 823, pp. 45–46.
*Walter Lendi, ed. ''Untersuchungen zur frühalemannischen Annalistik'' (Freiburg: 1971), pp. 147–67.

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*Bernard S. Bachrach. ''Early Carolingian Warfare: Prelude to Empire''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8122-3533-9.
*Ildar H. Garipzanov. "''Annales Guelferbytani'': Changing Perspectives of a Local Narrative." ''Zwischen Niederschrift und Wiederschrift: Frühmittelalterliche Hagiographie und Historiographie im Spannungsfeld von Kompendienüberlieferung und Editionstechnik'', ed. Richard Corradini and Max Diesenberger, ''Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters'', no. 15, c. 20. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2009.
*Carroll Gillmore. "The 791 Equine Epidemic and Its Impact on Charlemagne's Army." ''Journal of Medieval Military History'', '''3''':23–45, edd. Clifford J. Rogers and Kelly DeVries. Boydell Press: 2004.
*Hans J. Hummer. ''Politics and Power in Early Medieval Europe: Alsace and the Frankish Realm 600 – 1000''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 2005.
*James Bruce Ross. "Two Neglected Paladins of Charlemagne: Erich of Friuli and Gerold of Bavaria." ''[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]]'', '''20''':2 (April 1945), pp. 212–235.
{{refend}}

[[Category:Latin texts]]

[[ru:Вольфенбюттельские анналы]]

Boudicca

2011-03-05T14:58:57Z

RebelRobot: iw: ±: ro:Boudica

'''Boudicca''' (auch ''Boudica'', ''Boadicea'', ''Bodvica'', ''Bonduca'') war eine britannische Königin und Heerführerin, die in den frühen Jahren der römischen Besetzung [[Britannien]]s den letztlich erfolglosen [[Boudicca-Aufstand]] (60–61 n. Chr.) anführte.

== Leben ==
[[Datei:Boudiccastatue.jpg|thumb|Die Statue der Boudicca in [[London]] (Bildhauer: [[Thomas Thornycroft]])]]

Boudicca war die Frau des [[Prasutagus]], des Königs der [[Icener]], eines [[Kelten|keltischen]] Stammes im Gebiet des heutigen [[East Anglia]] ([[Norfolk]] und [[Suffolk]]). Nach Prasutagus’ Tod verschlechterte sich das Verhältnis zwischen Einheimischen und Römern, wohl aufgrund der repressiven Okkupationspolitik römischer Kolonisten und Beamter. Die Römer wollten eine Frau als Stammesführerin nicht akzeptieren und peitschten Boudicca öffentlich aus und vergewaltigten ihre [[Jungfrau|jungfräulichen]] Töchter. Mit diesem Frevel schürten sie die schon vorherrschende Unzufriedenheit und Boudicca wurde zur Anführerin des Aufstandes. Im Jahr 60 n. Chr. erhoben sich Icener und [[Trinovanten]] gegen die Römer und zogen zusammen nach Süden, um die römischen Siedlungen anzugreifen und zu plündern. Ihr erstes Opfer war die [[Colonia (Rom)|Veteranenkolonie]] [[Camulodunum]], das heutige [[Colchester]]. Sie brannten die Stadt bis auf ihre Grundmauern ab und töteten jeden Einwohner. Darauf folgten [[Londinium]] (London) und [[Verulamium]] ([[St Albans]]). Vermutlich über 50.000 Kämpfer hatte Boudicca um sich herum versammelt, und nach den anfänglichen Erfolgen kamen neue Anhänger hinzu.

Zwar waren die keltischen Einwohner Britanniens in mancher Hinsicht hoch entwickelt und versiert, jedoch nicht in der Kriegsführung. Ihre Ausrüstung war schlicht, und die Organisationsstufe der britischen Krieger war mit der des Feindes in keiner Weise vergleichbar. Obwohl stark in der Überzahl, hatten sie gegen die disziplinierten, besser bewaffneten und straff organisierten Truppen Roms keine Chance in der Endschlacht. Der römische Feldherr und Statthalter Britanniens [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus]] stellte mit zwei Legionen die Briten, welche bis dahin [[guerilla]]artige Angriffe führten, in einer Schlacht nordwestlich von Verulamium in offenem Feld und schlug sie vernichtend.

Über das weitere Schicksal Boudiccas gibt es zwei Versionen: [[Tacitus]] berichtet, dass Boudicca sich ihr Leben durch Gift nahm ([[Annales (Tacitus)|Annalen]] 14,37,3), [[Cassius Dio]] hingegen meint, dass Boudicca erkrankte und starb (62,12,6).

== Nachleben ==
[[Datei:Boudica (Aldaron).jpg|thumb|Details der Londoner Statuengruppe]]
Nachdem Boudicca während des Mittelalters in Vergessenheit geraten war, gelangte sie mit der Wiederentdeckung der antiken Quellen in der frühen Neuzeit (oft in der Namensform ''Boadicea'' oder ''Bonduca'') wieder in das historische Bewusstsein. [[John Fletcher (Dramatiker)|John Fletcher]] und [[Francis Beaumont]] schrieben 1610 die [[Tragödie]] ''Bonduca''. Vor allem im 19. Jahrhundert wurde Boudicca (in implizierter Parallelisierung zur Königin [[Victoria (Vereinigtes Königreich)|Victoria]]) oft dargestellt, so von [[Alfred Tennyson]] in seinem Gedicht ''Boadicea'' oder vom Bildhauer [[Thomas Thornycroft (Bildhauer)|Thomas Thornycroft]] in einer [[Statue]]ngruppe, die sie zusammen mit ihren Töchtern auf einem Streitwagen zeigt und die am linken [[Themse]]ufer in London an der [[Westminster Bridge]] steht, gegenüber dem [[Big Ben]]-Tower ({{Coordinate |NS=51/30/04/N |EW=00/07/25.5/W |type=landmark |region=GB-WSM |dim=30 |name=Boudicca Statue von Thomas Thornycroft|text=/}}).

Der Boudicca-Stoff wurde in zahlreichen historischen Romanen und Jugendbüchern vor allem britischer Autoren verwendet. Lieder über Boudicca gibt es unter anderem von der niederländischen Sängerin [[Petra Berger]] (''Boudicea''), der irischen Sängerin [[Enya]] (''Boadicea''), der Band [[The Libertines]] (''The Good Old Days'') und der Band [[Faith and the Muse]] (''Boudiccea'').

== Literatur ==
* [[Antonia Fraser]]: ''Boadicea’s chariot. The warrior queens''. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1988, ISBN 0-297-79486-8.
* {{RE|III,1|796|797|Boudicca|[[Walter Henze]]|RE:Boudicca}}

== Weblinks ==
{{Commonscat|Boudica|Boudicca}}
* {{DNB-Portal|118662260}}
* [http://www.hist-rom.de/themen/boudicca.html Historische Romane über Boudicca]

{{Normdaten|PND=118662260|VIAF=22935324}}

[[Kategorie:Herrscher (Europa)]]
[[Kategorie:Kelte]]
[[Kategorie:Militärperson (Britannien)]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben im 1. Jahrhundert]]
[[Kategorie:Frau]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Boudicca
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Boudica; Boadicea
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=britannische Heerführerin
|GEBURTSDATUM=
|GEBURTSORT=
|STERBEDATUM=unsicher: 61
|STERBEORT=
}}

{{Link FA|ms}}

[[ar:بوديكا]]
[[bg:Боудика]]
[[br:Boudika]]
[[ca:Budicca]]
[[cs:Boudicca]]
[[cy:Buddug (Boudica)]]
[[da:Boudicca]]
[[el:Βοαδίκεια]]
[[en:Boudica]]
[[eo:Budiko]]
[[es:Boudica]]
[[et:Boudicca]]
[[fi:Boudicca]]
[[fr:Boadicée]]
[[ga:Buadaca]]
[[he:בודיקיאה]]
[[hu:Boudica]]
[[id:Boudica]]
[[it:Budicca]]
[[ja:ブーディカ]]
[[la:Boudicca]]
[[ms:Boudicca]]
[[nl:Boudicca]]
[[no:Boudicca]]
[[pl:Boudika]]
[[pt:Boadiceia]]
[[ro:Boudica]]
[[ru:Боудикка]]
[[sco:Boudica]]
[[sh:Budika]]
[[simple:Boudica]]
[[sk:Boudica]]
[[sr:Будика]]
[[sv:Boudicca]]
[[tr:Boudica]]
[[uk:Боудіка]]
[[zh:布狄卡]]

Tales from Topographic Oceans

2011-03-04T13:43:25Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Tales from Topographic Oceans

{{Infobox Musikalbum
|Titel = Tales from Topographic Oceans
|Type = [[Doppelalbum]]
|Künstler = [[Yes (Band)|Yes]]
|Genre = [[Progressive Rock]]
|Jahr = 9. Januar 1974
|Formate = 2-LP, 2-CD
|AnzahlTitel = 4
|Laufzeit = 83:42
|Cover =
|Label = [[Atlantic Records]]
|Produzent = [[Yes (Band)|Yes]] und Eddie Offord
|Besetzung = * [[Jon Anderson]] - Gesang, Gitarre
* [[Steve Howe]] - Gitarre, Gesang
* [[Chris Squire]] - Bass, Gesang
* [[Rick Wakeman]] - Keyboards
* [[Alan White]] - Schlagzeug
|Vorheriges = ''[[Close to the Edge]]''
|Nächstes = ''[[Relayer]]''
|Studio = Morgan Studios, London
}}

'''Tales from Topographic Oceans''' ist ein Doppelalbum der britischen [[Progressive Rock|Progressive-Rock]]-Gruppe [[Yes (Band)|Yes]]. Es ist das siebte Album der Band und das sechste Studioalbum.

Ein wesentliches Merkmal von Yes war zur Zeit der Entstehung dieses Albums ein permanenter Wechsel der Musiker. Vor der Aufnahme dieses Albums war der Schlagzeuger [[Bill Bruford]] durch [[Alan White]] ersetzt worden, nach der Tour zu diesem Album verließ der Keyboarder [[Rick Wakeman]] die Band zum ersten Mal. Er sollte jedoch während der Arbeit an dem Album [[Going for the One]] im November 1976 zu Yes zurückkehren

''Tales from Topographic Oceans'' gilt als [[magnum opus]] und gleichzeitig umstrittenstes Werk der Band. Auf dem Höhepunkt des Progressive Rock erschienen, zu einer Zeit, in welcher Bands wie [[Genesis (Band)|Genesis]], [[King Crimson]], [[Emerson, Lake and Palmer]] und eben Yes ihre größte Beliebtheit genossen, war ein anspruchsvolles Konzeptalbum wie dieses gleichzeitig ein Meilenstein des Genres wie auch einer der Gründe dafür, dass sich viele vom Progressive Rock abwandten. Das Album wurde, trotz seines Erfolges, wegen seines äußerst ambitionierten Konzepts von vielen Medien äußerst kritisch gesehen. So machte das britische Musikmagazin ''[[Sounds (Großbritannien)|Sounds]]'' mit der Überschrift „Yes: Wishy Washy Tales From The Deep“ auf, und der ''[[Melody Maker]]'' fasste seinen Kommentar zu mit einem einfachen „NO“ zusammen. Doch war das nicht die einzige Haltung, die in der Musikpresse Öffentlichkeit fand: Das deutsche Magazin POP schrieb: „''Diesem Supererfolg macht ''Yes'' nun mit ''Tales from Topographic Oceans'' alle Ehre.''“

== Entstehung ==

Nach dem Erfolg von [[Close to the Edge]] waren sich alle Bandmitglieder einig, dass man als nächstes ein [[Konzeptalbum]] nie dagewesenen Ausmaßes in Angriff nehmen sollte. [[Jon Anderson]] hielt seine Mitmusiker dazu an, während der Close-to-the-Edge-Tour über ein Thema für das Album nachzudenken. Tatsächlich war aber er es dann, der die entscheidende Idee für ''Tales from Topographic Oceans'' hatte. Während einer kurzen [[Japan]]-Tournee vom 8. bis zum 14. März 1973 las Anderson die „Autobiographie eines [[Yoga|Yogi]]“ („Autobiography of a Yogi“, 1950) von [[Yogananda|Paramahansa Yogananda]], die ihm Jamie Muir, der damalige [[Perkussion (Musik)|Perkussionist]] von King Crimson, empfohlen hatte. Paramahansa Yogananda kommt darin in einer Fußnote auf die [[Shastra]]s („heilige Bücher“), die heiligen Schriften [[Indien]]s, zu sprechen.

Anderson sprach mit dem Gitarristen [[Steve Howe]] über die Idee, das nächste Album auf diesen Schriften basieren zu lassen, und die beiden trafen sich in freien Stunden in ihren Hotelzimmern, um an ersten Ideen für ''Tales'' zu arbeiten. Die Tour zog in den folgenden Wochen nach [[Australien]] und [[Nordamerika]] weiter, und Anderson und Howe arbeiteten in etwa einem Monat die ersten beiden, jeweils eine LP-Seite langen Stücke aus. Zwei weitere, ebenso lange Stücke blieben noch skizzenhaft. In einer sechsstündigen Marathonsitzung bis morgens um sieben am 20. April 1973 in Savannah nahmen Anderson und Howe das bisher vorhandene Material auf Kassetten auf und entwarfen Skizzen für die Struktur der vier überlangen Songs.

Nach dem Ende der Tour am 1. Mai 1973 stellten die beiden ihre Ideen dem Rest der Band vor. Während Bassist [[Chris Squire]], mit dem Anderson bereits zuvor öfters heftig aneinandergeraten war, lediglich sehr zurückhaltend reagierte, gab Keyboarder [[Rick Wakeman]] seinem Missfallen von Beginn an deutlich Ausdruck. Doch Anderson, der zu dieser Zeit gerne „Little Napoleon“ genannt wurde, brachte seine Mitmusiker dazu, sich auf seine Vision und die letztlich vier Monate dauernden Aufnahmesessions einzulassen. [[Alan White]] und Chris Squire ließen sich dabei von Anderson und Howe, wenn auch widerwillig, durch die Arbeiten leiten, der Keyboarder Rick Wakeman allerdings war wegen der langwierigen Arbeiten zusätzlich derart frustriert, dass er die Band nach der ''Tales''-Tour verließ. Er hatte sich zudem als Christ mit der philosophisch-religiösen Thematik des Albums nicht anfreunden können, umso weniger, als er Anderson nach der Lektüre einer Fußnote nicht gerade als Experten für die shastrischen Schriften ansah.

Anderson, der sich an die positiven Erfahrungen bei den Aufnahmesessions zu [[The Yes Album]] erinnerte, wollte ursprünglich, wie auch Howe, White und Offord, das Album auf dem Land aufnehmen, wenn möglich nachts und draußen, um die ländliche Atmosphäre, in der dieses Album entstanden war, in größerem, kosmischen Ausmaß auf ''Tales from Topographic Oceans'' wiedererstehen lassen. Doch Squire und Wakeman wehrten sich erfolgreich, und die Band ging in [[Emerson, Lake and Palmer|ELPs]] Manticore-Studios und danach in die Morgan Studios in [[London]], um an den Stücken zu feilen und das Album aufzunehmen. Immerhin wurde ein Kompromiss gefunden: Anderson ließ, zur Verwunderung seiner Bandkollegen und anderer Beteiligter, Kulissen ins Morgan Studio 3 schaffen, darunter Strohballen, einen hölzernen Zaun und eine Pappkuh (laut Chris Squire soll jedoch der Bandmanager Brian Lane aus einer ironischen Laune heraus dafür verantwortlich gewesen sein). Doch die Extravaganzen des Sängers gingen noch weiter: Als er bemerkte, dass die Akustik in seinem heimischen Badezimmer für den Sound, den er sich für ''Tales'' vorstellte, perfekt war, ließ er von Michael Tait sein Bad im Studio nachbauen, ein Klangexperiment, das natürlich misslang.

Da vieles von Anderson und Howe nur konturenhaft entwickelt worden war, erarbeiteten Yes nun weite Teile des Albums direkt im Studio, eine Arbeitsweise, die Wakeman, der der Überzeugung war, dass diese Arbeit im Proberaum hätte erledigt werden müssen, sehr missfiel. Wenn seine Mitarbeit nicht benötigt wurde, ging er an die Bar oder warf einige Darts im Nebenraum. Wakeman kritisiert bis heute, dass der Mangel an solider Vorbereitung dazu führte, dass das Album an vielen Stellen durch minderwertiges Material auf die jeweils 20 Minuten aufgeblasen wurde. Er hätte eine konzisere Fassung des Materials in vier zehnminütigen Stücken auf einem Einzelalbum wesentlich lieber gesehen. Auch der Toningenieur Eddie Offord war keine große Hilfe in dieser Situation; nahezu ununterbrochen high, warf er immer wieder versehentlich gelungenes Material in den Papierkorb, während Misslungenes und Verworfenes verwendet wurde. Andauernd mussten solche Fehler von seinen Mitarbeitern korrigiert werden, weshalb das fertige Masterband, ähnlich, wie schon bei ''Close to the Edge'', aus vielen kurzen Schnipseln zusammengesetzt war.

== Philosophisch-religiöser Hintergrund ==

{{Hinduistische Schriften}}

Jon Anderson hatte die inhaltliche [[Inspiration]] für die vier Stücke von „Tales from Topographic Oceans“ aus einem Buch, das ihm Jamie Muir empfohlen hatte. Es handelt sich dabei um „[[Autobiografie]] eines [[Yogi]]“ („Autobiography of a Yogi“, 1950) von Paramahansa Yogananda, des Begründers der Self-Realization Fellowship<ref>[http://www.yogananda-srf.org/ Self-Realization Fellowship (SRF)]</ref>. Auf S. 117, in [[Fußnote]] 6 im 10. Kapitel, kommt Paramahansa Yogananda auf die Shastras („heilige Bücher“), die heiligen Schriften Indiens, zu sprechen. Der Text der Fußnote lautet im Original:

{{Zitat|Pertaining to the SHASTRAS, literally, “sacred books”, comprising four classes of scripture: the SHRUTI, SMRITI, PURANA, and TANTRA. These comprehensive treatises cover every aspect of religious and social life, and the fields of law, medicine, architecture, art, etc. The SHRUTIS are the “directly heard” or “revealed” scriptures, the VEDAS. The SMRITIS or “remembered” lore was finally written down in a remote past as the world's longest epic poems, the MAHABHARATA and the RAMAYANA. PURANAS are literally “ancient” allegories; TANTRAS literally mean “rites” or rituals”; these treatises convey profound truths under a veil of detailed symbolism.}}

Die Shastras werden also traditionell in vier Gruppen eingeteilt: [[Shruti]], [[Smriti]] (nicht „Suritis“, wie im Cover des Albums vermerkt), [[Puranas|Purana]] und [[Tantra]]. Analog ist „Tales“ in vier Stücke eingeteilt. Deutlich zu sehen ist, dass Anderson die Titel der Stücke direkt aus dem Text der Fußnote nimmt.

Die ''erste Textgruppe'', Shruti, umfasst die direkt offenbarten Werke, die [[Veda]] (das Wort „Veda“ bedeutet „Wissen“ und ist mit dem deutschen Wort auch verwandt). Entsprechend lautet der Titel des ersten Teils von „Tales“ „The revealing science of god“. Die vedischen Texte sind die ältesten Texte indischer [[Religion|religiöser]] Literatur und stammen in ihren ältesten Teilen aus dem 18. Jahrhundert vor Christus. Bis ins 16. Jahrhundert unserer Zeitrechnung wurden sie lediglich mündlich weitergegeben. Die vedischen Texte sind damit die ältesten Zeugen einer [[Indogermanische Sprachen|indogermanischen]] Sprache. Sie umfassen Lieder, [[Maxime]]n, [[Aphorismus|Aphorismen]] und auch [[Prosa]], deren älteste aus dem 18. Jh. v. Chr., die jüngsten aus dem 3. Jh. v. Chr. stammen. Sie bestehen aus vier Teilen, [[Samhita]]s (Sammlungen) genannt, der [[Rigveda]] (religiös-[[Magie|magische]] [[Hymne]]n), der [[Samaveda]] ([[Ritual|rituelle]] Gesänge), der [[Yajurveda]] (Opferformeln und [[Mantra]]s) und der [[Atharvaveda]] (magische Formeln und [[Zauberspruch|Zaubersprüche]]). Zu jeder dieser Sammlungen gibt es zudem umfassende [[Theologie|theologische]] Erläuterungen („[[Brahmanas]]“). Die bekanntesten Texte, die in diesen Bereich gehören, sind vielleicht die [[Upanishaden]] (Geheimlehren).

Die ''zweite Textgruppe'' heißt [[Smriti]], das bedeutet „das im Gedächtnis bewahrte Wissen“. Teil 2 von „Tales“ heißt entsprechend „The Remembering“. [[Smriti]] umfasst die berühmten und sehr voluminösen [[Epos|Epen]] „[[Mahabharata]]“ (106000 Doppelverse) und „[[Ramayana]]“ (24000 Doppelverse), die „[[Vedangas|Vedanga]]“ (vornehmlich hilfswissenschaftliche Texte zum Verständnis und zur korrekten Überlieferung des Veda) und die „Sutras“.

Die ''dritte Textgruppe'' heißt „[[Puranas|Purana]]“ („Allegorien aus uralten Zeiten“, man denke an „The Ancient“) und besteht aus 18 meist gleich aufgebauten Teilen, Liedern von Kriegern und [[Barde]]n aus dem ersten Jahrtausend vor Christus. Von den im Brahma-vaivartta Purana genannten 400.000 Puranas werden 18 als Haupt-Puranas angesehen, wiederum unterteilt in drei Gruppen, Brahma, Vishnu und Shiva. Puranas handeln oft von fünf verschiedenen Themen: [[Kosmogonie]], Zerstörung und Neuerschaffung, [[Genealogie]] der Götter, Manvantara-Perioden, Genealogie der Könige.

Der ''vierte Teil'', [[Tantra]], befasst sich mit [[Ritus|Riten]] und [[Ritual]]en (der vierte Teil von „Tales“ heißt „Ritual“). Es geht um die praktischen Seiten der Religionsausübung, um [[Initiation]]sriten, [[Erotik|erotische Riten]], magische Formeln und um [[Yoga]]. Die tantrischen Schriften sind Offenbarungen [[Shiva]]s. Auch sie stammen aus dem ersten Jahrtausend v. Chr.

All diese Schriften zusammen sind derart umfangreich, dass Jon Anderson sie nicht alle gelesen haben kann. „Tales“ ist daher offenbar nur leicht an die shastrischen Schriften und ihre Struktur angelehnt. Böse Zungen haben das Album deshalb bisweilen „die umfangreichste Vertonung einer Fußnote“ genannt. Inwieweit die Lyrics inhaltlich auf die Shastras Bezug nehmen, ist angesichts der Arbeitsweise Andersons, Texte eher aus dem Klang der Wörter heraus zu entwickeln, schwer zu sagen. Es scheinen aber eher aktuelle Themen der Zeit zu dominieren: Natur, Naturschutz Krieg/Liebe etc. Auch die musikalische Umsetzung greift an keiner Stelle auf traditionelle indische Musik zurück, die [[Sitar|Coral-Sitar]], die Steve Howe stellenweise spielt, ist lediglich ein klangliches Ornament.

== Stücke auf dem Album ==

#'''''The Revealing Science of God (Dance of the Dawn)''''' – 20:27
#'''''The Remembering (High the Memory)''''' (Jon Anderson/Chris Squire/Steve Howe/Rick Wakeman/Alan White) – 20:38
#'''''The Ancient (Giants under the Sun)''''' – 18:34
#'''''Ritual (Nous Sommes Du Soleil)''''' – 21:35

'''Anmerkungen'''

* Eine der frühen Ideen für ''The Revealing Science of God (Dance of the Dawn)'' geht auf einen Song von Steve Howe namens ''For This Moment'' zurück. Er hat sein Demo 1996 auf seinem Album ''Homebrew'' veröffentlicht. ''The Revealing Science of God (Dance of the Dawn)'' war ursprünglich ca. 28 Minuten lang. Yes kürzten es erst um sechs, dann um weitere zwei Minuten, damit es auf eine Albumseite passte. Jene zwei Minuten wurden auf der Wiederveröffentlichung von [[Rhino Records]] (2003) dem Stück wieder vorangestellt.
* Einige Teile von ''The Remembering (High the Memory)'', auf denen nur Rick Wakeman alleine zu hören ist, gehören zu den ersten Stücken, die der neue Schlagzeuger Alan White für Yes geschrieben hat.
* Auf ''The Ancient (Giants under the Sun)'' versuchte die Band, alte Kulturen wie die der [[Inka]], der [[Maya]] und [[Atlantis]]' akustisch wiederauferstehen zu lassen. Das Ende des Stückes (ursprünglich ein Steve-Howe-Song namens ''Leaves of Green'') beschäftigt sich mit der Frage, ob jede Hochkultur einmal durch ein anderes Volk zugrunde gehen muss.
* Das Klavier am Ende von ''Ritual (Nous Sommes Du Soleil)'' (die „Hold me, my love“-Passage) spielte Schlagzeuger Alan White, weil Wakeman zu diesem Zeitpunkt nicht im Studio sein konnte.

Das Album wurde im Jahr 2003 von [[Rhino Records]] remastert und wiederveröffentlicht. Diese Auflage enthält die verlängerte Version von ''The Revealing Science of God (Dance of the Dawn)'' und zwei Bonustracks:

<ol start="5">
<li>'''''Dance Of The Dawn (studio run-through)'''''</li>
<li>'''''Giants Under The Sun (studio run-through)'''''</li>
</ol>

== Musikalischer Gehalt ==

''Tales from Topographic Oceans'' wurde auf zwei LPs veröffentlicht, die zusammen eine Gesamtspielzeit von fast eineinhalb Stunden haben und erreichte Platz 1 in den britischen Albumcharts, die Top 10 der US-Charts, und zwar noch bevor je ein ''Yes''-Fan das Album zu hören bekam. Es ist das erste ''Yes''-Album, das Gold-Status errang. In der Dokumentation ''YesYears'' berichtet Jon Anderson darüber, dass nach der Veröffentlichung von ''[[Close to the Edge]]'' in einer Zeitung gestanden hätte, das nächste, was Yes angingen, sei eine Vertonung der [[Bibel]]. Tatsächlich nahmen sich Jon Anderson und Steve Howe mit den shastrischen Schriften Indiens ein sogar noch ambitionierteres Konzept vor. Dieses Konzept hatte der Viergliederung der shastrischen Schriften entsprechend vier Teile, die auf vier Vinylseiten verteilt wurden. Dabei wurde ''The Revealing Science of God (Dance of the Dawn)'' von der Band als zugänglichster, am ehesten mit dem Wort „Pop“ in Verbindung zu bringender Teil angesehen. ''The Remembering (High the Memory)'' ist ein eher gleichmäßiger, passagenweise fast meditativer Teil mit hohen Anteilen an Wiederholung, und damit eines der Stücke, die Rick Wakeman besonders kritisch sah. ''The Ancient (Giants under the Sun)'' beginnt mit einem etwa 10 Minuten in Anspruch nehmenden rhythmusdominierten Teil, über den Steve Howe auf einer Pedal [[Steelguitar]] improvisiert, endet aber mit einer stillen Songpassage zur akustischen Gitarre. ''Ritual (Nous Sommes Du Soleil)'' ist neben ''The Ancient'' der abwechslungsreichste Teil, er umfasst improvisierte Passagen ebenso wie durchkomponierte Songteile, Perkussionteile, während derer jedes Bandmitglied ein Schlaginstrument spielte, und sogar ein Basssolo.

Die Parallele zu [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethovens]] neunter Symphonie, die man bisweilen in der Gliederung von ''Tales'' zu sehen glaubte, das Zitieren der drei ersten Teile zu Beginn des Vierten (im Bereich von ca. Min 4:00 bis 5:15), besteht letztlich nur in einigen Tönen eines Gitarrensolos, ist also kein wirklich kompositorischer Baustein des Stückes. Interessanter ist schon das kurze Zitat aus ''Close To The Edge'' an derselben Stelle, eines der sehr seltenen Selbstzitate einer Band über eine Albumgrenze hinaus. Abgesehen von kurzen Zitaten wie diesen (es wird vor allem am Beginn und am Ende von ''The Ancient'' und am Beginn von ''Ritual'' aus den ersten beiden Teilen zitiert, meist aber nur im Rahmen von Gitarrensoli) sind die vier Stücke jedoch lediglich lose durch ihre Tonalität miteinander verbunden und ansonsten völlig eigenständig, die Bezeichnung „Satz“ ist daher fehl am Platz, ebenso wie die Auffassung von ''Tales'' als einem einzigen Stück, die bisweilen zu lesen ist. Am ehesten lassen sich Begriffe wie "[[Suite]]" oder "[[Liederzyklus]]" auf das Album anwenden. Auch sind die vier Teile nicht gleich strukturiert, Aufbauschemata reichen von einer überdimensionalen Strophe-Refrain-Struktur (''The Remembering'') bis hin zu einer ABC-Einteilung (''The Ancient'').

Nur die Grundidee von ''Tales from Topographic Oceans'' geht auf die indische Kultur zurück. Die Musik des Albums ist, auch in den extremsten Passagen (''The Ancient''), vorwiegend westlich geprägt. Züge früher Weltmusik lassen sich aber in der Klanggestalt des Werks aufzeigen, so in den treibenden Rhythmen am Beginn von ''The Ancient'' oder in den Sitar-Klängen Steve Howes.

== Cover ==

Das Faltcover greift die Wünsche verschiedener Bandmitglieder auf. [[Roger Dean]] kombinierte einige dieser Vorstellungen zu seinem Bildentwurf. Aufgeklappt zeigt das Cover eine Landschaft im Sternenlicht, das nach unten hin einen fremdartig grünen Ton annimmt. Die Sternbilder sind die der fünf Yes-Musiker. In deren Mitte einer grauen und kalten Ebene sprudelt aus einer Felsformation eine kleine Quelle, deren Wasser sich in einen Teich ergießt, der jedoch niemals überzulaufen scheint. Um diesen herum wachsen einige Grünpflanzen. Rechts wird das Bild durch eine hohe Felsgruppe begrenzt, links durch einen runden Stein im Vordergrund und eine weitere Felsengruppe im Hintergrund. Zwischen diesen drei Felsgruppen befinden sich zwei weitere Landmarken: rechts, weit hinten am Horizont, eine [[Maya]]pyramide, hinter der soeben eine kalte Sonne untergeht, links ein weiterer einzelner, aufrecht stehender Felsblock.

Die Felsformationen stammen sämtlich aus [[Roger Dean]]s Skizzenbuch, er hat sie nach Postkarten aus der Sammlung von [[Dominy Hamilton]] gezeichnet. Es handelt sich um die Brimham Rocks, die letzten Felsen bei [[Land’s End]], den Logan Rock bei Treen sowie um einzelne Steine bei [[Avebury]] und [[Stonehenge]]. Die [[Pyramide (Bauwerk)|Pyramide]] erinnert an ähnliche Bauten in [[Mexiko]] und [[Guatemala]] (von Jon Anderson stammte der Vorschlag, eine Pyramide aus [[Chichén Itzá]] für das Cover zu verwenden), während eine [[Petroglyphen|Petroglyphe]] vor der [[Pyramide (Bauwerk)|Pyramide]] an die Zeichnungen auf der [[Nazca-Ebene]] denken lässt (dieser Vorschlag geht auf Alan White zurück).

Von links „schwimmen“ fünf Fische in den Vordergrund, zumindest einer davon ist mittlerweile ausgestorben, ein [[Knochenfische|Knochenfisch]]. Auf den meisten Ausgaben des Albums ist um die Fische herum eine Wasserblase zu sehen, die auf dem ursprünglichen Bild nicht vorhanden war. Über der Pyramide befinden sich Albumtitel und ''Yes''-Logo. Innen zeigen die beiden Seiten zwischen zahlreichen Naturaufnahmen einen Begleittext und die Texte zur Musik.

Es wird deutlich, wie Roger Dean hier typische Themen der siebziger Jahre, wie die Faszination für [[präkolumbisch]]e Kulturen, [[Astrologie]] und Natur, mit aus dem [[Surrealismus]] stammenden Bildideen zu verknüpfen suchte. Interessanterweise spielt gerade die indische Kultur für die Covergestaltung keine Rolle, was zusammen mit der nicht immer gelungenen Kombination einander fremd bleibender Bildelemente für Kritik, auch für Selbstkritik, gesorgt hat. Dennoch hat das Cover von ''Tales from Topographic Oceans'' im Progressive-Rock-Bereich und wohl auch im gesamten Rockbereich mittlerweile nahezu ikonischen Status erlangt und es wird immer wieder einmal zum besten Rock-Album-Cover aller Zeiten gewählt.

== Rückschau ==

Gitarrist Steve Howe sieht bis heute viele seiner besten Gitarrenstücke auf ''Tales''. Bassist Chris Squire hebt hervor, dass er auf ''The Remembering'' zu Höchstform auflief: Er hält seinen Beitrag zu diesem Stück für sein bestes Bassspiel bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt. Dagegen ist er von ''The Ancient'' bis heute nicht sehr begeistert, währen der Schlagzeuger Alan White gerade dieses Stück wegen seines Ethno-Einschlags sehr mag. Rick Wakeman, den die Arbeit an dem Konzeptwerk, an dessen Konzeption er nur am Rande beteiligt war, zeitweilig frustriert hatte, erwähnte später in Interviews, dass er ''The revealing science of God'' und Teile von ''The Ancient'' sehr genossen habe, aber nie ein Fan dieses Albums werden würde: Es sei 30 Minuten zu lang, 60 Minuten wären genug. Die Gründe für Wakemans Unzufriedenheit liegen vor allem darin begründet, dass Sänger Jon Anderson und Gitarrist Steve Howe die Kompositionen weitgehend dominierten und den anderen drei Bandmitgliedern kaum Platz zur eigenen Entfaltung ließen. Zudem sieht Wakeman an vielen Stellen Füllmaterial, das man besser weggelassen hätte.

Auf der Tour zum Album fand diese Frustration ihre Fortsetzung, denn die Bandkollegen wollten unbedingt das gesamte Album zur Aufführung bringen. Wakeman befürchtete zurecht, dass die Fans sich von der Fülle an neuem Material (das zu Beginn der Tour viele noch gar nicht kannten) überfordert fühlen könnten. Die Shows wurden wie immer durch einen Ausschnitt aus [[Igor Fjodorowitsch Strawinski|Stravinskys]] ''Feuervogel''-Suite eröffnet, es folgten ''Siberian Khatru'', ''And You And I'' und ''Close to the Edge''. Daraufhin wurde ''Tales'' komplett gespielt, es folgte mit ''Roundabout'' eine einzige Zugabe. Für Wakeman, der vor allem während ''The Remembering'' nur wenig zu tun hatte, ein großes Ärgernis, das er während eines Konzertes in der Free Trade Hall in [[Manchester]] am 28. oder 29. November 1973 durch das Verzehren eines indischen Currygerichts - Anspielung sowohl auf das ambitionierte Konzept von „Tales“ als auch auf die für den Keyboarder wenig anspruchsvollen Passagen während „The Remembering“ - weithin sichtbar kommentierte. Zu Beginn der USA-Tour 1974 wurde zunächst sporadisch, später regelmäßig die dritte Seite ''The Remembering'' gestrichen und gegen ''Starship Trooper'' (als zweite Zugabe) ersetzt, später entfielen hin und wieder auch andere Teile. Doch Wakeman hatte bereits beschlossen, die Band zu verlassen. Der Erfolg seines eigenen Soloalbums ''The Six Wives of Henry VIII'' hatte ihm neue Wege eröffnet, und er plante bereits während der ''Tales''-Tour seine Solokarriere.

2002 erschien die 5-CD-Compilation ''In A Word'', die in einer Auswahl das gesamte Schaffen von Yes dokumentierte. Als Besonderheit wurde für diese Ausgabe das ursprüngliche Intro für ''The Revealing Science of God'', das nicht auf die Vinyl-Ausgabe gepasst hatte, restauriert und dem Stück vorangestellt (damit wurde dieses auf 22:37 verlängert). Diese verlängerte Version ist 2003 auch auf der CD-Ausgabe von ''Tales'' bei Rhino Records erschienen.

== Live ==

* ''The Revealing Science Of God'' wurde 1973/74, 1996, 1997/98 und 2002 166 mal live gespielt und ist auf ''[[Keys to Ascension]]'' zu hören
* ''The Remembering'' wurde 1973/74 und 2 mal 1976 33 mal live gespielt
* ''The Ancient'' wurde 1973/74 54 mal live gespielt
* ''Ritual'' wurde 1973 - 1976, 1997/98, 2000/01 und 2004 427 mal live gespielt und ist auf ''Yesshows'' zu hören

== Quellen ==

<references />

* „Tales“ wird in sämtlichen Yes-Biografien erwähnt. Eine umfassende Bibliografie zur Band findet sich auf den Seiten der [[Progressive Rock Bibliography]] ([http://www.progbibliography.de/]), einer englischsprachigen Website. Dort, unter „literary references“, findet sich die Hauptquelle für die Angaben zum philosophisch-religiösen Hintergrund des Albums.
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20080104232339/http://www.rogerdean.com/upclose/topographic.htm Angaben zum Coverbild auf Roger Deans Website]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20050206121143/http://members.aol.com/yesfamily/tree/coverstories.html englische Website mit Erläuterungen zu Yes' Covern]

== Weblinks ==

{{Babyblaue Seiten|286|Tales from Topographic Oceans}}
*Die 1946er-Edition von ''Autobiography of a Yogi'' ist [[Gemeinfreiheit|gemeinfrei]] erhältlich und kann hier heruntergeladen werden: [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/author?name=Yogananda%2C%20Paramahansa%2C%201893-1952 Gutenberg] Es handelt sich hierbei um das Original und nicht um die im Nachhinein von der Yoganandagesellschaft „redigierte“ Fassung.

{{Navigationsleiste Yes Studioalben}}

[[Kategorie:Album (Progressive Rock)]]
[[Kategorie:Album (1970er)]]

[[en:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[es:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[fi:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[fr:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[hu:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[it:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[ja:海洋地形学の物語]]
[[ka:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[nl:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[no:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[pl:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[pt:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[ro:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[ru:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]
[[sv:Tales from Topographic Oceans]]

Lambert Wilson

2011-03-04T13:41:17Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Lambert Wilson

[[Datei:Lambert-Wilson-20081003-09344.jpg|thumb|Lambert Wilson (2008)|upright]]
[[Datei:Lambert Wilson 2011 2.jpg|thumb|Wilson im Jahr 2011|upright]]
'''Lambert Wilson''' (* [[3. August]] [[1958]] in [[Neuilly-sur-Seine]]) ist ein [[Frankreich|französischer]] [[Schauspieler]] und [[Bariton (Stimmlage)|Bariton]].

Von 1974 bis 1978 absolvierte Wilson eine Schauspielausbildung am [[Drama Centre London]]. Eine seiner ersten Rollen hatte er 1979 in ''[[Louis' unheimliche Begegnung mit den Außerirdischen]]''. Danach spielte er in mehreren französischen Filmen wie ''[[La Boum 2|La Boum 2 – Die Fete geht weiter]]'' mit [[Sophie Marceau]]. 1985 wurde er erstmals für einen [[César]] nominiert. Fünf weitere Nominierungen sollten bis heute folgen, zuletzt [[César 2011|2011]] für seine Hauptrolle in ''[[Von Menschen und Göttern]]''. 1990 wurde Lambert Wilson mit dem [[Jean-Gabin-Preis]] ausgezeichnet. Wilson spielte überwiegend in französischen Filmen, zu seinen wenigen [[Hollywood]]filmen gehören unter anderem ''Am Rande des Abgrunds'' (der letzte Film von [[Fred Zinnemann]]), ''[[Sahara – Abenteuer in der Wüste]]'', ''[[Catwoman (Film)|Catwoman]]'' sowie ''[[Matrix Reloaded]]'' und ''[[Matrix Revolutions]]''.

Neben der Schauspielerei betätigt sich Lambert Wilson auch als Sänger. So nahm der gelernte Bariton zwei klassische Alben auf. Eine Idealbesetzung ist er im Musical ''[[Candide (Musical)|Candide]]'' von [[Leonard Bernstein]] am Pariser [[Théâtre du Châtelet]] in gleich drei Rollen. Französisch sprechend verkörpert er [[Voltaire]]. Dr. Pangloss und Martin spricht und singt er in Englisch.

Sein Vater [[Georges Wilson]] (1921−2010) war ebenfalls Schauspieler.

== Filmografie (Auswahl) ==

* 1979: [[Louis' unheimliche Begegnung mit den Außerirdischen]] (''Le Gendarme et les extra-terrestres'')
* 1979: Nur drei kamen durch (''Contro 4 bandiere'')
* 1982: [[La Boum 2]] – Die Fete geht weiter (''La Boum 2'')
* 1982: Am Rande des Abgrunds (''Five Days one Summer'')
* 1983: [[Sahara (1983)|Sahara]]
* 1984: [[Das Blut der Anderen]] (''Le Sang des autres'')
* 1984: Die öffentliche Frau (''La Femme publique'')
* 1985: [[Rendez-Vous (Film)|Rendez-Vous]] (''Rendez-vous'')
* 1986: Das Blau der Hölle (''Bleu comme l'enfer'')
* 1987: [[Der Bauch des Architekten]]
* 1988: Die Dämonen (''Les Possédés'')
* 1989: ''Hiver 54, l'abbé Pierre''
* 1996: [[Die Stunde des Verführers]] (''The Leading Man'')
* 1997: [[Das Leben ist ein Chanson]] (''On connaît la chanson'')
* 2000: Jet Set
* 2003: [[Matrix Reloaded]]
* 2003: [[Matrix Revolutions]]
* 2003: [[Eher geht ein Kamel durchs Nadelöhr…]]
* 2003: [[Timeline (Film)|Timeline]]
* 2004: [[Catwoman (Film)|Catwoman]]
* 2005: [[Sahara – Abenteuer in der Wüste]] (''Sahara'')
* 2005: ''Palais Royal''
* 2006: [[Herzen (Film)|Herzen]] ''(Cœurs)''
* 2007: [[Flawless]]
* 2008: ''Comme les autres''
* 2008: [[Dante 01]]
* 2008: [[Babylon A.D.]]
* 2008: [[Das Lazarus Projekt]]
* 2010: Imogène McCarthery
* 2010: La princesse de Montpensier
* 2010: [[Von Menschen und Göttern]] (''Des hommes et des dieux'')

== Bühnenrollen ==
* 1984: [[Léocadia]] von Jean Anouilh (als Prinz Albert)

* 2006: [[Candide (Musical)|Candide]] (als Dr. Pangloss, Martin, Voltaire)

== Weblinks ==
{{Commonscat}}
* [http://www.lambertwilson.com/ ''Lambert Wilson, Offizielle Website'']
* {{IMDb Name|ID=0933727|NAME=Lambert Wilson}}

{{Normdaten|PND=134659791|LCCN=no/96/16726|VIAF=42027095}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wilson, Lambert}}
[[Kategorie:Schauspieler]]
[[Kategorie:Bariton]]
[[Kategorie:Franzose]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1958]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Wilson, Lambert
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=[[Frankreich|französischer]] [[Schauspieler]] und [[Bariton (Stimmlage)|Bariton]]
|GEBURTSDATUM=3. August 1958
|GEBURTSORT=[[Neuilly-sur-Seine]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[az:Lambert Uilson]]
[[en:Lambert Wilson]]
[[es:Lambert Wilson]]
[[et:Lambert Wilson]]
[[fr:Lambert Wilson]]
[[hu:Lambert Wilson]]
[[id:Lambert Wilson]]
[[it:Lambert Wilson]]
[[ja:ランベール・ウィルソン]]
[[la:Lambertus Wilson]]
[[nl:Lambert Wilson]]
[[pl:Lambert Wilson]]
[[pt:Lambert Wilson]]
[[ro:Lambert Wilson]]
[[ru:Вильсон, Ламбер]]
[[sv:Lambert Wilson]]
[[uk:Вілсон Ламбер]]

Pirelli-Kalender

2011-03-04T13:32:44Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Calendarul Pirelli

Der '''Pirelli-Kalender''' ist einer der begehrtesten [[Kalender]] der Welt. Er wurde erstmals 1964 herausgegeben.

Seit mehr als 40 Jahren wird dieser Kalender von dem [[italien]]ischen Reifenhersteller [[Pirelli]] in Auftrag gegeben. Er ist nicht käuflich und wird nur an ausgewählte Freunde des Unternehmens verschenkt.

Im Laufe der Zeit wurde dieser Kalender zum Inbegriff von [[Erotik]]. Namhafte Fotografen wie [[Peter Lindbergh]], [[Bruce Weber]] oder [[Herb Ritts]] gaben dem Kalender ein Gesicht.

Jedes Jahr konnte Pirelli für den Kalender Top-[[Model]]s wie [[Gisele Bündchen]], [[Heidi Klum]], [[Cindy Crawford]], [[Adriana Lima]], [[Alessandra Ambrosio]] oder [[Naomi Campbell]] gewinnen.

Das Shooting für den Pirelli-Kalender 2009 fand Anfang Mai 2008 in einem luxuriösen Elefanten-Camp im [[Okavangodelta]] ([[Botswana]]) statt.

== Die Fotografen und Schauplätze ==
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:97%;"
! width="100px"| Jahr
! width="190px"| Fotograf
! width="200px"| Ort
! width="300px"| Models
|-
! 1964
| [[Robert Freeman]] || [[Mallorca]], [[Spanien]] ||
|-
! 1965
| [[Brian Duffy (Fotograf)|Brian Duffy]] || [[Südfrankreich]] ||
|-
! 1966
| [[Peter Knapp]] ||[[Al Hoceima]], [[Marokko]] ||
|-
! 1967
| colspan=3| ''kein Kalender''
|-
! 1968
| [[Harry Peccinotti]] || [[Tunesien]] ||
|-
! 1969
| [[Harry Peccinotti]] || [[Big Sur]], [[Kalifornien]] ||
|-
! 1970
| [[Francis Giacobetti]] || [[Paradise Island (Bahamas)|Paradise Island]], die [[Bahamas]] ||
|-
! 1971
| Francis Giacobetti || [[Jamaika]] ||
|-
! 1972
| [[Sarah Moon]] || Villa Les Tilleuls, [[Paris]] ||
|-
! 1973
| Brian Duffy || [[London]], England ||
|-
! 1974
| [[Hans Feurer]] || [[Seychellen]] ||
|-
! 1975-1983
| colspan=3| ''keine Kalender''
|-
! 1984
| [[Uwe Ommer]] || [[Bahamas]]
| [[Angie Layne]], [[Suzie-Ann Watkins]], [[Jane Wood]], [[Julie Martin (model)|Julie Martin]]
|-
! 1985
| [[Norman Parkinson]] || [[Edinburgh]], [[Schottland]]
| [[Iman Abdulmajid]]
|-
! 1986
| [[Bert Stern]] || the [[Cotswolds]], England ||
|-
! 1987
| [[Terence Donovan (Fotograf)|Terence Donovan]] || [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]], England
| [[Ione Brown]], [[Naomi Campbell]], [[Collette Brown]], [[Gillian De Turville]], [[Waris Dirie]]
|-
! 1988
| [[Barry Lategan]] (choreografiert von [[Gillian Lynne]]) || London, England ||
|-
! 1989
| [[Joyce Tennyson]] || the [[Polaroid]] Studios, [[New York City|New York]]
| [[Akure Wall]]
|-
! 1990
| [[Arthur Elgort]] || [[Sevilla]], [[Spanien]] ||
|-
! 1991
| [[Clive Arrowsmith]] || [[Frankreich]]
| [[Lynne Koester]], [[Rachel Boss]], [[Susie Bick]]
|-
! 1992
| Clive Arrowsmith || [[Almería]], [[Spanien]]||
|-
! 1993
| [[John Claridge]] || [[Seychellen]]
| [[Christina Estrada]], [[Barbara Moors]]
|-
! 1994
| [[Herb Ritts]] || [[Paradise Island (Bahamas)|Paradise Island]], Bahamas
| [[Helena Christensen]], [[Cindy Crawford]], [[Karen Alexander]], [[Kate Moss]]
|-
! 1995
| [[Richard Avedon]] || New York
| [[Christy Turlington]], [[Naomi Campbell]], [[Farrah Summerford]], [[Nadja Auermann]]
|-
! 1996
| [[Peter Lindbergh]] || [[El Mirage]], [[Kalifornien]]
| [[Carré Otis]], [[Kristen McMenamy]], [[Eva Herzigova]], [[Navia Nguyen]], [[Nastassja Kinski]], [[Tatjana Patitz]]
|-
! 1997
| Richard Avedon || New York
| [[Honor Fraser]], [[Ling Tang]], [[Monica Bellucci]], [[Sophie Patitz]], [[Cordula Reyer]], [[Inés Sastre]], [[Waris Dirie]], [[Anna Klevhag]], [[Gisele Zelaui]], [[Irina Pantaeva]], [[Kristina Semenovskaia]], [[Tatiana Zavialova]], [[Marie Sophie Wilson]], [[Jenny Shimizu]], [[Brandi Quiñones]], [[Nikki Uberti]], [[Julia Ortiz]], [[Annie Morton]]
|-
! 1998
| [[Bruce Weber]] || [[Miami]]
| [[Tanga Moreau]], [[Stella Tennant]], [[Milla Jovovich]], [[Carolyn Murphy]], [[Eva Herzigova]], [[Patricia Arquette]], [[Shalom Harlow]], [[Kirsty Hume]], [[Elaine Irwin Mellencamp]], [[Kiara Kabukuru]], [[Georgina Grenville]], [[Rachel Roberts (1978)|Rachel Roberts]], [[Daryl Hannah]]
|-
! 1999
| Herb Ritts || [[Los Angeles]]
| [[Chandra North]], [[Sophie Dahl]], [[Karen Elson]], [[Michele Hicks]], [[Carolyn Murphy]], [[Shirley Mallmann]], [[Laetitia Casta]], [[Audrey Marnay]], [[Elsa Benítez]], [[Bridget Hall]], [[Angela Lindvall]], [[Alek Wek]]
|-
! 2000
| [[Annie Leibovitz]] || [[Rhinebeck]], [[New York City]]
| [[Laetitia Casta]]
|-
! 2001
| [[Mario Testino]] || [[Neapel]], [[Italien]]
| [[Aurélie Claudel]], [[Rhea Durham]], [[Gisele Bündchen]], [[Karen Elson]], [[Mariana Weickert]], [[Fernanda Tavares]], [[Angela Lindvall]], [[Ana Claudia Michels]], [[Liisa Winkler]], [[Noémie Lenoir]], [[Frankie Rayder]], [[Carmen Kass]]
|-
! 2002
| Peter Lindbergh || [[Hollywood]]
| [[Amy Smart]], [[Brittany Murphy]], [[Julia Stiles]], [[Rachael Leigh Cook]], [[Erika Christensen]], [[Selma Blair]], [[Lauren Bush]], [[James King]], [[Bridget Moynahan]]
|-
! 2003
| Bruce Weber || [[Kampanien]], Italien
| [[Sienna Miller]], [[Eva Riccobono]], [[Heidi Klum]], [[Mariacarla Boscono]], [[Isabeli Fontana]], [[Valentina Stilla]], [[Filippa Hamilton]], [[Alessandra Ambrosio]], [[Jessica Miller]], [[Natalia Vodianova]], [[Karolina Kurkova]], [[Sophie Dahl]], [[Bridget Hall]], [[Lisa Seiffert]], [[Yamila Díaz]]
|-
! 2004
| [[Nick Knight (Fotograf)|Nick Knight]] || London, England || [[Adina Fohlin]], [[Natalia Vodianova]], [[Dewi Driegen]], [[Mariacarla Boscono]], [[Jessica Miller]], [[Esther de Jong]], [[Ai Tominaga]], [[Amanda Moore]], [[Alek Wek]], [[Frankie Rayder]], [[Karolina Kurkova]], [[Liberty Ross]], [[Pollyanna McIntosh]]
|-
! 2005
| [[Patrick Demarchelier]] || [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Brasilien]]
| [[Filippa Hamilton]], [[Julia Stegner]], [[Eugenia Volodina]], [[Naomi Campbell]], [[Isabeli Fontana]], [[Michelle Buswell]], [[Adriana Lima]], [[Erin Wasson]], [[Diana Dondoe]], [[Liliane Ferrarezi]], [[Marija Vujovic]], [[Valentina Zelyaeva]]
|-
! 2006
| [[Mert Alas]] und [[Marcus Piggot]] || [[Côte d'Azur]]
| [[Jennifer Lopez]], [[Kate Moss]], [[Gisele Bündchen]], [[Natalia Vodianova]], [[Karen Elson]], [[Guinevere van Seenus]]
|-
! 2007
| [[Inez van Lamsweerde und Vinoodh Matadin]] || studio set
| [[Penélope Cruz]], [[Sophia Loren]], [[Lou Doillon]], [[Hilary Swank]], [[Naomi Watts]]
|-
! 2008
| [[Patrick Demarchelier]] || [[Shanghai]], [[China]]
| [[Agyness Deyn]], [[Lily Donaldson]], [[Doutzen Kroes]], [[Catherine McNeil]], [[Gemma Ward]], [[Sasha Pivovarova]], [[Coco Rocha]], [[Caroline Trentini]], [[Mo Wandan]], [[Du Juan]], [[Maggie Cheung]]
|-
! 2009
| [[Peter Beard]] || [[Okawango Delta]], [[Botsuana]]
| [[Mariacarla Boscono]], [[Daria Werbowy]], [[Malgosia Bela]], [[Randal Moore]], [[Lara Stone]], [[Emanuela de Paula]], [[Isabeli Fontana]]
|-
! 2010
| [[Terry Richardson]] || [[Trancoso]], [[Bahia]], [[Brasilien]]
| [[Catherine McNeil]], [[Enikő Mihalik]], [[Ana Beatriz Barros]], [[Miranda Kerr]], [[Rosie Huntington-Whiteley]], [[Abbey Lee Kershaw]], [[Daisy Lowe]], [[Gracie Carvalho]], [[Lily Cole]], [[Marloes Horst]], [[Georgina Stojiljković]]
|-
! 2011
| [[Karl Lagerfeld]] || [[Paris]]
| [[Julianne Moore]], [[Brad Kroenig]], [[Bianca Balti]], [[Elisa Sednaoui]], [[Freja Beha Erchsen]], [[Isabeli Fontana]], [[Magdalena Frackowiak]], [[Anja Rubik]], [[Abbey Lee Kershaw]], [[Lakshmi Menon]], [[Heidi Mount]], [[Erin Wasson]], [[Natasha Poly]], [[Lara Stone]], [[Daria Werbowy]], [[Iris Strubegger]], [[Jeneil Williams]], [[Garrett Neff]], [[Jake Davies]], [[Baptiste Giabiconi]], [[Sebastien Jondeau]]
|}

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.pirellical.com/ Pirelli Calendar Club]
* [http://www.pirelli.de/web/company/media/communication/calendar/default.page Pirelli.De Kalender]

== Literatur ==
* Italo Zannier: ''Alle Pirelli-Kalender 1964–2007''. Schirmer/Mosel, 2007, ISBN 3829603282.

[[Kategorie:Kalendarium]]

[[cs:Kalendář Pirelli]]
[[en:Pirelli Calendar]]
[[es:Calendario Pirelli]]
[[fr:Calendrier Pirelli]]
[[it:Calendario Pirelli]]
[[pl:Kalendarz Pirelli]]
[[pt:Calendário Pirelli]]
[[ro:Calendarul Pirelli]]
[[ru:Календарь Пирелли]]
[[simple:Pirelli calendar]]
[[sk:Kalendár Pirelli]]
[[ta:பிரெல்லி நாட்காட்டி]]

Rhodonit

2011-03-04T03:15:56Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Rodonit

{{Infobox Mineral
|Mineralname =
|Bild = Rhodonite-130316.jpg
|Bildbeschreibung = Rhodonitkristall mit deutlich triklinem Habitus aus Minas Gerais, Brasilien
|Chemismus = (Mn2+)SiO3
|Mineralklasse = Silikate und Germanate
|Kurzform_Strunz = 9.DK.05 (8. Auflage: VIII/F.27-10)
|Kurzform_Dana = 65.4.1.1
|Kristallsystem = triklin
|Kristallklasse = triklin-pinakoidal <math>\bar {1}</math> <ref name="Datenblatt">[http://www.handbookofmineralogy.org/pdfs/rhodonite.pdf Mineraldatenblatt - Rhodonite] (englisch, PDF 74,6 kB)</ref>
|Farbe = rosa bis rot, bräunlichrot, graugelb
|Strichfarbe = weiß
|Mohshärte = 5,5 bis 6,5 <ref name="Datenblatt" />
|Dichte = 3,57 bis 3,76 <ref name="Datenblatt" />
|Glanz = Glas- bis Perlmuttglanz
|Transparenz = durchsichtig bis durchscheinend
|Bruch = muschelig bis uneben
|Spaltbarkeit = vollkommen nach <math>\lbrace \!\, 110 \rbrace</math> und <math>\lbrace \!\, 1 \bar {1} 0 \rbrace</math> gut nach <math>\lbrace \!\, 001 \rbrace</math> <ref name="Datenblatt" />
|Kristallhabitus = dicktafelig // <math>\lbrace \!\, 010 \rbrace</math>, körnig
|häufige_Kristallflächen = <math>\lbrace \!\, 010 \rbrace</math>, <math>\lbrace \!\, 100 \rbrace</math>, <math>\lbrace \!\, 001 \rbrace</math>, <math>\lbrace \!\, 110 \rbrace</math>, <math>\lbrace 22 \bar {1} \rbrace</math>, <math>\lbrace 2 \bar {2} \bar {1} \rbrace</math>
|Zwillingsbildung = Lamellen // <math>\lbrace \!\, 010 \rbrace</math>
|Brechungsindex = n α = 1,711 bis 1,738 n β = 1,714 bis 1,741 n γ = 1,724 bis 1,751 <ref name="Mindat">[http://www.mindat.org/min-3407.html Mindat - Rhodonite] (englisch)</ref>
|Doppelbrechung = δ = 0,013 <ref name="Mindat" />
|optische_Orientierung = zweiachsig positiv
|Pleochroismus = schwach
|Dispersion = 58° bis 73° <ref name="Mindat" />
|Phasenübergang =
|Schmelzpunkt =
|chemisches_Verhalten = von HCl langsam angegriffen; schwer anfärbbar; verwittert zu Manganoxiden
|ähnliche_Minerale = [[Bustamit]]
|Radioaktivität =
|Magnetismus =
|besondere_Kennzeichen =
}}

'''Rhodonit''', auch als ''Mangankiesel'', ''Himbeerspat'' oder ''Inkarose''<ref name="Schumann">{{Literatur| Autor= Walter Schumann| Titel= Edelsteine und Schmucksteine| Auflage= 13. | Verlag= BLV Verlags GmbH | Ort= | Jahr= 1976/1989 | Seiten= 184 | ISBN= 3-405-16332-3}} </ref> bekannt, ist ein eher selten vorkommendes [[Mineral]] aus der [[Systematik der Minerale|Mineralklasse]] der „[[Silicate]] und [[Germanate]]“. Es kristallisiert im [[Triklines Kristallsystem|triklinen Kristallsystem]] und entwickelt meist körnige bis massige [[Mineral-Aggregat]]e von rosa bis roter, bräunlichroter oder graugelber Farbe, die oft von schwarzen Manganoxid-Adern durchzogen sind. Tafelige bis säulige, an den Ecken oft abgerundete [[Kristall]]e gehören eher zu den seltenen Ausbildungsvarianten.

== Chemismus ==
Nach dem offiziellen Datenblatt zum Rhodonit wird die chemische Zusammensetzung mit (Mn2+,Fe2+,Mg,Ca)SiO3<ref name="Datenblatt" /> angegeben. Dies entspricht jedoch nicht der von der [[International Mineralogical Association]] (IMA) anerkannten Zusammensetzung (Mn2+)SiO3<ref name="IMA">[http://pubsites.uws.edu.au/ima-cnmnc/IMA2009-01%20UPDATE%20160309.pdf IMA/CNMNC List of Mineral Names - Rhodonite] (englisch, PDF 1,8 MB)</ref> (S. 242), welche allerdings mit der Zusammensetzung des [[Pyroxmangit]]<ref name="IMA" /> (S. 236) übereinstimmt.


== Etymologie und Geschichte ==
[[Datei:Rhodonite-mz-79a.jpg|thumb|left|Kräftig rosenfarbener Rhodonit aus der Chiurucu Mine, Peru]]
Der Name „Rhodonit“ ist abgeleitet aus der [[Altgriechische Sprache|Altgriechischen Sprache]]. Das Wort tritt dort im [[Attisches Griechisch|attischen Dialekt]] als {{Polytonisch|ῥόδον}} {{IPA|[rʰódon]}} bzw. im [[Aiolisches Griechisch|aiolischen Dialekt]] {{Polytonisch|βρόδον}} {{IPA|[brʰódon]}} „Rose(nduft)“ auf und ist schon im [[Mykenisches Griechisch|Mykenischen Griechisch]] als <wo-do-we> {{IPA|/u̯rodóu̯en/}} „das rosige/rosenduftige“ belegt. Es ist im [[Armenische Sprache|Armenischen]] als „vard“ und im [[Latein]]ischen als „rosa“ zu finden und über das Lateinische ins deutsche Wort „[[Rosen|Rose]]“ übergegangen.

Erstmals wissenschaftlich beschrieben wurde das Mineral 1819 durch [[Christoph Friedrich Jasche]], der es auch aufgrund seiner Farbe nach dem griechischen Wort für Rose benannte. Als [[Typlokalität]] gilt der Fundpunkt [[Schävenholz]] bei [[Elbingerode (Harz)]].

== Klassifikation ==
In der [[Systematik der Minerale nach Strunz (8. Auflage)#F. Kettensilikate und Bandsilikate (Inosilikate)|alten (8. Auflage)]] und [[Systematik der Minerale nach Strunz (9. Auflage)|neuen Systematik der Minerale nach Strunz (9. Auflage)]] gehört der Rhodonit zur Abteilung der „Kettensilikate und Bandsilikate (Inosilikate)“. Die neue [[Karl Hugo Strunz|Strunz'sche]] Mineralsystematik unterteilt hier allerdings inzwischen präziser nach Aufbau und Struktur der Silikatketten und das Mineral steht entsprechend in der Unterabteilung der „Ketten- und Bandsilikate mit 5-periodischen Einzelketten“.

Die im englischen Sprachraum gebräuchliche [[Systematik der Minerale nach Dana]] ordnet den Rhodonit in die Abteilung der „[[Systematik der Minerale nach Dana/Silikate#65.4 Kettensilikate: Einfache unverzweigte Ketten, W=1 mit Ketten P=5|Kettensilikate mit einfachen, unverzweigten Ketten, W=1 mit Ketten P=5]]“, wo er als Leitmineral zusammen mit [[Babingtonit]], [[Manganbabingtonit]], [[Nambulit]], [[Natronambulit]], [[Marsturit]], [[Lithiomarsturit]] und [[Scandiobabingtonit]] die Unterabteilung der '''Rhodonitgruppe''' bildet.

== Modifikationen und Varietäten ==
Als ''Fowlerit'' werden Rhodonite mit bräunlichem oder gelblichem Stich bezeichnet, wie sie unter anderem in [[Franklin (New Jersey)|Franklin]]/[[New Jersey]] gefunden wurden. <ref name="Schumann" />

== Bildung und Fundorte ==
[[Datei:Rhodonite-Galena-64414.jpg|thumb|left|Rhodonitkristalle auf [[Galenit]] (schwarz)]]
Rhodonit bildet sich hauptsächlich in [[mangan]]reichen, [[Metamorphose (Geologie)|metamorphen]] [[Gestein]]en, kann aber auch durch [[Hydrothermale Lösung|hydrothermale]] Vorgänge in [[Ganglagerstätte|Erzgängen]] entstehen. [[Paragenese|Begleitminerale]] sind unter anderem [[Alleghanyit]], [[Calcit]], [[Franklinit]], [[Galaxit]], [[Galenit]], [[Grunerit]], [[Magnetit]], verschiedene [[Manganoxid]]e, [[Spessartin]], [[Tephroit]] und [[Willemit]].

Bisher konnte Rhodonit an rund 700 Fundorten nachgewiesen werden (Stand: 2009)<ref>[http://www.mindat.org/show.php?id=3407&ld=1#themap Mindat - Localities for Rhodonite]</ref>, so unter anderem in [[Argentinien]]; in mehreren Countys von [[New South Wales]] in Australien; [[Todos Santos (Municipio)|Todos Santos]] in Bolivien; [[Bahia]], [[Paraíba]] und [[Minas Gerais]] in Brasilien; [[Bulgarien]]; mehreren Regionen von [[China]]; [[Costa Rica]]; [[Bayern]] (Spessart), [[Hessen]] (Odenwald), [[Niedersachsen]] (Harz), [[Rheinland-Pfalz]] (Eife) und [[Sachsen-Anhalt]] (Harz) in Deutschland; [[Vaasa]] in Finnland; [[Lothringen]] und [[Midi-Pyrénées]] in Frankreich; [[Griechenland]]; [[England]] und [[Wales]] in Großbritannien; [[Indien]]; [[Indonesien]]; in mehreren Regionen von [[Italien]]; [[Hokkaidō]], [[Honshū]], [[Kyūshū]], [[Shikoku]] und auf den [[Nansei-Inseln]] in Japan; [[Kanada]]; [[Kirgisistan]]; [[Toliara (Provinz)|Toliara]] auf Madagaskar; mehreren Regionen von [[Mexiko]]; bei [[Grootfontein]] in Namibia; [[Otago]] in Neuseeland; [[Nordkorea]]; [[Norwegen]]; mehreren Regionen von [[Peru]]; auf der Phillippineninsel [[Luzon]]; bei [[Castro Verde]] in Portugal; an jeweils mehreren Fundpunkten der Regionen [[Kärnten]], [[Salzburg]], [[Steiermark]] und [[Tirol (Bundesland)|Tirol]] in Österreich; [[Rumänien]]; mehreren Regionen von [[Russland]]; [[Saudi-Arabien]]; mehreren Regionen von [[Schweden]]; in den schweizer Kantonen [[Kanton Graubünden|Graubünden]], [[Kanton Uri]] und [[Kanton Wallis|Wallis]]; [[Banská Bystrica]] und [[Košice]] in der Slowakei; [[Südafrika]]; [[Andalusien]] und [[Katalonien]] in [[Spanien]]; [[Taiwan]]; [[Böhmen]] in Tschechien; [[Türkei]]; sowie in vielen Regionen der [[Vereinigte Staaten|USA]].


== Struktur ==
Rhodonit kristallisiert triklin in der [[Raumgruppe]] <math>\ C \bar 1</math> mit den [[Gitterparameter]]n a = 9,8381 [[Ångström (Einheit)|Å]]; b = 10,5361 Å; c = 12,2381 Å; α = 108,697°; β = 103,335° und γ = 82,191°<ref>[http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/AMS/result.php?mineral=Rhodonite American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database - Rhodonite] (englisch, 2005)</ref> sowie 20 [[Formeleinheit]]en pro [[Elementarzelle]]<ref name="Datenblatt" />.

== Verwendung als Schmuckstein ==
[[Datei:Rhodonite cut.jpg|thumb|Rhodonit in verschiedenen Schmucksteinschliffen]]
Rhodonit wird ausschließlich zu [[Schmuckstein]]en verarbeitet und kommt [[Schliff (Schmuckstein)|geschliffen]] in Form von [[Tafelschliff|Tafelsteinen]], [[Cabochon]]en und Perlen für Halsketten oder anderen kunstgewerblichen Gegenständen in den Handel. Durchsichtige Varietäten erhalten auch einen Facettenschliff. <ref name="Schumann" />

Je nach Farbnuance und Qualität in Bezug auf Reinheit und Transparenz besteht Verwechslungsgefahr mit anderen Mineralen wie dem rosafarbenen, jedoch meist weiß gestreiften [[Rhodochrosit]]; dem ebenfalls rosa bis roten [[Thulit]], einer manganhaltigen Varietät des [[Zoisit]]; dem chemisch gleichen [[Pyroxmangit]]; den [[Granatgruppe|Granatmineralen]] wie z. B. [[Spessartin]] und [[Hessonit]]; den roten [[Spinell]]- und [[Turmalingruppe|Turmalinvarietäten]]. <ref name="Schumann" />








== Esoterik ==
In der [[Esoterik]] gilt Rhodonit als [[Heilstein]] mit Einfluss auf das [[Chakra#Sakralchakra (auch Sexualchakra)|Sakral-]] und [[Chakra#Herzchakra|Herzchakra]] und soll schmerzlindernd und beruhigend wirken. Je nach Quelle ist er dem [[Tierkreiszeichen#Die zwölf Tierkreiszeichen des Zodiaks|Tierkreiszeichen]] Stier<ref>[http://www.heilsteine-lexikon.info/rhodonit.htm Heilsteine-Lexikon - Rhodonit]</ref> oder Krebs<ref>[http://lexikon-alternativ-heilen.de/edelsteine/rhodonit.htm Lexikon "Alternativ heilen" - Rhodonit]</ref> zugeordnet. Wissenschaftliche Belege für die Wirksamkeit liegen jedoch nicht vor.

== Siehe auch ==
*[[Liste der Minerale]]

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

== Literatur ==
*{{Literatur| Autor= Petr Korbel, Milan Novák | Titel= Mineralien Enzyklopädie | Auflage= | Verlag= Nebel Verlag GmbH | Ort= Eggolsheim | Jahr= 2002 | Seiten= 244 | ISBN= 3-89555-076-0}}
*{{Literatur| Autor= [[Paul Ramdohr]], [[Karl Hugo Strunz|Hugo Strunz]] | Titel= Klockmanns Lehrbuch der Mineralogie | Auflage= 16. | Verlag= Ferdinand Enke Verlag | Ort= | Jahr= 1978 | Seiten= 734 | ISBN= 3-432-82986-8}}
*{{Literatur| Autor= Martin Okrusch, Siegfried Matthes | Titel= Mineralogie: Eine Einführung in die spezielle Mineralogie, Petrologie und Lagerstättenkunde | Auflage= 7. | Verlag= Springer Verlag | Ort= Berlin, Heidelberg, New York | Jahr= 2005 | Seiten= 96 | ISBN= 3-540-23812-3}}
* Strübel G. & Zimmer S.H. (1991): Lexikon der Minerale. Enke Verlag, Stuttgart. ISBN 3-432-92722-3

== Weblinks ==
{{Commonscat|Rhodonite}}
* [[Mineralienatlas:Rhodonit]] (Wiki)
*[http://books.google.de/books?id=RXcFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=Rhodonit%2BJasche&source=bl&ots=Rstufl9H6L&sig=gdci2LguYBgkjJjU6cn_S7si_4c&hl=de&ei=0YoPS_XnFomD_AbqmN2uBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Rhodonit%2BJasche&f=false Neues Journal für Chemie und Physik in Verbindung - Über die Manganerze des Unterharzes] (abgerufen am 27. November per Google-Buchsuche)

[[Kategorie:Mineral]]
[[Kategorie:Silicate und Germanate]]
[[Kategorie:Triklines Kristallsystem]]
[[Kategorie:Calciummineral]]
[[Kategorie:Manganmineral]]
[[Kategorie:Siliciummineral]]

[[ca:Rodonita]]
[[el:Ροδονίτης]]
[[en:Rhodonite]]
[[es:Rodonita]]
[[fi:Rodoniitti]]
[[fr:Rhodonite]]
[[he:רודוניט]]
[[it:Rhodonite]]
[[ja:ばら輝石]]
[[lt:Rodonitas]]
[[nl:Rhodoniet]]
[[pl:Rodonit]]
[[pt:Rodonita]]
[[ro:Rodonit]]
[[ru:Родонит]]
[[sk:Rodonit]]
[[uk:Родоніт]]

Martin Solveig

2011-03-02T18:27:14Z

RebelRobot: iw: +: ro:Martin Solveig

[[Datei:Martin Solveig at Peter Pan (Misano Adriatico).jpg|miniatur|250px|Solveig]]
{{Infobox Chartplatzierungen
| vorläufige Chartplatzierung = ja
| Singles =
{{Single
|Madan (vs. [[Salif Keïta (Musiker)|Salif Keita]])
|{{Charts|CH|66|20.07.2003|10|}}<ref name="CHcharts"/>
|{{Charts|FR|37|01.06.2003|16|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
}}
{{Single
|Rocking Music
|{{Charts|FR|47|15.02.2004|9|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
|{{Charts|UK|35|24.04.2004|12|}}<ref name="UKcharts"/>
}}
{{Single
|I'm a Good Man
|{{Charts|UK|57|26.06.2004|1|}}<ref name="UKcharts"/>
}}
{{Single
|Everybody
|{{Charts|FR|37|01.10.2005|22|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
|{{Charts|UK|22|06.08.2005|12|}}<ref name="UKcharts"/>
}}
{{Single
|Jealousy
|{{Charts|CH|60|21.05.2006|9|}}<ref name="CHcharts"/>
|{{Charts|FR|36|13.05.2006|11|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
|{{Charts|UK|62|11.02.2006|1|}}<ref name="UKcharts"/>
}}
{{Single
|Rejection
|{{Charts|CH|55|08.04.2007|5|}}<ref name="CHcharts"/>
|{{Charts|FR|34|07.07.2007|18|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
}}
{{Single
|C'est la vie
|{{Charts|CH|63|25.05.2008|6|}}<ref name="CHcharts"/>
}}
{{Single
|I Want You (feat. [[Lee Fields]])
|{{Charts|FR|59|27.09.2008|14|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
}}
{{Single
|Boys & Girls (feat. [[Dragonette]])
|{{Charts|FR|17|03.10.2008|23|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
}}
{{Single
|[[Hello (Martin-Solveig-Lied)|Hello]] (feat. [[Dragonette]])
|{{Charts|DE|16|12.11.2010|…|}}<ref name="DEcharts"/>
|{{Charts|AT|[[Liste der Nummer-eins-Hits in Österreich (2011)|1]]|12.11.2010|…|}}<ref name="ATcharts"/>
|{{Charts|CH|16|24.10.2010|…|}}<ref name="CHcharts"/>
|{{Charts|UK|13|08.01.2011|…|}}<ref name="UKcharts1"/>
|{{Charts|FR|5|20.11.2010|9|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
}}
| Alben =
{{Album
|Suite
|{{Charts|FR|84|22.06.2003|8|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
}}
{{Album
|Hedonist
|{{Charts|FR|43|02.07.2005|56|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
}}
{{Album
|In the House
|{{Charts|FR|126|14.10.2006|3|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
}}
{{Album
|So Far
|{{Charts|CH|85|04.03.2007|4|}}<ref name="CHcharts"/>
|{{Charts|FR|38|06.01.2007|2|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
}}
{{Album
|C'est la vie
|{{Charts|CH|59|15.06.2008|5|}}<ref name="CHcharts"/>
|{{Charts|FR|16|07.06.2008|44|}}<ref name="FRcharts"/>
}}
| Quellen =
<ref name="DEcharts">[http://musicline.de/de/chartverfolgung_summary/title/Solveig%2CMartin+%26+Dragonette/Hello/single Hello - Chartdiskografie Deutschland]</ref>
<ref name="ATcharts">[http://www.austriancharts.at/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Martin+Solveig Martin Solveig - Chartdiskografie Österreich]</ref>
<ref name="CHcharts">[http://swisscharts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Martin+Solveig+%26+Dragonette&titel=Hello&cat=s Martin Solveig - Chartdiskografie Schweiz]</ref>
<ref name="FRcharts">[http://lescharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Martin+Solveig Martin Solveig - Chartdiskografie Frankreich]</ref>
<ref name="UKcharts">[http://www.chartstats.com/artistinfo.php?id=92 Martin Solveig - Chartdiskografie UK]</ref>
<ref name="UKcharts1">[http://www.chartstats.com/release.php?release=49844 Hello - Chartdiskografie UK]</ref>
}}
'''Martin Solveig''' (* [[22. September]] [[1976]] in [[Paris]]; eigentlich ''Martin Picandet'') ist ein [[Frankreich|französischer]] [[House]]-[[DJ]] und [[Musikproduzent|Produzent]], der 2004 mit der Single ''Rocking Music'' und 2010 mit ''[[Hello (Martin-Solveig-Lied)|Hello]]'' einen [[Dance (Musikrichtung)|Dance]]-[[Bestseller|Hit]] landen konnte.

== Biografie ==
Als Kind sang Martin Solveig in einem [[Kirchenchor]] und beschäftigte sich mit [[Klassische Musik|klassischer Musik]]. Mit 13 Jahren bekam er seine ersten [[Turntable]]s und legte für Freunde auf. Als er 18 Jahre alt war, arbeitete der Franzose in einem Plattenladen und interessierte sich für [[Elektronische Musik|elektronische Musik]]. Kurze Zeit später wurde er DJ in einigen renommierten Clubs in Paris.

2001 arbeitete Solveig mit [[Bob Sinclar]] an dessen Mix-Album ''Africanism'' und steuerte den Titel ''Edony'' bei. Nach seinem [[College]]-Abschluss erschien 2003 die erste eigene [[CD]] ''Suite''. Darauf befand sich auch ein [[Remix]] von ''Malan'', einem Song des [[Mali|malischen]] Sängers [[Salif Keïta (Musiker)|Salif Keïta]], der Solveigs erster Charthit werden sollte.

Bis heute platzierten sich fünf Alben des französischen Musikers in den heimatlichen Charts, aber auch diverse Singles, darunter ''Everybody'' (2005) und ''Rejection'' (2007), erreichten europäische [[Hitparade]]nränge. Das Ende 2010 veröffentlichte ''[[Hello (Martin-Solveig-Lied)|Hello]]'' (feat. [[Dragonette]]) stieg in die [[Media-Control-Charts|deutschen]], [[Ö3 Austria Top 40|österreichischen]], [[Schweizer Hitparade|Schweizer]], [[Britische Singlecharts|englischen]] und französischen Singlecharts.

== Diskografie ==
=== Alben ===
* 2002 – Sur la terre
* 2003 – Suite
* 2005 – Hedonist
* 2007 – So Far
* 2008 – C'est la vie (feat. Stephy Falk, Jay Sebag, Chakib Chambi, Lee Fields, C'est La Vie)
* 2011 – Smash

=== Singles und EPs ===
* 1996 – Satisfied
* 1998 – Break Da EP
* 1999 – Heart of Africa / Afro Deep
* 2000 – Destiny
* 2000 – Come with Me
* 2001 – Mr. President
* 2002 – Linda
* 2002 – Sur La Terre (DJ Tools Limited Edition)
* 2002 – Sur La Terre Remixes Part 1
* 2003 – Rocking Music
* 2003 – Madan (vs. Salif Keita)
* 2004 – I'm a Good Man
* 2004 – Sur La Terre EP
* 2005 – Everybody
* 2006 – Jealousy
* 2006 – Something Better
* 2006 – Magnum Megamix
* 2007 – Rejection
* 2007 – Cabo parano
* 2008 – C'est la vie
* 2008 – I Want You
* 2008 – One 23 Four
* 2009 – Boys & Girls
* 2010 – Hello

== Quellen ==
<references />

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.martinsolveig.com/ Offizielle Website]
* {{Allmusic|ID=p468123|Linktext=Martin Solveig}}
* [http://www.discogs.com/artist/Martin+Solveig Martin Solveig] bei [[Discogs]] (englisch)

{{SORTIERUNG:Solveig, Martin}}
[[Kategorie:Musikproduzent]]
[[Kategorie:House-Interpret]]
[[Kategorie:Träger des Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Ritter)]]
[[Kategorie:Franzose]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1976]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Solveig, Martin
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Picandet, Martin (wirklicher Name)
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=französischer House-Produzent und House-DJ
|GEBURTSDATUM=22. September 1976
|GEBURTSORT=[[Paris]], Frankreich
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[da:Martin Solveig]]
[[en:Martin Solveig]]
[[es:Martin Solveig]]
[[fr:Martin Solveig]]
[[it:Martin Solveig]]
[[nl:Martin Solveig]]
[[pl:Martin Solveig]]
[[pt:Martin Solveig]]
[[ro:Martin Solveig]]
[[tr:Martin Solveig]]