Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Cola-Mentos-Fontäne

2007-09-16T01:13:22Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 24.113.165.74 (talk) to last version by Dhaluza

[[Image:Diet Coke Mentos.jpg|thumb|right|A handful of [[Mentos]] in a two liter [[Diet Coke]] bottle produces an eruption.]]
A '''Diet Coke and Mentos eruption''' (also known as a '''Mentos eruption, soda geyser''' or just '''Diet Coke and Mentos''') is a reaction between [[Mentos]] candy and [[cola]]. The experiment involves dropping several Mentos candies (usually 5–8) into a bottle of [[diet cola]], (note: normal cola can still be used), resulting in an eruption occurring because of rapidly expanding [[carbon dioxide]] bubbles on the surface of the Mentos. Producing the reaction has become a popular science experiment and an [[Internet meme]], with videos of Mentos eruptions and even Mentos performance art pieces being posted on sites like [[Google Video]] and [[YouTube]].
==History==
{{Contradict-other|Mentos}}
There are conflicting claims about who originated or popularized the Diet Coke-and-Mentos phenomenon, with various sources, including the television show [[MythBusters]] and an appearance by cast member [[Kari Byron]] in [[FHM]] magazine, an appearance on the [[Late Night With David Letterman]] by student Lee Marek, and others. [[MythBusters]] later created what is believed to be the biggest soda geyser recorded, at over 29 feet (9 meters), using a nozzle.


The experiment was popularized by the website Eepybird.com, which promoted a video in which two men re-created the fountain display seen in front of the [[Bellagio (hotel and casino)|Bellagio]] in Las Vegas, NV using a timed series of Mentos geysers. Later Eepybird videos featured "self-actuating" Mentos geysers linked together to form a [[Domino Rally]]-style effect. In September 2007, the videos earned the pair the highest annual payout of [[US$]]50000 from the [[video hosting service]] [[Revver]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.usatoday.com/tech/webguide/internetlife/2007-09-13-revver_N.htm | title = Posters reap cash rewards at video-sharing site Revver | accessdate = 2007-09-13 | date = 2007-09-12 | author = Graham, Jefferson | work =USA Today | quote = The biggest paycheck — $50,000 for 15 clips — went to two guys from Maine who inserted a Mentos mint into a bottle of Diet Coke (KO) and watched it explode.}}</ref>

The World Record for simultaneous Mentos Eruptions was set on [[July 10]], [[2007]] at [[Circle R Ranch]] in [[Flower Mound, Texas]] during a special event. [[Guinness World Records]] certified the record-setting effort, when 850 independent sales representatives from Books Are Fun simultaneously dropped Mentos into 850 two-liter bottles of Diet Pepsi. The new world Record – 791 Mentos Eruptions – beat the former record set on May 24, 2007 in Cincinnati, Ohio when 504 Mentos-and-Coke geysers were set off.

A new world record attempt will be held by Mentos on [[September 15]], [[2007]] in [[Breda]], [[The Netherlands]].

== Explanation==
[[Image:Image-Mentos-Diet Coke-Geyser2.jpg|thumb|right|185px|The geyser produced can be several yards high.]]
While there are various theories being debated as to the exact scientific explanation of the phenomenon, many scientists claim that it is a physical reaction and not a chemical one<ref name=senese>{{cite web | author =[[Fred Senese|Senese, Fred]] | url = http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/consumer/faq/mentos.shtml | title = Why do Mentos mints foam when you drop them into soda pop?, ''General Chemistry Online'', Frostburg State University | accessdate = 2007-04-24 }}</ref>. Water molecules strongly attract each other, linking together to form a tight connection around each bubble of carbon dioxide gas in the soda. To form a new bubble, water molecules must push away from one another. It takes extra energy to break this [[surface tension]]. So, in other words, water resists the expansion of bubbles in the soda.

When Mentos are dropped into soda, the [[gellan gum]] and [[gum arabic]] of the candy dissolves and breaks the surface tension. This disturbs the water connection, so that it takes less work to expand and form new bubbles. Each Mentos candy has thousands of tiny pores all over its surface. These tiny pores function as [[nucleation]] sites, perfect places for carbon dioxide bubbles to form. As soon as the Mentos enter the soda, bubbles form all over their surface. They quickly sink to the bottom, causing carbon dioxide to be released by the carbonated liquid with which they come into contact along the way. The sudden increase in pressure pushes all of the liquid up and out of the bottle.

The reaction was the subject of an [[August 9]], [[2006]] episode of ''[[MythBusters]]'', a television program on the [[Discovery Channel]]<ref>http://www.tv.com/mythbusters/diet-coke-and-mentos/episode/822481/summary.html</ref>. They concluded that the [[caffeine]], [[potassium benzoate]], [[aspartame]], and CO<sub>2</sub> gas contained in the Diet Coke and the [[gelatin]] and [[gum arabic]] ingredients of the Mentos all contribute to the geyser effect<ref name=OHare>{{cite news | first = Kate | last = O'Hare | url = http://www.zap2it.com/tv/news/zap-mythbustersmentos,0,4325641.story | title = The 'MythBusters' Take on the Mentos/Diet Coke Craze | accessdate = 2007-01-21 }}</ref>. In addition, the MythBusters theorized that the physical structure of the Mentos is the most significant cause of the eruption. When flavored Mentos with a smooth waxy coating were tested in [[carbonated water]], no reaction occurred, whereas standard Mentos added to carbonated water formed a small geyser, by their claim, affirming the [[nucleation]]-site theory. Of course a wax coating would render just about anything inert in this experiment; wax-coated sodium would have given the same reaction. This was further supported when [[rock salt]] was used as an effective substitute for Mentos<ref name=OHare>{{cite news | first = Kate | last = O'Hare | url = http://www.zap2it.com/tv/news/zap-mythbustersmentos,0,4325641.story | title = The 'MythBusters' Take on the Mentos/Diet Coke Craze | accessdate = 2007-01-21 }}</ref>. The experiment was also repeated in an episode from [[List_of_Numb3rs_episodes#Season_2:_2005-2006|Numb3rs]]<ref>http://www.corigin.com/2007/08/09/math_mentos_learning_learn_from/</ref>.

== Variations ==
The experiment can be done in reverse, forming a '''Mentos rocket'''. Typically a two liter bottle is used, with the cap replaced after dropping several Mentos in. The bottle is then shaken up and thrown on the ground, cap-down. If the bottle hits the ground hard enough to let the pressure break the cap off, the bottle will launch like a rocket anywhere from 1½ m to 30 m in the air. Alternatively, the mentos can be taped or smashed onto the underside of the cap, which can then be screwed back on without the Mentos touching the Diet Coke. Another alternative is inserting the Mentos packet (with the wrapping still on) and then shaking the bottle. This gives the person time to shake the bottle before it explodes as the paper wrapping serves as a barrier.

Anyone attempting to put the cap back on to a bottle after the Mentos has been added should be very careful. The amount of pressure created by this reaction is enough to rupture the sides of the bottle, creating an explosion rather than an eruption or rocket (See [[dry ice bomb]]).

One way to improve height of a Mentos reaction with Diet Coke is by freezing the Mentos. [[Gum arabic]], like water, expands when it freezes, which allows the reaction to happen at a quicker rate, because the Mentos become more porous. However when attempting to create a "Mentos rocket," freezing the Mentos proves counter-productive, as the reaction occurs too quickly to re-cap the bottle. Rock salt can also be used to produce a reaction of great height, because of the ions in the salt. A nozzle on the bottle is also effective for increasing the height of the reaction. When using Mentos, the Mint variety is the best choice, because they have a matte finish (better for reaction), whereas the finish on the fruit Mentos is a gloss finish.

== Urban legends ==
In November, 2006, the [[Urban Legends Reference Pages]] examined the rumors of people dying from eating Mentos and drinking cola. Their research found that while eating Mentos and drinking cola can result in people regurgitating the foamy result (as evidenced by numerous online videos), no actual news accounts exist of anyone dying from it. However, eating Mentos and drinking Diet Cola in a short timeframe is not an advisable course of action.
This theory has also been tested on the Discovery series Mythbusters. They used a human analogue consisting of a pigs stomach with tubing that allowed for the insertion of the coke and mentos. The resulting expansion, however was not enough to rupture the stomach.
<ref name = "Snopes">[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/mentos.asp Urban Legends Reference Pages: Mentos and Coke Death]</ref>

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Dry ice bomb]]
*[[Chlorine bomb]]
*[[Nucleation]]

==Further reading==
* [http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/HS/Journal/Issues/2006/Apr/clicSubscriber/V83N04/p577.pdf John E. Baur, Melinda B. Baur, The Ultrasonic Soda Fountain: A Dramatic Demonstration of Gas Solubility in Aqueous Solutions, Journal of Chemical Education, vol 83 no 4, April 2006, pp577–580]

== External links ==
*[http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=mentos+diet+coke&search=Search Various Videos of the "Mentos Eruption"] at [[YouTube]]
*[http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistryhowtoguide/ht/mentos.htm About.com Chemistry page with instructions]
*[http://www.eepybird.com/ Eepybird, official site]
*[http://cocamentos.free.fr/ Cocamentos, official european site, soon available in english]
*[http://www.cokerocketbros.com Coke Rocket Bros] videos of experiments with Coke and Mentos

*[http://www.flickr.com/groups/mentos/ Planet Mentos - Mentos eruption pics on flickr]
*[http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/consumer/faq/mentos.shtml Mentos Reaction Explained]

[[Category:Chemistry experiments]]
[[Category:Internet memes]]
[[Category:YouTube videos]]
[[Category:Viral videos]]

[[da:Mentos udbrud]]
[[fr:Effet coca-mentos]]
[[he:התפרצות כתוצאה מהתגרענות]]

Tata Sumo

2007-07-03T07:58:42Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 125.17.25.8 (talk) to last version by Versageek

'''Tata Sumo''' is a multi-utility car released by [[Tata Motors]] of [[India]] in [[1994]].
[[Image:MHV Tata Sumo 02.jpg|thumb|The 1st generation Sumo was released in 1994.]]

It quickly made a name for itself in a market which had never seen anything modern than the [[Mahindra]] vehicles. The Tata Sumo can rightfully claim to have created the utility vehicle segment in India. The Sumo currently competes against the Chevrolet Tavera, Toyota Innova, Mahindra Bolero, [[Mahindra Scorpio]]. The Sumo was facelifted extensively in [[2004]] and renamed as the '''''Sumo Victa''''' in face of competition from relatively modern competitors.

The Victa features an excellent set of features like [[Power Windows]], [[Power Steering]], tubeless radial tyres, twin AC, central locking, clear lens multi reflector head lamps, crystal finish tail lamp cluster, anti glare ORVMS with electronic control, remote keyless entry, tachometers, LCD monitors, voice warnings, multi trip odometers to name a few. It is powered by a 2.0L Turbo charged Diesel engine with intercooler, which is sufficient enough to outperform it's competitors.

The 1st version model of Sumo is still sold as low cost option with little modifications. This one is badged as Tata Spacio. It is powered by a 3.0L [[Direct Injection]] (DI) Diesel engine. This Power plant is not very refined & creates a bit of vibrations. However, it is extremely fuel efficient as all other Tata engines. It is not also as powerful as the 2.0l turbo charged one with the Victa. Most of the features of the Victa above are non existent with the Spacio.

This model comes in 8 & 10 seater variants and is very much popular with private transporters & contract taxi vendors because of it's lower cost.

==External links==

* [http://uv.tatamotors.com/newuv/sumo/index.asp Tata Sumo official website]

{{Modern-auto-stub}}

[[Category:Tata vehicles|Sumo]]
[[Category:Indian automobiles]]

[[pt:Tata Sumo]]

Brandon Flowers

2007-03-26T09:44:22Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 87.38.53.2 (talk) to last version by Mufffin man

{{Infobox musical artist 
| Name = Brandon Flowers
| Img = Brandon-Flowers-The-Killers.jpg
| Img_size =
| Img_capt =
| Landscape =
| Background = solo_singer
| Birth_name = Brandon Richard Flowers
| Alias =
| Born = {{birth date and age|1981|21|6}}
| Origin = {{flagicon|United States}} [[Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]]
| Instrument = [[electronic keyboard|Keyboard]]<br>[[Vocals]]<br>[[Bass Guitar|Bass]]
| Genre = [[Synth rock]]<br>[[Indie rock]]
| Occupation = Musician
| Years_active = 2001-present
| Label =
| Associated_acts = [[The Killers (band)|The Killers]]
| URL =
| Current_members =
| Past_members =
| Notable_instruments =
}}

'''Brandon Flowers''' (born [[June 21]], [[1981]]) is the [[vocalist]] and [[keyboardist]] in the [[United States|American]] [[synth rock]] band [[The Killers (band)|The Killers]].

==Biography==

Flowers was born on [[June 21]], [[1981]] in [[Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]] to parents of partial [[Scotland|Scottish]] and [[Lithuania|Lithuanian]] ancestry<ref name=Interview> Interview [http://community.livejournal.com/_killmenow_/71160.html Interview]</ref> and later raised in [[Nephi, Utah]]. Brandon's father worked in [[Las Vegas]] casinos as a [[bellman]] and also as a [[grocer]]. His mother was a [[homemaker]]. He attributes his fashion sense to his doting sisters.<ref name=Genre>Timmermans, Arjan (2005). His parents made him take piano lessons, but the person responsible for Brandon's musical education was his older brother Shane, who showed him [[The Smiths]] videos and [[U2]] ''[[Rattle and Hum]]'' movie. He mentions his older brother quite often when asked about his taste in music or things related to that.[http://www.genremagazine.com/2005/6-1/magazine/content/str8dude.cfm "Arranging Flowers"] Genre ''Magazine''</ref>

On August 2, 2005, Brandon married longtime girlfriend Tana Munblowsky in a private ceremony in [[Hawaii]].<ref name=vh1>VH1 (2005)[http://www.vh1.com/news/articles/1507029/20050805/killers_the.jhtml "Killers Singer Brandon Flowers Marries Longtime Girlfriend"] VH1.com (accessed Oct. 14, 2006)</ref> Flowers met his future wife at the [[Las Vegas]] [[Urban Outfitters]] where she worked before The Killers achieved any major success. The two dated for approximately four years before she converted to [[Mormonism]] and the two married.

==Controversies==
Although an active [[Mormon]] himself, in the past Flowers has smoked cigarettes and still drinks alcohol, behavior prohibited by the LDS church's [[Word of Wisdom|health code]]. However, he has said that he belongs to a "very tolerant gathering."<ref name=arjan>Arjan (2005)[http://www.arjanwrites.com/arjanwrites/2005/06/interview_with_.html "Interview with Brandon Flowers"] ''ArjanWrites.com'' (accessed April 12, 2006)</ref> In an August 2005 interview with [[Rolling Stone]], Flowers mentioned trying to cut back, and as of November 22, 2006, Brandon gave up smoking (SMOKERS ARE JOKERS) by using a chamomile concoction prescribed by a German doctor (Flowers says it's good for his voice).{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

The Killers, as a band, are known for suggestive homoerotic play between band members onstage, as well as for having started out playing gigs in drag clubs in Vegas. The lyrics to "Andy, You're a Star", "Where the White Boys Dance" and the hit-single "Somebody Told Me" contain a sexual ambiguity. Flowers is viewed by some as a famous example of [[metrosexual]]ity, as evidenced by his careful attention to fashion, grooming and even [[makeup]].<ref name=Genre /> In response to such speculation, Flowers said that "Andy, You're a Star" was "free for people to interpret as their own," in a ''Genre'' 2005 interview. This contradicts an earlier statement made in a ''QLas Vegas'' interview during 2004, wherein he claimed it was about a crush he himself had formed on a male athlete while attending high school.<ref>QVegas August 2004</ref> When asked about the male athlete in high school, he responded that he is "very aware of [his] sexuality" and that he does like women.<ref>''Heather Adler'', [[October 12]]-[[2006]], [http://www.dose.ca/music/story.html?id=3b429c1c-99e0-4343-8a75-2ae52a589124&k=18829 Killers frontman Brandon Flowers tells Dose.ca he does like girls, doesn't like Rolling Stone]</ref>Flowers has also stated that some confusion over his sexual identity is "not a bad thing,"<ref name=Genre /> but did say "I'm not gay".<ref name=Q>(2004). [http://www.mrbrightside.com/forum/viewtopic.php?p=2254 "Lethal Weapon"] ''Q Magazine'' (accessed January 1, 2006)</ref>

Flowers is known for creating feuds between ''The Killers'' and other bands, such as [[The Bravery]], [[Fall Out Boy]], and [[Panic! at the Disco]], most notably suggesting that [[emo (music)|emo]] music was 'dangerous.' In July of 2006, however, he apologized to the bands in an interview to [[AOL Music]], saying "I'd like to take it all back. These people are just doing what they want to do, just like I am...I'm actually a nice person and I love people. I just am opinionated, and sometimes jealous. It's not something I'm proud of." Frontmen Sam Endicott (of [[The Bravery]]) and Pete Wentz (of [[Fall Out Boy]]) reportedly received, and accepted, telephone apologies prior to the article's publication. With regard to the criticisms levelled at [[Panic! at the Disco]], Flowers said "I don't even know what their music's like, or if I would even like it...That made me feel even worse, to think they could have been fans of ours and I hurt their feelings. That's just stupid."<ref>http://www.aolmusicnewsblog.com/2006/07/25/killers-bury-the-hatchet-with-panic-fall-out-boy?ncid=AOLMUS00050000000034</ref><ref>http://www.buzznet.com/tags/brandon%20flowers/journals/57640</ref>Flowers has also criticized [[Green Day]] for what he sees as their calculated [[anti-Americanism]]. Specifically, Flowers found a video of Green Day performing the song '[[American Idiot (song)|American Idiot]]' in the [[UK]] distasteful. The taping of the concert, featured on ''[[Bullet In A Bible]]'', shows thousands of [[Europe]]ans singing along to 'American Idiot.' He said, "I just thought it was really cheap. To go to a place like [[England]] or [[Germany]] and sing that song - those kids aren't taking it the same way that he meant it.

== Trivia ==
*He won [[NME Awards|NME magazine awards]] in 2005 for "Best Dressed" and "Sexiest Man."<ref name=sexy>(2005). [http://www.nme.com/awards/news/19257 "Shockwave NME Awards - The Winners] ''NME.com'' (accessed April 12, 2006)</ref>
*According to the Las Vegas Review-Journal, his parents have always supported his decision to become a rock singer, and were often the only people in the audience at the Killers' first performances in the band's early days.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
*[[The Cars]] are a major influence for him after he listened to an old album that belonged to his older brother.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
*Favorite song on the [[Hot Fuss]] album is "Jenny Was a Friend of Mine."{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
*His favorite classical musician is the composer [[Bach]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
*Enjoys eating [[Twinkies]] and drinking [[Coca Cola]]. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}
*Plays Bass guitar live in concerts for the song "For Reasons Unknown"

==External links==
{{wikiquotepar|Brandon Flowers}}
*[http://imdb.com/name/nm2063353/ Brandon Flowers] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
* {{nndb name|id=786/000108462|name=Brandon Flowers}}
*[http://www.andrewkendall.com/pages/gallery/musicphotography.php?band=thekillers&viewby=all&Submit=Go Photos by Andrew Kendall], freelance photographer for ''[[NME]]''
*[http://nn.byu.edu/story.cfm/57889 "Former BYU's student's brother is lead singer of the Killers"], interview by Erin Pierce and Dan Monson about Flowers visiting his brother at college, from ''[[The Daily Universe]]''
*[http://www.spin.com/features/magazine/2005/11/051118_flowers/ "The Music That Changed My Life: Brandon Flowers"], Interview by Kyle Anderson, from ''[[Spin (magazine)|Spin]]'' magazine''
* [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/magazine/story/0,,1877578,00.html Songs of Praise], Craig McLean talks to the Killers' singer about resisting temptation, from ''[[The Observer]]''
*[http://community.livejournal.com/ruflowers Rufus Wainwright/Brandon Flowers Fan Community]
*[http://www.thekillersmusic.com/ The Killers official site], from Island Records
*[http://www.thekillers.co.uk/ The Killers official site (U.K.)], from the Vertigo label
*[http://www.thekillersfansite.com/ The Killers fansite

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>
<br/>
{{The Killers}}

[[Category:1981 births|Flowers, Brandon]]
[[Category:American male singers|Flowers, Brandon]]
[[Category:American rock musicians|Flowers, Brandon]]
[[Category:American keyboardists|Flowers, Brandon]]
[[Category:People from Las Vegas|Flowers, Brandon]]
[[Category:Latter-day Saint musicians|Flowers, Brandon]]
[[Category:Living people|Flowers, Brandon]]
[[Category:Utah musicians|Flowers, Brandon]]
[[Category:The Killers|Flowers, Brandon]]
[[Category:Falsettos|Flowers, Brandon]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saints|Flowers, Brandon]]

[[es:Brandon Flowers]]
[[sv:Brandon Flowers]]

Banu Amin

2007-03-17T08:15:58Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 64.19.73.142 (talk) to last version by SmackBot

{{Unreferenced|date=December 2006}}

'''Hajiyeh Seyyedeh Nosrat Beygom Amin''' also '''Banoo Amin''' or '''Lady Amin''' ([[1886]]–[[1983]], in [[Persian language|Persian]]: بانو امين) was an [[Iran]]ian jurisprudent and theologian.

She wrote several books about Islamic sciences and established a university in [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] and named it Fatimah University.

[[Category:1886 births]]
[[Category:1983 deaths]]
[[Category:Iranian people]]
[[Category:Muslim theologians]]

{{Iran-bio-stub}}

Gangster Disciples

2007-03-17T08:13:59Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 24.1.213.25 (talk) to last version by 75.40.159.201

{{Cleanup|July 2006}}
{{Unreferenced|date=December 2006}}

The '''Gangster Disciples''' are a [[Chicago]]-based same gender [[street gang]] which has, over the years, grown into one of the largest criminal organizations in the [[United States]].

Originally formed on the South Side of Chicago, they now have an enormous presence in that city, and in other Midwestern cities such as [[Milwaukee]], [[Minneapolis]], and [[Gary, Indiana]]. They are by far the largest group that makes up the [[Folk Nation]] coalition of [[street gangs]], which includes the [[Black Disciples]], [[Maniac Latin Disciples]], [[Spanish Cobras]], [[Satan Disciples]] and a number smaller gangs. They also have a heavy presence in Southern cities such as [[Memphis]], [[Atlanta]], and [[Houston]].

Symbols used by the Gangster Disciples include a six-pointed star ([[Star of David]]) in remembrance of its co-founder 'King' [[David Barksdale]] (there is no connection to the [[Jewish]] symbol apart from the name of King [[David]]), a three-pointed pitchfork (pointed upward like the letter [[Psi (letter)|psi]], to display it upside-down is an insult), and a [[love heart]] with wings, horns, and a tail. The gang's colors are black and blue.

The Gangster Disciples are known to be involved in about $100 million a year of [[drug trafficking]].

Their main rivals are the [[Vice Lords]] and [[Black P Stones]] and in [[Memphis]] they are rivals with [[Blood]] gangs.
Their main allies are the Gangster Two Six who are also part of gangster nation as well as the Gangster Party People and the Gangster Stones and the [[Crips]] in Memphis.
Allies
*[[Gangster Two Six]]
==History==

[[Larry Hoover]] is the infamous leader of the Gangster Disciple Nation (abbreviated '''GDN'''), taking control of the gang in [[1974]]. Hoover was born in Jackson, Mississippi on [[November 30]], [[1950]]. He moved to Chicago with his family in [[1955]]. At the age of 13, Hoover joined a gang of 50 older youths called the ''Supreme Gangsters'' {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. They hung around the corner and 68th and Green Street in the [[Englewood, Chicago|Englewood]] neighborhood on the South Side of Chicago where Hoover lived. Hoover was kicked out of High School on the first day of his sophomore year after being shot in the thigh by a rival gang member in [[1965]] {{Fact|date=February 2007}}.

Eventually, Hoover became the leader of the Supreme Gangsters. In [[1967]] Hoover and his Supreme Gangsters overcame the King Cobras, who outnumbered the Supreme Gangsters, and Hoover caused most of the Cobras to become SGs {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Eventually Hoover was able to organize the '''Gangster Nation''', an alliance of sorts, which consisted of several different gangs in the Englewood neighborhood including The Supreme Gangsters (the father/main branch of the 'nation'), Imperial Gangsters, African Sniper Gangsters, Raven Gangsters, High Supreme Gangsters, Russian Gangsters, Maniac Gangsters, Mafia Gangsters, 75th Street Syndicate Gangsters, Outlaw Gangsters, 95th Street Supreme Gangsters, the Dells Gangsters, West Side Supreme Gangsters, Racketeer Gangsters, East Side Syndicate Gangsters, Gent-Town Gangsters, and the Black Pimp Gangsters of the West Side {{Fact|date=February 2007}}.

David Barksdale, another South Side-based gang leader, created the '''Disciple Nation''' consisting of his ''Devil's Disciples'' street gang (the main branch of the 'nation'), Falcon Disciples, Royal Disciples, Renegade Disciples, Executioner Disciples, Boss Pimp Disciples, East Side Disciples, Sircon Disciples, Motown Disciples of Detroit (which later expanded to Southern Michigan and became known as the South Monroe GD of Monroe, Michigan), and the Toledo GD of Toledo Ohio. Then came the Dutchtown Disciples, Gonzato Disciples, Six-Tray Disciples, Maniac Disciples and Four-Tray Disciples {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Also during this time, Barksdale controlled the Del Vikings, the Black Souls, and the West Side Cobras {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. In [[1963]] Barksdale changed the name of the Disciple Nation to the '''Black Disciples'''. The Black Disciples and the '''Gangster Nation''' were two separate alliances, basically similar to the present day [[Folk Nation]]. Before an individual gang could become a part of the Gangster Nation or Black Disciples, they had to alter their names a little {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. To be a part of the Disciple Nation a street gang had to adopt the last name of ''Disciple'' (there were exceptions like the Black Souls, West Side Cobras, and Del Vikings) {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Likewise, to be a part of the Gangster Nation, a gang that joined had to adopt the last name of ''Gangster'' {{Fact|date=February 2007}}.

During the late [[1960s]] the Gangster Nation was growing but still behind the development of the Black Disciples and the [[Black P. Stones|Blackstone Rangers]]. However, Barksdale and Hoover had a powerful alliance. [[Jeff Fort]], who was the leader of the Blackstone Rangers at that time, invited Larry Hoover the absorb his Gangster Nation into the Blackstones and offered Hoover the position as an ambassador, which was a much lesser position than Hoover's present position as the leader {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Fort offered to rename the Gangster Nation to the ''Gangster Stones''. Hoover declined this offer. Instead, Hoover and Barksdale combined forces and created the ''Black Gangster Disciple Nation'' in [[1969]] {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. The Black Gangster Disciple Nation (BGDN) at that time was an alliance and '''not''' a gang. The Black Disciples were separate, and the Gangs that joined the Black Disciple Alliance had their independence, similar to the Supreme Gangsters and the gangs that joined the Gangster Nation in the 60s. The BGDN was essentially one entity because the president, David Barksdale, and the vice president, Larry Hoover, worked together constantly as one "nation".

Right before the BGDN was formed there was the BGD which was the Black Gangsters Disciples which Larry Hoover started. He changed the name of the Gangster Nation to the Black Gangster Disciples and soon expanded greatly throughout the South Side shortly after. During this time right before the merger in [[1969]], the BGDs and the BDS were at war. So Barksdale and Hoover became enemies in the late 1960s. Then when the BGDN was formed the wars ended and they instead combined forces in an attempt to eliminate the Blackstone Rangers. However, their ultimate goal was to form a coalition that would dominate the illegal [[narcotics|drug]] trade. Soon gang members were either [[drug addiction|using drugs]], or profiting from the [[drug trafficing|selling]] of drugs. These illegal activities caused a great degree of social (and financial) instability in the communities effected by the influx of gangs and drugs. Eventually the BGDN was engrossed in the drug trade. More tragedy would soon befall the BGDN in the early 70s. In [[1973]] Larry Hoover was sentenced to a life sentence on [[November 5]], [[1973]] for murdering a drug addict. Joshua Shaw was the witness to testify against Hoover who claimed he saw Hoover and Andrew Howard kidnap William Young from 69th and Wentworth, Later Young was found shot dead in an alley way at 6814 S. Lowe on [[February 26th]], [[1973]]. Young was said to have stolen drugs from the BGDN's drug supply because Young was an addict. Howard and Hoover were given 150-200 year sentences each. Then in 1974 David Barksdale died of Kidney failure that was caused by complications from a gunshot wound that Barksdale got in [[1969]]. Afterward a new president needed to be appointed and it was to be between Hoover or Jerome Shorty Freeman. It was decided that Hoover should be the new President. Two years later in [[1976]], Freeman disbanded from the BGDN to make the Black Disciples a separate organization.

It was very frustrating for law enforcement when the saw how the BGDs were still functioning full force and making massive profits on the streets and still growing in numbers even with King Barksdale dead and King Hoover in prison (King the title given to the two because they were essentially kings of the street). Hoover's power was shown even more when he did two major things in [[1978]]. One thing he did was he ordered an inmate riot at Pontiac prison in Illinois. The riot resulted in three dead correctional officers. There was no disciplinary action because all of his GDs refused to testify. The second great showing of power was when Hoover created the Folk Nation. At this point in time the BGDN was one street gang and not an alliance like it was in the 60s; therefore, Hoover wanted to create a new alliance that would unify several street gangs. Because of their past relations with the BGDs the Black Disciples joined Folk so did the newly formed Black Gangsters that were a break away gang that used to be part of the BGD prior to [[1978]]. The Satan Disciples joined Folk because they were related to the Black Disciples. The Latin Disciples joined because they formed an alliance with the BGDs earlier in the 70s. Then all the gangs that were in the U.L.O (United Latino Organization) with the Latin Disciples joined Folks: Imperial Gangsters, Latin Eagles, and Spanish Cobras. The Spanish Cobras good friends the Orchestra Albanies joined Folks that year because Cobras did. Hoover then offered Simon City Royals a good business proposition if the Royals joined Folks; therefore the Royals joined Folks and they got their closest allies the North Side Insane Popes to join Folks too. Two Six also joined Folks that year. Hoover had absorbed some of Chicago's biggest and fastest growing gangs. In the early [[1980s]], the Folk nation expanded and took in several other gangs. By this time the BGDs had opened up sets on the North Side of Chicago they even opened up a Latino faction known as the Spanish Gangsters Disciples. Throughout the [[1980s]] Hoover held together the Folk nation while incarcerated behind prison walls as the BGDN recruited more and more members and opened up more and more sets all around Chicago and into the suburbs.

In [[1991]] the BGDs and the BDs started shooting at each other which started an interalliance war. This war set a bad example for all gangs under the Folk nation and several interalliance wars broke out within the Folk Nation. Also the BGDs went to war with the Black Gangsters too which caused the Black Gangsters to sever all ties and even leave the Folk alliance. During the month of August in the year [[1991]] when the BGDs and BDs went to war, the BGDs were so angry with the Black Disciples that they dropped the letter B from their initials which mean they were no longer known as the Black Gangsters Disciples but now known as the Gangsters Disciples or GD or GDN. Also in the early [[1990s]] the GDs became the largest street gang in Chicago. The power of the gangsters Disciples was so great that they were bringing in millions of dollars from drug profits alone. In [[1993]] their was a GD picnic held in Kankakee, Illinois that about 10,000 GDs attended to hear Larry Hoover speak over a phone from prison. This event was a political based event. Hoover created the concept of Growth and Development in [[1993]] which stated that the GD's were no longer involved in criminal activities. In 1995 operation Headache was launched that took down 39 high ranking GDs. The goal was to hurt GD leadership and cripple the gang's operations. One result of Headache was that Hoover now had to serve a life sentence and he was moved to a more secure prison. 263 informants along with bugging of visitor's badges were enough to convict Hoover and the other leaders. [[Jeff Springer]] and [[Justin Bowsher]] are considered the leaders of all CHICAGO Gangster Disciples. The East side of Youngstown and Springfield,Ohio is now growing in various numbers of GD's.It is also known that brother of [[Jeff Springer]],[[Chad M Conley]] born in Springfield
CHICAGO in [[1990]] is a deadly Gangster Disciple and will be the new leader of the C.G.D CHICAGO Gangster Disciples when Jeff Springer dies.CHICAGO Gangster Disciples are known to be very deadly
if you know of any [[Ohio Gangster Disciples]] please contact the [[local police]].And dont let them know that you did or you may be harmed.

*[http://www.chicagogangs.org//index.php?pr=GDN&nosessionkill=1 Gangster Disciple Information and Pictures]
*[http://chicagogangs.org/index.php?pr=TATTOOS_GDk Gangster Disciples Tattoos

==See also==
[[US gang graffiti in Iraq]]

Ken Abraham is way cool

==External Resources==
* [http://markgribben.com/?p=231 Well-organized and Extremely Violent] from The Malefactor's Register
* [http://markgribben.com/?p=143 The Disciples] from The Malefactor's Register
* [http://www.da-blocc.com/forum/viewforum.php?f=8 Gangster Disciple Forum] - contains information on the folk nation and gansgter disciples

[[Category:Gangster Disciples| ]]
[[Category:Modern street gangs]]

Smithsonian Institution Building

2007-02-14T06:21:37Z

Raven4x4x: replaced :Image:Smithsonian Building.jpg with :Image:Smithsonian Building NR.jpg - edited version with reduced noise

:''For similar uses and terms, see [[Smithsonian (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Smithsonian Building NR.jpg|thumb|180px|"The Castle"]]
[[Image:Smithsonian Castle Closeup.jpg|thumb|180px|The Castle entrance]]
The '''Smithsonian Institution Building''', located on the [[National Mall]] in [[Washington, DC]], houses the [[Smithsonian Institution]]'s administrative offices and information center. The Building is constructed of red [[sandstone]] in the Norman style (a 12th-century combination of late [[Romanesque]] and early [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] motifs) and is appropriately nicknamed '''The Castle'''.

It was the first Smithsonian building, completed in [[1855]] by architect [[James Renwick, Jr.]], whose other works include [[St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York|St. Patrick's Cathedral]] in [[New York City]] and the Smithsonian’s [[Renwick Gallery]] in DC. Over the years several reconstructions have taken place. The first followed a disastrous fire on [[January 24]], [[1865]], which destroyed the upper story of the main segment and the north and south towers. In [[1884]], the east wing was fireproofed and enlarged to accommodate more offices. Remodeling from 1968 to 1969 restored the building to the Victorian atmosphere reminiscent of the era during which it was first inhabited.

This building served as a home for the first Secretary of the Smithsonian [[Joseph Henry]] and his family and for many years housed all aspects of Smithsonian operations, including an exhibit hall from 1858 until the 1960s. In 1901, Washington’s first children’s room was installed in the Castle’s South Tower Room where the original decorated ceiling and wall stencils were restored in 1987. Located inside near the north entrance is the crypt of [[James Smithson]], benefactor of the Institution, while outside on the [[The Mall (Washington, DC)|Mall]], a bronze statue of Joseph Henry, executed by [[William Wetmore Story]], honors the scientist who was the Institution’s first Secretary. In [[1996]], as the Smithsonian celebrated its 150th anniversary, a [[Church bell|bell]] was added. Although Renwick had intended for a bell in his original plan, there was not enough money to add it to the Castle. It now chimes hourly.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Smithsonian_castle.jpg|The Castle
Image:Smithsonian_castle_front.jpg|The Castle viewed from the Mall
Image:The Smithsonian Dude.jpg|A statue of [[Joseph Henry]], the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, is displayed in front of the Castle
Image:Taxidermied_Snow_leopard.jpg|A [[taxidermy|taxidermied]] [[Snow Leopard]] is exhibited inside the building
</gallery>

==External link==
{{commons}}
* [http://www.si.edu/visit/infocenter/sicastle.htm Smithsonian Institution Building official site]

[[Category:National Historic Landmarks of the United States]]
[[Category:National Mall]]
[[Category:Registered Historic Places in the District of Columbia]]
[[Category:Smithsonian Institution]]

[[he:בניין הסמית'וניאן]]
[[ja:スミソニアン協会本部]]

Schwarze

2006-10-06T01:08:32Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 24.60.115.25 (talk) to last version by Gottoupload

{{OriginalResearch}}
[[Black]] is racial, ethnic, and social classification that has been applied in different ways.

[[Image:Blackafricans.jpg|thumbnail|800px|right|Black people in Africa]]

==Definitions==
[[Image:Blackmodel.jpg|thumbnail|800px|right|Black woman model]]

*The U.S. census say a Black is “ '''a person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro,"or provide written entries such as African American, Afro American, Kenyan, Nigerian, or Haitian.'''<ref>[[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_309540.htm]]</ref>"

*Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary defines the term ‘black’ with regard to race as follows: '''a person belonging to a dark-skinned race or one stemming in part from such a race; esp. Negro<ref>[[http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:lDEuCwny0QIJ:www.codesria.org/Links/Publications/bulletin1_04/keita.pdf+%2BBlack%2Bwebster%2BNegro%2Bequivalent+sets&hl=en&gl=ca&ct=clnk&cd=1]]</ref>'''.

*[[Dictionary.com]] and [[thefreedictionary.com]] defines "Black person" as '''a person with dark skin who comes from Africa (or whose ancestors came from Africa) [syn: Black, Black person, blackamoor, Negro, Negroid]<ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Black%20person]]</ref><ref>[[http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Black+person]]</ref>'''

*Negroid is defined by [[Michael Levin]] in the following way: '''So, letting 25 years mark a single generation, a Negroid may be defined as anyone whose ancestors 40 to 4400 generations removed were born in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>[[http://www.vanguardnewsnetwork.com/letters/letters142.htm]]</ref>''' He also adds '''If blacks, whites, and Asians evolved separately over (say) the last million years, a Negroid is anyone (75% or more of) whose ancestors 40 or more generations removed, with no upper bound, were born in Africa.<ref>[[http://www.vanguardnewsnetwork.com/letters/letters142.htm]]</ref>'''

*Sally Satel of the [[Policy Review]] stated “The entities we call ‘racial groups’ essentially represent individuals united by a common descent — a huge extended family, as evolutionary biologists like to say. '''Blacks, for example, are a racial group defined by their possessing some degree of recent African ancestry (recent because, after all, everyone of us is out of Africa, the origin of Homo sapiens)'''."<ref>[[http://www.policyreview.org/DEC01/satel.html]]</ref>.

*Page 42 of the abridged version of "Race, Evolution, and Behavior" states: '''In both everyday life and evolutionary biology, a "Black" is anyone most of whose ancestors were born in sub-Saharan Africa<ref>[[http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/JP_Rushton/Race.htm]]</ref>'''.

==History==
===Pre-colonial===

The earliest mention of people described as black can be found in [[Ancient Egypt]]ian writing and [[Bible]]. Biblical references of the dark-skinned people in [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]] and parts of [[Arabia]] known as [[Nehesi]] and [[Kush]]ites. Nehesi referred ambigiously to people whose skin was dark, and implied strongly the people from Nubia. The Egyptian word ''Ksh'' meant ''black-skinned'' and carried the same meaning over to the [[Hebrew]] word ''Cush''. The term ''Khmt'', which they also called themselves, is generally agreed to mean ''(people of the) black land'' and/or ''black people'', the latter interpretation supported by the accounts of [[Herodotus]], who compared the Egyptians, [[Colchins]] and Ethiopians to ''blacks'' or ''Aethiops''. The Greeks used the name ''Aethiop'', meaning ''dark-skinned person'', or the peoples of Africa, generally (and, to a lesser degree, people elsewhere, in Asia). In all cases, the words were applied to various peoples, ethnic origins and skin color. [http://www.abarim-publications.com/Arie/Names/Cush.html] Although the word ''Kush'' itself originally may have referred to particular ethnic groups or empires in the Sudan, throughout antiquity in the [[Near East]], this word became the most commonly used word (as ''black'' is today in the [[English language|English]]-speaking world) to describe African peoples with dark complexions. [http://wings.buffalo.edu/dunjeehouston/history/cush.htm]. In Ancient India, the [[Sanskrit]] name of [[Krishna]] literally meant ''black'' or ''dark-skinned person''. Throughout India, other references to black people in the [[Rig Veda]] scriptures indicate their presence in that region.

Throughout the 9th - 14th century, Islamic colonization of East Africa and slave trading along the "[[Zanj]]" (Zanzibar, Ethioipia, Somalia, Mozambique, Zambia) coast facilitated more of a black presence in Asia, and eventually the word [[abd]] became a word synonymous with black person. Trading between the people of Africa, Madagascar, and Indonesia gave rise to various similarities between the Madagascay peoples and some Indonesian groups, especially from Borneo. These interactions give a historical glimpse of the possible Equatorial relationships between black Africans, blacks in Asia, and possibly Australia. Research on this topic is nascent and has yet to show a verifable pattern despite strong signs (ex. linguistic similarities between Indonesians and Madagascay peoples). It is possible that the trading across the indian Ocean may give a first hand perspective of black interactions outside the hegemony of European colonialism and Islamization.

===Colonial and modern era===
[[Image:Toussaint L'Ouverture.jpg|450x642, 198 KB|thumb|right|Toussaint L'Ouverture is considered the father of Haiti's independence.]]
At some point in Europe, the word negro was used. ''Negro''is derived from the Latin word ''nigris'', which means black in hue. In the colonial era, this concept of distinctively desribing dark skinned Africans was then applied in European discourse to multiple peoples around the world who subsequently would be called black as well. The Spanish word ''negro'' came to be a synonym for indigenous, black [[African]] peoples, Filipinos, Australian Aborigines, Sicilians, some Arabs and some people in the Indonesian archipelago. Eventually in the U.S. the term "negro" was adopted by whites as a more polite way of identifying a black African. After the 1960s this term became colloquial and offensive, and regarded as a hold over from a prejudiced and psychologically humiliating social period. <ref>F. James Davis, ''Who is Black? One Nations Definition'' (Penn State U., 1991), Let us not he confused by terminology. At present the usual statement of the one-drop rule is in terms of "black blood" or black ancestry, while not so long ago it referred to "Negro blood" or ancestry. The term "black" rapidly replaced "Negro" in general usage in the United States as the black power movement peaked at the end of the 1960s, but the black and Negro populations are the same. The term "black" is used in this book for persons with any black African lineage, not just for unmixed members of populations from sub-Saharan Africa. The term "Negro," which is used in certain historical contexts, means the same thing. Terms such as "African black," "unmixed Negro," and "all black" are used here to refer to unmixed blacks descended from African populations.</ref> '''Negro''' or '''Colored''' were once socially-acceptable terms, but are now considered archaic and offensive in English-speaking countries. "Black" was an offensive term, on the level of the perjorative term 'nigger', until the black power movement of the 1960's which strove to turn the negative meaning of black on its head, with the claim that 'black is beautiful.'

The [[English language|English]] word was spawned by the European colonization and conquest of non-Europeans. It solidified into popular culture during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] as one of the [[Color metaphors for race|four major categories]] into which European philosophers tried to organize the newly discovered human diversity. The categories were based upon skin tone as perceived by Europeans of the time: Red ([[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]), Yellow ([[East Asians]]), White ([[Europeans]]), and Black ([[Africans]]). Today, the term's usage differs slightly among former European colonies. [[Latin Americans]], former members of the [[British Empire]], and [[United States|Americans]] (USA) all use the term differently.

*Descent from indigenous Africans (again, excluding Maghreb Berbers)
*Phenotype and hair texture related to or derived from West African groups
*Skin color
*Self identification with the black identity and/or African culture.

Any combination of these four ways may comprise a black identity. Although the different peoples may or may not be related historically, socially they share certain similarities that are recently coming to light due to ease in accessing information. For example, with the internet, people in various parts of the world can speak directly to one another and learn of the Black presence in their region.
[[Image:NSRW Africa Fulah Girl.png|thumb|left|100px|Fulah Girl of Africa circa 1914]]

==African diaspora==

{{Main|African diaspora}}
The African diaspora is the diaspora created by the movements and culture of Africans and their descendants throughout the world, to places such as the Americas, (including the United States, Canada, the Caribbean, Central America, and South America) Europe and Asia. Much of the African diaspora is descended from people kidnapped during the transatlantic slave trade.

==Other dark-skined people==
{{unreferenced}}
In various parts of the world, there are people who are not culturally or historically related to Africans, or whose relationship predates the historical period. These groups have historically been described as black in their societies, despite not having a historical or continual relationship with Africans. They are distinct from the greater populations in their regions and serve as social and historical parallels to people most commonly recognized as Black. In most cases these groups appear to be similar in appearance to Equatorial Africans, or Africans mixed with the fair-complexioned people of the region. None of these groups however are officically recognized as Black by any census.

[[Image:Saint Maurice Magdeburg.jpg|thumb|left|[[Saint Maurice]] 3rd. Century [[martyr]], sculpture from ca. 1250 in the cathedrale of [[Magdeburg]] Germany]]

Some groups have embraced a black self-designation despite their lack of modern African ancestry. Due to their physical appearance which generally relates to their ability to be perceived (mistakenly) as Equatorial Africans, and their social and ethnic distinction in their home countries, they are considered legitimately black to some degree, although many other African descendants may have their reservations. Due to the gains of the [[U.S. Civil Rights Movement]] of 1955-1975 some oppressed and marginalized populations around the world, even without African ancestry, have chosen to label themselves as "black." This is disputed by those who equate "blackness" only with equatorial African (sub-Saharan) ancestry and argue that non-Africans cannot be legitimately black.

[[Image:aeta07.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Aeta Filipino]]
'''Negrito''' — The ''[[Negrito]]'' from the [[Philippines]] are, more or less, known as black by Filipino Anglophones, due to there [[Semang]] and [[Veddoid]] ancestry. Like the term Negrito, the term ''Aeta'' [http://www.alibata.org/tribes/tribes.html] was an imposed term, the result of later migrations. Two major branches apparently made their appearance in the archipelago 30,000 to 20,000 years ago, one traveling up the eastern flank of the islands to the Pacific side of the [[Sierra Madre]] and comprising the Alta, Arta and Agta groups; the second branch appears to have moved up the western side, ending up in northern [[Luzon]]. This branch includes the Sambal, Dumagat, Ata, Ati, Atta, Sinauna and Batak. Another ended up in Mindanao (Mamanwa). At least 25 Negrito ethnic groups are known, many sharing variations of same name. Aeta, Ta, Ata, Atta, Agta, etc., are thought to come from the general [[Tagalog]] word, ''itim'', meaning ''black''). Many find this term offensive because it ignores tribal identifications. Nevertheless, despite their closer genetic affinities with certain Asian populations, Negritos are virtually indistingiushable phenotypically from continental Africans.

'''Australian Aborigines''' — '''[[Indigenous Australians]]''' are the first inhabitants of the [[Australia]]n continent and its nearby islands, continuing their presence during [[Europe]]an settlement. The term includes the various [[indigenous peoples]] commonly known as '''Aborigines''', whose traditional lands extend throughout mainland Australia, [[Tasmania]] and numerous offshore islands, and also the '''[[Torres Strait Islander]]s''' whose lands are centered on the [[Torres Strait Islands]] which run between northernmost Australia and the island of [[New Guinea]]. Since colonialism, the English have referred to them as black due to their darker complexion, and they have adopted the name as an ethnic term, much like African-Americans:
* Wimbledon champion [[Evonne Goolagong]], of the Wiradjuri people of New South Wales, is described as "the first black woman sporting hero in Australian folklore" [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/07/18/1058035195680.html] and included in lists of black athletes, as in the book ''Black Gold''. [http://www.abc.net.au/message/blackarts/review/s215630.htm]
* [[Anthony Mundine]] has been nicknamed "the black superman." [http://www.theblacksuperman.com/]
* [[Oodgeroo Noonuccal]]/Kath Walker [http://www.bushpoetry.com.au/Portals/18/Oodgeroo_Noonuccal.jpg], of the Noonuccal people of Moreton Bay, east of Brisbane, referred to herself and other aboriginals as "black." [http://www.library.uq.edu.au/fryer/worth_fighting/2.html] She quoted her father as calling her "black." [http://www.blackbook.afc.gov.au/inspiration_detail.asp?id=2]
* Half-aboriginal [[Charles Perkins]] was subjected to discrimination against black aboriginals and subsequently has involved himself in black politics. [http://www.eniar.org/news/perkins1.html].
* [[Aden Ridgeway]], of the Gumbaynggir people of New South Wales is described as "a black politician." [http://www.abc.net.au/message/radio/speaking/stories/s1403771.htm]
[[Image:Truganini_and_last_4_tasmanian_aborigines.jpg|thumb|left|Last four [[Tasmanian Aborigines]].]]
Most critics of a global black identity agree that it is crafted politically to unite diverse groups by racializing the experience of discrimination. "When the empirical referent of many of these umbrella terms is explored, both theoretical and methodological problems become apparent, as exemplified by the generic use of the term 'black' to delineate a common experience of discrimination based on physical appearance. This is a meaning not shared by a substantial proportion of the people so described in such usage, amounts to third party imputation of meaning and strengthens the perception of highly diverse groups in racial terms."<ref>P.J. Aspinall, "Collective Terminology to Describe the Minority Ethnic Population: The Persistence of Confusion and Ambiguity in Usage," ''Sociology'', Volume 36(4): 812.</ref>
As one researcher put it, "The Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities (Modood et al., 1997) decided to survey South Asian and Chinese opinion on this issue by asking respondents, ‘Do you ever think of yourself as being black?’. Only about a fifth of over 1500 persons in the South Asian groups answered ‘yes’ (with only slight variation between the groups), and just one Chinese person out of 118. Such findings question the sustainability of such usage and may hasten the demise of political blackness."<ref>P.J. Aspinall, "Collective Terminology to Describe the Minority Ethnic Population: The Persistence of Confusion and Ambiguity in Usage," ''Sociology'', Volume 36(4): 805.</ref>

Nevertheless, many adherents insist the term ''black'' is a reaffirmation of a common-sense understanding of what it has meant to be black throughout history, something which was commonly accepted and understood prior to the use of DNA analysis or techniques of modern science. Furthermore, while modern science has proven useful in determining that many so-called black populations have closer genetic affinities with [[sundadont]] Asiatic peoples{{fact}}, as well it has served to trace distant kinship of many of these same peoples with continental Africans{{fact}}.

==Historical Western objections to a global black identity==
During the colonial period some of these same people were mistakenly viewed as descendants of Equatorial Africans. and their social and ethnic distinction in their home countries, they are considered legitimately black to some degree, although many other African descendants may have their reservations. Due to the gains of the [[U.S. Civil Rights Movement]] of 1955-1975 some oppressed and marginalized populations around the world, even without African ancestry, have chosen to label themselves as "black." This is disputed by those who equate "blackness" only with equatorial African (sub-Saharan) ancestry and argue that non-Africans cannot be legitimately black.

Most critics of a global black identity agree that it is crafted politically to unite diverse groups by racializing the experience of discrimination; however, many adherents insist that it is a reaffirmation of a common-sense understanding of what it means to be black, something which was commonly understood prior to the use of DNA analysis or techniques of modern science. "When the empirical referent of many of these umbrella terms is explored, both theoretical and methodological problems become apparent, as exemplified by the generic use of the term 'black' to delineate a common experience of discrimination based on physical appearance. This is a meaning not shared by a substantial proportion of the people so described in such usage, amounts to third party imputation of meaning and strengthens the perception of highly diverse groups in racial terms."<ref>P.J. Aspinall, "Collective Terminology to Describe the Minority Ethnic Population: The Persistence of Confusion and Ambiguity in Usage," ''Sociology'', Volume 36(4): 812.</ref>
As one researcher put it, "The Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities (Modood et al., 1997) decided to survey South Asian and Chinese opinion on this issue by asking respondents, ‘Do you ever think of yourself as being black?’. Only about a fifth of over 1500 persons in the South Asian groups answered ‘yes’ (with only slight variation between the groups), and just one Chinese person out of 118. Such findings question the sustainability of such usage and may hasten the demise of political blackness."<ref>P.J. Aspinall, "Collective Terminology to Describe the Minority Ethnic Population: The Persistence of Confusion and Ambiguity in Usage," ''Sociology'', Volume 36(4): 805.</ref>, However, even at such a small percentage throughout, the numbers of black people in Asia statistically outnumber those in North America. According to Rebecca Walker, "The African diaspora in Asia has been mislabeled and African Americans continuity with the black Global diaspora has been broken as well. African-American's disconnection with the black people of the world is an injury resulting from slavery in America..." [http://www.rebeccawalker.com/article_2003_black-buddha.htm]

Proponents of Black identity contend that the objections ultimately originate from a post-colonial destruction of [[Black pride]] which all the above groups had experienced. As Blackness had been perceived as ugly by Europeans regardless of national identity, it is no surprise that many groups, African, Asian, and anywhere else would on a psychological level disdainfully reject the identity of black in favor of a substitute. Black Pride and political unity are two different things and taking pride in being black does not require any group to politically unite with Africans or African Americans. In fact, the unity comes from the shared acknowledgement of the positive aspects of black pride, which allows black people across unrelated groups to share experiences with each other despite their lack of historical ancestry.

===Intermediates ===
{{unreferenced}}[[Image:Nakempte_Boys.jpg|300px|center|thumb|Ethiopians are widely considered Black both historically and by the census, because of their Negroid skin and hair type, but a 2001 [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] genetic cluster study stated: ''62% of the Ethiopians fall in the first cluster, which encompasses the majority of the Jews, Norwegians and Armenians, indicating that placement of these individuals in a 'Black' cluster would be an inaccurate reflection of the genetic structure. Only 24% of the Ethiopians are placed in the cluster with the Bantu and most of the Afro-Caribbeans.''<ref>[[http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:BvMxLteSzI0J:www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Wilson-NatGen-01-GDR.pdf+genetic+structure+of+variable+drug+response&hl=en&gl=ca&ct=clnk&cd=1]]</ref> In addition their craniofacial features resemble those of Caucasoids.<ref>[[http://www.sitesled.com/members/racialreality/ethiopians.html]]</ref>|left]]In the Americas, people of mixed descent identify themselves in various ways. Admixture plays a strong role in articulating black identity in America. In the U.S., a child of a black parent and white parent can consider themselves to be half-black, fully black, exclusively black, or not black at all. In other settings, one is still black while they may or may not also consider being white (not considered half, but in fact considered fully black). This experience is due in some contexts to the one-drop rule that was perpetuated in America. However, many take the approach of existing fully as Black socially due to the social perceptions of people with noticeable African features and ancestry. The public social experiences among mixed black people and black people considered unmixed does not vary greatly due to the concentration or lack of admixture, the social experiences change based strictly on one's facial appearance. It is common for a person who considers themself to be exclusively black to appear less African in their appearance than one who is born of a white parent and black parent. Although it is not common, there are black families who exhibit features and a phenotype considered Caucasoid. Although this can be due to a variety of factors, admixture is usually considered the primary cause. Since American and to a lesser degree Western perceptions of color are based more on outward appearance (than DNA, ancestral history, or any other factor), it is quite possible for a predominantly black person to experience less stigma from whites for being black than a mixed person whose phenotype simply through chance exhibits a stronger African expression.

There are competing theories as to which approach is considered most legitimate with people of mixed descent; whether or not one should simply consider themselves black, mixed, bi-racial, half-black, or not black at all. It is generally understood that the person's own experiences and perceptions have the most say in this. On the other hand, social perceptions of blackness among Americans help shape these opinions, and many black people whose features resemble non-black people of color elsewhere may choose to disavow themselves (pass) of being inherently black. Bear in mind, socially, the ability to pass only occurs among those mixed children whose features and skin color is considered "light" enough to do so, which is why black society as a whole considers this to be reprehensible. The black identity for most is worth respecting like Jewishness, Arabic, Chaldean, Kurd, Slavic, etc., and it's seen as indicative of a lack of integrity to merely renounce it due to a person's outward appearance. In this context, blackness is certainly more of a cultural and ethnic identity than strictly a skin color.

To be considered [[African American]] in the [[United States of America]], not even half of one's ancestry need be Black. The nation's answer to the question "Who is black?" long has been that a black person is any American with any known African [[ancestry]]. This definition reflects the long experience with [[racism]], white supremacy, [[slavery]], and, later, with [[Jim Crow laws]].
[[Image:Barakobama.jpg|left|thumb|200px|U.S. Senator [[Barack Obama]] has a [[Kenya]]n father and a white mother, and self-identifies as black.]]
[[Image:TigerW.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Professional golfer [[Tiger Woods]] coined the term [[Cablinasian]] to describe his ethnicity.]]
In the [[Southern United States]], it became known as the [[one-drop rule]], meaning that a single drop of "black blood" makes a person "black". Some courts have called it the traceable amount rule, and anthropologists call it the [[hypodescent]] rule, meaning that racially mixed persons are assigned the status of the subordinate group. Prior to the one-drop rule, different states had different laws regarding color; in [[Virginia]], for example, a person was legally black if he or she had at least one-sixteenth black ancestry and in Alabama one only had to be of 3% African ancestry to be considered Black. This is in sharp contrast to Brazil, where only 6% of the population is considered Black<ref>[http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/c021800a90432bc38025655200447629?Opendocument</ref> despite tha fact that a third of the country's gene pool is of [[sub-Saharan]] origin<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1287189]</ref>. Many Latino immigrants to America are shocked to discover they've become Black the moment they set foot on U.S. soil. "In this country, if you are not quite white, then you are black," said Jose Neinstein, a native white Brazilian and executive director of the Brazilian-American Cultural Institute in Washington. But in Brazil, he added, "If you are not quite black, then you are white." <ref>[[http://www.raceandhistory.com/selfnews/viewnews.cgi?newsid1041125920,38891,.shtml</ref> The one-drop rule was implemented by states in the southern United States during the early to mid-1880's. This definition eventually emerged from the American South to become America's national definition, generally accepted by whites and blacks -- but for different reasons.

White supremacists, whose motivation was [[racist]], considered anyone with African ancestry tainted, inherently inferior morally and intellectually and, thus, subordinate.
During [[slavery]], there was also a strong economic incentive to maximize the number of slaves. The designation of anyone possessing any trace of African ancestry as "black", and, therefore, of subordinate status to whites, guaranteed a source of free or cheap labor during [[slavery]] and for decades afterward.

The one drop rule however is not applied consistently in America. Despite the evidence of African ancestry among at least one American president, the U.S. is still waiting for their first black president.

Admixture outside of an African or Aboriginal context usually has the effect of almost neutralizing a person's or their society's perception of them being black, as blackness is viewed more as a social (and not ethnic) identity based on skin color. So it is much easier for a child of mixed white and black african ancestry to be viewed as black than it is for a child of mixed white and Dalit (or Siddi, or any black-Asian) ancestry to be viewed as black, even if both children looked identical.

==Official usage differs among former European colonies==
{{unreferenced}}
There are subtle differences among former colonial cultures in how the term is used. Once-colonial cultures, such as those of the Spanish and Portuguese, that lacked an [[endogamous]] barrier between the descendants of Europeans and the descendants of Africans seldom use the term as an ethno-racial label. Those with weak or three-caste endogamous barriers, such as the French, Dutch, and British distinguish between black and [[Coloured]].

In the only land with a single, broad two-caste color line, the United States, the term has been used to denote a semi-voluntary, ethnic self-identity. (Semi-voluntary because if one "looks white" to the average American he or she has a choice; if one "looks black" to the average American, one does not have a choice.) During slavery, terms such as ''mulatto'', ''quadroon'', ''octoroon'', etc., commonly were in use because there was an economic incentive to classify blacks by their degree of white admixture. Even after slavery, anti-black color bias among some blacks as well as whites maintained the usefulness of such distinctions. Regardless of ethnic admixture, however, in the U.S., the one-drop rule still applied. Even the whitest-looking octoroon, if his or her African lineage were known, was still considered black. This has changed to a degree with the recent and growing use of the term ''biracial'' in the U.S. to describe individuals of mixed parentage.

===Former Iberian colonies===
Latin American societies, including those of the [[Spanish Caribbean]], have always lacked endogamous color lines. Every [[Hispanic]] resides on an Afro-Amerind-European continuum where status depends on wealth, breeding, education, and political power as well as [[phenotype]]. Latin American countries typically have three economic classes: A lower class of agricultural peasants and urban poor; a middle class of landowning farmers and urban craftsmen; and an upper class of wealthy professionals, educators, or the politically powerful. The structure has a strong hereditary component. It is rigid, offers little social mobility, and is often harsh or unjust. Nevertheless, despite significant class/skin-tone correlation, it has no color line in the sense of endogamy. Enforced Black/White endogamy is impossible in Latin America because nearly every Hispanic has immediate blood relatives who are more African-looking and others who are more European-looking than himself. Spanish contains about a dozen words to denote various blends of Afro-European appearance: ''prieto, criollo, blanquito, mulato, moreno, trigueño, mestizo, jabao, marrano'', etc. [[Brazilian Portuguese]] has an equivalent set of terms. Yet, none of these terms has the denotation that "black" has in [[English Language|English]], [[French Language|French]], or [[Dutch Language|Dutch]]. In fact, the word ''negro/a'' in many Latin American countries is seldom used to denote appearance. It is simply a common term of endearment, like the English ''honey''. It is used by affectionate couples, even those who look entirely European.

===Former British colonies===
In a famous case an Indian Briton, [[Dadabhai Naoroji]], stood for election to parliament for the Liberal party in 1886. He was defeated, leading the leader of the Conservatives, Lord Salisbury to remark that "however great the progress of mankind has been, and however far we have advanced in overcoming prejudice, I doubt if we have yet got to the point of view where a British constituency would elect a black man". This led to much discussion about the applicability of the term black to South Asians. Naoroji was subsequently elected to parliament in 1892, becoming the first M.P. of Indian descent. See [[Black British]] for more information.

In South Africa, ''Coloured'' denotes both an intermediate group between White and Black ("Mixed-race" people, in [[UK]] terminology), and the '''[[Khoisan]]''' who are lighter skinned indigenous southern Africans. During the [[Apartheid]]-era, for example, segregation and endogamy were enforced between each of its four groups: Black, White, Coloured and Asian. This often confused [[African-American]] visitors, who tried to associate with locals who were members of South Africa's Coloured group. The problem was that the Black group in the United States includes what South Africans consider two distinct groups: Black plus Coloured. In apartheid South Africa, association between members of the Black and Coloured endogamous groups was forbidden. Even today, after the ending of apartheid, South Africa's four endogamous groups, whose segregation was formerly enforced by criminal law, still maintain largely separate political allegiances, cultures, languages and customs. Nevertheless, South Africa's social barriers are more permeable than in the United States. During apartheid, South Africans routinely switched group membership by requesting it from their local Race Classification Boards. Although the bureaucracy was cumbersome and inconsistent, it enabled change. Individuals were often classified differently from their siblings and parents, and some people changed more than once. South Africans could appeal local reclassification decisions to the national Population Registration Board, thence to the Supreme Court. Like U.S. draft boards of the 1970s, South Africa’s local Race Classification Boards reflected local public opinion and often found it helpful to cooperate with those wanting to upgrade from Black to Coloured or Coloured to White. School principals of schools for children of the White endogamous group could keep up enrollments (and funding) by getting some Coloured children reclassified as White members, but if they pushed too hard, they risked having the whole school reclassified as a school for members of the Coloured endogamous group.<ref>Graham Watson, ''Passing for White: A Study of Racial Assimilation in a South African School'' (London, 1970), 10-24, chap. 4. Incidentally, none of the above is meant to suggest that South Africans' four-group system is in any way more logical or beneficial than America's two-group system. All appearance-based systems tend to crumble around the edges. U.S. courts have still not resolved whether East Indians are members of the U.S. White endogamous group. Similarly, in South Africa, Japanese were ruled to be White whereas Chinese were officially Coloured (The Asian category was intended for South Africa's Indian community). One final remark about South Africa: Due to recent Black political supremacy, their society may be changing. It may now be in transition, from seeing hybrids as intermediate in social rank, to relegating them to inferior status, as in Uganda. A Coloured South African recently complained to a newspaper reporter, "In the old system, we weren't White enough; now we aren't Black enough." See Lydia Polgreen, "For Mixed-Race South Africans, Equity is Elusive," The New York Times International, July 27 2003, 3.</ref>

Coloured people in the [[British West Indies]] also form an intermediate group between Europeans and those of strong African appearance. Neither status within the group nor movement between groups was ever as institutionalized as in South Africa. Nevertheless, their membership criteria differ both from the United States and from South Africa. Europeans in the British West Indies often marry locals who physically appear to be European but have known partial African ancestry. Similarly, White clubs were closed to members of the Coloured group in the early colonial period, and members of this middle group were not allowed to vote, hold public office, hold military commissions, marry members of the White group, or inherit significant property from a member of the White group, but by the year [[1733]], these restrictions had been lifted for the intermediate group in [[Jamaica]], [[Barbados]], and [[Trinidad]]. The restrictions continued in effect for Blacks until the twentieth century.
[[image:Asantewaa.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Ashanti]] warrior and queen mother [[Yaa Asantewaa]]]]
Legislation, court decisions, and social custom in Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados treated members of the Coloured group as distinct from members of the Black group. According to one scholar, "The English… encountered the problem of race mixture in very different contexts in their several colonies; they answered it in one fashion in their West Indian islands, and in quite another in their colonies on the continent," and, "The contrast offered by the West Indies is striking." In post-emancipation Jamaica, the beleaguered White population allied with the Coloured elite (the descendants of the famous [[Maroons]]) to keep down the free Blacks. A Barbadian historian wrote, "In August 1838, some 83,000 blacks, 12,000 coloureds, and 15,000 whites, embarked on a social course which the ruling elite hoped to charter." A historian of Trinidad wrote, "The people of colour were marginal to Caribbean society: neither black nor white, neither African nor European…." Today, West Indian immigrants to England assimilate into mainstream society within a generation or two.

Another way that terminology in the former British Empire differs from, say, Iberian or U.S. customs, is in applying the term to populations that were not part of the African Diaspora of 1500-1900. Most former colonial cultures apply Black only to descendants of the African Diaspora of 1500-1900, but former British colonials, in contrast, apply the label to all colonial subjects of distinctly darker complexion than Europeans. Australian society labels [[Indigenous Australians]] as Black.

===In the U.S.===
{{AfricanAmerican|right}}
An '''[[African American]]''' (also '''Afro-American''', '''Black American''', or '''black''') is a member of an [[ethnic group]] in the [[United States]] whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to [[Africa]]. Many African Americans also have [[European]] and/or [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ancestry as well. The term tends to refer to West African ancestries; not, for example, to white or Arab African ancestry, such as Moroccans or white South Africans. This is so even though there is huge genetic variation among the various inhabitants of sub-Saharan Africa, as much if not more so as among the afforementioned groups. It is not clear if an American descendant of a [[Khoisan]], [[Ethiopian]], or [[Somali]] immigrant to America would be considered part of this community, as their ancestors were not brought as slaves to the Americas from Western [[Africa]], like the majority of Americans of African ancestry, and they have distinct phenotypic characteristics from West Africans. Members of the African Diaspora from non-African countries such as [[Jamaica]], [[Haiti]], [[Cuba]] (although they are logically African Americans, since they are located in the Americas and are descendants of Africans, with some admixture from Europeans and native Americans as well) or the [[United Kingdom]] are theoretically referred to by their nation of origin and not African American (even when they come from a Latin American country) unless they immigrate to the United States, but once a person of the African Diaspora becomes a permanent U.S. resident, then it is generally assumed that they (and especially their U.S.-born children) are "African American."

The U.S. usage of ''Black'' is unique, in that it evolved as a preferred racial term in antithesis to the former term "Negro." Membership has been only partly voluntary because Americans of European appearance have often been identified as Mulatto, and/or White and/or Negro and/or Black by US Census officials, sometimes within the span of three decades. Persons like [[Walter White]] and Gregory Howard Williams, who were virtually as fair as any European, self-identified as "Negro" despite being of overwhelming European genetic admixture, like millions of so-called White Americans. Today the term "Black" and "African-American" are often used interchangeably by both Black and White. The 2000 federal census offered the option of choosing more than one preconcieved designated ethno-racial identity. Also, U.S. traditions follow a [[one-drop rule]] that rhetorically claims that anyone with even the slightest trace of distant African ancestry is Black—a tradition found nowhere else on earth; but a tradition that African-Americans helped create in the 1830s North and have consistently embraced. (See [[African-American History#The Black Yankees]].)

Many within the U.S. accept only people of recent sub-Saharan ancestry as Black. Even though the term Black does not strictly encompass sub-Saharan Africans (historically the word "black" relates more to dark skin than to regional affiliation), many do not consider people outside of the recent African diaspora as Black. For various reasons, Americans dispute the self-identity of Asians, Pacific Islanders, and others who claim to see themselves as Black.

The phrase ''people of color'' sometimes is used as a euphemism for ''black'' in exhortations of global non-white solidarity in the face of global whiteness, but this specific usage is apparently not widespread. According to one researcher, "The use of this term [people of color] appears to depend strongly on context and location, being largely confined to the USA (alongside the term 'black') and increasingly in a radical political context."<ref>P.J. Aspinall, "Collective Terminology to Describe the Minority Ethnic Population: The Persistence of Confusion and Ambiguity in Usage," ''Sociology'', Volume 36(4): 807.</ref> However, the 20% is reflective of the overall acknowledgement of the black presence currently in the region. Bear in mind the questionaire was not exclusively given to those in Asia who others consider to be black, but to a wide variety of South Asians, most of which would be universally understood to be not black. Considering that there are nearly a billion inhabitants even a smaller amount would entail a population greater than that of the black population in the USA.

The converse is also true. Some peoples today who are clearly genetic descendants of the African diaspora do not see themselves as black in any ethno-political sense, and instead adopt self-identities aligned with religion or language. Among these are the people of the Mascarene Islands in the Indian Ocean and the inhabitants of highland [[Madagascar]].<ref>Pier M. Larson, "[http://backintyme.com/rawdata/larson01.pdf "Reconsidering Trauma, Identity, and the African Diaspora: Enslavement and Historical Memory in Nineteenth-Century Highland Madagascar]," ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 56, no. 2 (1999): 335-62].</ref>

==Other aspects==
==="Who is black?"===
According to Frank W. Sweet, the most controversial answer to the question "who is black?" is "whoever looks black." He writes that although most who use the label rationalize it in terms of physical appearance, there is little objective consistency in this regard, and that different cultures can assign the same individual to opposite "races": North Americans, Haitians, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, Barbadians, Jamaicans, and Trinidadians all have different subconscious and automatic perceptions of just what features define who belongs to which "racial" label.<ref>This section was adapted from Chapter 3 of Frank W. Sweet, ''Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule'' (Palm Coast FL: Backintyme, 2005) ISBN 0939479230, which contains the citations and references. An abridged version, with endnotes is available online at [http://backintyme.com/Essay040717.htm The Perception of "Racial" Traits].</ref>

[[Image:Jamie Foxx.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Jamie Foxx]]]]
===The impact of colonialism===
According to [[Harry Hoetink]], one can predict where each New World culture draws the color-line based upon its own colonial history. He suggests that three similar socioeconomic classes formed in most settlements during the New World colonial period. Once the importation of African labor became widespread, Western Hemisphere colonies that lacked significant numbers of Native Americans tended to fall into a three-tiered social structure. The top layer comprised a small number of European land-owning planters who produced agricultural products for export using large numbers of African slaves. The slaves themselves made up the bottom layer. Finally, in most European colonies (Barbados being the exception), an intermediate group arose, composed of free subsistence farmers, who were allowed to opt out of the plantation economy in return for serving as militia in the event of slave insurrection. In each colony, the color line came to be defined by the appearance of typical members of the intermediate class. Anyone more European-looking was seen as White; anyone darker was considered black. Historical contingency decreed that this intermediate group would have a large admixture of African appearance in [[Santo Domingo]], less so in [[Trinidad]] and [[Brazil]], even less in [[Cuba]] and [[Puerto Rico]], and be completely European-looking in [[Virginia]] and [[South Carolina]]. Hoetink demonstrated that, "One and the same person may be considered white in the [[Dominican Republic]] or Puerto Rico, and 'coloured' in [[Brazil]], [[Martinique]], or [[Curaçao]]; this difference must be explained in terms of socially determined somatic norms. The same person may be called a 'Negro' in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]; this must be explained by the historical evolution of social structure in the [[Southern United States]]."
[[Image:WEB Du Bois.jpg|thumb|W. E. B. Du Bois]]

===Psychological interpretations===
Researchers in the cognitive sciences have shown that cultures do not ostracize out-groups because they look different; they look different because they are out-groups. Children of each culture can "correctly" (for their own society) categorize strangers by age three. They can reliably match each "racial" category with its social term or word by about age five. Most American children (about 70 percent) internalize the [[hypodescent]] rule by about age ten. And they can confabulate a rationalization for [[hypodescent]] by early adulthood.<ref>The term ''hypodescent'' was coined by the late University of Florida anthropologist, Marvin Harris in ''Patterns of Race in the Americas'' (Westport CT, 1964), page 37. It means that, to the extent that blood fraction influences perceived U.S. endogamous group membership, the dividing line is not 50-50. Even a slight fraction of known black ancestry usually consigns an English-speaking American to the black group. This contrasts with other New World countries where one is categorized by preponderance of appearance—one is white if one looks mostly white. The original experiments on childhood internalization of the notion of race are reported in Lawrence A. Hirschfeld,[http://backintyme.com/rawdata/hirschfeld02.pdf "The Inheritability of Identity: Children’s Understanding of the Cultural Biology of Race,"] ''Child Development'', 66 (no. 5, October 1995), 1418-37.</ref> Although the number and meaning of "racial" categories and of the traits that delineate them vary dramatically among cultures, children learn their own culture's rules and categories shortly after learning to walk. Clearly, the cognitive system employed is as adaptable to culture, and yet is as hardwired in the brain, as is language itself.

A series of experiments conducted by [[Robert Kurzban]], subsequently confirmed by [[John Tooby]] and [[Leda Cosmides]] show why this is. Sex, age, and "otherness" are the three fundamental attributes that the mind encodes in an automatic and mandatory manner. For example, long after all memory has been lost of the occupation, name, clothing, or hair of a stranger to which one was briefly exposed, one can recall that the individual was "a white woman" or a "black male child." But age and sex are independent of culture. "Otherness" is not. Kurzban and later investigators demonstrated that the ability to recall a stranger's "otherness" actually detects a culture's social coalitions or alliances. Over the past hundred millennia or so, humans have become adept at detecting competing social groups. The discrimination of facial features enables a child to identify whether a stranger is genetically related (a member of the child's extended family). This ability is strongly selected because one is less likely to be killed and devoured by a relative than by a member of an opposing group. Recall that we (genus ''Homo'') evolved as hunting apes for two million years before our brains expanded five-fold in the past 120 millennia (species ''sapiens''). One must take the long view when studying adaptive cognition.
===Physical attributes shared among black people===
{{unreferenced}}
Skin tone, hair coarseness and the like are clues by which Americans (and, to a lesser extent, other Europeans, especially the British) identify a stranger's "otherness" and so determine whether a stranger "looks black" to them, but other cultures use clues that are unrelated to the U.S. endogamous color line: height, hair-length, clothing, facial features (such as hooked nose versus straight nose or the shape of the eye), even a person's smell (which relates to diet). This point is easily misunderstood and has even been reported as suggesting that humans are hardwired to recognize "race." The fact is that in no culture does the need/ability to recall a stranger's "otherness" correlate with Americans' unique perception of "race," unless you stretch the meaning of "race" to denote simply "otherness." In the United States, for example, where the term "race" is applied to differentiate those of Asian ancestry, subjects quickly forget whether the stranger was [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]], [[India|Indian]], [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Italian people|Italian]], or [[Pakistani]], but Americans (only) do not forget on which side of the U.S. endogamous color line he seemed to be. In short, it is easily demonstrated within minutes that subjects notice and subconsciously remember even the most apparently insignificant differences in facial features if they happen to correlate with "otherness." On the other hand, even glaring facial differences, such as skin-tone darkness, are quickly forgotten if they are irrelevant to "otherness." In short, "who looks black" is answered differently by different people.

==Problems with usage==
{{unreferenced}}
Some African people, especially on the continent of Africa (Somali, Ethiopian, Hausa, Maasai, Turaeg, Fulani,etc), as well as many African-American believe that black strictly refers to skin color and therefore consider it disrespectful to describe people with a label based solely on a color. ''black'', like other ethnic groups (Jewish, Roma, Latino) is a very loose and unscientific form of ethnic classification and is made problematic because many non-African groups are\were also called ''black'' by conquering Europeans. The term has also acquired a stigma because it has been used to equate those on the bottom rung of the social ladder like the black Untouchables of India and the Black Irish who were considered lower class. However it's difficult to determine if the stigma comes from the class or if the oppression due to prejudice by skin color that created the circumstances that led to darker skinned people being put into the bottom of the social ladder in various parts of the world.<ref>[[http://www.blackirishmovie.com/HTML/TheFilm2.html]]</ref> Many significant personalities of the African world from [[Malcolm X]] to [[John Henrick Clarke]] have advocated for the usage of [[African-American]] instead of black. This campaign became popularized when [[Jesse Jackson]] in the 1980’s encouraged [[African-American]] be used in place of black. As [[John Henrick Clarke]] and others have argued the term black does not fully articulate the history and geopolitical reality of African people.

==Terms no longer in common use==
Prior to the 1970s, the term [[Negro]] (lit. ''black'' in Spanish) was the dominant term for black people of African origin in the great majority of English-language contexts. Nowadays, this term has become increasingly passé and considered inappropriate, and derogatory.

[[Negroid]] was a term used by European anthropologists first in the 18th century to describe indigenous Africans and their descendants throughout the African diaspora from an archaeological point of view. The term is controversial and imprecise because of its inference of grouping people based on vary limited variations in skull shapes and sizes (which goes against the overall wide diversity of Equatorial African people). African intellectuals have substituted the term Africoid which, unlike Negroid, encompasses the phenotypes of all indigenous African peoples.

Other largely defunct, seldom used terms to refer to African Americans of mixed descent are [[mulatto]] and [[colored]].

==Footnotes==
<references/>

==See also==
*[[African diaspora]]
*[[Black Consciousness Movement]] and [[Steve Biko]]
*[[Colored]] people in the [[United States]]
*[[Coloured]] people of [[South Africa]]
*[[Creole peoples]]
*[[Race]]
*[[Race and Intelligence]]
*[[Racial segregation]]
*[[Negrito]]
*[[Negro]]
*[[Nilotic]]
*[[White (people)]]
*[[Negroid]]

===Groups===
*[[African American]]
*[[Afro-Brazilian]]
*[[Afro-Cuban]]
*[[Afro-Ecuadorian]]
*[[Afro-German]]
*[[Afro-Irish]]
*[[Afro-Latin American]]
*[[Afro-Mexican]]
*[[Afro-Peruvian]]
*[[Afro-Trinidadian]]
*[[African American culture]]
*[[African American music]]
*[[Black British]]
*[[African Caribbean]]
*[[Black Canadian]]
*[[Siddi]]
*[[Dalit]]
*[[Eastern Ethiopian]]
*[[Thomas Corwin Mendenhall]]

==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/home.html PBS Africans in America series]
*[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0009/feature3/zoom3.html National Geographic pictures of the Rana Tharu of Nepal]
*[http://www.jphpk.gov.my/English/May04%2012.htm Sheedi people of India and Pakistan]
*[http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/people/siddi.htm Siddi people of India]
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4271003 Black Iraqis and African heritage in an Islamic State.]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1077982.stm India's Lost Africans] BBC News of African oriented people in east India and Pakistan
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/06/0607_wiregullah.html Gullah culture of South Carolina.]
*[http://edition.cnn.com/US/9707/16/racial.suit/ Black Egyptian sues to be recognized in the US.]
*[http://stewartsynopsis.com/Synopsis%206.htm More descriptions of black people outside Africa.]

[[Category:African American culture]]
[[Category:African-American history]]
[[Category:African diaspora]]
[[Category:Black people]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups]]

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[[fr:race noire]]
[[he:שחורים]]
[[ja:黒人]]

Katzenjunges

2006-09-16T08:46:20Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 68.145.162.45 (talk) to last version by Samuel Blanning

[[Image:Stray_kitten_Rambo002.jpg|thumb|220px|right|A kitten.]]

The term '''kitten''' ([[Old English language|Old English]] [[diminutive]] of ''cat'') most commonly refers to a pre-adolescent [[cat]]. It may also refer to a young [[rabbit]], [[rat]], [[hedgehog]], or [[squirrel]]. This article discusses
kittens of the domestic cat.

The young of [[species]] in the genus ''[[Panthera]]'' and of some other [[big cat]]s are called [[cub]]s rather than kittens. Either term may be used for the young of smaller wild [[felidae|felids]] such as [[ocelot]]s, [[caracal]]s, and [[lynx]]es, but "kitten" is usually more common for these species. Groups of domestic kittens are referred to as ''kindles''.

== [[Birth]] and development ==
[[image:Kittens.jpg|left|thumb|220px|A [[Litter (animal)|litter]] of kittens]]
A [[Litter (animal)|litter]] of kittens usually consists of three to six kittens. Born after approximately 63 days of [[gestation]], kittens emerge in an [[amnion]] which is bitten off and eaten by the mother cat. For the first several weeks, kittens are unable to urinate or defecate without being stimulated by their mother. They are also unable to regulate their body temperature for the first three weeks, so kittens born in temperatures less than 27 [[Celsius|°C]] (80 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]) are at risk for death from exposure if they are not kept warm by their mother.
[[Image:Youngkitten.JPG|thumb|220px|right|A kitten that has opened its [[eye]]s for the first time.]]

Kittens open their [[eye]]s about seven to ten days following [[birth]]. At first, the [[retina]] is poorly developed and their vision is poor. Kittens are not able to see as well as adult cats for about three months after birth.

[[Image:White Cat Nursing Four Kittens HQ.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Kittens nursing.]]
Kittens develop very quickly between the two and seven week period. Their coordination and strength improve, they [[spar]] with their litter-mates, and begin to explore the world outside the nest. They learn to wash themselves and others as well as play hunting and stalking games. If they are outdoor cats, their mother or other adult cats may demonstrate hunting techniques for them to emulate.

As they reach one month of age, the kittens are gradually [[weaning|weaned]] and begin to eat solid food. Kittens live primarily on solid food after weaning but usually continue to suckle from time to time until separated from their mothers. Some mother cats will scatter their kittens as early as three months of age, while others continue to look after them until they approach sexual maturity.
[[Image:Manx Beatrice and Dante with siblings.jpg|left|thumb|220px|A litter of [[Manx (cat)|Manx]] kittens]]
The sex of kittens is usually easy to determine within the age of approximately six to eight weeks, although it is possible to do so sooner. The [[male]]'s [[Urethral sphincter|urethral opening]] is round, whereas the [[female]]'s is a slit. Also the distance between [[anus]] and urethral opening is greater in males than in females.

Kittens are highly social animals and spend most of their waking hours interacting with available animals. Although domestic kittens are commonly sent to new homes at six to eight weeks of age, some experts believe that being with its mother and litter mates from six to twelve weeks is important for a kitten's behavioral development. Usually, breeders will not sell a kitten that is younger than twelve weeks, and in many jurisdictions, it is illegal to give away kittens younger than a certain age (usually between eight and twelve weeks).

==Caring for domestic kittens==
Kittens require a diet higher in protein and fat than adult cats do.{{fact}} From weaning until about one year of age they should be fed a diet specifically formulated for kittens. Kittens can be touched or held when a lot of fur is visible and kitten(s) are walking. Most veterinarians recommend that kittens be vaccinated against common illnesses beginning at 2-3 months of age (FVRCP 8 weeks; FVRCP 12 weeks; FVRCP, rabies and [[sterilization]] at 16 weeks) and [[spaying and neutering|spayed or neutered]] at 4-8 months of age.{{fact}} Some veterinarians will spay or neuter kittens as young as 6-8 weeks and weighing at least 2 pounds; the practice is particularly common in animal shelters so that kittens can get into the adoption area sooner.{{fact}} Kittens should also be wormed against [[roundworm]]s at about 4 weeks.[[Image:August2003 058.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An orange kitten.]]

Orphaned kittens too young to eat solid food may be fed a cat milk replacement formula every two to four hours. Kittens should not be fed cow's milk because it does not provide all of the necessary nutrients and may cause [[diarrhea]].{{fact}} Orphaned kittens not urinating or defecating may be stimulated to do so by rubbing with a damp washcloth after each meal, at the base of their spine where the tail begins.{{fact}} It is best to leave a kitten with its mother if at all possible. Kittens fed bottled milk, especially single kittens, tend to have behavioral issues (no bite inhibition) when they get older.{{fact}} If a kitten develops diarrhea, the best treatment is to seek advice from a veterinarian. The kitten may need to be de-wormed with a de-wormer at 6-8 weeks old and then again 2 weeks later.

==See also==
*[[Cat]]
*[[Felidae]]
*[[Felis]]
*[[Purr]]
*[[Cuteness]]

==External links==
{{commons|Kitten|Kittens}}
*[[Wikibooks:How to choose your pet and take care of it]]
*[http://www.boutiquekittens.com/index.php?id=206 Kitten Development article] at BoutiqueKittens.com

[[Category:Cats]]

[[da:Killing]]
[[nl:Kitten]]
[[simple:Kitten]]

East Grinstead

2006-09-12T08:34:05Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 81.6.197.114 (talk) to last version by Raven4x4x

{{infobox England place with map|
|Place = East Grinstead
|MapX= 142
|MapY= 218
|Population = 29,000
|District = [[Mid Sussex]]
|County = [[West Sussex]]
|Region = [[South East England]]
|Ceremonial = [[West Sussex]]
|Traditional = [[Sussex]]
|Constituency = [[Mid Sussex (UK Parliament constituency)|Mid Sussex]]
|PostalTown = EAST GRINSTEAD
|PostCode = RH19
|DiallingCode = 01342
|GridReference = TQ395385
|Euro = [[South East England (European Parliament constituency)|South East England]]
}}

'''East Grinstead''' (archaically spelt ''Grimstead''[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=27744]) is a town and [[civil parish]] in the northeastern corner of [[West Sussex]] in [[England]] near the [[East Sussex]], [[Surrey]], and [[Kent]] borders. The large civil parish covers an area of 2443.45ha and had a population of 23,942 persons (2001 census).

It is located on the [[Greenwich Meridian]]. The [[Weald]] and [[Ashdown Forest]] lie to the south of the town.

==Places of Interest==
The High Street contains the longest continuous run of [[14th century|14th-century]] timber-framed buildings in England. Other notable buildings in the town include [[Sackville College]], the [[sandstone]] [[almshouse]] built in [[1609]] where the [[Christmas carol]] "[[Good King Wenceslas]]" was written.
On the A264 to Tunbridge Wells, is a Historic House called [[Hammerwood Park]].On the outskirts of the town is [[Standen]], a [[country house]] containing one of the best collections of [[Arts and Crafts movement]] furnishings and fabrics.

Local attractions include Ashdown Forest (where the [[Winnie the Pooh]] stories are set) and the [[Bluebell Railway]], a preserved heritage line with steam locomotives.
The town is also the site of [[Queen Victoria Hospital]], where famed [[plastic surgeon]] [[Archibald McIndoe]] treated burn victims of [[World War II]] and formed the [[Guinea Pig Club]].

==Religious Institutions==
A number of important religious sites are located in East Grinstead.

*To the north of the town is the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Mormon]] [[London England Temple]].
*[[Opus Dei]] and the [[Rosicrucians]] both own property in the town.
*Additionally, [[L. Ron Hubbard]], the founder of [[Scientology]], lived at [[Saint Hill]], to the south of the town, and the manor is the British headquarters of the [[Church of Scientology]].

The strange co-incidence of such a number of religious organisations being headquartered in the town prompted a documentary in 1994, ''Why East Grinstead?'', which was produced for [[Channel 4]] by Zed Productions and directed by Ian Sellar. The documentary didn't come to any definite conclusions: the explanations ranging from the fact that East Grinstead sat on the convergence of ley lines to the more prosaic idea that the various reglious inquirers had settled there because they liked the views.

One of the most impressive buildings in the town is [[St. Swithun]]'s church which has been on its present site since the [[11th century]]. The building was struck by [[lightning]] in [[1772]] and rebuilt to designs by [[Wyatt]]. It was opened in [[1789]]. There are also three other [[Anglican]] churches (St Barnabas, St Luke and St Mary); West Street [[Baptist]] chapel; Our Lady and St Peter [[Roman Catholic]] church; Trinity [[Methodist]] church; and a [[United Reformed Church]] in the town.

==Transport==
===Rail===
[[image:Beeching.jpg|frame|Dr Richard Beeching]]
It has been a [[East Grinstead railway station|rail terminus]] since the 1960s, after the lines to Lewes, Three Bridges, and Forest Row were closed as recommended in Dr. [[Beeching]]'s report into the future of [[British Rail]]ways. In the late 1970s the town's inner relief road was built on the line of one of the closed railways and named Beeching Way, after the author of the report that led to the closure of so many railways, who happened to live in the town. It is rumoured that this road was intended to be called "Beeching Cut", but that the name was altered at the last minute to avoid causing offence.

A part of the [[Lewes]] line will soon be reinstated by the [[Bluebell Railway]], the first preserved [[standard gauge railway]] in the world, with its line of steam locomotives. Work has now actively started on the final push to the north towards East Grinstead where the line will once again join to the national rail network. A new station is to be built just south of the main-line station.

===Road===
The town is within commuting distance of [[London]] by road (the [[A22 road|A22]] and [[A264 road]]s pass through it)

==Twin towns==
The town is [[Town twinning|twinned]] with the towns of:
*[[Bourg-de-Péage]],
*[[Sant Feliu De Guíxols]],
*[[Mindelheim]],
*[[Schwaz]],
*[[Verbania]].
The village of [[West Grinstead]] is located some 25 km to the southwest.

==Famous Residents Past and Present==
[[Image:East Grinstead old shops Nigel Freeman.jpg|thumb|Houses and shops in East Grinstead]]
*[[Louise Redknapp]]
*[[Right Said Fred]]
*[[L. Ron Hubbard]]
*[[Jane Leeves]]
*[[Andrew Sullivan]]
*[[Neil Gaiman]]
*Dr. [[Richard Beeching]]
*Rev. Dr. [[John Mason Neale]]
*Sir [[Archibald McIndoe]]
*Sir [[Patrick Moore]] (lived at Glencathara, Worsted Lane, 1929-1965)

==East Grinstead in Literature==
East Grinstead is the destination of the adulterous lovers Norman and Annie in [[Alan Ayckbourn]]'s trilogy of plays entitled ''The Norman Conquests''. It was chosen because of the dubious impression that no reasonable person would consider vacationing there and therefore they would not be discovered. In the [[1978]] film version of the trilogy, Norman and Annie were portrayed by [[Tom Conti]] and [[Penelope Wilton]].

East Grinstead also features in [[Christopher Fowler]]'s novel, ''Psychoville'' (1996), in which the town features as harbouring the fictional Invicta Cross, as well as the eventual New Invicta.

==Sports and Social Clubs==
East Grinstead is well served by local sports clubs and has a [[List of King George V Playing Fields (Sussex)|King George's Field]] in memorial to [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]]. The clubs include the:

*[http://www.eglc.co.uk/ East Grinstead Lacrosse Club] was formed in 2004, the only [[lacrosse]] club in Sussex. During EGLCs 1st competitive season they have come 2nd in the South of England East Division and won the South of England minor flags (cup) competition. EGLC are expanding rapidly; they will be entering two men’s teams into the league next season and have a growing women’s section. A youth section is planned for the future.
*East Grinstead Ex-servicemen and Women's Club. ([[C&IU]])Affiliate.
*East Grinstead Athletics Club,
*East Grinstead Wasps football club,
*East Grinstead Hockey Club who now compete in the Premier 1 Division of the National League.

==External links==
*[http://www.eastgrinstead.gov.uk/ East Grinstead Town Council]
*[http://www.egnet.co.uk/ East Grinstead Community Website]
*[http://www.east-grinstead.com/ East Grinstead Tourism and History Guide]
*[http://www.thebestof.co.uk/east%20grinstead The Best Of East Grinstead ... Find local Business’s News and Events for East Grinstead]
*[http://www.swithun.co.uk/ St. Swithuns Church Website]
*[http://www.trinitymethodist.org.uk/ Trinity Methodist Church]
*[http://www.nlceg.org/ New Life Church]
*[http://www.weststreetbc.org.uk/ West Street Baptist Church, East Grinstead]
*[http://www.eglc.co.uk/ East Grinstead Lacrosse Club]
*[http://www.eglc.co.uk/html/forum/login.php?sid=a83e01a6fa47de037409c1da9facb945/ East Grinstead Lacrosse Club Forum - Keep up to date with the top lacrosse club in Sussex]

[[Category:Towns in West Sussex]]

East Grinstead

2006-09-12T08:28:37Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 81.6.197.114 (talk) to last version by Zeimusu

Victorianischer Goldrausch

2006-08-28T09:02:52Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 144.138.223.32 (talk) to last version by SmackBot

The '''Victorian [[gold rush]]''' was a period in the history of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in [[Australia]] between approximately [[1851]] and the early [[1860s]].
== Background ==
By [[1840]] the city of [[Melbourne]], in the far south of Victoria, was nearly five years old. Population growth in Melbourne and the surrounding countryside had been steady but not spectacular, and the population had reached around 10,000 people.

In July 1851 Melbourne's 29,000 residents celebrated as they broke away from New South Wales and the Colony of [[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]] was born. Weeks later it was announced that [[gold]] had been found in Victoria. The first discoveries were by Louis Michel at [[Warrandyte, Victoria|Warrandyte]], 30 [[kilometres]] north-east of Melbourne, [[James Esmond]] at Clunes in July 1851, and [[Thomas Hiscock]] at Buninyong, near Ballarat, on [[2 August]] [[1851]].

On [[20 July]] [[1851]] [[Thomas Peters, gold-finder|Thomas Peters]], a hut-keeper on William Barker’s ''Mount Alexander'' station, found specks of gold at what is now known as Specimen Gully. This find was published in the Melbourne ''[[The Argus (Australia)|Argus]]'' on [[8 September]] [[1851]], leading to a rush to the [[Mount Alexander]] or Forest Creek diggings, centred on present-day [[Castlemaine, Victoria|Castlemaine]], claimed to be the richest shallow alluvial goldfield in the world.

These discoveries were soon surpassed by bigger ones at [[Ballarat, Victoria|Ballarat]] and [[Bendigo, Victoria|Bendigo]], and more finds in a number of other locations around Victoria followed.

{| class="prettytable" style="float:right"
!Year
!Population of Melbourne
|-
|1835||0
|-
|1840||10,000
|-
|1851||29,000
|-
|1854||123,000
|}

The population of Melbourne grew swiftly as the gold fever took hold. The total number of people in Victoria also rose. By 1851 it was 75,000 people. Ten years later this rose to over 500,000.

First to be obtained was the 'easy' gold(alluvial); that which was to be found on the '''surface'''. It is reported that miners when first arrived on the Mt Tarrengower fields nuggets were picked up without digging. This was followed by exploitation of [[alluvial]] gold usually in creeks and rivers. The seekers used gold pans, puddling boxes and cradles to separate this gold from the dirt and water.

When this ran out underground [[mining]] began. This was much harder and more dangerous than the panning and puddling. The mines ranged from single person, to teams and eventually large mining companies. The miners followed the underground reefs of gold. At [[Walhalla, Victoria|Walhalla]] alone, Cohens Reef produced over 50 tonnes (1.6 million tr oz) of gold in 40 years of mining. As of February 2004, that would be worth $800 million.

== Major and long lasting impact ==
The gold rush had a large influence on Melbourne, on Victoria, and on Australia as a whole. It touched every aspect of society and elements of it are still clearly visible today. The influx of wealth that gold brought soon made Victoria Australia's richest state by far, and Melbourne the nation's largest city.

Australia's population changed dramatically as a result of the rushes. In 1851 the Australian population was 437,655, of which 77,345, or just under 18%, were Victorians. A decade later the Australian population had grown to 1,151,947 and the Victorian population had increased to 538,628; just under 47% of the Australian total and a seven-fold increase. In some small country towns where gold was found aboundant, the population could grow of over 1000% in a decade (e.g. Rutherglen had a population of ~2'000. Ten years later, it had ~60'000 which is a 3000% increase). The rapid growth was predominantly a result of the gold rushes.<ref>{{cite book | last = Caldwell | first = J. C. | authorlink = | editor = Wray Vamplew (ed.) | title = Australians: Historical Statistics | date = 1987 | publisher = Fairfax, Syme & Weldon Associates | location = Broadway, New South Wales, Australia | id = ISBN 0-949288-29-2 | pages = pages 23 and 26 | chapter = Chapter 2: Population}}</ref>

Although most goldfields were exhausted by the end of the 19th century, and much of the profit was sent back to the United Kingdom, enough remained to fund substantial development of industry and infrastructure.

The [[Eureka Stockade]], an armed protest or revolt over what the miners perceived as unfair policing and harsh taxation, is widely regarded as important in Victoria and Australia's democratic development.

The gold rush is reflected in the architecture of Victorian gold-boom cities like Melbourne, [[Castlemaine, Victoria|Castlemaine]], [[Ballarat, Victoria|Ballarat]], [[Bendigo, Victoria|Bendigo]], Ararat, [[Maldon, Victoria|Maldon]] and [[Beechworth, Victoria|Beechworth]]. Ballarat has Sovereign Hill — a 60 acre (240,000 m²) recreation of a gold rush town — as well as the Gold Museum. At the other end of the spectrum are near or actual ghost towns, such as [[Walhalla, Victoria|Walhalla]], [[Mafeking, Victoria|Mafeking]] and [[Steiglitz, Victoria|Steiglitz]].

The last major gold rush in Victoria was at [[Beringa, Victoria|Beringa]], south of Ballarat, in the first decade of the [[20th century]]. Gold mining later virtually ceased in Victoria, not because there was no more gold but in the main because of the depth and cost of pumping. The [[First World War]] also drained Australia of the labour needed to work the mines. However, as of 2005 the recent increase in the gold price has seen a resurgence in commercial mining activity; mining has resumed in [[Bendigo, Victoria|Bendigo]], [[Ballarat, Victoria|Ballarat]], and exploration proceeds elsewhere, for example, in [[Glen Wills, Victoria|Glen Wills]], an isolated mountain area near [[Mitta Mitta, Victoria|Mitta Mitta]] in north-eastern Victoria.

== See also ==
*[[Welcome Stranger]]

== References ==


{{FootnotesSmall|resize={{{1|100%}}}}}

==Further reading==
*''Nothing but Gold'' Robyn Annear ISBN 1-876485-07-8
*''Walhalla Heyday'' G.F. James & C.G. Lee ISBN 0-9596311-3-5
*''Walhalla: Valley of Gold'' John Aldersea & Barbara Hood ISBN 0-9750887-0-X

== External links ==
*[http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/windows/gold/index.asp Victorian Museum ]
*[http://www.walhalla.org.au Walhalla]
*[http://www.sovereignhill.com.au/ Sovereign Hill]
*[http://www.sovereignhill.com.au/museum/index.shtml Gold Museum at Ballarat]
*[http://www.abc.net.au/rural/news/stories/s1032324.htm Report on resumed exploration]

[[Category:Gold rushes]]
[[Category:History of Victoria|Gold rush]]
[[Category:1850s]]
[[Category:1860s]]
[[Category:1800s in Australia]]

Derek Taylor (Journalist)

2006-08-25T00:11:38Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 70.16.54.101 (talk) to last version by Kingboyk

'''Derek Taylor''' ([[May 7]],[[1932]] – [[September 8]],[[1997]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] journalist, best known as the press agent for the hugely popular [[rock band]], [[the Beatles]]. He was a local journalist in [[Liverpool]] who worked for the ''Liverpool Daily Post and Echo'', the ''News Chronicle'', the ''Sunday Dispatch'', and the ''Sunday Daily Express'', and was also a regular columnist and theatre critic for the ''Northern Daily Express''.

In [[1964]] he co-wrote ''A Cellarful of Noise'', the [[autobiography]] of the Beatles' manager [[Brian Epstein]]. Soon after, he became Epstein's personal assistant and Beatles' press agent. In [[1965]] he moved to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] and started his own [[public relations]] company, managing the PR for bands like [[Paul Revere and the Raiders]], [[the Byrds]] and [[the Beach Boys]]. He was also a co-creator and producer of the historic ''[[Monterey Pop Festival]]'' in [[1967]]. A year later, he returned to [[England]] to work for the Beatles again as the press officer for the newly created [[Apple Corps]].

Derek Taylor died of [[cancer]] on [[September 8]], [[1997]].

[[Category:1932 births|Taylor, Derek]]
[[Category:1997 deaths|Taylor, Derek]]
[[Category:Apple Corps|Taylor, Derek]]
[[Category:The Beatles|Taylor, Derek]]
[[Category:Brian Epstein|Taylor, Derek]]

Schwarze

2006-07-08T00:49:58Z

Raven4x4x: Reverted edits by 68.8.142.52 (talk) to last version by Ghewgill

"'''''Black'''''" is a term used as a form of ethno-racial classification. Though literally implying dark skin, "black" has been used in different ways at different times and places. It is somewhat of a misnomer in various parts of the world. While the extremes of human [[skin color]] range from pink to [[blue-black]], the vast majority of people have a skin color which can be best described as some shade of [[brown]]. This includes all [[races]] and [[ethnic groups]]. A common element to the various definitions of "black" today, is that the term refers to a person of [[African]], [[Aboriginal]], [[Negrito]] or [[Dalit]] descent. Also generally associated to black people are the various expressions of [[African]] and [[African-American]] cultures, Protestant Christianity (Baptists, Methodism, Pentecostalism), Catholic-Voudun (Santeria, Candomblé) and Muslim (Islamic) religions, social freedom and struggle.

[[Black]], when used to characterize people, generally refers to someone of indigenous [[African]], [[Negrito]], or [[Melanesian]] descent and/or a person of a [[dark]] complexion. Blackness as a social identity is difficult to universally define, as it varies from nation to nation. It is well documented that [[Equatorial]] populations of [[Africa]], where modern humans likely originated, are the most genetically diverse in the world. Although there is no single black [[phenotype]], black people generally exhibit varying characteristics of [[Negroid]], [[Veddoid]], [[Capoid]], or [[Australoid]] phenotypes, with a great range of variations, due to the overall diversities of black people. In some societies, even if one's complexion is as light as the average "white" person, other physical characteristics or family [[lineage]] will serve to identify one as [[black]].

== Areas of habitation ==

While black people are found on every [[continent]], they are known to be indigenous to [[Africa]], [[Australia]], and parts of [[India]]. In Africa, they are found mostly south of the [[Sahara]] desert, as the peoples of [[North Africa]] are generally lighter-skinned and generally do not refer to themselves as [[black]].

In the [[Western Hemisphere]], black people also are found in high concentrations in the urban regions of the [[United States]] and the Southern United States, the [[Caribbean]] and sizeable portions of [[Latin America]], including [[Belize]], [[Panama]], with [[Brazil]] having the highest proportion (and overall number) of Black people in the West (although a significant proportion of Brazilians of considerable African descent do not consider themselves to be Black).

In [[Asia]], black people inhabit [[Yemen]], some areas of [[Iraq]] (especially [[Basra]]), much of [[Nepal]] (especially Rana Tharu), the [[Andaman Islands]] (Negritos), the indigenous [[Dalit]] population of India (numbering 160 million) and the larger Dravidian population of India (though not all Dravidians consider themselves black, a sizeable proportion phenotypically reflect their African heritage and acknowledge it). There are more recent Afro-Indian groups, such as the small group of 20-30,000 black Siddis in the Gujarat province of India, the Kaffiri of the island of [[Sri Lanka]], and small communities of Sheedis in the coastal districts of the southern province of Sindh and neighboring Baluchistan.

Thousands of Sheedis also inhabit Karachi, Pakistan's largest city. Black people indigenously inhabit the island of [[Papua]], [[Aboriginals]] inhabit [[Australia]], and [[Melanesians]] inhabit various islands of the Pacific Rim. In addition, there are black-jewish cultures in [[East India]] (see Bene Israel), [[Ethiopia]], and [[Mozambique]] (see [[Lemba]]).

== Origins ==

Darker skinned humans have existed as the default human type as far back as the human species ([[homo sapiens]]) is known to exist. Whether through evolutionary changes or adaptation, tracking back the statistical patterns in variations in DNA among all known people sampled who are alive on the earth today, scientists have concluded the following: 1) from 1.2 million years ago for a million years, the ancestors of all people alive today may have been as [[black]] as today's Africans,

2) for that period of a million years, human ancestors lived naked without clothing, and 3) the descendants of any people who migrate North from Africa will mutate to become white over time because the evolutionary constraint that keeps Africans' [[skin]] black [[generation]] after generation decreases generally the further North a people migrates (Rogers 2004). These unchanged humans, through time would remain indistinguishably Black by our own social norms, and their [[phenotypes]] would vary, as modern human types vary today.

Black people are believed to have expanded from Africa in two distinct groups, the older Aboriginal Australians and recent Equatorial African types. According to the Out-of-Africa theory of human evolution, prehistoric Africans evolved in Africa 200,000 years ago and are the ancestors of all modern humans. These Africans migrated throughout Africa, eventually moving across the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and into various regions, including [[Europe]] and beyond. Those who remained retained their distinctive skin color, while over time, the Europeans and many Asians gradually lost their darker skin as an adaption to the colder climates of the northern temperate zones. Others, in India, and across the southern areas of Asia retained their darker complexion, and their [[phenotypes]] changed in various ways, becoming the [[Veddic]], [[Australian]], and [[Negrito]] peoples.

Early [[Neolithic]] settlement patterns indicate that black people spread out to inhabit much of the Indian Ocean coastline, contributing greatly to the [[Indian Ocean]] cultures of the early historical period. The societies of the [[Indus Valley]] Civilization, [[Indonesia]], and the [[Middle East]] were known to have a strong native-black heritage. Recent archaeological evidence has refuted the notion that blacks, especially black Africans, remained in [[Africa]] and generally were not present in [[Asia]]. It was once widely believed that the black presence in[[ Asia]] was mostly the result of slave trading, but modern anthropologists now acknowledge that aboriginal black populations ranged throughout Southeast Asia, and some posit an ancient aboriginal black population in the [[Far East]], as well. Some of these populations, such as the [[Negritos]] still remain.

As the legacy of both the [[trans-Atlantic]] and [[Islamic]] slave trades, many people of indigenous African descent can be found throughout the [[United States]], the [[Caribbean]], [[Latin America]], as well as parts of the [[Middle East]] and [[South Asia]]. The majority of African slaves in the Americas came from either [[West Africa]] or [[Central Africa]], and the slaves in the Arab world came from both [[East Africa]] and the [[Horn of Africa]].

The second group would be the [[Negrito]], [[Australoid]] and [[Melanesian]] populations. These include some [[South Asians]], a variety of [[East Indians]], and [[Melanesian]] populations of the Pacific Ocean. They developed distinctly from the Africans around 100,000 years ago, and while maintaining the darker skin color, exhibited straighter hair on average, and eventually developed into the wider varieties of Asians.

In the past, scientists had attributed variations of people outside of West Africa to intermixing with [[Caucasoid]] or [[Sinoid]] people. However, [[Stephen Monlar]], a leading anthropologist, has pointed out that many [[Nilotic]] people have narrow noses, but this is not from intermixing with [[Eurasians]], but from environmental adaptations. Adaptations, as well as spontaneous [[genetic mutations]], which are the cause of variations in human phenotypes, have caused [[Equatorial]] people to exhibit a variety of phenotypes, some of which resemble the phenotypes of other groups, which sometimes leads to the mistaken assumption that they are ethnically mixed.

== Defining characteristics ==

Throughout the Modern Period, blackness has been determined mostly by three criteria: [[Skin color]], faciocranial [[phenotype]] and sometimes [[hair texture]]. Relative distance from Europe and proximity to Africa also have been considered as determining factors, but this criterion has been the most contentious and has caused the most confusion and conflict, due to the [[racist]] implications and stereotypes that invariably arise.

Depending on one's nationality or the region in which one lives, blackness can be based more on [[lineage]] than [[complexion]]. Very light-skinned individuals may consider themselves black, and very dark-skinned people may not. Often, the perceptions of society and of the individual will conflict. In [[Brazil]], [[Mauritania]], the [[U.S.]], [[Sudan]], [[Cuba]], and parts of [[India]], these issues remain unresolved.

Due to the lasting legacy of colonization, the definition of 'black' is often imposed on black people by a non-black government or ruling class. In these situations, the definition will either be embraced or rejected by the people in question, depending on their perceptions of their indigenous black heritage, again often reflecting the sentiments of the surrounding [[society]] in which they live.

== Varying definitions of the term "black" ==

The definition of a black person changes from region to region and period to period. Often it is imposed at the convenience of the non-black ruling establishment of that [[nation]] or region. In other cases, as in Brazil, the name is synonymous with low social status.
The use of the term "black" is divided into four sections.

[[Africans]] living in Africa (excluding those whose ancestors were not originally from
Africa, like Afrikaaners). This is applied intrinsically by those south of the [[Sahara]].
Along the desert, [[Tuareg]], [[Berber]], and [[Hausa]] people retain a sense of racial
hegemony, with the darker skinned (and often more numerous) people being ruled and
oppressed by the lighter skinned minorities. Relatively speaking, the people of
[[Mauritania]], [[Mali]], [[Chad]], most of [[Sudan]] and [[Ethiopia]], and a significant
minority of [[Egyptians]] consider themselves black, but struggle in various ways with
disproportionate representation in their government by non-Black [[Arabs]].

People whose ancestors have lived outside of Africa since historical antiquity. The various
[[Asians]], [[Negroid]], [[Veddoid]], and [[Australoid]] people fit this category.
Blackness has been used to describe [[Aeta Filipinos]], the original inhabitants of
[[Taiwan]], large groups of [[East Indian]] populations throughout history and various
southeast [[Asians]], [[Papuans]], and [[Melanesians]]. Their experiences range widely and
there is relatively less information regarding their self-perception in relationship to
other Black people throughout the world, as they have had little contact with African and
black people of the [[western hemisphere]].

Those who live in [[Latin America]] and in some islands of the [[Caribbean]]. Their
relationship to [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] create a distinct heritage. Their self
perception is usually tied to their skin color and less to a sense of family heritage.
Often those who are lighter-skinned find little issue with being classified as non-black,
even as other relatives in their family (even siblings) will remain classified as black.

Those who live in [[Haiti]], [[United States]], [[Jamaica]] and [[South Africa]]. These
groups share a similar and unique experience of being onced ruled by English speaking colonizers
and were legally separated into two groups blacks and [[Coloured]]s. Finally these groups share
the distinction of associating their blackness more with their descent than literal skin
color, partially due to the one drop rule, and also to a moral stand against racism and
discrimination. Most Black people of light complexion find it repugnant or illogical to
renounce or dilute their black identity due solely to their [[skin color]].

== Self-identified and imposed blackness ==

There are two ways that a person can be defined as a black person. There is the impositional method, whereby political and social forces will label a darker skinned person as black. This has occurred in [[India]], the [[Western Hemisphere]], and throughout [[Africa]]. This method has been used to divide ethnic groups as well as to create a caste system of privilege and control in many colonized areas.The second, the intrinsic method, is where a person or group of people independently identify themselves as being black; the [[Aeta]] are one group whose first contact with [[Chinese]] mainlanders involved no subjugation, so they proudly identified themselves as black.

Family ties, the importance of solidarity against anti-black racism, resistance to colonialism, and opposition to perceived white supremacy or eurocentric philosophies motivate people with varying degrees of Equatorial lineage to identify solely as black. Since the 1940s, with the established viewpoint in the Western world shifting, many groups once considered "black" by colonizing powers—even as recently as a century ago—have now lost that identity in official policies, e.g. national census reports, established anthropological studies, historical and archaeological reports.In the [[United States]], black people of mixed race groups had for the most part reintegrated with the fully black population, but recently, due to a new movement to recognize biracial children of black/white couples, the division of [[black]] and [[biracial]] people has been re-introduced into America's social identity.

As modern communication develops around the world, most of the varieties of black people have become aware of each other, and many self-identified black people (especially in the United States) are working to change the sometimes negative perception of black skin, [[culture]], and [[heritage]] in order to increase the [[political]], [[economic]], and [[social]] well-being of black people around the world. Since the nuances of black identity have changed outside of the US, this message is received differently by the various groups in the world. Many modern societies attempt to observe no distinctions between human races or identities; others do exactly the opposite. Sometimes, those who have the core characteristics of dark skin and phenotype exclude those who lack it, even though both share ancestors and/or historical experiences.

The [[Caucasus]] peoples of [[Abidjan]], and [[Crimea]] are sometimes called black because, relatively speaking, they are darker and less European in their appearance. The term has been used also to describe [[Southern Italians]] and some [[Arabs]], almost always pejoratively, as these groups resent being labeled as black.

== 20th/21st Century controversies ==

There is a discontinuity between older historical accounts describing black people, and modern scholarly consensus. Many archaic literary accounts, including the Bible, describe black people clearly in Hebrew. However, scholarship took a brief paradigm shift in the late 20th century, with some indicating that [[Kushites]] and [[Ethiopians]] were in fact not Black, but merely [[dark skinned]] or tanned [[Caucasians]]. Due to vague similarity in skull shapes with other [[Caucasoid]] types, they instead insist that [[Kushite]] described a dark-skinned but non-black person. Usually, [[East Africans]] from as far north as Egypt to as far south as Rwanda are variously recast by modern scholarship as non-black [[Caucasoids]], whose heritage is not truly connected to the greater black populations of Africa.

There has been a long held established view in Western culture that black people have not contributed substantially to Ancient [[Middle Eastern]] culture, civilization and history. The [[Middle East]], being the cradle of civilization, encompass parts of Africa and Asia, and borders upon Europe and India. Although the Middle East holds the legacies of over a dozen ancient civilizations, Most of the controversy centers around [[Egypt]] (but has recently expanded to include India, [[Greece]], and [[Iran]]).

Egypt, being close to [[Israel]], has the most reliable written record of Biblical events outside of the Bible itself and is also a reliable source of written history about Black people (and Jewish people prior to the 8th Century B.C.E.). This perspective has helped Black people find clarity on their relationship to Biblical events. Also, Egypt, being so geographically close to people who are unquestionably Black, would have the most reliable record of how black people related within its own civilization. Many of the distinctive Ancient Egyptian social customs (hair styles, shaving habits, burial practices) and quirks are also found among black people but absent in [[Semitic]] and [[European]] people of that period and the modern one.

By the mid 18th century, Western theologians and intellectuals had concluded that one, black people had been cursed by God in the Bible to be no more than peripheral slaves, and two, Black people were incapable of generating a [[civilization]] worthy of respect by white historians. Black scholars chose to place empathasis on [[Egypt]] in order to decisively refute these erroneous conclusions, in order to end slavery, then to overturn Jim Crow laws, and finally to end the established order of teaching history. Egyptian history presents, at the very least, an abundant first hand account of the presence of a wide variety of black people in the region, and depending on the perspective one takes, Ancient Egypt was itself a black civilization.

This latter assertion generated a new wave of racialized [[Afrocentric]] debate between established scholarly critics of [[Afrocentric]] fallacies and Afrocentric scholarly criticism of erroneous assmuptions by Eurocentric scholarship. Despite the fact that 18th century [[European]] writers and escavators like [[Champollion]] and [[Lepsius]] had concluded that the [[Egyptians]] were a Black people, Afrocentric critics have faulted poor scholarship on the part of Black scholars for the lowered quality of education in America resulting from on over-empahsis on Afrocentricity (irrespective of the accuracies it has presented).

Until the early 1990s, Black people have been portrayed in American media as being mutually exclusive (or excluded) from autentic and legitimate [[Latino]], [[Jewish]], [[Asian]] and [[Middle Eastern]] culture and history. This was mostly due to commercialized imagery of the people, which followed American demographic trends to portray Latinos, Middle Easterners, and Asians as almost devoid of black characteristics, while America itself was portrayed in foreign media to be equally sanitized of Black habitation (outside of [[musicians]], [[sportsmen]], and [[criminal elements]]). Those who are or have been defined as being [[black]] have not been asked what [[black]] means, but instead have been told what it does not mean, as a method of social exclusion. In how they are defined, blacks, much more than any other group have been excluded from defining themselves officially. Because of this, some of the most awkward controversies arise in historical contexts.

Gradually, the connections between [[black]] and [[Asian]] cultures has created more cultural awareness between the two groups. During the 20th Century, the[[Afrocentric]] and [[Negritude]] movements had opened the minds of black people to their historical heritage throughout the world. Many black scholars have exposed ancient writings and 19th century observations and republished them. [[Cheikh Anta Diop]], a Senegalese historian, made the most profound impact by presenting a wide variety of information and evidence showing the acute black presence in Egypt and elsewhere. In addition, [[Ivan Sertima]], a noted Africanologist made a strong impact with African presence in Early [[Asia]]. Many Asians have participated in the founding of various black movements, including [[Wallace Fard Muhammad]], founder of the [[Nation of Islam]].

== Black identity embraced and rejected ==

Over time the term black has come to refer to those who identify themselves as black by virtue of their family's shared cultural heritage with [[Equatorial]] Africa, [[slavery]], and experiences of oppression based on their Equatorial lineage and skin color. Black has also been a term imposed by ligher-skinned people on various darker-skinned people to take advantage of and exclude them. Many times this label of blackness has been embraced by the oppressed for the sake of moral solidarity against the oppressors. The [[Jewish]] diaspora also through their shared religious history maintain a similar commonality of identity that universally transcends any other differences, although black Jews are experiencing the same amount of prejudice in Israel and often are looked at with less legitimacy than whiter Jews strictly due to their skin color.

Despite this, many non-Blacks work to de-emphasize the blackness of non-African blacks by contrasting their differences towards the black African. Often, the word "black" or the idea of being "truly black" becomes synonymous with being a "West African oriented person". In Kerala for example, many Jews who are [[dark skinned]] identified themselves as being black and were considered such by the "white" Jews that lived among them. However, the recent white established view is that these Cochin Jews are black but not as black as a [[Negro]] or a black African. Nevertheless, the "white" Jews of [[Cochin]] had engaged in the same racial prejudice and slavery and exclusionary principles against the black Jews of Cochin over the centuries of their inhabitation there.

The white Jews limited the educational and litergual access that the black Cochin Jews were able to obtain, and due to the establishments from the European regions, they were able to consolidate power based on their skin color. Only recently now has there an interest in disassociating blackness from these Jews due to lighter-skinned Jews (and Europeans) generally find disdain in harmonizing blackness, especially African blackness with their culture and heritage.

== Criticisms of the term ==

Most criticisms against the term are based on either a [[Eurocentric]] fear of its inclusion of others in the world outside of [[Africa]] and [[North America]], or the use of [[hypodescent]] rules to try to classify anyone as black, due to the theory that somewhere down the line, everyone has a black ancestor no matter how far back in time one goes, even to the earliest prehistoric human days.

Many scholars criticize the [[hypodescent]] rule. Although others theorise that their motives for doing so are often to limit any social movement towards economic self-determination among black diaspora. The [[One Drop Rule]], now villified by many Eurocentric scholars (especially when applied to ancient cultures by Afrocentric scholars), had been established by white politicans generations ago, to prevent racial mixing. This one drop rule, which [[white American]], [[Australian]], and, to a lesser extent, other colonies had established for the sake of upholding white society's perceptions of purity with its own identity, became the de facto social experience for black people across the [[United States]].

For the sake of moral solidarity against the presumed immoral oppression, this rule was embraced by black people in America, especially in a Christian context, and the effect has become a permanent aspect of black identity. Once black literature and intellectual expression experienced a boom in the beginning of the 20th century, the [[hypodescent]] rule is said to have become a new threat to European colonial ambitions, and to white racial-social controls.

As time passed, so the theory goes, and Jim Crow laws of racial segregation were outlawed in the 1960s, some educated whites felt more and more that the significance of the one drop rule should also be de-emphasized due to the changing times. Their fear, it is claimed, was that the outcome of maintaining the hypodescent rule would cause every interracial union with a black person to lower the longterm population of whites in America, and Europe, whose population rates are flat for the projected future.

It is also claimed that the U.S. Census multiracial category was rejected as an outright attempt by the federal government of the [[United States]] to divide black people into subgroups similarily like [[Haiti]] and [[South Africa]], where "[[coloured]]" would be replaced with "bi-racial". Many [[Afrocentric]] movements reinforced the importance of the hypodescent effect within the borders of the United States for this reason, but reject applying the rule to others elsewhere, due to the ambigious identity of many mixed groups ([[Latinos]], [[Arabs]], some [[Asians]]). Some contend that this has been part of a generalized plan by white academics, feeling the need to remove the monolithic perspective of black identity in America and fearing a spread of black identity across the world through the [[media]], especially in hip hop culture and[[ Afrocentricism]], to continually undermine the hypodescent rule.

== The Classical Negro vis-a-vis Afrocentricism ==

Much of the commentary about the blackness (or lack thereof) of a society or civilizaion revolves around the ideology that the most legitimate kind of black person should come from West Africa and have very specific [[negroid]] features. This "Classical Negro" argument for legitimacy is rooted in a Eurocentric philosophy that nebulously defines a person's blackness solely in contrast to their difference from an idolized variety of the Northeastern European.

This European look, blonde hair, very aquiline nose, thin lips, round eyes of blue, angular features and a pronounced chin, has been the status quo standard that has created such a psychological impact upon the world, because it was forced upon so many as a social means of respectability, it became a subconscious standard for which most other cultures have tried to emulate. [[Eurocentric]] scholars, most notably those supporting a variety of Social Darwinism, tend to create a polar view of humanity, with the stereotypical view of the [[West Africa]]n, large lips, black kinky hair, very wide nose, rounded features and an overbite, in opposition to the European idealized look.

This polarized propaganda in all of its varieties has been designed to support the Eurocentric view that all other groups in the world have contributed to the development of society and civilization proportional to their proximity to the Northeastern European type. Since the West African is viewed as the opposite of the idealized European type, the [[West African]] is considered the least contributive to world history.

The actual motivation of this view is based on residual prejudice against those of West African origin (Mainly African-Americans) who have been most effective in speaking out against [[Eurocentricism]] and [[white prejudice]]. Due to the influence of West African and African American intellectuals in the 20th Century, the white established racial views were under threat of being disassembled by the virtue of the ubiquitous one-drop rule, and by the fact that many ancient civilizations that were spoken of in the Bible, and respected in European society, had been discovered to be of substantial black and/or black African origin.

Most notably, the [[Egyptian]] society was viewed as a black society by [[Jean-François Champollion]] in his book "[[L'Egypte]]" in the mid 19 Century, and many black intellectuals had expounded on this observation. As time passed, more and more civilizations within Africa were discovered with indications that they colonized some areas of Asia and interacted with other ancient civilizations as equals. This realistic possibility became an educational threat to the perceived moral sensitivies of the white European caste systems throughout the world, as colonization was morally justified by Europeans based on their perceived civilized or technological experience.

These revelations, once discovered by black intellectuals, began a cascade effect in the 20th century of re-evaluating world cultures from an Afrocentric perspective. Eurocentric scholars responded by noting that West African societies, which the majority of American blacks are descended from, have not been a part of any intercontinental civilization and contributed very little towards any artistic, social or philosophical acheievement. Therefore, the "classical negro" became synonymous with "truly black" and used as a lightning rod against redefining Asian and ancient civilizations as "black".

Unfortunately many Afrocentric scholars, following this same faulty logic, tend to respond by finding any possible trace of West African heritage in any civilization. Both sides ignore the variations in West Africans and their very complex histories. Because of this, the issue deterioriates into a moral tug of war between Eurocentric scholarly view that stands morally against hypo-descent, and the Afrocentric view, that morally emphasizes the founding and continual contributions of [[black Africans]] to [[Ancient Egyptian]], and other societies, cultures and history.

Both views resort to diffusionism and the nebulousity of blackness to either include or exclude Ancient Egypt (and most [[East Indian]], [[Asian]], and [[East African]] cultures), by resorting to an extreme stereotype of the West African as the legitimate standard to determine "how" black a civilization or group of people are. In Ivan Sertima's defense of his thesis that black African people came to the West before [[Christopher Columbus]], "Reply to my critics", he laid out 10 myths that he responds to, with the second addressing these misconceptions about West Africans and Egyptians, noting that the critics supporting the classical negro as a West African standard are ignorant of the [[variations]] of features of "pure blooded" [[West Africans]].

In addition, it is clear that these critics do not apply the same standards of facial phenotype upon Europeans. A European with a large nose, curly hair, or tanned skin would not be considered "less" European, white, or Caucasoid than any other, but instead be considered another type of European. In the same manner, it is understood that Africans have a variety of features, none owing to a [[European]], [[Arab]] or non-Black [[progenitor]].

== Renouncing blackness ==

Those who wish to be identified by either their national origin alone, or by a color term other than black are often considered "sellouts" by those who embrace their own black identity. It is often feared that these "sellouts" wish to socialize primarily with the colonizing elite and hide their own black heritage.

In the West, this is usually the root cause of recent divisions within Latino culture that are manifesting themselves politically (most notably in [[Cuba]]). Some may choose to suppress or renounce their black heritage for economic reasons, but the social effects are almost always the lowest common denominator: acceptance into the dominating elite earns respect and prestige and a feeling of meaningful accomplishment. By passing into white identity, those who renounce their blackness often feel that they are achieving a self-respect and dignity not possible within a black identity. The novel [['Black No More']] by [[George Schuyler]] exposes this underlying motivation, and is still considered an up-to-date commentary on the issue, and it also tackles the larger issue of recognizing race as a social construct and not a biological reality.

Some black individuals and some cultures of black African origin may take great effort to renounce their identity as well as to renounce or play down their own African ancestry while emphasizing the other heritage or cultural background present in their society. Latinozation and Arabization are the two most potent forces of de-Africanization, due to the lingering effects of colonization and racism imposed on their cultures by the colonial rulers of the past few centuries. The colonizing elite of [[Latin America]], [[North Africa]], and [[East Africa]] had universally applied the skin-color caste-system throughout their dominions, which emphasized the supposed virtues of the lighter-skinned peoples, and generated a shame of darker-skinned identity.

The ruling elite of the [[Middle East]] also encouraged this social policy, although to a lesser degree, and had been known as far back as the 8th century for enslaving black Africans. The Zanj Rebellion of Iraq (869 - 883) was an early slave insurrection that led to the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate. These rebellions had been caused by inhumane treatment of black African slaves sent to [[Iraq]] to drain salt marshes.

Over the centuries, lighter-skinned people were taught by the ruling powers to view themselves as one step above their darker-skinned countrymen. The policy to marginalize and exclude black people from equal and mutual respect, educational opportunity, and self-reliance became nearly a subconscious social policy throughout [[European]]-dominated societies. Because of this, throughout the modern era, black people, whether self-identified or not, are on average economically marginalized or at the lower rungs of the political and socio-economic structures of the countries they reside in. Although this is changing at a more rapid pace, black self-identity is constantly being re-evaluated in light of the economic impact it can have on one's well being.

== Non-black perspectives ==

The term black is often used in the West to denote race for people of predominantly Sub-saharan African ancestry. The anthropological term for these peoples, now considered somewhat archaic, is Negroid; 'Africoid' is increasingly used instead.
The U.S. Census racial definitions of [[white]], [[Asian]], [[Pacific Islander]], and [[Native American]] use "original" to describe the ancestry. The black racial definition group omits the word 'original'. This exclusion of black people from recognition of an original heritage has kept the foundation of defining black people nebulous, and keeps the door open to misunderstandings and manipulation of black identity.

In the U.S., for example, a black person was defined by non-black white policymakers as one who had any visibly substantial black ancestry (whether familial or phenotypic), and virtually all of [[Africa]], Egypt included, had been defined as black. Other peoples were classified as black in European-colonized countries.

Although once considered black or at least substantially black, the [[Philippines]], [[Australia]], [[India]], [[Central America]], [[Samoa]], part of [[Italy]] and the [[Horn of Africa]] have now been removed, by the faulty reasoning of the same ruling establishments: that their proximity to West Africa is the primary factor in determining how black they should be considered.

Therefore a very dark-skinned Filipino, or an East Indian who may or may not be of African descent, is considered "less black" than an African American or an African whose skin color is lighter in complexion. Because of the vocal and social strength of [[African Americans]], their identity has become a dominant standard outside of Africa, to which all other cultures outside of Africa are compared. This invariably causes problems in other cultures whose experiences are no less valid, yet whose relationship to the [[West African]] culture is not as strong, and whose cultures are not as polarized.

Many people think that a completely different, diluted use of the term is appropriate for other peoples who happen to have a dark skin, such as [[Indigenous Australians]], [[New Guineans]], [[Tamils]], other darker peoples of the Indian subcontinent, some southeast Asians (namely of mixed or full Negrito descent) and various South Pacific Islanders and others. In Russia the name chornyye (чёрные, blacks) applies mostly not to Africans, but to people from the Caucasus, who are indeed dark skinned, contrary to what one might think given the use of the term Caucasian in the United States.

In many countries, there is still a strong (though weakening) social stigma against those persons identifying themselves as part of more than one perceived racial category. Hence, it may be truer to say that people who perceive themselves or are perceived by others as a member of a black cultural group often are called black. As noted above, this perception can be imposed by others or intrinsic and celebrated by those who perceive themselves to be black.

In the United States the term [[Negro]] (from negro, [[Spanish]] and [[Portuguese]] for 'black') was widely used until the 1960s, and remains a constituent part of the names of several Afro/African American organizations. Another term given currency at the time was coloured. However, following the black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s, the terms Negro and coloured usually were deemed derogatory and inappropriate. By contrast, "black" (which some considered a pejorative when 'Negro' was in widespread use) has gained increasing acceptance worldwide. In the United States, it is often used interchangeably with African-American, a newer term preferred by many leaders and commentators. In Canada this is also used, as well as black Canadian. Some people find the term black offensive when used as a noun (a black) as opposed to an adjective (a black person).

In the [[United Kingdom]], the term black Briton is sometimes used but it is more common to use an adjectival rather than a noun term and write about [[black British]] people. Occasionally, the term is loosely used to include British people of south Asian descent; additionally, the Arab based bank BCCI was perceived by many black British as a "black bank". See also: [[British Afro-Caribbean community]]. Very rarely the term has been used (e.g. in local government) to include all potential sufferers of racial prejudice — even white Irish immigrants — though this is seen by some as an example of political correctness.

In [[South Africa]], the term blacks is used for the general black population, but since the country consists of different ethnic groups, they are often called by their ethnic names, e.g. Zulus, Xhosas, Basutos etc. In the Netherlands, something similar is often done, by naming blacks after their country of origin, e.g. Somaliër, [[Senegalese]], [[Nigerian]], [[Antillian]] or Surinamer, though it should be noted that the latter two can also refer to whites from the Netherlands [[Antilles]] or [[Surinam]].

==Footnotes==
<references/>

==See also==
*[[African diaspora]]
*[[Black Consciousness Movement]] and [[Steve Biko]]
*[[Colored]] people in the [[United States]]
*[[Coloured]] people of [[South Africa]]
*[[Creole peoples]]
*[[Race]]
*[[Race and Intelligence]]
*[[Racial segregation]]
*[[Negrito]]
*[[Negro]]
*[[Nilotic]]
*[[White (people)]]
*[[Negroid]]

===Groups===
*[[African American]]
*[[Afro-Brazilian]]
*[[Afro-Cuban]]
*[[Afro-Ecuadorian]]
*[[Afro-German]]
*[[Afro-Irish]]
*[[Afro-Latin American]]
*[[Afro-Mexican]]
*[[Afro-Peruvian]]
*[[Afro-Trinidadian]]
*[[African American culture]]
*[[African American music]]
*[[Black British]]
*[[African Caribbean]]
*[[Black Canadian]]
*[[Siddi]]
*[[Dalit]]
*[[Black People]]

==External links==
*[http://www.africancode.org/ African Code]
*[http://www.ligali.org/ Ligali]

[[de:Schwarzafrikaner]]
[[he:שחורים]]

Martin Crowe (Cricketspieler)

2006-06-25T05:46:41Z

Raven4x4x: shifted graph to improve formatting

{{Infobox Cricketer |
flag = Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg |
nationality = New Zealand |
country = New Zealand |
country abbrev = NZ |
name = Martin Crowe |
picture = Cricket_no_pic.png |
batting style = Right-handed batsman (RHB) |
bowling style = Right-arm medium (RM) |
tests = 71 |
test runs = 5444 |
test bat avg = 45.36 |
test 100s/50s = 17/18 |
test top score = 299 |
test overs = 229.3 |
test wickets = 14 |
test bowl avg = 48.28 |
test 5s = 0 |
test 10s = 0 |
test best bowling = 2/25 |
test catches/stumpings = 71/0 |
ODIs = 143 |
ODI runs = 4704 |
ODI bat avg = 38.55 |
ODI 100s/50s = 4/34 |
ODI top score = 107* |
ODI overs = 216 |
ODI wickets = 29 |
ODI bowl avg = 32.89 |
ODI 5s = 0 |
ODI best bowling = 2/9 |
ODI catches/stumpings = 66/0 |
date = 1 January |
year = 1996 |
source = http://nz.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/NZ/C/CROWE_MD_05001669/
}}
'''Martin David Crowe''' (born [[September 22]], [[1962]] in [[Henderson, New Zealand|Henderson]]) is a former [[New Zealand]] [[cricket]] player.

Crowe represented [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] from the early 1980s until his retirement in [[1996]], and was probably the country's best-ever [[batsman]]. Through the early part of his career he was also a medium-pace [[Bowler (cricket)|bowler]]. He captained New Zealand in the early 1990s, and led the team to the semi-final of the [[1992 Cricket World Cup]].

He played 77 [[Test cricket|Test matches]], averaging 45.65 with the bat, including 17 centuries and 18 half-centuries. He also played 143 [[one-day internationals]], averaging 38.55, and hit four centuries and 34 half-centuries. In 1991, he shared a 467-run partnership with [[Andrew Jones (cricketer)|Andrew Jones]], at the time the highest partnership in Test history. Crowe was dismissed on 299, the highest innings by a New Zealander in Test history.

After his retirement, Crowe helped develop a local variation of cricket, called "[[Short form cricket#Cricket Max|Cricket Max]]," and became a television commentator and pundit.

His brother [[Jeff Crowe]] also represented New Zealand at cricket. He is a cousin of actor [[Russell Crowe]].

==Reference==
*[http://content.cricinfo.com/newzealand/content/player/36622.html Cricinfo page on Martin Crowe]

[[Image:Martin Crowe Graph.png|left|thumb|350px|Martin Crowe's career performance graph.]]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[John Wright (cricketer)|John Wright]]|
title=[[New Zealand national cricket captains|New Zealand national cricket captain]] |
years=[[1990]]/[[1991|1]]-[[1992]]/[[1993|3]] |
after=[[Ken Rutherford]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{NZ-cricketbio-stub}}

[[Category:1962 births|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Living people|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Auckland cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Central Districts cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand ODI captains|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand ODI cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand Test captains|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand Test cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Somerset cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Wellington cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Wisden Cricketers of the Year|Crowe, Martin]]

Barwon River (Bass-Straße)

2006-02-15T06:57:16Z

Raven4x4x: rvv

[[Image:Barwon_Heads.JPG|thumb|right|280px|Locals enjoying the sights at the head of the Barwon River, at [[Barwon Heads, Victoria|Barwon Heads]].]]
The '''Barwon River''' rises in the [[Otway Ranges]] of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]], runs through the city of [[Geelong, Victoria|Geelong]], where it is joined by the [[Moorabool River]], and enters the sea at [[Barwon Heads]], west of [[Port Phillip]].

The river serves as a major source of drinking water and a popular recreation spot for Geelong.

[[Category:Geelong|Barwon River]]
[[Category:Rivers of Victoria]]
{{Victoria-geo-stub}}

Shi Tao (Journalist)

2006-02-05T07:22:02Z

Raven4x4x: rv test

:''For other usage, see [[Shitao]]''
----
'''Shi Tao''' (born [[25 July]] [[1968]]) is a Chinese [[journalist]] who was imprisoned for releasing the text of internal [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]] documents on the Internet. He had previously worked for the business daily ''Dangdai Shang Bao'' (Contemporary Business News) in [[Changsha]].

In 2004, Shi emailed some notes regarding the government's instructions on handling media coverage of the [[Tiananmen Square]] anniversary. He was detained on [[24 November]] [[2004]] and formally arrested on [[December 14]] on a charge of leaking state secrets. Shi was found guilty in April 2005 and sentenced to 10 years in prison.

The incident sparked a controversy about the business practices of [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]], whose [[Hong Kong]] arm provided technical information connecting the message and email account with Shi Tao's computer. Yahoo was criticized by [[Reporters Without Borders]] for acting as a "police informant".

Shi's mother, Gao Qinsheng, alleged "serious procedural defects" in her son's case, but his appeal was rejected without a hearing.

The [[Committee to Protect Journalists]] has awarded one of its 2005 International Press Freedom Awards to Shi Tao.

==References==
*[http://www.cpj.org/news/2005/China25aug05na.html Imprisoned journalist Shi Tao's family files for review of appeal] - Committee to Protect Journalists
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4221538.stm Yahoo 'helped jail China writer'] - BBC
*[http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/69866/ CPJ to Honour Press Freedom Defenders] - [[IFEX]]

==External links==
*[http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=14884 Reporters Without Borders press release]
*[http://www.zonaeuropa.com/20050501_1.htm The Case of Shi Tao]
*[http://streaming.scmp.com/podcasting/upload/tech_sept15.mp3 Audio story on Shi Tao case]
*[http://www.booyahoo.com An effort to boycott Yahoo due to the policy that led to Shi Tao's imprisonment.]
[[fr:Shi Tao]]
[[zh:师涛]]

[[Category:1968 births|Tao, Shi]]
[[Category:Living people|Tao, Shi]]
[[Category:Chinese journalists]]

Bart Simpson

2006-01-14T10:14:58Z

Raven4x4x: rv anon test

:''"Bartman" redirects here; for the article on the infamous baseball fan, see [[Steve Bartman]].''{{Simpsons character|
image= [[Image:C-bart1.png|222px]]|
bgcolor=#000|
fgcolor=#fff|
name=Bart Simpson|
gender=[[Male]]|
hair=Nine points of spiky blond hair|
age=10|
job=Was once a bartender at Fat Tony's hideout, an assistant barber, and a Thai menu boy|
relatives=Father [[Homer Simpson|Homer]], mother [[Marge Simpson|Marge]], sisters [[Lisa Simpson|Lisa]] and [[Maggie Simpson|Maggie]] and grandfather [[Abraham Simpson|Abe]].|
appearance=[[Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire]]|
}}

'''Bartholomew Jo-Jo ("Bart") Simpson''' (voiced by [[Nancy Cartwright (actress)|Nancy Cartwright]]) is a [[fictional character]] featured in the [[animated]] [[television series]] ''[[The Simpsons]]''. He is the 10-year-old son of [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] and [[Marge Simpson]] and older brother of [[Lisa Simpson|Lisa]] and [[Maggie Simpson|Maggie]].

According to the book ''[[The Simpsons Uncensored Family Album]]'', his "[[birthday]]" is [[April 1]] or [[April Fool's Day]]. According to the show's chronology Bart was born in [[1982]] as he is two years and 38 days older than Lisa, who was born during the [[1984 Summer Olympics]]. However, in the episode "[[I Married Marge]]", it was revealed that Bart was conceived in June [[1980]] (Homer and Marge had just seen ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]''), which would make his birthday [[April 1]], [[1981]]. The year is probably not consistent as Bart is always described as being 10 years old.

Bart's interests include [[skateboarding]], [[comic book]]s (especially ''[[Radioactive Man]]''), terrorizing his sisters, [[video games]], helping Lisa solve various problems (e.g, reuniting [[Krusty the Clown]] with his estranged father), [[Charles Dickens|Dickensian]] chimney sweeps, [[mooning]] unsuspecting victims, and [[prank call]]ing [[Moe Szyslak]] at his tavern. Like many other characters on the show, Bart is also left-handed. Bart has also been circumcised as shown in the episode where [[Krusty the Clown]] meets his father

He is a self-proclaimed [[slacker|underachiever]] who begins each show in [[detention]] writing lines on the blackboard (see [[list of Bart Simpson's blackboard sentences]]), and pretty much distracted by anything; even, strangely enough, [[algebraic equation]]s. While Bart is considerably undermotivated and takes great joy in disrupting the routine at [[Springfield Elementary School|Springfield Elementary]], his pranks are often very elaborately complex, while his actions and speech frequently show consirable mental agility and understanding, and so he cannot be called "stupid" per se. Various explanations for his behavior include genetics; he is the son of Homer, they share many of the same mannerism and behaviors. Homer even described Bart as "a cooler, in-your-face version" of himself.

Bart caused a fictional diplomatic incident between the [[United States]] and [[Australia]] in "[[Bart vs. Australia]]" when he placed a very long [[collect call]] to an Australian boy to find out in which direction [[toilet]]s flush in the [[southern hemisphere]]. (This is an oversimplification of [[Coriolis_effect#Draining_bathtubs.2Ftoilets|that phenomenon]], which amusingly popularized the legend even more.)

[[Image:HomerStranglingBart.jpg|left|thumb|Bart being strangled.]]
Many times, when Homer finds out that Bart has said or done something stupid or bad, he yells out, "Why you little—!" and strangles Bart in anger.

Bart seems to call his dad (Homer Jay Simpson) Homer, instead of dad. This is parodied on an episode where Bart was a [[baby]]. Homer is trying to get Bart to say dad. Instead he keeps calling him Homer. Homer would then say [["DOH"]]. In the present Bart still calls him Homer.

Bart Simpson and other characters from ''[[The Simpsons]]'' appeared in numerous [[television commercials]] for [[Nestlé]]'s [[Butterfinger]] candy bars from [[1990]] to [[2001]], with his and its slogan ''"Nobody better lay a finger on my Butterfinger!"''. This was parodied when in an episode when discovered in a [[ video tape ]]with Lisa that partcipate in a TV Commercial for anti-odor product when he was a baby, Bart says that he doesn't remember being in a commercial, then he holds up a Butterfinger and eats it.

Bart speaks [[French language|French]] fluently. He also was able to speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]] briefly on a trip to [[Brazil]]; however, he forced himself to forget when he discovered that they speak [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] in Brazil. He also once made an exchange with Homer in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. Also in "[[Bart on the Road]]," he makes a delivery to [[Hong Kong]] where he hauls a cooler labeled "HUMAN EYES" off the plane, and brings it to a man in a white lab coat where they converse in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (specifically, the variety of [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] spoken in the city). This may be inherited from Homer, who has also demonstrated advanced language abilities, including [[penguin]].

Bart is [[allergy|allergic]] to [[butterscotch]], imitation butterscotch, [[cauliflower]], and [[Phosphorescence|glow-in-the-dark]] monster makeup.

As a Simpson male, Bart is subject to a heriditary "Simpson gene" carried on the [[Y chromosome]], which turns men into ignorant slobs. The depictions in futuristic episodes seem to suggest that he will be affected by the gene. In the first episode set entirely in the future he's a [[blue-collar]] worker like his father. Yet another episode finds him living as an unemployed surfer bum with [[Ralph Wiggum]]. It is possible that he may escape the menial slacker fate, as another episode features a futuristic epilogue where Bart is [[Chief Justice of the United States]].

In an interview, Simpsons creator [[Matt Groening]] stated he chose the name as an [[anagram]] of ''[[brat]]''.

[[Image:Malta anti-EU.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Since the inception of the Simpsons, Bart has become internationally recognized as a symbol of defiance to authority. This [[Maltese language]] anti-[[European Union]] [[bumper sticker]] became popular during the contentions deliberations regarding [[Malta]]'s admission to the EU. (Photo taken in [[Tarxien]] in [[August 2005]].)]]

In 1998, ''[[Time Magazine|Time]]'' magazine selected Bart as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century—the only fictional character to make the list.

When he vandalizes property, Bart uses the alias '''El Barto''', which is a [[Spanglish]] way of saying "Bart." However, no one in Springfield has made the connection and Bart still vandalizes property without getting caught. He is also known as '''[[Bartman]]'''.

Bart's dress sense is fairly standard. His normal attire is an orange t-shirt, blue shorts, white socks and blue [[Sneaker (footwear)|training shoes]], although on most pieces of Simpsons-related merchandise, his shirt is light-blue (this is done to differentiate between counterfeit merchandise and official merchandise). His churchgoing outfit consists of a blue two-piece suit (with shorts rather than long pants), white shirt, blue tie, blue shoes and white socks (episode: 'Two Dozen and One Greyhounds'). The only other clothing "scenario" that comes up regularly is his "bed outfit", which consists of a green [[pyjama]] set (although he has been known to wear white socks on his feet to bed, he more regularly goes barefoot to bed). Bart's underwear style is of white "[[briefs|underpants]]". The use of underpants over boxer shorts is commented on by the show's creators on the Series 4 DVD, where he says they were trying to be different as [[boxer shorts]] were the least taboo form of underwear on TV as they showed "less of a bulge".

According to Marge in the episode "[[The_Father%2C_The_Son%2C_and_The_Holy_Guest_Star|The Father, The Son and the Holy Guest Star]]", Bart wore diapers until the age of 5 (meaning Lisa was trained before him), because he thought there was a monster in the [[potty]].

Episodes that feature Bart extensively include:
* "[[Bart the Genius]]" - Bart is mistaken for a [[genius]].
* "[[Bart the General]]" - Bart takes on the class bully in a parody of ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]''.
* "[[The Wandering Juvie]]" - Bart gets sent to juvenile detention and escapes á la ''[[The Defiant Ones]]''.
* "[[The Heartbroke Kid]]" - Bart puts on weight after gorging on junk food at school and suffers a [[heart attack]].

==Antics==
* Prank-calling (usually [[Moe's Tavern]], but sometimes other countries)
* Stealing a policeman's car
* Painting the parking lines two inches narrower than normal
* Mooning
* Vandalizing (cars, public property, etc.)
* Shooting a stink bomb at an entertainer
* Pantsing a robotic version of [[George Washington]]
* Robbing a bakery, then melting the plastic couple from a wedding cake on an electric chair
* Strangling his father with a belt
* Shaking Homer's beer until it exploded
* Spraying the tag 'El Barto' in a variety of places in many episodes
* Opening his [[Christmas]] presents two hours early

==Bart Simpon's Prank phone calls==
*Al Coholic
*Haywood U. Cuddleme
*Mike Rotch
*Ivanna Tinkle
*I.P. Freely
*Hugh Jass
*I'm a moron with an ugly face and a big butt and my butt smells and I like to kiss my own butt
*Amanda Huggankiss

==Relations==
Bart is:
* Grandson to [[Abraham Simpson]], [[Mona (The Simpsons)|Mona Simpson]], [[Clancy Bouvier]], and [[Jackie (The Simpsons)|Jacqueline Bouvier]].
* Son to [[Homer Jay Simpson]] and [[Marge Simpson|Marjorie Bouvier Simpson]].
* Older brother to [[Lisa Simpson|Lisa Marie Simpson]] and [[Maggie Simpson|Margaret Simpson]].
* the twin brother of [[Fictional characters within The Simpsons#Hugo|Hugo]] (who appears in a Halloween-Special episode, and is thus not canon.)
* Nephew to [[Herb Powell|Herbert Powell]], Abbie, [[Patty Bouvier]] and [[Selma Bouvier|Selma Bouvier Terwilliger Hutz McClure Stu]].
*His former uncles-by-marriage include [[Sideshow Bob| Robert Underdunk "Sideshow Bob" Terwilliger]], [[List of recurring characters from The Simpsons#Lionel Hutz|Lionel Hutz]], [[Troy McClure]], and [[List of recurring characters from The Simpsons#Disco Stu|Disco Stu]].
* Former heir to [[Montgomery Burns|C. Montgomery Burns]].
*His cousin by adoption is [[Ling Bouvier]].
*In the comics, it is revealed that the Simpsons and the Delroys are related, which means Cletus, Brandine, and their numerous children are Bart's cousins. However, this has never been mentioned in the series.

==Future==

It should be noted that the specific years listed below are probably inconsistent, given the general "timelessness" of the series:

*'''2010 (four years from "now"):''' Is a demolition contractor. He "can't believe he's getting paid to do this" and mentions that he's "just getting all his aggression out before I go to law school." Has a receding hairline and stubble, just like Homer. Has been married twice, and considering getting married again. (Depicted in "[[Lisa's Wedding]]")
*'''2013 (seven years from "now"):''' On night of senior prom, asks girlfriend Jenda to marry him (she does not accept). Graduates high school. (Depicted in "[[Future-Drama]]")
*'''2030 (twenty-four years from "now"):''' Bart lives with Ralph Wiggum and they have an unsuccessful band, the Tequilla Mockingbirds. Dropped out of the Devry Institute. Mooches off of Lisa, now the [[President of the United States]], and criticizes her for no longer being cool and promotes his band during her address to the nation. (Depicted in "[[Bart to the Future]]")
*'''Forty years from "now":''' Is now [[Chief Justice of the Supreme Court]]. Finally sees "Itchy & Scratchy: The Movie" with Homer. (Depicted in "[[Itchy & Scratchy: The Movie]]")
*'''One minute before death (at the age of 83):''' Finds a girl who loves him for himself, according to Professor Frink. (Mentioned in "[[Future-Drama]]")
*'''1000 years later:''' Is considered a Prophet of God (who was betrayed by Milhouse). Two large armies, one with Bart wigs, the other with 'Bartman' masks, meet on the field of battle. They are at Holy War, involving robots, arguing over whether Bart preached tolerance and love, or peace and understanding. At the end of the scene before Bart tells Catholics and Protestants, "It's all Christianity," as they are about to go to war, with paintball guns readied. (Depicted in "[[The Father, The Son, and The Holy Guest Star]]")

==Bartman==
[[Image:nes_bartradioactive.jpg|thumb|right|'''Bartman''' in the [[video game]] ''[[Bartman Meets Radioactive Man]]'']]
'''Bartman''' is a [[comic book]] title and the [[alter ego]] of Bart Simpson. Essentially, in addition to his normal clothes, Bart wears a [[purple]] [[mask]] and [[cape]] to become Bartman. The name, when written, bears a striking resemblance to the name [[Batman]], and Bartman is indeed supposed to be a [[superhero]] of some sort. Bartman makes a short appearance in the ''Simpsons'' episode "[[Three Men and a Comic Book]]."

This alter ego is the basis for the short-lived [[Bongo Comics]] series ([[1993]]-[[1995]]), which saw the young Bart adopt the mantle of crimefighting. He was aided by [[Milhouse]], as the [[Robin (comics)|Robin]]-like '''Houseboy'''. Like Bart's costume, Milhouse's was simplistic, involving only a [[green]] mask and cape in addition to his ordinary clothing. The series only lasted 6 issues.

Bartman and Houseboy make a brief appearance in the ''Simpsons'' [[book]] ''The Simpsons Holiday Humdinger'', published in [[2004]] by [[HarperCollins]]. In a [[parody]] of the story ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]]'', Bartman takes on [[List of recurring characters from The Simpsons#Gil|Gil]], who is stealing [[Christmas]] presents in hopes of destroying the holiday.

Bartman is also featured in the [[video game]] ''[[Bartman Meets Radioactive Man]]'' ([[1992]]-[[1993]]).

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
* [[Bart chalkboard gags on The Simpsons]]

[[Category:Simpsons characters|Simpson, Bart]]
[[Category:Anti-heroes|Simpson, Bart]]
[[category:Celebrities who have appeared on Sesame Street|Simpson, Bart]]

[[da:Bart Simpson]]
[[es:Bart Simpson]]
[[fr:Bart Simpson]]
[[ko:바트 심슨]]
[[it:Bart Simpson]]
[[pt:Bart Simpson]]
[[sv:Bart Simpson]]

North Preston

2006-01-12T00:55:55Z

Raven4x4x: rv once more

'''North Preston''' is a rural community in [[Halifax County, Nova Scotia|Halifax County]], [[Nova Scotia]], in [[Canada]]. The community traces its origins to the immigration of former [[Jamaica|Jamaican]] slaves in the 18th century.

North Preston, along with sister communities [[East Preston, Nova Scotia|East Preston]] and [[Cherrybrook, Nova Scotia|Cherrybrook]], is an economically depressed area with an unemployment rate much higher than the nearby city of [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]].

Among the notable residents of the community is heavyweight boxer [[Kirk Johnson]].

[[Category:Communities in the Halifax Regional Municipality]]
{{NovaScotia-geo-stub}}

North Preston

2006-01-12T00:51:59Z

Raven4x4x: rv same anon addition again

North Preston

2006-01-12T00:50:39Z

Raven4x4x: rv anon addition

Martin Crowe (Cricketspieler)

2005-11-09T12:10:08Z

Raven4x4x: 299 is highest test score by NZ cricketer, and added batting graph

{{Infobox Cricketer |
flag = Flag_of_New_Zealand.png |
nationality = New Zealand |
country = New Zealand |
country abbrev = NZ |
name = Martin Crowe |
picture = Cricket_no_pic.png |
batting style = Right-handed batsman (RHB) |
bowling style = Right-arm medium (RM) |
tests = 71 |
test runs = 5444 |
test bat avg = 45.36 |
test 100s/50s = 17/18 |
test top score = 299 |
test overs = 229.3 |
test wickets = 14 |
test bowl avg = 48.28 |
test 5s = 0 |
test 10s = 0 |
test best bowling = 2/25 |
test catches/stumpings = 71/0 |
ODIs = 143 |
ODI runs = 4704 |
ODI bat avg = 38.55 |
ODI 100s/50s = 4/34 |
ODI top score = 107* |
ODI overs = 216 |
ODI wickets = 29 |
ODI bowl avg = 32.89 |
ODI 5s = 0 |
ODI best bowling = 2/9 |
ODI catches/stumpings = 66/0 |
date = 1 January |
year = 1996 |
source = http://nz.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/NZ/C/CROWE_MD_05001669/
}}
'''Martin David Crowe''' (born [[September 22]], [[1962]] in [[Henderson, New Zealand|Henderson]]) is a former [[New Zealand]] [[cricket]] player.

Crowe represented [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] from the early 1980s until his retirement in [[1996]], and was probably the country's best-ever [[batsman]]. Through the early part of his career he was also a medium-pace [[Bowler (cricket)|bowler]]. He captained New Zealand in the early 1990s, and led the team to the semi-final of the [[1992]] cricket world cup. He played 77 tests, averaging 45.65 with the bat, including 17 centuries and 18 half-centuries. He also played 143 one-day internationals, averaging 38.55, and hit four centuries and 34 half-centuries. In 1991, he shared a 467-run partnership with [[Andrew Jones]], at the time the highest partnership in Test history. Crowe was dismissed on 299, the highest innings by a New Zealander in test history.

After his retirement, Crowe helped develop a local variation of cricket, called "[[Short form cricket|Cricket Max]]," and became a television commentator and pundit.

His brother [[Jeff Crowe]] also represented New Zealand at cricket. He is a cousin of actor [[Russell Crowe]].

[[Image:Martin Crowe Graph.png|left|thumb|350px|Martin Crowe's career performance graph.]]

==Reference==
*[http://content.cricinfo.com/newzealand/content/player/36622.html Cricinfo page on Martin Crowe]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[John Wright (cricketer)|John Wright]]|
title=[[New Zealand national cricket captains|New Zealand national cricket captain]] |
years=[[1990]]/[[1991|1]]-[[1992]]/[[1993|3]] |
after=[[Ken Rutherford]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{Cricketbio-stub}}

[[Category:1962 births|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand sportspeople|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand batsmen|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Auckland cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Central Districts cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Wellington cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Somerset cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand ODI cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand test cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand ODI captains|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand Test captains|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Wisden Cricketers of the Year|Crowe, Martin]]

Martin Crowe (Cricketspieler)

2005-08-28T06:57:35Z

Raven4x4x: Added cricketbio stub and fixed image link for infobox

{{Infobox Cricketer |
flag = Flag_of_New_Zealand.png |
nationality = New Zealand |
country = New Zealand |
country abbrev = NZ |
name = Martin Crowe |
picture = Cricket_no_pic.png |
batting style = Right-handed batsman (RHB) |
bowling style = Right-arm medium (RM) |
tests = 71 |
test runs = 5444 |
test bat avg = 45.36 |
test 100s/50s = 17/18 |
test top score = 299 |
test overs = 229.3 |
test wickets = 14 |
test bowl avg = 48.28 |
test 5s = 0 |
test 10s = 0 |
test best bowling = 2/25 |
test catches/stumpings = 71/0 |
ODIs = 143 |
ODI runs = 4704 |
ODI bat avg = 38.55 |
ODI 100s/50s = 4/34 |
ODI top score = 107* |
ODI overs = 216 |
ODI wickets = 29 |
ODI bowl avg = 32.89 |
ODI 5s = 0 |
ODI best bowling = 2/9 |
ODI catches/stumpings = 66/0 |
date = 1 January |
year = 1996 |
source = http://nz.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/NZ/C/CROWE_MD_05001669/
}}
'''Martin David Crowe''' (born [[September 22]], [[1962]]) is a former [[New Zealand]] [[cricket]] player.

Crowe represented [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] from the early 1980s until his retirement in [[1996]], and was probably the country's best-ever [[batsman]]. Through the early part of his career he was also a medium-pace [[Bowler (cricket)|bowler]]. He captained New Zealand in the early 1990s, and led the team to the semi-final of the [[1992]] cricket world cup. He played 77 tests, averaging 45.65 with the bat, including 17 centuries and 18 half-centuries. He also played 143 one-day internationals, averaging 38.55, and hit four centuries and 34 half-centuries. In 1991, he shared a 467-run partnership with [[Andrew Jones]], at the time the highest partnership in Test history.

After his retirement, Crowe helped develop a local variation of cricket, called "[[Short form cricket|Cricket Max]]," and became a television commentator and pundit.

His brother [[Jeff Crowe]] also represented New Zealand at cricket. He is a cousin of actor [[Russell Crowe]].

==Reference==
*[http://content.cricinfo.com/newzealand/content/player/36622.html Cricinfo page on Martin Crowe]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[John Wright (cricketer)|John Wright]]|
title=[[New Zealand national cricket captains|New Zealand national cricket captain]] |
years=[[1990]]/[[1991|1]]-[[1992]]/[[1993|3]] |
after=[[Ken Rutherford]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{Cricketbio-stub}}

[[Category:1962 births|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand sportspeople|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand batsmen|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Auckland cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Central Districts cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Wellington cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Somerset cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand ODI cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand test cricketers|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand ODI captains|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:New Zealand Test captains|Crowe, Martin]]
[[Category:Wisden Cricketers of the Year|Crowe, Martin]]

Learie Constantine, Baron Constantine

2005-07-23T01:03:45Z

Raven4x4x: Added infobox and first-class team catagory

{{Infobox Historic Cricketer |
flag = West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png |
nationality = West Indian |
country = West Indies |
country abbrev = WI |
name = Learie Constantine |
picture = Cricket_no_pic.png |
batting style = Right-handed batsman (RHB) |
bowling style = Right-arm fast (RF) |
tests = 18 |
test runs = 635 |
test bat avg = 19.24 |
test 100s/50s = 0/4 |
test top score = 90 |
test balls = 3583 |
test wickets = 58 |
test bowl avg = 30.10 |
test 5s = 2 |
test 10s = 0 |
test best bowling = 5/75 |
test catches/stumpings = 28/0 |
FCs = 119 |
FC runs = 4475 |
FC bat avg = 24.05 |
FC 100s/50s = 5/28 |
FC top score = 133 |
FC balls = 17393 |
FC wickets = 439 |
FC bowl avg = 20.48 |
FC 5s = 25 |
FC 10s = 4 |
FC best bowling = 8/38 |
FC catches/stumpings = 133/0 |
debut date = 23 June |
debut year = 1928 |
last date = 22 August |
last year = 1939 |
source = http://content.cricinfo.com/westindies/content/player/51483.html/
}}
'''Learie Constantine, Baron Constantine of Maraval and Nelson''' (b. [[September 21]], [[1901]] in [[Diego Martin]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], d. [[July 1]], [[1971]] in [[Hampstead]], [[London]]) was a [[cricketer]], broadcast [[journalist]], [[administrator]], [[lawyer]], and [[politician]].

The son of Lebrun Constantine, a cricketer, he worked in a solicitor's office before beginning a career in [[cricket]]. He made his debut while touring [[England]] in [[1928]]. The following year, Constantine moved to England and joined the [[Nelson]] team in the [[Lancashire]] [[Cricket League]]. Against England in [[1930]], Constantine bowled [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]] to their first win in a test match. He also played an important role in West Indies winning the series against England in 1934-35.

A dashing [[all rounder]], Constantine at his peak was a mercurial bowler of genuine pace, an athletic fielder in an era where such men were the exception rather than the rule, and a flashing stroke player capable of tearing any attack to shreds on his day. In the days before West Indians were seen in county cricket, Constantine became a legend in the highly competetive Lancashire Leagues where his deeds, and demeanour, are remembered to this day. He was a [[Wisden Cricketer of the Year]] in [[1940]].

After retiring from cricket, he became a commentator for the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]]. During [[World War 2]], Constantine worked as a welfare officer for the [[Ministry of Labour]]. Based in [[Liverpool]], his main responsibility was to help [[Caribbean|West Indian]] immigrants find employment in [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. In [[1943]], Constantine was refused service in a British hotel because of his colour. He took the owners of the hotel to court and won his case. Later he wrote ''Colour Bar'' (1954), with his friend, [[C. L. R. James]]. The book dealt with racial prejudice in Britain. After studying law, Constantine gained entrance to the English bar in [[1954]]. Later he returned to Trinidad and Tobago where he became involved in politics.

A member of the [[People's National Movement]], he served in the government as minister of community works and utilities. When Trinidad gained independence, he became his country's first [[high commissioner]] in London. In 1964 he resigned but stayed in Britain where he held several important positions. This included being a governor of the BBC, a member of the [[Race Relations Board]] and the [[Sports Council]]. In 1969 Constantine became the first person of African descent to be given a [[life peerage]]. Learie Constantine died of [[lung cancer]] in [[Hampstead]], London, on [[July 1]], [[1971]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Biography/LearieConstantinebyGeorgeJohn.htm Biography] by George John.

[[Category:Life peers|Constantine, Learie]]
[[Category:Trinidad and Tobago cricketers|Constantine, Learie]]
[[Category:Trinidad and Tobago politicians|Constantine, Learie]]
[[Category:West Indian batsmen|Constantine, Learie]]
[[Category:West Indian cricket captains|Constantine, Learie]]
[[Category:West Indian test cricketers|Constantine, Learie]]
[[Category:Wisden Cricketers of the Year|Constantine, Learie]]
[[Category:1901 births|Constantine, Learie]]
[[Category:1971 deaths|Constantine, Learie]]
[[Category:West Indian cricketers|Constantine, Learie]]
[[Category:Barbados cricketers|Constantine, Learie]]