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Bonner Münster

2020-07-18T16:52:43Z

Philly jawn: /* Vorgeschichte */

[[Datei:Bonner Münster.jpg|mini|hochkant=1.5|Bonner Münster (2013)]]
[[Datei:Bonn, Bonner Münster -1018.jpg|mini|hochkant=1.5|Luftaufnahme (2016)]]
[[Datei:Bonner Münster 2010-07-07.jpg|mini|Ansicht aus Südost (2010)]]

Das '''Münster''', auch ''Münsterbasilika'' genannt, ist die [[Römisch-katholische Kirche|katholische]] Hauptkirche in [[Bonn]] und ein Wahrzeichen der Stadt. Es wurde im 11. Jahrhundert als [[Romanik|romanische]] [[Stift (Kirche)|Stiftskirche]] St. [[Cassius und Florentius]] des [[Cassius-Stift]]s erbaut. Nach der [[Säkularisation]] des Stiftes am Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts und dem Abriss der benachbarten Pfarrkirche [[St. Martin (Bonn)|St. Martin]] im Jahr 1812 kam das Münster in den Besitz der Pfarre St. Martin. Seit 1956 trägt das Münster den Titel [[Basilica minor]]. Das Bonner Münster wird seit 2017 generalsaniert und ist voraussichtlich bis Ende 2020 geschlossen.

== Vorgeschichte ==
Altäre für römische Götter wie [[Gebrinius|Mercurius Gebrinius]] und die [[Matronae Aufaniae]]<ref name="LVR 2013" /><ref name="Kuhn 2004" />, die im Bereich des Münsters gefunden wurden, deuten darauf hin, dass an dem Ort, an dem später die Kirche errichtet wurde, in der [[Römerzeit]] eine Kultstätte bestand. Gräber, Grabmale und eine [[Cella memoriae]], eine antike römische Toten-Gedenkstätte, weisen auf die Existenz einer ''„kleinen [[Nekropole]]“''<ref>{{cite journal| author = Ulrike Muessemeier | title = Die merowingerzeitlichen Funde aus der Stadt Bonn und ihrem Umland | quote = Dissertation | location = Bonn | date = 2004 | url = http://hss.ulb.uni-bonn.de/2004/0344/0344.htm}}</ref> hin, die seit dem 2. Jahrhundert hier bestand. Die Cella memoriae war ein [[Fachwerkhaus|Fachwerkbau]] und hatte im Innenraum steinerne Bänke und zwei Tische. Hier wurde der Toten bei einer kultischen Mahlzeit gedacht.

Um die Mitte des 6. Jahrhunderts wurde am Platz der schon im 4. Jahrhundert wieder abgebrochenen Toten-Gedenkstätte ein Saal erbaut, ein 13,70 Meter langes und 8,80 Meter breites Gebäude. Bereits während der Bauzeit oder kurz danach wurde in dem neuen Rechtecksaal die erste Bestattung in einem Plattengrab vorgenommen. Kurze Zeit später entstand der erste [[Estrich]]. Die Lage des ältesten Grabes wurde darin durch ein Kreuz aus Buntmarmorplättchen kenntlich gemacht. Die hier bestatteten [[Merowinger]] rechneten sich also dem christlichen Glauben zu. Die ersten Gräber in dem Gebäude zeichnen sich ''„durch ihre aufwändige Gestaltung, die reichen und zum Teil importierten Beigaben und natürlich ihre Lage aus“''.<ref name="Aid2006">{{cite journal| author = Christoph Keller | title = Legende auf dem Prüfstand | journal = Archäologie in Deutschland | date = May 2006 | volume = 5}}</ref> Weitere Bestattungen in dem Gebäude und im Außenbereich fanden in der Folgezeit statt.

Spätestens am Ende des 7. Jahrhunderts siedelten sich [[Kleriker]] in der Nähe der Architektur an und vermutlich ''„lebten hier [[Abt]] [[Gislo]] und ein [[Diakon]], die in der ältesten Schriftquelle zu den Bauten am Ort des Münsters aus der Zeit um 691/92 genannt werden.“''<ref name="Aid2006" /> Das Aussehen des Saalbaus wurde durch An- und Umbauten immer wieder verändert. Mehrere Grabräume und andere Bauteile wurden angefügt. Am Ende des 8. Jahrhunderts folgten weitere Um- und Ausbauarbeiten. Vor dem Gebäude wurde ein Mörtelestrich ausgebracht, der wahrscheinlich Teil des 787/88 genannten [[Atrium]]s ist. Mit diesen Arbeiten endete die Baugeschichte dieser Architektur.

Das Gebäude wurde wohl schon im Mittelalter als Grabstätte der als Märtyrer verehrten [[Cassius und Florentius]] angesehen. Mit der Gründung des [[Cassius-Stift]]es in [[Karolinger|karolingischer]] Zeit am Ende des 8. Jahrhunderts entstand an diesem Ort die Stiftskirche St. Cassius und Florentius.

<gallery class="center">
CELLA. MEMORIAE.jpg|Innenausstattung der [[Cella memoriae]]
AE 1930,21 Vorderansicht.jpg|Antiker Weihaltar für die [[Matronae Aufaniae]], bei Ausgrabungen im Bonner Münster gefunden
Merkur-Altar Bonner Münster.jpg|Antiker Weihaltar für Mercurius Gebrinius, bei Ausgrabungen im Bonner Münster gefunden
2018 Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn, Estrichkreuz.jpg|Estrichkreuz (6. Jh.)
Bnmuen2.jpg|Vorläuferbauten des Münsters
2011-06-01 Bonn Muensterbasilika Tafel.jpg|Infotafel an der Münsterbasilika
</gallery>

== Architektur ==
[[Datei:MUENST2.jpg|mini|Grundriss des Münsters]]
Die alte Stiftskirche wurde um 1050 abgerissen und wich dem Neubau im [[Romanik|romanischen Stil]]. Dieser Neubau war eine der ersten Kirchengroßanlagen im [[Rheinland]], eine [[Kirchenschiff|dreischiffige]] [[Basilika (Bautyp)|Kreuzbasilika]].

Die Querarme des Baus, die von einer fast quadratischen [[Vierung]] ausgingen, überragten nur wenig die Seitenschiffe. Die Basilika hatte eine doppelte [[Chor (Architektur)|Choranlage]]: einen Langchor über einer dreischiffigen [[Krypta]] im Osten, unter der sich eine [[Gruft]] befand, und einen Westchor ebenfalls mit Krypta. Vom Bauwerk des 11. Jahrhunderts sind außer der Gruft noch Teile der Ostkrypta und des Hochchores sowie der [[Westbau]] erhalten.

In der Gruft befinden sich drei [[Sarkophag|Steinsarkophage]] und eine weitere ziegelummauerte Bestattung. War der Vorläuferbau des Münsters nach diesen Gräbern ausgerichtet, so gilt das für den Neubau nicht mehr. Durch seine west-östliche Ausrichtung liegt die Mittelachse des Gebäudes nun quer zu den Gräbern, in denen die [[Reliquien]] der Bonner Märtyrer [[Cassius und Florentius|Cassius, Florentius]] und Gefährten gelegen haben sollen. 1166 ließ [[Propst]] [[Gerhard von Are]] die Reliquien in kostbare Schreine legen, die ihren Platz am Hochaltar fanden.

[[Datei:KREUZG.jpg|mini|Kreuzgang]]
Gerhard von Are war es, der die Kirche um das Chorquadrat mit den beiden Flankentürmen und um die reichgegliederte [[Apsis|Ostapsis]] erweitern ließ. Dieser Erweiterungsbau konnte 1153 eingeweiht werden. Der Bautätigkeit dieses Propstes ist auch der [[Kreuzgang (Architektur)|Kreuzgang]] an der Südseite der Kirche zu verdanken.

Gegen Ende des 12. Jahrhunderts wurde das Chorhaus mit [[Kreuzrippengewölbe]]n versehen und um 1200 wurden die Querschiffe mit fünfseitigen Apsidenschlüssen, die Vierung und ein achteckiger, von einem gefälteten [[Zeltdach]] gekrönter Vierungsturm erbaut. 81,4 Meter ist dieser Turm heute hoch. Er trägt einen [[Zeltdach|Spitzhelm]] aus dem 16. Jahrhundert.

Zu Beginn des 13. Jahrhunderts wurde das [[Langhaus (Kirche)|Langhaus]] im [[Rheinischer Übergangsstil|rheinischen Übergangsstil]] neu aufgeführt, wobei die Seitenschiffe verbreitert und die Westapsis neu gestaltet wurden. Die genaue Datierung der Neuaufführung des Langhauses ist unter Kunsthistorikern umstritten und variiert zwischen den Jahren 1220 bis 1240; auf letztgenanntes Jahr deutet die einzige plausible Quelle aus der Chronik des Klosters [[Floreffe]] hin, die eine Zerstörung des alten Langhauses durch Brand im Jahr 1239 festschreibt.

1583–1589 und 1689 wurde das Münster erheblich zerstört. 1883–1889, 1934 und nach Bombenschäden im [[Zweiter Weltkrieg|Zweiten Weltkrieg]] wurde es restauriert.

== Ausstattung ==
=== Innen ===
Enthält das Kirchengebäude romanische und gotische, so überwiegen bei der [[Kirchenausstattung|Ausstattung]] [[barock]]e Stilelemente. Sehenswert im Innern sind zwei [[Altar|Altäre]] aus [[Marmor]] (17. und 18. Jahrhundert), die Bronzestatue der Heiligen [[Helena (Mutter Konstantins des Großen)|Helena]], das Sakramenthäuschen, der Kreuzgang und die Krypta. Sieben Chorfenster wurden von [[Alexander Linnemann]] aus Frankfurt geschaffen.
<gallery class="center">
Bonner Muenster 1.jpg|Innenraum des Bonner Münsters
Klais Orgel Bonner Muenster.jpg|[[Orgelmanufaktur Klais|Klais]]-Orgel im Bonner Münster
BOMUE5.jpg|Bronzestatue der Hl. Helena
</gallery>

==== Krypta und Gruft ====
Der westliche Teil der Krypta mit seinen quadratischen Kreuzgratgewölben stammt aus der Mitte des 11. Jahrhunderts. Der östliche Teil wurde von Gerhard von Are angebaut.

Der in der Krypta zu besichtigende Schrein wurde 1971 von [[Heinz Gernot|Hein Gernot]] geschaffen. Die historischen Schreine wurden 1587 durch [[Martin Schenk von Nideggen]] und seine Söldner geraubt und vermutlich eingeschmolzen. Die Soldateska raubte nahezu den gesamten Kirchenschatz und zerstörte die Fenster und Teile der Inneneinrichtung des Münsters.

Eine Falltür aus Bronze verschließt den Zugang zur Gruft. Sie ist nur während der [[Oktav (Liturgie)|Oktav]] des [[Stadtpatron]]enfestes (10. Oktober) zugänglich. In der Gruft bedecken vier Marmorplatten Gräber, in denen die legendären christlichen Märtyrer Cassius und Florentius gelegen haben sollen, denen im 12. Jahrhundert [[Mallosus|Malusius]] als dritter Märtyrer zugesellt wurde. Die schwarzen Marmorplatten wurden 1701 von einem Kanoniker gestiftet.
<gallery class="center">
KRYPTA Bonner Muenster.jpg|(Ost)Krypta des Bonner Münsters
BOMUE05.jpg|Zugang zur Gruft
BOMUE003.jpg|Gruft mit drei Grabplatten
</gallery>

==== Grabstätte ====
[[Datei:BOMUE3.jpg|mini|Grabplatte des Erzbischofs [[Engelbert II. von Falkenburg|Engelbert II.]]]]
Vier Erzbischöfe wurden im Bonner Münster beigesetzt:

* [[Engelbert II. von Falkenburg]]: 56. Erzbischof von Köln von 1261 bis 1274
* [[Siegfried von Westerburg]]: 57. Erzbischof von Köln von 1275 bis 1297
* [[Heinrich II. von Virneburg]]: 59. Erzbischof von Köln von 1304 bis 1332
* [[Ruprecht von der Pfalz (Köln)|Ruprecht von der Pfalz]]: 66. Erzbischof von Köln von 1463 bis 1480

Bis heute sind jedoch nur das Hochgrab Ruprechts von der Pfalz im östlichen Seitenschiff und die Grabplatte Engelberts von Falkenburg an einer Wand im Westchor erhalten.

Heinrich II. von Virneburg wurde in der Barbarakapelle der Münsterkirche neben seiner Schwester, der Äbtissin Ponzetta von Dietkirchen, beigesetzt. Sein Grab ist nicht mehr erhalten. Auch das Grab Siegfrieds von Westerburg ist nicht mehr nachweisbar.

Im Kreuzgang befindet sich das Grab des Kölner Weihbischofs [[Walter Jansen (Bischof)|Walter Jansen]], der auf eigenen Wunsch als früherer Stadtdechant und Pfarrer am Bonner Münster dort bestattet werden wollte.

=== Außen ===
==== Martins-Relief ====
[[Datei:BOMUE1.jpg|mini|Römisches Bauwerk mit vierteiligem Martins-Relief]]
Im Außenbereich des Münsters befinden sich an mehreren Stellen Denkmäler und Kunstwerke. Dazu gehören [[Ernemann Sander]]s Bronzereliefs mit Szenen aus dem Leben des [[Martin von Tours|Heiligen Martin]]. Die vier Reliefs sind eingefasst von einem Rahmenwerk, einem Eckaufbau aus [[Trachyt]]blöcken. 1961 wurde dieser Teil der Mauer des Pfarrgartens neben dem Chor des Bonner Münsters aufgestellt. Fragmente von [[Pilaster]]n, [[Kapitell]]en und [[Architrav]]en lassen die Steinblöcke als Reste einer antiken Architektur erkennen. Sie wurden bei Grabungen 1929/30 im Fundament des mittelalterlichen Münsters, im Bereich von Krypta und Kreuzgang gefunden. „Diese sämtlichen Trachytquader müssen von einem sehr großen, monumental ausgestatteten Bauwerk stammen, dessen zweigeschossige Außenseiten sich zum Teil in Bogenöffnungen auflösen und mit Pilastern mit korinthischen Kapitellen verziert waren.“<ref>Hans Lehner/Walter Bader: ''Baugeschichtliche Untersuchungen am Bonner Münster'', Bonn 1932</ref> Wo dieses Bauwerk auf dem Terrain des [[Geschichte Bonns#Römer in Bonn|römischen]] Bonn errichtet worden war, ist nicht bekannt. Spätestens kurz vor dem Neubau des Münsters samt Stiftsanlage im 11. Jahrhundert wurde es abgebrochen. Das Steinmaterial wurde zur Fundamentierung der neuen Kirche benutzt.

Das größere Stück des Eckbaus zeigt drei rundbogige Nischen, das im Winkel angefügte kürzere Stück nur eine Rundbogennische. Diese Vertiefungen, alle 165 Zentimeter hoch, doch unterschiedlich breit zwischen 80 und 90 Zentimeter, bergen seit 1983 die Martins-Reliefs von Ernemann Sander.<ref>Wilfried Hansmann: ''Die Martins-Reliefs am Bonner Martinsplatz.'' In: Gero Sander (Hrsg.): ''Ernemann Sander'', Bonn 1997.</ref>

==== Grundriss der alten Tauf- und Pfarrkirche St. Martin ====
Im Bereich des im Osten an den Chor des Münsters anschließenden Martinsplatz gibt es in der Pflasterung und im Asphalt der Straße ein Band aus [[Porphyr]]quadern. Dieses Band zeichnet den Grundriss der alten [[St. Martin (Bonn)|Tauf- und Pfarrkirche St. Martin]] aus dem zweiten Viertel des 12. Jahrhunderts nach. Sie war ein Rundbau mit doppelgeschossigem Umgang, halbrunder Apsis im Osten und einer zweistöckigen Westvorhalle über leicht trapezförmig sich verjüngendem Grundriss. Der kleine Zentralbau stürzte bei einem Sturm 1812 ein und wurde daraufhin abgerissen.

==== Pranger ====
[[Datei:BOMUEPRA.jpg|mini|hochkant|Pranger vor dem Hauptportal; im Hintergrund prangt über dem Portal das Wappen des Vatikans zur Kennzeichnung einer [[Basilica minor]]]]
Vor dem Hauptportal des Münsters, im Bereich des [[Münsterplatz (Bonn)|Münsterplatzes]], steht der Bonner [[Pranger]]. Er befindet sich auf einer Trachytplatte. Die Säule ragt 2,70 Meter hoch und besteht aus römischem [[Sandstein]]. Bekrönt ist die Säule von einer Trachytkugel, dem [[Hoheitszeichen]] des Gerichtsherrn. Ein abgebrochener Eisendübel an halber Säulenhöhe lässt auf ein [[Halseisen]] an dieser Stelle schließen. Die Säule wurde 2005 durch einen Verkehrsunfall zerbrochen und anschließend wieder restauriert.

==== Martinsbrunnen ====
Den ''Martinsbrunnen'' vor dem Westportal des Münsters schuf 1902 der Berliner Bildhauer ''Georg Christian Heinrich Götschmann'' (1857–1929).<ref>Name aus Taufschein zur Taufe am 1. Dezember 1857 der evangelischen Kirche zu Fischbach i. R.</ref><ref>Lebensdaten nach: [http://www.lot-tissimo.com/de/i/3777257/heinrich-goetschmann-1857-fischbach-1929-berlin-wilmersdorf-friedrich-ii-von-preusen-bronze-dunkel lot-tissimo.com] abgerufen am 15. November 2013</ref> Er selbst nannte seinen Brunnen ''Martinitreiben'': Die Szenerie zeigt Kinder, die versuchen, Gänse für das Festessen am [[Martinstag]] zusammenzutreiben.<ref>Horst-Pierre Bothien, Erhard Stang: ''Geheimnisvolles Bonn.'' Wartberg Verlag, Gudensberg-Gleichen 2003, ISBN 3-8313-1342-3, S. 8–9.</ref> Im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurden die Bronzefiguren eingeschmolzen und 1958 nach alten Gipsformen durch Ingeborg von Rath rekonstruiert.

==== Skulpturen ====
Ebenfalls im Bereich des Hauptportals befindet sich seit 2001 [[Eduardo Chillida]]s monumentale Stahlkonstruktion „De Musica IV“. Weniger auffallend und ebenfalls noch im Bereich des Münsterplatzes befindet sich eine Skulptur von [[Ansgar Nierhoff]]. ''Ausgleich nach dem Bildersturm'' hat der Künstler das vierteilige Kunstwerk genannt. Es besteht aus einer Stahlkugel und, unmittelbar an das Mauerwerk des Münsters angelehnt, einer Stange und zwei Kreishälften. Auf dem Martinsplatz liegen seit 2002 die aus thailändischem [[Granit]] gehauenen Köpfe von [[Cassius und Florentius]]. Der türkische Künstler [[Iskender Yediler]] hat sie geschaffen.
<gallery class="center">
BRUNGANS.jpg|Martinsbrunnen
Cassius florentius muenster bonn 20080509.jpg|Granitköpfe von [[Cassius und Florentius]] vor dem Münster
</gallery>

=== Orgel ===
[[Datei:Bonner Muenster 2.jpg|mini|Klais-Orgel auf der Westempore]]
Eine erste [[Orgel]] im Bonner Münster lässt sich für das Jahr 1230 nachweisen; das Instrument befand sich zunächst an der Ostwand im nördlichen Querschiff. Im 15. Jahrhundert wurde das Instrument dann ins Mittelschiff umgesetzt, und dort als Schwalbennest-Orgel installiert. Im Jahre 1652 wurde im Westchor des Münsters eine neue Orgel errichtet, welche mit 1.200 Talern sehr teuer war. Im Jahre 1794 wurde im Münster eine Orgel aufgestellt, die von dem Orgelbauer Peter Kemper (Poppelsdorf) an sich für eine Kirche im lettischen Riga erbaut worden war, die allerdings aufgrund Anweisung der französischen Besatzer nicht nach Riga ausgeliefert werden durfte. Dieses Instrument wurde bis in die 1920er Jahre gespielt, als die Orgelbaufirma [[Johannes Klais|Klais]] den Auftrag erhielt, eine neue große Orgel für das Münster zu erbauen. Geplant waren zunächst 109 Register; realisiert wurden aber zunächst nur 30 Register, die später auf 70 Register ausgebaut werden sollten. Das Instrument – Opus 937 von Orgelbau Klais – wurde 1940 eingeweiht, allerdings bei einem Bombentreffer stark beschädigt. Nach dem Krieg wurde es als Behelfsorgel wiederhergestellt und bis 1961 genutzt; heute befinden sich Teile dieses Instrument in St. Michael (Endenich), wo aus den Resten des Pfeifenmaterials der Münsterorgel ein gehäuseloses Instrument von Johannes Klais Orgelbau entstanden ist.<ref>Vgl. die [https://gemeinden.erzbistum-koeln.de/maria-magdalena-christi-auferstehung/wir-aktiv/kirchenmusik/orgeln/st._michael/ Informationen] auf der Website des Erzbistums Köln</ref>

Die heutige [[Orgel]] auf der Westempore wurde im Jahre 1961 als Opus 1208 ebenfalls von dem Orgelbauer [[Johannes Klais]] (Bonn) erbaut. Das Instrument hatte zunächst 60 Register und wurde 1982 auf heute 69 Register (5112 Pfeifen) auf vier Manualwerken und Pedal erweitert. Das Schwellwerk ist in zwei Sektionen (Schwellwerke A und B) unterteilt. Das Hauptwerk verfügt über drei Horizontal-Register. Die Spieltrakturen und die Registertrakturen sind jeweils elektrisch.<ref>Zur [https://www.klais.de/m.php?tx=156 Disposition]</ref>

Eine Besonderheit des Instruments ist der Orgelprospekt, der von dem Bildhauer Manfred Saul (Hennef, Sieg) gestaltet wurde. Das mit hölzernen Skulpturen geschmückte Gehäuse zeigt zum einen biblische Begebenheiten, und zum anderen auch zeitgenössische Ereignisse, etwa die erste erfolgreiche Transplantation eines menschlichen Herzens, und die ersten Astronauten im All.<ref>[http://www.bonner-muenster.de/das_muenster/bauwerk/orgel/ Informationen zur Orgel]</ref>

{| border="0" cellspacing="14" cellpadding="12" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
| style="vertical-align:top" |
{| border="0"
|colspan="3"| '''I Rückpositiv''' C–a3
----
|-
| 1. || Quintade || {{0}}8′
|-
| 2. || Holzgedackt || {{0}}8′
|-
| 3. || Ital. Principal || {{0}}4′
|-
| 4. || Spillflöte || {{0}}4′
|-
| 5. || Principal || {{0}}2′
|-
| 6. || Terz || {{0}}{{Bruch|1|3|5}}′
|-
| 7. || Sifflöte || {{0}}1′
|-
| 8. || Scharff IV || {{0}}1′
|-
| 9. || Cymbel II|| {{0}}{{Bruch|1|4}}′
|-
| 10. || Vox humana || {{0}}8′
|-
| 11. || Schalmey-Regal || {{0}}8′
|-
| || ''Tremolo''
|}
| style="vertical-align:top" |
{| border="0"
|colspan="3"| '''II Hauptwerk''' C–a3
----
|-
| 12. || Pommer || 16′
|-
| 13. || Principal || {{0}}8′
|-
| 14. || Rohrflöte || {{0}}8′
|-
| 15. || Gemshorn || {{0}}8′
|-
| 16. || Octav || {{0}}4′
|-
| 17. || Querflöte || {{0}}4′
|-
| 18. || Superoctave || {{0}}2′
|-
| 19. || Cornett V || {{0}}8′
|-
| 20. || Rauschwerk IV-V{{0}}{{0}}{{0}}|| {{0}}{{Bruch|2|2|3}}′
|-
| 21. || Mixtur IV|| {{0}}{{Bruch|1|1|3}}′
|-
| 22. || Trompete || {{0}}8′
|}
 
{| border="0"
|colspan="3"| '''Chamaden''' C–a3
----
|-
| 23. || Trompete magna || 16′
|-
| 24. || Trompete de Batalla {{0}}||{{0}}8′
|-
| 25. || Bajoncillo || {{0}}4′
|}
| style="vertical-align:top" |
{| border="0"
|colspan="3"| '''III Schwellwerk''' C–a3
----
|-
| ||''Sektion A (leise)''
|-
| 26. || Gamba || {{0}}8′
|-
| 27. || Schwebung || {{0}}8′
|-
| 28. || Spitzgedackt || {{0}}8′
|-
| 29. || Koppelflöte || {{0}}4′
|-
| 30. || Schwegel || {{0}}2′
|-
| 31. || Terzcymbel III|| {{0}}{{Bruch|1|4}}′
|-
| 32. || Hautbois || {{0}}8′
|-
| || ''Tremulant''
|-
| ||''Sektion B (stark)''
|-
| 33. || Bordun || 16′
|-
| 34. || Principal || {{0}}8′
|-
| 35. || Offenflöte || {{0}}8′
|-
| 36. || Principal || {{0}}4′
|-
| 37. || Nasard || {{0}}{{Bruch|2|2|3}}′
|-
| 38. || Septime || {{0}}{{Bruch|1|1|7}}′
|-
| 39. || Acuta IV-V || {{0}}2′
|-
| 40. || Fagott || 16′
|-
| 41. || Trompette harm. || {{0}}8′
|-
| 42. || Clairon || {{0}}4′
|-
| || ''Tremulant''
|}
| style="vertical-align:top" |
{| border="0"
|colspan="3"| '''IV Oberwerk''' C–a3
----
|-
| 43. || Singend Gedackt{{0}} || {{0}}8′
|-
| 44. || Salicional || {{0}}8′
|-
| 45. || Praestant || {{0}}4′
|-
| 46. || Holzflöte || {{0}}4′
|-
| 47. || Blockflöte || {{0}}2′
|-
| 48. || Larigot || {{0}}{{Bruch|1|1|3}}′
|-
| 49. || Sesquialter II || {{0}}{{Bruch|2|2|3}}′
|-
| 50. || Mixtur III-IV || {{0}}{{Bruch|1|1|3}}′
|-
| 51. || Trichterdulcian || 16′
|-
| 52. || Krummhorn || {{0}}8′
|-
| || ''Tremulant''
|}
| style="vertical-align:top" |
{| border="0"
|colspan="3"| '''Pedal''' C–g1
----
|-
| 53. || Untersatz || 32′
|-
| 54. || Principalbass || 16′
|-
| 55. || Principal || 16′
|-
| 56. || Subbass || 16′
|-
| 57. || Quinte || {{Bruch|10|2|3}}′
|-
| 58. || Octav || {{0}}8′
|-
| 59. || Rohrpommer || {{0}}8′
|-
| 60. || Octav || {{0}}4′
|-
| 61. || Flöte || {{0}}4′
|-
| 62. || Nachthorn || {{0}}2′
|-
| 63. || Nonencornett V|| {{0}}{{Bruch|2|2|3}}′
|-
| 64. || Pedalmixtur V|| {{0}}{{Bruch|2|2|3}}′
|-
| 65. || Kontraposaune || 32′
|-
| 66. || Posaune || 16′
|-
| 67. || Trompete || {{0}}8′
|-
| 68. || Zink || {{0}}4′
|-
| 69. || Cornett || {{0}}2′
|-
| || ''Tremolo''
|}
|}
* ''[[Koppel (Orgel)|Koppeln]]:''
** ''Manualkoppeln:'' I/II, III(A)/II, III(B)/II, IV/II, III(A)/I, III(B)/I, IV/I, IV/III,
** ''Pedalkoppeln:'' I/P, II/P, III(A)/P, III(B)/P, IV/P
** ''Chamadwerkskoppeln:'' Ch/I, Ch/II, Ch/III, Ch/IV, Ch/P
* ''[[Spielhilfen]]:'' [[Kombination (Orgel)|Setzeranlage]], 3 Freie Kombinationen, Tutti, [[Registerschweller|Registercrescendo]].

=== Glocken ===
[[Datei:Kurfürstenglocke.jpg|mini|''Muttergottes und Clemens'']]

Das Geläut besteht aus acht historisch bedeutsamen [[Kirchenglocke|Glocken]]. Die sechs größeren Glocken, gegossen von [[Martin Legros]] aus [[Malmedy]] 1756 und am 8. Dezember desselben Jahres geweiht, bildeten das Geläut der ehemaligen Stiftskirche St. Cassius und Florentius. Die vier größeren Glocken waren das Sonn- und Festtagsgeläut, die beiden kleineren Glocken dienten hingegen als Chorgeläut für die Stundengebete des Stiftes. Mit dessen Aufhebung und dem Abriss der benachbarten Pfarrkirche St. Martin wurde nicht nur deren Patronat, sondern auch ihr zweistimmiges Pfarrgeläut aus den Jahren 1687 und 1757 übertragen.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Martin Seidler |Hrsg=Förderverein Romanische Kirchen Köln e. V. |Titel=Kölner Glocken und Geläute |Sammelwerk=Colonia Romanica |Nummer=IV |Ort=Köln |Datum=1989 |Seiten=13}}</ref>

Zweimal liefen die Münsterglocken Gefahr, zerstört zu werden. In den Weltkriegen sollten sie eingeschmolzen werden. Dazu wurden sie auf den [[Glockenfriedhof]] nach Hamburg gebracht. Beide Male kehrten die Glocken zurück. Des Weiteren riss beim Hochziehen der zweitgrößten Glocke ein Seil, doch den 20 Meter tiefen Sturz überstand sie. Jedoch ist an der Schärfe (untere Kante der Glocke) ein Stück Glockenbronze herausgebrochen. Alle Glocken hängen im barocken Holzglockenstuhl in der Glockenstube des 81,4 Meter hohen Vierungsturmes.

Die Glocken von 1756 bilden eines der größten noch vollständig erhaltenen und aus einem Guss entstandenen Barockgeläute.

{| class="wikitable"
|- class="hintergrundfarbe5"
| '''Nr.'''  
| '''Widmung'''  
| '''Gussjahr'''  
| '''Gießer'''  
| '''Masse''' (kg, ca.)
| '''Durchmesser''' (mm, ca.)
| '''[[Schlagton]]''' ([[Halbton|HT]]-1/16)
| '''Herkunft'''  
|-
| 1 || [[Gottesgebärerin|Muttergottes]] und [[Clemens von Rom|Clemens]], gen. ''Kurfürstenglocke'' || rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | 1756 || rowspan="7" | [[Martin Legros]] ||style="text-align:center"| 3.400 ||style="text-align: center"| 1.780 || style="text-align: center"|'''b0''' –2
|–
|-
| 2 || [[Cassius und Florentius]], [[Mallusius]] und [[Achatius von Armenien|Achatius]] || style="text-align: center" | 2.400 ||style="text-align: center"| 1.580 || style="text-align: center"|'''c1''' –7
|–
|-
| 3 || [[Helena (Mutter Konstantins des Großen)|Helena]] || style="text-align: center" | 1.650 ||style="text-align: center"| 1.390 || style="text-align: center"|'''d1''' –7
|–
|-
| 4 || [[Donatus von Arezzo|Donatus]] und [[Agatha von Catania|Agatha]] || style="text-align: center" | 1.450 ||style="text-align: center"| 1.320 || style="text-align: center"|'''es1''' –5
|–
|-
| 5 || [[Josef von Nazaret|Joseph]] || style="text-align: center" | 280 ||style="text-align: center"| 770 || style="text-align: center"|'''c2''' –9
|–
|-
| 6 || [[Johannes Nepomuk]] || style="text-align: center" | 200 ||style="text-align: center"| 690 || style="text-align: center"|'''d2''' –6
|–
|-
| 7 || [[Dreifaltigkeit]] ||style="text-align:center"| 1757 || style="text-align: center" | 220 ||style="text-align: center"| 700 || style="text-align: center"|'''d2''' +3 [=es2 –13]
|ehem. St. Martin
|-
| 8 || [[Jesus Christus|Jesus]], [[Maria (Mutter Jesu)|Maria]] und [[Josef von Nazaret|Joseph]] ||style="text-align:center"| 1687 || [[Johannes Bourlet]] ||style="text-align: center"| 110 ||style="text-align: center"| 550 || style="text-align: center"|'''fis2''' [=ges2] –5
|ehem. St. Martin
|}

<div style="clear:both;" class="NavFrame">
<div class="NavHead hintergrundfarbe5" style="text-align:left;">Inschriften in deutscher Sprache</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left">

{| class="wikitable"
|- class="hintergrundfarbe5"
| '''Glocke Nr.'''  
| '''Inschrift'''  
|-
| style="text-align: center" |1 ||''Auf Veranlassung von [[Clemens August I. von Bayern|Clemens August]], dem Herzog von Bayern, Erzbischof von Köln, Kurfürst des heiligen Römischen Reiches, berühmter Meister des deutschen Ordens, Bischof von Paderborn, Hildesheim, Münster und Osnabrück ist, ausgezeichnet zu seiner Zeit durch fürstliche Freigebigkeit und Ehre seiner Tugend. Der Kirche und Stadt zur Zierde und zum Wohle. In Ewigkeit göttlichen Willens der Jungfrau und Gottesmutter und dem heiligen Klemens das Lob. Ich wurde 1756 gegossen.''
|-
| style="text-align: center" |2 ||''Dem hochwürdigsten und erlauchten Manne Johann Arnold Joseph von Achatius, Stiftsherr der Kölner Domkirche, von St. Cassius und Florentius zu Bonn, von Sankt Andreas in Köln und des adligen Klosters Schwarz-Rheindorf, sowie seiner vortrefflichen und tugendhaften Schwester und Klosterfrau Franziska Theresia von Achatius, die sich beide um die Münsterkirche sehr verdient gemacht, widmet das Bonner Capitel durch diese Glocke ein immer dauerndes Denkmal im Jahr 1756. Martinus Legros aus Malmedy hat mich zu Ehren der heiligen Cassius, Florentius, Malusius, der Schutzpatrone dieser Kirche sowie zur Ehre des heiligen Achatius gegossen.''
|-
| style="text-align: center" |3 ||''Der heiligen Helena Augusta, der Gründerin der Bonner Kirche, der hehren Mutter, haben dies eherne Denkmal aus Frömmigkeit und Dankbarkeit gewidmet die Prälaten und Stiftsherren 1756. Legros goss mich.''
|-
| style="text-align: center" |4 || ''Dem heiligen Bischof und Märtyrer, dem heiligen Donatus und der heiligen Jungfrau und Märtyrerin Agatha, den Schutzpatronen gegen Blitze und Feuer gewidmet 1756. Martinus Legros goss mich.''
|-
| style="text-align: center" |5 || ''Dem göttlichen Joseph, der allerheiligsten Gottesgebärerin versprochen, 1756. Auf Kosten der Erzbruderschaft der seligen Jungfrau Maria zur Fürsprache der Verstorbenen. Legros goss mich.''
|-
| style="text-align: center" |6 || ''Dem heiligen Märtyrer Johannes von Nepomuk, 1756. Legros goss mich.''
|-
| style="text-align: center" |7 || ''Zu Ehren der Dreifaltigkeit, 1757. Legros goss mich.''
|-
| style="text-align: center" |8 || ''JESUS, MARIA, JOSEPH / JOH. BOURLET VON GIRLICH GOSS MICH / 1687''
|}
</div></div>

<div style="clear:both;" class="NavFrame">
<div class="NavHead hintergrundfarbe5" style="text-align:left;">Läuteordnung</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="text-align:left">
Es wird jeweils eine Viertelstunde vor Gottesdienstbeginn geläutet. Die Dauer des Läutens richtet sich nach Art des Anlasses.

{| class="wikitable"
|- class="hintergrundfarbe5"
| '''Anlass'''
| '''Anzahl Glocken'''
| '''1{{0}}{{0}}'''
| '''2{{0}}{{0}}'''
| '''3{{0}}{{0}}'''
| '''4{{0}}{{0}}'''
| '''5{{0}}{{0}}'''
| '''6{{0}}{{0}}'''
| '''7{{0}}{{0}}'''
| '''8'''
|-
| [[Weihnachten]], Jahreswechsel, [[Ostern]], das Stadtpatronefest und [[Fronleichnamsprozession]]; Eröffnung der Festdekade, Festhochamt mit Kerzenopfer des Rates der Stadt Bonn und Abschluss des Stadtpatronefestes ||style="text-align:center"| 8 || 1
||2||3||4||5||6||7||8
|-
| Werktage der Festdekade ||style="text-align:center"| 6 || ||2|| ||4||5||6||7||8
|-
| Sonntageinläuten am Vorabend um 19 Uhr (zuvor 3 mal 3 Schläge auf Glocke 2) und übrige Hochfeste ||style="text-align:center"| 4 ||1||2||3||4|| || || ||
|-
| Hochamt im Jahreskreis, Pontifikalamt ||style="text-align:center"| 3 ||1||2|| ||4|| || || ||
|-
| [[Palmsonntag]], [[Gründonnerstag]] ||style="text-align:center"| 3 ||1|| ||3||4|| || || ||
|-
| Sonntagsmessen im Jahreskreis (mittags und abends) ||style="text-align:center"| 3 || ||2||3||4|| || || ||
|-
| [[Allerseelen]] ||style="text-align:center"| 2 ||1|| ||3|| || || || ||
|-
| Sonntagsmessen in der [[Fastenzeit]] (mittags und abends) ||style="text-align:center"| 2 || ||2||3|| || || || ||
|-
| Feste an Werktagen ||style="text-align:center"| 2 || ||2|| ||4|| || || ||
|-
| Abendmesse werktags ||style="text-align:center"| 1 || || ||3|| || || || ||
|-
| Morgenmesse werktags, [[Sext|Mittagsgebet]] ||style="text-align:center"| 1 || || || ||4|| || || ||
|-
| [[Angelusläuten]] um 7 und 19 Uhr (sonntags auch um 12 Uhr), zuvor 3 mal 3 Schläge auf Glocke 2 ||style="text-align:center"| 1 || || || || ||5|| || ||
|}
</div></div>

<gallery>
Bonn Cassiusglocke.jpg|''Cassius und Florentius''
Bonn, Münsterbasilika Helenenglocke.jpg|''Helena''
Donatusglocke.jpg|''Donatus und Agatha''
</gallery>

== Stadtdechanten und Pfarrer am Bonner Münster ==
* 1920–1949 [[Johannes Hinsenkamp]]
* 1949–1973 Hermann Josef Stumpe
* 1973–1975 [[Josef Plöger]]
* 1975–1983 [[Walter Jansen (Bischof)|Walter Jansen]]
* 1983–1998 Wilhelm Passavanti
* 1998–2018 Wilfried Schumacher
* seit 2019 Wolfgang Picken

== Krönungsstätte ==
Das Bonner Münster wurde in seiner Geschichte zweimal Krönungsstätte [[deutscher König]]e.

[[Heinrich II. von Virneburg]] krönte am 25. November 1314 [[Friedrich der Schöne|Friedrich III. von Österreich]] (genannt der Schöne) zum deutschen König, nachdem zuvor dessen Vetter [[Ludwig IV. (HRR)|Ludwig von Bayern]] zum König gewählt und in [[Aachen]] gekrönt worden war. Als [[Gegenkönig]] konnte Friedrich III. sich bis 1322 halten, dann wurde er in der [[Schlacht bei Mühldorf]] vernichtend geschlagen.

Die zweite Königskrönung fand am 26. November 1346 statt. Diesmal krönte Erzbischof [[Walram von Jülich]] auf Wunsch und Drängen des Papstes den Markgrafen Karl von Mähren zum Gegenkönig. [[Karl IV. (HRR)|Karl IV.]], wie er sich von nun an nannte – 1355 in Rom zum Kaiser gekrönt und Begründer der ersten deutschen Universität – gilt als der bedeutendste Herrscher des [[Spätmittelalter]]s.

== Basilica minor ==
Pfingstsonntag 1956 erhob der [[Apostolischer Nuntius|Apostolische Nuntius]], Erzbischof [[Aloysius Muench]], das Münster zur ''Päpstlichen Basilica minor''. Das Münster sei wegen seiner historischen Vergangenheit, Schönheit und Monumentalität das „wertvollste Denkmal“ in der Stadt, schrieb Papst [[Pius XII.]] zur Begründung der Auszeichnung.

== Restaurierungsarbeiten ==
Am 2. Februar 2006 wurde im Zuge von Restaurierungsarbeiten eine neue Bekrönung auf dem Bonner Münster installiert. Sie ersetzt einen schmucklosen fünfzackigen Blitzableiter. Außer einem Kreuz ist die Bekrönung mit einer vergoldeten Krone mit einem Durchmesser von 1,5 Meter geschmückt.

Zur Durchführung umfangreicher Sanierungsarbeiten am und im gesamten Münster wurde die Kirche im Juli 2017 „für mindestens zwei Jahre“ geschlossen. Die Sanierung soll Ende 2020 abgeschlossen sein. Die Kosten sind mit rund 22,2 Millionen Euro veranschlagt, deren Großteil das Erzbistum Köln trägt.<ref>[http://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/bonner-muenster-fuer-zwei-jahre-geschlossen.265.de.html?drn:news_id=771878 Bonner Münster für zwei Jahre geschlossen], deutschlandfunkkultur.de, 23. Juli 2017, abgerufen am 23. Juli 2017</ref>

== Das Bonner Münster als Vorbild für die Berliner Gedächtniskirche ==
Zur Zeit [[Preußen]]s studierten die Kronprinzen des Hauses [[Hohenzollern]] in Bonn an der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität. Kaiser [[Wilhelm II. (Deutsches Reich)|Wilhelm II.]], der in Bonn studiert hatte, war von der Architektur des Bonner Münsters so sehr beeindruckt, dass er später maßgeblichen Einfluss auf die Bauarbeiten der [[Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche]] in [[Berlin-Charlottenburg|Charlottenburg]] nahm und sie in Anlehnung an das Münster bauen ließ.
<gallery class="center">
Bnmuenst.jpg|Bonner Münster (Grafik von 1905)
Emperor Wilhelm's Memorial Church (Berlin, Germany).jpg|Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtnis-Kirche in Berlin entstand nach dem Vorbild Bonner Münsters (um 1900)
</gallery>

== Literatur ==
 nach Autoren / Herausgebern alphabetisch geordnet 
* Stefan Bodemann: ''Das Bonner Münster – ein europäisches Monument'', mit Fotos von Norbert Bach, Freiburg 2009.
* Stefan Bodemann (Text), Norbert Bach (Fotos): ''Mitten im Leben vom Tod umfangen. Der Kreuzgang des Bonner Münsters.'' Bonn 2009, ISBN 978-3-00-028485-4.
* [[Andreas Denk]], [[Ingeborg Flagge]]: ''Architekturführer Bonn''. Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin 1997, ISBN 3-496-01150-5, S. 2–3.
* [[Dietrich Höroldt]]: ''Das Stift St. Cassius zu Bonn: Von den Anfängen der Kirche bis zum Jahre 1580.'' In: ''Bonner Geschichtsblätter'', Band 11 (1957).
* Jürgen Kaiser, [[Andreas Lechtape]]: ''Das Bonner Münster. Geschichte – Architektur – Kunst – Kult.'' Regensburg 2002.
* Manfred Koch: ''Das Münster, ehemals Stiftskirche St. Cassius und Florentius''. Schnell und Steiner Verlag, Regensburg 1990.
* [[Josef Niesen]]: ''Bonner Personenlexikon.'' 3., verbesserte und erweiterte Auflage. Bouvier, Bonn 2011, ISBN 978-3-416-03352-7.
* NN: ''Bonn und sein Münster, Festschrift für Johannes Hinsenkamp.'' Bonn 1947.
* Lorna Pethig: ''Die Restaurierungsgeschichte der Bonner Münsterkirche''. Arbeitshefte der Rheinischen Denkmalpflege 79. Wernersche Verlagsgesellschaft, Worms 2012.
* [[Richard Pick (Archivar)|Richard Pick]]: ''Zur Geschichte der Münsterkirche in Bonn.'' In: ''Annalen des Historischen Vereins für den Niederrhein.'' Heft 42, Köln 1884, S. 71–119 {{archive.org|bub_gb_KKVJAAAAYAAJ|Ausgabe=DS|Blatt=n76}}

== Weblinks ==
{{Commonscat|Bonn Minster}}
* [http://www.bonner-muenster.de/ Internetpräsenz des Bonner Münsters]
* [http://www1.wdr.de/fernsehen/lokalzeit/bonn/bonner-muenster118.html Virtuelle Tour durch das Münster]

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references>
<ref name="LVR 2013">
{{Internetquelle
|autor = [[Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn]]
|url = http://www.rlmb.lvr.de/museum/meisterwerke/9986aeb5-2d5e-4009-9732-e0c6267f5955.htm
|titel = Weihaltar für die Aufanischen Matronen
|werk = rlmb.lvr.de
|hrsg = [[Landschaftsverband Rheinland]] (LVR)
|datum = 2013
|zugriff = 2013-08-29
|offline = ja
|archiv-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131015210655/http://www.rlmb.lvr.de/museum/meisterwerke/9986aeb5-2d5e-4009-9732-e0c6267f5955.htm
|archiv-datum = 2013-10-15
}}
</ref>
<ref name="Kuhn 2004">
{{Internetquelle
|autor=[[Annette Kuhn]]
|url=http://wirfrauen.de/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/wf-2004-02_web.pdf
|titel=Die Aufanischen Matronen
|werk=wirfrauen.de
|hrsg=Wir Frauen e. V.
|datum=2004-02
|zugriff=2015-12-08
|format=PDF
|kommentar=Professorin für Geschichtsdidaktik und Frauenforschung an der Uni Bonn}}
</ref>
</references>

{{Navigationsleiste Basilicae minores in Deutschland}}
{{Normdaten|TYP=g|GND=4248427-3|VIAF=246622821}}
{{Coordinate |NS=50/44/0.24|EW=7/5/58.61|type=landmark|dim=100|region=DE-NW}}
{{SORTIERUNG:Bonner Munster}}
[[Kategorie:Kirchengebäude in Bonn|Munster]]
[[Kategorie:Bonn-Zentrum|Munster]]
[[Kategorie:Münsterplatz (Bonn)]]
[[Kategorie:Bauwerk der Romanik in Bonn]]
[[Kategorie:Pfarrkirche des Erzbistums Köln|Bonn Munster]]
[[Kategorie:Basilica minor]]
[[Kategorie:Kollegiatstift|Bonn]]
[[Kategorie:Kollegiatstiftskirche in Deutschland|Bonn]]
[[Kategorie:Martin-von-Tours-Kirche (Patrozinium)|Bonn]]
[[Kategorie:Disposition einer Orgel|Bonn #Munster]]
[[Kategorie:Baudenkmal in Bonn|Munster #Bonner]]
[[Kategorie:Cassius-und-Florentinus-Kirche|Bonn]]
[[Kategorie:Romanische Kirche]]
[[Kategorie:Krypta]]
[[Kategorie:Drei-Konchen-Chor]]
[[Kategorie:Geläut]]
[[Kategorie:Rheinischer Übergangsstil]]
[[Kategorie:Innenraum der Romanik]]

Tachibana (Kuge)

2010-11-11T11:26:32Z

Philly jawn: /* Weblinks */

Der ''[[Kuge (Adel)|Kuge]]''-Klan der '''Tachibana''' ([[Japanische Schrift|jap.]] {{lang|ja-Hani|橘氏}}, ''Tachibana-shi'') war eine einflussreiche Familie am Kaiserhof der [[Nara-Zeit]]. Sie wurden von den [[Fujiwara (Familie)|Fujiwara]] verdrängt.

== Nara-Zeit ==
Bereits in der Frühzeit trugen einige Mitglieder des Kaiserhauses den Namen ''Tachibana.'' Der Name kommt vom japanischen Apfelsinenbaum (''[[Citrus nobilis]]''), der auch in der Thronbesteigungszeremonie eine Rolle spielt.

Der Name ''Tachibana'' wurde ''Agata-no-Inukai no Michiyo'' von [[Gemmei]]-tennō [[708]] verliehen. Sie war die Frau des kaiserlichen Prinzen [[Minu]], Nachfahre des [[Bidatsu]]-tennō und Mutter der Prinzen ''Katsuragi'' und ''Sai''. Sie heiratete später [[Fujiwara no Fuhito]].

Den Prinzen ''Katsuragi'' und ''Sai'' wurde 736 der Familienname ''Tachibana'' gegeben, wodurch sie aus der kaiserlichen Familie ausschieden.
Aus der Familie stammen die in China (804-6) studierenden ''Tachibana no Hayanari'' (ch. W.G.: Chüh-i-shih) und der später als Gründer des japanischen esoterischen Buddhismus auftretende [[Kūkai]] (posthum: Kōbō Daishi; ch. W.G.: K'ung-hai).

''Tachibana no Hayanari'' (?778-842). Nach seiner Rückkehr aus China, Gouverneur von ''[[Provinz Tajima|Tajima]]''. Bei Hofe war er der direkte Gegenspieler [[Fujiwara no Yoshifusa]]s, der das Regentensystem (''[[sesshō]]'') etablierte. Er wurde von diesem verleumdet und 843, im Alter von 60 Jahren in die Verbannung geschickt, wo er nach fünf Jahren stirbt. Bekannt ist er als Poet und Kalligraph. Er gilt als einer der [[Sampitsu]], sein bedeutendstes Werk ist das ''Ito Naishinnō Ganmon'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|伊都内親王願文}}).

== Heian-Zeit ==
Die Tachibana, deren Mitglieder auch immer Positionen im Staatsrat innehatten, waren während der frühen [[Heian-Zeit]] laufend in Machtkämpfe mit den [[Fujiwara (Familie)|Fujiwara]] verwickelt, was gelegentlich auch zu bewaffneten Auseinandersetzungen führte. So z.B. der Aufstand [[Fujiwara no Sumitomo]]s 939-941. Zwar wurde diese Rebellion unterdrückt, jedoch verloren dabei die Tachibana ihren Einfluss bei Hofe; der Klan selbst wurde, zerteilt in vier Linien, in verschiedene Richtungen hin verstreut.

[[Tachibana no Kimiyori]] (877-941), der Verfolger ''Fujiwara no Sumitomos'', wurde nach Kyūshū ausgewiesen. Er blieb dort und wurde Repräsentant des kaiserlichen Hofes. Nach ihm bzw. seinen Nachfahren ist die Tachibana-Burg benannt, aus der die Samurai-Familie entstammt, deren Aufstieg im 14. Jahrhundert begann.

Ein weiterer Zweig entstand in der [[Provinz Iyo]]. Deren Ahnherr war ''Tachibana Tōyasu''. [[Kusunoki Masashige]], ein kaiserlicher General im 14. Jahrhundert und „Schutzpatron“ der [[Kamikaze]]-Piloten, stammt aus dieser Linie.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last =Bender
| first = Ross
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Changing the Calendar: Royal Political Theology and the Suppression of the Tachibana Naramaro Conspiracy of 757
| journal = Japanese Journal of Religious Studies
| volume = 37
| issue = 2
| pages = 223–245
| publisher = Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture
| location =
| date = 2010
| url = http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/jjrs/pdf/846.pdf
| issn =
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = }}</ref>

== Historisch bedeutende Klanmitglieder ==
* ''Inukai no Michiyo'' (Ahnherrin)
=== Zweite Generation ===
* ''Tachibana no Moroe'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘諸兄}}, 684-757) - Sohn Michiyos; auch ''Katsuragi no Ō-kimi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|葛城王}}. 738 ''Udaijin''. 751 ''Sadaijin'' (Kanzler), dadurch bis 756 effektiver Inhaber der Regierungsgewalt - im guten Einvernehmen mit den Fujiwara. Dann Rücktritt, da von der [[Kōken]]-tennō der Beteiligung an einer Verschwörung verdächtigt.
* ''Tachibana no Sai'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘佐為}}) - Sohn Michiyos; auch ''Sai no Ō-kimi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|佐為王}})
* ''Muro no Ōkimi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|牟漏女王}}) - Tochter Michiyos; Frau des [[Fujiwara no Fusazaki]]

=== Dritte Generation ===
* ''Tachibana no Naramaro'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘奈良麻呂}}; † 757) - ältester Sohn von Moroe. Galt als fähig, beteiligte sich im Todesjahr seines Vaters, an der Verschwörung des abgesetzten Kronprinzen ''Funado'' gegen die [[Kōken]]-tennō. Hingerichtet.

=== Vierte Generation ===
* ''Tachibana no Shimadamaro'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘島田麿}}) - Sohn Naramaros
* ''Tachibana no Kiyotomo'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘清友}}) - Sohn Naramaros

=== Fünfte Generation ===
* ''Tachibana no Kachiko'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘嘉智子}}) - Tochter Kiyotomos, Gemahlin des [[Saga (Tennō)|Saga]]-tennō
* ''Tachibana no Ujikimi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘氏公}}) - Sohn Kiyotomos. Dessen Sohn: {{lang|ja-Hani|橘岑継}}

=== Spätere Generationen ===
* ''Tachibana no Hayanari'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘逸勢}}) - Staatsmann, in China geschult. Poet, Kalligraph; einer der [[Sanpitsu]]; † 842

* ''Tachibana no Hiromi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘広相}}) - Gelehrter, fünf Generationen von Moroe; diente den Tennō [[Yōzei]], [[Kōkō]], und [[Uda (Tennō)|Uda]]
* ''Tachibana no Kimisai'' (?)({{lang|ja-Hani|橘公材}}) - Zweiter Sohn Hiromis
* ''Tachibana no Kimiyori'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘公頼}}) - Fünfter Sohn Hiromis; Gouverneur der Sonderverwaltungszone in Kyūshū (''Dazai Gonnosochi''); bekämpfte [[Fujiwara no Sumitomo]]s jüngeren Bruder [[Fujiwara no Suminori]].
* ''Tachibana no Aritsura ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘在列}}); † 953. [[Tendai]]-Mönch und Literat.

* ''Tachibana no Toshimichi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘敏通}}) - Dritter Sohn von Kimiyori; wichtige Rolle im Kampf gegen ''Fujiwara no Sumitomo'' und Suminori; Herr der Provinz [[Provinz Chikugo|Chikugo]]; Ahnherr der Chikugo-Linie (Kyūshū) der Familie.
* ''Senkan'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|千観}}) - Vierter Sohn von Kimiyori; Mönch der [[Jodo Shū]] (Buddhismus des reinen Landes)
* ''Tachibana no Yoshiyuki'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘善行}}) - Buddhistischer Name ''Shōkū''; Gründer des [[Enkyō-ji]]
* ''Zōga'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|蔵賀}}) - Lebte auf der Insel [[Tōnomine]]
* ''Kōkei'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|皇慶}}) - Mönch
* ''Tachibana no Nagayasu'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘永愷}}) - Poet; auch bekannt unter dem buddhistischen Namen ''Nōin.''
* ''Tachibana no Michisada'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘道貞}}) - Zusammenarbeit mit [[Fujiwara no Michinaga]]

* ''Ko-shikibu no Naishi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|小式部内侍}}) - Poet; Tochter des Michisada
* ''Tachibana no Tamenaka'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘為仲}}) - Poet
* ''Tachibana no Tōyasu'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘遠保}}) - Stammte aus dem [[Ochi]]-Klan, Ahnherr der ''Iyo''-Linie der Familie. Kämpfte gegen ''Fujiwara no Sumitomo.''
* ''Tachibana no Toshitsuna'' (1028-94), unehelicher Sohn von ''Fujiwara no Yorimichi.'' Leiter des kaiserlichen Bauamtes, im mittleren Hofrang, gilt als Autor des ''[[Sakuteiki]]''.

* ''Tachibana no Tōshige'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘遠茂}}) - ''[[mokudai]]'' (Gouverneur) von [[Suruga]]; Nachfahr von ''Tōyasu'' (Iyo-Linie)
* ''Tachibana no Toshimichi'' († 1051 oder 1058) war Ehemann der Dichterin [[Sugawara no Takasue no Musume]]
* ''Tachibana no Kiminaga'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘公長}}) - Henker von [[Taira no Munemori]].
* ''Tachibana no Kiminari'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘公業}}) - Sohn von Kiminaga; Gründer des [[Kokajima]]-Klans.
* ''Tachibana no Narisue'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘成季}}) - diente [[Kujō Michiie]]

== Literatur ==
* [[Hermann Bohner|Bohner, Hermann]]; Tachibana-no-Hayanari-den; in: [[Monumenta Nipponica]] 1942
* Eckardt, Hans; ''Das Kokonchomonshû des Tachibana Narisue als musikgeschichtliche Quelle;'' Wiesbaden 1956 (Harrassowitz), 432 S. [Maschinenschr. vervielf; Zugl. phil. Habil.-Schr.]
* ''Tachibana-no-Toshitsuna : ... a full transl. of the Japanese 11. century manuscript: Memoranda on garden making''; Tokio 1976
* Geschichte japanischer Kalligraphie der Heian-Zeit: Ishikawa Kyūyō; ''Denpa kara juyō e: sanpitsu'' ({{lang|ja-Jpan|伝播から受容へ : 三筆}}); Tōkyō 1997 (Nigensha), ISBN 4-544-02210-X

== Weblinks ==
* Stammbaum japanisch: [http://www.myj7000.jp-biz.net/clan/01/012/01201a.htm#000 {{lang|ja-Hani|姓氏類別大観・橘氏}}]
==Ref==
<references />
[[Kategorie:Japanisches Adelsgeschlecht]]

[[en:Tachibana clan (kuge)]]
[[ja:橘氏]]
[[zh:橘氏]]

Tachibana (Kuge)

2010-11-11T11:25:19Z

Philly jawn: /* Heian-Zeit */

Der ''[[Kuge (Adel)|Kuge]]''-Klan der '''Tachibana''' ([[Japanische Schrift|jap.]] {{lang|ja-Hani|橘氏}}, ''Tachibana-shi'') war eine einflussreiche Familie am Kaiserhof der [[Nara-Zeit]]. Sie wurden von den [[Fujiwara (Familie)|Fujiwara]] verdrängt.

== Nara-Zeit ==
Bereits in der Frühzeit trugen einige Mitglieder des Kaiserhauses den Namen ''Tachibana.'' Der Name kommt vom japanischen Apfelsinenbaum (''[[Citrus nobilis]]''), der auch in der Thronbesteigungszeremonie eine Rolle spielt.

Der Name ''Tachibana'' wurde ''Agata-no-Inukai no Michiyo'' von [[Gemmei]]-tennō [[708]] verliehen. Sie war die Frau des kaiserlichen Prinzen [[Minu]], Nachfahre des [[Bidatsu]]-tennō und Mutter der Prinzen ''Katsuragi'' und ''Sai''. Sie heiratete später [[Fujiwara no Fuhito]].

Den Prinzen ''Katsuragi'' und ''Sai'' wurde 736 der Familienname ''Tachibana'' gegeben, wodurch sie aus der kaiserlichen Familie ausschieden.
Aus der Familie stammen die in China (804-6) studierenden ''Tachibana no Hayanari'' (ch. W.G.: Chüh-i-shih) und der später als Gründer des japanischen esoterischen Buddhismus auftretende [[Kūkai]] (posthum: Kōbō Daishi; ch. W.G.: K'ung-hai).

''Tachibana no Hayanari'' (?778-842). Nach seiner Rückkehr aus China, Gouverneur von ''[[Provinz Tajima|Tajima]]''. Bei Hofe war er der direkte Gegenspieler [[Fujiwara no Yoshifusa]]s, der das Regentensystem (''[[sesshō]]'') etablierte. Er wurde von diesem verleumdet und 843, im Alter von 60 Jahren in die Verbannung geschickt, wo er nach fünf Jahren stirbt. Bekannt ist er als Poet und Kalligraph. Er gilt als einer der [[Sampitsu]], sein bedeutendstes Werk ist das ''Ito Naishinnō Ganmon'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|伊都内親王願文}}).

== Heian-Zeit ==
Die Tachibana, deren Mitglieder auch immer Positionen im Staatsrat innehatten, waren während der frühen [[Heian-Zeit]] laufend in Machtkämpfe mit den [[Fujiwara (Familie)|Fujiwara]] verwickelt, was gelegentlich auch zu bewaffneten Auseinandersetzungen führte. So z.B. der Aufstand [[Fujiwara no Sumitomo]]s 939-941. Zwar wurde diese Rebellion unterdrückt, jedoch verloren dabei die Tachibana ihren Einfluss bei Hofe; der Klan selbst wurde, zerteilt in vier Linien, in verschiedene Richtungen hin verstreut.

[[Tachibana no Kimiyori]] (877-941), der Verfolger ''Fujiwara no Sumitomos'', wurde nach Kyūshū ausgewiesen. Er blieb dort und wurde Repräsentant des kaiserlichen Hofes. Nach ihm bzw. seinen Nachfahren ist die Tachibana-Burg benannt, aus der die Samurai-Familie entstammt, deren Aufstieg im 14. Jahrhundert begann.

Ein weiterer Zweig entstand in der [[Provinz Iyo]]. Deren Ahnherr war ''Tachibana Tōyasu''. [[Kusunoki Masashige]], ein kaiserlicher General im 14. Jahrhundert und „Schutzpatron“ der [[Kamikaze]]-Piloten, stammt aus dieser Linie.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last =Bender
| first = Ross
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Changing the Calendar: Royal Political Theology and the Suppression of the Tachibana Naramaro Conspiracy of 757
| journal = Japanese Journal of Religious Studies
| volume = 37
| issue = 2
| pages = 223–245
| publisher = Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture
| location =
| date = 2010
| url = http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/jjrs/pdf/846.pdf
| issn =
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = }}</ref>

== Historisch bedeutende Klanmitglieder ==
* ''Inukai no Michiyo'' (Ahnherrin)
=== Zweite Generation ===
* ''Tachibana no Moroe'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘諸兄}}, 684-757) - Sohn Michiyos; auch ''Katsuragi no Ō-kimi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|葛城王}}. 738 ''Udaijin''. 751 ''Sadaijin'' (Kanzler), dadurch bis 756 effektiver Inhaber der Regierungsgewalt - im guten Einvernehmen mit den Fujiwara. Dann Rücktritt, da von der [[Kōken]]-tennō der Beteiligung an einer Verschwörung verdächtigt.
* ''Tachibana no Sai'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘佐為}}) - Sohn Michiyos; auch ''Sai no Ō-kimi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|佐為王}})
* ''Muro no Ōkimi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|牟漏女王}}) - Tochter Michiyos; Frau des [[Fujiwara no Fusazaki]]

=== Dritte Generation ===
* ''Tachibana no Naramaro'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘奈良麻呂}}; † 757) - ältester Sohn von Moroe. Galt als fähig, beteiligte sich im Todesjahr seines Vaters, an der Verschwörung des abgesetzten Kronprinzen ''Funado'' gegen die [[Kōken]]-tennō. Hingerichtet.

=== Vierte Generation ===
* ''Tachibana no Shimadamaro'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘島田麿}}) - Sohn Naramaros
* ''Tachibana no Kiyotomo'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘清友}}) - Sohn Naramaros

=== Fünfte Generation ===
* ''Tachibana no Kachiko'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘嘉智子}}) - Tochter Kiyotomos, Gemahlin des [[Saga (Tennō)|Saga]]-tennō
* ''Tachibana no Ujikimi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘氏公}}) - Sohn Kiyotomos. Dessen Sohn: {{lang|ja-Hani|橘岑継}}

=== Spätere Generationen ===
* ''Tachibana no Hayanari'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘逸勢}}) - Staatsmann, in China geschult. Poet, Kalligraph; einer der [[Sanpitsu]]; † 842

* ''Tachibana no Hiromi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘広相}}) - Gelehrter, fünf Generationen von Moroe; diente den Tennō [[Yōzei]], [[Kōkō]], und [[Uda (Tennō)|Uda]]
* ''Tachibana no Kimisai'' (?)({{lang|ja-Hani|橘公材}}) - Zweiter Sohn Hiromis
* ''Tachibana no Kimiyori'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘公頼}}) - Fünfter Sohn Hiromis; Gouverneur der Sonderverwaltungszone in Kyūshū (''Dazai Gonnosochi''); bekämpfte [[Fujiwara no Sumitomo]]s jüngeren Bruder [[Fujiwara no Suminori]].
* ''Tachibana no Aritsura ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘在列}}); † 953. [[Tendai]]-Mönch und Literat.

* ''Tachibana no Toshimichi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘敏通}}) - Dritter Sohn von Kimiyori; wichtige Rolle im Kampf gegen ''Fujiwara no Sumitomo'' und Suminori; Herr der Provinz [[Provinz Chikugo|Chikugo]]; Ahnherr der Chikugo-Linie (Kyūshū) der Familie.
* ''Senkan'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|千観}}) - Vierter Sohn von Kimiyori; Mönch der [[Jodo Shū]] (Buddhismus des reinen Landes)
* ''Tachibana no Yoshiyuki'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘善行}}) - Buddhistischer Name ''Shōkū''; Gründer des [[Enkyō-ji]]
* ''Zōga'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|蔵賀}}) - Lebte auf der Insel [[Tōnomine]]
* ''Kōkei'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|皇慶}}) - Mönch
* ''Tachibana no Nagayasu'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘永愷}}) - Poet; auch bekannt unter dem buddhistischen Namen ''Nōin.''
* ''Tachibana no Michisada'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘道貞}}) - Zusammenarbeit mit [[Fujiwara no Michinaga]]

* ''Ko-shikibu no Naishi'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|小式部内侍}}) - Poet; Tochter des Michisada
* ''Tachibana no Tamenaka'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘為仲}}) - Poet
* ''Tachibana no Tōyasu'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘遠保}}) - Stammte aus dem [[Ochi]]-Klan, Ahnherr der ''Iyo''-Linie der Familie. Kämpfte gegen ''Fujiwara no Sumitomo.''
* ''Tachibana no Toshitsuna'' (1028-94), unehelicher Sohn von ''Fujiwara no Yorimichi.'' Leiter des kaiserlichen Bauamtes, im mittleren Hofrang, gilt als Autor des ''[[Sakuteiki]]''.

* ''Tachibana no Tōshige'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘遠茂}}) - ''[[mokudai]]'' (Gouverneur) von [[Suruga]]; Nachfahr von ''Tōyasu'' (Iyo-Linie)
* ''Tachibana no Toshimichi'' († 1051 oder 1058) war Ehemann der Dichterin [[Sugawara no Takasue no Musume]]
* ''Tachibana no Kiminaga'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘公長}}) - Henker von [[Taira no Munemori]].
* ''Tachibana no Kiminari'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘公業}}) - Sohn von Kiminaga; Gründer des [[Kokajima]]-Klans.
* ''Tachibana no Narisue'' ({{lang|ja-Hani|橘成季}}) - diente [[Kujō Michiie]]

== Literatur ==
* [[Hermann Bohner|Bohner, Hermann]]; Tachibana-no-Hayanari-den; in: [[Monumenta Nipponica]] 1942
* Eckardt, Hans; ''Das Kokonchomonshû des Tachibana Narisue als musikgeschichtliche Quelle;'' Wiesbaden 1956 (Harrassowitz), 432 S. [Maschinenschr. vervielf; Zugl. phil. Habil.-Schr.]
* ''Tachibana-no-Toshitsuna : ... a full transl. of the Japanese 11. century manuscript: Memoranda on garden making''; Tokio 1976
* Geschichte japanischer Kalligraphie der Heian-Zeit: Ishikawa Kyūyō; ''Denpa kara juyō e: sanpitsu'' ({{lang|ja-Jpan|伝播から受容へ : 三筆}}); Tōkyō 1997 (Nigensha), ISBN 4-544-02210-X

== Weblinks ==
* Stammbaum japanisch: [http://www.myj7000.jp-biz.net/clan/01/012/01201a.htm#000 {{lang|ja-Hani|姓氏類別大観・橘氏}}]

[[Kategorie:Japanisches Adelsgeschlecht]]

[[en:Tachibana clan (kuge)]]
[[ja:橘氏]]
[[zh:橘氏]]

Tom Perez

2010-03-25T18:38:12Z

Philly jawn: infobox

{{Infobox_Politician
| name = Thomas E. Perez
| image =
| width =
| height =
| caption =
| birth_date = October 7, 1961
| birth_place = [[Buffalo, New York]]
| residence = Takoma Park, Maryland
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = Assistant Attorney General for the [[Civil Rights Division]]
| term_start = October 2009
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Wan J. Kim]]
| successor = Incumbent
| party = Democrat
| religion =
| occupation = Attorney
| majority =
| relations =
| spouse = Ann Marie Staudenmaier
| civil partner =
| children = Amalia, Susana and Rafael
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Thomas Edward Perez''' (born October 7, 1961) is the Assistant Attorney General for the [[Civil Rights Division]] of the [[United States Department of Justice]]. An [[United States|American]] politician, [[consumer advocate]] and [[civil rights]] lawyer, Perez had served as Secretary of the [[Maryland Department of Labor, Licensing and Regulation|Department of Labor, Licensing and Regulation]] (DLLR) from January 2007, when he was appointed to that position by [[Maryland]] Governor [[Martin O'Malley]], until his October 2009 confirmation by the [[United States Senate]] as Assistant Attorney General.

== Early life and education ==
Born in [[Buffalo, New York]], Perez received an A.B. in [[international relations]] and [[political science]] from [[Brown University]] in 1983, a [[Juris Doctor|J.D.]] ''[[Latin honors|cum laude]]'' in 1987 from [[Harvard Law School]] and a [[Master of Public Policy]] from the [[John F. Kennedy School of Government]] also in 1987.

== Professional career ==
Perez has spent his entire career in public service. He began his law career as a [[law clerk]] for Judge [[Zita Weinshienk]] of the [[United States District Court for the District of Colorado]] from 1987 to 1989.

Perez spent 12 years in federal public service, from 1989 until 2001. He spent the bulk of his federal public service at the United States Department of Justice. He was a federal prosecutor for the Civil Rights Division of the Department of Justice. In so doing, he prosecuted and supervised the prosecution of some of the Department's most high profile civil rights cases, including a hate crime case in Texas involving a gang of white supremacists who went on a deadly, racially motivated crime spree directed at African Americans. He later served as Deputy Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights under Attorney General Janet Reno. Among other responsibilities, Perez chaired the interagency Worker Exploitation Task Force, which oversaw a variety of initiatives designed to protect vulnerable workers.

From 1995 until 1998, Perez served as Special Counsel to Senator [[Ted Kennedy|Edward Kennedy]], and was Senator Kennedy's principal adviser on civil rights, criminal justice and constitutional issues. For the final two years of the Clinton administration, Perez served as the Director of the Office for Civil Rights at the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]].

From 2001 until 2007, Perez was a professor at the [[University of Maryland]] School of Law, where he taught in the school's nationally recognized clinical law and law and health program. Perez is currently a part-time member of the faculty at the George Washington School of Public Health.

From 2002 until 2006, Perez was a member of the Montgomery County Council. In this capacity, he represented 175,000 residents in Silver Spring, Kensington, Takoma Park and Wheaton. Perez was the first Latino ever elected to the Council, and served as Council President in 2005.

== Work in the Obama administration ==
On March 31, 2009, President [[Barack Obama]] nominated Perez to be Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Rights Division of the [[United States Department of Justice]].<ref name=nominatons>[http://judiciary.senate.gov/nominations/111thCongressExecutiveNominations/AssistantAttorneyGeneralCivilRights-TomPerez.cfm Nominations Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Rights Division - Thomas E. Perez], ''Judiciary.Senate.gov'', accessed Oct 7, 2009.</ref> The [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]] held a hearing on Perez's nomination on April 29, 2009, and on June 4, 2009, the committee voted 17-2 to send Perez's nomination to the full Senate. According to Main Justice, an independent, non-partisan news Web site, Perez's nomination languished for several months amid questions by Republican senators about his record on immigration matters and by controversy over the Obama Justice Department's dismissal of a voter intimidation case against the militant [[New Black Panther Party]].<ref>[http://www.mainjustice.com/2009/10/05/civil-rights-division-nominee-slated-for-senate-vote/ Civil Rights Division Nominee Slated for Senate Vote],''MainJustice.com'', Oct 5, 2009</ref> Senator [[Patrick Leahy]] (Democrat, Vermont) characterized the opposition as foot-dragging and "posturing for narrow special interests."<ref name=baltsun /> The full [[United States Senate]] ultimately confirmed Perez on October 6, 2009 in a bipartisan 72-22 vote. Only two Senators spoke out against the nomination: [[Tom Coburn]] (Republican, Oklahoma) and [[David Vitter]] (Republican, Louisiana).<ref name=baltsun> West, Paul. [http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/politics/bal-perez1006,0,6457255.story Senate confirms Perez to civil rights post at Justice], ''Baltimore Sun'', Oct 7, 2009</ref>

== Personal ==
A Buffalo native, Perez lives in [[Takoma Park, Maryland]] with his wife Ann Marie and their three children, Amalia, Susana and Rafael.

==External links==
* [http://www.dllr.state.md.us/aboutdllr/sec.htm Maryland Department of Labor, Licensing and Regulation]
* [http://www.justice.gov/crt/aag_page.php Biography at Civil Right's Division]
== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Perez, Thomas}}
[[Category:1961 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American civil rights lawyers]]
[[Category:Harvard Law School alumni]]
[[Category:John F. Kennedy School of Government alumni]]
[[Category:Brown University alumni]]
[[Category:Obama Administration personnel]]
[[Category:State cabinet secretaries of Maryland]]
[[Category:University of Maryland, Baltimore faculty]]

Michael Swanwick

2009-11-21T03:08:39Z

Philly jawn: image

{{Infobox Writer 
| name = Michael Swanwick
| image = Michael Swanwick.jpg
| imagesize = 200px
| caption = Swanwick in 2009
| pseudonym =
| birthdate = {{birth-date|November 18, 1950}}
| birthplace = [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]]
| deathdate =
| deathplace =
| occupation = Novelist, short story writer
| nationality = American
| period = 1980's-Present
| genre = Science fiction, fantasy
| subject =
| movement =
| influences = [[Terry Bisson]], [[Jack Vance]], [[Cordwainer Smith]], [[Samuel R. Delany]], [[Brian Aldiss]], [[Philip K. Dick]], [[Howard Waldrop]], [[Walter M. Miller]], [[Roger Zelazny]]
| influenced =
| signature =
| website = http://www.michaelswanwick.com
| publisher =
}}
'''Michael Swanwick''' (born [[November 18]], [[1950]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[science fiction]] author. Based in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]], he began publishing in the early 1980s.

== Biography ==
His published novels are: ''[[In the Drift]]'' (an [[Ace Special]], 1985), a look at the results of a more catastrophic [[Three Mile Island]] incident; ''[[Vacuum Flowers]]'' (1987), an adventurous tour of an inhabited Solar System, where the people of Earth have been subsumed by a cybernetic mass-mind; ''[[Stations of the Tide]]'' (1991), the story of a bureaucrat's pursuit of a magician on a world soon to be altered by its 50 year tide swell; ''[[The Iron Dragon's Daughter]]'' (1993), a fantasy with elves in Armani suits and dragons as jet fighters; ''[[Jack Faust]]'' (1997), a retelling of the [[Faust]] legend with modern science and technology; ''[[Bones of the Earth]]'' (2002), a [[time travel|time-travel]] story involving [[dinosaur]]s; and ''[[The Dragons of Babel]]'' (2008), which is set in the same fantasy world as ''The Iron Dragon's Daughter''.

His short fiction has been collected in ''[[Gravity's Angels]]'' (1991), ''[[Moon Dogs]]'' (2000), ''[[Tales of Old Earth]]'' (2000), ''[[Cigar-Box Faust and Other Miniatures]]'' (2003), ''[[The Dog Said Bow-Wow]]'' (2007), and [[The Best of Michael Swanwick]] (2008). A novella, ''Griffin's Egg'', was published in book form in 1991 and is also collected in ''Moon Dogs''. He has collaborated with other authors on several short works, including [[Gardner Dozois]] ("Ancestral Voices", "City of God", "Snow Job") and [[William Gibson]] ("Dogfight").

''Stations of the Tide'' won the [[Nebula Award|Nebula]] for [[Nebula Award for Best Novel|best novel]] in 1991,<ref name="WWE-1991">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1991
| title = 1991 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref> and several of his shorter works have won awards as well: the Theodore Sturgeon Memorial Award for "The Edge of the World" in 1989, the World Fantasy Award for "Radio Waves" in 1996, and [[Hugo Award|Hugos]] for "[[The Very Pulse of the Machine]]" in 1999, "[[Scherzo with Tyrannosaur]]" in 2000, "[[The Dog Said Bow-Wow]]" in 2002, "[[Slow Life (novelette)|Slow Life]]" in 2003, and "Legions in Time" in 2004.

Swanwick has written about the field as well. He published two long essays on the state of the science fiction ([[The User's Guide to the Postmoderns]], 1986) and fantasy ("In the Tradition...", 1994), the former of which was controversial for its categorization of new SF writers into "cyberpunk" and "literary humanist" camps. Both essays were collected together in ''[[The Postmodern Archipelago]]'' 1997. A book-length interview with Gardner Dozois, ''[[Being Gardner Dozois]]'', was published in 2001. He is a prolific contributor to the [[New York Review of Science Fiction]]. Swanwick wrote a monograph on James Branch Cabell, "What Can Be Saved From the Wreckage?" which was published in 2007, and a short literary biography of [[Hope Mirrlees]], ''Hope-in-the-Mist'', which was published in 2009.
[[file:Michael Swanwick 2005.JPG|thumb|At the [[63rd World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[Glasgow]], August 2005]]
== Selected bibliography ==
(a complete bibliography may be found at the author's website)

=== Novels ===
* ''[[In the Drift]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Vacuum Flowers]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Stations of the Tide]]'' (1991) - [[Nebula Award]] '''winner''', 1991<ref name="WWE-1991">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1991
| title = 1991 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>; Hugo and Campbell Awards nominee, 1992<ref name="WWE-1992">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1992
| title = 1992 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>; Clarke Award nominee, 1993<ref name="WWE-1993">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1993
| title = 1993 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>
* ''[[The Iron Dragon's Daughter]]'' (1993) - Clarke, Locus Fantasy, and World Fantasy Awards nominee, 1994<ref name="WWE-1994">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1994
| title = 1994 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>
* ''[[Jack Faust]]'' (1997) - BSFA nominee, 1997<ref name="WWE-1997">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1997
| title = 1997 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>; Hugo and Locus Fantasy Awards nominee, 1998<ref name="WWE-1998">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1998
| title = 1998 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>
* ''[[Bones of the Earth]]'' (2002) - Nebula Award nominee, 2002<ref name="WWE-2002">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2002
| title = 2002 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>; Hugo, Locus SF, and Campbell Awards nominee, 2003<ref name="WWE-2003">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2003
| title = 2003 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>
* ''[[The Dragons of Babel]]'' (2008) - Locus Fantasy Award nominee, 2009<ref name="WWE-2009">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2009
| title = 2009 Award Winners & Nominees
| work = Worlds Without End
| accessdate=2009-05-16
}}</ref>

=== Collections ===
* ''[[Gravity's Angels]]'' (1991)
* ''[[A Geography of Unknown Lands]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Moon Dogs]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Puck Aleshire's Abecedary]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Tales of Old Earth]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Cigar-Box Faust and Other Miniatures]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Michael Swanwick's Field Guide to the Mesozoic Megafauna]]'' (2004)
* ''[[The Periodic Table of Science Fiction]]'' (2005)
* ''[[The Dog Said Bow-Wow]]'' (2007)
* ''[[The Best of Michael Swanwick]]'' (2008)

=== Selected short stories ===

* "The Gods of Mars" (1985) (with [[Gardner Dozois]] and [[Jack Dann]])
* "Dogfight" (1985) (with [[William Gibson]])
* "The Edge of the World" (1989)
* "Griffin's Egg" (1991)
* "[[The Dead (story)|The Dead]]" (1996)
* "[[The Very Pulse of the Machine]]" (1998) ([[Hugo Award]] winner)
* "[[Radiant Doors]]" (1999) ([[Nebula Award]] nominee)
* "[[Ancient Engines]]" (1999) ([[Nebula Award]] nominee)
* "[[Scherzo with Tyrannosaur]]" (1999) ([[Hugo Award]] winner)
* "[[The Dog Said Bow-Wow]]" (2001) ([[Hugo Award]] winner)
* "[[Slow Life (novelette)|Slow Life]]" (2002) ([[Hugo Award]] winner)
* "[['Hello,' Said the Stick]]" (2002) ([[Hugo Award]] nominee)
* "Legions in Time" (2003) ([[Hugo Award]] winner)
* "Tin Marsh" (2006)
* "Urdumheim" (2007)

=== Essays ===
* [[User's Guide to the Postmoderns]], Asimov's, 1986
* [[The Postmodern Archipelago]] (1997)

== External links ==
* [http://www.michaelswanwick.com/ Michael Swanwick Online] (official home page)
* [http://floggingbabel.blogspot.com/ Flogging Babel] (weblog)
* {{isfdb name|id=Michael_Swanwick|name=Michael Swanwick}}
* [http://www.freesfonline.de/authors/Michael_Swanwick.html Michael Swanwick's online fiction] at [http://freesfonline.de/ Free Speculative Fiction Online]
* [http://www.worldswithoutend.com/author.asp?ID=59#books Complete list of sci-fi award wins and nominations by novel]
==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Swanwick, Michael}}
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors]]
[[Category:Nebula Award winning authors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Science fiction critics]]
[[Category:People from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]

[[bg:Майкъл Суонуик]]
[[es:Michael Swanwick]]
[[fr:Michael Swanwick]]
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[[nl:Michael Swanwick]]
[[pl:Michael Swanwick]]
[[ru:Суэнвик, Майкл]]
[[fi:Michael Swanwick]]

420 (Cannabis-Kultur)

2009-06-20T19:07:17Z

Philly jawn: /* External links */

[[Image:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|250px| [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]] 4/20 celebration at Porter Meadow on [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UCSC]] campus in 2007]] '''4:20''' or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') refers to consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[drug subculture]].

==Origins==
[[Image:420Louis.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]].]]
The origin of the term stems from a story about a group of teenagers at [[San Rafael High School]] in [[San Rafael, California]], [[United States]] in 1971.<ref>http://www.snopes.com/language/stories/420.asp</ref><ref name=point>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html?_r=1&em |quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked marijuana every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, marijuana aficionados were using “420” as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have urged students to just say no. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to “participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree.” |work=[[New York Times]] |date=April 19, 2009 |accessdate=2009-04-20 }}</ref> The teens would meet after school at 4:20 p.m. to smoke marijuana at the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue.

According to an April 2009 article on the [[Huffington Post]], the group called itself the Waldos because its members hung out by a wall after school. Writer Ryan Grim, citing interviews with anonymous Waldos, claims that the group met by the statue at 4:20 p.m. to begin a search for a crop of unguarded cannabis growing near [[Point Reyes]] that they had heard about. They never found the stash, Grim writes, but smoked plenty of marijuana while looking for it.<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number]. 04/20/09. ''[[The Huffington Post]]''</ref>

==Observances ==
[[April 20]] ("4/20" in [[United States|U.S.]] [[Date and time notation by country#United States|date notation]]) has evolved into a [[counterculture]] holiday, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref>[http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday]</ref><ref>[http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2009/04/21/18590556.php 420 at UCSC "Gets Bigger Every Year"]</ref> In some locations this celebration coincides with [[Earth Day|Earth Week]].<ref>[http://www.guamepa.govguam.net/earthweek/ Earth Week in Guam]</ref><ref>[http://earthweek.ucsd.edu/index.html Earth Week in San Diego]</ref><ref>[http://www.earthwalkvictoria.ca/ Earth Week in Victora, BC]</ref>

===New Zealand===
[[File:Cuboulder4202009.jpg|thumb|200px|2009's 420 celebration at [[University of Colorado at Boulder|University of Colorado]].]]
In [[Dunedin]], [[New Zealand]], students at [[Otago University]] and other [[Otago NORML|cannabis law reform activists]] meet every Wednesday and Friday at 4:20pm under a Walnut tree on the Otago University Union Lawn to openly smoke cannabis in what they consider 'an act of protest' against 'New Zealand's unjust cannabis prohibition laws'. There was considerable media and Police interest in the '420' group in 2008, resulting in the arrest of a student and the issuance of trespass notices to members of the public at one of the 4:20pm meetings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=12 June 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=2009-03-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=[[February 22]], [[2008]]|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=2008-10-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=11 July 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=2009-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=26 September 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=2009-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=22 July 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=2009-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=20 September 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=2009-04-22}}</ref>

===University of Colorado, Boulder===
A large celebration is held every year on the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]], with attendance reaching more than 10,000 in 2008. In 2009, it has been estimated that the crowd reached over the 10,000 attendee mark that was set in 2008. This would make CU Boulder's celebration of the hopeful legalization of marijuana one of the largest such celebrations in the United States.<ref name=point/><ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News]</ref> University police have tried various methods to prevent the gathering, including photographing students participating in the event,<ref>[http://stopthedrugwar.org/chronicle-old/434/colorado.shtml Marijuana: University of Colorado Posts Pics of Students at Pot Rally, Offers Reward for Naming Them]</ref> but the crowd has grown every year.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

On April 15, 2009, the Office of the Chancellor sent an e-mail to all CU students regarding the 2009 celebration of 4/20 stating that the event would debase "the reputation of your university and degree." The CU student newspaper disagreed with the Chancellor's analysis<ref>[http://www.coloradodaily.com/news/2009/apr/19/university-colorado-boulder-420-cu-email-apology/ Student Voice: CU owes students apology for 4/20 e-mail]</ref>.

No possession tickets were issued at the event.<ref>[http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2009/apr/20/420-cu-colorado-boulder-marijuana-pot-smoke-out/ No possession tickets issued during CU's 4/20 smokeout]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Spiritual use of cannabis]]
*[[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Cannabis in the United States]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number] by Ryan Grim, ''The Huffington Post'', April 20 2009
*[http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU’s 4/20 Pot Smoke-out Draws Crowd of 10,000] By Vanessa Miller, April 20 2008
*[http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719 Mom and Dad now know about '4/20'] by Gevevieve Bookwalter, ''Santa Cruz Sentinel'', April 7 2009

{{drug use}}
{{Cannabis resources}}

[[Category:April observances]]
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]
[[Category:In-jokes]]
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]

[[es:420 (cannabis)]]
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[[ru:420 (культура употребления марихуаны)]]
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[[sv:420 (cannabis)]]

Boston Post Road

2009-06-06T04:13:45Z

Philly jawn: King's Highway (Charleston to Boston)

The '''Boston Post Road''' was a system of [[post roads|mail-delivery routes]] between [[New York City]] and [[Boston, Massachusetts]] that evolved into the first major highways in the [[United States]]. The Upper Post Road was originally called the Pequot Path and had been in use by native Americans long before Europeans arrived.<ref>Bourne, p.13</ref> Some of these important native trails had been pounded by [[Moccasin_(footwear)|moccasin-shod]] feet for so many years that they were two feet below the surrounding woodland.

The colonists first used this trail to deliver the mail using [[post riders]]. The first ride to lay-out the Upper Post Road started on [[January 1]], [[1673]] <ref> Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine, January 1917, Vol. 50, page 386, [http://books.google.com/books?id=swILAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA386&dq=first+ride+king%27s+highway+post+road+connecticut&as_brr=1]</ref>. Later, the newly-blazed trail was widened and smoothed to the point where horse-drawn wagons or [[stagecoach]]es could use the [[road]]. During the nineteenth century, [[turnpike]] companies took over and improved pieces of the road. Large sections of the various routes are still called the ''[[King's Highway (Charleston to Boston)|King's Highway]]'' and ''Boston Post Road''. Much of the Post Road is now [[U.S. Route 1]], [[U.S. Route 5]], and [[U.S. Route 20]].

Mileposts were measured from the intersection of [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] and [[Wall Street]] in New York (one block west of [[Federal Hall]]) and from the old Boston city-line on [[Washington Street (Boston)|Washington Street]], near the present-day [[Massachusetts Turnpike]].

The three major alignments were the Lower Post Road (now [[U.S. Route 1]] along the shore via [[Providence, Rhode Island]]), the Upper Post Road (now [[U.S. Route 5|US 5]] and [[U.S. Route 20|US 20]] from [[New Haven, Connecticut]] by way of [[Springfield, Massachusetts]]), and the Middle Post Road (which diverged from the Upper Road in [[Hartford, Connecticut]], and ran northeastward to Boston via [[Pomfret, Connecticut]]).

In some towns, the area near the Boston Post Road has been placed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]], since it was often the first road in the area, and some buildings of historical significance were built along it. It was, without exaggeration, the colonies' (and, later, the country's) Main Street. The [[Boston Post Road Historic District|Boston Post Road Historic District, including part of the road in Rye, New York]] has been designated a [[National Historic Landmark]].

[[Image:Upper Post Road MP 8.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Milestone 8 on the Upper Post Road in [[Harvard Square]]]]
The Post Road is also famous for [[milestone]]s that date from the eighteenth century, many of which survive to this day.

==New York==
[[Image:BPR NY map.png|thumb|right|300px|The Post Road in New York]]
===Manhattan===
Much of the route in [[Manhattan]], where it was known as the Eastern Post Road, was abandoned between 1839 and 1844, when the current [[street grid]] was laid-out as part of the [[Commissioners' Plan of 1811|Commissioners' Plan]] that had been originally advanced in 1811.<ref>[http://www.forgotten-ny.com/streetnecrology/AveA/declassified.html Declassified 4-A: Fourth Avenue and Avenue A], accessed [[May 22]], [[2006]]</ref>The following sections of the road still exist:
*[[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] - [[Park Row (Manhattan)|Park Row]] - [[Bowery, Manhattan|The Bowery]] - [[Park Avenue (Manhattan)|Fourth Avenue]] - Broadway from [[Wall Street]] (the southern end of the Post Road) to [[Madison Square Park]]
*There is a large gap in [[midtown Manhattan]] before Post Road resumes its course north of [[Central Park]]
*[[St. Nicholas Avenue (Manhattan)|St. Nicholas Avenue]]-Broadway from [[110th Street (Manhattan)|110th Street]] to 228th Street (with a realignment near 145th Street)
*228th Street-Kingsbridge Avenue from Broadway to the old [[Kingsbridge, Bronx#History|Kings Bridge]] over the [[Harlem River]]

These [[milestone]]s were once present in Manhattan:
*1 - [[Bowery (Manhattan)|The Bowery]], west side, at Rivington Street, south of [[Canal Street (Manhattan)|Canal Street]]<ref>One Mile House, on the corner of Rivington Street, demolished in 1921, was a meeting-ground for Tammany Hall politicians. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A04EEDE1739E133A25752C0A9629C946095D6CF "Bowery Landmark in $170,000 lease", ''The New York Times'' 1 April 1921]; the painted sign for One Mile House, on the flank of a building on the east side of The Bowery, survived into the 1980s.</ref>
*2 - southwest corner of [[Astor Place (Manhattan)|Astor Place]] and [[Park Avenue (Manhattan)|Fourth Avenue]]
*3 - [[Madison Avenue (Manhattan)|Madison Avenue]] and [[26th Street (Manhattan)|26th Street]]
*4 - east side of [[Third Avenue, Manhattan|Third Avenue]], halfway between [[45th Street (Manhattan)|45th Street]] and [[46th Street (Manhattan)|46th Street]]
*5 - west side of [[Second Avenue, Manhattan|Second Avenue]] at [[62nd Street (Manhattan)|62nd Street]]
*6 - northwest corner of [[Third Avenue (Manhattan)|Third Avenue]] and [[81st Street (Manhattan)|81st Street]]
*7 - in [[Central Park]], west of [[Fifth Avenue (Manhattan)|Fifth Avenue]], between [[97th Street (Manhattan)|97th Street]] and [[98th Street (Manhattan)|98th Street]]
*8 - [[St. Nicholas Avenue (Manhattan)|St. Nicholas Avenue]], west side, between [[115th Street (Manhattan)|115th Street]] and [[116th Street (Manhattan)|116th Street]]
*9 - [[St. Nicholas Avenue (Manhattan)|St. Nicholas Avenue]], west side, opposite north line of [[133rd Street (Manhattan)|133rd Street]]
*10 - southwest corner of [[St. Nicholas Avenue (Manhattan)|St. Nicholas Avenue]] and [[153rd Street (Manhattan)|153rd Street]]
*11 - [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]], west side, near [[170th Street (Manhattan)|170th Street]] or [[171st Street (Manhattan)|171st Street]]
*12 - [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]], west side, at or near [[190th Street (Manhattan)|190th Street]]
*13 - at a point east of [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] between [[Academy Street (Manhattan)|Academy Street]] and [[204th Street (Manhattan)|204th Street]]
*14 - [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]], west side, in what is now the [[Harlem Ship Canal]]

===The Bronx===
In southwestern Westchester County, now [[The Bronx]], the Boston Post Road came off the [[Kingsbridge, Bronx|Kings Bridge]] and quickly turned east, with the [[Albany Post Road]] continuing north to [[Albany, New York]]. It passed over the [[Bronx River]] on the [[Williamsbridge, Bronx|Williams Bridge]], and left The Bronx on Bussing Avenue, becoming Kingsbridge Road in [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]]. In more detail, it used the following modern roads:
[[Image:Boston Rd Suburban La jeh.JPG|thumb|East and north towards [[West Farms, Bronx|West Farms]] Square]]
*Kingsbridge Avenue-230th Street-Broadway-231st Street
**[[Albany Post Road]] continued north on Albany Crescent
*Albany Crescent-Kingsbridge Terrace-Heath Avenue
*gap across [[Jerome Park Reservoir]]
*Van Cortlandt Avenue
*gap at [[Williamsbridge Reservoir]]
*Reservoir Place-Gun Hill Road-White Plains Road (southbound lanes)
*gap from near 217th Street to near 231st Street
*Bussing Avenue
*gap from Grace Avenue to De Reimer Avenue
*Bussing Place-Bussing Avenue

===Westchester County===
*[[Pelham Manor, New York|Pelham Manor]]
*[[New Rochelle, New York|New Rochelle]]
*[[Larchmont, New York|Larchmont]]
*[[Mamaroneck (village), New York|Mamaroneck]]
*[[Rye (city), New York|Rye]]

The Boston Post Road entered what is now [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]] on Kingsbridge Road, and turned north on Third Avenue-Columbus Avenue ([[New York State Highway 22|Route 22]]), forking off onto Colonial Place. It continued across Sandford Boulevard (Sixth Street) where there is no longer a road, and curved east and southeast around the hill, hitting Sandford Boulevard-Colonial Avenue at the [[Hutchinson River Parkway]] interchange. It then continued east on Colonial Avenue-Kings Highway, merging with [[U.S. Route 1]]. From there to the [[Connecticut]] border, the Post Road used US 1, except for several places, where Post Road used the following roads:
*The southbound side of US 1-Huguenot Street through downtown [[New Rochelle, New York|New Rochelle]].
*Old Boston Post Road north of downtown New Rochelle.
*Old Post Road-Orienta Avenue south of downtown [[Mamaroneck (village), New York|Mamaroneck]].
*Mamaroneck Avenue-Prospect Avenue-Tompkins Avenue north of downtown Mamaroneck.
*Old Post Road at [[Playland Parkway]] in [[Rye (city), New York|Rye]].

==Upper Post Road==
[[Image:Boston Post Road map.png|400px|thumb|right|Routes of the Boston Post Road]]
The '''Upper Post Road''' was the most traveled of the three routes, being the furthest from the shore and thus having the fewest and shortest river crossings. It was also considered to have the best [[tavern]]s, which contributed to its popularity. The Upper Post Road roughly corresponds to the alignment of [[U.S. Route 5]] from [[New Haven, Connecticut]], to [[Hartford]]; [[Connecticut Route 159]] from Hartford to [[Springfield, Massachusetts]]; [[U.S. Route 20]] from Springfield to [[Warren, Massachusetts]] (via [[Route 67 (Massachusetts)|Route 67]]); [[Massachusetts Route 9]] from Warren through [[Worcester, Massachusetts|Worcester]] to [[Shrewsbury, Massachusetts|Shrewsbury]]; and [[U.S. Route 20]] from Shrewsbury to Boston.

===Connecticut===
{{columns-list|2|
;[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]]
;[[Wallingford, Connecticut|Wallingford]]
;[[Berlin, Connecticut|Berlin]]
;[[Wethersfield, Connecticut|Wethersfield]]
;[[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]]
;[[Windsor, Connecticut|Windsor]]
;[[Suffield, Connecticut|Suffield]]
}}

===Massachusetts===
{{columns-list|2|
;[[Agawam, Massachusetts|Agawam]]
;[[Springfield, Massachusetts|Springfield]]
;[[Palmer, Massachusetts|Palmer]]
;[[Warren, Massachusetts|Warren]]
;[[Brookfield, Massachusetts|Brookfield]]
;[[Leicester, Massachusetts|Leicester]]
;[[Worcester, Massachusetts|Worcester]]
;[[Shrewsbury, Massachusetts|Shrewsbury]]
;[[Marlborough, Massachusetts|Marlborough]]
;[[Sudbury, Massachusetts|Sudbury]]
;[[Waltham, Massachusetts|Waltham]]
;[[Watertown, Massachusetts|Watertown]]
;[[Wayland, Massachusetts|Wayland]]
;[[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]
;[[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]]
;[[Roxbury, Massachusetts|Roxbury]]
;[[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]
}}

==Lower Post Road==
The '''Lower Post Road''' hugged the shoreline of [[Long Island Sound]] all the way to [[Rhode Island]] and then turned north through [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]] to Boston. This is now the best-known of the routes. The Lower Post Road roughly corresponds to the original alignment of [[U.S. Route 1]] in eastern Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts.

===Connecticut===
{{columns-list|2|
;[[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]]
;[[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]]
;[[Norwalk, Connecticut|Norwalk]]
;[[Westport, Connecticut|Westport]]
;[[Fairfield, Connecticut|Fairfield]]
;[[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]]
;[[Stratford, Connecticut|Stratford]]
;[[Milford, Connecticut|Milford]]
;[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]]
;[[Old Saybrook, Connecticut|Old Saybrook]]
;[[New London, Connecticut|New London]]
}}

===Rhode Island===
;[[Kingston, Rhode Island|Kingston]]
;[[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]]

===Massachusetts===
In [[Massachusetts]], the [[Norfolk and Bristol Turnpike]] was established in 1803 as a straighter route between [[Pawtucket, Rhode Island]] and [[Roxbury, Massachusetts]], mostly west of the Post Road. It is known as [[Washington Street]] in many of the towns it passes through. [http://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&hl=en&saddr=Washington+St+Plainville,+MA&daddr=Washington+St++South+Walpole,+MA+to%3AWashington+St+Norwood,+MA+to%3AWashington+St+Dedham,+MA+to%3AWashington+Str,+Boston,+ma&mrcr=0&sll=42.018182,-71.277237&sspn=0.329033,0.641327&ie=UTF8&ll=42.167475,-71.207199&spn=0.32826,0.641327&z=11&om=1] Due to its avoidance of built-up areas, the southern half of this road was little-used. In addition, another well-used route passed west of this turnpike along current [[Massachusetts Route 1A|Route 1A]].

;[[South Attleboro, Massachusetts|South Attleboro]]
The Post Road entered Massachusetts at the town of [[Attleboro, Massachusetts|Attleboro]]'s Newport Avenue ([[Massachusetts Route 1A|Route 1A]]) through the settlement of South Attleboro. It continued northeast on Newport Avenue along [[Massachusetts Route 123|Route 123]], splitting to the north (staying with Newport Avenue) to cross into North Attleborough.

;[[North Attleborough, Massachusetts|North Attleborough]]
South of North Attleborough center, the old road is known as Old Post Road. The old road crossed the turnpike (now [[US 1]]) just south of the intersection with [[Massachusetts Route 120|Route 120]], forming a small curve before merging with the turnpike north of the intersection. This curved alignment is now gone, so traffic must use US 1. Additionally, US 1 leaves the turnpike at the [[Massachusetts Route 120|Route 120]] intersection to bypass North Attleborough center on [[East Washington Street (North Attleborough)|East Washington Street]].

The Lower Post Road passed through North Attleborough Center on [[Washington Street (North Attleborough)|Washington Street]], later used as part of the turnpike. Another short curved alignment still exists to the west of Washington Street north of the center. Just north of this, the route crosses the [[Ten Mile River]] and then enters a complicated five-way intersection with [[US 1]] and [[Massachusetts Route 1A|Route 1A]]. US 1 straight ahead is the old turnpike, and US 1 to the right was built in the 1930s. The Post Road went to the right onto Elmwood Street. The fork to the left onto Route 1A through [[Plainville, Massachusetts|Plainville]] center was an alternate route to Boston.

Elmwood Street enters the town of [[Plainville, Massachusetts|Plainville]], where it becomes Messenger Street. The road merges with [[Massachusetts Route 106|Route 106]] before crossing [[Massachusetts Route 152|Route 152]] at [[Wilkins Four Corners, Massachusetts|Wilkins Four Corners]] and entering [[Foxborough, Massachusetts|Foxborough]].

There is a road passing from the town of [[Sharon, Massachusetts|Sharon]] into [[Walpole, Massachusetts|East Walpole]] which is known as Old Post Road, which continues north as Pleasant Street into [[Norwood, Massachusetts|Norwood]]. [http://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&hl=en&saddr=Washington+Str,+North+Attleboro,+MA&daddr=Washington+St++South+Walpole,+MA+to%3AWashington+St+Norwood,+MA+to%3AWashington+St+Dedham,+MA+to%3AWashington+Str,+Boston,+ma&mrcr=3&sll=42.134386,-71.244278&sspn=0.328431,0.641327&ie=UTF8&om=1&ll=42.169511,-71.205826&spn=0.328249,0.641327&z=11]

;[[Sharon, Massachusetts|Sharon]]
;[[East Walpole, Massachusetts|East Walpole]] (part of [[Walpole, Massachusetts|Walpole]])
;[[Norwood, Massachusetts|Norwood]]
;[[Islington, Massachusetts|Islington]] (part of [[Westwood, Massachusetts|Westwood]])
;[[Dedham, Massachusetts|Dedham]]
;[[Roxbury, Massachusetts|Roxbury]]
;[[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]

==Middle Post Road==
The '''Middle Post Road''' was the shortest and fastest route, but it traversed less-populated areas, so it was less used than the other two routes. It split from the Upper Post Road in Hartford roughly along current [[U.S. Route 44]] and [[Route 31 (Connecticut)|Route 31]] to [[Willimantic, Connecticut|Willimantic]] (this was the original alignment of [[U.S. Route 6 (Connecticut)|U.S. Route 6]]). It continues northeast along [[Route 66 (Connecticut)|Route 66]] and [[U.S. Route 6 (Connecticut)|U.S. Route 6]], then along [[Route 198 (Connecticut)|Route 198]] and [[Route 244 (Connecticut)|Route 244]] to [[Pomfret, Connecticut|Pomfret]]. From Pomfret, it headed into Massachusetts via the town of [[Thompson, Connecticut|Thompson]], along Thompson Road. In Massachusetts, the Middle Post Road runs along sections of modern [[Route 16 (Massachusetts)|Route 16]] to [[Mendon, Massachusetts|Mendon]], then through [[Bellingham, Massachusetts|Bellingham]], and then via [[Route 109 (Massachusetts)|Route 109]] from [[Medway, Massachusetts|Medway]] to [[Dedham, Massachusetts|Dedham]] where it meets with the Lower Post Road (old U.S. Route 1) heading into Boston.

===Connecticut===
;[[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]]
;[[Manchester, Connecticut|Manchester]]
;[[Bolton, Connecticut|Bolton]]
;[[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]]
;[[Mansfield Four Corners, Connecticut]]
;[[Phoenixville, Connecticut|Phoenixville]]
;[[Pomfret, Connecticut|Pomfret]]
;[[Putnam, Connecticut|Putnam]]
;[[Thompson, Connecticut|Thompson]]

===Massachusetts===
;[[Douglas, Massachusetts|Douglas]]
Crosses the Massachusetts state line into the town of Douglas as Southwest Main Street. This section passes through Douglas State Forest and is one of the most remote parts of the route that is still used as a public road. A {{convert|1|mi|km|adj=on}} section here was still unpaved until 2002. At the center of Douglas, the Post Road follows [[Route 16 (Massachusetts)|Massachusetts Route 16]] eastward to East Douglas. Where Route 16 turns south, the Post Road continues east as Northeast Main Street, which leads to the Uxbridge town line.

;[[Uxbridge, Massachusetts|Uxbridge]]
Entering Uxbridge, the name of the road changes to Hartford Avenue. Hartford Avenue is a major cross-town road and follows the route of the Post Road for its entire length. From the Douglas town line to the intersection of [[Route 122 (Massachusetts)|Massachusetts Route 122]], it is known as Hartford Avenue West; from Route 122 to the Mendon town line, it is known as Hartford Avenue East. The original stone arch bridge over the [[Blackstone Canal]] is still in use today. There was a [[American Civil War|Civil War]] encampment near the stone-arch bridge, and the road was used by troops during the [[French and Indian Wars]] and as a supply route during the [[War of 1812]]. [[George Washington]] stopped here a number of times when traveling this road, including when he took command of the [[Continental Army]] at [[Boston]] in 1775, and on his post-[[Inaugural]] tour of [[New England]] in 1789.

;[[Mendon, Massachusetts|Mendon]]
The Post Road enters the town from Uxbridge as Hartford Avenue West. It follows that road to Route 16, which follows the route of the Post Road for approximately one-half mile eastward to Maple Street, which follows the route into Mendon town center. From there, the Post Road followed a Providence-Worcester post road south out of the village. This section is now part of Providence Street. About {{convert|1|mi|km|adj=on}} south of the town center the roads diverged. The Post Road heads east, now known as Hartford Avenue East. This road follows the original Post Road route to the Bellingham town line. Historic milestone 37 is still located along the route.[http://www.preserveamerica.gov/6-25-04PAcommunity-mendonMA.html]

;[[Bellingham, Massachusetts|Bellingham]]
The Post Road enters from Mendon as Hartford Avenue. [[Route 126 (Massachusetts)|Massachusetts Route 126]] joins the road shortly before crossing over [[Interstate 495 (Massachusetts)|Interstate 495]]. Route 126 follows the Post Road route the remainder of the way to the Medway town line.

;[[Medway, Massachusetts|Medway]]
The original Post Road from Mendon followed Village Street through Medway to the Tavern and Inn in Medway Village near the Charles River. The post road followed (present day) Village Street through Millis (part of Medway until 1885). In the early 1800s, the Hartford and Dedham Turnpike was built (now Rt 109), a straight route built through the Great Black Swamp, and up a large hill in the center of town.

;[[Millis, Massachusetts|Millis]]
The original Post Road in Millis followed Village St from Medway, crossing current Massachusetts Rt 109, and then following the current Dover Road to the location of a series of Bridges over the Charles River leading into Medfield. In the period from 1806 to 1810, the Hartford and Dedham Turnpike was built (now Route 109), nearly going broke in attempting to build a causeway over the Charles River at the Medfield town line and through the Great Black Swamp.

;[[Medfield, Massachusetts|Medfield]]
;[[Dedham, Massachusetts|Dedham]]

==See also==
*[[1767 Milestones]]
*[[Albany Post Road]]
*[[List of roads and highways]]

==External links==
{{commons|Boston Post Road}}
*[http://www.westbrookfield.org/oldpostroad.htm West Brookfield milestones] (upper 67-69)
*[http://www.samnet.net/esso/Fmm.htm Warren milestones] (upper 70-75)
*[http://nypress.com/15/42/news&columns/oldsmoke.cfm New York Press - Post Road]
*[http://medwaylib.org/History/Hdt/HartfordDedhamTurnpike.htm Hartford & Dedham Turnpike]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Bourne, Russell, ''The Red King's Rebellion'', 1990, ISBN 0689120001
*''From Path to Highway: The Story of the Boston Post Road'' by Gail Gibbons, ISBN 0-690-04514-X, HarperCollins 1986
*''Horseback on the Boston Post Road'', by Laurie Lawlor, ISBN 0-7434-3626-1, Aladdin, 2002
*[[commons:Boston Post Road#Maps|1789 strip map from New York to Stratford]] (0-73)

[[Category:Historic trails and roads in the United States]]
[[Category:Native American trails in the United States]]
[[Category:History of Connecticut]]
[[Category:History of Massachusetts]]
[[Category:History of New England]]
[[Category:History of New York]]
[[Category:New England Interstate Routes]]
[[Category:Roads in Connecticut]]
[[Category:Roads in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Roads in New York]]
[[Category:Roads in Rhode Island]]
[[Category:U.S. Route 1]]
[[Category:U.S. Route 20]]

Benutzer:SBS3800P/National Trades Union Congress

2009-04-08T14:47:14Z

Philly jawn: /* The NTUC & Tripartism */

{{Infobox Union
|name= NTUC
|country= [[Singapore]]
|affiliation= [[International Trade Union Confederation|ITUC]]
|members= 500,000
|full_name= National Trades Union Congress
|native_name=
|image= 
|founded= [[1961]]
|current=
|head=
|dissolved_date=
|dissolved_state=
|merged_into=
|office= [[Singapore]]
|people= [[John De Payva]], President [[Lim Swee Say]], Secretary-General
|website= [http://www.ntuc.org.sg/ www.ntuc.org.sg]
|footnotes=
}}

The '''National Trades Union Congress (NTUC)''', also known as the Singapore National Trades Union Congress (SNTUC), is the sole [[national trade union centre]] in [[Singapore]]. As of September 2007, it has 63 Trade Unions and 6 Affiliates.

NTUC was created in [[1961]] when the labour movement, which had backed the [[People's Action Party]] (PAP) in its successful drive for self-government, split into the pro-PAP NTUC and the leftist [[Singapore Association of Trade Unions]] (SATU). The SATU collapsed in [[1963]] following the government's detention of its leaders during [[Operation Coldstore]], leaving NTUC as the sole trade union centre. Presently, over 98% of union members are in unions affiliated with the NTUC.

Relations between PAP and NTUC are very close, and have often resulted in members holding office in both organizations at the same time. [[Ong Teng Cheong]], the first directly elected President of Singapore, was both the NTUC secretary general, and the Deputy Prime Minister (from 1985), until his presidential election. [[Lim Boon Heng]], the previous secretary general, is also a Member of Parliament, and the Chairman of the People's Action Party. As of [[January 5]], [[2007]], [[Lim Swee Say]], the deputy Secretary General, has replaced Lim Boon Heng. [http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/250852/1/.html]

==Trade Unions in Singapore==

Trade unions in Singapore are run along [[democratic]] lines, and membership is voluntary. Major decisions on industrial actions are taken only with majority support expressed through [[secret ballot]].

There are three tiers of union leadership, all elected via secret ballot. Workers in a company elect their branch leaders. The next layer is the executive committee of a union. Officials from the executive committee are drawn from the branches. At the national level, there is the Central Committee of the NTUC. The 21-member Central Committee is elected every four years.

===NTUC Executive Committee===

At union headquarters level, key branch officials represent their branches at Union Headquarters as delegates. They have a right to vote or stand as candidates in elections to the Union Executive Committee which is responsible for the effective operation of the union.

Affiliated unions are represented at the NTUC Delegates Conference, the supreme authority of the labour movement. The Delegates Conference is held once in two years. During this conference, delegates review the work of the NTUC and map out future directions for the labour movement.

===The NTUC Central Committee===

At the national level, once in four years, the union delegates elect a 21-member NTUC Central Committee to oversee the work of the labour movement. The Central Committee members elect among themselves the Secretary-General, the President, the Secretary for Financial Affairs (Treasurer) and Vice Presidents. The Central Committee appoints other principal office bearers.

Union leadership includes Members of Parliament. These Members of Parliament are subject to elections, just as the other grassroots unionists are. Many other Members of Parliament, including Cabinet Ministers, serve as union advisors.

==The NTUC & Tripartism==

What started off as a symbiotic relationship between the NTUC and the PAP has developed into a [[tripartite]] alliance after the labour movement chose, in [[1969]], to adopt a cooperative, rather than a confrontational policy towards employers.

Union leaders and employers serve on key institutions such as the [[National Wages Council]], the [[Economic Development Board]], the [[Central Provident Fund]] and the [[Singapore Productivity and Standards Board]].

Government and employer representatives also serve on the boards of the cooperatives, business ventures and other organizations in the NTUC family.

==The NTUC Family==

Apart from the 63 Trade Unions and 6 Affiliates, the NTUC Family in Singapore also includes 9 privatized Co-operatives and 6 Related Organizations that share an affliation to NTUC.

===NTUC Co-operatives===

The stated objectives of NTUC Co-operatives are:
* to help stabilize prices of basic commodities and services
* to strengthen and protect the purchasing power of workers
* to allow union leaders to gain management experience, and to understand the problems faced by management, thus helping to promote better labour-management relations

The list of Co-operatives include:
* [[NTUC FairPrice]]
* [[NTUC Income]]
* [[NTUC First Campus]]
* [[NTUC Choice Homes]]
* [[NTUC Foodfare]]
* [[NTUC HealthCare]]
* [[NTUC Thrift]]
* [[NTUC ElderCare]]
* [[NTUC Media]]

===Related Organisations===

The list of Related Organisations include:
* [[NTUC Club]]
* [[NTUC LearningHub]]
* [[NTUC Link]]
* [[Singapore Labour Foundation]] (SLF)
* [[Ong Teng Cheong Institute of Labour Studies]] (OTC-ILS)
* [[Consumers' Association of Singapore]] (CASE)

Additionally, the NTUC has an Administration and Research Unit (ARU) to carry out work related to and supporting [[Industrial Relations]]. Within the ARU, the Secretary-General functions as the Director-General. The Director-General is assisted by Divisional Directors, each of whom is in charge of a cluster of departments.

==Union Membership==

As of September 2007, the total Union Membership figure in Singapore stands at around 500,000. There are two main groups of members: [[Ordinary Branch (OB)]] members are directly represented by the unions/affiliates and enjoy direct collective bargaining rights, while [[General Branch (GB)]] members, who work in non-unionised companies, cannot be represented directly but are given workplace advice and whose employment issues are still handled professionally. NTUC also works with co-operatives like [[NTUC FairPrice]] and [[NTUC Link]], as well as partners like [[NTUC Club]] and [[NTUC HealthCare]] to provide a range of core and lifestyle benefits for all of its members.

Since 2002, executives are also permitted to join the NTUC membership base, which was traditionally composed of rank-and-file employees. Apart from lifestyle benefits, they also enjoy some representation (if they are employed in unionised companies).

==Young NTUC==

Established in 2005, [[Young NTUC]] is the youth wing of Singapore's National Trades Union Congress. Aimed at attracting younger workers into unions, Young NTUC is part of the organisation's efforts to project a more vibrant, modern and youthful image and, at the same time, remain relevant and representative of the workforce.

With a base of about 150,000 young members, Young NTUC is, by far, the largest youth movement in Singapore, as compared to [[Young PAP]] and the [[People's Association's Youth Movement]]. It enables younger members and unionists to participate and be actively involved in the various levels and activities of the labour movement, sharing ideas, views and concerns with their peers, as well as senior leaders of NTUC and affiliated unions.

==Notes and references==
*{{cite book
| year = 2005
| title = Trade Unions of the World
| editor = [[International Centre for Trade Union Rights|ICTUR]] et al,
| edition = 6th
| publisher = John Harper Publishing
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0-9543811-5-7
}}
*{{cite news | author = NTUC | title = NTUC Union Membership Core Benefits | url = http://www.ntuc.org.sg/members/signup/core_benefits.asp | publisher = ''NTUC'' | date = [[4 September]] [[2007]]}}

==External links==

{{organized labour portal}}
* [http://www.ntuc.org.sg/ National Trades Union Congress (NTUC)]
* [http://www.fairprice.com.sg/ NTUC FairPrice]
* [http://www.income.com.sg/ NTUC Income]
* [http://www.ntucfirstcampus.com/ NTUC First Campus]
* [http://www.ntuc-choicehomes.com/ NTUC Choice Homes]
* [http://www.ntuchealth.com.sg/ NTUC HealthCare]
* [http://www.ntucthrift.com.sg/ NTUC Thrift]
* [http://www.ntuc.org.sg/eldercare/ NTUC ElderCare]
* [http://www.ntucmedia.org.sg/ NTUC Media]
* [http://www.ntucclub.com/ NTUC Club]
* [http://www.ntuclearninghub.com/ NTUC LearningHub]
* [http://www.linkpoints.com.sg/ NTUC Link]
* [http://www.slf.gov.sg/ Singapore Labour Foundation (SLF)]
* [http://www.ntuc.org.sg/otcinstitute/ Ong Teng Cheong Institute of Labour Studies (OTC-ILS)]
* [http://www.case.org.sg/ Consumers' Association of Singapore (CASE)]
* [http://www.youngntuc.org.sg Young NTUC]

[[Category:Organisations based in Singapore]]
[[Category:Trade unions of Singapore]]
[[Category:National federations of trade unions]]
[[Category:ICFTU Asia and Pacific Regional Organisation]]

Märtyrer von Boston

2009-03-26T14:37:44Z

Philly jawn: /* Boston origins */

The '''Boston martyrs''' is the name given in [[Quaker]] tradition to the three [[England|English]] members of the [[Society of Friends]], Marmaduke Stephenson, William Robinson and [[Mary Dyer]], and to the Friend William Leddra of [[Barbados]], who were condemned to death and executed by public hanging for their religious beliefs under the legislature of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1659, 1660 and 1661. Several other Friends lay under sentence of death at [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] in the same period, but had their punishments commuted to that of being whipped out of the colony from town to town.

== Boston origins ==
[[File:John Winthrop.jpg|thumb|John Winthrop]]
The settlement of [[History of Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] was founded by [[Puritan]] chartered colonists of the Massachusetts Bay Colony under [[John Winthrop]], and acquired the name of Boston soon after the arrival of the Winthrop Fleet in 1630. It was named after [[Boston, Lincolnshire]] in England. During the 1640s, as the [[English Civil War]] reached its climax, the founder of English Quakerism [[George Fox]] (1624-1691) discovered his religious vocation. Under the Puritan [[English Commonwealth]] led by [[Oliver Cromwell]], the Quakers in England were persecuted, and during the 1650s various parties of Quakers left England as 'Publishers of Truth'.

== Mary Dyer's early work ==
[[Mary Dyer]] was an English Puritan living in the Massachusetts Bay Colony at Boston. In 1637 she supported [[Anne Hutchinson]], who believed that God 'spoke directly to individuals' and not only through the clergy. They began to organize groups for Bible study in contravention to Massachusetts Colony law, and for this '[[Antinomian]] heresy' she and her husband William Dyer, Anne Hutchinson, and others were banished from the colony in January 1637/8. They removed to Portsmouth in the [[Rhode Island]] colony together with the religious group they had formed.

== Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' ==
[[Image:EmbarkationPilgrims.jpg|thumb|The Pilgrims on the ''Speedwell'']]
In 1656 the Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' from England to Boston brought eight Quakers including [[Christopher Holder]] and John Copeland. ([[Speedwell (ship)|''Speedwell'']] was the ship which had first set out for the Americas with the ''[[Mayflower]]'' in 1620, but was forced to return to [[Plymouth]] having transferred her party of [[Pilgrims]] to the Mayflower.) As required by Boston law their arrival was notified, and they were brought immediately to court and imprisoned on the orders of Governor [[John Endicott]], under sentence of banishment. While they were in prison Mary Dyer and Anne Burden arrived in Boston and were also imprisoned. After eleven weeks Holder, Copeland and the other six Quakers of the ''Speedwell'' were deported to England, but they immediately took steps to return.

== Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'' ==
In July 1657 the second party of Quakers for Massachusetts (including six that had been aboard the ''Speedwell''), in the Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'', undertaken by her owner Robert Fowler of [[Bridlington]] Quay, [[Yorkshire]], England, made land at Long Island. With encouraging intuitions, five were put ashore at the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] plantation of [[New Amsterdam]] ([[New York]]), namely Robert Hodgson, Richard Doudney, Sarah Gibbons, Mary Weatherhead and Dorothy Waugh.

== Confrontations with Governor Endicott ==
[[file:JohnEndecot.jpg|thumb|John Endecot]]
Mary Dyer, who had gone back to England with [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]] and [[John Clarke (1609-1676)]] in 1652, had there heard the ministry of George Fox and became a Friend, and she and her husband also returned to Rhode Island in 1657. Holder and Copeland returned to Massachusetts and met with and convinced other Friends in [[Sandwich, Massachusetts|Sandwich]] and other towns, but were arrested at [[Salem, Massachusetts|Salem]] by Endicott and imprisoned for several months. They were released, but in April 1658 were rearrested at Sandwich and whipped. In June they went to Boston and were again arrested, and Holder's right ear was cut off as a judicial penalty. Katherine Scott, Anne Hutchinson's sister, spoke up for them and was imprisoned and whipped.

== Boston law against Quakers ==
At the end of 1658 the Massachusetts legislature, by a bare majority, enacted a law that every member of the cursed sect of Quakers who was not an inhabitant of the colony but was found within its jurisdiction, should be apprehended without warrant by any constable and imprisoned, and on conviction as a Quaker should be banished upon pain of death, and that every inhabitant of the colony convicted of being a Quaker should be imprisoned for a month, and if obstinate in opinion should be banished on pain of death. Some Friends were arrested and expelled under this law.

== Stephenson and Robinson ==
Marmaduke Stephenson had been a ploughman in [[Yorkshire]] in England in 1655, when his heart was ravished by the love and presence of the living God as he followed the plough. Leaving his family to the Lord's care, he had followed the divine prompting to Barbados in June 1658, and after some time there he heard of the new Massachusetts law and passed over to Rhode Island. There he met William Robinson, another Friend from the company of the ''Woodhouse'', and in June 1659 with two others they went into the Massachusetts colony to protest at their laws. Mary Dyer went for the same purpose. The three were arrested and banished, but Robinson and Stephenson returned and were again imprisoned. Mary Dyer went back to protest at their treatment, and was also imprisoned. In October 1659 Endicott pronounced sentence of death upon the three.

== Executions at Boston Common ==
The execution day was Thursday 27 October (the usual weekly meeting day for the Church in Boston) 1659, and the gallows stood on Boston Common. They spoke as they were led there, but their words were drowned out by the sound of drums. After they had taken leave of one another, William Robinson first ascended the ladder. He told the people it was their day of visitation, and desired them to mind the light within them, the light of Christ, his testimony for which he was going to seal with his blood. At this the Puritan minister shouted "Hold thy tongue, thou art going to die with a lie in thy mouth." The rope was adjusted, and, as the executioner turned the condemned man off, he said with his dying breath, "I suffer for Christ, in whom I live and for whom I die." Then Marmaduke Stephenson stepped up the ladder and said "Be it known unto all this day that we suffer not as evil-doers, but for conscience sake." He was turned off the gallows, saying "This day shall we be at rest with the Lord."

== Mary Dyer's and William Leddra's executions ==
[[Image:Mary dyer being led.jpg|thumb|"Mary Dyer led to execution on Boston Common, 1 June 1660", by an unknown 19th century artist]]
[[Mary Dyer]] also stepped up the ladder, her face was covered and the halter put round her neck, when the cry was raised, "Stop! for she is reprieved." She was again banished, but returned in May 1660. Since her reprieve others, both colonists and visiting Friends, had brought themselves within the capital penalty, but the authorities had not ventured to enforce it. After ten days Endicott sent for her, and asked her if she were the same Mary Dyer who had been there before. On her avowing this, the death sentence was passed and executed. Another Friend, William Leddra of Barbados, was executed in March 1661.

== The King's Missive, and Wenlock Christison's words ==
Others lay in prison awaiting sentence but were set at liberty, and a new law was passed substituting whipping out of the colony from town to town. Shortly after, the 'King's Missive' reached Boston and showed the royal disapproval of the policy of persecution. When the last Friend to be condemned to death (Wenlock Christison, afterwards released) had received his sentence, he had said:
<blockquote>
Do not think to weary out the living God by taking away the lives of his servants. What do you gain by it? For the last man you put to death, here are five come in his room. And if you have power to take my life from me God can raise up the same principle of life in ten of His servants and send them among you in my room.
</blockquote>

== Further reading==
*''Christian Life, Faith and Thought in the Society of Friends of Great Britain'' (London, Friends Book Centre, 1927, 28-34).
*Joseph Besse, ''A Collection of the Sufferings of the People called Quakers'', from 1650 to 1689 (Published 1753).
==External links==
*[http://www.womensenews.org/article.cfm/dyn/aid/1371/context/archive WomensNews biography of Mary Dyer]
*[http://www.mayflowerfamilies.com/enquirer/mary_dyer.htm Mary Dyer: A Quaker Martyr]
*[http://www.lawbuzz.com/justice/mary/mary.htm Trials without Justice: Mary Dyer]
*[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r36UlDFwaqwC&dq=plimpton+%22mary+dyer%22&pg=PP1&ots=2PNi7T4TWw&sig=ei7qbWwglUJhno9fxOlH33rRGYg&prev=http://www.google.co.uk/search%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3Dplimpton%2B%2522mary%2Bdyer%2522%26meta%3D&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail#PPP1,M1 ''Mary Dyer: Biography of a Rebel Quaker'' by Ruth Talbot Plimpton (1994) (GoogleBooks, accessed 27 November 2007)]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{unreferenced}}

[[Category:English Quakers]]
[[Category:American Quakers]]
[[Category:English Americans]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs of the Early Modern era]]
[[Category:Multiple people]]
[[Category:People executed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony]]

Märtyrer von Boston

2009-03-26T14:36:16Z

Philly jawn: /* Voyage of the Speedwell */

The '''Boston martyrs''' is the name given in [[Quaker]] tradition to the three [[England|English]] members of the [[Society of Friends]], Marmaduke Stephenson, William Robinson and [[Mary Dyer]], and to the Friend William Leddra of [[Barbados]], who were condemned to death and executed by public hanging for their religious beliefs under the legislature of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1659, 1660 and 1661. Several other Friends lay under sentence of death at [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] in the same period, but had their punishments commuted to that of being whipped out of the colony from town to town.

== Boston origins ==
The settlement of [[History of Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] was founded by [[Puritan]] chartered colonists of the Massachusetts Bay Colony under [[John Winthrop]], and acquired the name of Boston soon after the arrival of the Winthrop Fleet in 1630. It was named after [[Boston, Lincolnshire]] in England. During the 1640s, as the [[English Civil War]] reached its climax, the founder of English Quakerism [[George Fox]] (1624-1691) discovered his religious vocation. Under the Puritan [[English Commonwealth]] led by [[Oliver Cromwell]], the Quakers in England were persecuted, and during the 1650s various parties of Quakers left England as 'Publishers of Truth'.

== Mary Dyer's early work ==
[[Mary Dyer]] was an English Puritan living in the Massachusetts Bay Colony at Boston. In 1637 she supported [[Anne Hutchinson]], who believed that God 'spoke directly to individuals' and not only through the clergy. They began to organize groups for Bible study in contravention to Massachusetts Colony law, and for this '[[Antinomian]] heresy' she and her husband William Dyer, Anne Hutchinson, and others were banished from the colony in January 1637/8. They removed to Portsmouth in the [[Rhode Island]] colony together with the religious group they had formed.

== Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' ==
[[Image:EmbarkationPilgrims.jpg|thumb|The Pilgrims on the ''Speedwell'']]
In 1656 the Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' from England to Boston brought eight Quakers including [[Christopher Holder]] and John Copeland. ([[Speedwell (ship)|''Speedwell'']] was the ship which had first set out for the Americas with the ''[[Mayflower]]'' in 1620, but was forced to return to [[Plymouth]] having transferred her party of [[Pilgrims]] to the Mayflower.) As required by Boston law their arrival was notified, and they were brought immediately to court and imprisoned on the orders of Governor [[John Endicott]], under sentence of banishment. While they were in prison Mary Dyer and Anne Burden arrived in Boston and were also imprisoned. After eleven weeks Holder, Copeland and the other six Quakers of the ''Speedwell'' were deported to England, but they immediately took steps to return.

== Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'' ==
In July 1657 the second party of Quakers for Massachusetts (including six that had been aboard the ''Speedwell''), in the Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'', undertaken by her owner Robert Fowler of [[Bridlington]] Quay, [[Yorkshire]], England, made land at Long Island. With encouraging intuitions, five were put ashore at the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] plantation of [[New Amsterdam]] ([[New York]]), namely Robert Hodgson, Richard Doudney, Sarah Gibbons, Mary Weatherhead and Dorothy Waugh.

== Confrontations with Governor Endicott ==
[[file:JohnEndecot.jpg|thumb|John Endecot]]
Mary Dyer, who had gone back to England with [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]] and [[John Clarke (1609-1676)]] in 1652, had there heard the ministry of George Fox and became a Friend, and she and her husband also returned to Rhode Island in 1657. Holder and Copeland returned to Massachusetts and met with and convinced other Friends in [[Sandwich, Massachusetts|Sandwich]] and other towns, but were arrested at [[Salem, Massachusetts|Salem]] by Endicott and imprisoned for several months. They were released, but in April 1658 were rearrested at Sandwich and whipped. In June they went to Boston and were again arrested, and Holder's right ear was cut off as a judicial penalty. Katherine Scott, Anne Hutchinson's sister, spoke up for them and was imprisoned and whipped.

== Boston law against Quakers ==
At the end of 1658 the Massachusetts legislature, by a bare majority, enacted a law that every member of the cursed sect of Quakers who was not an inhabitant of the colony but was found within its jurisdiction, should be apprehended without warrant by any constable and imprisoned, and on conviction as a Quaker should be banished upon pain of death, and that every inhabitant of the colony convicted of being a Quaker should be imprisoned for a month, and if obstinate in opinion should be banished on pain of death. Some Friends were arrested and expelled under this law.

== Stephenson and Robinson ==
Marmaduke Stephenson had been a ploughman in [[Yorkshire]] in England in 1655, when his heart was ravished by the love and presence of the living God as he followed the plough. Leaving his family to the Lord's care, he had followed the divine prompting to Barbados in June 1658, and after some time there he heard of the new Massachusetts law and passed over to Rhode Island. There he met William Robinson, another Friend from the company of the ''Woodhouse'', and in June 1659 with two others they went into the Massachusetts colony to protest at their laws. Mary Dyer went for the same purpose. The three were arrested and banished, but Robinson and Stephenson returned and were again imprisoned. Mary Dyer went back to protest at their treatment, and was also imprisoned. In October 1659 Endicott pronounced sentence of death upon the three.

== Executions at Boston Common ==
The execution day was Thursday 27 October (the usual weekly meeting day for the Church in Boston) 1659, and the gallows stood on Boston Common. They spoke as they were led there, but their words were drowned out by the sound of drums. After they had taken leave of one another, William Robinson first ascended the ladder. He told the people it was their day of visitation, and desired them to mind the light within them, the light of Christ, his testimony for which he was going to seal with his blood. At this the Puritan minister shouted "Hold thy tongue, thou art going to die with a lie in thy mouth." The rope was adjusted, and, as the executioner turned the condemned man off, he said with his dying breath, "I suffer for Christ, in whom I live and for whom I die." Then Marmaduke Stephenson stepped up the ladder and said "Be it known unto all this day that we suffer not as evil-doers, but for conscience sake." He was turned off the gallows, saying "This day shall we be at rest with the Lord."

== Mary Dyer's and William Leddra's executions ==
[[Image:Mary dyer being led.jpg|thumb|"Mary Dyer led to execution on Boston Common, 1 June 1660", by an unknown 19th century artist]]
[[Mary Dyer]] also stepped up the ladder, her face was covered and the halter put round her neck, when the cry was raised, "Stop! for she is reprieved." She was again banished, but returned in May 1660. Since her reprieve others, both colonists and visiting Friends, had brought themselves within the capital penalty, but the authorities had not ventured to enforce it. After ten days Endicott sent for her, and asked her if she were the same Mary Dyer who had been there before. On her avowing this, the death sentence was passed and executed. Another Friend, William Leddra of Barbados, was executed in March 1661.

== The King's Missive, and Wenlock Christison's words ==
Others lay in prison awaiting sentence but were set at liberty, and a new law was passed substituting whipping out of the colony from town to town. Shortly after, the 'King's Missive' reached Boston and showed the royal disapproval of the policy of persecution. When the last Friend to be condemned to death (Wenlock Christison, afterwards released) had received his sentence, he had said:
<blockquote>
Do not think to weary out the living God by taking away the lives of his servants. What do you gain by it? For the last man you put to death, here are five come in his room. And if you have power to take my life from me God can raise up the same principle of life in ten of His servants and send them among you in my room.
</blockquote>

== Further reading==
*''Christian Life, Faith and Thought in the Society of Friends of Great Britain'' (London, Friends Book Centre, 1927, 28-34).
*Joseph Besse, ''A Collection of the Sufferings of the People called Quakers'', from 1650 to 1689 (Published 1753).
==External links==
*[http://www.womensenews.org/article.cfm/dyn/aid/1371/context/archive WomensNews biography of Mary Dyer]
*[http://www.mayflowerfamilies.com/enquirer/mary_dyer.htm Mary Dyer: A Quaker Martyr]
*[http://www.lawbuzz.com/justice/mary/mary.htm Trials without Justice: Mary Dyer]
*[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r36UlDFwaqwC&dq=plimpton+%22mary+dyer%22&pg=PP1&ots=2PNi7T4TWw&sig=ei7qbWwglUJhno9fxOlH33rRGYg&prev=http://www.google.co.uk/search%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3Dplimpton%2B%2522mary%2Bdyer%2522%26meta%3D&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail#PPP1,M1 ''Mary Dyer: Biography of a Rebel Quaker'' by Ruth Talbot Plimpton (1994) (GoogleBooks, accessed 27 November 2007)]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{unreferenced}}

[[Category:English Quakers]]
[[Category:American Quakers]]
[[Category:English Americans]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs of the Early Modern era]]
[[Category:Multiple people]]
[[Category:People executed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony]]

Märtyrer von Boston

2009-03-26T14:35:13Z

Philly jawn: /* Confrontations with Governor Endicott */

The '''Boston martyrs''' is the name given in [[Quaker]] tradition to the three [[England|English]] members of the [[Society of Friends]], Marmaduke Stephenson, William Robinson and [[Mary Dyer]], and to the Friend William Leddra of [[Barbados]], who were condemned to death and executed by public hanging for their religious beliefs under the legislature of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1659, 1660 and 1661. Several other Friends lay under sentence of death at [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] in the same period, but had their punishments commuted to that of being whipped out of the colony from town to town.

== Boston origins ==
The settlement of [[History of Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] was founded by [[Puritan]] chartered colonists of the Massachusetts Bay Colony under [[John Winthrop]], and acquired the name of Boston soon after the arrival of the Winthrop Fleet in 1630. It was named after [[Boston, Lincolnshire]] in England. During the 1640s, as the [[English Civil War]] reached its climax, the founder of English Quakerism [[George Fox]] (1624-1691) discovered his religious vocation. Under the Puritan [[English Commonwealth]] led by [[Oliver Cromwell]], the Quakers in England were persecuted, and during the 1650s various parties of Quakers left England as 'Publishers of Truth'.

== Mary Dyer's early work ==
[[Mary Dyer]] was an English Puritan living in the Massachusetts Bay Colony at Boston. In 1637 she supported [[Anne Hutchinson]], who believed that God 'spoke directly to individuals' and not only through the clergy. They began to organize groups for Bible study in contravention to Massachusetts Colony law, and for this '[[Antinomian]] heresy' she and her husband William Dyer, Anne Hutchinson, and others were banished from the colony in January 1637/8. They removed to Portsmouth in the [[Rhode Island]] colony together with the religious group they had formed.

== Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' ==
In 1656 the Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' from England to Boston brought eight Quakers including [[Christopher Holder]] and John Copeland. ([[Speedwell (ship)|''Speedwell'']] was the ship which had first set out for the Americas with the ''[[Mayflower]]'' in 1620, but was forced to return to [[Plymouth]] having transferred her party of [[Pilgrims]] to the Mayflower.) As required by Boston law their arrival was notified, and they were brought immediately to court and imprisoned on the orders of Governor [[John Endicott]], under sentence of banishment. While they were in prison Mary Dyer and Anne Burden arrived in Boston and were also imprisoned. After eleven weeks Holder, Copeland and the other six Quakers of the ''Speedwell'' were deported to England, but they immediately took steps to return.

== Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'' ==
In July 1657 the second party of Quakers for Massachusetts (including six that had been aboard the ''Speedwell''), in the Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'', undertaken by her owner Robert Fowler of [[Bridlington]] Quay, [[Yorkshire]], England, made land at Long Island. With encouraging intuitions, five were put ashore at the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] plantation of [[New Amsterdam]] ([[New York]]), namely Robert Hodgson, Richard Doudney, Sarah Gibbons, Mary Weatherhead and Dorothy Waugh.

== Confrontations with Governor Endicott ==
[[file:JohnEndecot.jpg|thumb|John Endecot]]
Mary Dyer, who had gone back to England with [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]] and [[John Clarke (1609-1676)]] in 1652, had there heard the ministry of George Fox and became a Friend, and she and her husband also returned to Rhode Island in 1657. Holder and Copeland returned to Massachusetts and met with and convinced other Friends in [[Sandwich, Massachusetts|Sandwich]] and other towns, but were arrested at [[Salem, Massachusetts|Salem]] by Endicott and imprisoned for several months. They were released, but in April 1658 were rearrested at Sandwich and whipped. In June they went to Boston and were again arrested, and Holder's right ear was cut off as a judicial penalty. Katherine Scott, Anne Hutchinson's sister, spoke up for them and was imprisoned and whipped.

== Boston law against Quakers ==
At the end of 1658 the Massachusetts legislature, by a bare majority, enacted a law that every member of the cursed sect of Quakers who was not an inhabitant of the colony but was found within its jurisdiction, should be apprehended without warrant by any constable and imprisoned, and on conviction as a Quaker should be banished upon pain of death, and that every inhabitant of the colony convicted of being a Quaker should be imprisoned for a month, and if obstinate in opinion should be banished on pain of death. Some Friends were arrested and expelled under this law.

== Stephenson and Robinson ==
Marmaduke Stephenson had been a ploughman in [[Yorkshire]] in England in 1655, when his heart was ravished by the love and presence of the living God as he followed the plough. Leaving his family to the Lord's care, he had followed the divine prompting to Barbados in June 1658, and after some time there he heard of the new Massachusetts law and passed over to Rhode Island. There he met William Robinson, another Friend from the company of the ''Woodhouse'', and in June 1659 with two others they went into the Massachusetts colony to protest at their laws. Mary Dyer went for the same purpose. The three were arrested and banished, but Robinson and Stephenson returned and were again imprisoned. Mary Dyer went back to protest at their treatment, and was also imprisoned. In October 1659 Endicott pronounced sentence of death upon the three.

== Executions at Boston Common ==
The execution day was Thursday 27 October (the usual weekly meeting day for the Church in Boston) 1659, and the gallows stood on Boston Common. They spoke as they were led there, but their words were drowned out by the sound of drums. After they had taken leave of one another, William Robinson first ascended the ladder. He told the people it was their day of visitation, and desired them to mind the light within them, the light of Christ, his testimony for which he was going to seal with his blood. At this the Puritan minister shouted "Hold thy tongue, thou art going to die with a lie in thy mouth." The rope was adjusted, and, as the executioner turned the condemned man off, he said with his dying breath, "I suffer for Christ, in whom I live and for whom I die." Then Marmaduke Stephenson stepped up the ladder and said "Be it known unto all this day that we suffer not as evil-doers, but for conscience sake." He was turned off the gallows, saying "This day shall we be at rest with the Lord."

== Mary Dyer's and William Leddra's executions ==
[[Image:Mary dyer being led.jpg|thumb|"Mary Dyer led to execution on Boston Common, 1 June 1660", by an unknown 19th century artist]]
[[Mary Dyer]] also stepped up the ladder, her face was covered and the halter put round her neck, when the cry was raised, "Stop! for she is reprieved." She was again banished, but returned in May 1660. Since her reprieve others, both colonists and visiting Friends, had brought themselves within the capital penalty, but the authorities had not ventured to enforce it. After ten days Endicott sent for her, and asked her if she were the same Mary Dyer who had been there before. On her avowing this, the death sentence was passed and executed. Another Friend, William Leddra of Barbados, was executed in March 1661.

== The King's Missive, and Wenlock Christison's words ==
Others lay in prison awaiting sentence but were set at liberty, and a new law was passed substituting whipping out of the colony from town to town. Shortly after, the 'King's Missive' reached Boston and showed the royal disapproval of the policy of persecution. When the last Friend to be condemned to death (Wenlock Christison, afterwards released) had received his sentence, he had said:
<blockquote>
Do not think to weary out the living God by taking away the lives of his servants. What do you gain by it? For the last man you put to death, here are five come in his room. And if you have power to take my life from me God can raise up the same principle of life in ten of His servants and send them among you in my room.
</blockquote>

== Further reading==
*''Christian Life, Faith and Thought in the Society of Friends of Great Britain'' (London, Friends Book Centre, 1927, 28-34).
*Joseph Besse, ''A Collection of the Sufferings of the People called Quakers'', from 1650 to 1689 (Published 1753).
==External links==
*[http://www.womensenews.org/article.cfm/dyn/aid/1371/context/archive WomensNews biography of Mary Dyer]
*[http://www.mayflowerfamilies.com/enquirer/mary_dyer.htm Mary Dyer: A Quaker Martyr]
*[http://www.lawbuzz.com/justice/mary/mary.htm Trials without Justice: Mary Dyer]
*[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r36UlDFwaqwC&dq=plimpton+%22mary+dyer%22&pg=PP1&ots=2PNi7T4TWw&sig=ei7qbWwglUJhno9fxOlH33rRGYg&prev=http://www.google.co.uk/search%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3Dplimpton%2B%2522mary%2Bdyer%2522%26meta%3D&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail#PPP1,M1 ''Mary Dyer: Biography of a Rebel Quaker'' by Ruth Talbot Plimpton (1994) (GoogleBooks, accessed 27 November 2007)]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{unreferenced}}

[[Category:English Quakers]]
[[Category:American Quakers]]
[[Category:English Americans]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs of the Early Modern era]]
[[Category:Multiple people]]
[[Category:People executed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony]]

Märtyrer von Boston

2009-03-26T14:33:27Z

Philly jawn: /* Sources */

The '''Boston martyrs''' is the name given in [[Quaker]] tradition to the three [[England|English]] members of the [[Society of Friends]], Marmaduke Stephenson, William Robinson and [[Mary Dyer]], and to the Friend William Leddra of [[Barbados]], who were condemned to death and executed by public hanging for their religious beliefs under the legislature of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1659, 1660 and 1661. Several other Friends lay under sentence of death at [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] in the same period, but had their punishments commuted to that of being whipped out of the colony from town to town.

== Boston origins ==
The settlement of [[History of Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] was founded by [[Puritan]] chartered colonists of the Massachusetts Bay Colony under [[John Winthrop]], and acquired the name of Boston soon after the arrival of the Winthrop Fleet in 1630. It was named after [[Boston, Lincolnshire]] in England. During the 1640s, as the [[English Civil War]] reached its climax, the founder of English Quakerism [[George Fox]] (1624-1691) discovered his religious vocation. Under the Puritan [[English Commonwealth]] led by [[Oliver Cromwell]], the Quakers in England were persecuted, and during the 1650s various parties of Quakers left England as 'Publishers of Truth'.

== Mary Dyer's early work ==
[[Mary Dyer]] was an English Puritan living in the Massachusetts Bay Colony at Boston. In 1637 she supported [[Anne Hutchinson]], who believed that God 'spoke directly to individuals' and not only through the clergy. They began to organize groups for Bible study in contravention to Massachusetts Colony law, and for this '[[Antinomian]] heresy' she and her husband William Dyer, Anne Hutchinson, and others were banished from the colony in January 1637/8. They removed to Portsmouth in the [[Rhode Island]] colony together with the religious group they had formed.

== Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' ==
In 1656 the Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' from England to Boston brought eight Quakers including [[Christopher Holder]] and John Copeland. ([[Speedwell (ship)|''Speedwell'']] was the ship which had first set out for the Americas with the ''[[Mayflower]]'' in 1620, but was forced to return to [[Plymouth]] having transferred her party of [[Pilgrims]] to the Mayflower.) As required by Boston law their arrival was notified, and they were brought immediately to court and imprisoned on the orders of Governor [[John Endicott]], under sentence of banishment. While they were in prison Mary Dyer and Anne Burden arrived in Boston and were also imprisoned. After eleven weeks Holder, Copeland and the other six Quakers of the ''Speedwell'' were deported to England, but they immediately took steps to return.

== Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'' ==
In July 1657 the second party of Quakers for Massachusetts (including six that had been aboard the ''Speedwell''), in the Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'', undertaken by her owner Robert Fowler of [[Bridlington]] Quay, [[Yorkshire]], England, made land at Long Island. With encouraging intuitions, five were put ashore at the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] plantation of [[New Amsterdam]] ([[New York]]), namely Robert Hodgson, Richard Doudney, Sarah Gibbons, Mary Weatherhead and Dorothy Waugh.

== Confrontations with Governor Endicott ==
Mary Dyer, who had gone back to England with [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]] and [[John Clarke (1609-1676)]] in 1652, had there heard the ministry of George Fox and became a Friend, and she and her husband also returned to Rhode Island in 1657. Holder and Copeland returned to Massachusetts and met with and convinced other Friends in [[Sandwich, Massachusetts|Sandwich]] and other towns, but were arrested at [[Salem, Massachusetts|Salem]] by Endicott and imprisoned for several months. They were released, but in April 1658 were rearrested at Sandwich and whipped. In June they went to Boston and were again arrested, and Holder's right ear was cut off as a judicial penalty. Katherine Scott, Anne Hutchinson's sister, spoke up for them and was imprisoned and whipped.

== Boston law against Quakers ==
At the end of 1658 the Massachusetts legislature, by a bare majority, enacted a law that every member of the cursed sect of Quakers who was not an inhabitant of the colony but was found within its jurisdiction, should be apprehended without warrant by any constable and imprisoned, and on conviction as a Quaker should be banished upon pain of death, and that every inhabitant of the colony convicted of being a Quaker should be imprisoned for a month, and if obstinate in opinion should be banished on pain of death. Some Friends were arrested and expelled under this law.

== Stephenson and Robinson ==
Marmaduke Stephenson had been a ploughman in [[Yorkshire]] in England in 1655, when his heart was ravished by the love and presence of the living God as he followed the plough. Leaving his family to the Lord's care, he had followed the divine prompting to Barbados in June 1658, and after some time there he heard of the new Massachusetts law and passed over to Rhode Island. There he met William Robinson, another Friend from the company of the ''Woodhouse'', and in June 1659 with two others they went into the Massachusetts colony to protest at their laws. Mary Dyer went for the same purpose. The three were arrested and banished, but Robinson and Stephenson returned and were again imprisoned. Mary Dyer went back to protest at their treatment, and was also imprisoned. In October 1659 Endicott pronounced sentence of death upon the three.

== Executions at Boston Common ==
The execution day was Thursday 27 October (the usual weekly meeting day for the Church in Boston) 1659, and the gallows stood on Boston Common. They spoke as they were led there, but their words were drowned out by the sound of drums. After they had taken leave of one another, William Robinson first ascended the ladder. He told the people it was their day of visitation, and desired them to mind the light within them, the light of Christ, his testimony for which he was going to seal with his blood. At this the Puritan minister shouted "Hold thy tongue, thou art going to die with a lie in thy mouth." The rope was adjusted, and, as the executioner turned the condemned man off, he said with his dying breath, "I suffer for Christ, in whom I live and for whom I die." Then Marmaduke Stephenson stepped up the ladder and said "Be it known unto all this day that we suffer not as evil-doers, but for conscience sake." He was turned off the gallows, saying "This day shall we be at rest with the Lord."

== Mary Dyer's and William Leddra's executions ==
[[Image:Mary dyer being led.jpg|thumb|"Mary Dyer led to execution on Boston Common, 1 June 1660", by an unknown 19th century artist]]
[[Mary Dyer]] also stepped up the ladder, her face was covered and the halter put round her neck, when the cry was raised, "Stop! for she is reprieved." She was again banished, but returned in May 1660. Since her reprieve others, both colonists and visiting Friends, had brought themselves within the capital penalty, but the authorities had not ventured to enforce it. After ten days Endicott sent for her, and asked her if she were the same Mary Dyer who had been there before. On her avowing this, the death sentence was passed and executed. Another Friend, William Leddra of Barbados, was executed in March 1661.

== The King's Missive, and Wenlock Christison's words ==
Others lay in prison awaiting sentence but were set at liberty, and a new law was passed substituting whipping out of the colony from town to town. Shortly after, the 'King's Missive' reached Boston and showed the royal disapproval of the policy of persecution. When the last Friend to be condemned to death (Wenlock Christison, afterwards released) had received his sentence, he had said:
<blockquote>
Do not think to weary out the living God by taking away the lives of his servants. What do you gain by it? For the last man you put to death, here are five come in his room. And if you have power to take my life from me God can raise up the same principle of life in ten of His servants and send them among you in my room.
</blockquote>

== Further reading==
*''Christian Life, Faith and Thought in the Society of Friends of Great Britain'' (London, Friends Book Centre, 1927, 28-34).
*Joseph Besse, ''A Collection of the Sufferings of the People called Quakers'', from 1650 to 1689 (Published 1753).
==External links==
*[http://www.womensenews.org/article.cfm/dyn/aid/1371/context/archive WomensNews biography of Mary Dyer]
*[http://www.mayflowerfamilies.com/enquirer/mary_dyer.htm Mary Dyer: A Quaker Martyr]
*[http://www.lawbuzz.com/justice/mary/mary.htm Trials without Justice: Mary Dyer]
*[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r36UlDFwaqwC&dq=plimpton+%22mary+dyer%22&pg=PP1&ots=2PNi7T4TWw&sig=ei7qbWwglUJhno9fxOlH33rRGYg&prev=http://www.google.co.uk/search%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3Dplimpton%2B%2522mary%2Bdyer%2522%26meta%3D&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail#PPP1,M1 ''Mary Dyer: Biography of a Rebel Quaker'' by Ruth Talbot Plimpton (1994) (GoogleBooks, accessed 27 November 2007)]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{unreferenced}}

[[Category:English Quakers]]
[[Category:American Quakers]]
[[Category:English Americans]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs of the Early Modern era]]
[[Category:Multiple people]]
[[Category:People executed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony]]

Märtyrer von Boston

2009-03-26T14:32:15Z

Philly jawn: /* Mary Dyer's and William Leddra's executions */

The '''Boston martyrs''' is the name given in [[Quaker]] tradition to the three [[England|English]] members of the [[Society of Friends]], Marmaduke Stephenson, William Robinson and [[Mary Dyer]], and to the Friend William Leddra of [[Barbados]], who were condemned to death and executed by public hanging for their religious beliefs under the legislature of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1659, 1660 and 1661. Several other Friends lay under sentence of death at [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] in the same period, but had their punishments commuted to that of being whipped out of the colony from town to town.

== Boston origins ==
The settlement of [[History of Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] was founded by [[Puritan]] chartered colonists of the Massachusetts Bay Colony under [[John Winthrop]], and acquired the name of Boston soon after the arrival of the Winthrop Fleet in 1630. It was named after [[Boston, Lincolnshire]] in England. During the 1640s, as the [[English Civil War]] reached its climax, the founder of English Quakerism [[George Fox]] (1624-1691) discovered his religious vocation. Under the Puritan [[English Commonwealth]] led by [[Oliver Cromwell]], the Quakers in England were persecuted, and during the 1650s various parties of Quakers left England as 'Publishers of Truth'.

== Mary Dyer's early work ==
[[Mary Dyer]] was an English Puritan living in the Massachusetts Bay Colony at Boston. In 1637 she supported [[Anne Hutchinson]], who believed that God 'spoke directly to individuals' and not only through the clergy. They began to organize groups for Bible study in contravention to Massachusetts Colony law, and for this '[[Antinomian]] heresy' she and her husband William Dyer, Anne Hutchinson, and others were banished from the colony in January 1637/8. They removed to Portsmouth in the [[Rhode Island]] colony together with the religious group they had formed.

== Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' ==
In 1656 the Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' from England to Boston brought eight Quakers including [[Christopher Holder]] and John Copeland. ([[Speedwell (ship)|''Speedwell'']] was the ship which had first set out for the Americas with the ''[[Mayflower]]'' in 1620, but was forced to return to [[Plymouth]] having transferred her party of [[Pilgrims]] to the Mayflower.) As required by Boston law their arrival was notified, and they were brought immediately to court and imprisoned on the orders of Governor [[John Endicott]], under sentence of banishment. While they were in prison Mary Dyer and Anne Burden arrived in Boston and were also imprisoned. After eleven weeks Holder, Copeland and the other six Quakers of the ''Speedwell'' were deported to England, but they immediately took steps to return.

== Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'' ==
In July 1657 the second party of Quakers for Massachusetts (including six that had been aboard the ''Speedwell''), in the Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'', undertaken by her owner Robert Fowler of [[Bridlington]] Quay, [[Yorkshire]], England, made land at Long Island. With encouraging intuitions, five were put ashore at the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] plantation of [[New Amsterdam]] ([[New York]]), namely Robert Hodgson, Richard Doudney, Sarah Gibbons, Mary Weatherhead and Dorothy Waugh.

== Confrontations with Governor Endicott ==
Mary Dyer, who had gone back to England with [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]] and [[John Clarke (1609-1676)]] in 1652, had there heard the ministry of George Fox and became a Friend, and she and her husband also returned to Rhode Island in 1657. Holder and Copeland returned to Massachusetts and met with and convinced other Friends in [[Sandwich, Massachusetts|Sandwich]] and other towns, but were arrested at [[Salem, Massachusetts|Salem]] by Endicott and imprisoned for several months. They were released, but in April 1658 were rearrested at Sandwich and whipped. In June they went to Boston and were again arrested, and Holder's right ear was cut off as a judicial penalty. Katherine Scott, Anne Hutchinson's sister, spoke up for them and was imprisoned and whipped.

== Boston law against Quakers ==
At the end of 1658 the Massachusetts legislature, by a bare majority, enacted a law that every member of the cursed sect of Quakers who was not an inhabitant of the colony but was found within its jurisdiction, should be apprehended without warrant by any constable and imprisoned, and on conviction as a Quaker should be banished upon pain of death, and that every inhabitant of the colony convicted of being a Quaker should be imprisoned for a month, and if obstinate in opinion should be banished on pain of death. Some Friends were arrested and expelled under this law.

== Stephenson and Robinson ==
Marmaduke Stephenson had been a ploughman in [[Yorkshire]] in England in 1655, when his heart was ravished by the love and presence of the living God as he followed the plough. Leaving his family to the Lord's care, he had followed the divine prompting to Barbados in June 1658, and after some time there he heard of the new Massachusetts law and passed over to Rhode Island. There he met William Robinson, another Friend from the company of the ''Woodhouse'', and in June 1659 with two others they went into the Massachusetts colony to protest at their laws. Mary Dyer went for the same purpose. The three were arrested and banished, but Robinson and Stephenson returned and were again imprisoned. Mary Dyer went back to protest at their treatment, and was also imprisoned. In October 1659 Endicott pronounced sentence of death upon the three.

== Executions at Boston Common ==
The execution day was Thursday 27 October (the usual weekly meeting day for the Church in Boston) 1659, and the gallows stood on Boston Common. They spoke as they were led there, but their words were drowned out by the sound of drums. After they had taken leave of one another, William Robinson first ascended the ladder. He told the people it was their day of visitation, and desired them to mind the light within them, the light of Christ, his testimony for which he was going to seal with his blood. At this the Puritan minister shouted "Hold thy tongue, thou art going to die with a lie in thy mouth." The rope was adjusted, and, as the executioner turned the condemned man off, he said with his dying breath, "I suffer for Christ, in whom I live and for whom I die." Then Marmaduke Stephenson stepped up the ladder and said "Be it known unto all this day that we suffer not as evil-doers, but for conscience sake." He was turned off the gallows, saying "This day shall we be at rest with the Lord."

== Mary Dyer's and William Leddra's executions ==
[[Image:Mary dyer being led.jpg|thumb|"Mary Dyer led to execution on Boston Common, 1 June 1660", by an unknown 19th century artist]]
[[Mary Dyer]] also stepped up the ladder, her face was covered and the halter put round her neck, when the cry was raised, "Stop! for she is reprieved." She was again banished, but returned in May 1660. Since her reprieve others, both colonists and visiting Friends, had brought themselves within the capital penalty, but the authorities had not ventured to enforce it. After ten days Endicott sent for her, and asked her if she were the same Mary Dyer who had been there before. On her avowing this, the death sentence was passed and executed. Another Friend, William Leddra of Barbados, was executed in March 1661.

== The King's Missive, and Wenlock Christison's words ==
Others lay in prison awaiting sentence but were set at liberty, and a new law was passed substituting whipping out of the colony from town to town. Shortly after, the 'King's Missive' reached Boston and showed the royal disapproval of the policy of persecution. When the last Friend to be condemned to death (Wenlock Christison, afterwards released) had received his sentence, he had said:
<blockquote>
Do not think to weary out the living God by taking away the lives of his servants. What do you gain by it? For the last man you put to death, here are five come in his room. And if you have power to take my life from me God can raise up the same principle of life in ten of His servants and send them among you in my room.
</blockquote>

== Sources ==
*''Christian Life, Faith and Thought in the Society of Friends of Great Britain'' (London, Friends Book Centre, 1927, 28-34).
*Joseph Besse, ''A Collection of the Sufferings of the People called Quakers'', from 1650 to 1689 (Published 1753).

[[Category:English Quakers]]
[[Category:American Quakers]]
[[Category:English Americans]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs of the Early Modern era]]
[[Category:Multiple people]]
[[Category:People executed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony]]

Märtyrer von Boston

2009-03-26T14:32:05Z

Philly jawn: /* Mary Dyer's and William Leddra's executions */

The '''Boston martyrs''' is the name given in [[Quaker]] tradition to the three [[England|English]] members of the [[Society of Friends]], Marmaduke Stephenson, William Robinson and [[Mary Dyer]], and to the Friend William Leddra of [[Barbados]], who were condemned to death and executed by public hanging for their religious beliefs under the legislature of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1659, 1660 and 1661. Several other Friends lay under sentence of death at [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] in the same period, but had their punishments commuted to that of being whipped out of the colony from town to town.

== Boston origins ==
The settlement of [[History of Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] was founded by [[Puritan]] chartered colonists of the Massachusetts Bay Colony under [[John Winthrop]], and acquired the name of Boston soon after the arrival of the Winthrop Fleet in 1630. It was named after [[Boston, Lincolnshire]] in England. During the 1640s, as the [[English Civil War]] reached its climax, the founder of English Quakerism [[George Fox]] (1624-1691) discovered his religious vocation. Under the Puritan [[English Commonwealth]] led by [[Oliver Cromwell]], the Quakers in England were persecuted, and during the 1650s various parties of Quakers left England as 'Publishers of Truth'.

== Mary Dyer's early work ==
[[Mary Dyer]] was an English Puritan living in the Massachusetts Bay Colony at Boston. In 1637 she supported [[Anne Hutchinson]], who believed that God 'spoke directly to individuals' and not only through the clergy. They began to organize groups for Bible study in contravention to Massachusetts Colony law, and for this '[[Antinomian]] heresy' she and her husband William Dyer, Anne Hutchinson, and others were banished from the colony in January 1637/8. They removed to Portsmouth in the [[Rhode Island]] colony together with the religious group they had formed.

== Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' ==
In 1656 the Voyage of the ''Speedwell'' from England to Boston brought eight Quakers including [[Christopher Holder]] and John Copeland. ([[Speedwell (ship)|''Speedwell'']] was the ship which had first set out for the Americas with the ''[[Mayflower]]'' in 1620, but was forced to return to [[Plymouth]] having transferred her party of [[Pilgrims]] to the Mayflower.) As required by Boston law their arrival was notified, and they were brought immediately to court and imprisoned on the orders of Governor [[John Endicott]], under sentence of banishment. While they were in prison Mary Dyer and Anne Burden arrived in Boston and were also imprisoned. After eleven weeks Holder, Copeland and the other six Quakers of the ''Speedwell'' were deported to England, but they immediately took steps to return.

== Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'' ==
In July 1657 the second party of Quakers for Massachusetts (including six that had been aboard the ''Speedwell''), in the Voyage of the ''Woodhouse'', undertaken by her owner Robert Fowler of [[Bridlington]] Quay, [[Yorkshire]], England, made land at Long Island. With encouraging intuitions, five were put ashore at the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] plantation of [[New Amsterdam]] ([[New York]]), namely Robert Hodgson, Richard Doudney, Sarah Gibbons, Mary Weatherhead and Dorothy Waugh.

== Confrontations with Governor Endicott ==
Mary Dyer, who had gone back to England with [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]] and [[John Clarke (1609-1676)]] in 1652, had there heard the ministry of George Fox and became a Friend, and she and her husband also returned to Rhode Island in 1657. Holder and Copeland returned to Massachusetts and met with and convinced other Friends in [[Sandwich, Massachusetts|Sandwich]] and other towns, but were arrested at [[Salem, Massachusetts|Salem]] by Endicott and imprisoned for several months. They were released, but in April 1658 were rearrested at Sandwich and whipped. In June they went to Boston and were again arrested, and Holder's right ear was cut off as a judicial penalty. Katherine Scott, Anne Hutchinson's sister, spoke up for them and was imprisoned and whipped.

== Boston law against Quakers ==
At the end of 1658 the Massachusetts legislature, by a bare majority, enacted a law that every member of the cursed sect of Quakers who was not an inhabitant of the colony but was found within its jurisdiction, should be apprehended without warrant by any constable and imprisoned, and on conviction as a Quaker should be banished upon pain of death, and that every inhabitant of the colony convicted of being a Quaker should be imprisoned for a month, and if obstinate in opinion should be banished on pain of death. Some Friends were arrested and expelled under this law.

== Stephenson and Robinson ==
Marmaduke Stephenson had been a ploughman in [[Yorkshire]] in England in 1655, when his heart was ravished by the love and presence of the living God as he followed the plough. Leaving his family to the Lord's care, he had followed the divine prompting to Barbados in June 1658, and after some time there he heard of the new Massachusetts law and passed over to Rhode Island. There he met William Robinson, another Friend from the company of the ''Woodhouse'', and in June 1659 with two others they went into the Massachusetts colony to protest at their laws. Mary Dyer went for the same purpose. The three were arrested and banished, but Robinson and Stephenson returned and were again imprisoned. Mary Dyer went back to protest at their treatment, and was also imprisoned. In October 1659 Endicott pronounced sentence of death upon the three.

== Executions at Boston Common ==
The execution day was Thursday 27 October (the usual weekly meeting day for the Church in Boston) 1659, and the gallows stood on Boston Common. They spoke as they were led there, but their words were drowned out by the sound of drums. After they had taken leave of one another, William Robinson first ascended the ladder. He told the people it was their day of visitation, and desired them to mind the light within them, the light of Christ, his testimony for which he was going to seal with his blood. At this the Puritan minister shouted "Hold thy tongue, thou art going to die with a lie in thy mouth." The rope was adjusted, and, as the executioner turned the condemned man off, he said with his dying breath, "I suffer for Christ, in whom I live and for whom I die." Then Marmaduke Stephenson stepped up the ladder and said "Be it known unto all this day that we suffer not as evil-doers, but for conscience sake." He was turned off the gallows, saying "This day shall we be at rest with the Lord."

== Mary Dyer's and William Leddra's executions ==
[[Image:Mary dyer being led.jpg|thumb|300px|"Mary Dyer led to execution on Boston Common, 1 June 1660", by an unknown 19th century artist]]
[[Mary Dyer]] also stepped up the ladder, her face was covered and the halter put round her neck, when the cry was raised, "Stop! for she is reprieved." She was again banished, but returned in May 1660. Since her reprieve others, both colonists and visiting Friends, had brought themselves within the capital penalty, but the authorities had not ventured to enforce it. After ten days Endicott sent for her, and asked her if she were the same Mary Dyer who had been there before. On her avowing this, the death sentence was passed and executed. Another Friend, William Leddra of Barbados, was executed in March 1661.

== The King's Missive, and Wenlock Christison's words ==
Others lay in prison awaiting sentence but were set at liberty, and a new law was passed substituting whipping out of the colony from town to town. Shortly after, the 'King's Missive' reached Boston and showed the royal disapproval of the policy of persecution. When the last Friend to be condemned to death (Wenlock Christison, afterwards released) had received his sentence, he had said:
<blockquote>
Do not think to weary out the living God by taking away the lives of his servants. What do you gain by it? For the last man you put to death, here are five come in his room. And if you have power to take my life from me God can raise up the same principle of life in ten of His servants and send them among you in my room.
</blockquote>

== Sources ==
*''Christian Life, Faith and Thought in the Society of Friends of Great Britain'' (London, Friends Book Centre, 1927, 28-34).
*Joseph Besse, ''A Collection of the Sufferings of the People called Quakers'', from 1650 to 1689 (Published 1753).

[[Category:English Quakers]]
[[Category:American Quakers]]
[[Category:English Americans]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs of the Early Modern era]]
[[Category:Multiple people]]
[[Category:People executed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony]]

Basilika San Nicola

2008-12-04T21:01:29Z

Philly jawn: /* Feast days */

[[Image:Bari Basilica San Nicola.jpg|thumb|300px|The Basilica di San Nicola by night.]]

The '''Basilica di San Nicola''' ([[Basilica]] of [[Saint Nicholas]]) is a church in [[Bari]], southern [[Italy]], that holds wide religious significance throughout Europe and the Christian world. The basilica is an important [[pilgrimage]] destination both for Italians and [[Orthodox Christians]] from [[Eastern Europe]].

==History==
The [[basilica]] was built between [[1087]] and [[1197]], during the [[Italo-Norman]] domination of [[Apulia]], the area previously occupied by the Byzantine [[Catapanate of Italy|Catapan]] of which Bari was the seat. Its foundation is related to the stealing of the [[relic]]s of St. Nicholas from the saint’s original shrine in [[Myra]], in what is now [[Turkey]]. When Myra passed into the hands of the [[Saracens]], some saw it as an oppurtunity to move the saint's relics to a more hospitable location. According to the justifying legend, the saint, passing by the city on his way to [[Rome]], had chosen Bari as his burial place. There was great competition for the relics between [[Venice]] and Bari. The last-named won, the relics were carried off under the noses of the lawful Greek custodians and their [[Mohammedan]] masters, and on May 9, 1087, were safely landed at Bari. A new church was built to shelter Nicholas' remains and [[Pope Urban II]] was present at the [[consecration]] of the [[crypt]] in [[1089]]. The edifice was officially consecrated in [[1197]], in the presence of the Imperial [[Vicar]], Bishop [[Conrad of Hildesheim]], and of numerous [[bishop]]s, [[prelate]]s and noblemen. Elias, [[abbot]] of the nearby [[monastery]] of [[St. Benedict]], was named as first [[archbishop]]. His [[cathedra]] (bishop's throne) still stands in the church to this day.

==Architecture==
[[Image:San Nicola Cattedra.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Cathedra]] of Bishop Elias.]]
The church has a rather square appearance, seemingly more suited to a castle than to a church. This impression is strengthened by the presence of two low massive towers framing the façade. It was indeed used several times as castle during its history.

The interior has a [[nave]] and two aisles, divided by granite columns and pilasters. The [[presbytery (architecture)|presbytery]] is separated from the rest of the edifice by mean of three arches supported by columns of Byzantine influence. Above the aisles is the ''[[matronaeum]]'', a [[tribune (architecture)|tribune]] gallery for women, opening into the nave. The basilica was the first church of this design, setting a precedent which was later imitated in numerous other constructions in the region.

==Treasures==
[[Image:Gentile da Fabriano 062.jpg|thumb|Pilgrims at the tomb of Saint Nicholas in Bari ([[Gentile da Fabriano]], c. 1425, [[National Gallery of Art]], Washington, D.C.).]]

The Basilica houses one of the most noteworthy [[Romanesque sculpture|Romanesque]] sculptural works of southern Italy, a [[cathedra]] (bishop's throne) finished in the late eleventh century for Elias. There are precious mosaic pavements in the crypt and presbytery. The [[ciborium]], the most ancient in the region, is also decorated with mosaic; it has four columns with foliage, animals and mythological figures. The crypt, with 26 columns sporting capitals in Byzantine and Romanesque style, houses the relics of St. Nicholas.

[[Image:Tombenicolas.jpg|thumb|left|The tomb of Saint Nicholas in Bari, as it appears today.]]
In the church is the Renaissance tomb of [[Bona Sforza]], (sixteenth century), in marble. The museum of the Basilica has precious works of art, including a collection of twelfth-century candlesticks donated by King [[Charles I of Anjou]].

The church was restored in the late thirteenth century, in [[1456]] and in the seventeenth century. In the twentieth-century restoration, most of the [[Baroque]] additions were removed, leaving only the giled wooden ceiling, enframing canvases by [[Carlo De Rosa]].

==Feast days==
[[Image:Russian_icon_Instaplanet_Saint_Nicholas.JPG|thumb|[[Russian icons|Russian]] [[icon]] of Saint Nicholas.]]
December 6 is [[Saint Nicholas Day]], the main [[feast day]] of Saint Nicholas. On this day, it is traditional for the clergy of the basilica to lower a flask into the suberranean tomb of Saint Nicholas to extract some of the [[myrrh]] which is believed to exude from the relics. Containers of this myrrh are sent all over the world, and believers have reported numerous miracles as a result of being [[anointing|anointed]] with it. For those Orthodox Churches which follow the traditional [[Julian Calendar]], December 6 falls on [[December 19]] of the [[Gregorian Calendar]], so there will actually be two celebrations of the same [[holy day]]: one according to the [[New Calendar]] (December 6) and one according to the [[Old Calendar]] (December 19). Both are celebrated with great solemnity at Bari.

[[May 9]] (May 22) is celebrated annually in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] as the feast day of the "[[Translation (relics)|Translation]] of the Relics of Saint Nicholas from Myra to Bari".

[[Pilgrim]]ages to the basilica from Eastern Europe have increased dramatically since the fall of the Iron Curtain, not only for the feast days, but throughout the year.

==See also==
*[[Bari#Main sights|Main sights in Bari]]
*[[Saint Nicholas]]
*[[Acquaviva delle Fonti#Main sights|Cathedral of Acquaviva delle Fonti]]
*[[Altamura#Main sights|Cathedral of Altamura]]
*[[Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo]]

==External links==
* [http://www.basilicasannicola.org/ Basilica's official website]

{{coord missing|Italy}}

[[Category:Basilica churches in Italy]]
[[Category:Churches in Apulia|Nicola]]
[[Category:Bari]]
[[Category:Former cathedrals in Italy|Bari]]

[[it:Basilica di San Nicola (Bari)]]
[[nl:Basiliek van Sint-Nicolaas]]

Jugendliteratur

2008-08-11T15:41:34Z

Philly jawn: /* Other publications */

'''Young-adult fiction''' (often abbreviated as '''YA fiction''', or simply '''YA''') is [[fiction]] written for, published for, or marketed to adolescents, roughly ages 12 to 18.

==Characteristics==

Young-adult fiction, whether in the form of novels or short stories, has distinct attributes that distinguish it from the other age categories of fiction: [[adult fiction]], [[middle grade fiction]], and [[children's fiction]]. The vast majority of YA stories portray an adolescent as the [[protagonist]], rather than an adult or a child. The subject matter and story lines are typically consistent with the age and experience of the main character, but beyond that YA stories span the entire spectrum of fiction [[genre]]s. The settings of YA stories are limited only by the imagination and skill of the author. Themes in YA stories often focus on the challenges of youth, so much so that the entire age category is sometimes referred to as [[problem novel]]s or [[coming of age]] novel . Writing styles of YA stories range widely, from the richness of literary style to the clarity and speed of the unobtrusive. Despite its unique characteristics, YA shares the fundamental elements of fiction with other stories: character, plot, setting, theme, and style.[http://www.helium.com/tm/197298/fifth-element-other-stuff]

==History of YA==
The first recognition of young adults as a distinct group was by [[Sarah Trimmer]], who in [[1802]] described "young adulthood" as lasting from ages 14 to 21.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} In her self-founded children's literature periodical, ''[[The Guardian of Education]]'', Trimmer introduced the terms "Books for Children" (for those under fourteen) and "Books for Young Persons" (for those between fourteen and twenty-one), establishing terms of reference for young adult literature that remain in use today<ref name=test>Grenby, "Conservative Woman", 155</ref>. However, nineteenth-century [[publishers]] didn't specifically market to young readers, and [[adolescence|adolescent culture]] didn't exist in a modern sense. Nonetheless, there were books published in the [[nineteenth century]] that appealed to young readers {{Harvard citation | Garland | 1998 | p = 6}}:
* ''[[The Swiss Family Robinson]]'' ([[1812]])
* ''[[Oliver Twist]]'' ([[1838]])
* ''[[The Count of Monte Cristo]] ([[1844]])''
* ''[[Tom Brown's Schooldays]]'' ([[1857]])
* ''[[Great Expectations]]'' ([[1860]])
* ''[[Alice in Wonderland]]'' ([[1865]])
* ''[[Little Women]]'' ([[1868]])
* ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' ([[1876]])
* ''[[Heidi]]'' ([[1880]])
* ''[[Treasure Island]]'' ([[1883]])
* ''[[Huckleberry Finn]]'' ([[1884]])
* ''[[Kidnapped]]'' ([[1886]])
* ''[[The Jungle Book]]'' ([[1894]]).

Examples of other novels that predate the young-adult classification, but that are now frequently presented alongside YA novels are {{Harvard citation | Garland | 1998 | p = 6}}:
* ''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' ([[1903]])
* ''[[Anne of Green Gables]]'' ([[1908]])
* ''[[The Secret Garden]]'' ([[1909]])
* ''[[The Yearling]]'' ([[1938]])
* ''[[My Friend Flicka]]'' ([[1941]])
* ''[[Johnny Tremain]]'' ([[1943]])
* ''[[The Outsiders]]'' ([[1967]])
In the 1950s, shortly before the advent of modern publishing for the teen market, two novels drew the attention of adolescent readers: ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' (1951), and ''[[Lord of the Flies]]'' (1954). Unlike more-recent fiction classified as YA, these two were written with an adult audience in mind. [FitzGerald 2004, p. 62]

The modern classification of young-adult fiction originated during the 1950s and 1960s, especially after the publication of Hinton's "The Outsiders." This book focused on a group of teens not yet represented and instead of having the nostalgic tone that was typical in young adult books written by adults, it displayed a truer, darker side of young adult life because it was written by a young adult.

As publishers began to focus on the emerging adolescent market, booksellers and libraries, in turn, began creating YA sections distinct from either [[children's literature]] or novels written for [[adult]]s. The 1970s to the mid-1980s have been described as the [[golden age]] of young-adult fiction - when challenging novels began speaking directly to the interests of the identified adolescent market<ref name=test>Owen, Mary, "Developing a Love of Reading"</ref>.

==Edgy content==
From its very beginning, young-adult fiction has portrayed teens confronting situations and social issues that have pushed the edge of then-acceptable content. Such novels and their content are sometimes referred to as "edgy."

In particular, authors and publishers have repeatedly pushed the boundaries of what was previously considered acceptable regarding [[human sexuality]]. Examples include:
* [[Judy Blume]]'s ''[[Forever (novel)|Forever]]'' (1975) (a teen's first sexual encounter and teen pregnancy)
* [[Nancy Garden]]'s ''[[Annie on My Mind]]'' (1982) (two high-school girls who fall in love)
* Shelley Stoehr's ''[[Crosses]]'' (1991) (self-mutilation)
* [[Chris Crutcher]]'s ''[[Staying Fat for Sarah Byrnes]]'' (1993) (religion, peer pressure, child abuse, abortion)
* [[Rob Thomas]]'s "[[Rats Saw God]]" (1996) (drugs, sex)
* Linda Glovach's ''[[Beauty Queen]]'' (1998) (teenage exotic dancing, threesomes, and heroin addiction)
* [[Laurie Halse Anderson]]'s ''[[Speak (novel)|Speak]]'' (1999) (rape)
* [[Stephen Chbosky]]'s ''[[The Perks of Being a Wallflower]]'' (1999) (suicide, teenage sexuality, drug use, and abusive relationships)
* [[Sarah Dessen]]'s ''[[Dreamland]]'' (2000) (emotionally, mentally, and physically abusive relationships)
* Alex Flinn's ''[[Breathing Underwater]]'' (2001) (emotionally, mentally, and physically abusive relationships)
* [[Alex Sanchez]]'s ''[[Rainbow Boys]]'' (2001) (high school boys exploring gay sex, accepting their sexuality, and falling in love)
* Patricia McCormick's ''[[Cut]]'' (2001) (self-mutilation)
* [[Alice Hoffman]]'s ''[[Green Angel]]'' (2003) (self-mutilation)
* Angela Johnson's ''[[The First Part Last]]'' (2003) (teen fatherhood)
* Julie Anne Peters' ''[[Luna (novel)|Luna]]'' (2004) (a girl whose older brother is transsexual)
* [[Steve Berman]]'s ''Vintage, A Ghost Story'' (2007) (depressed gay boy who deals with suicide and loneliness)

YA novels currently in print include content about peer pressure, illness, divorce, drugs, gangs, crime, violence, [[Human sexuality|sexuality]], [[incest]], [[oral sex]], and [[types of rape|female/male rape]]. Critics of such content argue that the novels encourage destructive or immoral behavior. Others argue that fictional portrayal of teens successfully addressing difficult situations and confronting social issues helps readers deal with real-life challenges.

Debate continues regarding the amount and nature of violence [http://www.helium.com/tm/347575/violence-childrens-fiction-think] and profanity [http://www.helium.com/tm/197281/curse-clean-profanity-young] appropriate in young-adult fiction.

==Hyphens (young adult vs. young-adult)==
Recognition of the noun ''young adult'' and its punctuation as an adjectival modifier are inconsistent. Some dictionaries recognize ''young adult'' as a noun {{Harvard citation | Random House, 2nd | 1987}}, while others do not {{Harvard citation | Webster's International, 3rd | 2002}}. When recognized (as by Random House), ''young adult'' is treated as an open compound noun, with no hyphen.

When the noun ''young adult'' is placed before another noun (such as ''fiction'', ''novel'', ''author''), however, the use of a hyphen varies widely. For example, an Internet search (of the Web or of news articles) using the key words ''young adult fiction'' shows widespread inconsistency in hyphenation. Although the ''[[Chicago Manual of Style]]'' falls short of declaring the omission of the hyphen as grammatically incorrect, it clearly addresses the issue in "Compounds and Hyphenation," sections 7.82-7.86: "When such compounds precede a noun, hyphenation usually makes for easier reading. With the exception of proper nouns (such as United States) and compounds formed by an adverb ending in ''ly'' plus an adjective, it is never incorrect to hyphenate adjectival compounds before a noun."{{Harvard citation | Chicago Manual of Style, 15th Edition | 2003 | p = 300}} The ''Writer's Digest Grammar Desk Reference'' is a little more forceful on the subject: "The most complicated business conducted by hyphens is uniting words into adjectival compounds that precede nouns. Many writers neglect to hyphenate such compounds, and the result is ramshackle sentences that often frustrate the reader." {{Harvard citation | Writer's Digest Grammar Desk Reference | 2005 | p = 274-275}} The ''Wikipedia Manual of Style'' also addresses the issue of hyphens for compound adjectives. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wp:manual_of_style#Hyphens]

Although none of the sources cited above list ''young adult'' as an example, each clearly expresses a preference for hyphenating compound modifiers. With that in mind, ''young adult'' is a noun (without a hyphen) as defined by Random House. But when the noun ''young adult'' precedes another noun, it becomes a compound modifier and warrants a hyphen, as in young-adult fiction, young-adult author, young-adult novel, and so on. Especially since the sources do not declare the absence of a hyphen as grammatically incorrect, widespread inconsistencies in the punctuation of ''young adult'' are likely to continue, either out of ignorance or as conscious choice of style.

==Literature==
Whether any particular work of fiction qualifies as [[literature]] can be disputed. In recent years, however, YA fiction has been increasingly treated as an object of serious study by [[Children's literature criticism|children's literature critics]]. A growing number of [[young-adult-fiction awards]] recognize outstanding works of fiction for adolescents.

==Trends==
The category of YA fiction continues to expand into new forms and genres: [[e-books]], [[graphic novels]], [[manga]], [[fantasy]], [[mystery fiction]], [[romance novels]], even subcategories such as [[cyberpunk]], [[splatterpunk]], [[techno-thriller]]s, [[contemporary Christian fiction]].

==Boundaries between children's, YA, and adult fiction==
The distinctions between [[children's literature]], YA literature, and adult [[literature]] are often flexible and loosely defined. At the lower end of the YA age spectrum, fiction targeted to readers age 10 to 12 is referred to as middle grade fiction. Some novels originally marketed to adults have been identified as being of interest and value to adolescents.

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
*{{cite book
|title = Chicago Manual of Style, 15th Edition
|publisher = University of Chicago Press
| p = 300
|id = ISBN 0-226-10403-6
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Eccleshare
| first = Julia
| editor = Peter Hunt, ed.
| title = International Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature
| origyear = 1996
| publisher = Routledge
| location = London
| pages = 387-396
| chapter = Teenage Fiction: Realism, romances, contemporary problem novels
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Egoff
| first = Sheila
| editor = Shiela Egoff, ed.
| title = Only Connect: readings on children's literature
| edition = 2nd
| origyear = 1980
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| location = Ontario
| pages = 356-369
| chapter = The Problem Novel
}}
*{{cite book
|last = Garland
|first = Sherry
|year = 1998
|title = Writing for Young Adults
|publisher = Writer's Digest Books
|location = Cincinnati, OH
|pages = 5-11
|id = ISBN 0-89879-857-4
}}
*{{cite book
|last = Lutz and Stevenson
|title = The Writer's Digest Grammar Desk Reference
|year = 2005
|publisher = Writer's Digest Books
|location = Cincinnati, Ohio
|pages = 274-275
|chapter = The Hyphen
|id = ISBN 1-58297-335-0
}}
*{{cite journal
| last = Nilsen
| first = Alleen Pace
| year = 1994
| month = April
| title = That Was Then ... This Is Now
| journal = School Library Journal
| volume = 40
| issue = 4
| pages = 62–70
}}
*{{cite book
|publisher = Random House
|title = Random House Dictionary, 2nd edition
|year = 1987
|id = ISBN 0-394-50050-4
}}
*{{cite book
|title = Webster's Third New International Dictionary
|year = 2002
|publisher = Merriam-Webster
|id = ISBN 0-87779-206-2
}}

==Other publications==
* ''Authors and Artists for Young Adults'', serial publication (Gale, 1989+) with bio-bibliographies of novelists, poets, dramatists, filmmakers, cartoonists, painters, architects, and photographers which appeal to teenagers. Entries typically are six to twelve pages in length, have a black & white photo of the author/artist and other illustrations. Recent volumes include a sidebar recommending similar books/works the reader might like also.
* [[ALA Best Books for Young Adults]]<ref>[http://www.alastore.ala.org/SiteSolution.taf?_sn=catalog2&_pn=product_detail&_op=2339 ''Best Books for Young Adults, 3rd ed.'']</ref> by YALSA, edited by Holly Koelling.
* ''Books for the Teen Age'', annual book list selected by teens for teens, sponsored by the New York Public Library [http://teenlink.nypl.org/bta1.cfm]
* [http://www.alastore.ala.org/SiteSolution.taf?_sn=catalog2&_pn=product_detail&_op=1855 '' More Outstanding Books for the College Bound''], by YALSA (Young Adult Library Services Association), professional organization for librarians serving teens in either public libraries or school library/media centers; a division of ALA. [http://www.ala.org/ala/yalsa/yalsa.htm]
*Diana Tixier Herald. (2003) ''Teen Genreflecting''. 2nd ed. Wesport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited.
*[http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/lion_and_the_unicorn/v029/29.3yampbell.html Judging a Book by Its Cover:  Publishing Trends in Young Adult Literature], by Cat Yampbell, ''The Lion and the Unicorn''; Sep 2005; 29:3; Children's Module, The [[Johns Hopkins University Press]], pp348-372, at p350-351.
*Frances FitzGerald, "The Influence of Anxiety" in ''[[Harper's]]'', September 2004, p. 62-70
*Grenby, Matthew. “Introduction.” ''The Guardian of Education''. Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 2002. ISBN 1843710110.

==External links==
* "[http://www.helium.com/tm/197281/curse-clean-profanity-young Cuss, Curse, or Clean It Up: How much, if any, Profanity to Use in Young-Adult Fiction]", by Mike Klaassen, ''Helium.com'', 3 Mar 2007.
* [http://www.awardannals.com/wiki/Honor_roll:Young_Adult_books Honor Roll: Young Adult Books]. A list ranked by literary honors and awards.
* [http://www.macleans.ca/culture/media/article.jsp?content=20071015_110183_110183 In defense of mean-girl books], by Lianne George, ''Macleans'', 15 Oct 2007.

* "[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8962686/ New Trend in Teen Fiction: Racy Reads; Parents Alarmed that Books are More 'Sex and the City' than Nancy Drew]", by Janet Shamlian, ''NBC News'', 15 Aug 2005.

* "[http://pdfs.voya.com/VO/YA2/VOYA200602AuthorTalk.pdf Now and ''Forever'': The Power of Sex in Young Adult Literature]," by Tanya Lee Stone, ''VOYA'', Feb 2006.
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12093236&sc=emaf NPR: Multicultural Books Offer Diverse Reading Experience] Michel Martin interviews ALA President Loriene Roy, 19 Jul 2007.

* "[http://www.safelibraries.org/page_burners_sex_and_the_teenage_girl4apr2006by_tania_padgett.htm Page Burners: Sex and the Teenage Girl; What Goes On Between the Covers Is Now What Goes On Between the Covers of New Fiction Aimed at Young Adults]," by Tania Padgett, ''Newsday'', 4 Apr 2006.

* "[http://www.southcoasttoday.com/daily/08-05/08-06-05/b01li276.htm Racy Reading; Gossip Girl Series is Latest Installment in Provocative Teen Fiction, and It's As Popular As It Is Controversial]," by Linda Shrieves, ''The Orlando Sentinel'', 6 Aug 2005.

*"[http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/books/306531_teenlit08.html Teens and their Literature are Rocking the Marketplace]", ''Seattle Post Intelligencer'', 7 Mar 2007.
*[http://www.wdbj7.com/Global/story.asp?S=6474837 "Teens Reading More Challenging Books"], ''WDBJ-7'', 5 May 2007.

* "[http://www.helium.com/tm/347575/violence-childrens-fiction-think Violence in Young-Adult Fiction: Acceptable, Beneficial, or Inexcusable?]" , by Mike Klaassen, ''Helium.com'', 21 May 2007.
*[http://www.roanoke.com/entertainment/wb/xp-136866 "Who Says Teens Don't Read?"] by Erinn Hutkin, ''Roanoake Times'', 30 Oct 2007.

* "[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/12/books/review/12wolf.html Young Adult Fiction: Wild Things]," by [[Naomi Wolf]], ''The New York Times'', 12 Mar 2006.

* "[http://www.helium.com/tm/772208/young-adult-fiction-makes Young-Adult Fiction: What Makes a Great Novel for Boys?]" , by Mike Klaassen, ''Helium.com'', 1 Jan 2008.
*[http://talistay.bitpartmedia.com A Change In The Weather] by Robert Gould, a modern-day fairy tale for young adults.

==See also==
{{portal|Young Adult Literature}}
*[[Children's literature]]
*[[Children's literature periodicals]]
*[[Gay teen fiction]]
*[[Lesbian teen fiction]]
*[[List of young adult authors]]
*[[Young Adult Library Services Association]]

[[Category:Children's literature]]
[[Category:Young adult literature]]
[[Category:Fiction]]
[[Category:Fiction by genre]]
[[Category:Young adult novels]]
[[Category:Young adult novels]]

[[de:Kinder- und Jugendliteratur#Jugendromane]]
[[nl:Jeugdliteratuur#Jeugdliteratuur]]
[[fi:Nuortenkirjallisuus]]
[[sv:Ungdomslitteratur]]
[[th:วรรณกรรมเยาวชน]]

Benjamin Franklin National Memorial

2008-07-28T19:44:33Z

Philly jawn: box

{{Infobox_nrhp | name =Benjamin Franklin National Memorial
| nrhp_type = nmem
| image = Benjamin Franklin National Memorial.jpg
| caption = Fraser's Franklin Statue
| location= [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], [[United States|USA]]
| lat_degrees = 39
| lat_minutes = 57
| lat_seconds = 30
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 75
| long_minutes = 10
| long_seconds = 23
| long_direction = W
| locmapin = Pennsylvania
| area =
| built =1912
| architect= Multiple
| architecture= [[Greek Revival]]
| visitation_num = 3,638,806
| visitation_year = 2005
| area = 107.43 acres (0.43 km²)
| added = [[October 25]], [[1972]]
| governing_body = [[Franklin Institute]]
| refnum=
}}

'''Benjamin Franklin National Memorial''', located in the rotunda of the [[Franklin Institute]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], features a colossal seated statue of [[Benjamin Franklin]]. The 20 foot (6 m) high memorial, sculpted by [[James Earle Fraser]] between 1906 and 1911, honors the writer, inventor and American statesman. The statue weighs 30 tons (27,000 kg) and sits on a 92-ton (83,000 kg) pedestal of white [[Seravezza, Italy|Seravezza]] marble. The statue is the focal piece of the memorial hall, designed by [[John T. Windrim]] after the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], dedicated in 1938.

[[Congress of the United States|Congress]] designated the [[national memorial]] on [[October 25]], [[1972]] (Public Law 92-551). Unlike most national memorials, the statue is not listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]. The national memorial is an affiliated area of the [[National Park Service]], assigned to [[Independence National Historical Park]] through a Memorandum of Agreement entered into on [[November 6]], [[1973]]. Under the terms of the agreement, the Institute owns and maintains the publicly accessible memorial, and the Park Service includes the memorial in official publications and otherwise cooperates with the Institute in all appropriate and mutually agreeable ways on behalf of the memorial.

Public Law 109-153 ([[December 30]], [[2005]]) authorizes the [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]] to make available to the Institute up to $10,000,000 in matching grants for the rehabilitation of the memorial and for the development of related exhibits. This appropriation commemorates the 300th anniversary of the Franklin's birth on [[January 17]], [[2006]].

The memorial prominently appears in the movie ''[[National Treasure (film)|National Treasure]].''

==References==
* ''The National Parks: Index 2001–2003''. Washington: [[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of the Interior]].

==See also==
{{portalpar|Philadelphia|Libertybell alone small.jpg}}
*[[Benjamin Franklin House]] - the only surviving home of Benjamin Franklin, now a museum. It is in [[London]], [[England]].

==External links==
* [http://photo.itc.nps.gov/storage/images/frme/frme-Thumb.00001.html National Park Service images of Benjamin Franklin National Memorial]
* [http://www.doi.gov/ocl/2004/S1852.htm Statement by NPS Dept. Director Durand concerning financial assistance for the Ben. Franklin Nat'l Memorial]
* [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=109_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ153.109 Public Law 109-153]
* [http://www.nationalcowboymuseum.org/research/r_a_fras.html James Earle Fraser biography]

[[Category:1972 establishments]]
[[Category:Benjamin Franklin]]
[[Category:Landmarks in Philadelphia]]
[[Category:National Memorials of the United States]]

Rhodes College

2008-07-16T00:57:15Z

Philly jawn: /* History */

{{coord|35.155810615149804|-89.99096632003784|display=title}}
{{Infobox University
|name = Rhodes College
|image = [[Image:Rhodes-Logo.gif]]
|motto= ''Truth, Loyalty, Service''
|president = [[William E. Troutt]]
|type =[[Liberal arts colleges in the United States|liberal arts college]]
|affiliations = [[Presbyterian Church (USA)|Presbyterian]]
|established = 1848
|city = [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]]
|state = [[Tennessee]]
|country = [[United States]]
|undergrad = 1690
|faculty = 167 (137 full-time, 30 part-time)
|endowment = US $252 million
|campus = Urban, 100 acres (400,000 m²)
|mascot = [[Lynx]]
|website = http://www.rhodes.edu/
}}

'''Rhodes College''' is a four-year, private, perennial top-tier [[Liberal arts colleges in the United States|liberal arts college]] located in [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Tennessee]]. Founded in 1848, Rhodes enrolls approximately 1,700 students. About one third of Rhodes students go on to graduate and professional school soon after graduation<ref>Franek, Robert et al, The Best 361 Colleges: the Smart Student's Guide to Colleges, Random House, Inc., New York, 2006, p. 424.</ref>. The acceptance rates to law and business schools are around 95%, and the acceptance rate to medical school is nearly twice the national average.<ref>Pope, Loren, Colleges that Change Lives: 40 Schools That Will Change the Way You Think About Colleges, Penguin Books, New York, 2006, p. 185.</ref>

Rhodes College is featured in [[Loren Pope]]'s, ''[[Colleges That Change Lives]]'' and is featured on the cover of the 2008 [[Princeton Review]] Complete Book of Colleges.

==History==
Rhodes College traces its origin as a degree-granting institution to the Masonic University of Tennessee, founded in 1848 in [[Clarksville, Tennessee|Clarksville]], [[Tennessee]]. The institution became Montgomery Masonic College in 1850 and later was renamed Stewart College in honor of its president William M. Stewart. It was under Stewart's leadership that control of the college passed from the [[Freemasonry|Masons]] to the [[Presbyterian Church (USA)|Presbyterian Church]] in 1855. In 1875, the college added to its undergraduate program a School of Theology and became Southwestern Presbyterian University. The School of Theology operated until 1917.

In 1925, president [[Charles Diehl]] led the college in a move to its present campus in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] (the Clarksville campus would later become [[Austin Peay State University]]). At that time, the college shortened its name to Southwestern. In 1945, the college adopted the name Southwestern at Memphis, to distinguish itself from other colleges and universities containing the name "Southwestern." Finally, in 1984, the college's name was changed to Rhodes College to honor former college president, and Diehl's successor, [[Peyton Nalle Rhodes]].<ref name="TN">http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/imagegallery.php?EntryID=R029</ref>

Since 1984, Rhodes has grown from a regionally recognized institution to a nationally ranked liberal arts college."<ref>Pope, Loren, Colleges that Change Lives: 40 Schools That Will Change the Way You Think About Colleges, Penguin Books, New York, 2006, p. 181. See also "Best Liberal Arts Colleges", America's Best Colleges, US News and World Report, 1999-2007.</ref> Even as overall enrollment has increased over the past twenty years, the student body has comprised increasing proportions of students from outside Tennessee and the Southeast region.<ref>data available via [http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS)], National Center for Education Statistics.</ref>

The current president of Rhodes is Dr. [[William E. Troutt]], who joined the college as the 19th president in 1999. His predecessor, [[James H. Daughdrill, Jr.|Dr. James Daughdrill]], served as president for over a quarter century.

==Campus==
The campus covers a {{convert|100|acre|km2|sing=on}} tract in midtown Memphis across from [[Overton Park]] and the [[Memphis Zoo]]. Often cited for its beauty,<ref>as in Turner South's Blue Ribbon, Princeton Review, Collegiate Gothic: The Architecture of Rhodes College by William Stroud, and other sources</ref> the campus design is notable for its stone [[Gothic architecture]] buildings, thirteen of which are currently listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[http://www.rhodes.edu/about/899.asp] The original buildings, including Palmer Hall (1925), Kennedy Hall (1925), and Robb and White dormitories (1925), were designed by Henry Hibbs in consultation with [[Charles Klauder]], who designed many buildings at [[Princeton University]], alma mater of college president Charles Diehl. Later buildings were designed by H. Clinton Parrent, a young associate of Hibbs who was present from the beginning. Parrent's buildings include the Catherine Burrow Refectory (1957), which was an expansion of Hibbs' original dining hall. Parrent also added Halliburton Tower (1962) to Palmer Hall. The {{convert|140|ft|m|sing=on}} bell tower was named in honor of explorer [[Richard Halliburton]]. Rhodes maintains its Collegiate Gothic architecture, including the new Barret Library (2005) designed by the firm of Hanbury Evans Wright and Vlattas.

==Students and faculty==
Rhodes enrolls 1690 undergraduate students from 43 states, the District of Columbia, and 5 foreign countries; about 86% are [[whites|Caucasian]], 6% are [[African American]], 5% are [[Asia]]n and 1.6% are [[Hispanic]]. Fifty-seven percent of students are female. The student-to-faculty ratio is 11:1.<ref>These figures are published in the Rhodes College [http://www.rhodes.edu/1328.asp Common Data Set]</ref> Popular majors include Economics and [[Business]] Administration, [[Biology]], [[Political Science]], [[English language|English]], and International Studies.

==Traditions, sports, and clubs==
Rhodes is one of 62 colleges recently classified for both "Curricular Engagement" and "Outreach & Partnerships" in the "Community Engagement" category by [[The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]]. Approximately 80% of Rhodes students participate in some form of community service by the time they graduate.<ref>Franek, Robert et al, The Best 361 Colleges: the Smart Student's Guide to Colleges, Random House, Inc., New York, 2006, p. 425.</ref> The college's new curriculum includes a requirement that students participate in activities that broaden the connection between classroom experiences and the outside world. The [http://www.rhodes.edu/about/4069.asp mission statement] of the college also reinforces community engagement, aspiring to "graduate students with...a compassion for others and the ability to translate academic study and personal concern into effective leadership and action in their communities and the world."

Central to the life of the college is its Honor Code, administered by students through the Honor Council. Every student is required to sign the Code, which reads, "As a member of the Rhodes College community, I pledge my full and steadfast support to the Honor System and agree neither to lie, cheat, nor steal and to report any such violation that I may witness." Because of this, students enjoy a relationship of trust with their professors and benefits such as taking closed book final exams in the privacy of their own rooms.

The college mascot is the [[lynx]] and the school colors are red and black. The athletic teams compete in the [[Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference]] in the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]]'s Division III. Rhodes counts five national championships to its credit - one awarded to the 1961 baseball team, and four awarded to its outstanding [[mock trial]] team.

Rites of Spring, a three day music festival in early April, is a major social event of the school year, and typically attracts several major bands from around the country. In recent years, an adjunct celebration called Rites to Play has brought to campus elementary aged children from all of the various community agencies and schools that partner with Rhodes. The Rhodes students plan, organize, and execute a carnival for the kids.

The ''J. Hal Daughdrill Award,'' is given to the "Most Valuable Player" of the [[Rhodes_College#Traditions.2C_sports.2C_and_clubs|Lynx football team]]. The award honors James Harold Daughdrill, Sr. (1903-1986), outstanding football player, athlete, business leader, and the father of Rhodes' eighteenth President.<ref>http://www.rhodeslynx.com/index.asp?path=football</ref> The ''Rebecca Rish Gay Award'' and ''Walter E. Gay Award'' are given to the "Athletes of the Year" and are named after the parents of former President Daughdrill’s wife, Libby Daughdrill.<ref>http://www.rhodeslynx.com/News/wbball/2008/4/17/Athletes%20of%20the%20Year.asp?path=wbball</ref>

==Greek Life==
There are a number of social fraternities and sororities at Rhodes. Approximately 50% of the students are members of Greek organizations. The fraternity and sorority lodges are not, however, residential.

===Sororities===
(in order of establishment at Rhodes)
* [[Chi Omega]] 1922
* [[Alpha Omicron Pi]] 1925
* [[Kappa Delta]] 1925
* [[Delta Delta Delta]] 1931
* [[Alpha Kappa Alpha]]
* [[Sigma Gamma Rho]]
* [[Delta Sigma Theta]]

===Fraternities===
(in order of establishment at Rhodes)
*[[Pi Kappa Alpha]] 1878
*[[Alpha Tau Omega]]
*[[Sigma Alpha Epsilon]] 1882
*[[Kappa Sigma]]
*[[Kappa Alpha Order]]
*[[Sigma Nu]]
*[[Kappa Alpha Psi]]

==Noted alumni==
===Business===

*[[John H. Bryan]] '58, former CEO of [[Sara Lee]]
*RJ Harper '78, Senior Vice President, Golf, Pebble Beach Resorts
*Cliff Watson '92, Creative Director, advertising agency Bozell
*Stinson Liles '92, Co-Founder, [[Red Deluxe Brand Development]]
*William J. Michaelcheck '69, CEO Mariner Capital
*Vicki Gilmore Palmer '75, Executive Vice President, [[Coca-Cola Enterprises, Inc.]]
*Knox Phillips '67, CEO Phillips Recording Studio
* Marcie Allen Cardwell '96, President MAC Presents
*Arthur Rollins '81, one of the country's top financial advisers<ref>[http://www.ml.com/index.asp?id=7695_8134_8296_6018_74696_77107_77907 "Top-Ranked on Barron's List of Top 100 Advisors"]</ref>

===Medicine===

* John Robertson '68, President, American Association of Neurologic Surgeons

===Civic===

*Cary Fowler '71, Executive Director, [[Global Crop Diversity Trust]]

===Culture and Performing Arts===

*Ken Cameron '89, Associate Curator, [[New York Botanical Garden]]
*[[Dixie Carter]] '62, Emmy-nominated Actor
*[[Carroll Cloar]], [[Guggenheim Fellow]] and internationally recognized artist.
*Dina Facklis '93, Director, Second City National Touring Company
*Sid Selvidge '65, Executive Producer, Beale Street Caravan, a globally-syndicated radio program

===Scholars===

*Joseph M. Ajello '62, Senior Research Scientist, Cassini UVIS Co-Investigator, Earth and Space Sciences Division, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory
*John H. Churchill '71, Secretary, The Phi Beta Kappa Society; President, The National Humanities Alliance
*C. [[Lee Giles]], '68, David Reese Professor of Information Sciences and Technology, Professor of Computer Science and Engineering, Professor of Supply Chain and Information Systems, Pennsylvania State University; Fellow of the ACM, IEEE and INNS
*[[Mark D. West]] '89, University of Michigan Nippon Life Professor of Law; Director of the Academic Program for the Center for Japanese Studies
*Sidney Strickland ’68, Vice President for Educational Affairs and Dean of Graduate and Post Graduate Studies, Rockefeller University

===Authors===

*[[Charlaine Harris]] '73, Best-selling mystery writer
*[[John Boswell]] '67, author; Publisher, John Boswell Associates
*Richard Jennings '66, author of children's books
*Steve Stern '70 author of "Lazar Malkin Enters Heaven" and "The Angel of Forgetfulness"
*[[Peter Matthew Hillsman Taylor]] '39, award-winning author
*[[Anne Howard Bailey]] '45, television writer

===Government and Military===

*[[Bill Alexander]] '57, served as Chief Deputy Majority Whip while representing eastern [[Arkansas]] in the [[United States House of Representatives]] from 1969-1993.
*[[Abe Fortas]] '30, [[U.S. Supreme Court]] justice (1965-1969) & President [[Lyndon Johnson]]'s nominee for [[Chief Justice of the United States]]. He authored the opinion in the 1969 case Tinker v. Des Moines School District, accepting the rights of schoolchildren to wear black armbands to protest the Vietnam War.
*[[Claudia Kennedy]] '69, [[U.S. Army]] [[Lt. General]] and Army Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence. Gen. Kennedy is a member of the [[Military Intelligence Hall of Fame]], and the first woman to hold a three-star rank in the U.S. Army.

==Noted staff==
===Administrators===
*Timothy Sharp, Dean of Academic Affairs-Fine Art. Conducted the [[Rhodes Singers]] and MasterSingers Chorale in performances at Carnegie Hall.
*[[William E. Troutt]], President, former Chair of the American Council on Education and the National Commission on the Cost of Education and member of the Lincoln Commission on Study Abroad.
*[[Dave Wottle]], Dean of Admissions, Olympic gold-medal winner.

===Professors===
*Andrew Terjesen, award-winning Philosopher.
*Tina Barr, award-winning poet.
*Eric Gottlieb, Chair of the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, 2004 Fulbright Scholar
*Timothy Huebner, Professor of History, 2004 Tennessee Professor of the Year by The Carnegie Foundation and the Council for the Advancement and Support of Education
*Michael Leslie, Professor of English and the Dean of British Studies at Oxford (the oldest American exchange program at [[Oxford University]])
*David McCarthy, Professor of Art, [[Smithsonian]] Fellow[http://www.si.edu/ofg/fellowopp.htm].
*Mark Muesse, Associate Professor of Religious Studies. Produced two lecture series and companion books on Hinduism and on Axial Age Religions for The Teaching Company.
*Michael Nelson, Professor of Political Science, author, and media analyst focused on the American presidency.
*Marcus Pohlmann, Professor of Political Science, coach of the Rhodes Mock trial program, President of the [http://www.collegemocktrial.org American Mock Trial Association]. Coached Rhodes to record numbers of national championships (4), finals appearances (7), top-ten finishes (16), and consecutive top-ten finishes.

== See also ==
* [[Rhodes Singers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.rhodes.edu/ Rhodes College]

{{Tennessee private colleges and universities}}
{{Colleges and universities in the Memphis Metro Area}}
{{Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference}}
{{Presbyterian Colleges}}
{{Annapolis Group}}

[[Category:Education in Memphis, Tennessee]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Tennessee]]
[[Category:Liberal arts colleges]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1848]]
[[Category:Southern Association of Colleges and Schools]]

Rhodes College

2008-07-16T00:46:11Z

Philly jawn: /* Traditions, sports, and clubs */

{{coord|35.155810615149804|-89.99096632003784|display=title}}
{{Infobox University
|name = Rhodes College
|image = [[Image:Rhodes-Logo.gif]]
|motto= ''Truth, Loyalty, Service''
|president = [[William E. Troutt]]
|type =[[Liberal arts colleges in the United States|liberal arts college]]
|affiliations = [[Presbyterian Church (USA)|Presbyterian]]
|established = 1848
|city = [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]]
|state = [[Tennessee]]
|country = [[United States]]
|undergrad = 1690
|faculty = 167 (137 full-time, 30 part-time)
|endowment = US $252 million
|campus = Urban, 100 acres (400,000 m²)
|mascot = [[Lynx]]
|website = http://www.rhodes.edu/
}}

'''Rhodes College''' is a four-year, private, perennial top-tier [[Liberal arts colleges in the United States|liberal arts college]] located in [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Tennessee]]. Founded in 1848, Rhodes enrolls approximately 1,700 students. About one third of Rhodes students go on to graduate and professional school soon after graduation<ref>Franek, Robert et al, The Best 361 Colleges: the Smart Student's Guide to Colleges, Random House, Inc., New York, 2006, p. 424.</ref>. The acceptance rates to law and business schools are around 95%, and the acceptance rate to medical school is nearly twice the national average.<ref>Pope, Loren, Colleges that Change Lives: 40 Schools That Will Change the Way You Think About Colleges, Penguin Books, New York, 2006, p. 185.</ref>

Rhodes College is featured in [[Loren Pope]]'s, ''[[Colleges That Change Lives]]'' and is featured on the cover of the 2008 [[Princeton Review]] Complete Book of Colleges.

==History==
Rhodes College traces its origin as a degree-granting institution to the Masonic University of Tennessee, founded in 1848 in [[Clarksville, Tennessee|Clarksville]], [[Tennessee]]. The institution became Montgomery Masonic College in 1850 and later was renamed Stewart College in honor of its president William M. Stewart. It was under Stewart's leadership that control of the college passed from the [[Freemasonry|Masons]] to the [[Presbyterian Church (USA)|Presbyterian Church]] in 1855. In 1875, the college added to its undergraduate program a School of Theology and became Southwestern Presbyterian University. The School of Theology operated until 1917.

In 1925, president Charles Diehl led the college in a move to its present campus in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] (the Clarksville campus would later become [[Austin Peay State University]]). At that time, the college shortened its name to Southwestern. In 1945, the college adopted the name Southwestern at Memphis, to distinguish itself from other colleges and universities containing the name "Southwestern." Finally, in 1984, the college's name was changed to Rhodes College to honor former college president Peyton Nalle Rhodes.

Since 1984, Rhodes has grown from a regionally recognized institution to a nationally ranked liberal arts college."<ref>Pope, Loren, Colleges that Change Lives: 40 Schools That Will Change the Way You Think About Colleges, Penguin Books, New York, 2006, p. 181. See also "Best Liberal Arts Colleges", America's Best Colleges, US News and World Report, 1999-2007.</ref> Even as overall enrollment has increased over the past twenty years, the student body has comprised increasing proportions of students from outside Tennessee and the Southeast region.<ref>data available via [http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS)], National Center for Education Statistics.</ref>

The current president of Rhodes is Dr. [[William E. Troutt]], who joined the college as the 19th president in 1999. His predecessor, [[James H. Daughdrill, Jr.|Dr. James Daughdrill]], served as president for over a quarter century.

==Campus==
The campus covers a {{convert|100|acre|km2|sing=on}} tract in midtown Memphis across from [[Overton Park]] and the [[Memphis Zoo]]. Often cited for its beauty,<ref>as in Turner South's Blue Ribbon, Princeton Review, Collegiate Gothic: The Architecture of Rhodes College by William Stroud, and other sources</ref> the campus design is notable for its stone [[Gothic architecture]] buildings, thirteen of which are currently listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[http://www.rhodes.edu/about/899.asp] The original buildings, including Palmer Hall (1925), Kennedy Hall (1925), and Robb and White dormitories (1925), were designed by Henry Hibbs in consultation with [[Charles Klauder]], who designed many buildings at [[Princeton University]], alma mater of college president Charles Diehl. Later buildings were designed by H. Clinton Parrent, a young associate of Hibbs who was present from the beginning. Parrent's buildings include the Catherine Burrow Refectory (1957), which was an expansion of Hibbs' original dining hall. Parrent also added Halliburton Tower (1962) to Palmer Hall. The {{convert|140|ft|m|sing=on}} bell tower was named in honor of explorer [[Richard Halliburton]]. Rhodes maintains its Collegiate Gothic architecture, including the new Barret Library (2005) designed by the firm of Hanbury Evans Wright and Vlattas.

==Students and faculty==
Rhodes enrolls 1690 undergraduate students from 43 states, the District of Columbia, and 5 foreign countries; about 86% are [[whites|Caucasian]], 6% are [[African American]], 5% are [[Asia]]n and 1.6% are [[Hispanic]]. Fifty-seven percent of students are female. The student-to-faculty ratio is 11:1.<ref>These figures are published in the Rhodes College [http://www.rhodes.edu/1328.asp Common Data Set]</ref> Popular majors include Economics and [[Business]] Administration, [[Biology]], [[Political Science]], [[English language|English]], and International Studies.

==Traditions, sports, and clubs==
Rhodes is one of 62 colleges recently classified for both "Curricular Engagement" and "Outreach & Partnerships" in the "Community Engagement" category by [[The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]]. Approximately 80% of Rhodes students participate in some form of community service by the time they graduate.<ref>Franek, Robert et al, The Best 361 Colleges: the Smart Student's Guide to Colleges, Random House, Inc., New York, 2006, p. 425.</ref> The college's new curriculum includes a requirement that students participate in activities that broaden the connection between classroom experiences and the outside world. The [http://www.rhodes.edu/about/4069.asp mission statement] of the college also reinforces community engagement, aspiring to "graduate students with...a compassion for others and the ability to translate academic study and personal concern into effective leadership and action in their communities and the world."

Central to the life of the college is its Honor Code, administered by students through the Honor Council. Every student is required to sign the Code, which reads, "As a member of the Rhodes College community, I pledge my full and steadfast support to the Honor System and agree neither to lie, cheat, nor steal and to report any such violation that I may witness." Because of this, students enjoy a relationship of trust with their professors and benefits such as taking closed book final exams in the privacy of their own rooms.

The college mascot is the [[lynx]] and the school colors are red and black. The athletic teams compete in the [[Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference]] in the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]]'s Division III. Rhodes counts five national championships to its credit - one awarded to the 1961 baseball team, and four awarded to its outstanding [[mock trial]] team.

Rites of Spring, a three day music festival in early April, is a major social event of the school year, and typically attracts several major bands from around the country. In recent years, an adjunct celebration called Rites to Play has brought to campus elementary aged children from all of the various community agencies and schools that partner with Rhodes. The Rhodes students plan, organize, and execute a carnival for the kids.

The ''J. Hal Daughdrill Award,'' is given to the "Most Valuable Player" of the [[Rhodes_College#Traditions.2C_sports.2C_and_clubs|Lynx football team]]. The award honors James Harold Daughdrill, Sr. (1903-1986), outstanding football player, athlete, business leader, and the father of Rhodes' eighteenth President.<ref>http://www.rhodeslynx.com/index.asp?path=football</ref> The ''Rebecca Rish Gay Award'' and ''Walter E. Gay Award'' are given to the "Athletes of the Year" and are named after the parents of former President Daughdrill’s wife, Libby Daughdrill.<ref>http://www.rhodeslynx.com/News/wbball/2008/4/17/Athletes%20of%20the%20Year.asp?path=wbball</ref>

==Greek Life==
There are a number of social fraternities and sororities at Rhodes. Approximately 50% of the students are members of Greek organizations. The fraternity and sorority lodges are not, however, residential.

===Sororities===
(in order of establishment at Rhodes)
* [[Chi Omega]] 1922
* [[Alpha Omicron Pi]] 1925
* [[Kappa Delta]] 1925
* [[Delta Delta Delta]] 1931
* [[Alpha Kappa Alpha]]
* [[Sigma Gamma Rho]]
* [[Delta Sigma Theta]]

===Fraternities===
(in order of establishment at Rhodes)
*[[Pi Kappa Alpha]] 1878
*[[Alpha Tau Omega]]
*[[Sigma Alpha Epsilon]] 1882
*[[Kappa Sigma]]
*[[Kappa Alpha Order]]
*[[Sigma Nu]]
*[[Kappa Alpha Psi]]

==Noted alumni==
===Business===

*[[John H. Bryan]] '58, former CEO of [[Sara Lee]]
*RJ Harper '78, Senior Vice President, Golf, Pebble Beach Resorts
*Cliff Watson '92, Creative Director, advertising agency Bozell
*Stinson Liles '92, Co-Founder, [[Red Deluxe Brand Development]]
*William J. Michaelcheck '69, CEO Mariner Capital
*Vicki Gilmore Palmer '75, Executive Vice President, [[Coca-Cola Enterprises, Inc.]]
*Knox Phillips '67, CEO Phillips Recording Studio
* Marcie Allen Cardwell '96, President MAC Presents
*Arthur Rollins '81, one of the country's top financial advisers<ref>[http://www.ml.com/index.asp?id=7695_8134_8296_6018_74696_77107_77907 "Top-Ranked on Barron's List of Top 100 Advisors"]</ref>

===Medicine===

* John Robertson '68, President, American Association of Neurologic Surgeons

===Civic===

*Cary Fowler '71, Executive Director, [[Global Crop Diversity Trust]]

===Culture and Performing Arts===

*Ken Cameron '89, Associate Curator, [[New York Botanical Garden]]
*[[Dixie Carter]] '62, Emmy-nominated Actor
*[[Carroll Cloar]], [[Guggenheim Fellow]] and internationally recognized artist.
*Dina Facklis '93, Director, Second City National Touring Company
*Sid Selvidge '65, Executive Producer, Beale Street Caravan, a globally-syndicated radio program

===Scholars===

*Joseph M. Ajello '62, Senior Research Scientist, Cassini UVIS Co-Investigator, Earth and Space Sciences Division, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory
*John H. Churchill '71, Secretary, The Phi Beta Kappa Society; President, The National Humanities Alliance
*C. [[Lee Giles]], '68, David Reese Professor of Information Sciences and Technology, Professor of Computer Science and Engineering, Professor of Supply Chain and Information Systems, Pennsylvania State University; Fellow of the ACM, IEEE and INNS
*[[Mark D. West]] '89, University of Michigan Nippon Life Professor of Law; Director of the Academic Program for the Center for Japanese Studies
*Sidney Strickland ’68, Vice President for Educational Affairs and Dean of Graduate and Post Graduate Studies, Rockefeller University

===Authors===

*[[Charlaine Harris]] '73, Best-selling mystery writer
*[[John Boswell]] '67, author; Publisher, John Boswell Associates
*Richard Jennings '66, author of children's books
*Steve Stern '70 author of "Lazar Malkin Enters Heaven" and "The Angel of Forgetfulness"
*[[Peter Matthew Hillsman Taylor]] '39, award-winning author
*[[Anne Howard Bailey]] '45, television writer

===Government and Military===

*[[Bill Alexander]] '57, served as Chief Deputy Majority Whip while representing eastern [[Arkansas]] in the [[United States House of Representatives]] from 1969-1993.
*[[Abe Fortas]] '30, [[U.S. Supreme Court]] justice (1965-1969) & President [[Lyndon Johnson]]'s nominee for [[Chief Justice of the United States]]. He authored the opinion in the 1969 case Tinker v. Des Moines School District, accepting the rights of schoolchildren to wear black armbands to protest the Vietnam War.
*[[Claudia Kennedy]] '69, [[U.S. Army]] [[Lt. General]] and Army Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence. Gen. Kennedy is a member of the [[Military Intelligence Hall of Fame]], and the first woman to hold a three-star rank in the U.S. Army.

==Noted staff==
===Administrators===
*Timothy Sharp, Dean of Academic Affairs-Fine Art. Conducted the [[Rhodes Singers]] and MasterSingers Chorale in performances at Carnegie Hall.
*[[William E. Troutt]], President, former Chair of the American Council on Education and the National Commission on the Cost of Education and member of the Lincoln Commission on Study Abroad.
*[[Dave Wottle]], Dean of Admissions, Olympic gold-medal winner.

===Professors===
*Andrew Terjesen, award-winning Philosopher.
*Tina Barr, award-winning poet.
*Eric Gottlieb, Chair of the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, 2004 Fulbright Scholar
*Timothy Huebner, Professor of History, 2004 Tennessee Professor of the Year by The Carnegie Foundation and the Council for the Advancement and Support of Education
*Michael Leslie, Professor of English and the Dean of British Studies at Oxford (the oldest American exchange program at [[Oxford University]])
*David McCarthy, Professor of Art, [[Smithsonian]] Fellow[http://www.si.edu/ofg/fellowopp.htm].
*Mark Muesse, Associate Professor of Religious Studies. Produced two lecture series and companion books on Hinduism and on Axial Age Religions for The Teaching Company.
*Michael Nelson, Professor of Political Science, author, and media analyst focused on the American presidency.
*Marcus Pohlmann, Professor of Political Science, coach of the Rhodes Mock trial program, President of the [http://www.collegemocktrial.org American Mock Trial Association]. Coached Rhodes to record numbers of national championships (4), finals appearances (7), top-ten finishes (16), and consecutive top-ten finishes.

== See also ==
* [[Rhodes Singers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.rhodes.edu/ Rhodes College]

{{Tennessee private colleges and universities}}
{{Colleges and universities in the Memphis Metro Area}}
{{Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference}}
{{Presbyterian Colleges}}
{{Annapolis Group}}

[[Category:Education in Memphis, Tennessee]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Tennessee]]
[[Category:Liberal arts colleges]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1848]]
[[Category:Southern Association of Colleges and Schools]]

Rhodes College

2008-07-16T00:22:16Z

Philly jawn: /* History */

{{coord|35.155810615149804|-89.99096632003784|display=title}}
{{Infobox University
|name = Rhodes College
|image = [[Image:Rhodes-Logo.gif]]
|motto= ''Truth, Loyalty, Service''
|president = [[William E. Troutt]]
|type =[[Liberal arts colleges in the United States|liberal arts college]]
|affiliations = [[Presbyterian Church (USA)|Presbyterian]]
|established = 1848
|city = [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]]
|state = [[Tennessee]]
|country = [[United States]]
|undergrad = 1690
|faculty = 167 (137 full-time, 30 part-time)
|endowment = US $252 million
|campus = Urban, 100 acres (400,000 m²)
|mascot = [[Lynx]]
|website = http://www.rhodes.edu/
}}

'''Rhodes College''' is a four-year, private, perennial top-tier [[Liberal arts colleges in the United States|liberal arts college]] located in [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Tennessee]]. Founded in 1848, Rhodes enrolls approximately 1,700 students. About one third of Rhodes students go on to graduate and professional school soon after graduation<ref>Franek, Robert et al, The Best 361 Colleges: the Smart Student's Guide to Colleges, Random House, Inc., New York, 2006, p. 424.</ref>. The acceptance rates to law and business schools are around 95%, and the acceptance rate to medical school is nearly twice the national average.<ref>Pope, Loren, Colleges that Change Lives: 40 Schools That Will Change the Way You Think About Colleges, Penguin Books, New York, 2006, p. 185.</ref>

Rhodes College is featured in [[Loren Pope]]'s, ''[[Colleges That Change Lives]]'' and is featured on the cover of the 2008 [[Princeton Review]] Complete Book of Colleges.

==History==
Rhodes College traces its origin as a degree-granting institution to the Masonic University of Tennessee, founded in 1848 in [[Clarksville, Tennessee|Clarksville]], [[Tennessee]]. The institution became Montgomery Masonic College in 1850 and later was renamed Stewart College in honor of its president William M. Stewart. It was under Stewart's leadership that control of the college passed from the [[Freemasonry|Masons]] to the [[Presbyterian Church (USA)|Presbyterian Church]] in 1855. In 1875, the college added to its undergraduate program a School of Theology and became Southwestern Presbyterian University. The School of Theology operated until 1917.

In 1925, president Charles Diehl led the college in a move to its present campus in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] (the Clarksville campus would later become [[Austin Peay State University]]). At that time, the college shortened its name to Southwestern. In 1945, the college adopted the name Southwestern at Memphis, to distinguish itself from other colleges and universities containing the name "Southwestern." Finally, in 1984, the college's name was changed to Rhodes College to honor former college president Peyton Nalle Rhodes.

Since 1984, Rhodes has grown from a regionally recognized institution to a nationally ranked liberal arts college."<ref>Pope, Loren, Colleges that Change Lives: 40 Schools That Will Change the Way You Think About Colleges, Penguin Books, New York, 2006, p. 181. See also "Best Liberal Arts Colleges", America's Best Colleges, US News and World Report, 1999-2007.</ref> Even as overall enrollment has increased over the past twenty years, the student body has comprised increasing proportions of students from outside Tennessee and the Southeast region.<ref>data available via [http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS)], National Center for Education Statistics.</ref>

The current president of Rhodes is Dr. [[William E. Troutt]], who joined the college as the 19th president in 1999. His predecessor, [[James H. Daughdrill, Jr.|Dr. James Daughdrill]], served as president for over a quarter century.

==Campus==
The campus covers a {{convert|100|acre|km2|sing=on}} tract in midtown Memphis across from [[Overton Park]] and the [[Memphis Zoo]]. Often cited for its beauty,<ref>as in Turner South's Blue Ribbon, Princeton Review, Collegiate Gothic: The Architecture of Rhodes College by William Stroud, and other sources</ref> the campus design is notable for its stone [[Gothic architecture]] buildings, thirteen of which are currently listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[http://www.rhodes.edu/about/899.asp] The original buildings, including Palmer Hall (1925), Kennedy Hall (1925), and Robb and White dormitories (1925), were designed by Henry Hibbs in consultation with [[Charles Klauder]], who designed many buildings at [[Princeton University]], alma mater of college president Charles Diehl. Later buildings were designed by H. Clinton Parrent, a young associate of Hibbs who was present from the beginning. Parrent's buildings include the Catherine Burrow Refectory (1957), which was an expansion of Hibbs' original dining hall. Parrent also added Halliburton Tower (1962) to Palmer Hall. The {{convert|140|ft|m|sing=on}} bell tower was named in honor of explorer [[Richard Halliburton]]. Rhodes maintains its Collegiate Gothic architecture, including the new Barret Library (2005) designed by the firm of Hanbury Evans Wright and Vlattas.

==Students and faculty==
Rhodes enrolls 1690 undergraduate students from 43 states, the District of Columbia, and 5 foreign countries; about 86% are [[whites|Caucasian]], 6% are [[African American]], 5% are [[Asia]]n and 1.6% are [[Hispanic]]. Fifty-seven percent of students are female. The student-to-faculty ratio is 11:1.<ref>These figures are published in the Rhodes College [http://www.rhodes.edu/1328.asp Common Data Set]</ref> Popular majors include Economics and [[Business]] Administration, [[Biology]], [[Political Science]], [[English language|English]], and International Studies.

==Traditions, sports, and clubs==
Rhodes is one of 62 colleges recently classified for both "Curricular Engagement" and "Outreach & Partnerships" in the "Community Engagement" category by [[The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]]. Approximately 80% of Rhodes students participate in some form of community service by the time they graduate.<ref>Franek, Robert et al, The Best 361 Colleges: the Smart Student's Guide to Colleges, Random House, Inc., New York, 2006, p. 425.</ref> The college's new curriculum includes a requirement that students participate in activities that broaden the connection between classroom experiences and the outside world. The [http://www.rhodes.edu/about/4069.asp mission statement] of the college also reinforces community engagement, aspiring to "graduate students with...a compassion for others and the ability to translate academic study and personal concern into effective leadership and action in their communities and the world."

Central to the life of the college is its Honor Code, administered by students through the Honor Council. Every student is required to sign the Code, which reads, "As a member of the Rhodes College community, I pledge my full and steadfast support to the Honor System and agree neither to lie, cheat, nor steal and to report any such violation that I may witness." Because of this, students enjoy a relationship of trust with their professors and benefits such as taking closed book final exams in the privacy of their own rooms.

The college mascot is the [[lynx]] and the school colors are red and black. The athletic teams compete in the [[Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference]] in the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]]'s Division III. Rhodes counts five national championships to its credit - one awarded to the 1961 baseball team, and four awarded to its outstanding [[mock trial]] team.

Rites of Spring, a three day music festival in early April, is a major social event of the school year, and typically attracts several major bands from around the country. In recent years, an adjunct celebration called Rites to Play has brought to campus elementary aged children from all of the various community agencies and schools that partner with Rhodes. The Rhodes students plan, organize, and execute a carnival for the kids.

==Greek Life==
There are a number of social fraternities and sororities at Rhodes. Approximately 50% of the students are members of Greek organizations. The fraternity and sorority lodges are not, however, residential.

===Sororities===
(in order of establishment at Rhodes)
* [[Chi Omega]] 1922
* [[Alpha Omicron Pi]] 1925
* [[Kappa Delta]] 1925
* [[Delta Delta Delta]] 1931
* [[Alpha Kappa Alpha]]
* [[Sigma Gamma Rho]]
* [[Delta Sigma Theta]]

===Fraternities===
(in order of establishment at Rhodes)
*[[Pi Kappa Alpha]] 1878
*[[Alpha Tau Omega]]
*[[Sigma Alpha Epsilon]] 1882
*[[Kappa Sigma]]
*[[Kappa Alpha Order]]
*[[Sigma Nu]]
*[[Kappa Alpha Psi]]

==Noted alumni==
===Business===

*[[John H. Bryan]] '58, former CEO of [[Sara Lee]]
*RJ Harper '78, Senior Vice President, Golf, Pebble Beach Resorts
*Cliff Watson '92, Creative Director, advertising agency Bozell
*Stinson Liles '92, Co-Founder, [[Red Deluxe Brand Development]]
*William J. Michaelcheck '69, CEO Mariner Capital
*Vicki Gilmore Palmer '75, Executive Vice President, [[Coca-Cola Enterprises, Inc.]]
*Knox Phillips '67, CEO Phillips Recording Studio
* Marcie Allen Cardwell '96, President MAC Presents
*Arthur Rollins '81, one of the country's top financial advisers<ref>[http://www.ml.com/index.asp?id=7695_8134_8296_6018_74696_77107_77907 "Top-Ranked on Barron's List of Top 100 Advisors"]</ref>

===Medicine===

* John Robertson '68, President, American Association of Neurologic Surgeons

===Civic===

*Cary Fowler '71, Executive Director, [[Global Crop Diversity Trust]]

===Culture and Performing Arts===

*Ken Cameron '89, Associate Curator, [[New York Botanical Garden]]
*[[Dixie Carter]] '62, Emmy-nominated Actor
*[[Carroll Cloar]], [[Guggenheim Fellow]] and internationally recognized artist.
*Dina Facklis '93, Director, Second City National Touring Company
*Sid Selvidge '65, Executive Producer, Beale Street Caravan, a globally-syndicated radio program

===Scholars===

*Joseph M. Ajello '62, Senior Research Scientist, Cassini UVIS Co-Investigator, Earth and Space Sciences Division, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory
*John H. Churchill '71, Secretary, The Phi Beta Kappa Society; President, The National Humanities Alliance
*C. [[Lee Giles]], '68, David Reese Professor of Information Sciences and Technology, Professor of Computer Science and Engineering, Professor of Supply Chain and Information Systems, Pennsylvania State University; Fellow of the ACM, IEEE and INNS
*[[Mark D. West]] '89, University of Michigan Nippon Life Professor of Law; Director of the Academic Program for the Center for Japanese Studies
*Sidney Strickland ’68, Vice President for Educational Affairs and Dean of Graduate and Post Graduate Studies, Rockefeller University

===Authors===

*[[Charlaine Harris]] '73, Best-selling mystery writer
*[[John Boswell]] '67, author; Publisher, John Boswell Associates
*Richard Jennings '66, author of children's books
*Steve Stern '70 author of "Lazar Malkin Enters Heaven" and "The Angel of Forgetfulness"
*[[Peter Matthew Hillsman Taylor]] '39, award-winning author
*[[Anne Howard Bailey]] '45, television writer

===Government and Military===

*[[Bill Alexander]] '57, served as Chief Deputy Majority Whip while representing eastern [[Arkansas]] in the [[United States House of Representatives]] from 1969-1993.
*[[Abe Fortas]] '30, [[U.S. Supreme Court]] justice (1965-1969) & President [[Lyndon Johnson]]'s nominee for [[Chief Justice of the United States]]. He authored the opinion in the 1969 case Tinker v. Des Moines School District, accepting the rights of schoolchildren to wear black armbands to protest the Vietnam War.
*[[Claudia Kennedy]] '69, [[U.S. Army]] [[Lt. General]] and Army Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence. Gen. Kennedy is a member of the [[Military Intelligence Hall of Fame]], and the first woman to hold a three-star rank in the U.S. Army.

==Noted staff==
===Administrators===
*Timothy Sharp, Dean of Academic Affairs-Fine Art. Conducted the [[Rhodes Singers]] and MasterSingers Chorale in performances at Carnegie Hall.
*[[William E. Troutt]], President, former Chair of the American Council on Education and the National Commission on the Cost of Education and member of the Lincoln Commission on Study Abroad.
*[[Dave Wottle]], Dean of Admissions, Olympic gold-medal winner.

===Professors===
*Andrew Terjesen, award-winning Philosopher.
*Tina Barr, award-winning poet.
*Eric Gottlieb, Chair of the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, 2004 Fulbright Scholar
*Timothy Huebner, Professor of History, 2004 Tennessee Professor of the Year by The Carnegie Foundation and the Council for the Advancement and Support of Education
*Michael Leslie, Professor of English and the Dean of British Studies at Oxford (the oldest American exchange program at [[Oxford University]])
*David McCarthy, Professor of Art, [[Smithsonian]] Fellow[http://www.si.edu/ofg/fellowopp.htm].
*Mark Muesse, Associate Professor of Religious Studies. Produced two lecture series and companion books on Hinduism and on Axial Age Religions for The Teaching Company.
*Michael Nelson, Professor of Political Science, author, and media analyst focused on the American presidency.
*Marcus Pohlmann, Professor of Political Science, coach of the Rhodes Mock trial program, President of the [http://www.collegemocktrial.org American Mock Trial Association]. Coached Rhodes to record numbers of national championships (4), finals appearances (7), top-ten finishes (16), and consecutive top-ten finishes.

== See also ==
* [[Rhodes Singers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.rhodes.edu/ Rhodes College]

{{Tennessee private colleges and universities}}
{{Colleges and universities in the Memphis Metro Area}}
{{Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference}}
{{Presbyterian Colleges}}
{{Annapolis Group}}

[[Category:Education in Memphis, Tennessee]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Tennessee]]
[[Category:Liberal arts colleges]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1848]]
[[Category:Southern Association of Colleges and Schools]]

USS Arizona Memorial

2008-06-16T14:25:51Z

Philly jawn: /* Fundraising */

{{Infobox_protected_area | name = USS ''Arizona'' Memorial
| iucn_category = V
| image = DN-SD-06-09336.jpg|200px
| caption =
| location = [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Hawaii]], [[United States|USA]]
| nearest_city = [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu, Hawai{{okina}}i]]
| lat_degrees = 21
| lat_minutes = 21
| lat_seconds = 54
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 157
| long_minutes = 57
| long_seconds = 0
| long_direction = W
| coor_type = landmark_scale:1500
| area = 10.50 acres (42,500 m²)
| established = [[May 30]], [[1962]]
| visitation_num = 1,556,808
| visitation_year = 2005
| governing_body = [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[National Park Service]]
}}

[[Image:USSArizona PearlHarbor 2.jpg|thumb|right|292px|The [[USS Arizona (BB-39)|USS ''Arizona'']] sinking during the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], [[7 December]] [[1941]].]]
The '''USS ''Arizona'' Memorial''', located at [[Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor, Hawai{{okina}}i]], marks the resting place of 1,102 of the 1,177 sailors killed on the [[USS Arizona (BB-39)|USS ''Arizona'']] during the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] on [[7 December]] [[1941]] by [[Japan]]ese imperial [[armed forces|forces]] and commemorates the events of that day. The attack on Pearl Harbor and the island of [[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]] was the action that led to [[United States]] involvement in [[World War II]].

The memorial, dedicated in 1962 and visited by more than one million persons annually,<ref name=NPSTwHP>{{cite web |title=Remembering Pearl Harbor: The USS Arizona Memorial |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/18arizona/18arizona.htm |accessdate=2008-05-09 }}</ref> spans the sunken hull of the battleship without touching it. Since it opened in 1980, the [[National Park Service]] has operated the USS ''Arizona'' Memorial Visitor Center associated with the memorial. Historical information about the attack, boat access to the memorial, and general visitor services are available at the center. One of the two 19,585 pound [[anchor]]s of the ''Arizona'' is displayed at the entrance of the [[visitor center]]. (Its twin is at the Arizona State Capitol in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]].)

==National Memorial==
===Description===
There are three main parts to the national memorial: entry, assembly room, and shrine. The central assembly room features seven large open windows on either wall and ceiling, to commemorate the date of the attack. The total number of windows is 21, symbolically representing a [[21 gun salute]] or 21 [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]] standing at eternal parade rest over the tomb of the fallen. It also contains an opening in the floor overlooking the sunken decks of the oil-seeping wreck. The oil seeping is sometimes referred to as "the tears of the ''Arizona''"<ref name="Bendzulla">{{cite web |url= http://www.tearsofthearizona.org/ |title= The Tears of the Arizona |author= Horst Bendzulla |work= Artist's website |quote= }}</ref><ref name="HansenHanaHou">{{cite web |url= http://www.hanahou.com/pages/magazine.asp?Action=DrawArticle&ArticleID=598&MagazineID=38 |title= Little Big Store |author= Christine Hansen |work= [[Hana Hou!]] Vol. 10, No. 4 |date= September/October 2007 |quote= }}</ref> or "black tears." It is from this opening that visitors come to pay their respects by tossing flowers and lei in honor of the fallen sailors. Every [[President of the United States]] since [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and every [[Emperor of Japan]] since [[Hirohito]], has made a pilgrimage to the site. The shrine at the far end is a marble wall that bears the names of all those killed on the USS ''Arizona'', protected behind velvet ropes. [[Image:USS Arizona oil seepage.jpg|thumb|The "tears of the ''Arizona''".]] Contrary to popular belief, the USS ''Arizona'' is no longer in commission. She is, however, an active U.S. military cemetery. As a special tribute to the ship and her lost crew, the United States flag flies from the flagpole, which was once attached to the severed mainmast of the sunken battleship. The flag pole is now attached to the side of the memorial. The USS ''Arizona'' Memorial has come to commemorate all military personnel killed in the Pearl Harbor attack.

===Design===
The national memorial was designed by [[Honolulu]] architect [[Alfred Preis]] who had been detained at [[Sand Island (Hawaii)|Sand Island]] at the start of the war as an enemy of the country because of his Austrian birth. The [[United States Navy]] specified that the memorial be in the form of a bridge floating above the ship and accommodating 200 people.

The {{convert|184|ft|m|0|adj=on}} long structure has two peaks at each end connected by a sag in the center of the structure. It represents the height of American pride before the war, the sudden depression of a nation after the attack and the rise of American power to new heights after the war. Critics initially called the design a "squashed milk carton".<ref name="ShapiroStarBulletin">{{cite web |url= http://starbulletin.com/2002/05/27/news/story4.html |title= Arizona Memorial seen as a dedication to peace |author= By Treena Shapiro |work= [[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]] |date= [[27 May]] [[2002]] |quote= }}</ref>

The architecture of the USS ''Arizona'' Memorial is explained by Preis as, "Wherein the structure sags in the center but stands strong and vigorous at the ends, expresses initial defeat and ultimate victory ... The overall effect is one of serenity. Overtones of sadness have been omitted to permit the individual to contemplate his own personal responses ... his innermost feelings."<ref name="HistoryCultureNPS">{{cite web |url= http://www.nps.gov/usar/historyculture/index.htm |title= USS Arizona Memorial - History & Culture |author= [[National Park Service]] |work= NPS website |date= updated [[18 September]] [[2006]] |quote= }}</ref>

===Fundraising===
[[Image:USS Arizona memorial interior.jpg|thumb|The names of ''Arizona's'' honored dead inscribed in marble.]]
Following the end of [[World War II]], the ''Arizona's'' wrecked [[superstructure]] was removed and efforts began to erect a memorial at the remaining submerged hull. The Pacific War Memorial Commission was created in 1949 to build a permanent memorial somewhere in Hawai{{okina}}i. Admiral [[Arthur Radford]], commander of the [[United States Pacific Fleet|Pacific Fleet]] attached a flag pole to the main mast of the Arizona in 1950 and began a tradition of hoisting and lowering the flag. Radford requested funds for a national memorial in 1951 and 1952 but was denied because of budget constraints during the [[Korean War]].

Throughout the 1950s there was discussion of scrapping the ''Arizona'' altogether. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] approved the creation of the [[National Memorial]] in 1958. Enabling legislation required that the memorial budgeted at [[United States dollar|$]]500,000 be privately financed. This was not to prove the case. $200,000 of the memorial cost was government subsidized.

Principal contributions<ref name="FundraisingAMMA">{{cite web |url= http://www.arizonamemorial.org/locations/arizona-memorial-creating.html |title= Creating the Memorial |author= Arizona Memorial Museum Association |work= AMMA website |quote= }}</ref> to the memorial included:

* $50,000 [[Territory of Hawaii|Territory of Hawai{{okina}}i]] initial contribution in 1958
* $95,000 privately raised following 1958 [[This is Your Life]] television segment featuring [[Samuel G. Fuqua]],<ref name="FuquaUSACMH">{{cite web |url= http://www.army.mil/cmh/html/moh/wwII-a-f.html |title= Samuel Glenn Fuqua |author= [[United States Army Center of Military History]] |work= [[Medal of Honor]] Recipients, [[World War II]] (A-F) |date= updated [[16 July]] [[2007]] |quote= }}</ref> [[Medal of Honor]] recipient and the senior surviving officer from the USS ''Arizona''
* $64,000 from [[March 25]] [[1961]] benefit concert by [[Elvis Presley]]
* $40,000 from the sale of plastic models of the ''Arizona'' in a partnership between the [[Fleet Reserve Association]] and [[Revell]] Model Company
* $150,000 from federal funds in legislation initiated by Hawaii Senator [[Daniel Inouye]] in 1961

The USS ''Arizona'' Memorial was finally dedicated on [[May 30]], [[1962]] ([[Memorial Day]]) by [[Texas]] Congressman and Chairman of Veteran Affairs [[Olin E. Teague]] and [[Governor of Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i Governor]] [[John A. Burns]].

The Pearl Harbor National Monument Bookstore revenue helps support the museum.<ref name="HansenHanaHou"/>

===Subsequent developments===
The memorial was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] on [[October 15]], [[1966]]. While the actual wreck of the USS ''Arizona'' was declared a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1989, the memorial itself does not share in this status. Rather, it is listed separately from the wreck on the National Register of Historic Places. The joint administration of the memorial by the [[United States Navy]] and the [[National Park Service]] was established on [[September 9]], [[1980]].
[[Image:USSArizonaSurvivor.jpg|left|thumb|65 years after the attack on Pearl Harbor, a ''USS Arizona'' survivor recalls the experience at the memorial.]]
In a ''[[National Geographic Magazine]]'' feature published in 2001, concerns were expressed that the continued deterioration of the ''Arizona's'' bulkheads and oil tanks from saltwater corrosion could pose a significant environmental threat from a rupture, resulting in a significant release of oil.<ref>{{cite web|title="Oil and Honor at Pearl Harbor"|publisher=''[[National Geographic Magazine]]''|date=June, 2001|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0106/feature5/index.html|accessdate=2008-01-02}}</ref> The National Park Service states that it has an ongoing program closely monitoring the condition of the submerged vessel.

The National Park Service, as part of their Centennial Initiative celebrating its 100th anniversary in 2016, is developing a "mobile park" to tour the continental United States to increase exposure of the park. The mobile park will also collect oral histories of the attack on Pearl Harbor.<ref>{{cite web | last =Bomar | first =Mary A. | authorlink =Mary A. Bomar | title =Summary of Park Centennial Strategies | publisher =National Park Service | date =August 2007 | url =http://www.nps.gov/2016/assets/files/Summary-of-Park-Centennial-Strategies.pdf | format =PDF | accessdate =2008-02-15}}</ref>{{-}}

==Manning the rails==

Every [[United States Navy]], [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]], and [[United States Merchant Marines|Merchant Marine]] vessel entering Pearl Harbor participates in the tradition of "[[manning the rail]]s". Personnel serving on these ships stand at attention at the ship's guard rails and salute the USS ''Arizona'' Memorial in solemn fashion as their ship slowly glides into port. More recently, as foreign military vessels are entering Pearl Harbor for joint military exercises, foreign troops have participated in the traditional manning the rails.

==USS ''Missouri''==
In 1999, the [[battleship]] [[USS Missouri (BB-63)|USS ''Missouri'']] was moved to Pearl Harbor from the United States west coast and docked near, and perpendicular to, the USS ''Arizona'' Memorial. Upon the deck of the USS ''Missouri'' in [[Tokyo Bay]], the Japanese surrendered to United States General [[Douglas MacArthur]] and Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]], ending World War II. The pairing of the two ships became an evocative symbol of the beginning and end of the United States' participation in the greatest and bloodiest war the world had ever seen.
[[Image:ussarizonamanningtherails.jpg|thumb|left|Crew of [[USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)|USS ''Abraham Lincoln'']] ''(left)'' [[manning the rail]]s near the [[USS Missouri (BB-63)|''Missouri'']] and the USS ''Arizona'' Memorial]]
The pairing of the two ships has not been free from controversy, however. Memorial staff have criticized the placement of the ''Missouri'', saying the large battleship would "overshadow" the ''Arizona'' Memorial. To help guard against this perception ''Missouri'' was placed well back of the ''Arizona'' Memorial, and positioned in Pearl Harbor in such a way as to prevent those participating in Military Ceremonies on ''Missouri''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s aft decks from seeing the ''Arizona'' Memorial. The decision to have ''Missouri''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s bow face the ''Arizona'' Memorial was intended to convey that ''Missouri'' now watches over the remains of the battleship ''Arizona'' so that those interred within ''Arizona''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s hull may rest in peace. These measures have helped preserve the individual identities of the ''Arizona'' Memorial and the ''Missouri'' Memorial, which has improved the public's perception of having both ''Arizona'' and ''Missouri'' in the same harbor.<ref name="KakesakoStarBulletin">{{cite web |url= http://starbulletin.com/97/10/15/news/story3.html |title= Will ‘Mighty Mo’ be too much? |author= Gregg K. Kakesako |work= [[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]] |date= [[15 October]] [[1997]] |quote= }}</ref>
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==Visiting the Memorial==
The Visitor Center operated by the [[National Park Service]] is free to the public and has a museum with exhibits about the Pearl Harbor attack, such as the [[Ship's bells|ship's bell]] from the USS ''Arizona''. Access to the USS ''Arizona'' Memorial itself is by U.S. Navy boat, for which a numbered ticket, obtained at the Visitor Center and valid for a designated departure time, is required. The memorial is visited by more than one million persons annually.<ref name=NPSTwHP /> Because of the large number of visitors and the limited number of boat departures, the 4,500 tickets available each day are often fully allocated by mid-morning.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plan Your Visit (USS ''Arizona'' Memorial) |publisher=[[National Park Service]] |url=http://www.nps.gov/usar/planyourvisit/index.htm |accessdate=2008-04-04 }}</ref> Before boarding the boat for the short trip to the Memorial, a 23-minute documentary film depicting the attack on Pearl Harbor is presented. Touring of the Memorial is self-guided. The National Park Service website provides visitor information, including hours of operation and ticketing advisories.

A one-hour audio tour narrated by Academy Award-winning actor and World War II Navy veteran [[Ernest Borgnine]] is available for rent at the Visitor Center. On the Center's grounds along the shoreline are more exhibits and a "Remembrance Circle". Nearby is the [[USS Bowfin (SS-287)|USS ''Bowfin'']], a World War II diesel [[submarine]], which may be toured with separate, paid admission. The battleship [[USS Missouri (BB-63)]] and the [[Pacific Aviation Museum]] may also be visited, but require a bus ride to [[Ford Island]].
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<center>

<gallery caption="Images of the ''USS Arizona'' Memorial">
Image:USS Arizona.JPG|Aerial view, with visible oil slick trailing in the current
Image:USS Arizona Memorial from the tour boat.JPG|The memorial as seen from an approaching visitors' boat
Image:ussarizonamemorialatnight.jpg|At night on the 52nd anniversary of the attack in 1993
Image:Arizonaguests.jpg|Visitors arriving at the memorial
Image:USS Arizona Dock closeup.JPG|''Arizona's'' [[Mooring (watercraft)|mooring quay]]
Image:Pearl az.jpg|''Arizona'''s gun turret mount, carrier ''Nimitz'' in background
Image:IMG 8924.jpg|[[Flags of the U.S. states|State flags]] placed inside the memorial
Image:UssArizona-flag.JPG|American flag waving over the memorial
</gallery>
</center>
==References==
{{reflist}}

* ''The National Parks: Index 2001–2003''. Washington: [[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of the Interior]].

==External links==
{{commons|USS Arizona Memorial}}
* [http://www.nps.gov/usar/ USS ''Arizona'' Memorial] — [[National Park Service]] official website
* [http://www.navpublishing.com/phtour4.htm Loss of the USS ''Arizona'']

* [http://www.arizonamemorial.org/ USS ''Arizona'' Memorial Museum Association]
* [http://my.execpc.com/~dschaaf/webcam.html Pearl Harbor Live Camera]
* [http://www.pearlharborday.org Pearl Harbor Day Commemorative Committee]
* [http://members.aol.com/phsasecy97/ Pearl Harbor Survivors Association]
* [http://www.ussmissouri.com/ Battleship ''Missouri'' Memorial]
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/18arizona/18arizona.htm ''"Remembering Pearl Harbor:The USS Arizona Memorial",'' a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan]
*[http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/aviation/ Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms, a National Park Service ''Discover Our Shared Heritage'' Travel Itinerary]
* [http://www.bowfin.org/website/index.cfm The USS ''Bowfin'' Museum and Park]
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Arizona Memorial}}
[[Category:1962 establishments|USS Arizona Memorial]]
[[Category:Military in Hawaii]]
[[Category:Attack on Pearl Harbor]]
[[Category:Landmarks in Hawaii]]
[[Category:Honolulu County, Hawaii]]
[[Category:National Memorials of the United States|USS Arizona Memorial]]
[[Category:Aftermath of World War II]]
[[Category:Registered Historic Places in Hawaii|USS Arizona Memorial]]
[[Category:United States military memorials and cemeteries|USS Arizona Memorial]]
[[Category:World War II memorials and cemeteries]]
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