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Regierung Lloyd George

2015-05-07T12:31:06Z

Piperh: capitalization

{{EngvarB|date=May 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
[[Image:David Lloyd George.jpg|thumb|right|[[David Lloyd George]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] 1916–1922]]
The '''Lloyd George ministry''', a [[coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]], came to power in the United Kingdom in December 1916. It replaced the [[Coalition Government 1915-1916|earlier wartime coalition]] under [[H. H. Asquith]], which had been held responsible for losses during the [[Great War]].<ref>Gilbert, David Lloyd George: A Political Life: Organizer of Victory, 1912–1916 (1992)</ref> Those [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberals]] who continued to support Asquith served as the [[Official Opposition (United Kingdom)|Official Opposition]]. The government continued in power after the end of the war in 1918, though Lloyd George was increasingly reliant on the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]s for support. After several scandals including allegations of the sale of [[British honours system|honours]], the Conservatives withdrew their support after a [[Carlton Club meeting, 19 October 1922|meeting]] at the [[Carlton Club]] in 1922, and [[Bonar Law|Andrew Bonar Law]] formed [[Conservative Government 1922-1924|a government]].<ref>Gilbert, David Lloyd George: A Political Life: Organizer of Victory, 1912–1916 (1992)</ref>
==Cabinets==

===War Cabinet, December 1916 – January 1919===
* [[George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon of Kedleston]] – [[Lord President of the Council]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]]
* [[Bonar Law|Andrew Bonar Law]] – [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
* [[Arthur Henderson]] – [[Minister without Portfolio]]
* [[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|Lord Milner]] – Minister without Portfolio
====Changes====
* May – August 1917 – In temporary absence of Arthur Henderson, [[George Nicoll Barnes|George Barnes]], [[Minister of Pensions]] acts as a member of the War Cabinet.
* June 1917 – [[Jan Smuts]] enters the War Cabinet as a Minister without Portfolio
* July 1917 – [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] enters the War Cabinet as a Minister without Portfolio
* August 1917 – George Barnes succeeds Arthur Henderson (resigned) as Minister without Portfolio and [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] member of the War Cabinet.
* January 1918 – Carson resigns and is not replaced
* April 1918 – [[Austen Chamberlain]] succeeds Lord Milner as Minister without Portfolio.
* January 1919 – Law becomes [[Lord Privy Seal]], remaining Leader of the House of Commons, and is succeeded as Chancellor of the Exchequer by Chamberlain; both remaining in the War Cabinet. Smuts is succeeded by [[Eric Geddes|Sir Eric Geddes]] as Minister without Portfolio.

===Peacetime Cabinet, January 1919 – October 1922===
''The War Cabinet was formally maintained for much of 1919, but as Lloyd George was out of the country for many months this made little difference.''

''In October 1919 a formal Cabinet was reinstated.''

* David Lloyd George – Prime Minister
* [[Frederick Edwin Smith, 1st Earl of Birkenhead|Lord Birkenhead]] – [[Lord Chancellor]]
* [[George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon of Kedleston]] – [[Lord President of the Council]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]]
* [[Bonar Law|Andrew Bonar Law]] – [[Lord Privy Seal]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
* [[Austen Chamberlain]] – [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
* [[Edward Shortt]] – [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
* [[Arthur Balfour]] – [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
* [[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|Lord Milner]] – [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
* [[Winston Churchill]] – [[Secretary of State for War]] and [[Secretary of State for Air|Air]]
* [[Edwin Samuel Montagu]] – [[Secretary of State for India]]
* [[Walter Long, 1st Viscount Long|Walter Hume Long]] – [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]
* [[Albert Stanley, 1st Baron Ashfield|Sir Albert Stanley]] – [[President of the Board of Trade]]
* [[Robert Munro, 1st Baron Alness|Robert Munro]] – [[Secretary for Scotland]]
* [[James Ian Macpherson]] – [[Chief Secretary for Ireland]]
* [[John French, 1st Earl of Ypres|Lord French]] – [[Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland]]
* [[Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison|Christopher Addison]] – [[President of the Local Government Board]]
* [[Rowland Edmund Prothero]] – [[President of the Board of Agriculture]]
* [[Herbert Fisher]] – [[President of the Board of Education]]
* [[Andrew Weir, 1st Baron Inverforth|Lord Inverforth]] – [[Minister of Munitions]]
* [[Robert Stevenson Horne, 1st Viscount Horne|Sir Robert Horne]] – [[Secretary of State for Employment|Minister of Labour]]
* [[George Nicoll Barnes]] – [[Minister without Portfolio]]
* [[Eric Geddes|Sir Eric Geddes]] – Minister without Portfolio

====Changes====
* May 1919 – Sir Auckland Geddes succeeds Sir Albert Stanley as President of the Board of Trade. Sir Eric Geddes becomes Minister of Transport.
* October 1919 – Lord Curzon of Kedleston succeeds Balfour as Foreign Secretary. Balfour succeeds Curzon as Lord President. The Local Government Board is abolished. Christopher Addison becomes Minister of Health. The Board of Agriculture is abolished. [[Arthur Lee, 1st Viscount Lee of Fareham|Lord Lee of Fareham]] becomes Minister of Agriculture. Sir Eric Geddes becomes Minister of Transport.
* January 1920 – George Barnes leaves the cabinet.
* March 1920 – Sir Robert Horne succeeds Sir Auckland Geddes as President of the Board of Trade. Thomas McNamara succeeds Horne as Minister of Labour.
* April 1920 – Sir Hamar Greenwood succeeds Ian Macpherson as Chief Secretary for Ireland. Sir Laming Worthington-Evans joins the Cabinet as Minister without Portfolio.
* February 1921 – Winston Churchill succeeds Lord Milner as Colonial Secretary. Sir Laming Worthington-Evans succeeds Churchill as War Secretary. Lord Lee of Fareham succeeds Walter Long at the Admiralty. [[Arthur Griffith-Boscawen|Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscawen]] succeeds Lee as Minister of Agriculture.
* March 1921 – Austen Chamberlain succeeds Bonar Law as Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the Commons. Sir Robert Horne succeeds Chamberlain at the Exchequer. Stanley Baldwin succeeds Horne at the Board of Trade.
* April 1921 – Lord French resigns from the cabinet, remaining Lord Lieutenant. Christopher Addison becomes a Minister without Portfolio. Sir Alfred Mond succeeds him as Minister of Health. The Ministry of Munitions is abolished.
* November 1921 – Sir Eric Geddes resigns from the cabinet. His successor as Minister of Transport is not in the Cabinet. The Attorney General, Sir Gordon Hewart, enters the Cabinet.
* March 1922 – Lord Peel succeeds Edwin Montagu as India Secretary.
* April 1922 – The First Commissioner of Works, Lord Crawford, enters the Cabinet.

==List of Ministers==

Members of the Cabinet are listed in boldface. Members of the War Cabinet, 6 December 1916 to 31 October 1919, are indicated.

{| class="wikitable"
!Office!!Name!!Date!!colspan=2|Party!!Notes
|-
|[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] and [[First Lord of the Treasury]]||'''[[David Lloyd George]]'''||6 December 1916 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||in the War Cabinet 6 December 1916 – 31 October 1919
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]||'''[[Bonar Law|Andrew Bonar Law]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||also [[Leader of the House of Commons]]; in the War Cabinet since 6 December 1916
|-
|'''[[Austen Chamberlain]]'''||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||left the War Cabinet 31 October 1919
|-
|'''[[Robert Horne, 1st Viscount Horne of Slamannan|Sir Robert Horne]]'''||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Financial Secretary to the Treasury|Financial Secretaries to the Treasury]]||[[Sir Hardman Lever, 1st Baronet|Sir Hardman Lever, Bt]]||15 December 1916 – 19 May 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Stanley Baldwin]]||18 June 1917 – 1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Hilton Young, 1st Baron Kennet|Hilton Young]]||21 April 1921 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=5|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury|Parliamentary Secretaries to the Treasury]] and [[Government Chief Whip]]s in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]]||[[Edmund FitzAlan-Howard, 1st Viscount FitzAlan of Derwent|Lord Edmund Talbot]]||14 December 1916 – 1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Neil Primrose (politician)|Neil Primrose]]||14 December 1916 – 2 March 1917|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Frederick Guest]]||2 March 1917 – 1 April 1921|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Charles McCurdy]]||1 April 1921 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Leslie Orme Wilson]]||1 April 1921 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=11|[[Lord of the Treasury|Junior Lords of the Treasury]]||[[James Hope, 1st Baron Rankeillour|James Hope]]||14 December 1916 – 27 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[John Pratt (Liberal politician)|John Pratt]]||14 December 1916 – 8 August 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Stanley Baldwin]]||29 January 1917 – 18 June 1917|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[James Parker (Labour politician)|James Parker]]||29 January 1917 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|[[Josiah Towyn Jones]]||29 January 1917 – 4 July 1922|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Robert Sanders, 1st Baron Bayford|Robert Sanders]]||5 February 1919 – 1 April 1921|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||created a Baronet 28 January 1920
|-
|[[Godfrey Collins|Sir Godfrey Collins]]||8 August 1919 – 10 February 1920|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[William Edge (politician)|William Edge]]||18 August 1919 – 1 August 1922|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[William Sutherland (Scottish politician)|Sir William Sutherland]]||15 February 1920 – 7 April 1922|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Sir John Gilmour, 2nd Baronet|Sir John Gilmour, Bt]]||1 April 1921 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Thomas Arthur Lewis]]||4 July 1922 – 26 July 1922|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Lord Chancellor]]||'''[[Robert Finlay, 1st Viscount Finlay|The Lord Finlay]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[F. E. Smith, 1st Earl of Birkenhead|The Lord Birkenhead]]'''||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||created [[Viscount Birkenhead]] 15 June 1921
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Lord President of the Council]]||'''[[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|The Earl Curzon of Kedleston]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||also [[Leader of the House of Lords]]; in the War Cabinet since 6 December 1916
|-
|'''[[Arthur Balfour]]'''||23 October 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Lord Privy Seal]]||'''[[David Lindsay, 27th Earl of Crawford|The Earl of Crawford]]'''||15 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Bonar Law|Andrew Bonar Law]]'''||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||also [[Leader of the House of Commons]]; left the War Cabinet 31 October 1919
|-
|'''[[Austen Chamberlain]]'''||23 March 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||also [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]||'''[[Arthur Balfour]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|The Earl Curzon of Kedleston]]'''||23 October 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||also [[Leader of the House of Lords]]; left the War Cabinet 31 October 1919; created Marquess Curzon of Kedleston 28 June 1921
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]||[[Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood|Lord Robert Cecil]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Cecil Harmsworth, 1st Baron Harmsworth|Cecil Harmsworth]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Assistant Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]||[[Thomas Legh, 2nd Baron Newton|The Lord Newton]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||post abolished 10 January 1919
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]||'''[[George Cave, 1st Viscount Cave|Sir George Cave]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||created [[Viscount Cave]] 14 November 1918
|-
|'''[[Edward Shortt]]'''||10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department]]||[[William Brace]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|[[Hamar Greenwood, 1st Viscount Greenwood|Sir Hamar Greenwood, Bt]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[John Baird, 1st Viscount Stonehaven|John Baird]]||29 April 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||succeeded as 2nd Baronet 21 June 1920
|-
|rowspan=4|[[First Lord of the Admiralty]]||'''[[Edward Carson, Baron Carson|Sir Edward Carson]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Eric Geddes|Sir Eric Geddes]]'''||17 July 1917|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Walter Long, 1st Viscount Long|Walter Long]]'''||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Arthur Lee, 1st Viscount Lee of Fareham|The Lord Lee of Fareham]]'''||13 February 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty]]||[[Thomas James Macnamara]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon|Sir James Craig, Bt]]||2 April 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Leo Amery]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Additional Parliamentary Secretary to the Admiralty]]||[[Victor Bulwer-Lytton, 2nd Earl of Lytton|The Earl of Lytton]]||7 February 1917|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||post abolished 27 January 1919
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Civil Lord of the Admiralty]]||[[E. G. Pretyman]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Victor Bulwer-Lytton, 2nd Earl of Lytton|The Earl of Lytton]]||27 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Richard Onslow, 5th Earl of Onslow|The Earl of Onslow]]||26 October 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Bolton Eyres-Monsell, 1st Viscount Monsell|Bolton Eyres-Monsell]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Second Civil Lord of the Admiralty]]||[[Sir Arthur Pease, 1st Baronet|Arthur Pease]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||post abolished 10 January 1919
|-
|[[President of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries]]||'''[[Rowland Prothero, 1st Baron Ernle|Rowland Prothero]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||Board replaced with Ministry 15 August 1919
|-
|rowspan=5|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries|Parliamentary Secretaries to the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries]]||[[Richard Winfrey|Sir Richard Winfrey]]||14 December 1916 – 10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough|The Duke of Marlborough]]||18 February 1917 – 21 March 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[George Goschen, 2nd Viscount Goschen|The Viscount Goschen]]||26 March 1918 – 18 June 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Charles Hepburn-Stuart-Forbes-Trefusis, 21st Baron Clinton|The Lord Clinton]]||18 June 1918 – 10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Arthur Griffith-Boscawen|Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscawen]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||Board replaced with Ministry 15 August 1919
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries]]||'''[[Arthur Lee, 1st Viscount Lee of Fareham|The Lord Lee of Fareham]]'''||15 August 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Arthur Griffith-Boscawen|Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscawen]]'''||13 February 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries]]||[[Arthur Griffith-Boscawen|Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscawen]]||15 August 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||also Deputy Minister of Fisheries from 18 November 1919
|-
|''vacant''||13 February 1921|| colspan=2 | || 
|-
|[[Richard Onslow, 5th Earl of Onslow|The Earl of Onslow]]||5 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Gilbert Heathcote-Drummond-Willoughby, 2nd Earl of Ancaster|The Earl of Ancaster]]||7 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||also Deputy Minister of Fisheries from 28 October 1921
|-
|[[President of the Air Board]]||[[Weetman Pearson, 1st Viscount Cowdray|The Viscount Cowdray]]||3 January 1917|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||Air Board replaced with Air Council 26 November 1917
|-
|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Air Board]]||[[John Baird, 1st Viscount Stonehaven|John Baird]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||Air Board replaced with Air Council 26 November 1917
|-
|rowspan=2|[[President of the Air Council]]||[[Harold Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Rothermere|The Lord Rothermere]]||26 November 1917|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[William Weir, 1st Viscount Weir|The Lord Weir]]||26 April 1918|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||post abolished 10 January 1919
|-
|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Air Council]]||[[John Baird, 1st Viscount Stonehaven|John Baird]]||26 November 1917|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||post abolished 10 January 1919
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Secretary of State for Air]]||'''[[Winston Churchill]]'''||10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Frederick Edward Guest|Frederick Guest]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Under-Secretary of State for Air]]||[[J. E. B. Seely, 1st Baron Mottistone|J. E. B. Seely]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[George Tryon, 1st Baron Tryon|George Tryon]]||22 December 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Charles Vane-Tempest-Stewart, 7th Marquess of Londonderry|The Marquess of Londonderry]]||2 April 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Ronald Barnes, 3rd Baron Gorell|The Lord Gorell]]||18 July 1921|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Minister of Blockade]]||[[Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood|Lord Robert Cecil]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, 1st Baronet|Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, Bt]]||18 July 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||office abolished 10 July 1919
|-
|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Blockade]]||[[Frederick Leverton Harris]]||22 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||office abolished 10 January 1919
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]||'''[[Walter Long, 1st Viscount Long|Walter Long]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|The Viscount Milner]]'''||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Winston Churchill]]'''||13 February 1921|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies]]||[[Sir Arthur Steel-Maitland, 1st Baronet|Arthur Steel-Maitland]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||created a Baronet 13 July 1917
|-
|[[William Hewins]]||26 September 1917|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Leo Amery]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|E. F. L. Wood]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[President of the Board of Education]]||'''[[Herbert Fisher]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Education]]||[[Herbert Lewis]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||knighted in 1922
|-
|rowspan=5|[[Minister of Food Control]]||[[Hudson Kearley, 1st Viscount Devonport|The Lord Devonport]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[David Alfred Thomas, 1st Viscount Rhondda|The Lord Rhondda]]||19 June 1917|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||created [[Viscount Rhondda]] 19 June 1918
|-
|[[J. R. Clynes]]||9 July 1918|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|[[George Henry Roberts|George Roberts]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|[[Charles McCurdy]]||19 March 1920|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||office abolished 31 March 1921
|-
|rowspan=5|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Food Control]]||[[Charles Bathurst, 1st Viscount Bledisloe|Charles Bathurst]]||12 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||knighted in 1917
|-
|[[J. R. Clynes]]||2 July 1917|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|[[Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor|Waldorf Astor]]||18 July 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Charles McCurdy]]||27 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[William Mitchell-Thomson, 1st Baron Selsdon|Sir William Mitchell-Thomson, Bt]]||19 April 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||office abolished 31 March 1921
|-
|rowspan=4|[[President of the Local Government Board]]||'''[[David Alfred Thomas, 1st Viscount Rhondda|The Lord Rhondda]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|'''[[William Fisher, 1st Baron Downham|William Fisher]]'''||28 June 1917|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Auckland Geddes, 1st Baron Geddes|Sir Auckland Geddes]]'''||4 November 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison|Christopher Addison]]'''||10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||Board became Ministry of Health 24 June 1919
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Local Government Board]]||[[William Hayes Fisher, 1st Baron Downham|William Hayes Fisher]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Stephen Walsh (MP)|Stephen Walsh]]||28 June 1917|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|[[Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor|Waldorf Astor]]||27 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||Board became Ministry of Health 24 June 1919
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Secretary of State for Health|Minister of Health]]||'''[[Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison|Christopher Addison]]'''||24 June 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|'''[[Alfred Mond, 1st Baron Melchett|Sir Alfred Mond, Bt]]'''||1 April 1921|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Health]]||[[Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor|Waldorf Astor]]||24 June 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||succeeded as 2nd [[Viscount Astor]] 18 October 1919
|-
|[[Richard Onslow, 5th Earl of Onslow|The Earl of Onslow]]||7 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Secretary of State for India]]||'''[[Austen Chamberlain]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Edwin Samuel Montagu]]'''||17 July 1917|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|'''[[William Wellesley Peel, 1st Earl Peel|The Viscount Peel]]'''||19 March 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Under-Secretary of State for India]]||[[John Dickson, 1st Baron Islington|The Lord Islington]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Satyendra Prasanno Sinha, 1st Baron Sinha|The Lord Sinha]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Victor Bulwer-Lytton, 2nd Earl of Lytton|The Earl of Lytton]]||22 September 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Edward Turnour, 6th Earl Winterton|The Earl Winterton]]||20 March 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]]||[[John French, 1st Earl of Ypres|The Viscount French of Ypres]]||6 May 1918 – 2 May 1921|| style="background: #cccccc;"| || ||entered the Cabinet 28 October 1918; left the Cabinet 2 April 1921
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Chief Secretary for Ireland]]||'''[[Henry Duke, 1st Baron Merrivale|Henry Duke]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||knighted in 1918
|-
|'''[[Edward Shortt]]'''||5 May 1918|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|'''[[Ian Macpherson, 1st Baron Strathcarron|Ian Macpherson]]'''||10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|'''[[Hamar Greenwood, 1st Viscount Greenwood|Sir Hamar Greenwood, Bt]]'''||2 April 1920|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Vice-President of the Department of Agriculture for Ireland]]||[[Thomas Wallace Russell]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||created a Baronet 20 June 1917
|-
|[[Hugh T. Barrie]]||15 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Secretary of State for Employment|Minister of Labour]]||'''[[John Hodge (politician)|John Hodge]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|'''[[George Henry Roberts|George Roberts]]'''||17 August 1917|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|'''[[Robert Horne, 1st Viscount Horne of Slamannan|Sir Robert Horne]]'''||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Thomas James Macnamara]]'''||19 March 1920|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Labour]]||[[William Bridgeman, 1st Viscount Bridgeman|William Bridgeman]]||22 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[George James Wardle]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|[[Sir Anderson Montague-Barlow, 1st Baronet|Sir Anderson Montague-Barlow, Bt]]||2 April 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=6|[[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]||'''[[Frederick Cawley, 1st Baron Cawley|Sir Frederick Cawley, Bt]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|'''[[Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook|The Lord Beaverbrook]]'''||10 February 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[William Hayes Fisher, 1st Baron Downham|William Hayes Fisher]]'''||4 November 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||created [[Baron Downham]] 16 November 1918
|-
|[[David Lindsay, 27th Earl of Crawford|The Earl of Crawford]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[William Wellesley Peel, 1st Earl Peel|The Viscount Peel]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[William Sutherland (Scottish politician)|Sir William Sutherland]]||7 April 1922|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Minister of Information]]||'''[[Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook|The Lord Beaverbrook]]'''||10 February 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[William Hayes Fisher, 1st Baron Downham|William Hayes Fisher]]'''||4 November 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||created [[Baron Downham]] 16 November 1918; office abolished 10 January 1919
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Minister of Munitions]]||'''[[Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison|Christopher Addison]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|'''[[Winston Churchill]]'''||17 July 1917|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Andrew Weir, 1st Baron Inverforth|The Lord Inverforth]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||office abolished 21 March 1921
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Munitions|Parliamentary Secretaries to the Ministry of Munitions]]||[[Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, 1st Baronet|Sir Laming Worthington-Evans]]||14 December 1916 – 30 January 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Frederick Kellaway|F. G. Kellaway]]||14 December 1916 – 1 April 1920|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[J. E. B. Seely, 1st Baron Mottistone|J. E. B. Seely]]||10 July 1918 – 10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[John Baird, 1st Viscount Stonehaven|John Baird]]||10 January 1919 – 29 April 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Ministry of Munitions]]||[[Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, 1st Baronet|Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, Bt]]||30 January 1918 – 18 July 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[James Hope, 1st Baron Rankeillour|James Hope]]||27 January 1919 – 31 March 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Minister of National Service]]||[[Neville Chamberlain]]||15 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Auckland Geddes, 1st Baron Geddes|Sir Auckland Geddes]]||17 August 1917|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||post abolished 19 December 1919
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of National Service|Parliamentary Secretaries to the Ministry of National Service]]||[[Stephen Walsh (MP)|Stephen Walsh]]||17 March 1917 – 28 June 1917|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|[[Cecil Beck]]||28 June 1917 – 19 December 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[William Wellesley Peel, 1st Earl Peel|The Viscount Peel]]||15 April 1918 – 10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Paymaster-General]]||[[Joseph Compton-Rickett|Sir Joseph Compton-Rickett]]||15 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Tudor Walters|Sir Tudor Walters]]||26 October 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Minister of Pensions]]||[[George Nicoll Barnes]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour||in the War Cabinet 29 May 1917 – 3 August 1917
|-
|[[John Hodge (politician)|John Hodge]]||17 August 1917|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|[[Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, 1st Baronet|Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, Bt]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Ian Macpherson, 1st Baron Strathcarron|Ian Macpherson]]||2 April 1920|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Pensions]]||[[Arthur Griffith-Boscawen|Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscawen]]||22 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon|Sir James Craig, Bt]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[George Tryon, 1st Baron Tryon|George Tryon]]||2 April 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[United Kingdom Postmaster General|Postmaster General]]||[[Albert Illingworth, 1st Baron Illingworth|Albert Illingworth]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Frederick Kellaway|F. G. Kellaway]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Assistant Postmaster General]]||[[Herbert Pease, 1st Baron Daryngton|Herbert Pease]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=9|[[Minister without Portfolio]]||'''[[Arthur Henderson]]'''||10 December 1916 – 12 August 1917|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour||in the War Cabinet 10 December 1916 – 12 August 1917
|-
|'''[[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|The Viscount Milner]]'''||10 December 1916 – 18 April 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||in the War Cabinet 10 December 1916 – 18 April 1918
|-
|'''[[Jan Smuts]]'''||22 June 1917 – 10 January 1919|| style="background: #cccccc;" | || ||in the War Cabinet 22 June 1917 – 10 January 1919
|-
|'''[[Edward Carson, Baron Carson|Sir Edward Carson]]'''||17 July 1917 – 21 January 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[George Nicoll Barnes]]'''||13 August 1917 – 27 January 1920|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour||in the War Cabinet 13 August 1917 – 10 January 1919
|-
|'''[[Austen Chamberlain]]'''||18 April 1918 – 10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||entered the War Cabinet 18 April 1918
|-
|'''[[Eric Geddes|Sir Eric Geddes]]'''||10 January 1919 – 19 May 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||in the War Cabinet 10 January 1919 – 31 October 1919
|-
|'''[[Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, 1st Baronet|Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, Bt]]'''||10 January 1919 – 13 February 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison|Christopher Addison]]'''||1 April 1921 – 14 July 1921|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Minister of Reconstruction]]||[[Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison|Christopher Addison]]||17 July 1917|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Auckland Geddes, 1st Baron Geddes|Sir Auckland Geddes]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||office abolished 19 December 1919
|-
|[[Secretary for Scotland]]||'''[[Robert Munro, 1st Baron Alness|Robert Munro]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Health for Scotland]]||[[John Pratt (Liberal politician)|John Pratt]]||8 August 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||knighted 1922
|-
|[[Minister of Shipping]]||[[Joseph Paton Maclay, 1st Baron Maclay|Sir Joseph Maclay, Bt]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||office abolished 31 March 1921
|-
|rowspan=2|Parliamentary Secretary to the [[Ministry of Shipping (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Shipping]]||[[Leo Chiozza Money|Sir Leo Chiozza Money]]||22 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Leslie Orme Wilson]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Minister of Supply]]||[[Andrew Weir, 1st Baron Inverforth|The Lord Inverforth]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||office abolished 31 March 1921
|-
|rowspan=4|[[President of the Board of Trade]]||'''[[Albert Stanley, 1st Baron Ashfield|Sir Albert Stanley]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Auckland Geddes, 1st Baron Geddes|Sir Auckland Geddes]]'''||26 May 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Robert Horne, 1st Viscount Horne of Slamannan|Sir Robert Horne]]'''||19 March 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Stanley Baldwin]]'''||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=5|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade]]||[[George Henry Roberts|George Roberts]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|[[George James Wardle|George Wardle]]||17 August 1917|| style="background: red;" | ||Labour|| 
|-
|[[William Bridgeman, 1st Viscount Bridgeman|William Bridgeman]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Philip Cunliffe-Lister, 1st Earl of Swinton|Sir Philip Lloyd-Greame]]||22 August 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[William Mitchell-Thomson, 1st Baron Selsdon|Sir William Mitchell-Thomson, Bt]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Secretary for Overseas Trade]]||[[Sir Arthur Steel-Maitland, 1st Baronet|Sir Arthur Steel-Maitland, Bt]]||14 September 1917|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Hamar Greenwood, 1st Viscount Greenwood|Sir Hamar Greenwood, Bt]]||29 April 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Frederick Kellaway|F. G. Kellaway]]||2 April 1920|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Philip Cunliffe-Lister, 1st Earl of Swinton|Sir Philip Lloyd-Greame]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Parliamentary Secretary for Mines]]||[[William Bridgeman, 1st Viscount Bridgeman|William Bridgeman]]||22 August 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Secretary of State for Transport|Minister of Transport]]||'''[[Eric Geddes|Sir Eric Geddes]]'''||19 May 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[William Wellesley Peel, 1st Earl Peel|The Viscount Peel]]||7 November 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[David Lindsay, 27th Earl of Crawford|The Earl of Crawford]]||12 April 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Transport]]||[[Sir Rhys Rhys-Williams, 1st Baronet|Sir Rhys Williams]]||23 September 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Arthur Neal]]||28 November 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Secretary of State for War]]||'''[[Edward Stanley, 17th Earl of Derby|The Earl of Derby]]'''||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|The Viscount Milner]]'''||18 April 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|'''[[Winston Churchill]]'''||10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|'''[[Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, 1st Baronet|Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, Bt]]'''||13 February 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Under-Secretary of State for War]]||[[Ian Macpherson, 1st Baron Strathcarron|Ian Macpherson]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[William Wellesley Peel, 1st Earl Peel|Viscount Peel]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Robert Sanders, 1st Baron Bayford|Sir Robert Sanders]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Financial Secretary to the War Office]]||[[Henry Forster, 1st Baron Forster|Henry Forster]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||created [[Baron Forster]] 12 December 1919
|-
|[[Archibald Williamson, 1st Baron Forres|Sir Archibald Williamson]]||18 December 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[George Frederick Stanley]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Parliamentary Secretary to the War Office]]||[[James Stanhope, 7th Earl Stanhope|The Earl Stanhope]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||post abolished 10 January 1919
|-
|rowspan=2|[[First Commissioner of Works]]||[[Alfred Mond, 1st Baron Melchett|Sir Alfred Mond, Bt]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[David Lindsay, 27th Earl of Crawford|The Earl of Crawford]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||entered the Cabinet 7 April 1922
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]]||[[F. E. Smith, 1st Earl of Birkenhead|Sir F. E. Smith]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Gordon Hewart, 1st Viscount Hewart|Sir Gordon Hewart]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||entered the Cabinet 7 November 1921
|-
|[[Ernest Pollock, 1st Viscount Hanworth|Sir Ernest Pollock]]||6 March 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Solicitor General for England and Wales|Solicitor General]]||[[Gordon Hewart, 1st Viscount Hewart|Sir Gordon Hewart]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Ernest Pollock, 1st Viscount Hanworth|Sir Ernest Pollock]]||10 January 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Leslie Frederic Scott|Leslie Scott]]||6 March 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||knighted in 1922
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Lord Advocate]]||[[James Avon Clyde, Lord Clyde|James Clyde]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Thomas Brash Morison, Lord Morison|Thomas Morison]]||25 March 1920|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Charles David Murray]]||5 March 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Solicitor General for Scotland]]||[[Thomas Brash Morison, Lord Morison|Thomas Morison]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Charles David Murray]]||25 March 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Andrew Henderson Briggs Constable, Lord Constable|Andrew Briggs Constable]]||16 March 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[William Watson, Baron Thankerton|William Watson]]||24 July 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Lord Chancellor of Ireland]]||[[Ignatius John O'Brien, 1st Baron Shandon|Sir John O'Brien, Bt]]||10 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[James Campbell, 1st Baron Glenavy|Sir James Campbell, Bt]]||4 June 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Sir John Ross, 1st Baronet|Sir John Ross, Bt]]||27 June 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=5|[[Attorney General for Ireland]]||[[James O'Connor (Attorney General)|James O'Connor]]||8 January 1917|| style="background: #99FF66"| || Irish Nationalist || 
|-
|[[Arthur Warren Samuels|Arthur Samuels]]||7 April 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Denis Stanislaus Henry|Denis Henry]]||6 July 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Thomas Watters Brown|Thomas Brown]]||5 August 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|''vacant''||16 August 1921|| colspan=2 | 
|-
|rowspan=7|[[Solicitor General for Ireland]]||[[James Chambers (politician)|James Chambers]]||19 March 1917|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Arthur Warren Samuels|Arthur Samuels]]||12 September 1917|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[John Blake Powell|John Powell]]||7 April 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Denis Stanislaus Henry|Denis Henry]]||27 November 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[David Martin Wilson|David Wilson]]||6 July 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Thomas Watters Brown|Thomas Brown]]||12 June 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|''vacant''||5 August 1921|| colspan=2 | || 
|-
|[[Lord Steward of the Household]]||[[Horace Farquhar, 1st Earl Farquhar|The Lord Farquhar]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||created [[Earl Farquhar|Viscount Farquhar]] 21 June 1917
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Lord Chamberlain of the Household]]||[[William Mansfield, 1st Viscount Sandhurst|The Lord Sandhurst]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||created [[Viscount Sandhurst]] 1 January 1917
|-
|[[John Stewart-Murray, 8th Duke of Atholl|The Duke of Atholl]]||20 November 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Vice-Chamberlain of the Household]]||[[Cecil Beck]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[William Dudley Ward]]||9 December 1917|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Master of the Horse]]||[[Edwyn Scudamore-Stanhope, 10th Earl of Chesterfield|The Earl of Chesterfield]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|rowspan=5|[[Treasurer of the Household]]||[[James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon|James Craig]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||created a Baronet 5 February 1918
|-
|''vacant''||22 January 1918|| colspan=2 | 
|-
|[[Robert Sanders, 1st Baron Bayford|Robert Sanders]]||11 June 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Bolton Eyres-Monsell, 1st Viscount Monsell|Bolton Eyres-Monsell]]||5 February 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[George Gibbs, 1st Baron Wraxall|George Gibbs]]||1 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Comptroller of the Household]]||[[Sir Edwin Cornwall, 1st Baronet|Sir Edwin Cornwall, Bt]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[George Frederick Stanley]]||28 February 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Harry Barnston]]||7 April 1921|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Captain of the Gentlemen-at-Arms]]||[[Edward Colebrooke, 1st Baron Colebrooke|The Lord Colebrooke]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal||also Joint [[Government Chief Whip]] in the [[House of Lords]]
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard]]||[[Charles Harbord, 6th Baron Suffield|The Lord Suffield]]||14 December 1916|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Hylton Jolliffe, 3rd Baron Hylton|The Lord Hylton]]||21 May 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||also Joint [[Government Chief Whip]] in the [[House of Lords]]
|-
|rowspan=11|[[Lord in Waiting|Lords in Waiting]]||[[Richard Herschell, 2nd Baron Herschell|The Lord Herschell]]||14 December 1916 – 11 February 1919|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[George Hamilton-Gordon, 2nd Baron Stanmore|The Lord Stanmore]]||14 December 1916 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[John Brocklehurst, 1st Baron Ranksborough|The Lord Ranksborough]]||14 December 1916 – 4 April 1921|| style="background: yellow;" | ||Liberal|| 
|-
|[[Arthur Annesley, 11th Viscount Valentia|The Viscount Valentia]]||14 December 1916 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Hylton Jolliffe, 3rd Baron Hylton|The Lord Hylton]]||14 December 1916 – 18 May 1918|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative||also Joint [[Government Chief Whip]] in the [[House of Lords]]
|-
|[[Savile Crossley, 1st Baron Somerleyton|The Lord Somerleyton]]||18 May 1918 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[George Henry Robert Child Child-Villiers, 8th Earl of Jersey|The Earl of Jersey]]||11 January 1919 – 17 August 1919|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Orlando Bridgeman, 5th Earl of Bradford|The Earl of Bradford]]||11 February 1919 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[Richard Onslow, 5th Earl of Onslow|The Earl of Onslow]]||17 August 1919 – 21 November 1920|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[George Bingham, 5th Earl of Lucan|The Earl of Lucan]]||12 November 1920 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative|| 
|-
|[[George Villiers, 6th Earl of Clarendon|The Earl of Clarendon]]||4 April 1921 – 19 October 1922|| style="background: blue;" | ||Conservative
|}

==References==
*D. Butler and G. Butler, ''Twentieth Century British Political Facts'' (Macmillan, 2000)
{{Reflist}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Second Asquith Ministry]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of British Governments|Government of the United Kingdom]]|years=1916–1922}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Bonar Law Ministry]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{British ministries}}
[[Category:British ministries|1916–1922]]
[[Category:Coalition governments of the United Kingdom|1916–1922]]
[[Category:United Kingdom in World War I]]
[[Category:20th century in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1916 establishments in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1922 disestablishments in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Ministries of George V]]
[[Category:David Lloyd George]]
[[Category:Cabinets established in 1916]]
[[Category:Cabinets disestablished in 1922]]
[[pl:Pierwszy rząd Davida Lloyda George'a]]

Beyond Meat

2014-10-22T17:00:20Z

Piperh: these are not "meat products" (that's the whole point!)

{{Infobox company
| name = Beyond Meat
| logo = [[File:Beyond Meat Logo.jpg|thumb]]
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| foundation = Los Angeles, CA
| founder = Ethan Brown

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| homepage = {{URL|www.beyondmeat.com}}
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}}

'''Beyond Meat''' is a Los Angeles-based producer of plant-based meat substitutes. Beyond Meat’s Products became available nationwide at [[Whole Foods Markets]] in 2013.<ref name=Foster2013 /><ref name=Flanagan2014>{{cite web |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/fake-chicken-beef-meat-from-plants-2014-7 |title= This Fake Meat Is So Good It Fooled Whole Foods Customers For 3 Days|publisher=Business Insider |author=Flanagan, Graham |date=7 July 2014 |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=Strickland2013>{{cite web |url= http://www.inc.com/julie-strickland/ethan-brown-beyond-meat-wired-conference.html |title= Fake Meat for the Masses? |publisher= Inc |author= Julie Strickland |date= 05/07/2013 |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref>

Beyond Meat was founded by CEO Ethan Brown in 2009.<ref name=Gunther2013 /> The company has received venture funding from [[Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers]], [[Twitter|Obvious Corporation]], [[Bill Gates]], [[Biz Stone]], and the [[Humane Society]].<ref name=Fehrenbacher2013 /><ref name=Etherington2013 />

==Origins==
CEO Ethan Brown founded Beyond Meat, formerly Savage River Inc., in 2009 to produce [[Veganism|plant-based]] products that replicated meat and to attempt to eliminate “some of the downsides” of the meat industry in the process.<ref name=Foster2013 /><ref name=Gunther2013>{{cite web |url=http://fortune.com/2013/10/03/the-bill-gates-backed-company-thats-reinventing-meat/ |title= Beyond Meat closes in on the perfect fake chicken, turns heads, tastebuds |publisher= Fortune |author= Marc Gunther |date= Oct 3, 2013|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name = Chang2014 /><ref name=Barker2012>{{cite web |url= http://www.columbiatribune.com/news/local/chicken-substitute-to-be-made-in-columbia/article_1424b83c-17a0-5319-91e2-fee26bf59ecc.html |title= Chicken substitute to be made in Columbia |publisher= Columbia Tribune |author=Jacob Barker |date= Aug 7, 2012|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref> The inspiration for Beyond Meat began for Brown in “chicken country,” where as a young boy he spent weekends on his family farm near the [[Pennsylvania]] border in rural [[Maryland]].<ref name= Noguchi2012/>

Brown initially contacted two [[University of Missouri]] professors, Fu-hung Hsieh and Harold Huff, who had already been refining their meatless protein for years.<ref name=Kile2014>{{cite web |url= http://america.aljazeera.com/watch/shows/techknow/blog/2014/1/15/need-to-know-tasteslikechickenmadeinalab.html |title= Need to Know: Tastes like chicken, made in a lab |publisher= Aljazeera America |author= Meredith Kile |date= Jan 15, 2014 |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref> The duo spent nearly a decade in the University lab working different temperatures and pressures to get their mixture of soybean and [[pea protein]]s “as close to the look and feel of real chicken as possible.”<ref name=Kile2014/> It took them another five years to come up with a recipe for Beyond Meat’s first product, “Chicken-Free Strips,” which the company released to limited locations in 2012.<ref name= Hurley2014>{{cite web |url= http://blogs.riverfronttimes.com/gutcheck/2014/06/beyond_meat_it_tastes_like_chicken_sort_of.php |title= "Beyond Meat," the Mizzou-Creared Faux Chicken That Fooled the New York Times |publisher= Riverfront Times |author= Patrick J. Hurley |date= Jun 27, 2014|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=Manjoo2012>{{cite web |url= http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/technology/2012/07/beyond_meat_fake_chicken_that_tastes_so_real_it_will_freak_you_out_.html |title= Fake Meat So Good it Will Freak You Out |publisher= Slate |author= Farhad Manjoo |date= Jul 2012 |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref>

Brown has stated that his long term goal is to offer a product that can satisfy the world’s growing demand for meat, especially in markets like [[India]] and [[China]].<ref name=Flanagan2014/><ref name = Manjoo2012/>

==History==

Ethan Brown founded Beyond Meat in 2009 as a potential solution to problems he saw with the meat industry.<ref name=Kanani2014>{{cite web |url= http://www.forbes.com/sites/rahimkanani/2014/03/06/the-future-of-meat-is-meatless-just-as-tasty-and-about-to-change-the-world/ |title= The Future of Meat is Meatless, Just as Tasty, And About to Change the World |publisher= Forbes |author= Rahim Kanani |date= 03/06/2014 |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref>

Beyond Meat first released its Chicken-Free Strips exclusively to Whole Foods Markets in Northern [[California]] in 2012.<ref name=Manjoo2012/> Soon after, the company began building a larger production facility with plans of adding meat-free ground beef and pork products to their repertoire.<ref name= Noguchi2012>{{cite web |url= http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/05/17/152519988/a-farmer-bets-better-fake-chicken-meat-will-be-as-good-as-the-real-thing |title= Betting Better Fake Chicken Meat Will Be As Good As The Real Thing |publisher= NPR |author= Yuki Noguchi |date= May 17, 2012 |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref>

[[FastCompany]] listed Beyond Meat as one of the most innovative companies in 2014, and [[PETA]] named Beyond Meat as its company of the year for 2013.<ref name=Chang2014>{{cite web |url= http://www.cbsnews.com/news/meet-the-man-behind-beyond-meat/ |title= Meet the man behind "Beyond Meat" plant-based protein substitute|publisher= cbsnews |author= Lulu Chang|date= Feb 7, 2014 |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=Black2014>{{cite web |url= http://www.fastcompany.com/most-innovative-companies/2014/beyond-meat |title= 43. Beyond Meat |publisher= Fast Company|author= Jane Black |date= Feb 2, 2014|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref>

===Beyond Meat goes nationwide===

The company began selling its chicken-free products in Whole Foods Stores nationally in April 2013.<ref name=Gunther2013/><ref name=Fehrenbacher2013>{{cite web |url= http://gigaom.com/2013/05/07/beyond-meat-ceo-one-day-eating-meat-will-have-no-connection-to-animals/ |title= Beyond Meat CEO: One day eating meat will have no connection to animals |publisher= Gigaom|author= Katie Fehrenbacher |date= May 7, 2013|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name = Manjoo2012/><ref name=Brown2013>{{cite web |url= http://www.wired.com/2013/09/fakemeat/ |title= Tastes Like Chicken |publisher= Wired |author= Alton Brown |date= Sep 2013 |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref>

[[Alanta]]-based [[Tropical Smoothie Café]] started carrying Beyond Meat products in May 2013 as a vegan-friendly substitute for items with chicken on the menu<ref name=Gunther2013/><ref name= Nguyen2013>{{cite web |url= http://vegnews.com/articles/page.do?pageId=5961&catId=8 |title= Tropical Smoothie Café: Beyond Meat Here to Stay |publisher= Veg News Daily|author= Melissa Nguyen |date= Jul 12, 2013|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name= Seward2013>{{cite web |url= http://www.ajc.com/news/business/tropical-smoothie-cafe-adds-beyond-meats-chicken/nXyD4/ |title= Tropical Smoothie Café adds Beyond Meat’s ‘chicken’|publisher= Atlanta Journal Constitution|author= Christopher Seward |date= May 21, 2013|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref>

===Whole Foods recalls curried chicken ===
In May, 2013 Whole Foods recalled two types of [[Chicken curry|curried chicken]] salad that had been sold in some of its stores in the Northeast. The chain’s employees had accidentally confused a batch of “chick’n” salad made with a Beyond Meat chicken-free products with one made from real chicken, and had to reverse the labels.<ref name=Strom2014>{{cite web |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/03/business/meat-alternatives-on-the-plate-and-in-the-portfolio.html?_r=1 |title= Fake Meats, Finally, Taste Like Chicken |publisher= New York Times |author= Stephanie Strom|date= April 2, 2014|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref> It took three days for the store to recognize the mistake.<ref name=Flanagan2014/>

===Obvious Corporation, Bill Gates, and other investors ===
[[Twitter|Obvious Corporation]], which was founded by Twitter co-founders [[Evan Williams (Internet entrepreneur)|Evan Williams]], [[Biz Stone]], and Jason Goldman, began backing Beyond Meat in June, 2013.<ref name= Etherington2013>{{cite web |url= http://techcrunch.com/2013/05/07/were-80-of-the-way-to-fake-meat-thats-indistinguishable-from-the-real-thing/ |title= We’re 80% of the way to fake meat that’s indistinguishable from the real thing|publisher= TechCrunch |author= Darrell Etherington |date= May 7, 2013|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name = Manjoo2012/><ref name=Schwartz2012>{{cite web |url= http://www.fastcoexist.com/1680007/biz-stone-explains-why-twitters-co-founders-are-betting-big-on-a-vegan-meat-startup |title= Biz Stone Explains Why Twitter’s Co-Founders Are Betting Big on a Vegan Meat Startup |publisher= |author= |date= Jun 13, 2012|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=Schwartz2012/>

[[Bill Gates]] also became an investor in Beyond Meat in 2013 after he sampled the product and said he “couldn’t tell the difference between Beyond Meat and real chicken.”<ref name=Flanagan2014/><ref name=Gunther2013/>

The same year, [[Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers|Kleiner Perkins]], the [[Silicon Valley]] [[venture capital]] firm, made Beyond Meat its first investment in a food startup.<ref name=Gunther2013/><ref name=Schwartz2012/> The company also has backing from the [[Humane society|Humane Society]].<ref name=Black2014/>

==Founder Ethan Brown==
Beyond Meat founder Ethan grew up on his father’s dairy farm in western Maryland, an experience that made him concerned about the welfare of the animals he cared for. When he eventually became a vegan, his frustration over the limited availability of meat-free options inspired him to learn more about the industry, and eventually start his own company.<ref name= Noguchi2012/> After acquiring a Master’s Degree in public policy and an MBA from Columbia University, he spent his young career working at Ballard Power Systems (BLDP), a fuel-cell company. While studying clean energy, Brown became acquainted with the contribution of livestock to resource depletion and climate change, and as a result shifted his focus from energy to food.<ref name=Gunther2013/><ref name=Kanani2014/><ref name= Bessette2014>{{cite web |url= http://fortune.com/2014/01/31/10-questions-ethan-brown-ceo-beyond-meat/ |title= 10 Questions: Ethan Brown, CEO, Beyond Meat|publisher= Fortune|author= Chanelle Bessette|date= 2014-01-31|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref>

A 2013 [[Fortune Magazine]] article noted Brown’s support of animal welfare groups such as [[Farm Sanctuary]].<ref name=Gunther2013/>

==Products==
Beyond Meat develops and manufactures a variety of plant protein-based food products. The vegetarian meat substitutes are made from mixtures of [[soy protein]], [[pea protein|pea protein isolates]], yeast, and other ingredients.<ref name=Brown2013 /><ref name=Strom2014 /> As of 2014, the company’s product offerings consisted of Beyond Chicken and Beyond Beef.<ref name=Flanagan2014 /><ref name=Barker2012 /><ref name=Brown2013 /><ref name=Nassauer2014 /> A vegan burger patty, called the ''The Beast,'' was set to be released for sale in late 2014.<ref name=Just2014 /><ref name=abc2014 /><ref name=Dean2014 /> Beyond Meat products are available for purchase in packaged form as well as in retail-prepared dishes.<ref name=Flanagan2014 /><ref name=Barker2012 /><ref name=Brown2013 /><ref name=Schwartz2012 />

===Beyond Chicken===

Beyond Meat’s Chicken-Free products, marketed as Beyond Chicken, are made from a mixture of soy and pea proteins, fiber, and other ingredients and are marketed as a healthy alternative to chicken meat.<ref name=Gunther2013 /><ref name=Schwartz2012 /> Ingredients are mixed and fed into a [[food extrusion]] machine which cooks the mixture while forcing it through a specially designed mechanism that uses steam, pressure, and cold water to form the product’s chicken-like texture.<ref name=Brown2013 /> After being processed in the extrusion machine, the product is cut to size, seasoned, and grilled before being packaged.<ref name=Kile2014 /> Each batch of chicken takes approximately 90 minutes to produce.<ref name=Kile2014 />

The analog chicken is available as lightly seasoned strips, grilled strips, and southwest style strips.<ref name=Brown2013 />

===Beyond Beef===
[[File:Beyond Meat Beef Package.jpg|thumb|Beyond Beef]]

The company’s two flavors of Beyond Beef imitation [[ground beef]] product, Beefy and Feisty, are made from pea proteins, canola oil, and various seasonings.<ref name=Schwartz2012 /><ref name=beyondmeatbeefcrumbles>{{cite web|url=http://beyondmeat.com/beef-free-crumbles-beefy/|title=Beef-free crumbles|publisher=Beyond Meat|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref> The soy and gluten-free pea protein mixture initially resembles a paste before being heated and processed by an extrusion machine.<ref name=Manjoo2012 />

The beefy crumbles possess the same protein content per 55 gram serving as traditional ground beef.<ref name=Gunther2013 /><ref name=Strom2014 />

===The Beast===
Beyond Meat announced in 2014 that it had begun development and testing of a new product called The Beast. The vegetable protein-based burger patties were taste tested by [[The New York Mets]] during a pre-game event.<ref name=Nassauer2014>{{cite web |url= http://online.wsj.com/articles/meatless-burgers-make-their-mlb-pitch-1403736799 |title= Meatless Burgers Make Their MLB Pitch|publisher= The Wall Street Journal |author= Sarah Nassauer |date= 2014-06-25 |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=Just2014>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecorazzi.com/2014/07/18/beyond-meat-unleashes-new-beast-vegan-burger-on-ny-mets/|title=Beyond Meat Unleashes New ‘Beast’ Vegan Burger on NY Mets|publisher=Ecorazzi|date=7 July 2014|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=abc2014>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/video/beast-burger-packs-flavor-nutrients-patty-24313619|title=Beast Burger Packs Flavor, Nutrients|publisher=ABC News|date=7 July 2014|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=Dean2014>{{cite web|url=http://vegnews.com/articles/page.do?pageId=6485&catId=8|title=Beyond Meat Pitching Beast Burger to Big Leagues|publisher=VegNews|date=7 July 2014|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref>

==Production==
The Beyond Meat factory is located in [[Columbia, Missouri]].<ref name=Foster2013>{{cite web |url= http://www.popsci.com/article/science/can-artificial-meat-save-world |title= Can Artificial Meat Save the World |publisher= Popular Science |author= Tom Foster |date= 2013-11-18|accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref> The facility is capable of producing approximately seven million pounds of chicken substitute in one year.<ref name=Barker2012 />

==Reception==
Beyond Meat products have received favorable reviews. Mark Bittman, a food journalist with [[The New York Times]], wrote that “you won't know the difference between that <nowiki>[Beyond Meat]</nowiki> and chicken. I didn't, at least, and this is the kind of thing I do for a living.”<ref name=Wellman2012>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2159300/New-vegan-chicken-product-sells-days-entices-meat-lovers-promise-authentic-texture-flavour.html |title=New vegan 'chicken' sells out in days with promise of authentic texture and taste... but can it impress our meat-loving tester?|publisher=The Daily Mail |author=Wellman, Victoria |date=7 July 2014 |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref> Bill Gates wrote on his personal blog that, “I couldn’t tell the difference between Beyond Meat and real chicken.”<ref name=Foster2013 /> In 2013 chef and television personality [[Alton Brown]] wrote about Beyond Meat’s Beyond Chicken that, “it’s more like meat than anything I’ve ever seen that wasn’t meat.”<ref name=Brown2013/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Companies based in California]]
[[Category:Vegetarian cuisine]]
[[Category:Vegetarianism]]

Nepalesische Küche

2013-05-02T15:51:06Z

Piperh: more specific wikilink

[[Image:Dalbath.jpg|thumb|right|290px|Dal-bhat-tarkari]]
[[Image:Plateful of Momo in Nepal.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Plateful of Momo in Nepal]]

'''Nepalese cuisine''' refers to the cuisines of [[Nepal]]. The [[Cultural diversity|cultural]] and [[Geography of Nepal|geographic]] diversities of Nepal provide ample space for a variety of cuisines based on [[ethnicity]] and on soil and climate. Nevertheless ''[[Dal bhat|dal-bhat-tarkari]]'' ({{lang-ne|दाल भात तरकारी }}) is eaten throughout the country. ''[[Dal]]'' is a soup made of [[lentils]] and spices. This is served over boiled grain, ''bhat''—usually [[rice]] but sometimes another grain—with vegetable curry, ''tarkari''. Condiments are usually small amounts of extremely spicy pickle known as ''achaar'' (अचार) which can be fresh or fermented. The variety of these is staggering, said to number in the thousands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.food-nepal.com/ingredients/i009.htm |title=Pickle - Achar - Chutney |publisher=Food-nepal.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref> Other accompaniments may be sliced [[lemon]] (''kagati'') or [[Kaffir lime|lime]] (''nibua'') and fresh [[chili pepper]]s, ''khursani''.

Some foods have hybrid Chinese/Tibetian and Indian origins, for example [[Momo (dumpling)|momo]] Tibetian dumplings with Nepalese spices, important in [[Newa cuisine]]. Momo were originally filled with [[Water buffalo|buffalo]] meat but now also with goat or chicken as well as vegetarian preparations. There are also special foods such as [[Sel roti]] and [[Patre]] eaten during festivals such as [[Tihar (festival)|Tihar]]. New food varieties have been invented such as Taas [http://www.nepalitimes.com/issue/2012/08/10/Review/19536], similar to [[Kebab|shish kebab]]. The Nepalese have even taken to [[Instant noodles|ramen noodles]] as [[fast food]] that can be prepared and eaten much more quickly than traditional dhal-bhat.

==Types==
[[File:Nepali Meal.jpg|thumb|200px|right| Typical [[Nepal|Nepali]] meal]]
[[Image:Sel Roti.jpg|250px|right|thumbnail|200px| Sel Roti]]
* '''''[[Khas]]''''' or '''''[[Pahari people|Pahari]]'' cuisine''' conforms to dietary restrictions of [[Hindus]] in the [[Geography of Nepal#Hills|Middle Hills]]. Dal-bhat-tarkari is the standard meal eaten twice daily. However with land suitable for irrigated rice paddies in short supply, other grains supplement or even dominate. Wheat becomes unleavened flat wheat bread (''[[roti]]'' or ''[[chapati]]''). [[Maize]] (''makai''), [[buckwheat]] (''fapar''), [[barley]] (''jau'') or [[millet]] (''kodo'') become [[porridge]]-like (''dhido'' or ''ato''). ''Tarkari'' can be spinach or greens (''sag''), fermented and dried greens (''[[gundruk]]'' or [[sinki (food)|''sinki'']]), [[daikon]] radish (''mula''), [[potato]]es (''alu''), [[green bean]]s (''simi''), [[tomato]]es (''golbeda''), [[cauliflower]] (''kauli''), [[cabbage]] (''bandakopi'')), [[pumpkin]] (''farsi''), etc. Fruit traditionally grown in the hills include [[mandarin orange]] (''suntala''), [[kaffir lime]] (''kaguti''), [[lemon]] (''nibuwa''), [[Pyrus pyrifolia|Asian pear]] (''nashpati''), and [[Myrica|bayberry]] (''kaphal''). [[Yogurt]] (''dahi'') and [[curry|curried]] meat (''masu'') or [[fish (food)|fish]] (''machha'') are served as side dishes when available. [[Chicken (food)|Chicken]] (''kukhura''), and fish are usually acceptable to all but the highest [[Brahmin]] (''[[Bahun]]'') caste, who limit meat to Goat (''khasi''). Observant Hindus never eat [[Cow in Hinduism|beef]] (''gaiko masu''), except [[Dalit|untouchables]] (''dalit'') possibly eating animals that have died of natural causes. They also eschew [[Water buffalo|buffalo]] and [[yak]] meat as being too cow-like. In Pahari communities, domestic [[pork]] (''sungurko masu'') was traditionally only eaten by ''Magars'', ''Kirats'' and Dalits, However ''bangur ko masu'' [[wild boar]] was traditionally hunted and eaten by [[chhetri|''Chhetris'']]. A strain derived from wild boar is now raised in captivity and used for meat that is increasingly popular with Pahari ethnicities and castes that did not traditionally eat pork.
[[File:Culinária tradicional do Nepal.jpg|right|thumb|A typical meal in Kathmandu.]]
[[File:Momo101.jpg|right|thumb|Momo]]
[[File:Suji Ki Kheer.JPG|thumb|[[Kheer]]]]

* '''''[[Newar]]s''''' are an [[Urbanization|urbanized]] ethnic group originally living in the Kathmandu Valley, now also in bazaar towns elsewhere in the ''[[Geography of Nepal#Hills|Middle Hills]]''. [[Newa cuisine|Newari cuisine]] has many fermented preparations. In the fertile Kathmandu and Pokhara valleys where cheap rice can be trucked in and many households have relatively high incomes, local market farmers find growing produce more profitable than grain. Thus this cuisine can be much more varied than Pahari cuisine in more isolated parts of the Hills where maximizing grain production is still a matter of survival. Newari cuisine makes wide use of [[Water buffalo|buffalo]] meat. For vegetarians, meat or dried fish can be replaced by fried tofu or cottage cheese. This cuisine also has many fresh and fermented varieties of [[South Asian pickle|''aachar'']] including several made with [[Choerospondias axillaris|''lapsi'']] fruit. [[Chhaang|Homemade rice beer]] is called ''tho'' in Newari; [[Raksi|distilled liquor]] is called ''aela''.
[[Image:Choila.jpg|200px|right|thumb| Red Typical Newari Choila, spicy and hot]]
[[File:Gỏi đu đủ khô bò.jpg|thumb|right|250px| [[Sukuti]] with [[papaya]] salad ]]
[[Image:Yamari.jpg|thumb|200px|Yomari Newa Sweet]]

{{See also|Newa cuisine|Tibetan cuisine}}

* '''Other ethnic variations in the Middle Hills''' - [[Water buffalo|buffalo]] meat and [[pork]] are eaten by many ''[[Adivasi|janajati]]'' (indigenous nationalities with customs departing from Hindu norms). In the course of the [[Nepalese Civil War]], [[Magar people|''Magars'']] (and perhaps other ethnicities in areas under rebel control) began eating beef to flaunt longstanding Hindu domination. More traditionally, Magars ate pork but not water buffalo while the superficially similar ''[[Gurung]]'' did the opposite. Further east, ''[[Tamang]]'', [[Rai people|''Rai'']] and [[Limbu people|''Limbu'']] have unique ethnic foods including ''Kinema'' (fermented soybeans), ''yangben'' ([[Reindeer Moss]]), preparations of bamboo shoots, bread made from millet or buckwheat, and traditional Limbu drink [[Tongba|''tongba'']] (millet beer).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forum.welovenepal.com/index.php?topic=7942.0;wap2 |title=?About Historical and Contemporary Limbu Women of Nepal? |publisher=Forum.welovenepal.com |date=2008-06-24 |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiatraveltimes.com/sikkim/sikkim_cuisine.html |title=The Sikkim cuisines |publisher=Indiatraveltimes.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>

* '''''[[Terai#Terai in Nepal|Terai]]'' cuisine''' - Food in ''Outer Terai'' south of ''[[Sivalik Hills]]'' tend to mirror cuisines of adjacent parts of India such as [[Maithil|''Maithili'']]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mithilacuisine.blogspot.com/ |title=Mithila Cuisine |publisher=Mithilacuisine.blogspot.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref> cuisine in the east, [[Bihari cuisine|''Bihari'']] and [[Bhojpuri cuisine|''Bhojpuri'']] cuisine in the center and near west. Further west there is [[Cuisine of Uttar Pradesh|''Uttar Pradeshi'']] and even [[Mughlai cuisine|''Mughlai'']]-influenced [[Awadhi cuisine|''Awadhi'']] cuisine—particularly eaten by the substantial Muslim population around [[Nepalganj]] and further west. Terai diets can be more varied than in the Middle Hills because of greater variety of crops grown locally plus cash crops imported from cooler microclimates in nearby hill regions as well as from different parts of India. Fruit commonly grown in the Terai include [[mango]] (''aam''), [[litchi]], [[papaya]] (''armewa/papeeta''), [[banana]] (''kera/kela'') and [[jackfruit]] (''katahar/katahal'').
[[File:Chaat stand in mussoorie.jpg|thumb|A young man at Street Vendor of [[panipuri]]]]

* '''''[[Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal|Inner Terai]]''''' valleys between the Sivaliks and [[Mahabharat Range]] were originally severely [[malaria]]l and mainly populated by genetically resistant [[Tharu people|''Tharu'']] who have a distinctive (but not well documented) cuisine. Tharu certainly consume large amounts of fish from local rivers and are said to eat rats and snails. Control of malaria starting in the late 1950s enabled immigration by land-hungry settlers from the hills and by Indian merchant families into towns, bringing along their respective cuisines.

* '''Himalayan cuisine''' - Eaten by culturally [[Tibet#Culture|Tibetan]] and closely related ethnic groups in the [[Geography of Nepal#Himalaya|Himalaya and Trans-himalaya]]. [[Buckwheat]]), [[barley]] and [[millet]] are important cold-tolerant grains often processed into [[noodle]]s or ''[[tsampa]]'' (toasted flour), or made into alcoholic beverages (see below). [[Potato]]es are another important staple crop and food. Subtantial amounts of [[rice]] are imported from the lowlands. The meat of [[yak]] and possibly [[Yak#Yak bovid hybrids|yak-cow hybrids]] may be used, as well as their milk. Meat is often prepared as [[Momo (dumpling)|''momo'']] (potstickers).
[[Image:Thukpa, Tibetan noodle in Osaka, Japan.jpg|right|thumb| Thukpa in Nepali Restaurant]]

* '''''Thakali'' cuisine''' - transitional between Himalayan and lowland cuisines, eaten by ''[[Thakali]]'' people of Tibetan affinity who settled in [[Kali Gandaki Gorge|''Thak-Khola'' Valley]], an ancient and relatively easy trade route through the high [[Himalaya]]. Yak and Yak-cow hybrids locally known as ''Jhopa'' were consumed by the lower castes. Two types of sheep known as ''Bheda'' and ''Chyangra'' or ''Chiru'' were imported from Tibet proper. Thakali cuisine also uses locally grown [[buckwheat]], [[barley]], [[millet]] and [[dal]] as well as [[rice]] and dal imported from lower regions to the south. Since most Thakali people were engaged in trade, they could import vegetables and fruits from lower regions. A large variety of vegetables were consumed daily, some—especially [[radish]] and [[beetroot]]—dried and often prepared with mutton. Soup prepared from [[spinach]] known as ''gyang-to'' was served with a pinch of ''timur-ko-choup'' a condiment prepared from red chili powder, black pepper, salt and local herbs. Thakali cuisine is popular in the cities of Nepal with a number of eateries in [[Kathmandu]] and [[Pokhara]].

* '''[[Snack foods|Snacks]]''' include [[maize]] popped or parched called ''khaja'' (literally, "Eat and run."); [[Baji (food)|beaten rice]] (chyura), dry-roasted [[soybean]]s (bhatmas Nepali: भटमास), ''lapsi'' (dried fruit candy), and Indian foods like [[samosa]] and [[Indian sweets]]. International snacks like [[biscuit]]s (packaged cookies), [[Potato chip|potato chips]] and [[Wai Wai (food)|wai wai]] (Nepali: वाइ वाइ) ([[Instant noodles]] manufactured with [[List of Indian spices|Indian spices]]) are all coming into widespread use.
[[File:Instant noodles with cabbage egg and carrot.jpg|thumb|[[Vegetables]] and [[egg (food)|eggs]] with instant noodles]]

* '''Beverages''' - [[Masala chai#Plain chai|tea]] (''chiya'') usually taken with milk and sugar, juice of [[sugarcane]] (''sarbat'') and [[buttermilk]] (''mahi''). Alcoholic beverages include ''[[raksi]]'', spirits made in rustic distilleries, and ''jard'', homemade beer made from rice. At higher elevations there is millet beer (''[[tongba]]'' or ''[[Chhaang]]'').
<gallery>
Image:Messe-36.JPG|Street vendor of snack foods
Image:Distillery Nagarkot Nepal.jpg|Raksi distillery
Image:Tongba.jpg|Millet beer
</gallery>

==Etiquette==
Meals are traditionally eaten seated or squatting on the floor although urban restaurants have tables and chairs. A large mound of ''bhat'' (boiled rice or other grain such as cornmeal or barley) or a pile of ''roti'' (rounds of thin unleavened bread) is served on a ''[[thali]]''—a rimmed brass or stainless steel plate about 12"/30 cm. diameter. The rice is surrounded by smaller mounds of prepared vegetables, fresh chutney or preserved pickles, and sometimes curd / yogurt, fish or meat. Soup-like dal and vegetables cooked in sauce may be served in separate small bowls, to be poured over the rice. Food is brought to the mouth with the fingers of the right hand. The left hand—traditionally used for certain toilet purposes—should never touch food but may hold cups and glasses. The right hand should be rinsed before and after eating.

Although Nepalese society is moving away from [[caste]]-based discrimination and becoming less mindful of ''ritual pollution'', these concepts can still hold sway in traditionally minded upper caste households. In such contexts water itself is highly subject to pollution, affecting containers as well. Clay or wooden containers must then be discarded while metal containers require ritual scouring. You will often find people drinking water by pouring it into their mouths rather than touching their lips to the container to avoid polluting the container and contents.

Dry-cooked grains—including beaten rice and roasted soybeans or corn—also rice pudding cooked in milk rather than water (''khir'') and raw fruit are less subject to ritual pollution. These foods can be accepted from any clean caste but not from ''[[Dalit|untouchables]]''. However water and foods cooked with water can be problematic. Traditionally they are not to be cooked or touched by a person of lower caste than the recipient. For this reason even in a polygamous household the first wife should not be of lower caste than the husband.

Foreigners and members of many partically Hinduized ''janajati'' ethnic groups may occupy an ambiguous space, neither fully untouchable nor fully "clean". They may not be welcome inside upper-caste homes and should not presume to enter without being invited (and not just invited to sit outside on the porch). Upper-caste Hindus may decline to eat with them at all, or may avoid eating foods that most subject to ritual pollution.

Breaches of dietary etiquette were made criminal offenses in ''[[Jang Bahadur#Muluki Ain|Muluki Ain]]'' —- the main corpus of civil law -— in 1854 and not decriminalized until 1962. Since 1962 discriminatory customs have been falling into disuse among educated and urban Nepalis, yet they often prevail in the countryside. Guests and visitors should try to conform to tradition until clearly instructed otherwise by their hosts.

==See also==
{{Portal|Nepal|Food}}
* [[Culture of Nepal]]
* [[Newari cuisine]]
* [[Sel roti]]
* [[Dal bhat]]
* [[South Asian cuisine]]
* [[Jimbu]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://art5culinary.wordpress.com/category/nepalese/ Nepalese Food]
* [http://www.food-nepal.com/ Guide to Nepali food l]
* Saidi, Nicole. "[http://eatocracy.cnn.com/2011/10/14/in-search-of-nepals-culinary-identity/ In search of Nepal's culinary identity]." ''[[CNN]]''. October 14, 2011.
* [http://www.globalgourmet.com/destinations/nepal/nepaleat.html Eating in Nepal]
* [http://www.nepalvista.com/travel/food.html Nepali food recipes]
* [http://www.himalayanlearning.org/the-himalaya/nepal-food.php Nepali food]
* [http://www.indianchild.com/caste_system_in_india.htm Caste system and Hindu food etiquette in India]

{{Asian topic|| cuisine}}
{{cuisine}}

[[Category:Nepalese cuisine| ]]
[[Category:Caste system of Nepal]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Nepal]]

Eight Northern Pueblos

2013-02-04T21:23:49Z

Piperh: San Juan now called Ohkay Owingeh

[[Image:Pueblo01.png|thumb|350px|Location of '''Eight Northern Pueblos''' and neighboring pueblos in New Mexico]]
The '''Eight Northern Pueblos''' of [[New Mexico]] are [[Taos Pueblo|Taos]], [[Picuris Pueblo, New Mexico|Picuris]], [[Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico|Santa Clara]], [[Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo|Ohkay Owingeh]] (formerly San Juan), [[San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico|San Ildefonso]], [[Nambé Pueblo|Nambé]], [[Pojoaque Pueblo|Pojoaque]], and [[Tesuque, New Mexico|Tesuque]].

Taos and Picuris are [[Tiwa language|Tiwa]]-speaking [[pueblo]]s; the rest speak [[Tewa language|Tewa]]. Tiwa and Tewa are closely related languages of the Kiowa Tanoan language family. These pueblos make up the ''Eight Northern Pueblos Council'', which sponsors craft fairs, advocates for the legal interests of the pueblos, etc. The Capital of the Eight Northern Pueblos is located in [[Ohkay Owingeh]]. Ohkay Owingeh was formerly known as San Juan but changed to its original Native Pueblo name in 2005.

== See also ==
* [[List of dwellings of Pueblo peoples]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.northcentralnm.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=category&sectionid=4&id=22&Itemid=75 The Eight Northern Pueblos and the Jicarilla Apache Tribe]
*[http://www.indianpueblo.org Indian Pueblo Cultural Center Website]

{{NorthAm-native-stub}}

[[Category:Cultural lists|8 Eight Northern Pueblos]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in New Mexico]]

USAir-Flug 427

2012-12-01T18:03:18Z

Piperh: /* Crash */ described location of crash more exactly

{{Infobox Airliner accident
|name = USAir Flight 427
|Date = September 8, 1994
|image = US Airways Boeing 737.jpg
|image size = 250px
|caption = A [[US Airways]] [[737-300]], similar to the accident aircraft but with newer livery (USAir rebranded itself as US Airways in 1997).
|Type= [[Rudder]] malfunction
|Site = [[Hopewell Township, Beaver County, Pennsylvania|Hopewell Township, {{nowrap|Beaver County, Pennsylvania}}]] {{nowrap|{{coord|40.60393|N|80.31026|W|region:US-PA_type:landmark}}}}
|Aircraft Type = [[Boeing 737#737-300|Boeing 737-300]]
|Origin = [[O'Hare International Airport]]
|Destination = [[West Palm Beach International Airport|West Palm Beach Int'l Airport]]
|stopover = {{nowrap|[[Pittsburgh International Airport]]}}
|Operator = [[USAir]]
|tail_number = [http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19940908-0 N513AU]
|Passengers = 127
|Crew = 5
|Fatalities = 132 (all)
|Survivors = 0
}}

'''[[US Air]] Flight 427''' was a scheduled flight from Chicago's [[O'Hare International Airport]] to [[Pittsburgh International Airport|Pittsburgh]], with a final destination of [[West Palm Beach, Florida]]. The flight crashed on Thursday, September 8, 1994, killing everyone on board.

The [[Boeing_737#737-300|Boeing 737-3B7]] flying the route, registered N513AU, was approaching runway 28R of [[Pittsburgh International Airport]], located in [[Findlay Township, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania]]. The airport was, at the time, the largest hub for the airline.

==Crash==
45-year-old Captain Peter Germano and 38-year-old First Officer Charles B. "Chuck" Emmett III piloted the aircraft. At about {{convert|6000|ft|m}} and {{convert|6|mi|km|sigfig=1}} from the runway, at 7:03PM, the aircraft experienced a sudden loss of control and slammed into the ground in an 80 degree nose down postion, while banked 60 degrees to the right, and traveling at 300mph in [[Hopewell Township, Beaver County, Pennsylvania|Hopewell Township, Beaver County]],<ref>"[http://www.pittsburghlive.com/pages/newsextra/427double.pdf 28 Seconds of Horror]," ''[[Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]]''</ref> near [[Aliquippa, Pennsylvania]], killing all 127 passengers and 5 crew members. The plane just barely missed the Aliquippa exit of the Beaver Valley Expressway (I-376), which was crowded with cars of people driving home from work, crashing onto a private driveway on Pettina Lane in an area protected against trespassing.

Flight 427 has the third highest death toll of any aviation accident involving a Boeing 737-300 after the crash of [[Flash Airlines Flight 604]] and [[China Southern Airlines Flight 3943]]. When it occurred, it was the second deadliest accident involving a [[Boeing 737]] and is currently the sixth deadliest. It was also the seventh deadliest aviation disaster in the history of the United States at the time it occurred; as of 2012, it now ranks ninth.

==Investigation==
After the longest investigation in aviation history{{CN|date=April 2012}} — more than four and a half years — the concluding statement said:

{{Quote|The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of the USAir flight 427 accident was a loss of control of the airplane resulting from the movement of the rudder surface to its blowdown limit. The rudder surface most likely deflected in a direction opposite to that commanded by the pilots as a result of a jam of the main rudder power control unit servo valve secondary slide to the servo valve housing offset from its neutral position and overtravel of the primary slide.<ref>[http://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/1999/AAR9901.pdf NTSB summary]</ref>}}

The [[National Transportation Safety Board]] concluded that similar [[Rudder#Aircraft rudders|rudder]] problems caused the previously mysterious March 3, 1991 crash of [[United Airlines Flight 585]], and the June 9, 1996 incident involving [[Eastwind Airlines Flight 517]], both of which were Boeing 737s. As a result of the investigation, pilots were warned of and trained how to deal with insufficient [[ailerons|aileron]] authority at an airspeed at or less than 190 knots (218 mph, 354 km/h), formerly the usual approach speed for a Boeing 737. Four additional channels of information—pilot rudder pedal commands—were incorporated into [[flight data recorder]]s, while Boeing redesigned the rudder system on 737s and retrofitted existing craft until the affected systems could be replaced. The [[United States Congress]] also required airlines to deal more sensitively with the families of crash victims.<ref>[http://www.ntsb.gov/news/speeches/carmody/cc021112.htm Remarks from acting NTSB Chairman, 2002]</ref>

US Airways 427 is no longer a valid flight number on US Airways as of January 2011.

Flight 427 was the second fatal crash in a little over two months at the company (the other being [[USAir Flight 1016]] at Charlotte-Douglas Airport in July 1994). The crashes contributed to the financial crisis USAir was experiencing at the time.<ref>"[http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/specialreports/flight427/s_247851.html Disaster only one in a string of setbacks for troubled company]," ''[[Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]]''</ref>

The crash killed noted neuroethologist [[Walter Heiligenberg]] (born 1938).<ref>"[http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=y_EVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BBUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6843,3617484&dq=walter-heiligenberg+usair List of Crash Victims]." ''[[Wilmington Morning Star]]''. September 10, 1994. 4A. [[Google News]] (28 of 49). Retrieved on October 3, 2009.</ref>

==Dramatization==

The accident was depicted on the [[Discovery Channel Canada]]/[[National Geographic Channel]] television series ''[[Mayday (TV series)|Mayday]]'' (also known as ''Air Emergency'' or ''Air Crash Investigation'' in various countries) series 4 episode entitled "Hidden Danger" ("Mystery Crashes"), alongside United Airlines Flight 585 and Eastwind Airlines Flight 517.

==See also==
{{Portalbox|Pittsburgh|Aviation|Disasters|1990s}}
* [[Boeing 737 rudder issues]]
* [[United Airlines Flight 585]]
* [[Eastwind Airlines Flight 517]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ntsb.gov/events/usair427/items.htm NTSB Accident Investigation Docket]
* [http://www.avweb.com/news/safety/183027-1.html AVweb article]
* [http://www.avweb.com/news/news/183029-1.html AVweb supplement]
* {{ASN accident|id=19940908-0}}
* [http://www.sptimes.com/28-seconds/index.html 28 Seconds] Four-part article from the [[Saint Petersburg Times]]
* [http://airlinesafety.com/faq/B-737Rudder.htm Boeing 737 Rudder Design Defect]
* [http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/specialreports/flight427/ Remembering Flight 427], ''[[Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]]''
* [http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?front=yes&s=1&keywords=N513AU Pre-Crash accident photos from Airliners.net]
* [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/09252/996597-57.stm Mourners remember at 15th anniversary]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=25541777 Memorial location]

==Books==
* Bill Adair, ''The Mystery of Flight 427: Inside a Crash Investigation'', ISBN 1-58834-005-8
* Gerry Byrne, ''Flight 427: Anatomy of an Air Disaster'', ISBN 0-387-95256-X
{{Aviation incidents and accidents in 1994}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:USAir Flight 0427}}
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by design or manufacturing errors]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1994]]
[[Category:1994 in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Beaver County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:US Airways accidents and incidents|427]]

[[es:Vuelo 427 de UsAir]]
[[fr:Vol 427 USAir]]
[[id:USAir Penerbangan 427]]
[[it:Volo USAir 427]]
[[he:טיסה 427 של יו אס אייר]]
[[nl:USAir-vlucht 427]]
[[pl:Katastrofa lotu USAir 427]]
[[zh:全美航空427號班機空難]]

Kathedrale St. Franziskus (Santa Fe)

2012-10-28T16:07:49Z

Piperh: /* Cathedral */ restored two words that were apparently mistakenly deleted during extensive edits by Parkwells, 25 July 2012, 14:39

{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:NewMexicoCathedralSantaFe.jpg|thumb|right|{{center|Saint Francis Cathedral}}]]
[[Image:Lamy Cathedral.jpg|thumb|right|200 px|{{center|Statue of Lamy in front of the cathedral}}]]

The '''Cathedral Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi''', commonly known as '''Saint Francis Cathedral''', is a Roman Catholic cathedral in downtown [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]]. It is the [[mother church]] of the [[Archdiocese of Santa Fe]].

The cathedral was built by Archbishop [[Jean Baptiste Lamy]] between 1869 and 1886 on the site of an older [[adobe]] church, La Parroquia (built in 1714–1717). An older church on the same site, built in 1626, was destroyed in the 1680 [[Pueblo Revolt]]. The new cathedral was built around La Parroquia, which was dismantled once the new construction was complete. A small chapel on the north side of the cathedral was kept from the old church.

Influenced by the French-born Archbishop Lamy and in dramatic contrast to the surrounding adobe structures, Saint Francis Cathedral was designed in the [[Romanesque Revival architecture|Romanesque Revival]] style. As such, the cathedral features characteristic round [[arch]]es separated by [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] columns and truncated square towers. The large [[rose window]] in front and those of the [[Twelve Apostles]] in the lateral nave windows were imported from [[Clermont-Ferrand]] in France. The towers were originally planned to be topped with dramatic {{convert|160|ft|m|adj=on}} [[steeple (architecture)|steeples]], but due to lack of funds, these were never built. The left tower is a single row of bricks taller than the right tower. The cathedral was built from yellow [[limestone]] blocks quarried near the present site of [[Lamy, New Mexico|Lamy]]. A 2005 addition to the upper facade of the cathedral is a small, round window featuring a [[dove]], the symbol of the [[Holy Spirit]]. It is a [[stained glass]] replica of the translucent [[alabaster]] window designed in the 17th-century by the Italian artist [[Bernini]] for [[St. Peter's Basilica]] in [[Vatican City]].

The Cathedral of Saint Francis of Assisi was officially elevated to a [[basilica]] by [[Pope Benedict XVI]] on October 4, 2005, when it was named the Cathedral Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi.

==Outside portico==
;St. Francis of Assisi
This statue of [[Francis of Assisi|St. Francis]], the patron saint of the diocese, was installed at the Cathedral during the 1967 renovations.

[[File:Bassilica (Blessed Kateri) Santa Fe NewMexico PA300072.jpg|thumb|200 px|{{center|Blessed Kateri}}]]
;Blessed Kateri
[[Kateri Tekakwitha]] (1656–1680) is the first North American Indian to be [[beatified]], and was canonized in October 2012.<ref>Sharon Otterman, "Complex Emotions with Naming of First American Indian Saint", ''New York Times'', 25 July 2012</ref> She was an Algonquian-Mohawk woman of New York State. At an early age, she converted to Christianity.<ref>Brass plaque under the statue</ref> The statue was created by [[Estella Loretto]], a sculptor from the near by [[Jemez Pueblo]].

;[[Jean-Baptiste Lamy|Father John Baptist Lamy]]
A statue by [[Jeno Juszko]] honors Father Lamy (1814–1888), who was installed as the first Bishop of the Diocese of Santa Fe in 1850. Under his direction, the cornerstone of the current cathedral was laid in 1869. He became Archbishop in 1875, when the Diocese was raised to an Archdiocese.<ref name=Welcome>Welcome Bienvendidos!; The Cathedral basilica of St. Francis of Assisi; Santa Fe, New Mexico</ref> He retired in July 1885 to his residence north of town, known as Bishop's Lodge. He is buried in the crypt beneath the Cathedral floor.<ref name=Welcome/>

==West Front==
[[File:Bassilica doors Santa Fe NewMexico PA300079.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|{{Center|Bronze Doors}}]]
;Bronze doors
During the restoration of 1986, new doors were created, each with ten bronze panels that portrayevents in the history of the church in Santa Fe. Donna Quastoff was the commissioned sculptor.<ref name=Welcome/>

==Cathedral==
;Nave
The baptismal font is in the center of the nave. Made of Brazilian granite, it was dedicated on June 3, 2001 by Most Rev. Michael J. Sheehan. The eight-sided form represents the 8th day, or Easter, marking God's [[New Creation]] through the [[resurrection]] of Jesus Christ.<ref name=Welcome/> The basin is a cruciform, with three steps representative of the 3 days between Jesus' [[crucifixion]] and his resurrection. The rill symbolizes the four Evangelists, who cast their nets to catch men. Its location directly between the doors and the altar is representative of the faith journey.<ref name=Welcome/> To the south is the Ambry Cabinet, containing the oils used in the sacraments. To the north is the [[Easter Candle]] stand.<ref name=Welcome/>

Surrounding the nave along the walls are the [[Stations of the Cross]]. The original artwork was done in New Mexico Mission Style. The French archbishops gradually removed the art and painted the walls white. In 1997, the current Archbishop began to have the interior restored as it was historically. The Stations are created in [[Santo (art)|Santero]] style by Marie Romero Cash. Roberto Montoya, a [[Penitent]], carved the Spanish-style frames.<ref name=Welcome/>

[[File:San Damiano Crucifix replica Santa Fe NewMexicoPA300105.jpg|thumb|right|upright|{{center|San Damiano Crucifix (replica)}}]]
;La Conquistadora Chapel
In 1626, Fray Alonso Benavides brought Our Lady of the Rosary to Santa Fe. The chapel was built at that time for the statue. During the Pueblo Revolt, the statue was removed, but returned in 1693 during the peaceful return of the Spanish settlers. She was renamed ''La Conquistadora'' in honor of what was believed to be her peaceful acceptance by the natives.<ref name=Welcome/> Behind the statue is a [[reredos]], a mural style from Spain, which depicts various saints. During a recent (2000–2009) restoration, an older painting was found.<ref name=Welcome/> On the left are the coffins of two early [[Franciscan]] priests. The chapel is listed as a "contributing property" of the [[Santa Fe Historic District]].<ref>[http://www.noehill.com/nm_santafe/nat1973001150.aspx "La Conquistadora Chapel"], List of contributing properties</ref>

;Blessed Sacrament Chapel
The chapel is reserved for prayer. The window wall along the south transept was added during the 1986 renovations. Etched into the glass are depictions of the Apostles and the Holy Family, by the artist Andrea Bacigalupa. The stained glass windows in the chapel were made in France and represent the [[Eucharist]].<ref name=Welcome/>

;Sanctuary
Located in the east end of the nave is the sanctuary. Above the altar is the [[San Damiano cross|San Damiano Crucifix]], a replica of the crucifix in [[Assisi]], [[Italy]]. Tradition says that the Lord leaned down from the crucifix and said; "Francis, go and repair my house."<ref name=Welcome/>

[[File:Basilica Screen Cathedral Basilica St Francis Santa Fe NewMexico PA300106.jpg|thumb|right|Reredos with St. Francis surrounded by saints of the New World.]]
The altar screen, a reredos, was created for the 100th anniversary of the Cathedral in 1986. In the center is an 18th-century statue of St. Francis.<ref name=Welcome/> He is surrounded by painted images of saints of the [[New World]].<ref name=Welcome/>

The entrance to the crypt is directly behind the sanctuary. The sanctuary was redesigned in 1986 in accordance with changes in the liturgical worship. The Archbishop's chair is located to the north, next to a pillar.<ref name=Welcome/>

==Cultural references==
A fictionalized account of the cathedral's origins is included in [[Willa Cather]]'s ''[[Death Comes for the Archbishop]]''.

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|Cathedral Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi, Santa Fe, New Mexico}}
* [http://rackphoto.com/pp/2011/08/11/the-cathedral-basilica-of-st-francis-of-assisi/ Interactive hi resolution panoramic tour of the Cathedral Basilica of St Francis]
* [http://www.virtualsantafe.com/VirtualSF/StFrancis Virtual Tour of the Cathedral St Francis]
{{Coord|35.6865|-105.9363|type:landmark_region:US-NM|display=title}}

[[File:St. Francis Tgmtn.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tetragrammaton]] in Hebrew over the main entrance to the cathedral.]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cathedral Basilica Of St. Francis Of Assisi}}
[[Category:Basilica churches in the United States|Francis of Assisi,Cathedral Basilica of Saint]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic cathedrals in the United States|Francis of Assisi,Cathedral Basilica of Saint]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches in New Mexico|Francis of Assisi,Cathedral Basilica of Saint]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Santa Fe]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Santa Fe, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Santa Fe, New Mexico]]

[[it:Cattedrale di San Francesco d'Assisi (Santa Fe)]]

Pueblo de Taos

2012-09-06T18:55:37Z

Piperh: /* Prehistory and history */ reverted faulty edit made by Lightbot, 4 October 2011

{{About|the ancient Tiwa pueblo|the census-designated place|Taos Pueblo, New Mexico|the book by Ansel Adams and Mary Hunter Austin|Taos Pueblo (book)}}
{{Infobox historic site
| name = Taos Pueblo
| image = USA 09669 Taos Pueblo Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg
| caption = Taos Pueblo residential complex
| location = Near [[Taos, New Mexico]], [[United States|USA]]
| latitude = 36.43917
| longitude = -105.54559
| coord_parameters = region:US_type:landmark
| coord_display= inline, title
| locmapin = New Mexico
| map_caption = Location within New Mexico
| governing_body = Native American [[Federally recognized tribes|tribal government]]
| designation1 = WHS
| designation1_offname = Pueblo de Taos
| designation1_date = 1992 (16th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])
| designation1_type = Cultural
| designation1_criteria = iv
| designation1_number = [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/492 492]
| designation1_free1name = State Party
| designation1_free1value = {{USA}}
| designation1_free2name = Region
| designation1_free2value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in the Americas|Europe and North America]]
| designation2 = NRHP
| designation2_number = 66000496 <ref name="nris">{{NRISref|2006a}}</ref>
| designation2_date = October 15, 1966
| designation3 = NHLD
| designation3_date = October 9, 1960<ref name="nhlsum">{{Cite web|url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=353&ResourceType=District
|title=Taos Pueblo|accessdate=June 26, 2008 |work=National Historic Landmark summary listing|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref>
}}
{{ethnic group|
|group=Taos (t’óynemą)
|poptime=1,000 (1990 census)
|popplace=United States ([[New Mexico]])
|rels=Taos religion, Christianity
|langs=[[Tiwa]], English, Spanish
|related=other [[Tanoan]] peoples
}}
'''Taos Pueblo''' (or '''Pueblo de Taos''') is an ancient [[pueblo]] belonging to a [[Taos language|Taos]] ([[Tiwa languages|Northern Tiwa]]) speaking Native American tribe of [[Pueblo people]]. It is approximately 1000 years old and lies about {{convert|1|mi|km|adj=on}} north of the modern city of [[Taos, New Mexico|Taos]], New Mexico, USA. The Red Willow Creek, or [[Rio Pueblo de Taos]] (also called Rio Pueblo), is a small stream which flows through the middle of the pueblo from its source in the [[Sangre de Cristo Range]]. A [[Indian reservation|reservation]] of 95,000 acres (384 km²) is attached to the pueblo, and about 1,900 people live in this area.<ref name="taospueblo.com">[http://taospueblo.com/about.php Who lives in the Pueblo? (scroll down)]</ref>

Taos Pueblo is a member of the [[Eight Northern Pueblos]]. The Taos community is known for being one of the most secretive and conservative pueblos.

Taos Pueblo's most prominent architectural feature is a multi-storied residential complex of reddish-brown [[adobe]] divided into two parts by the Rio Pueblo. According to the Pueblo's Web site, it was probably built between 1000 and 1450 A.D. It was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]] on October 9, 1960, and in 1992 became a [[World Heritage Site]]. As of 2006, about 150 people live in it full-time.<ref name="taospueblo.com"/>

==Name==
In the [[Taos language]], the pueblo is referred to as "the village" in either ''{{unicode|tə̂otho}}'' "in the village" (''{{unicode|tə̂o-}}'' "village" + ''{{unicode|-tho}}'' "in") or ''{{unicode|tə̂obo}}'' "to/toward the village" (''{{unicode|tə̂o-}}'' "village" + ''{{unicode|-bo}}'' "to, toward"). The proper name of the pueblo is ''{{unicode|ȉałopháymųp’ȍhə́othə̀olbo}}'' "at red willow canyon mouth" (or ''{{unicode|ȉałopháybo}}'' "at the red willows" for short); however, this name is more commonly used in ceremonial contexts and is less common in everyday speech.

The name ''Taos'' in English was borrowed from Spanish ''Taos''. Spanish ''Taos'' is probably a borrowing of Taos ''{{unicode|tə̂o-}}'' "village" which was heard as ''tao'' to which the plural ''-s'' was added although in the modern language ''Taos'' is no longer a plural noun. The idea that Spanish ''Taos'' is from ''tao'' "cross of the order of San Juan de los Cabelleros" (from Greek ''tau'') is unlikely.<ref>Jones, William. (1960). Origin of the place name Taos. ''Anthropological Linguistics'', ''2'' (3), 2–4; Trager, George L. (1960). The name of Taos, New Mexico. ''Anthropological Linguistics'', ''2'' (3), 5–6.</ref>

==Prehistory and history==
Most [[archeologists]] believe that the Taos Indians along with other Pueblo Indians settled along the [[Rio Grande]] migrated from the [[Four Corners]] region. The dwellings of that region were inhabited by the [[Anasazi]], and a long drought in the area in the late 13th century may have caused them to move to the Rio Grande where the water supply was more dependable.

The history of Taos Pueblo includes the plotting of the [[Pueblo Revolt]] in 1680, a [[Siege of Pueblo de Taos|siege]] by U.S. forces in 1847, and the return by [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]] in 1970 of the Pueblo's 48,000 acres (194 km²) of mountain land taken by President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and designated as the [[Carson National Forest]] early in the 20th century.<ref>Julyan, B: ''New Mexico's Wilderness Areas: The Complete Guide'', page 73. Big Earth Publishing, 1999</ref> Blue Lake, which the people of the Pueblo traditionally consider sacred, was included in this return of Taos land. The Pueblo's web site names the acquisition of the sacred Blue Lake as the most important event in its history due to the spiritual belief that the Taos natives originated from the lake itself. An additional {{convert|764|acre|km2}} south of the ridge between Simpson Peak and Old Mike Peak and west of Blue Lake were transferred back to the Pueblo in 1996.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bulk.resource.org/gpo.gov/laws/104/publ333.104.pdf |title=Public Law 104-333 |accessdate=July 19, 2008 |work= |publisher= |date= |format=PDF}}</ref>

"The Padre of Isleta", [[Anton Docher]] first served as a priest in Taos before his long time spent in [[Isleta]].<ref>Leo Crane. ''Desert Drums: The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, 1540–1928''. Rio Grande Press, 1972.</ref>

==Structure==
The North-Side Pueblo is said to be one of the most photographed and painted buildings in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. It is the largest multistoried Pueblo structure still existing. It is made of adobe walls that are often several feet thick. Its primary purpose was for defense. Up to as late as 1900, access to the rooms on lower floors was by ladders on the outside to the roof, and then down an inside ladder. In case of an attack, outside ladders could easily be pulled up.

The homes in this structure usually consist of two rooms, one of which is for general living and sleeping, and the second of which is for cooking, eating, and storage. Each home is self-contained; there are no passageways between the houses. Taos Indians made little use of furniture in the past, but today they have [[Table (furniture)|tables]], chairs, and beds. In the Pueblo, electricity, [[running water]], and indoor [[plumbing]] are prohibited.

The pueblo wall completely encloses the village except at the entrance as a symbol of the village boundaries. Now rather short, the wall used to be much taller for protection against surrounding tribes. The river running through the pueblo serves as the primary source for drinking and cooking water for the residents of the village. In the winter, the river never completely freezes although it does form a heavy layer of ice. Because the river moves so swiftly, the ice can be broken to obtain the fresh water beneath.

==Spiritual community==
[[File:Ansel Adams - National Archives 79-AA-Q01 restored.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Taos church photographed by [[Ansel Adams]]]]
Three religions are represented in the Pueblo: Christianity, the aboriginal religion, and the [[Native American Church]]. Eighty percent of the Taos Pueblo community is baptized; however, only twenty percent are practicing Roman Catholics. The majority of Taos Indians practice their still-vital, ancient indigenous religion (Taos Pueblo Public Tour; 30 July 2010). [[Saint Jerome]], or [[San Geronimo]], is the [[patron saint]] of the pueblo.

The deep feeling of belonging to a community, summed up in their phrase, “we are in one nest,” has held the Taos people together. Both men and women are expected to offer their services or “community duties,” when needed. One should be cooperative and never allow their own desires to be destructive of the community’s interest. One of Taos’s strongest institutions is the family. Descent on both the father and the mother’s side of the family is equally recognized. Each primary family lives in a separate dwelling so when a couple gets married, they move to their own home. With relatives so near by, everyone is available to help care for the children. The elderly teach the young the values and traditions that have been handed down, which protects the integrity of the Taos culture.

==See also==
* [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Taos County, New Mexico]]
* [[Taos language]]
* [[Taos Pueblo, New Mexico|Taos Pueblo]], New Mexico, a [[census-designated place]]
* [[Elk-Foot of the Taos Tribe]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*Bodine, John J., ''Taos Pueblo: A Walk Through Time''. Tucson: Rio Nuevo Publishers, 1996.

==External links==
{{commons|Taos Pueblo}}
*[http://taospueblo.com/ Taos Pueblo] (official site)
*[http://www.taoswebcam.com/ Webcam of sacred Taos Mountain]
*[http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/zc77sq09n Taos Blue Lake Collection at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University]
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/amsw/sw47.htm Taos Pueblo] on [[National Park Service]] ''Discover Our Shared Heritage'' website
*The [http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm4/browse.php?CISOROOT=/sit SMU-in-Taos Research Publications] digital collection contains nine anthropological and archaeological monographs and edited volumes representing the past several decades of research at the SMU-in-Taos (Fort Burgwin) campus near Taos, New Mexico, including [http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/u?/sit,24 Papers on Taos archaeology] and [http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/u?/sit,25 Taos archeology]
* [http://www.sacredland.org/taos-blue-lake/ More on Taos Blue Lake]

{{National Register of Historic Places}}
{{World Heritage Sites in the United States of America}}
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Taos County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Pre-historic towns in the United States]]
[[Category:Historic districts in New Mexico]]
[[Category:History of Taos, New Mexico|Pueblo, Taos]]
[[Category:National Historic Landmarks in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Religious places of the indigenous peoples of North America]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Pueblo great houses]]
[[Category:Sacred lakes]]
[[Category:Tiwa]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in the United States]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Taos County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Populated places in Taos County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Northern Rio Grande National Heritage Area]]

[[ca:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[da:Taos Pueblo]]
[[de:Taos (Volk)]]
[[nv:Tówoł]]
[[es:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[fr:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[hr:Taos]]
[[it:Pueblo di Taos]]
[[he:פואבלו דה טאוס]]
[[ka:ტაოს-პუებლო]]
[[hu:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[ja:タオス・プエブロ]]
[[jv:taos Puenlo]]
[[pt:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[ru:Таос-Пуэбло]]
[[sv:Pueblo de Taos]]

Pueblo de Taos

2012-09-06T18:50:57Z

Piperh: restored faulty edit made by Lightbot on 4 October 2011

{{About|the ancient Tiwa pueblo|the census-designated place|Taos Pueblo, New Mexico|the book by Ansel Adams and Mary Hunter Austin|Taos Pueblo (book)}}
{{Infobox historic site
| name = Taos Pueblo
| image = USA 09669 Taos Pueblo Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg
| caption = Taos Pueblo residential complex
| location = Near [[Taos, New Mexico]], [[United States|USA]]
| latitude = 36.43917
| longitude = -105.54559
| coord_parameters = region:US_type:landmark
| coord_display= inline, title
| locmapin = New Mexico
| map_caption = Location within New Mexico
| governing_body = Native American [[Federally recognized tribes|tribal government]]
| designation1 = WHS
| designation1_offname = Pueblo de Taos
| designation1_date = 1992 (16th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])
| designation1_type = Cultural
| designation1_criteria = iv
| designation1_number = [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/492 492]
| designation1_free1name = State Party
| designation1_free1value = {{USA}}
| designation1_free2name = Region
| designation1_free2value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in the Americas|Europe and North America]]
| designation2 = NRHP
| designation2_number = 66000496 <ref name="nris">{{NRISref|2006a}}</ref>
| designation2_date = October 15, 1966
| designation3 = NHLD
| designation3_date = October 9, 1960<ref name="nhlsum">{{Cite web|url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=353&ResourceType=District
|title=Taos Pueblo|accessdate=June 26, 2008 |work=National Historic Landmark summary listing|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref>
}}
{{ethnic group|
|group=Taos (t’óynemą)
|poptime=1,000 (1990 census)
|popplace=United States ([[New Mexico]])
|rels=Taos religion, Christianity
|langs=[[Tiwa]], English, Spanish
|related=other [[Tanoan]] peoples
}}
'''Taos Pueblo''' (or '''Pueblo de Taos''') is an ancient [[pueblo]] belonging to a [[Taos language|Taos]] ([[Tiwa languages|Northern Tiwa]]) speaking Native American tribe of [[Pueblo people]]. It is approximately 1000 years old and lies about {{convert|1|mi|km|adj=on}} north of the modern city of [[Taos, New Mexico|Taos]], New Mexico, USA. The Red Willow Creek, or [[Rio Pueblo de Taos]] (also called Rio Pueblo), is a small stream which flows through the middle of the pueblo from its source in the [[Sangre de Cristo Range]]. A [[Indian reservation|reservation]] of 95,000 acres (384 km²) is attached to the pueblo, and about 1,900 people live in this area.<ref name="taospueblo.com">[http://taospueblo.com/about.php Who lives in the Pueblo? (scroll down)]</ref>

Taos Pueblo is a member of the [[Eight Northern Pueblos]]. The Taos community is known for being one of the most secretive and conservative pueblos.

Taos Pueblo's most prominent architectural feature is a multi-storied residential complex of reddish-brown [[adobe]] divided into two parts by the Rio Pueblo. According to the Pueblo's Web site, it was probably built between 1000 and 1450 A.D. It was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]] on October 9, 1960, and in 1992 became a [[World Heritage Site]]. As of 2006, about 150 people live in it full-time.<ref name="taospueblo.com"/>

==Name==
In the [[Taos language]], the pueblo is referred to as "the village" in either ''{{unicode|tə̂otho}}'' "in the village" (''{{unicode|tə̂o-}}'' "village" + ''{{unicode|-tho}}'' "in") or ''{{unicode|tə̂obo}}'' "to/toward the village" (''{{unicode|tə̂o-}}'' "village" + ''{{unicode|-bo}}'' "to, toward"). The proper name of the pueblo is ''{{unicode|ȉałopháymųp’ȍhə́othə̀olbo}}'' "at red willow canyon mouth" (or ''{{unicode|ȉałopháybo}}'' "at the red willows" for short); however, this name is more commonly used in ceremonial contexts and is less common in everyday speech.

The name ''Taos'' in English was borrowed from Spanish ''Taos''. Spanish ''Taos'' is probably a borrowing of Taos ''{{unicode|tə̂o-}}'' "village" which was heard as ''tao'' to which the plural ''-s'' was added although in the modern language ''Taos'' is no longer a plural noun. The idea that Spanish ''Taos'' is from ''tao'' "cross of the order of San Juan de los Cabelleros" (from Greek ''tau'') is unlikely.<ref>Jones, William. (1960). Origin of the place name Taos. ''Anthropological Linguistics'', ''2'' (3), 2–4; Trager, George L. (1960). The name of Taos, New Mexico. ''Anthropological Linguistics'', ''2'' (3), 5–6.</ref>

==Prehistory and history==
Most [[archeologists]] believe that the Taos Indians along with other Pueblo Indians settled along the [[Rio Grande]] migrated from the [[Four Corners]] region. The dwellings of that region were inhabited by the [[Anasazi]], and a long drought in the area in the late 13th century may have caused them to move to the Rio Grande where the water supply was more dependable.

The history of Taos Pueblo includes the plotting of the [[Pueblo Revolt]] in 1680, a [[Siege of Pueblo de Taos|siege]] by U.S. forces in 1847, and the return by [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]] in 1970 of the Pueblo's {{convert|48,000|acre|km2}} of mountain land taken by President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and designated as the [[Carson National Forest]] early in the 20th century.<ref>Julyan, B: ''New Mexico's Wilderness Areas: The Complete Guide'', page 73. Big Earth Publishing, 1999</ref> Blue Lake, which the people of the Pueblo traditionally consider sacred, was included in this return of Taos land. The Pueblo's web site names the acquisition of the sacred Blue Lake as the most important event in its history due to the spiritual belief that the Taos natives originated from the lake itself. An additional {{convert|764|acre|km2}} south of the ridge between Simpson Peak and Old Mike Peak and west of Blue Lake were transferred back to the Pueblo in 1996.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bulk.resource.org/gpo.gov/laws/104/publ333.104.pdf |title=Public Law 104-333 |accessdate=July 19, 2008 |work= |publisher= |date= |format=PDF}}</ref>

"The Padre of Isleta", [[Anton Docher]] first served as a priest in Taos before his long time spent in [[Isleta]].<ref>Leo Crane. ''Desert Drums: The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, 1540–1928''. Rio Grande Press, 1972.</ref>

==Structure==
The North-Side Pueblo is said to be one of the most photographed and painted buildings in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. It is the largest multistoried Pueblo structure still existing. It is made of adobe walls that are often several feet thick. Its primary purpose was for defense. Up to as late as 1900, access to the rooms on lower floors was by ladders on the outside to the roof, and then down an inside ladder. In case of an attack, outside ladders could easily be pulled up.

The homes in this structure usually consist of two rooms, one of which is for general living and sleeping, and the second of which is for cooking, eating, and storage. Each home is self-contained; there are no passageways between the houses. Taos Indians made little use of furniture in the past, but today they have [[Table (furniture)|tables]], chairs, and beds. In the Pueblo, electricity, [[running water]], and indoor [[plumbing]] are prohibited.

The pueblo wall completely encloses the village except at the entrance as a symbol of the village boundaries. Now rather short, the wall used to be much taller for protection against surrounding tribes. The river running through the pueblo serves as the primary source for drinking and cooking water for the residents of the village. In the winter, the river never completely freezes although it does form a heavy layer of ice. Because the river moves so swiftly, the ice can be broken to obtain the fresh water beneath.

==Spiritual community==
[[File:Ansel Adams - National Archives 79-AA-Q01 restored.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Taos church photographed by [[Ansel Adams]]]]
Three religions are represented in the Pueblo: Christianity, the aboriginal religion, and the [[Native American Church]]. Eighty percent of the Taos Pueblo community is baptized; however, only twenty percent are practicing Roman Catholics. The majority of Taos Indians practice their still-vital, ancient indigenous religion (Taos Pueblo Public Tour; 30 July 2010). [[Saint Jerome]], or [[San Geronimo]], is the [[patron saint]] of the pueblo.

The deep feeling of belonging to a community, summed up in their phrase, “we are in one nest,” has held the Taos people together. Both men and women are expected to offer their services or “community duties,” when needed. One should be cooperative and never allow their own desires to be destructive of the community’s interest. One of Taos’s strongest institutions is the family. Descent on both the father and the mother’s side of the family is equally recognized. Each primary family lives in a separate dwelling so when a couple gets married, they move to their own home. With relatives so near by, everyone is available to help care for the children. The elderly teach the young the values and traditions that have been handed down, which protects the integrity of the Taos culture.

==See also==
* [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Taos County, New Mexico]]
* [[Taos language]]
* [[Taos Pueblo, New Mexico|Taos Pueblo]], New Mexico, a [[census-designated place]]
* [[Elk-Foot of the Taos Tribe]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*Bodine, John J., ''Taos Pueblo: A Walk Through Time''. Tucson: Rio Nuevo Publishers, 1996.

==External links==
{{commons|Taos Pueblo}}
*[http://taospueblo.com/ Taos Pueblo] (official site)
*[http://www.taoswebcam.com/ Webcam of sacred Taos Mountain]
*[http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/zc77sq09n Taos Blue Lake Collection at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University]
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/amsw/sw47.htm Taos Pueblo] on [[National Park Service]] ''Discover Our Shared Heritage'' website
*The [http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm4/browse.php?CISOROOT=/sit SMU-in-Taos Research Publications] digital collection contains nine anthropological and archaeological monographs and edited volumes representing the past several decades of research at the SMU-in-Taos (Fort Burgwin) campus near Taos, New Mexico, including [http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/u?/sit,24 Papers on Taos archaeology] and [http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/u?/sit,25 Taos archeology]
* [http://www.sacredland.org/taos-blue-lake/ More on Taos Blue Lake]

{{National Register of Historic Places}}
{{World Heritage Sites in the United States of America}}
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Taos County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Pre-historic towns in the United States]]
[[Category:Historic districts in New Mexico]]
[[Category:History of Taos, New Mexico|Pueblo, Taos]]
[[Category:National Historic Landmarks in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Religious places of the indigenous peoples of North America]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Pueblo great houses]]
[[Category:Sacred lakes]]
[[Category:Tiwa]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in the United States]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Taos County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Populated places in Taos County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Northern Rio Grande National Heritage Area]]

[[ca:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[da:Taos Pueblo]]
[[de:Taos (Volk)]]
[[nv:Tówoł]]
[[es:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[fr:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[hr:Taos]]
[[it:Pueblo di Taos]]
[[he:פואבלו דה טאוס]]
[[ka:ტაოს-პუებლო]]
[[hu:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[ja:タオス・プエブロ]]
[[jv:taos Puenlo]]
[[pt:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[ru:Таос-Пуэбло]]
[[sv:Pueblo de Taos]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2012-07-02T09:24:32Z

Piperh: /* Sources of carbon dioxide */ capitalization

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumb|350px|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

The concentration of '''[[carbon dioxide]] ({{chem|CO|2}}) in [[atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]]''' is approaching 397 ppm (parts per million) by volume {{As of|May 2012|lc=on}}<ref name="Carbon Trends">{{cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref> and rose by 2.0 ppm/yr during 2000–2009. <ref name="Carbon Trends" /><ref name="carbon budget">http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/carbonbudget/09/hl-full.htm Carbon Budget 2009 Highlights</ref> This current concentration is substantially higher than the 280 ppm concetration present in preindustrial times, with the increase largely attributed to anthropogenic sources.<ref name="Etheridge1996">{{cite journal|last=Etheridge|first=D. M.|coauthors=L. P. Steele, R. L. Langenfelds, R. J. Francey, J.-M. Barnola, V. I. Morgan|year=1996|title=Natural and anthropogenic changes in atmospheric CO2 over the last 1000 years from air in Antarctic ice and firn|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=101|issue=D2|pages=4115–4128|issn=0148-0227|doi=10.1029/95JD03410}}</ref> Carbon dioxide is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]]. Despite its relatively small overall concentration in the atmosphere, {{chem|CO|2}} is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Petty, G.W. |title=A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation |publisher=Sundog Publishing |year=2004 |pages=229–251 }}</ref> The present level is higher than at any time during the last 800 thousand years,<ref name="deep ice">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm | work=BBC News | title=Deep ice tells long climate story | date=2006-09-04 | accessdate=2010-04-28 | first=Jonathan | last=Amos}}</ref> and likely higher than in the past 20 million years.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref>

__TOC__

==Current concentration==
[[Image:CO2 concentrations.ogv|thumb|300px|Monthly average CO2 concentrations in 2003. High CO2 concentrations of ~385 ppm are in red, low CO2, about ~360 ppm, is blue.]]

In 2009, the {{chem|CO|2}} global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]]. This is the equivalent of 590 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by weight (ppmw)]].<ref name="Carbon Trends"/><ref>{{cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of {{chem|CO|2}} concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], [[wildfires]] and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They gain the energy needed for this reaction through the absorption of sunlight by pigments such as [[chlorophyll]]. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms and other plants, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

Most sources of {{chem|CO|2}} emissions are natural, and are balanced to various degrees by natural {{chem|CO|2}} sinks. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands and the action of forest fires results in the release of about 439 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year, while new growth entirely counteracts this effect, absorbing 450 gigatonnes per year.<ref>IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007 (AR4) (available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.shtml#.T_EtQZFuqSo)</ref> In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, human-caused Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of [[fossil fuels]] around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp
|title=Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming
|first=Cat |last=Lazaroff
|work=Environment New Service
|date=2002-11-08
|accessdate=2011-11-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|author=Pearce, Fred |title=Massive peat burn is speeding climate change |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 |publisher=New Scientist |date=06 November 2004 }}</ref> Although the initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[tonne|megatonnes]] of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gerlach, T.M. |title=Present-day {{chem|CO|2}} emissions from volcanoes |journal=Eos, Transactions |volume=72 |issue=23 |pages=249, 254–5 |date=June 4, 1991 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |doi=10.1029/90EO10192 |bibcode=1991EOSTr..72..249.}}</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "[http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html Volcanic Gases and Their Effects]", [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov volcanoes.usgs.gov]</ref> These natural sources are nearly balanced by natural sinks, physical and biological processes which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some is directly removed from the atmosphere by land plants for [[photosynthesis]] and it is soluble in water forming [[carbonic acid]]. There is a large natural flux of {{chem|CO|2}} into and out of the biosphere and oceans.<ref>{{cite book |author=Cappelluti, G.; Bösch, H.; Monks, P.S. |title=Use of remote sensing techniques for the detection and monitoring of GHG emissions from the Scottish land use sector |publisher=Scottish Government |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7559-7738-3 |url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2009/12/15084401/0}}</ref> In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted {{chem|CO|2}} is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Canadell JG, Le Quéré C, Raupach MR, ''et al.'' |title=Contributions to accelerating atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks |journal=[[Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.]] |volume=104 |issue=47 |pages=18866–70 |year=2007 |month=November |pmid=17962418 |pmc=2141868 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702737104 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17962418|bibcode = 2007PNAS..10418866C }}</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} to emitted {{chem|CO|2}} is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods. Estimated carbon in global terrestrial vegetation increased from approximately 740 billion tons in 1910 to 780 billion tons in 1990.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Post WM, King AW, Wullschleger SD, Hoffman FM |title=Historical Variations in Terrestrial Biospheric Carbon Storage |journal=DOE Research Summary |volume=34 |date=June 1997 |url=http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/pns/doers/doer34/doer34.htm |publisher=CDIAC, U.S. Department of Energy }}</ref>

===Anthropogenic {{chem|CO|2}} increase===

While {{chem|CO|2}} absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent drastic rise in {{chem|CO|2}} levels in the atmosphere is known to be entirely due to human activity.<ref>e.g. Gosh & Brand (2003) Stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry in global climate change research. ''International Journal of Mass Spectrometry'' '''228''' pages 1–33 (available online at: http://www.bgc.mpg.de/service/iso_gas_lab/publications/PG_WB_IJMS.pdf )</ref> Researchers know this both by calculating the amount released based on various national statistics, and by examining the ratio of various carbon isotopes in the atmosphere<ref>e.g. Gosh & Brand (2003) Stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry in global climate change research. ''International Journal of Mass Spectrometry'' '''228''' pages 1–33 (available online at: http://www.bgc.mpg.de/service/iso_gas_lab/publications/PG_WB_IJMS.pdf )</ref>, as the burning of long-buried fossil fuels releases {{chem|CO|2}} containing carbon of different isotopic ratios to those of living plants, enabling scientists to distinguish between natural and human-caused contributions to {{chem|CO|2}} concentration.

Burning fossil fuels such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] {{chem|CO|2}}; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. In 2010, 9.14 gigatonnes of carbon (33.5 [[gigatonne]]s of {{chem|CO|2}}) were released from fossil fuels and cement production worldwide, compared to 6.15 gigatonnes in 1990.<ref name="Peters">G.P. Peters et al. [http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/global-carbon-budget-2010 Global carbon budget 2010 (summary)], [http://www.tyndall.ac.uk Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research]</ref> In addition, land use change contributed 0.87 gigatonnes in 2010, compared to 1.45 gigatonnes in 1990.<ref name="Peters"/> In the period 1751 to 1900 about 12 gigatonnes of carbon were released as carbon dioxide to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels, whereas from 1901 to 2008 the figure was about 334 gigatonnes.<ref>Calculated from file global.1751_2008.csv in [http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/ndp030/CSV-FILES] from the [[Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center]].</ref>

This addition, about 3% of annual natural emissions {{As of|1997|lc=on}}, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "[http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html Common Questions about Climate Change]"</ref> As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, and {{As of|2009|lc=on}}, its concentration is 39% above pre-industrial levels.<ref name="carbon budget">[http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/carbonbudget/09/hl-full.htm Carbon Budget 2009 Highlights], [http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/ The Global Carbon Project].</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

<center><gallery style="margin:auto;">
File:Global Carbon Emissions.svg|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800–2007.
File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|[[False-color]] image of smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.
File:Biosphere CO2 Flux 08072006.gif|Biosphere {{chem|CO|2}} Flux in the northern hemisphere summer (NOAA Carbon Tracker).
File:Biosphere CO2 Flux 23122006.gif|Biosphere {{chem|CO|2}} Flux in the northern hemisphere winter (NOAA Carbon Tracker).
</gallery></center>

==Past variation==
The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} levels were about 260–280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[Annum|ka]]). In 1832 Antarctic ice core levels were 284 ppmv.<ref>{{cite web | title=Historical {{chem|CO|2}} record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>

[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|380px|{{chem|CO|2}} concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]
[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|380px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot. This figure illustrates a range of events over the last 550 million years during which {{chem|CO|2}} played a role in global climate.<ref>Royer (2006) {{chem|CO|2}}-forced climate thresholds during the Phanerozoic. ''Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta'' '''70''' 5665–5675 (available online at: http://droyer.web.wesleyan.edu/PhanCO2%28GCA%29.pdf )</ref> The graph begins (on the right) with an era predating terrestrial plant life (which only became widespread after 400Ma during the Devonian (D),<ref>David Beerling, ''The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History'' (2008) Oxford University Press. ISBN: 9780199548149</ref> associated with a decrease in {{chem|CO|2}}), during which solar output was more than 4% lower than today.<reF>Guinan & Ribas (2002) Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate. In: ''The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments''. ASP Conference Proceedings, Vol. 269. Edited by Benjamin Montesinos, Alvaro Gimenez and Edward F. Guinan. ISBN: 1-58381-109-5. San Francisco, Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 2002., p.85 (available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2002ASPC..269...85G )</ref> Towards the left-hand side of the graph the sun gradually approaches modern levels of solar output, while vegetation spreads, removing large amounts of {{chem|CO|2}} from the atmosphere. The last 200 million years includes periods of extreme warmth, and sea levels so high that 200 metre-deep shallow seas formed on continental land masses (for example, at 100Ma during the Cretaceous (K) Greenhouse).<ref>Foellmi K.B. (2012) Early Cretaceous life, climate and anoxia. ''Cretaceous Research'' volume '''33''' pages 230-257</ref> At the far left of the graph, we see modern {{chem|CO|2}} levels and the appearance of the climate under which human civilization developed.]]

One study disputed the claim of stable {{chem|CO|2}} levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 ka. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric {{chem|O|2}} changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal =Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011–4 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmc = 129389 | pmid = 12202744 |bibcode = 2002PNAS...9912011W }}</ref> argued that {{chem|CO|2}} levels during the period 7–10 ka were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in {{chem|CO|2}}.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable {{chem|CO|2}} values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g. H. J Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The {{chem|CO|2}} concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1–4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 | bibcode=1997GeoRL..24....1S}}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland {{chem|CO|2}} measurements.

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 ka.<ref name="deep ice"/> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180–210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280–300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hileman B |title=Ice Core Record Extended: Analyses of trapped air show current {{chem|CO|2}} at highest level in 650,000 years |journal=[[Chemical & Engineering News]] |volume=83 |issue=48 |pages=7 |date=November 2005 |url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html |issn=0009-2347}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html Vostok Ice Core Data], [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref> The beginning of human agriculture during the current [[Holocene]] epoch may have been strongly connected to the atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} increase after the last ice age ended, a fertilization effect raising plant biomass growth and reducing [[stoma]]tal conductance requirements for {{chem|CO|2}} intake, consequently reducing transpiration water losses and increasing water usage efficiency.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Richerson PJ, Boyd R, Bettinger RL |title=Was Agriculture Impossible During The Pleistocene But Mandatory During The Holocene? |journal=American Antiquity |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=387–411 |jstor=2694241 |date=July 2001 |url=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/boyd/AgOrigins.pdf |format=PDF |doi=10.2307/2694241}}</ref>

On long timescales, atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and [[volcanism]]. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}}. On a timescale of billions of years, such downward trend appears bound to continue indefinitely as occasional massive historical releases of buried carbon due to volcanism will become less frequent (as earth mantle cooling and progressive exhaustion of [[ Geothermal gradient |internal radioactive heat]] proceeds further). The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of no relevance to the atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} concentration over the next hundreds, thousands, or millions of years.

Various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high {{chem|CO|2}} volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida"/> In more recent times, atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, the time of the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]] and when the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] started to take its current form, {{chem|CO|2}} is found to have been about 760 ppm,<ref>{{cite web |title=New {{chem|CO|2}} data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation |date=September 13, 2009 |publisher=Physorg.com |url=http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html}}</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Carbon dioxide decrease, with a tipping point of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/12/111201174225.htm</ref> Low {{chem|CO|2}} concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma.

Assuming a future absence of human impact influencing releasing of sequestered carbon, the long term natural trend - on a timescale measured in multiple billions of years and involving the eventual slowing down of tectonic activity and the ultimate death of the sun - is for the plant life on land to die off altogether, as most of the remaining carbon in the atmosphere becomes sequestered in the Earth.<ref> Ward, Peter Douglas; Brownlee, Donald (2003), The life and death of planet Earth, Macmillan, ISBN 0-8050-7512-7, pp.117-128.</ref>. Some microbes are capable of photosynthesis at concentrations of CO2 of a few parts per million, so these life forms would probably disappear only because of rising temperatures and the loss of the biosphere.<ref> Caldeira, Ken; Kasting, James F. (December 1992), "The life span of the biosphere revisited", Nature 360 (6406): pp.721–723. </ref>. The loss of plant life will also result in the eventual loss of oxygen (see also [[Future of the Earth]]).

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
{{see also|Solubility pump|Ocean acidification}}
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|300px|Air-sea exchange of {{chem|CO|2}}]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:{{chem|CaCO|3}} + {{chem|CO|2}} + {{chem|H|2|O}} {{unicode|⇌}} {{chem|Ca|2+}} + 2 {{chem|HCO|3|-}}

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}}. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding {{chem|CO|2}} on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water, a process which has been termed [[ocean acidification]] (even though pH remains alkaline). Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as {{chem|CO|2}}. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

Ultimately, most of the {{chem|CO|2}} emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean;<ref name=arch05>{{cite journal |author=Archer, D. |title=Fate of fossil fuel {{chem|CO|2}} in geologic time |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |volume=110 |year=2005 |doi=10.1029/2004JC002625 |bibcode=2005JGRC..11009S05A}}</ref> however, the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.
Even if equilibrium is reached, including dissolution of carbonate minerals, the increased concentration of bicarbonate and decreased or unchanged concentration of carbonate ion will give rise to a higher concentration of un-ionized carbonic acid and dissolved carbon dioxide gas. This, along with higher temperatures, would mean a higher equilibrium concentration of carbon dioxide in the air.

==Irreversibility and uniqueness of carbon dioxide==
Carbon dioxide has unique long-term effects on climate change that are largely "irreversible" for one thousand years after emissions stop (zero further emissions) even though carbon dioxide tends toward equilibrium with the ocean on a scale of 100 years. The greenhouse gases [[methane]] and [[nitrous oxide]] do not persist over time in the same way as carbon dioxide. Even if human carbon dioxide emissions were to completely cease, atmospheric temperatures are not expected to decrease significantly in the short term.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Solomon S, Plattner GK, Knutti R, Friedlingstein P
|title=Irreversible climate change due to carbon dioxide emissions
|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
|volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=1704–9 |year=2009
|month=February |pmid=19179281 |pmc=2632717 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0812721106
|url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=19179281
|bibcode=2009PNAS..106.1704S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/press_releases/pr_904_en.html
|title=2010 in the top three warmest years, 2001-2010 warmest 10-year period
|work=WMO statement on the global climate in 2010
|publisher=World Meteorological Organization
|year=2010
|accessdate=2011-11-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/26/opinion/26cohen.html
| work=The New York Times | first=Judah | last=Cohen | title=Bundle Up, It's Global Warming
| date=2010-12-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/jul/04/sulphur-pollution-china-coal-climate | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Damian | last=Carrington | title=Sulphur from Chinese power stations 'masking' climate change | date=2011-07-04}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] — A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]
*[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]
*[[Climate change]]
*[[Eddy covariance]] flux (aka eddy correlation, eddy flux)
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Ocean acidification]]
*[[Snowball Earth]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Greenhouse gases]]
[[Category:Atmosphere of Earth]]
[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Global warming]]

[[ru:Углекислый газ в атмосфере Земли]]

Kohlenstoffdioxid in der Erdatmosphäre

2012-07-02T09:23:10Z

Piperh: /* Anthropogenic {{chem|CO|2}} increase */ updated statistics from 2008 to 2010 and updated ref link

[[File:Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide-en.svg|thumb|350px|right|The [[Keeling Curve]] of atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} concentrations measured at the [[Mauna Loa Observatory]].]]

The concentration of '''[[carbon dioxide]] ({{chem|CO|2}}) in [[atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]]''' is approaching 397 ppm (parts per million) by volume {{As of|May 2012|lc=on}}<ref name="Carbon Trends">{{cite web | url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ | title=Trends in Carbon Dioxide | author=Tans, Pieter | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]/[[Earth System Research Laboratory|ESRL]] | accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref> and rose by 2.0 ppm/yr during 2000–2009. <ref name="Carbon Trends" /><ref name="carbon budget">http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/carbonbudget/09/hl-full.htm Carbon Budget 2009 Highlights</ref> This current concentration is substantially higher than the 280 ppm concetration present in preindustrial times, with the increase largely attributed to anthropogenic sources.<ref name="Etheridge1996">{{cite journal|last=Etheridge|first=D. M.|coauthors=L. P. Steele, R. L. Langenfelds, R. J. Francey, J.-M. Barnola, V. I. Morgan|year=1996|title=Natural and anthropogenic changes in atmospheric CO2 over the last 1000 years from air in Antarctic ice and firn|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=101|issue=D2|pages=4115–4128|issn=0148-0227|doi=10.1029/95JD03410}}</ref> Carbon dioxide is essential to [[photosynthesis]] in [[plant]]s and other [[photoautotroph]]s, and is also a prominent [[greenhouse gas]]. Despite its relatively small overall concentration in the atmosphere, {{chem|CO|2}} is an important component of Earth's atmosphere because it absorbs and emits [[infrared]] radiation at [[wavelength]]s of 4.26 [[µm]] (asymmetric stretching [[Infrared spectroscopy|vibrational mode]]) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode), thereby playing a role in the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Petty, G.W. |title=A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation |publisher=Sundog Publishing |year=2004 |pages=229–251 }}</ref> The present level is higher than at any time during the last 800 thousand years,<ref name="deep ice">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5314592.stm | work=BBC News | title=Deep ice tells long climate story | date=2006-09-04 | accessdate=2010-04-28 | first=Jonathan | last=Amos}}</ref> and likely higher than in the past 20 million years.<ref name="Grida">[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis]</ref>

__TOC__

==Current concentration==
[[Image:CO2 concentrations.ogv|thumb|300px|Monthly average CO2 concentrations in 2003. High CO2 concentrations of ~385 ppm are in red, low CO2, about ~360 ppm, is blue.]]

In 2009, the {{chem|CO|2}} global average concentration in [[Earth's atmosphere]] was about 0.0387% by volume, or 387 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by volume (ppmv)]]. This is the equivalent of 590 [[Parts-per notation|parts per million by weight (ppmw)]].<ref name="Carbon Trends"/><ref>{{cite web | url=http://co2unting.com | title=Current atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} concentration at http://co2unting.com}}</ref> There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppmv which roughly follows the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The [[Northern Hemisphere]] dominates the annual cycle of {{chem|CO|2}} concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins and reach a minimum in October when the quantity of [[biomass]] undergoing photosynthesis is greatest.<ref>[http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/faq.html Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) - Frequently Asked Questions]</ref>

==Sources of carbon dioxide==
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include [[volcanic]] [[outgassing]], the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]], [[wildfires]] and the [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living [[aerobic organism]]s; man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of [[fossil fuels]] for heating, [[electricity generation|power generation]] and [[transport]], as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s convert carbon dioxide to [[carbohydrate]]s during a process called [[photosynthesis]]. They gain the energy needed for this reaction through the absorption of sunlight by pigments such as [[Chlorophyll]]. The resulting gas, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere by plants, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms and other plants, forming a [[carbon cycle|cycle]].

Most sources of {{chem|CO|2}} emissions are natural, and are balanced to various degrees by natural {{chem|CO|2}} sinks. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands and the action of forest fires results in the release of about 439 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year, while new growth entirely counteracts this effect, absorbing 450 gigatonnes per year.<ref>IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007 (AR4) (available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.shtml#.T_EtQZFuqSo)</ref> In [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997, human-caused Indonesian peat fires]] were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of [[fossil fuels]] around the world in a single year.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature01131}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp
|title=Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming
|first=Cat |last=Lazaroff
|work=Environment New Service
|date=2002-11-08
|accessdate=2011-11-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|author=Pearce, Fred |title=Massive peat burn is speeding climate change |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6613 |publisher=New Scientist |date=06 November 2004 }}</ref> Although the initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]], modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 [[tonne|megatonnes]] of carbon dioxide each year,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gerlach, T.M. |title=Present-day {{chem|CO|2}} emissions from volcanoes |journal=Eos, Transactions |volume=72 |issue=23 |pages=249, 254–5 |date=June 4, 1991 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |doi=10.1029/90EO10192 |bibcode=1991EOSTr..72..249.}}</ref> which is less than 1% of the amount released by human activities.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey, "[http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html Volcanic Gases and Their Effects]", [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov volcanoes.usgs.gov]</ref> These natural sources are nearly balanced by natural sinks, physical and biological processes which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some is directly removed from the atmosphere by land plants for [[photosynthesis]] and it is soluble in water forming [[carbonic acid]]. There is a large natural flux of {{chem|CO|2}} into and out of the biosphere and oceans.<ref>{{cite book |author=Cappelluti, G.; Bösch, H.; Monks, P.S. |title=Use of remote sensing techniques for the detection and monitoring of GHG emissions from the Scottish land use sector |publisher=Scottish Government |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7559-7738-3 |url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2009/12/15084401/0}}</ref> In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted {{chem|CO|2}} is removed by the biosphere and oceans.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Canadell JG, Le Quéré C, Raupach MR, ''et al.'' |title=Contributions to accelerating atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks |journal=[[Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.]] |volume=104 |issue=47 |pages=18866–70 |year=2007 |month=November |pmid=17962418 |pmc=2141868 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702737104 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17962418|bibcode = 2007PNAS..10418866C }}</ref> The ratio of the increase in atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} to emitted {{chem|CO|2}} is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods. Estimated carbon in global terrestrial vegetation increased from approximately 740 billion tons in 1910 to 780 billion tons in 1990.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Post WM, King AW, Wullschleger SD, Hoffman FM |title=Historical Variations in Terrestrial Biospheric Carbon Storage |journal=DOE Research Summary |volume=34 |date=June 1997 |url=http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/pns/doers/doer34/doer34.htm |publisher=CDIAC, U.S. Department of Energy }}</ref>

===Anthropogenic {{chem|CO|2}} increase===

While {{chem|CO|2}} absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent drastic rise in {{chem|CO|2}} levels in the atmosphere is known to be entirely due to human activity.<ref>e.g. Gosh & Brand (2003) Stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry in global climate change research. ''International Journal of Mass Spectrometry'' '''228''' pages 1–33 (available online at: http://www.bgc.mpg.de/service/iso_gas_lab/publications/PG_WB_IJMS.pdf )</ref> Researchers know this both by calculating the amount released based on various national statistics, and by examining the ratio of various carbon isotopes in the atmosphere<ref>e.g. Gosh & Brand (2003) Stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry in global climate change research. ''International Journal of Mass Spectrometry'' '''228''' pages 1–33 (available online at: http://www.bgc.mpg.de/service/iso_gas_lab/publications/PG_WB_IJMS.pdf )</ref>, as the burning of long-buried fossil fuels releases {{chem|CO|2}} containing carbon of different isotopic ratios to those of living plants, enabling scientists to distinguish between natural and human-caused contributions to {{chem|CO|2}} concentration.

Burning fossil fuels such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] {{chem|CO|2}}; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. In 2010, 9.14 gigatonnes of carbon (33.5 [[gigatonne]]s of {{chem|CO|2}}) were released from fossil fuels and cement production worldwide, compared to 6.15 gigatonnes in 1990.<ref name="Peters">G.P. Peters et al. [http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/global-carbon-budget-2010 Global carbon budget 2010 (summary)], [http://www.tyndall.ac.uk Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research]</ref> In addition, land use change contributed 0.87 gigatonnes in 2010, compared to 1.45 gigatonnes in 1990.<ref name="Peters"/> In the period 1751 to 1900 about 12 gigatonnes of carbon were released as carbon dioxide to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels, whereas from 1901 to 2008 the figure was about 334 gigatonnes.<ref>Calculated from file global.1751_2008.csv in [http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/ndp030/CSV-FILES] from the [[Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center]].</ref>

This addition, about 3% of annual natural emissions {{As of|1997|lc=on}}, is sufficient to exceed the balancing effect of sinks.<ref>US Global Change Research Information Office, "[http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/05.html Common Questions about Climate Change]"</ref> As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, and {{As of|2009|lc=on}}, its concentration is 39% above pre-industrial levels.<ref name="carbon budget">[http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/carbonbudget/09/hl-full.htm Carbon Budget 2009 Highlights], [http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/ The Global Carbon Project].</ref>

Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s.

<center><gallery style="margin:auto;">
File:Global Carbon Emissions.svg|Global fossil carbon emissions 1800–2007.
File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|[[False-color]] image of smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.
File:Biosphere CO2 Flux 08072006.gif|Biosphere {{chem|CO|2}} Flux in the northern hemisphere summer (NOAA Carbon Tracker).
File:Biosphere CO2 Flux 23122006.gif|Biosphere {{chem|CO|2}} Flux in the northern hemisphere winter (NOAA Carbon Tracker).
</gallery></center>

==Past variation==
The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} levels were about 260–280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years (10 [[Annum|ka]]). In 1832 Antarctic ice core levels were 284 ppmv.<ref>{{cite web | title=Historical {{chem|CO|2}} record derived from a spline fit (20 year cutoff) of the Law Dome DE08 and DE08-2 ice cores | url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/lawdome.smoothed.yr20 | accessdate=2007-06-12}}</ref>

[[File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|380px|{{chem|CO|2}} concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]
[[File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|380px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot. This figure illustrates a range of events over the last 550 million years during which {{chem|CO|2}} played a role in global climate.<ref>Royer (2006) {{chem|CO|2}}-forced climate thresholds during the Phanerozoic. ''Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta'' '''70''' 5665–5675 (available online at: http://droyer.web.wesleyan.edu/PhanCO2%28GCA%29.pdf )</ref> The graph begins (on the right) with an era predating terrestrial plant life (which only became widespread after 400Ma during the Devonian (D),<ref>David Beerling, ''The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History'' (2008) Oxford University Press. ISBN: 9780199548149</ref> associated with a decrease in {{chem|CO|2}}), during which solar output was more than 4% lower than today.<reF>Guinan & Ribas (2002) Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate. In: ''The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments''. ASP Conference Proceedings, Vol. 269. Edited by Benjamin Montesinos, Alvaro Gimenez and Edward F. Guinan. ISBN: 1-58381-109-5. San Francisco, Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 2002., p.85 (available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2002ASPC..269...85G )</ref> Towards the left-hand side of the graph the sun gradually approaches modern levels of solar output, while vegetation spreads, removing large amounts of {{chem|CO|2}} from the atmosphere. The last 200 million years includes periods of extreme warmth, and sea levels so high that 200 metre-deep shallow seas formed on continental land masses (for example, at 100Ma during the Cretaceous (K) Greenhouse).<ref>Foellmi K.B. (2012) Early Cretaceous life, climate and anoxia. ''Cretaceous Research'' volume '''33''' pages 230-257</ref> At the far left of the graph, we see modern {{chem|CO|2}} levels and the appearance of the climate under which human civilization developed.]]

One study disputed the claim of stable {{chem|CO|2}} levels during the present interglacial of the last 10 ka. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Friederike | last = Wagner | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher | title = Rapid atmospheric {{chem|O|2}} changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event | journal =Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011–4 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.182420699 | pmc = 129389 | pmid = 12202744 |bibcode = 2002PNAS...9912011W }}</ref> argued that {{chem|CO|2}} levels during the period 7–10 ka were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in {{chem|CO|2}}.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} Concentrations | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a }}</ref> Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable {{chem|CO|2}} values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g. H. J Smith et al.<ref>{{cite journal | first = H.J. | last = Smith | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni | title = The {{chem|CO|2}} concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | year = 1997 | pages = 1–4 | doi = 10.1029/96GL03700 | bibcode=1997GeoRL..24....1S}}</ref>) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland {{chem|CO|2}} measurements.

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800 ka.<ref name="deep ice"/> During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied by volume between 180–210 ppm during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280–300 ppm during warmer [[interglacial]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hileman B |title=Ice Core Record Extended: Analyses of trapped air show current {{chem|CO|2}} at highest level in 650,000 years |journal=[[Chemical & Engineering News]] |volume=83 |issue=48 |pages=7 |date=November 2005 |url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html |issn=0009-2347}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok_data.html Vostok Ice Core Data], [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov ncdc.noaa.gov]</ref> The beginning of human agriculture during the current [[Holocene]] epoch may have been strongly connected to the atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} increase after the last ice age ended, a fertilization effect raising plant biomass growth and reducing [[stoma]]tal conductance requirements for {{chem|CO|2}} intake, consequently reducing transpiration water losses and increasing water usage efficiency.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Richerson PJ, Boyd R, Bettinger RL |title=Was Agriculture Impossible During The Pleistocene But Mandatory During The Holocene? |journal=American Antiquity |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=387–411 |jstor=2694241 |date=July 2001 |url=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/boyd/AgOrigins.pdf |format=PDF |doi=10.2307/2694241}}</ref>

On long timescales, atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and [[volcanism]]. The net effect of slight imbalances in the [[carbon cycle]] over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}}. On a timescale of billions of years, such downward trend appears bound to continue indefinitely as occasional massive historical releases of buried carbon due to volcanism will become less frequent (as earth mantle cooling and progressive exhaustion of [[ Geothermal gradient |internal radioactive heat]] proceeds further). The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of no relevance to the atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} concentration over the next hundreds, thousands, or millions of years.

Various [[Proxy (climate)|proxy measurements]] have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high {{chem|CO|2}} volume concentrations between 200 and 150 [[annum|Ma]] of over 3,000 ppm and between 600 and 400 Ma of over 6,000 ppm.<ref name="Grida"/> In more recent times, atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}} concentration continued to fall after about 60 Ma. About 34 Ma, the time of the [[Eocene-Oligocene extinction event]] and when the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] started to take its current form, {{chem|CO|2}} is found to have been about 760 ppm,<ref>{{cite web |title=New {{chem|CO|2}} data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation |date=September 13, 2009 |publisher=Physorg.com |url=http://www.physorg.com/news172072921.html}}</ref> and there is geochemical evidence that volume concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 Ma. Carbon dioxide decrease, with a tipping point of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/12/111201174225.htm</ref> Low {{chem|CO|2}} concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Ma.

Assuming a future absence of human impact influencing releasing of sequestered carbon, the long term natural trend - on a timescale measured in multiple billions of years and involving the eventual slowing down of tectonic activity and the ultimate death of the sun - is for the plant life on land to die off altogether, as most of the remaining carbon in the atmosphere becomes sequestered in the Earth.<ref> Ward, Peter Douglas; Brownlee, Donald (2003), The life and death of planet Earth, Macmillan, ISBN 0-8050-7512-7, pp.117-128.</ref>. Some microbes are capable of photosynthesis at concentrations of CO2 of a few parts per million, so these life forms would probably disappear only because of rising temperatures and the loss of the biosphere.<ref> Caldeira, Ken; Kasting, James F. (December 1992), "The life span of the biosphere revisited", Nature 360 (6406): pp.721–723. </ref>. The loss of plant life will also result in the eventual loss of oxygen (see also [[Future of the Earth]]).

==Relationship with oceanic concentration==
{{see also|Solubility pump|Ocean acidification}}
[[File:CO2 pump hg.svg|thumb|300px|Air-sea exchange of {{chem|CO|2}}]]

The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

:{{chem|CaCO|3}} + {{chem|CO|2}} + {{chem|H|2|O}} {{unicode|⇌}} {{chem|Ca|2+}} + 2 {{chem|HCO|3|-}}

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric {{chem|CO|2}}. Since the right-hand side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding {{chem|CO|2}} on the left-hand side decreases the [[pH]] of sea water, a process which has been termed [[ocean acidification]] (even though pH remains alkaline). Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as {{chem|CO|2}}. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

Ultimately, most of the {{chem|CO|2}} emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean;<ref name=arch05>{{cite journal |author=Archer, D. |title=Fate of fossil fuel {{chem|CO|2}} in geologic time |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |volume=110 |year=2005 |doi=10.1029/2004JC002625 |bibcode=2005JGRC..11009S05A}}</ref> however, the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.
Even if equilibrium is reached, including dissolution of carbonate minerals, the increased concentration of bicarbonate and decreased or unchanged concentration of carbonate ion will give rise to a higher concentration of un-ionized carbonic acid and dissolved carbon dioxide gas. This, along with higher temperatures, would mean a higher equilibrium concentration of carbon dioxide in the air.

==Irreversibility and uniqueness of carbon dioxide==
Carbon dioxide has unique long-term effects on climate change that are largely "irreversible" for one thousand years after emissions stop (zero further emissions) even though carbon dioxide tends toward equilibrium with the ocean on a scale of 100 years. The greenhouse gases [[methane]] and [[nitrous oxide]] do not persist over time in the same way as carbon dioxide. Even if human carbon dioxide emissions were to completely cease, atmospheric temperatures are not expected to decrease significantly in the short term.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Solomon S, Plattner GK, Knutti R, Friedlingstein P
|title=Irreversible climate change due to carbon dioxide emissions
|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
|volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=1704–9 |year=2009
|month=February |pmid=19179281 |pmc=2632717 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0812721106
|url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=19179281
|bibcode=2009PNAS..106.1704S}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/press_releases/pr_904_en.html
|title=2010 in the top three warmest years, 2001-2010 warmest 10-year period
|work=WMO statement on the global climate in 2010
|publisher=World Meteorological Organization
|year=2010
|accessdate=2011-11-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/26/opinion/26cohen.html
| work=The New York Times | first=Judah | last=Cohen | title=Bundle Up, It's Global Warming
| date=2010-12-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/jul/04/sulphur-pollution-china-coal-climate | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Damian | last=Carrington | title=Sulphur from Chinese power stations 'masking' climate change | date=2011-07-04}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]] — A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases
*[[Carbon cycle]]
*[[Carbon dioxide equivalent]]
*[[Climate change]]
*[[Eddy covariance]] flux (aka eddy correlation, eddy flux)
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]
*[[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions]]
*[[Ocean acidification]]
*[[Snowball Earth]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Dioxide In Earth's Atmosphere}}
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
[[Category:Greenhouse gases]]
[[Category:Atmosphere of Earth]]
[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Global warming]]

[[ru:Углекислый газ в атмосфере Земли]]

Prohibition (Film)

2012-01-01T20:16:57Z

Piperh: /* Voices */ punctuation glitch

{{Infobox television film
| name = Prohibition
| genere = [[Documentary]]
| producer = [[Sarah Botstein]] / [[Lynn Novick]] / [[Ken Burns]]
| director = [[Ken Burns]] / [[Lynn Novick]]
| narrator = [[Peter Coyote]]
| writer = [[Geoffrey C. Ward]]
| studio = [[Florentine Films]] [[WETA]] Prohibition Film Project
| distributor = [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]
| released = {{Start date|2011|10|2}}
| runtime = 5 1/2 hours
| country = United States
}}
'''''Prohibition''''' is a 2011 [[documentary film]] [[television movie|for television]] directed by [[Ken Burns]] and [[Lynn Novick]] with narration by [[Peter Coyote]]. It describes how the consumption and effect of [[alcoholic beverage]]s in the United States were connected to many different cultural forces including [[Immigration to the United States|immigration]], [[Women's suffrage in the United States|women's suffrage]], and the [[Income tax in the United States|income tax]]. Eventually the [[Temperance movement]] led to the passing of [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]], the [[Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighteenth Amendment]] to the U.S. Constitution. Widespread defiance of the law, uneven and unpopular [[Volstead Act|enforcement]], and violent crime associated with the illegal trade in alcohol caused increasing dissatisfaction with the amendment, eventually leading to its repeal thirteen years later. The series originally aired between October 2, 2011 and October 4, 2011.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1950799/episodes IMDB]</ref> It draws heavily from the book ''Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition'' by [[Daniel Okrent]].<ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/2011/oct/01/entertainment/la-et-prohibition-20111001 "A long and sober look at Prohibition history"], Los Angeles Times, October 1, 2011</ref>

==Episodes==
# '''"A Nation of Drunkards" ''' describes how immigration, alcoholism, women's suffrage and the temperance movements led up to the passing of the 18th Amendment, Prohibition.
# '''"A Nation of Scofflaws"''' addresses how the enforcement of Prohibition was inconsistent and caused unintended consequences, including making criminals of a large portion of the population.
# '''"A Nation of Hypocrites" ''' follows the gradual swing towards repeal of Prohibition as the Great Depression focuses attention on other priorities.<ref name=epguide>{{cite web|title=Prohibition: Episode Guide|url=http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/prohibition/about/episode-guide/|publisher=PBS}}</ref>

==On-Air Advisors==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* Zeke Alpern
*[[Jonathan Eig]]
*[[Noah Feldman]]
*[[Pete Hamill]]
* Edwin T Hunt Jr
* Michael Lerner
*[[William Leuchtenburg]]
{{col-break}}
*[[Martin E. Marty]]
*[[Catherine Gilbert Murdock]]
*[[Daniel Okrent]]
*[[Ruth P. Smith]]
*[[John Paul Stevens]]
* Margaret Loines Wilkie
*[[Joshua M. Zeitz]]
{{col-end}}

==Voices==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
*[[Adam Arkin]]
*[[Philip Bosco]]
*[[Patricia Clarkson]] ([[Carrie Nation]])
*[[Kevin Conway]]
*[[Peter Coyote]] (narrator)
*[[Blythe Danner]]
*[[Paul Giamatti]] ([[George Remus]])
*[[Tom Hanks]]
{{col-break}}
*[[Jeremy Irons]]
*[[Samuel L. Jackson]]
*[[John Lithgow]] (newspaper)
*[[Josh Lucas]]
*[[Amy Madigan]]
*[[Carolyn McCormick]]
*[[Oliver Platt]] ([[Al Capone]])
{{col-break}}
*[[Campbell Scott]] ([[F. Scott Fitzgerald]])
*[[Frances Sternhagen]]
*[[Joanne Tucker]]
*[[Sam Waterston]] (newspaper)
{{col-end}}

==Reviews==
*"You can hear history talking directly to the Americans of 2011 all through “Prohibition,” an absorbing five-and-a-half-hour documentary by Ken Burns and Lynn Novick... Especially now, the story of America’s disastrous experiment with banning alcoholic beverages seems made for Santayana’s phrase about learning from the past or being condemned to repeat it." --New York Times<ref>[http://tv.nytimes.com/2011/10/01/arts/television/prohibition-a-ken-burns-documentary-on-pbs-review.html "Bellying Up to the Time When America Went Dry"], New York Times, September 30, 2011</ref>
*"Burns has the similar gift of that rare history professor who can captivate even the most reluctant student by bringing the material to life. " --Washington Post<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/review-of-ken-burnss-prohibition/2011/09/22/gIQAbTeH8K_story.html "Ken Burns takes a sip of ‘Prohibition’ "], Washington Post, September 29, 2011</ref>
*"''Prohibition'' provides a very fine analytic survey of the noble experiment."<ref>[http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/television/2011/09/ken_burns_prohibition_reviewed_a_fascinating_series_about_the_no.html "Prohibition: A fascinating Ken Burns series about the noble experiment."], Slate, September 30, 2011</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/prohibition PBS: Prohibition]
* [http://www.florentinefilms.com/ Florentine Films]
{{imdb title|1950799|Prohibition}}

{{Ken Burns films}}

[[Category:Prohibition in the United States]]
[[Category:PBS network shows]]
[[Category:American documentary television series]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ken Burns]]
[[Category:2011 in American television]]
[[Category:Television miniseries]]

Fantaisie-Impromptu

2011-03-27T14:44:24Z

Piperh: copy edits

[[Image:Fan Imp Chopin.png|400px|thumb|Main Theme of the ''Fantaisie-Impromptu'']]
[[Frédéric Chopin]]'s '''Fantaisie-Impromptu''' in [[C-sharp minor]], [[opus number|Op.]] [[List of works published posthumously|posth.]] 66, is a solo [[piano]] [[musical composition|composition]] and one of his best-known pieces. It was composed in [[1834 in music|1834]] and dedicated to [[Julian Fontana]], who published the piece in spite of Chopin's request not to do so.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}
{{listen
|filename=Frederic Chopin - Fantasy Impromptu Opus 66.ogg|title=Fantaisie-Impromptu, Op. posth. 66|description=Performed by [[Martha Goldstein]] on an 1851 Erard piano|format=[[Ogg]]
}}

Some aspects of this piece are similar to [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s [[Piano Sonata No. 14 (Beethoven)|''Moonlight Sonata'']], which is also in C-sharp minor. Two measures after the melody begins, an abrupt run up and down has exactly the same notes as the cadenza in movement 3 ([[Musical terminology|''Presto'']] [[Musical terminology|''agitato'']]) of that work. The climax on a six-four chord is similar in both pieces.<ref>Felix Salzer, Aspects of Schenkerian Analysis, David Beach, ed. Yale University Press, 1983</ref> Also, Fantaisie-Impromptu's middle part is in D-flat major, whereas, the second movement of the Moonlight Sonata is in D-flat major. The first and third movements are in C-sharp minor.

The piece uses many cross-rhythms (the right hand plays [[sixteenth note]]s against the left hand playing [[Tuplet|triplets]]) and a ceaselessly moving note figuration and is in [[cut time]] (2/2). The opening [[tempo]] is marked ''[[Musical terminology|allegro]] [[Musical terminology|agitato]]''. The tempo changes to ''[[Musical terminology|largo]]'' and later ''[[Musical terminology|moderato]] [[Musical terminology|cantabile]]'' when the key changes to D-flat major, the enharmonic equivalent of the more obscure tonic major key of C-sharp major, that is, the [[parallel major]] of C-sharp minor.
The piece then changes to ''[[Music terminology|presto]]'' (although some versions of the score incorporate a [[Coda (music)|coda]], meaning that the original tempo of ''[[Musical terminology|allegro]] [[Musical terminology|agitato]]'' is repeated) where it continues in C-sharp minor as before. It concludes in an ambiguous fantasy-like ending, in a quiet and mysterious way, where the left hand replays the first few notes of the moderato section theme, while the right hand continues playing sixteenth notes (semiquavers). The piece resolves and gently ends on a C-sharp major rolled chord.

The melody of the Fantaisie-Impromptu's middle section was used in the popular song "[[I'm Always Chasing Rainbows]]". It was also [[Musical quotation|quoted]] in Variation 10 of [[Federico Mompou]]'s ''[[Variations on a Theme of Chopin (Mompou)|Variations on a Theme of Chopin]]'', which is otherwise based on Chopin's Prelude No. 7 in A major.

==See also==
*[[Fantaisie in F minor (Chopin)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tvm2ZsRv3C8 Video of a performance of the piece, by Yundi Li]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qa0Z6g1XJkU Video of Valentina Igoshina playing the ''Fantaisie-Impromptu'']
* [http://www.superopera.com/mp3/pclassics/pclassics.htm Recording of Fantaisie-Impromptu performed by the pianist Alberto Cobo], [[MP3]] format
* {{IMSLP2|id=Fantaisie-Impromptu Op.66 (Chopin, Frederic)|cname=Fantaisie-Impromptu}}
* [http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/piece-info.cgi?id=1693 Free score] via the [[Mutopia Project]]
* [http://icking-music-archive.org/scores/chopin/Chopin_Fantaisie-Impromptu.pdf Free score via icking-music-archive.org]
*

{{Chopin impromptus}}

[[Category:Compositions by Frédéric Chopin]]
[[Category:Solo piano pieces]]
[[Category:1834 compositions]]
[[Category:Fantasias (music)|Chopin]]

[[es:Impromptu Fantasía]]
[[fr:Fantaisie-Impromptu]]
[[it:Fantasia-Improvviso]]
[[nl:Fantaisie-Impromptu]]
[[ja:幻想即興曲]]
[[pl:Fantazja-Impromptu op. posth. (Chopin)]]
[[pt:Fantaisie-Impromptu]]

Neutronenreflektor

2011-03-24T21:20:24Z

Piperh: /* Nuclear reactors */ tweak for clarity

{{Unreferenced|date=February 2011}}
A '''neutron reflector''' is any material that reflects [[neutron]]s. This refers to [[elastic scattering]] rather than to a [[specular reflection]]. The material may be [[graphite]], [[beryllium]], [[lead]], [[steel]], [[tungsten carbide]], or other materials. A neutron reflector can make an otherwise [[subcritical]] mass of [[fissile material]] critical, or increase the amount of [[nuclear fission]] that a [[critical mass|critical or supercritical mass]] will undergo. An example of this is the [[Demon core|Demon Core]], a chunk of subcritical [[plutonium]] that went [[Critical mass|critical]] when a scientist accidentally dropped a neutron reflective brick onto the core. Even though he quickly removed the brick from the assembly, it had already triggered a massive burst of radiation that led to his death 25 days later.

==Nuclear reactors==
In a [[uranium]] graphite chain reacting pile, the [[critical mass|critical size]] may be considerably reduced by surrounding the pile with a layer of graphite, since such an envelope reflects many neutrons back into the pile.

To obtain a 30 year life span, the [[SSTAR]] nuclear reactor design calls for a moveable neutron reflector to be placed over the column of fuel. The reflector's slow downward travel over the column would cause the fuel to be burned from the top of the column to the bottom.

A reflector made of a light material like [[graphite]] or [[beryllium]] will also serve as a [[neutron moderator]] reducing neutron kinetic energy, while a heavy material like [[lead]] or [[lead-bismuth eutectic]] will have less effect on neutron velocity.

==Nuclear weapons==
A similar envelope can be used to reduce the critical size of a [[nuclear weapon]], but here the envelope has an additional role: its very [[inertia]] delays the expansion of the reacting material. For this reason such an envelope is often called a [[nuclear weapon design|tamper]]. The weapon tends to fly to bits as the reaction proceeds and this tends to stop the reaction, so the use of a tamper makes for a longer lasting, more energetic, and more efficient explosion. The most effective tamper is the one having the highest density; high [[tensile strength]] is unimportant because no material remains intact under the extreme pressures of a nuclear weapon. Coincidentally, high density materials are excellent neutron reflectors. This makes them doubly suitable for nuclear weapons. The first nuclear weapons used heavy uranium or tungsten carbide tamper-reflectors.

On the other hand, a heavy tamper necessitates a larger high explosive implosion system. The primary stage of a modern thermonuclear weapon may use a lightweight beryllium reflector, which is also transparent to X-rays when ionized, allowing the primary's energy output to escape quickly to be used in compressing the secondary stage.

While the effect of a tamper is to increase efficiency, both by reflecting neutrons and by delaying the expansion of the bomb, the effect on the critical mass is not as great. The reason for this is that the process of reflection is time consuming.

==See also==
*[[Nuclear weapon design]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Neutron Reflector}}
[[Category:Neutron]]

[[es:Reflector de neutrones]]
[[ja:中性子反射体]]
[[pl:Reflektor neutronów]]
[[pt:Reflector de neutrões]]

Neutronenreflektor

2011-03-24T21:19:08Z

Piperh: sentence rewrite for clarity, accuracy, and grammar

{{Unreferenced|date=February 2011}}
A '''neutron reflector''' is any material that reflects [[neutron]]s. This refers to [[elastic scattering]] rather than to a [[specular reflection]]. The material may be [[graphite]], [[beryllium]], [[lead]], [[steel]], [[tungsten carbide]], or other materials. A neutron reflector can make an otherwise [[subcritical]] mass of [[fissile material]] critical, or increase the amount of [[nuclear fission]] that a [[critical mass|critical or supercritical mass]] will undergo. An example of this is the [[Demon core|Demon Core]], a chunk of subcritical [[plutonium]] that went [[Critical mass|critical]] when a scientist accidentally dropped a neutron reflective brick onto the core. Even though he quickly removed the brick from the assembly, it had already triggered a massive burst of radiation that led to his death 25 days later.

==Nuclear reactors==
In a [[uranium]] graphite chain reacting pile the [[critical mass|critical size]] may be considerably reduced by surrounding the pile with a layer of graphite, since such an envelope reflects many neutrons back into the pile.

To obtain a 30 year life span, the [[SSTAR]] design calls for a moveable neutron reflector to be placed over the column of fuel. The reflector's slow downward travel over the column would cause the fuel to be burned from the top of the column to the bottom.

A reflector made of a light material like [[graphite]] or [[beryllium]] will also serve as a [[neutron moderator]] reducing neutron kinetic energy, while a heavy material like [[lead]] or [[lead-bismuth eutectic]] will have less effect on neutron velocity.

==Nuclear weapons==
A similar envelope can be used to reduce the critical size of a [[nuclear weapon]], but here the envelope has an additional role: its very [[inertia]] delays the expansion of the reacting material. For this reason such an envelope is often called a [[nuclear weapon design|tamper]]. The weapon tends to fly to bits as the reaction proceeds and this tends to stop the reaction, so the use of a tamper makes for a longer lasting, more energetic, and more efficient explosion. The most effective tamper is the one having the highest density; high [[tensile strength]] is unimportant because no material remains intact under the extreme pressures of a nuclear weapon. Coincidentally, high density materials are excellent neutron reflectors. This makes them doubly suitable for nuclear weapons. The first nuclear weapons used heavy uranium or tungsten carbide tamper-reflectors.

On the other hand, a heavy tamper necessitates a larger high explosive implosion system. The primary stage of a modern thermonuclear weapon may use a lightweight beryllium reflector, which is also transparent to X-rays when ionized, allowing the primary's energy output to escape quickly to be used in compressing the secondary stage.

While the effect of a tamper is to increase efficiency, both by reflecting neutrons and by delaying the expansion of the bomb, the effect on the critical mass is not as great. The reason for this is that the process of reflection is time consuming.

==See also==
*[[Nuclear weapon design]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Neutron Reflector}}
[[Category:Neutron]]

[[es:Reflector de neutrones]]
[[ja:中性子反射体]]
[[pl:Reflektor neutronów]]
[[pt:Reflector de neutrões]]

Verbrauchter Kernbrennstoff

2011-03-12T22:26:01Z

Piperh: added section on decay heat

[[File:fuel pool.jpg|upright|thumb|right|Spent fuel pool at a nuclear power plant.]]
'''Spent nuclear fuel''', occasionally called '''used nuclear fuel''', is [[nuclear fuel]] that has been irradiated in a [[nuclear reactor]] (usually at a [[nuclear power plant]]) it is no longer useful in sustaining a [[nuclear reaction]].

==Nature of spent fuel==
''See Large, John H: '''Radioactive Decay Characteristics of Irradiated Nuclear Fuels, January 2006'''.''<ref name ="largeassociates"/>

===Nanomaterial properties===
Spent [[enriched uranium|low enriched uranium]] nuclear fuel is an example of a [[nanomaterial]]. In the oxide [[fuel]], intense temperature gradients exist which cause [[fission products]] to migrate. The [[zirconium]] tends to move to the centre of the fuel [[Pelletizing|pellet]] where the [[temperature]] is highest, while the lower-boiling fission products move to the edge of the pellet. The pellet is likely to contain lots of small [[liquid bubble|bubble]]-like pores which form during use; the fission [[xenon]] migrates to these voids. Some of this xenon will then decay to form [[caesium]], hence many of these bubbles contain a large concentration of 137Cs.
{{FixBunching|beg}}
[[Image:SEMofusedMOX.jpg|thumb|340px|A used [[MOX]] which has 63 GW days(thermal) of burnup and has been examined with a [[scanning electron microscope]] using electron microprobe attachment. The lighter the pixel on the right hand side, the higher the plutonium content of the material at that spot]]
{{FixBunching|mid}}
[[Image:SEMofusedMOXshowing Nd and Xe.jpg|thumb|340px|A used MOX which has 63 GW days(thermal) of burnup and has been examined with a scanning electron microscope using electron microprobe attachment. The lighter the pixel, the higher the neodymium (left) or xenon (right) content of the material at that spot]]
{{FixBunching|end}}

In the case of the MOX the xenon tended to diffuse out of the plutonium-rich areas of the fuel, and it was then trapped in the surrounding uranium dioxide. The [[neodymium]] tended to not be mobile.

Also metallic particles of an [[alloy]] of Mo-Tc-Ru-Pd tend to form in the fuel. Other solids form at the boundary between the uranium dioxide grains, but the majority of the fission products remain in the [[uranium dioxide]] as [[solid solution]]s. A paper describing a method of making a non-[[radioactive]] "uranium active" simulation of spent oxide fuel exists.<ref>"Microstructural features of SIMFUEL - Simulated high-burnup UO2-based nuclear fuel", P.G. Lucuta, R.A. Verrall, Hj. Matzke and B.J. Palmer, '''Journal of Nuclear Materials''', 1991, 178, 48–60.</ref>

===Fission products===

3% of the mass consists of fission products of 235U and 239Pu (also indirect products in the [[decay chain]]); these are considered [[radioactive waste]] or may be separated further for various industrial and medical uses. The fission products include every element from [[zinc]] through to the [[lanthanide]]s; much of the fission yield is concentrated in two peaks, one in the second transition row ([[Zirconium|Zr]], Mo, Tc, [[Ruthenium|Ru]], [[Rhodium|Rh]], [[Palladium|Pd]], [[Silver|Ag]]) and the other later in the periodic table ([[Iodine|I]], [[Xenon|Xe]], [[Caesium|Cs]], [[Barium|Ba]], [[Lanthanum|La]], [[Cerium|Ce]], Nd). Many of the fission products are either non-radioactive or only short-lived [[radioisotopes]]. But a considerable number are medium to long-lived radioisotopes such as 90Sr, 137Cs, 99Tc and 129I. Research has been conducted by several different countries into segregating the rare isotopes in fission waste including the "fission platinoids" (Ru, Rh, Pd) and silver (Ag) as a way of offsetting the cost of reprocessing; however, this is not currently being done commercially.

The fission products can modify the [[thermal conductivity|thermal]] properties of the uranium dioxide; the [[lanthanide]] oxides tend to lower the thermal conductivity of the fuel, while the [[metallic]] nanoparticles slightly increase the thermal conductivity of the fuel.<ref>Dong-Joo Kim, Jae-Ho Yang, Jong-Hun Kim, Young-Woo Rhee, Ki-Won Kang, Keon-Sik Kim and Kun-Woo Song, ''Thermochimica Acta'', 2007, '''455''', 123–128.</ref>

====Table of chemical data====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ The chemical forms of fission products in uranium dioxide<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://abulafia.mt.ic.ac.uk/publications/theses/stanek/solutioninuo2.pdf
| title= Solution of Fission Products in UO2
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=
| accessdate= 2008-05-18 }}</ref>
! Element !! Gas !! Metal !! Oxide !! Solid solution
|-
! [[Bromine|Br]] [[krypton|Kr]]
| Yes || - || - || -
|-
! [[rubidium|Rb]]
| Yes || - || Yes || -
|-
! [[strontium|Sr]]
| - || - || Yes || Yes
|-
! [[yttrium|Y]]
| - || - || - || Yes
|-
! [[zirconium|Zr]]
| - || - || Yes || Yes
|-
! [[niobium|Nb]]
| - || - || Yes || -
|-
! [[molybdenum|Mo]]
| - || Yes || Yes || -
|- [[tin|Sn]]
! [[technetium|Tc]] [[ruthenium|Ru]] [[rhodium|Rh]] [[palladium|Pd]] [[silver|Ag]] [[cadmium|Cd]] [[indium|In]] [[antimony|Sb]]
| - || Yes || - || -
|-
! [[tellurium|Te]]
| Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes
|-
! [[iodine|I]] [[xenon|Xe]]
| Yes || - || - || -
|-
! [[caesium|Cs]]
| Yes || - || Yes || -
|-
! [[barium|Ba]]
| - || - || Yes || Yes
|-
! [[lanthanum|La]] [[cerium|Ce]] [[praseodymium|Pr]] [[neodymium|Nd]] [[promethium|Pm]] [[samarium|Sm]] [[europium|Eu]]
| - || - || - || Yes
|}

===Plutonium===
[[File:Spent nuclear fuel hanford.jpg|thumb|right|Spent nuclear fuel stored underwater and uncapped at the [[Hanford site]] in [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]], USA.]]

About 1% of the mass is 239Pu and [[Plutonium 240|240Pu]] resulting from conversion of 238U, which may be considered either as a useful byproduct, or as dangerous and inconvenient waste. One of the main concerns regarding [[nuclear proliferation]] is to prevent this plutonium from being used by states, [[Non-Proliferation Treaty#First pillar: non-proliferation|other than those already established as nuclear weapons states]], to produce nuclear weapons. If the reactor has been used normally, the plutonium is reactor-grade, not weapons-grade: it contains much 240Pu and less than 80% 239Pu, which makes it less suitable, but not impossible, to use in a weapon.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/websites/osti.gov/www.osti.gov/html/osti/opennet/document/press/pc29.html
| title= Additional Information Concerning Underground Nuclear Weapon Test of Reactor-Grade Plutonium
|date= |year= |month= |work= |publisher= [[U.S. Department of Energy]]
| accessdate= 2008-05-18 }}</ref> If the irradiation period has been short then the plutonium is weapons-grade (more than 80%, up to 93%).

===Uranium===

96% of the mass is the remaining uranium: most of the original 238U and a little 235U. Usually 235U would be less than 0.83% of the mass along with 0.4% 236U.

[[Reprocessed uranium]] will contain [[Uranium-236|236U]], which is not found in nature; this is one isotope which can be used as a [[Isotopic signature|fingerprint]] for spent reactor fuel.

If using a thorium fuel to produce fissile U-233, the SNF will have U-233, with a half-life of 159,200 years. This will have an impact on the long-term [[radioactive decay]] of the spent fuel. If compared with [[MOX fuel]], the activity around one million years in the cycles with thorium will be higher due to the presence of the not fully decayed U-233.

===Minor actinides===

Traces of the [[minor actinides]] are present in spent reactor fuel. These are [[actinides]] other than uranium and plutonium and include [[neptunium]], [[americium]] and [[curium]]. The amount formed depends greatly upon the nature of the fuel used and the conditions under which it was used. For instance, the use of MOX fuel (239Pu in a 238U matrix) is likely to lead to the production of more 241Am and heavier nuclides than a uranium/thorium based fuel (233U in a 232Th matrix).

For [[natural uranium]] fuel:
Fissile component starts at 0.71% 235U concentration in natural uranium. At discharge, total fissile component is still 0.50% (0.23% 235U, 0.27% fissile 239Pu, 241Pu) Fuel is discharged not because fissile material is fully used-up, but because the [[neutron poison|neutron-absorbing]] [[fission product]]s have built up and the fuel becomes significantly less able to sustain a nuclear reaction.

Some natural uranium fuels use chemically active cladding, such as [[Magnox (alloy)|Magnox]], and need to be reprocessed because long-term storage and disposal is difficult.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.defra.gov.uk/rwmac/reports/reprocess/16.htm
| title= RWMAC's Advice to Ministers on the Radioactive Waste Implications of Reprocessing
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= 3 November 2002 |work= |publisher= Radioactive Waste Management Advisory Committee (RWMAC)
| accessdate= 2008-05-18 }}</ref>

For highly-enriched fuels used in [[nuclear marine propulsion|marine reactors]] and [[research reactor]]s, the isotope inventory will vary based on in-core fuel management and reactor operating conditions.

==Spent fuel decay heat==

When a nuclear reactor has been [[shutdown (nuclear reactor)|shut down]] and the nuclear fission chain reaction has ceased, a significant amout of heat will still be produced in the fuel due to the [[beta decay]] of [[fission products]]. For this reason, at the moment of reactor shutdown, decay heat will be about 7% of the previous core power if the reactor has had a long and steady [[power history]]. About 1 hour after shutdown, the decay heat will be about 1.5% of the previous core power. After a day, the decay heat falls to 0.4%, and after a week it will be 0.2%. The decay heat production rate will continue to slowly decrease over time.

Spent fuel that has been removed from a reactor is ordinarily stored in a water-filled [[spent fuel pool]] for a year or more in order to cool it and provide shielding from its radioactivity. Practical spent fuel pool designs generally do not rely on passive cooling but rather require that the water be actively pumped through heat exchangers.

==Fuel composition and long term radioactivity==
[[File:Activityofuranium233.jpg|thumb|right|Activity of U-233 for three fuel types]]
[[File:activitytotal.jpg|thumb|right|Total activity for three fuel types]]

Long-lived radioactive waste from the back end of the fuel cycle is especially relevant when designing a complete waste management plan for SNF. When looking at long-term [[radioactive decay]], the actinides in the SNF have a significant influence due to their characteristically long half-lives. Depending on what a [[nuclear reactor technology|nuclear reactor]] is fueled with, the actinide composition in the SNF will be different.

An example of this effect is the use of [[nuclear fuel]]s with [[thorium]]. Th-232 is a fertile material that can undergo a neutron capture reaction and two beta minus decays, resulting in the production of fissile [[uranium-233|U-233]]. The SNF of a cycle with thorium will contain U-233, an isotope with a [[half-life]] of 160,000 years. Its radioactive decay will strongly influence the long-term [[radioactive decay|activity]] curve of the SNF around 1,000,000 years. A comparison of the activity associated to U-233 for three different SNF types can be seen in the figure on the top right.

The burnt fuels are Thorium with Reactor-Grade Plutonium (RGPu), Thorium with Weapons-Grade Plutonium (WGPu) and [[MOX fuel|Mixed Oxide fuel]] (MOX). For RGPu and WGPu, the initial amount of U-233 and its decay around 10E5 years can be seen. This has an effect in the total activity curve of the three fuel types. The absence of U-233 and its daughter products in the MOX fuel results in a lower activity in region 3 of the figure on the bottom right, whereas for RGPu and WGPu the curve is maintained higher due to the presence of U-233 that has not fully decayed.

The use of different fuels in nuclear reactors results in different SNF composition, with varying activity curves.

==Spent fuel corrosion==
===Noble metal nanoparticles and hydrogen===

According to the work of the [[corrosion]] [[electrochemistry|electrochemist]] Shoesmith<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.uwo.ca/chem/people/faculty/shoesmith.htm
| title= David W. Shoesmith
|date= |year= |month= |work= | publisher= [[University of Western Ontario]]
| accessdate= 2008-05-18 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url= http://publish.uwo.ca/~ecsweb/
| title= Electrochemistry and corrosion studies at Western
|date= |year= |month= |work= |publisher= Shoesmith research group, University of Western Ontario
| accessdate= 2008-05-18 }}</ref> the [[nanoparticle]]s of Mo-Tc-Ru-Pd have a strong effect on the corrosion of uranium dioxide fuel. For instance his work suggests that when hydrogen (H2) concentration is high (due to the [[Hypoxia (environmental)|anaerobic]] corrosion of the [[steel]] waste can), the oxidation of hydrogen at the nanoparticles will exert a protective effect on the uranium dioxide. This effect can be thought of as an example of protection by a [[sacrificial anode]], where instead of a metal [[anode]] reacting and dissolving it is the hydrogen gas which is consumed.

==Disposal of==
{{seealso|List of nuclear waste treatment technologies}}

[[Nuclear reprocessing]] can separate spent fuel into various combinations of [[reprocessed uranium]], [[plutonium]], [[minor actinides]], [[fission products]], remnants of zirconium or steel [[Cladding (nuclear fuel)|cladding]], [[activation products]], and the reagents or solidifiers introduced in the reprocessing itself. In this case the volume that needs to be disposed of is greatly reduced.

Alternatively, the intact Spent Nuclear Fuel (SNF) can be disposed of as [[radioactive waste]].

The United States has planned disposal in [[Deep geological repository|deep geological formations]], such as the [[Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository]], where it has to be shielded and packaged to prevent its migration to mankind's immediate environment for thousands of years.<ref name="largeassociates">[http://www.epa.gov/ocir/hearings/testimony/110_2007_2008/2008_0715_rjm.pdf] Testimony of Robert Meyers Principal deputy Assistant Administrator for the Office of Air and Radiation U.S. Environmental Protection Agency before the subcommitee on Energy and Air Quality Committee on Energy and Commerce U. S. House of Representatives, July 15, 2008</ref> However, on March 5, 2009, [[United States Secretary of Energy|Energy Secretary]] [[Steven Chu]] told a Senate hearing that "the Yucca Mountain site no longer was viewed as an option for storing reactor waste."<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-nuke-yucca_frimar06,0,2557502.story | work=Chicago Tribune | title=Nuclear waste won't be going to Nevada's Yucca Mountain, Obama official says | first=H. Josef | last=Hebert}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Nuclear power]]
*[[Spent nuclear fuel shipping cask]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Nuclear technology|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Spent Nuclear Fuel}}
[[Category:Nuclear fuels]]
[[Category:Nuclear reprocessing]]
[[Category:Radioactive waste]]

[[ja:使用済み核燃料]]
[[ru:Отработавшее ядерное топливо]]

Edward Kleban

2011-02-23T07:14:35Z

Piperh: added a bit more about the 1976 Pulitzer award

'''Edward “Ed” Kleban''' (April 30, 1939 - December 28, 1987) was an American [[musical theatre]] [[composer]] and [[lyricist]].

A graduate of New York's [[High School of Music & Art]] and [[Columbia University]], Kleban wrote the lyrics for the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] hit ''[[A Chorus Line]]''. He and composer [[Marvin Hamlisch]] won the 1976 [[Tony Award]] for Best Original Score, and he shared the [[Pulitzer Prize for Drama]] in 1976 with Hamlisch and three other contributors to the musical. The one-woman [[Phyllis Newman]] show, ''[[The Madwoman of Central Park West]]'' (1979), featured a few tunes with his lyrics. For several years he worked at [[Columbia Records]], where he produced albums by [[Igor Stravinsky]] to [[Percy Faith]].<ref name="Profile 2001">Profile: Looking at Ed Kleban, Broadway songwriter, and 'A Class Act,' the musical about his life." [[Weekend Edition|Weekend Edition Saturday]] 10 Mar. 2001.</ref> He also produced the album for the Off-Broadway musical ''[[Now Is The Time For All Good Men (musical)|Now Is The Time For All Good Men]].''

He was a teacher for many years at the B.M.I. Musical Theater Workshop.<ref name=times>[http://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/30/obituaries/edward-kleban-48-chorus-line-lyricist.html "Edward Kleban, 48, ''Chorus Line'' Lyricist,"]''The New York Times'', December 30, 1987</ref>

In his will, he asked that his friends [[Avery Corman]] and [[Wendy Wasserstein]] use his collection of unused songs and make a show out of them. Their attempts failed, so the rights went to Kleban's longtime companion, librettist Linda Kline. She collaborated with [[Lonny Price]], whom Kline sought after. She was looking for someone who had not known Kleban, who did not have a relationship with him, but who would learn about him through the material.<ref name="Profile 2001"/>

In 2000, [[Lonny Price]] co-wrote with [[Linda Kline]], directed, and starred in ''[[A Class Act]]'', a musical biography of Kleban with a score consisting of songs he had written for numerous unproduced musicals. After a two-month run at the [[Manhattan Theatre Club]], it transferred to the [[Ambassador Theatre (New York)|Ambassador Theatre]], where it closed after three months. 14 years after his death, Kleban earned a Tony Award nomination for Best Original Score and [[Drama Desk Award|Drama Desk]] nominations for Outstanding Music and Outstanding Lyrics.

Kleban created the Kleban Foundation in his will. The annual awards, each in the amount of $100,000 over two years, are given to the most promising librettist and lyricist in American musical theatre.<ref>[http://www.bmi.com/news/entry/233232 Kleban Awards] bmi.com, June 6, 2001</ref><ref>Gans, Andrew.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/117311 "Lindsay-Abaire Snags Kleban Award for Lyrics; Harrington, Solly and Ward Also Honored,"] playbill.com, May 1, 2008</ref>

He died from [[Esophageal cancer|throat cancer]].<ref name=times/>

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* {{IBDB name|13009}}
* {{IMDb name|458505}}

{{s-start}} {{s-ach|aw}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Music and Lyrics]]
| years=1975-1976 '''for ''[[A Chorus Line]]'' '''
| before=[[Charlie Smalls]] for ''[[The Wiz]]''
| after= -
}}
{{end}}
{{PulitzerPrize DramaAuthors 1976-2000}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Kleban, Edward
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = April 30, 1939
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = December 28, 1987
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kleban, Edward}}
[[Category:1939 births]]
[[Category:1987 deaths]]
[[Category:American musical theatre composers]]
[[Category:Jewish composers and songwriters]]
[[Category:Columbia University alumni]]
[[Category:Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts alumni]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize for Drama winners]]
[[Category:Tony Award winners]]
[[Category:Drama Desk Award winners]]

United-Airlines-Flug 173

2010-09-07T05:06:52Z

Piperh: /* Crash investigation and report */ rewrote confusing sentence

{{Infobox Airliner accident
| name=United Airlines Flight 173
| date=December 28, 1978
| Type=[[Fuel exhaustion]]
| occurrence_type=Accident
| Site=[[Portland, Oregon]]
| coords={{coord|45.5225|-122.499722|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| Fatalities=10
| Injuries=24
| Aircraft Type=[[Douglas DC-8|McDonnell-Douglas DC-8-61]]
| Operator=[[United Airlines]]
|tail_number = [http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19781228-1 N8082U]
| Passengers=181
| Crew=8
| Survivors = 179
}}
'''United Airlines Flight 173''', registration N8082U,<ref name=asn>{{ASN accident|id=19781228-1|accessdate=2006-08-16}}</ref> was a [[Douglas DC-8|Douglas DC-8-61]] en route from [[Stapleton International Airport]] in [[Denver]] to [[Portland International Airport]] on December 28, 1978. When the landing gear was lowered, only two of the green landing gear indicator lights came on. The plane circled in the vicinity of Portland while the crew investigated the problem. After about one hour the plane ran out of fuel and crashed in a sparsely populated area near 158th and East Burnside Street, killing 10 and seriously injuring 24 of the 189 on board.

==Injuries==
Of the crew members, 2 died, 2 had injuries classified by the [[National Transportation Safety Board]] (NTSB) as "serious," and 4 had injuries classified as "minor/none." Of the passengers, 8 died, 21 had serious injuries, and 152 had minor or no injuries.<ref>"[http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/ntsb/aircraft-accident-reports/AAR79-07.pdf UNITED AIR LINES, INC. MCDONNELL-DOUGLAS DC-8-61, N8082U PORTLAND, OREGON : DECEMBER 28, 1978]." ''[[National Transportation Safety Board]]''. December 28, 1978. 9 (15/64). Retrieved on January 20, 2010.</ref>

==Crash investigation and report==

The NTSB investigation revealed that when the landing gear was lowered, a loud thump was heard. That unusual sound was accompanied by abnormal vibration and an abnormal yaw of the aircraft. The right main landing gear retract cylinder assembly had failed due to corrosion, and that allowed the right gear to free fall. Although it was down and locked, the rapid and abnormal free fall of the gear damaged a microswitch so severely that it failed to complete the circuit to the cockpit green light that tells the pilots that gear is down and locked. It was those unusual indicators (loud noise, vibration, yaw, and no green light) which led the captain to abort the landing, so that they would have time to diagnose the problem and prepare the passengers for an emergency landing. While the decision to abort the landing was correct, the accident occurred because the flight crew became so absorbed with diagnosing the problem that they failed to calculate a time when they needed to land to avoid [[fuel starvation]].

"The Safety Board believes that this accident exemplifies a recurring problem --a breakdown in cockpit management and teamwork during a situation involving malfunctions of aircraft systems in flight....Therefore, the Safety Board can only conclude that the flightcrew failed to relate the fuel remaining and the rate of fuel flow to the time and distance from the airport, because their attention was directed almost entirely toward diagnosing the landing gear problem."<ref name=ntsb>{{cite web|url=http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/ntsb/aircraft-accident-reports/AAR79-07.pdf|title=NTSB Report (PDF)|publisher=NTSB (on archive.org)|accessdate=2009-06-19fix}}</ref>

The NTSB determined the following probable cause:<ref name=ntsb/><blockquote>"The failure of the captain to monitor properly the aircraft's fuel state and to properly respond to the low fuel state and the crewmember's advisories regarding fuel state. This resulted in [[fuel starvation|fuel exhaustion]] to all engines. His inattention resulted from preoccupation with a landing gear malfunction and preparations for a possible landing emergency."</blockquote>

The NTSB also determined the following contributing factor:<blockquote>"The failure of the other two flight crewmembers either to fully comprehend the criticality of the fuel state or to successfully communicate their concern to the captain."</blockquote>

==Aftermath==
As a result of this accident United Airlines instituted the industry's first [[Crew Resource Management|Crew Resource Management/Cockpit Resource Management]] (CRM) program for pilots in 1980. The CRM program proved to be so successful that it is now used throughout the world.

Other aircraft accidents involving faulty landing gear indicator lights were [[Eastern Air Lines Flight 401]], which crashed while circling around the airport at Miami, on December 29, 1972, [[LOT Polish Airlines Flight 007]] and [[Scandinavian Airlines Flight 933|SAS Flight 993]], on January 13, 1969, which crashed into the ocean during an approach to LAX.

The Eastern crew became preoccupied with the nose gear indicator light problem and accidentally disconnected the autopilot, causing the aircraft to make a slow descent and crash into the Everglades. Further investigation revealed that the nose gear was down and locked. It was the same for the SAS flight, as the green light for the nose gear failed to illuminate, after the landing gear was lowered. The SAS cockpit crew became so occupied with attempting to diagnose the lack of a nose gear green light, that they allowed their rate of descent to increase, until that DC-8-62 crashed into the ocean, well short of the runway.

==See also==
* [[Air safety]]
* [[Lists of accidents and incidents on commercial airliners]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19781228-1 Aviation Safety Network for United 173]
*[http://www.planecrashinfo.com/1978/1978-76.htm Accident details] at [http://www.planecrashinfo.com/ planecrashinfo.com]
*[http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?regsearch=N8082U Photos of N8082U] at [http://www.airliners.net Airliners.net]
*[http://www.airdisaster.com/photos/ua173/photo.shtml Photos of Accident site] at [http://www.airdisaster.com AirDisaster.com]
* [http://www.airdisaster.com/investigations/ua173.shtml Airdisaster.com report]

{{Aviation accidents and incidents in 1978}}

[[Category:Accidents and incidents on commercial airliners in the United States]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents officially attributed to pilot error]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by fuel exhaustion]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1978]]
[[Category:In-flight airliner loss of all engines]]
[[Category:1978 in the United States]]
[[Category:United Airlines accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:Disasters in Oregon]]
[[Category:History of Portland, Oregon]]
[[Category:Accidents and incidents involving the Douglas DC-8]]

50 Cent Party

2010-08-24T19:16:45Z

Piperh: /* Range of Operation and Effects */ spelling

'''50 Cent Party''' ({{zh|c={{linktext|五|毛|党}}|p=Wǔ Máo Dǎng}}), also called '''50 Cent Army''', refers to paid [[astroturfing]] internet commentators working for the [[People's Republic of China]], whose role is posting comments favorable towards the government policies to skew the [[public opinion]] on various Internet message boards.<ref name="BBC1">Bristow, Michael.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7783640.stm China's internet 'spin doctors']. BBC News Online. December 16, 2008</ref> They are named after the 50 Chinese cents, or [[renminbi|5 mao]], they are paid per such post, other names are '''red vests''', '''red vanguard''' and the '''Five Mao Party'''.<ref name="elgan">{{cite news |first=Mike |last=Elgan |title=How China's '50 Cent Army' Could Wreck Web 2.0 |url=http://itmanagement.earthweb.com/columns/article.php/3795091/How+Chinas+50+Cent+Army+Could+Wreck+Web+2.0.htm |work=Datamation|publisher=JupiterOnlineMedia |date=2009-01-08 |accessdate=2009-01-11 }} </ref><ref name=zhong>Zhong, Wu. [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/JH14Ad01.html China's Internet awash with state spies]. Asia Times Online. August 14, 2008</ref> Conservative estimates<ref name="BBC1"/> put the strength of the 50 Cents Army in the thousands while radical estimates put their numbers as high as 280,000–300,000.<ref name="feer">{{cite news |first=David |last=Bandurski |title=China's Guerrilla War for the Web |url=http://www.feer.com/essays/2008/august/chinas-guerrilla-war-for-the-web |work= |publisher=Far Eastern Economic Review |date=2008-07 |accessdate=2009-01-11 }} </ref><ref>Fareed, Malik. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/sep/22/chinathemedia.marketingandpr China joins a turf war]. ''The Guardian''. September 22, 2008</ref> Their activities were described by Chinese President [[Hu Jintao]] as "a new pattern of public-opinion guidance".<ref name="radioau">{{cite news |first=Corrinne |last=Podger |title=China marshalls army of bloggers |url=http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/programguide/stories/200808/s2342236.htm |work= |publisher=Radio Australia |date=2008-08-21 |accessdate=2009-01-11 }} </ref>

They operate primarily in Chinese, but English language posts appear as well. Their effect is most felt at the domestic Chinese-language websites, [[bulletin board system]]s, and [[chatroom]]s. Their role is to steer the discussion away from anti-party articulations, politically sensitive or "unacceptable" content<ref>[http://www.tibetanreview.net/news.php?cat=2&&id=1846 China employs army of piece-rate ‘netizens’ for online thought control]. Tibetan Review. January 2, 2009</ref> and advance the [[party line (politics)|party line]] of the [[Communist Party of China]].<ref name="dnai">{{cite news |first=Venkatesan |last=Vembu |title=Big Brother 2.0 is here |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1218190 |work= |publisher=Daily News and Analysis |date=2009-01-02 |accessdate=2009-01-11 }} </ref> It is not so much [[censorship]] but a [[public relations]] tactic.<ref>Denlinger, Paul. [http://www.chinavortex.com/2008/07/american-astroturfing-vs-chinese-astroturfing/ American astroturfing vs Chinese astroturfing]. China Vortex. July 13, 2008</ref>

According to the Indian ''[[DNA (newspaper)|Daily News and Analysis]]'', "to this day, anyone who posts a blatantly propagandist pro-[[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]] message online is dismissed by increasingly cynical Chinese [[Netizen]]s as belonging to the Wu Mao Dang (50 Cents Party)."<ref name="dnai" />

==History==
Negative reporting of the authorities has increased on the internet in recent years.<ref name=cdt>Nan, Wu. [http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2008/05/chinese-bloggers-on-the-history-and-influence-of-the-fifty-cent-party/ Chinese Bloggers on the History and Influence of the “Fifty Cent Party”]. China Digital Times. May 15, 2008</ref> In one instance described on the [[China Digital Times]], the [[Jiaozuo]] City Public Security Bureau established a mechanism to analyse public opinion after criticism of the police by [[netizen]]s appeared on the internet regarding a traffic incident. The Bureau responded with 120 staff calling for the truth to be revealed in line with the public opinion, which gradually shifted and eventually supported the police position, denouncing the original poster.<ref name=cdt/><ref name=zhong/> In the aftermath of the [[2008 Weng'an riot |2008 Guizhou riot]], internet forums were filled with posts critical of the local authorities; the ''China News Weekly'' later reported that "the major task of the propaganda group was to organize commentators to past [sic] posts on websites to guide online public opinions."<ref name=zhong/> Some Chinese internet users are critical of the 50 Cent Party.<ref name=zhong/>

In March 2005, [[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]] did a [[purge]] of Chinese college bulletin board systems. The popular "Little Lily" BBS, ran by [[Nanjing University]], was forced to close. As a new system was prepared to be launched, school officials hired students as part-time web commentators, paid from the university's work-study funds, to search the forum for undesirable information and actively counter it with Party-friendly viewpoints. The project was a success. In following months, party leaders from the [[Jiangsu]] province began hiring their own teams.<ref name="feer"/> By mid-2007, web commentator teams recruited by schools, and party organizations were common across China. [[Shanghai Normal University]] employed undergraduates to monitor for signs of [[dissent]] and post on university forums.<ref name=nyt>[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/09/world/asia/09internet.html?_r=2&pagewanted=all As Chinese Students Go Online, Little Sister Is Watching]. ''The New York Times''. May 9, 2006</ref> However, they not only operate solely within political discussion, but also general discussions in which arguments are often alleviated.<ref name=nyt/>

==Range of Operation and Effects==

The [[Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China]] now holds regular training sessions, whose participants are required to pass an exam after which they are issued a job certification.<ref name="feer"/>

The "50 Cent Party" is considered a sensitive term in China – the [[Hong Kong]]-based ''[[Apple Daily]]'' reported that although searches for "Wu Mao Dang" revealed searches, most were inaccessible and had been deleted.<ref>"China hires, trains 'online commentators' to influence public opinion - daily". ''Apple Daily''. October 5, 2007</ref>

Despite the widespread cynicism regarding the "50 Cent Army"<ref> UnMadeInChina.org [http://www.unmadeinchina.org/contStd.asp?lang=en&idPag=626 The Fifty-Cent Army] </ref><ref name="dnai">{{cite news |first=Venkatesan |last=Vembu |title=Big Brother 2.0 is here |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1218190 |work= |publisher=Daily News and Analysis |date=2009-01-02 |accessdate=2009-01-11 }} </ref>, their actual effects are quite limited; much of their impacts are restricted to local levels, active mostly in regional Internet forums and discussion boards.

On international websites and discussion boards, "50 cent army" and such titles are used to dismiss anyone whose opinion is seen as supportive or moderate of Chinese government. These denunciations on both sides of the murky online public opinions has led to a secondary expansion of the political fault line.<ref>{{cite news |first=弦断有谁知 |title=五毛党”与“五美分党”的“爱国”是否太小儿科了点 |url=http://www.wyzxsx.com/Article/Class22/201001/126833.html |publisher=乌有之乡 |date=2010-1-20 |accessdate=2010-7-10 }} </ref> Contributing to the overtly exaggerated estimate for the number of the "50 Cent Party" membership in the hundreds of thousands, which in reality, likely numbers in the thousands or tens of thousands.

==See also==
* [[Big mama]], the informal name for the Chinese Internet censors
* [[Golden Shield Project]], a Chinese "national firewall" Internet censorship system
* [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Web brigades]], alleged bands of Russian Internet users with a similar role

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://chinadigitaltimes.net/china/fifty-cent-party/ 50 Cent Party related news and translations on China Digital Times]

[[Category:Public relations techniques]]
[[Category:Media manipulation techniques]]
[[Category:Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Cyberspace]]

[[fa:ارتش ۵۰ سنتی]]
[[ko:우마오당]]
[[ru:Умаодан]]
[[zh:网络评论员]]

Verbrauchter Kernbrennstoff

2009-07-07T19:41:23Z

Piperh: /* Fission products */ there is some fission of Pu-239 in commercial power reactions; ambiguous sense of "nuclear poisons"

[[File:Spent nuclear fuel hanford.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spent nuclear fuel stored underwater and uncapped at the [[Hanford site]] in [[Washington]], USA.]]
'''Spent nuclear fuel''', occasionally called '''used nuclear fuel''', is [[nuclear fuel]] that has been irradiated in a [[nuclear reactor]] (usually at a [[nuclear power plant]]) to the point where it is no longer useful in sustaining a [[nuclear reaction]].

[[Nuclear reprocessing]] can separate spent fuel into various combinations of [[reprocessed uranium]], [[plutonium]], [[minor actinides]], [[fission products]], remnants of zirconium or steel [[cladding]], [[activation products]], and the reagents or solidifiers introduced in the reprocessing itself.

Alternatively, the intact Spent Nuclear Fuel (SNF) can be disposed as [[radioactive waste]]. The United States is currently planning disposal in deep geological formations, such as [[Yucca Mountain]], where it has to be shielded and packaged to prevent its migration to mankind's immediate environment for thousands of years.<ref name="largeassociates"> [http://www.epa.gov/ocir/hearings/testimony/110_2007_2008/2008_0715_rjm.pdf] Testimony of Robert Meyers Principal deputy Assistant Administrator for the Office of Air and Radiation U.S. Enviromental Protection Agency before the subcommitee on Energy and Air Quality Committe on Energy and Commerce U. S. House of Representatives, July 15, 2008</ref>

==Nature of spent fuel==

Large John H ''Radioactive Decay Characteristics of Irradiated Nuclear Fuels, January 2006''.<ref name ="largeassociates"/>

===Nanomaterial properties===
Spent [[enriched uranium|low enriched uranium]] nuclear fuel is an example of a [[nanomaterial]] which existed before the term [[nano]] became fashionable. In the oxide [[fuel]] intense temperature gradients exist which cause [[fission products]] to migrate. The [[zirconium]] tends to move to the centre of the fuel [[pellet]] where the [[temperature]] is highest while the lower boiling fission products move to the edge of the pellet. The pellet is likely to contain lots of small [[bubble]] like pores which form during use, the fission [[xenon]] migrates to these voids. Some of this xenon will then decay to form [[caesium]], hence many of these bubbles contain a large concentration of 137Cs.
{{FixBunching|beg}}
[[Image:SEMofusedMOX.jpg|thumb|340px|A used MOX, which has 63 GW days(thermal) of burnup and has been examined with a [[scanning electron microscope]] using electron microprobe attachment. The lighter the pixel in the right hand side the higher the plutonium content of the material at that spot]]
{{FixBunching|mid}}
[[Image:SEMofusedMOXshowing Nd and Xe.jpg|thumb|340px|A used MOX, which has 63 GW days(thermal) of burnup and has been examined with a [[scanning electron microscope]] using electron microprobe attachment. The lighter the pixel the higher the neodymium (left) or xenon (right) content of the material at that spot]]
{{FixBunching|end}}

In the case of the MOX the xenon tended to diffuse out of the plutonium rich areas of the fuel, and it was then trapped in the surrounding uranium dioxide. The [[neodymium]] tended to not be mobile.

Also metallic particles of an [[alloy]] of Mo-Tc-Ru-Pd tends to form in the fuel. Other solids form at the boundary between the uranium dioxide grains, but the majority of the fission products remain in the [[uranium dioxide]] as [[solid solution]]s. A paper describing a method of making a non[[radioactive]] ''uranium active'') simulation of spent oxide fuel exists.<ref>''Microstructural features of SIMFUEL - Simulated high-burnup UO2-based nuclear fuel'', P.G. Lucuta, R.A. Verrall, Hj. Matzke and B.J. Palmer, '''Journal of Nuclear Materials''', 1991, 178, 48–60.</ref>

===Fission products===

*3% of the mass consists of fission products of 235U and 239Pu (also indirect products in the [[decay chain]]); these are considered [[radioactive waste]] or may be separated further for various industrial and medical uses. The fission products include every element from [[zinc]] through to the [[lanthanide]]s, much of the fission yield is concentrated in two peaks, one in the second transition row ([[Zirconium|Zr]], Mo, Tc, [[Ruthenium|Ru]], [[Rhodium|Rh]], [[Palladium|Pd]], [[Silver|Ag]]) while the other is later in the periodic table ([[Iodine|I]], [[Xenon|Xe]], [[Caesium|Cs]], [[Barium|Ba]], [[Lanthanum|La]], [[Cerium|Ce]], Nd). Many of the fission products are either non radioactive or only shortly lived [[radioisotopes]]. But a considerable number are medium to long lived radioisotopes such as 90Sr, 137Cs, 99Tc and 129I. Research has been conducted by several different countries into partitioning the rare isotopes in fission waste including the ''fission platinoids'' (Ru, Rh, Pd) and silver (Ag) as a way of offsetting the cost of reprocessing, however this is not currently being done commercially.

: The fission products can modify the [[thermal conductivity|thermal]] properties of the uranium dioxide, the [[lanthanide]] oxides tend to lower the thermal conductivity of the fuel while the [[metallic]] nanoparticles slightly increases the thermal conductivity of the fuel.<ref>Dong-Joo Kim, Jae-Ho Yang, Jong-Hun Kim, Young-Woo Rhee, Ki-Won Kang, Keon-Sik Kim and Kun-Woo Song, ''Thermochimica Acta'', 2007, '''455''', 123–128. </ref>

====Table of chemical data====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ The chemical forms of fission products in uranium dioxide<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://abulafia.mt.ic.ac.uk/publications/theses/stanek/solutioninuo2.pdf
| title= Solution of Fission Products in UO2
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=
| accessdate= 2008-05-18 }} </ref>
! Element !! Gas !! Metal !! Oxide !! Solid solution
|-
! [[Bromine|Br]]
| Yes || - || - || -
|-
! [[krypton|Kr]]
| Yes || - || - || -
|-
! [[rubidium|Rb]]
| Yes || - || Yes || -
|-
! [[strontium|Sr]]
| - || - || Yes || Yes
|-
! [[yttrium|Y]]
| - || - || - || Yes
|-
! [[zirconium|Zr]]
| - || - || Yes || Yes
|-
! [[niobium|Nb]]
| - || - || Yes || -
|-
! [[molybdenum|Mo]]
| - || Yes || Yes || -
|-
! [[technetium|Tc]]
| - || Yes || - || -
|-
! [[ruthenium|Ru]]
| - || Yes || - || -
|-
! [[rhodium|Rh]]
| - || Yes || - || -
|-
! [[palladium|Pd]]
| - || Yes || - || -
|-
! [[silver|Ag]]
| - || Yes || - || -
|-
! [[cadmium|Cd]]
| - || Yes || - || -
|-
! [[indium|In]]
| - || Yes || - || -
|-
! [[tin|Sn]]
| - || Yes || - || -
|-
! [[antimony|Sb]]
| - || Yes || - || -
|-
! [[tellurium|Te]]
| Yes || Yes || Yes || Yes
|-
! [[iodine|I]]
| Yes || - || - || -
|-
! [[xenon|Xe]]
| Yes || - || - || -
|-
! [[caesium|Cs]]
| Yes || - || Yes || -
|-
! [[barium|Ba]]
| - || - || Yes || Yes
|-
! [[lanthanum|La]]
| - || - || - || Yes
|-
! [[cerium|Ce]]
| - || - || - || Yes
|-
! [[praseodymium|Pr]]
| - || - || - || Yes
|-
! [[neodymium|Nd]]
| - || - || - || Yes
|-
! [[praseodymium|Pm]]
| - || - || - || Yes
|-
! [[samarium|Sm]]
| - || - || - || Yes
|-
! [[europium|Eu]]
| - || - || - || Yes
|-
|}

===Plutonium===

*About 1% of the mass is 239Pu and [[Plutonium 240|240Pu]] resulting from conversion of 238U, which may either be considered a useful byproduct, or as dangerous and inconvenient waste. One of the main concerns regarding [[nuclear proliferation]] is to prevent this plutonium from being used by states, other than those already established as nuclear weapons states, to produce nuclear weapons. If the reactor has been used normally, the plutonium is reactor-grade, not weapons-grade: it contains much 240Pu and less than 80% 239Pu, which makes it less suitable, but not impossible, to use in a weapon.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/websites/osti.gov/www.osti.gov/html/osti/opennet/document/press/pc29.html
| title= Additional Information Concerning Underground Nuclear Weapon Test of Reactor-Grade Plutonium
|date= |year= |month= |work= |publisher= [[U.S. Department of Energy]]
| accessdate= 2008-05-18 }} </ref> If the irradiation period has been short then the plutonium is weapon-grade (more than 80%, up to 93%).

===Uranium===

*96% of the mass is the remaining uranium: most of the original 238U and a little 235U. Usually 235U would be less than 0.83% of the mass along with 0.4% 236U.

[[Reprocessed uranium]] will contain [[Uranium-236|236U]] which is not found in nature; this is one isotope which can be used as a [[fingerprint]] for spent reactor fuel.

If using a thorium fuel to produce fissile U-233, the SNF will have U-233, with a half-life of 1.592E5 years. This will have an impact in the long term [[radioactive decay]] of the spent fuel. If compared with [[MOX fuel]], the activity around 10E5 in the cycles with thorium will be higher due to the presence of the not fully decayed U-233.

===Minor actinides===

*Traces of the [[minor actinides]] are present in spent reactor fuel. These are [[actinides]] other than uranium and plutonium. These include [[neptunium]], [[americium]] and [[curium]]. The amount formed depends greatly upon the nature of the fuel used and the conditions under which it was used. For instance, the use of MOX fuel (239Pu in a 238U matrix) is likely to lead to the production of more 241Am and heavier nuclides than a uranium/thorium based fuel (233U in a 232Th matrix).

For [[natural uranium]] fuel:
Fissile component starts at 0.71% 235U concentration in natural uranium). At discharge, total fissile component is still 0.50% (0.23% 235U, 0.27% fissile 239Pu, 241Pu) Fuel is discharged not because fissile material is fully used-up, but because the [[neutron poison|neutron-absorbing]] [[fission product]]s have built up and the fuel becomes significantly less able to sustain a nuclear reaction.

Some natural uranium fuels use chemically active cladding, such as [[Magnox]], and need to be reprocessed because long-term storage and disposal is difficult.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.defra.gov.uk/rwmac/reports/reprocess/16.htm
| title= RWMAC's Advice to Ministers on the Radioactive Waste Implications of Reprocessing
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= 3 November, 2002 |work= |publisher= Radioactive Waste Management Advisory Committee (RWMAC)
| accessdate= 2008-05-18 }} </ref>

For highly enriched fuels used in [[nuclear marine propulsion|marine reactors]] and [[research reactor]]s the isotope inventory will vary based on in-core fuel management and reactor operating conditions.

==Fuel composition and long term radioactivity==
[[File:activityuranium233.jpg|thumb|right|Activity of U-233 for three fuel types]]
[[File:activitytotal.jpg|thumb|right|Total activity for three fuel types]]

Long-lived radioactive waste form the back end of the fuel cycle is especially relevant when designing a complete waste management plan for SNF. When looking at long term [[radioactive decay]], the actinides in the SNF have a significant influence due to their characteristically long half-lives. Depending on what a [[nuclear reactor technology|nuclear reactor]] is fueled with, the actinide composition in the SNF will be different.

An example of this effect is the use of [[nuclear fuel|nuclear fuels]] with [[thorium]]. Th-232 is a fertile material that can undergo a neutron capture reaction and two beta minus decays, resulting in the production of fissile [[uranium-233|U-233]]. The SNF of a cycle with thorium will contain U-233, an isotope with a [[half-life]] of 1.59E5 years. Its radioactive decay will strongly influence the long-term [[radioactive decay|activity]] curve of the SNF around 10E5 years. A comparison of the activity associated to U-233 for three different SNF types can be seen in the figure on the top right.

The burnt fuels are Thorium with Reactor-Grade Plutonium (RGPu), Thorium with Weapons-Grade Plutonium (WGPu) and [[MOX fuel|Mixed Oxide fuel]] (MOX). For RGPu and WGPu, the initial amount of U-233 and its decay around 10E5 years can be seen. This has an effect in the total activity curve of the three fuel types. The absence of U-233 and its daughter products in the MOX fuel results in a lower activity in region 3 of the figure on the bottom right, whereas for RGPu and WGPu the curve is maintained higher due to the presence of U-233 that has not fully decayed.

The use of different fuels in nuclear reactors results in different SNF composition, with varying activity curves.

==Spent fuel corrosion==
===Noble metal nanoparticles and hydrogen===

According to the work of the [[corrosion]] [[electrochemistry|electrochemist]] Shoesmith<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.uwo.ca/chem/people/faculty/shoesmith.htm
| title= David W. Shoesmith
|date= |year= |month= |work= | publisher= [[University of Western Ontario]]
| accessdate= 2008-05-18 }} </ref><ref> {{cite web
| url= http://publish.uwo.ca/~ecsweb/
| title= Electrochemistry and corrosion studies at Western
|date= |year= |month= |work= |publisher= Shoesmith research group, University of Western Ontario
| accessdate= 2008-05-18 }} </ref> the [[nanoparticle]]s of Mo-Tc-Ru-Pd have a strong effect on the corrosion of uranium dioxide fuel. For instance his work suggests that when the hydrogen (H2) concentration is high (due to the [[Hypoxia (environmental)|anaerobic]] corrosion of the [[steel]] waste can) the oxidation of hydrogen at the nanoparticles will exert a protective effect on the uranium dioxide. This effect can be thought of as an example of protection by a [[sacrificial anode]] where instead of a metal [[anode]] reacting and dissolving it is the hydrogen gas which is consumed.

==See also==
*[[Nuclear power]]
*[[Spent nuclear fuel shipping cask]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Nuclear technology}}

[[Category:Nuclear fuels]]
[[Category:Nuclear reprocessing]]
[[Category:Corrosion]]
[[Category:Nuclear chemistry]]
[[Category:Nanotechnology]]
[[Category:Actinides]]
[[Category:Radioactive waste]]
[[Category:Waste]]

[[ja:使用済み核燃料]]
[[ru:Облучённое ядерное топливо]]

Shergotty (Meteorit)

2009-05-29T22:07:24Z

Piperh: corrected mass

The '''Shergotty meteorite''' is the first example of the '''shergottite''' [[Mars meteorite]] family.

The Shergotty meteorite, a 5 kg martian meteorite, fell to Earth at [[Sherghati|Shergotty]], [[Gaya]], [[Bihar]], [[India]] on August 25, [[1865]] and was retrieved by witnesses almost immediately.<ref>[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/shergotty.html Shergotty Meteorite - JPL, NASA]</ref> This meteorite is relatively young; [[radiometric dating]] indicates that it solidified from a volcanic magma only about 360 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jagoutz |first=E. |coauthors=and H. Wanke |year=1986 |month= |title=Sr and Nd isotopic systematics of Shergotty meteorite |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |volume=50 |issue= |pages=939-953 |id= |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986GeCoA..50..939J |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref> It is composed mostly of [[pyroxene]] and is thought to have undergone preterrestrial aqueous alteration for several centuries. Certain features in its interior suggest to be remanents of biofilm and their associated microbial communities.<ref name="meteoritos-Bio">[http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/sci/fifthconf99/6142.pdf Evidence for ancient Martian life]. E. K. Gibson Jr., F. Westall, D. S. McKay, K. Thomas-Keprta, S. Wentworth, and C. S. Romanek, Mail Code SN2, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston TX 77058, USA.</ref> Work is in progress on searching for [[magnetite]]s within alteration phases.

==References==
<references/>

==See also ==
* [[ALH84001|ALH84001 meteorite]]
* [[Nakhla meteorite]]
* [[Life on Mars]]

{{Mars-stub}}

{{Mars}}
[[Category:Mars]]
[[Category:Meteorites]]
[[Category:1865 in India]]
[[Category:Geology of India]]
[[Category:History of Bihar]]
[[Category:1860s in science]]

Shergotty (Meteorit)

2009-05-29T22:05:02Z

Piperh: spelling

The '''Shergotty meteorite''' is the first example of the '''shergottite''' [[Mars meteorite]] family.

The Shergotty meteorite, a 4 kg martian meteorite, fell on Earth on [[Sherghati|Shergotty]], [[Gaya]], [[Bihar]], [[India]] on August 25, [[1865]] and was retrieved by witnesses almost immediately.<ref>[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/shergotty.html Shergotty Meteorite - JPL, NASA]</ref> This meteorite is relatively young; [[radiometric dating]] indicates that it solidified from a volcanic magma only about 360 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jagoutz |first=E. |coauthors=and H. Wanke |year=1986 |month= |title=Sr and Nd isotopic systematics of Shergotty meteorite |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |volume=50 |issue= |pages=939-953 |id= |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986GeCoA..50..939J |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref> It is composed mostly of [[pyroxene]] and is thought to have undergone preterrestrial aqueous alteration for several centuries. Certain features in its interior suggest to be remanents of biofilm and their associated microbial communities.<ref name="meteoritos-Bio">[http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/sci/fifthconf99/6142.pdf Evidence for ancient Martian life]. E. K. Gibson Jr., F. Westall, D. S. McKay, K. Thomas-Keprta, S. Wentworth, and C. S. Romanek, Mail Code SN2, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston TX 77058, USA.</ref> Work is in progress on searching for [[magnetite]]s within alteration phases.

==References==
<references/>

==See also ==
* [[ALH84001|ALH84001 meteorite]]
* [[Nakhla meteorite]]
* [[Life on Mars]]

{{Mars-stub}}

{{Mars}}
[[Category:Mars]]
[[Category:Meteorites]]
[[Category:1865 in India]]
[[Category:Geology of India]]
[[Category:History of Bihar]]
[[Category:1860s in science]]

Shergotty (Meteorit)

2009-05-29T22:02:40Z

Piperh: ref for crystallization age

The '''Shergotty meteorite''' is the first example of the '''shergottite''' [[Mars meteorite]] family.

The Shergotty meteorite, a 4 kg martian meteorite, fell on Earth on [[Sherghati|Shergotty]], [[Gaya]], [[Bihar]], [[India]] on August 25, [[1865]] and was retrieved by witnesses almost immediately.<ref>[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/shergotty.html Shergoti Meteorite - JPL, NASA]</ref> This meteorite is relatively young; [[radiometric dating]] indicates that it solidified from a volcanic magma only about 360 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jagoutz |first=E. |coauthors=and H. Wanke |year=1986 |month= |title=Sr and Nd isotopic systematics of Shergotty meteorite |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |volume=50 |issue= |pages=939-953 |id= |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986GeCoA..50..939J |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref> It is composed mostly of [[pyroxene]] and is thought to have undergone preterrestrial aqueous alteration for several centuries. Certain features in its interior suggest to be remanents of biofilm and their associated microbial communities.<ref name="meteoritos-Bio">[http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/sci/fifthconf99/6142.pdf Evidence for ancient Martian life]. E. K. Gibson Jr., F. Westall, D. S. McKay, K. Thomas-Keprta, S. Wentworth, and C. S. Romanek, Mail Code SN2, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston TX 77058, USA.</ref> Work is in progress on searching for [[magnetite]]s within alteration phases.

==References==
<references/>

==See also ==
* [[ALH84001|ALH84001 meteorite]]
* [[Nakhla meteorite]]
* [[Life on Mars]]

{{Mars-stub}}

{{Mars}}
[[Category:Mars]]
[[Category:Meteorites]]
[[Category:1865 in India]]
[[Category:Geology of India]]
[[Category:History of Bihar]]
[[Category:1860s in science]]

San-Fernando-Erdbeben von 1971

2008-07-30T04:46:54Z

Piperh: /* Damage */ capitalization

The '''1971 San Fernando earthquake''' struck at 6:00:55 a.m. PST on the morning of [[February 9]], [[1971]]. The [[earthquake]] that rocked the northern [[San Fernando Valley]], near [[Sylmar, Los Angeles, California|Sylmar]] measured magnitude 6.6 on the [[Richter magnitude scale]].<ref name='scec'>[http://www.data.scec.org/chrono_index/sanfer.html Southern California Earthquake Data Center]</ref>

There are various names for this earthquake. [[Seismologist]]s call it the '''San Fernando earthquake'''. [[USGS]] 'Sylmar Quake' or 'Sylmar earthquake' is the name initially given to the event by local media outlets, because the worst damage was to the Olive View Medical Center, located in Sylmar. Local veterans of 'the Sylmar Quake' commonly refer to this seismic event as the 'February Ninth' quake.<ref>[http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/events/1971_02_09.php Historic Earthquakes]</ref>

==Location==
The Southern California Earthquake Data Center<ref name='scec' /> reports that the epicenter was on the other side of the [[San Gabriel Mountains]] from [[Sylmar]], as indicated on this [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=34°+24.67'+N,+118°+24.04'+W&spn=.386934,.662750&t=h&iwloc=A&hl=en Google Map]. This Instrumental Intensity Map<ref> {{cite web | author = |url= http://www.scvhistory.com/scvhistory/lw7102.htm | title= Feb. 9, 1971 'Sylmar' Earthquake Instrumental Intensity Map | publisher= [[Santa Clarita Valley Historical Society]] | accessdate=2004-07-04}} </ref> identifies the same location using a star shaped symbol "centered in Iron Canyon, in the Sand Canyon area of Canyon Country". These maps help explain why the seemingly distant cities of [[Sylmar]] and [[San Fernando, California|San Fernando]] received the brunt of the damage: the quake energy was focused within the sparsely populated [[San Gabriel Mountains]], extending slightly into the northeastern end of the densely populated [[San Fernando Valley]].

==Damage==
The earthquake ruptured a segment of the [[San Fernando fault zone]], a set of north-dipping, high-angled reverse faults along the southeastern margin of the [[San Gabriel Mountains]].

It caused more than 10 miles of discontinuous surface ruptures with average displacements of about 3 feet both horizontally and vertically. A strong [[aftershock]] sequence followed the main shock and included four quakes in the Magnitude 5 range.

The quake claimed 65 lives and caused more than half a billion dollars in damage, including the destruction of two [[hospital]]s, two [[freeway interchange]]s and the Lower [[Van Norman Dam]]. Damage to the dam caused concern that the dam, of the earthen bulwark type, might collapse, in whole or in part.
<ref name='lafire'>[http://www.lafire.com/famous_fires/710209_SylmarEarthquake/020971_LAHerald_KillerQuake.htm LAFire.com]</ref>
Much confusion ensued as various agencies declared a need for the mandatory evacuation of 40,000 people,<ref name="LA_Times">{{cite news |title=Day of Disaster|publisher=Los Angeles Times |date=1971-02-10}}</ref> or voluntary evacuations of various portions of the San Fernando Valley below the dam. This depended on which agency was consulted, and often the evacuees were not able to be informed of the status of an evacuation in a timely manner, often returning home just as the police arrived to notify them of a new evacuation order, or evacuating at a moment when officials decided not to evacuate. Communication was made difficult by disruption of telephone, water, and electrical service.

The most spectacular damage included the collapse of structures at [[Olive View Hospital]] in Sylmar (which had opened just a month prior to the earthquake) and at the [[Veterans Administration Hospital]] at [[San Fernando, California|San Fernando]], where 49 people died. The earthquake pushed Olive View Medical Center a foot off its foundation, causing the first floor to collapse, killing three patients and a hospital worker. Twelve overpass bridges fell into freeway lanes, including the freeway overpass connecting the [[Interstate 5 (California)|Interstate 5]] freeway and the [[Interstate 210|Foothill Freeway]] that resulted in the death of at least two people.<ref name="LA_Times"/> The recently completed [[Interstate 5 (California)|Interstate 5]] and [[California State Route 14|Antelope Valley Freeway]] interchange was destroyed as well. (This interchange was rebuilt and reopened in 1973, but collapsed again 21 years later during the 1994 [[1994 Northridge earthquake|Northridge Earthquake]], killing one.)

[[Landslide]]s were widespread and caused extensive damage throughout the San Gabriel Mountains.

The earthquake disrupted several motion pictures being filmed at the time in the [[Los Angeles]] area, including ''[[The Omega Man]]''. The quake also served as the inspiration for the 1974 film, ''[[Earthquake (film)|Earthquake]]''.

The quake occurred just as many [[radio]] stations were beginning their hourly [[news]] programming. On Los Angeles AM station [[KSPN (AM)|KMPC]], newscaster Tom Wayman was interrupted halfway through his first story and said "[We're] having an earthquake--a very severe earthquake." On another station, as recounted years later by [[Dick Clark]], the announcer was startled by the shaking and started making flustered comments until he was sure it was over.

==Legislation==
In response to the quake, building codes were strengthened and the [[Alquist Priolo Special Studies Zone Act]] was passed in 1972. The purpose of this act is to prohibit the location of most structures for human occupancy across the traces of active faults and to mitigate thereby the hazard of fault rupture.<ref>[http://www.data.scec.org/chrono_index/sanfer.html SCEDC | San Fernando Earthquake (1971)]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

* [http://www.archive.org/details/Earthqua1973 USDA-produced documentary from 1973 about the earthquake]

[[Category:1971 natural disasters]]
[[Category:Earthquakes in California]]
[[Category:History of Los Angeles, California]]
[[Category:San Fernando Valley]]
[[Category:1971 earthquakes]]

Allard Pierson Museum

2008-03-05T06:55:20Z

Piperh: /* The collection */ wikilinks

[[Image:Allardmuseum1.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The Allard Pierson Museum]]
[[Image:Allardmuseum2.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The Allard Pierson Museum]]
The '''Allard Pierson Museum''' is the [[archaeological]] museum of the [[University of Amsterdam]]. It is situated at the Oude Turfmarkt 127 in [[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]]. Artifacts from the ancient civilizations of [[ancient Egypt]], [[Ancient Near East|the Near East]], [[Ancient Greece|the Greek World]], [[Etruria]], and the [[Roman Empire]] are curated and exhibited in this museum.

==Allard Pierson==
The name of the Allard Pierson Museum derives from the first professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Amsterdam, [[Allard Pierson]] (1831-1896). This former clergyman was invited in 1877 to occupy the chair of Aesthetics, Art History, and Modern Languages at the newly founded university. His passion for [[antiquity]], fuelled by his travels to the [[Mediterranean]] area, led to his assembling a collection of plaster casts from 1877 to 1895.

==Founding of the Museum==
The second professor of archeology at the University of Amsterdam was Jan Six, who had a large personal collection of books and antique objects. At his death in 1926, the university was interested in acquiring this collection. In 1932, Pierson's son Jan Lodewijk established the Allard Pierson Foundation in order to make an antiquities collection available for research and teaching. The collection was brought to a building on the Weesperzijde in Amsterdam, with the uppermost floor serving as a museum.

The collection grew due to purchases, gifts, and loans of artifacts and documents. On 12 November 1934, the Allard Pierson Museum was officially opened in a building at Sarphatistraat 129-131 (corner of the Roeterstraat). This building eventually proved to be too small.

==The building==
A new building became available when the [[De Nederlandsche Bank|Nederlandse Bank]] vacated their monumental office at the Oude Turfmarkt in 1976. On the occasion of the opening of the museum at this location by H.R.H. Princess [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Beatrix]] on 6 October of that year, some large pieces of sculpture were donated to the museum.

==The collection==
The ancient civilizations of [[ancient Egypt]], the [[Ancient Near East|Near East]], the [[Ancient Greece|Greek World]], [[Etruria]], and the [[Roman Empire]] are revived in this museum. Art objects and utensils dating from 4000 BC to 500 AD give a good impression of everyday life, [[mythology]], and [[religion]] in [[Antiquity]]. There are also several scale models of ancient temples and buildings. In the Ancient Egypt department there is a room dedicated to death, with mummies, sarcophagi, and a film showing the process of mummification. The plaster-cast attic, to be visited only with a guided tour, shows copies of world-famous Roman and Greek statues.

==The Society of Friends==
The exhibitions and activities of the museum are supported by the Society of Friends of the Allard Pierson Musuem, established in 1969. The Society has around 1500 members at present.

==External links==
*[http://www.allardpiersonmuseum.nl/english/ Allard Pierson Museum]
*[http://cf.uba.uva.nl/apm/nieuw/english/museum/society.html Society of Friends of the Allard Pierson Museum]

{{coord|52|22|8.2|N|4|53|34.6|E|display=title|region:NL}}

[[Category:History of Amsterdam]]
[[Category:Museums in Amsterdam]]

[[nl:Allard Pierson Museum]]

Allard Pierson Museum

2008-03-05T06:53:17Z

Piperh: add additional historical information

[[Image:Allardmuseum1.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The Allard Pierson Museum]]
[[Image:Allardmuseum2.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The Allard Pierson Museum]]
The '''Allard Pierson Museum''' is the [[archaeological]] museum of the [[University of Amsterdam]]. It is situated at the Oude Turfmarkt 127 in [[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]]. Artifacts from the ancient civilizations of [[ancient Egypt]], [[Ancient Near East|the Near East]], [[Ancient Greece|the Greek World]], [[Etruria]], and the [[Roman Empire]] are curated and exhibited in this museum.

==Allard Pierson==
The name of the Allard Pierson Museum derives from the first professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Amsterdam, [[Allard Pierson]] (1831-1896). This former clergyman was invited in 1877 to occupy the chair of Aesthetics, Art History, and Modern Languages at the newly founded university. His passion for [[antiquity]], fuelled by his travels to the [[Mediterranean]] area, led to his assembling a collection of plaster casts from 1877 to 1895.

==Founding of the Museum==
The second professor of archeology at the University of Amsterdam was Jan Six, who had a large personal collection of books and antique objects. At his death in 1926, the university was interested in acquiring this collection. In 1932, Pierson's son Jan Lodewijk established the Allard Pierson Foundation in order to make an antiquities collection available for research and teaching. The collection was brought to a building on the Weesperzijde in Amsterdam, with the uppermost floor serving as a museum.

The collection grew due to purchases, gifts, and loans of artifacts and documents. On 12 November 1934, the Allard Pierson Museum was officially opened in a building at Sarphatistraat 129-131 (corner of the Roeterstraat). This building eventually proved to be too small.

==The building==
A new building became available when the [[De Nederlandsche Bank|Nederlandse Bank]] vacated their monumental office at the Oude Turfmarkt in 1976. On the occasion of the opening of the museum at this location by H.R.H. Princess [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Beatrix]] on 6 October of that year, some large pieces of sculpture were donated to the museum.

==The collection==
The ancient civilizations of ancient [[Egypt]], the [[Near East]], the [[Greek World]], [[Etruria]] and the [[Roman Empire]] are revived in this museum. Art objects and utensils dating from 4000 BC to 500 AD give a good impression of everyday life, [[mythology]], and [[religion]] in [[Antiquity]]. There are also several scale models of ancient temples and buildings. In the Ancient Egypt department there is a room dedicated to death, with mummies, sarcophagi, and a film showing the process of mummification. The plaster-cast attic, to be visited only with a guided tour, shows copies of world-famous Roman and Greek statues.

==The Society of Friends==
The exhibitions and activities of the museum are supported by the Society of Friends of the Allard Pierson Musuem, established in 1969. The Society has around 1500 members at present.

==External links==
*[http://www.allardpiersonmuseum.nl/english/ Allard Pierson Museum]
*[http://cf.uba.uva.nl/apm/nieuw/english/museum/society.html Society of Friends of the Allard Pierson Museum]

{{coord|52|22|8.2|N|4|53|34.6|E|display=title|region:NL}}

[[Category:History of Amsterdam]]
[[Category:Museums in Amsterdam]]

[[nl:Allard Pierson Museum]]

Religionsfreiheit in China

2007-08-10T07:09:12Z

Piperh: /* Tibetan Buddhism */ copyedits

The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]] provides for [[Freedom (political)|freedom]] of [[religious]] belief<ref name=constitution>[[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]], Chapter 2, Article 36.</ref>; however, the Government, mostly in fear of the fact that [[freedom of religion]] demands [[freedom of assembly]], restricts religious practice to government-sanctioned organizations and registered places of [[worship]] and to control the growth and scope of the activity of religious groups. The constitution forbids religious practices that cause "disruption" or "harm" to society.<ref name=constitution/> There are five registered religions: [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Islam]], [[Protestantism]], and [[Catholicism]]. A government-affiliated association monitors the activities of each of the five [[faith]]s. In cities such as [[Shanghai]], a significant number of non-sanctioned [[church]]es and temples exist, attended by locals and foreigners alike.

Religious groups are required to register with the [[State Administration for Religious Affairs]] (SARA, formerly known as the central Religious Affairs Bureau) or its provincial and local offices (still known as Religious Affairs Bureaus (RABs)). SARA and the RABs are responsible for monitoring and judging the legitimacy of religious activity.

==Roman Catholic Church==
{{main|Roman Catholicism in China}}
In the People's Republic of China (PRC), Roman Catholicism is officialy banned. The Chinese government demands that all Chinese Catholics must be loyal to the state, and that worship may only be legally conducted through State-approved churches, which means the "[[Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association]]". Catholics are pressured to break communion with the [[Vatican]] by requiring them to renounce an essential belief in Catholicism, the [[papal primacy|primacy]] of the Roman Pontiff. Catholics loyal to the pope currently worship clandestinely, out of fear of imprisonment. The PRC allows only state-approved candidates to be [[consecrate]]d as [[bishops]], and so-far the Vatican has not recognized the legitimacy of any of their bishops.

==Tibetan Buddhism==
{{main|Tibetan Buddhism}}
The People's Republic of China invaded [[Tibet]] in 1949 and then took full control in 1959. In the wake of the invasion many [[Buddhist monastery|monasteries]] were destroyed and many [[monk]]s and laypeople killed. The 14th [[Dalai Lama]] fled to India and has since ceded temporal power to an elected government-in-exile. The current 14th Dalai Lama has attempted to negotiate with the Chinese authorities for greater autonomy and religious freedom for Tibet. As various high-ranking [[Lama]]s in the country have died, the authorities have attempted to force their own candidates on the religious authorities, which has led at times to rival claimants to the same position. In an effort to control this, the Chinese government passed a law in 2007 requiring a [[Reincarnation Application]] be completed and approved for all lamas wishing to reincarnate.<ref name="Daily">{{cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-08/04/content_5448242.htm|date=[[4 August]], [[2007]]|title=Reincarnation of living Buddha needs gov't approval|publisher=China Daily|accessdate=2007-08-09}}</ref>

The present incarnation of the [[Panchen Lama]] is disputed. The Dalai Lama—who traditionally has the right of officially recognizing the Panchen Lama—recognises [[Gedhun Choekyi Nyima]]; however, the Chinese government recognises [[Qoigyijabu|Gyaincain Norbu]] as the incarnation of the 11th Panchen Lama.<ref>China Tibet Information Center [http://zt.tibet.cn/tibetzt/panchen/banchan.html The 11th Panchen]</ref> Exile Tibetan sources allege that Gedhun Choekyi Nyima was kidnapped by the Chinese government.<ref>BBC news, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4551425.stm Tibet's Missing Spiritual Guide], May 6, 2005</ref> The identity of the Panchen Lama is of critical importance to Tibetan Buddhism because it is he who will officially recognize the next Dalai Lama.

==Falun Gong==
{{main|Falun Gong}}
Falun Gong has been the focus of international attention since [[July 20]], [[1999]], when the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) began a nationwide crackdown, except in the [[Special administrative region (People's Republic of China)|special administrative regions]] of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]]. The Chinese government banned the group for allegedly engaging in "''illegal activities, advocating superstition and spreading fallacies, hoodwinking people, inciting and creating disturbances, and jeopardizing social stability.''"<ref>[http://english.people.com.cn/special/fagong/1999072200A101.html "China Bans Falun Gong"], ([[July 22]], [[1999]]) ''People's Daily Online'', retrieved [[June 14]], [[2006]]</ref> Several governments, international human rights organizations and scholars consider the ban a human rights violation. Particular concerns have been raised by [[Amnesty International]] over reports of torture and illegal imprisonment of Falun Gong practitioners in China.<ref name=amnesty1> [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engASA170112000 The crackdown on Falun Gong and other so-called ''heretical organizations''], Amnesty International, 23 March 2000</ref><ref> [http://www.faluninfo.net/displayAnArticle.asp?ID=5983 U.S. Congress Unanimously Passes Resolution Calling on Jiang Zemin Regime to Cease Persecution of Falun Gong], Falun Dafa Information Center, July 25, 2002</ref><ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/hrcn1073.doc.htm Press Release HR/CN/1073], United Nations, [[February 4]], [[2004]], retrieved [[September 12]], [[2006]]</ref> Amnesty stated that "''the crackdown is politically motivated, with legislation being used retroactively to convict people on politically-driven charges, and new regulations introduced to further restrict fundamental freedoms."''<ref name=amnesty1/>

==References==
<references/>

===External links===
*{{cite web
| url = http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm
| title = International Religious Freedom Report 2006 - PRC
| accessdate = 2006-11-08
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| publisher = U.S. Department of State
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}}
{{SOreligiousfreedomATW}}
[[Category:Religion in the People's Republic of China]]