Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

First-order second-moment Methode

2014-11-19T08:57:13Z

Oliverlyc: Cleaning up submission (afch-rewrite 0.9)

{{AFC submission|||u=Dr Bonus|ns=2|ts=20140929201416}} 


The first-order second-moment (FOSM) method, also referenced as mean value first-order second-moment (MVFOSM) method, is a probabilistic method to determine the stochastic moments of a function with random input variables. The name is based on the derivation, which uses a ''first order'' [[Taylor series]] and the first and ''second moments'' of the input variables..<ref>A. Haldar and S. Mahadevan, Probability, Reliability, and Statistical Methods in Engineering Design. John Wiley & Sons New York/Chichester, UK, 2000.</ref>

== Approximation ==
Consider the objective function <math>g(x)</math>, where the input vector <math>x</math> is a realization of the random vector <math>X</math> with [[probability density function]] <math>f_X(x)</math>. As <math>X</math> is randomly distributed, also <math>g</math> is randomly distributed.
Following the FOSM method, the [[mean value]] of <math>g</math> is approximated by
:<math> \mu_g \approx g(\mu) </math>
The [[variance]] of <math>g</math> is approximated by
:<math> \sigma^2_g \approx \sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_j} cov(X_i,X_j) </math>
where <math>n</math> is the length/dimension of <math>x</math> and <math> \frac{\partial g( \mu)}{\partial x_i} </math> is the partial derivative of <math>g</math> at the mean vector <math>\mu</math> with respect to the ''i''-th entry of <math>x</math>.

== Derivation ==
The objective function is approximated by a [[Taylor series]] at the mean vector <math>\mu</math>.
:<math>
g(x) = g(\mu) + \sum_{j=1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i } + (x_i - \mu _i) + \frac{1}{2} \sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \frac{\partial^2 g(\mu)}{\partial x_i \partial x_j } (x_i - \mu _i)(x_j-\mu _j) + ...
</math>

The mean value of <math>g</math> is given by the integral
:<math> \mu_g = E[ g(x)] = \int\limits_{-\infty}^\infty g(x) f_X(x) dx </math>

Inserting the first order Taylor series yields
:<math>
\begin{align}

\mu_g & \approx \int\limits_{-\infty}^\infty [ g(\mu) + \sum_{i=1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i } ] f_X(x) dx \\

& = \int\limits_{-\infty}^\infty g(\mu) f_X(x) dx + \int\limits_{-\infty}^\infty \sum\limits_{i=1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} ( x_i - \mu_i ) f_X(x) dx \\

& = g(\mu) \underbrace {\int\limits_{-\infty }^\infty f_X(x) dx }_1
+ \sum\limits_{i=1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} \underbrace {\int\limits_{-\infty}^\infty (x_i-\mu_i) f_X(x) dx }_0 \\

& = g(\mu)

\end{align}
</math>

The variance of <math>g</math> is given by the integral
:<math>
\sigma _g^2 = E([g(x)-\mu_g]^2) = \int\limits_{-\infty}^\infty [g(x)-\mu_g]^2 f_X(x) dx
</math>

According to the [[computational formula for the variance]], this can be written as
:<math>
\sigma _g^2 = E([g(x)-\mu_g]^2) = E(g(x)^2) -\mu_g^2
= \int\limits_{-\infty}^\infty g(x)^2 f_X(x) dx -\mu_g^2
</math>

Inserting the Taylor series yields
:<math>
\begin{align}

\sigma _g^2 & \approx \int\limits_{ - \infty }^\infty [ g(\mu) + \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} (x_i - \mu _i ) ]^2 f_X ( x ) dx - \mu _g^2 \\
& = \int\limits_{ - \infty }^\infty \{ g(\mu)^2 + 2 g_\mu \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} ( x_i - \mu _i ) + [ \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} ( x_i - \mu _i ) ]^2 \} f_X ( x ) dx - \mu _g^2 \\
& = \int\limits_{ - \infty }^\infty g(\mu)^2 f_X ( x ) dx + \int\limits_{ - \infty }^\infty 2\,g_\mu \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} ( x_i - \mu _i ) f_X ( x ) dx \\
& + \int\limits_{ - \infty }^\infty [\sum\limits_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} ( x_i - \mu _i ) ]^2 f_X ( x ) dx - \mu _g^2 \\
& = g_\mu^2 \underbrace {\int\limits_{ - \infty }^\infty f_X ( x ) dx }_1 + 2 g_\mu \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} \underbrace {\int\limits_{ - \infty }^\infty ( x_i - \mu _i ) f_X ( x ) dx }_0 \\
& + \int\limits_{ - \infty }^\infty [ \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n \sum\limits_{j = 1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_j} ( x_i - \mu _i )( x_j - \mu _j ) ]f_X ( x ) dx - \mu _g^2 \\
& = \underbrace{ g(\mu)^2 }_{\mu _g^2 } + \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n \sum\limits_{j = 1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_j} \underbrace {\int\limits_{ - \infty }^\infty ( x_i - \mu _i )( x_j - \mu _j ) f( x ) dx }_{cov(X_i,X_j)} - \mu _g^2 \\
& = \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n \sum\limits_{j = 1}^n \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_i} \frac{\partial g(\mu)}{\partial x_j} cov(X_i,X_j) \\

\end{align}
</math>

== Higher order approaches ==
The following abbreviations are introduced.
:<math>
g_{{\mu }} = g( \mu ),\quad g_{,i} = \frac{{\partial g( \mu )}}{{\partial x_i }},\quad g_{,ij} = \frac{{\partial g^2 ( \mu )}}{{\partial x_i \partial x_j }},\quad \mu _{i,j} = E[ {( {x_i - \mu _i } )^j } ]
</math>
In the following, the entries of the random vector <math>X</math> are assumed to be independent.
Considering also the second order terms of the Taylor expansion, the approximation of the mean value is given by
:<math>
\mu _g \approx g_{{\mu }} + \frac{1}{2}\sum\limits_{i = 1}^n {g_{,ii} \;\mu _{i,2} }
</math>

The second order approximation of the variance is given by
:<math>
\begin{array}{r}
\sigma _g^2 \approx g_{{\mu }}^2 + \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n {g_{,i}^2 \,\mu _{i,2} } + \frac{1}{4}\sum\limits_{i = 1}^n {g_{,ii}^2 \,\mu _{i,4} } + g_{{\mu }} \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n {g_{,ii} \,\mu _{i,2} } + \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n {g_{,i} \,g_{,ii} \,\mu _{i,3} } \\
+ \frac{1}{2}\sum\limits_{i = 1}^n {\sum\limits_{j = i + 1}^n {g_{,ii} \,g_{,jj} \,\mu _{i,2} \,\mu _{j,2} } } + \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n {\sum\limits_{j = i + 1}^n {g_{,ij}^2 \,\mu _{i,2} \,\mu _{j,2} } } - \mu _g^2 \\
\end{array}
</math>

The [[skewness]] of <math>g</math> can be determined from the third [[central moment]] <math>\mu_{g,3} </math>.
When considering only linear terms of the Taylor series, but higher order moments, the third central moment is approximated by
:<math>
\mu _{g,3} \approx \sum\limits_{i = 1}^n {g_{,i}^3 \;\mu _{i,3} }
</math>
For the second order approximations of the third central moment as well as for the derivation of all higher order approximations see Appendix D of Ref.<ref name="BK"> B. Kriegesmann, "Probabilistic Design of Thin-Walled Fiber Composite Structures", Mitteilungen des Instituts für Statik und Dynamik der Leibniz Universität Hannover 15/2012, ISSN 1862-4650, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany, 2012, [http://edok01.tib.uni-hannover.de/edoks/e01dh12/722293151.pdf PDF; 10,2MB]. </ref>
Taking into account the quadratic terms of the Taylor series and the third moments of the input variables is referred to as second-order third-moment method.<ref> Y. J. Hong, J. Xing, and J. B. Wang, "A Second-Order Third-Moment Method for Calculating the Reliability of Fatigue", Int. J. Press. Vessels Pip., 76 (8), pp 567–570, 1999. </ref>. However, the full second order approach of the variance (given above) also includes fourth order moments of input parameters, and the full second order approach of the skewness 6th order moments <ref name="BK" />

== Practical application ==
There are several examples in the literature where the FOSM method is employed to estimate the stochastic distribution of the buckling load of axially compressed structures (see e.g. Ref. <ref>I. Elishakoff, S. van Manen, P. G. Vermeulen, and J. Arbocz, "First-Order Second-Moment Analysis of the Buckling of Shells with Random Imperfections", AIAA J., 25 (8), pp 1113–1117, 1987.</ref> <ref>I. Elishakoff, "Uncertain Buckling: Its Past, Present and Future", Int. J. Solids Struct., 37 (46–47), pp 6869–6889, Nov. 2000.</ref> <ref>J. Arbocz und M. W. Hilburger, "Toward a Probabilistic Preliminary Design Criterion for Buckling Critical Composite Shells", AIAA J., 43 (8), pp 1823–1827, 2005.</ref> <ref>B. Kriegesmann, R. Rolfes, C. Hühne, and A. Kling, "Fast Probabilistic Design Procedure for Axially Compressed Composite Cylinders", Compos. Struct., 93, pp 3140–3149, 2011.</ref>). For structures which are very sensitive to deviations from the ideal structure (like cylindrical shells) it has been proposed to use the FOSM method as a design approach. Often the applicability is checked by comparison with a [[Monte Carlo simulation]].
In engineering practice, the objective function often is not given as analytic expression, but for instance as a result of a Finite Element Simulation. Then the derivatives of the objective function need to be estimated by the central differences method. The number of evaluations of the objective function equals <math> 2 n + 1</math>. Depending on the number of random variables this still can mean a significantly smaller number of evaluations than performing a Monte Carlo simulation. However, when using the FOSM method as a design procedure, a lower bound shall be estimated, which is actually not given by the FOSM approach. Therefore, a type of distribution needs to be assumed for the distribution of the objective function, taking into account the approximated mean value and standard deviation.

== References ==
<references/>

== First-order second-moment method ==

New Taipei City Gold Museum

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Oliverlyc: /* References */clean up using AWB

{{Coord|25|06|35|N|121|51|26|E|display=title}}

{{Infobox building
|name = Gold Museum
|native_name = 新北市立黃金博物館
|image = Gold Museum at Jiufen Taiwan 01.jpg
|opening =
|location = [[Ruifang District]], [[New Taipei City]], [[Taiwan]]{{ROC}}
|iso_region =
|coordinates_display =
|building_type = [[Museum]]
|start_date =
|completion_date =
|cost =
|roof =
|top_floor =
|architectural =
|observatory =
|floor_count =
|floor_area =
|elevator_count =
|architect =
|structural_engineer =
|main_contractor =
|management =
|owner =
|website = [http://www.gep.ntpc.gov.tw/web/Home?command=display&page=flash www.gep.ntpc.gov.tw]
|references =
}}

The '''Gold Museum''' ({{zh|t=新北市立黃金博物館|p=Xīnběishìlì Huángjīn Bówùguǎn}}), located in [[Gold Ecological Park]], is a [[museum]] in [[Ruifang District]], [[New Taipei City]], [[Taiwan]].<ref>http://en.museum.ntpc.gov.tw/html/enmuseum/family/family04.jsp?msid=97&mbaby=4</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of museums in Taiwan]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Taiwan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Taiwan]]

{{Taiwan-stub}}

National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts

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Oliverlyc: /* References */clean up using AWB

{{Coord|24|08|29|N|120|39|49|E|display=title}}

{{Infobox building
|name = National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts
|native_name = 國立台灣美術館
|image = NTMoFA-1.jpg
|opening =
|location = [[West District, Taichung|West District]], [[Taichung]], [[Taiwan]]{{ROC}}
|iso_region =
|coordinates_display =
|building_type = [[Museum]]
|start_date =
|completion_date =
|cost =
|roof =
|top_floor =
|architectural =
|observatory =
|floor_count =
|floor_area =
|elevator_count =
|architect =
|structural_engineer =
|main_contractor =
|management =
|owner =
|website = [http://www.ntmofa.gov.tw/english/ www.ntmofa.gov.tw] {{en}}
|references =
}}

The '''National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts''' ({{zh|t=國立台灣美術館|p=Guólì Táiwān Měishùguǎn}}) is a [[museum]] in [[West District, Taichung|West District]], [[Taichung]], [[Taiwan]].

==Transportation==
The museum is accessible within walking distance West from [[Taichung Station]] of the [[Taiwan Railway Administration]].

==See also==
* [[List of museums in Taiwan]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Taiwan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Taiwan]]

{{Taiwan-stub}}

Brandrodung in Südostasien

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Oliverlyc: Added stub template

{{quotebox|'''"They only have to be sparked by cigarette butts and they (peatlands) will go up in flames"|Achmad Taufik, South Sumatra Forestry Office'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/08/15/slash-and-burn-practices-lead-forest-fires-s-sumatra.html|title=Slash-and-burn practices lead to forest fires in S. Sumatra|first=Ansyor|last=Idrus|work=The Jakarta Post|date=15 August 2012}}</ref>}}
'''Southeast Asian haze''' is huge perennial air quality and health problem stemming from [[slash and burn]] techniques coupled with expansion of palm oil estates at the expense of new and old growth forest, driven by desires for hard currency, employment, and large profits; largely controlled by multinational corporations. The largest of these are [[Wilmar]] and [[Cargill]].

The problem flares up every dry season, in varying degrees, and affects Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, southern Thailand, and Indonesia. Rice paddy burning is also a common practice throughout Southeast Asia, resulting in poor air quality at a local level.

==Haze by year==
It generally refers to [[haze]] occurring in Southeast Asia; see [[Smog#Southeast Asia]]. In specific intense cases, it may refer to:
*[[1997 Southeast Asian haze]]
*[[1997 Indonesian forest fires]]
*[[2005 Malaysian haze]]
*[[2006 Southeast Asian haze]]
*[[2009 Southeast Asian haze]]
*[[2013 Southeast Asian haze]]

==See also==
*[[ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{environmental-disaster-stub}}

{{Asia Pollution}}

[[Category:Southeast Asian haze| ]]

Join (SQL)

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Oliverlyc: Reverted edits by 217.110.50.218 (talk) to last revision by 80.77.248.90 (HG)

A [[SQL]] '''join''' clause combines [[Row (database)|records]] from two or more [[table (database)|tables]] in a [[database]]. It creates a set that can be saved as a table or used as it is. A <code>JOIN</code> is a means for combining [[Field (computer science)|fields]] from two tables by using values common to each. ANSI standard SQL specifies four types of <code>JOIN</code>: <code>INNER</code>, <code>OUTER</code>, <code>LEFT</code>, and <code>RIGHT</code>. As a special case, a table (base table, [[View (database)|view]], or joined table) can <code>JOIN</code> to itself in a ''self-join''.

A programmer writes a <code>JOIN</code> statement to identify the records for joining. If the evaluated predicate is true, the combined record is then produced in the expected format, a record set or a temporary table.

==Sample tables==
Relational databases are often [[Database normalization|normalized]] to eliminate duplication of information when objects may have one-to-many relationships. For example, a Department may be associated with many different Employees. Joining two tables effectively creates another table which combines information from both tables. This is at some expense in terms of the time it takes to compute the join. While it is also possible to simply maintain a [[Denormalization|denormalized]] table if speed is important, duplicate information may take extra space, and add the expense and complexity of maintaining [[data integrity]] if data which is duplicated later changes.

All subsequent explanations on join types in this article make use of the following two tables. The rows in these tables serve to illustrate the effect of different types of joins and join-predicates. In the following tables the <code>DepartmentID</code> [[Column (database)|column]] of the <code>Department</code> table (which can be designated as <code>Department.DepartmentID</code>) is the [[primary key]], while <code>Employee.DepartmentID</code> is a [[foreign key]].
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:left; margin-right:5px"
|+Employee table
|-
! LastName !! DepartmentID
|-
| Rafferty ||31
|-
| Jones || 33
|-
| Steinberg || 33
|-
| Robinson || 34
|-
| Smith|| 34
|-
| John || {{null result}}
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:left; margin-left:5px"
|+Department table
|-
! DepartmentID !! DepartmentName
|-
| 31 || Sales
|-
| 33 || Engineering
|-
| 34 || Clerical
|-
| 35 || Marketing
|}

 

Note: In the Employee table above, the employee "John" has not been assigned to any department yet. Also, note that no employees are assigned to the "Marketing" department.

This is the SQL to create the aforementioned tables.
<source lang=sql>
CREATE TABLE department
(
DepartmentID INT,
DepartmentName VARCHAR(20)
);

CREATE TABLE employee
(
LastName VARCHAR(20),
DepartmentID INT
);

INSERT INTO department(DepartmentID, DepartmentName) VALUES(31, 'Sales');
INSERT INTO department(DepartmentID, DepartmentName) VALUES(33, 'Engineering');
INSERT INTO department(DepartmentID, DepartmentName) VALUES(34, 'Clerical');
INSERT INTO department(DepartmentID, DepartmentName) VALUES(35, 'Marketing');

INSERT INTO employee(LastName, DepartmentID) VALUES('Rafferty', 31);
INSERT INTO employee(LastName, DepartmentID) VALUES('Jones', 33);
INSERT INTO employee(LastName, DepartmentID) VALUES('Steinberg', 33);
INSERT INTO employee(LastName, DepartmentID) VALUES('Robinson', 34);
INSERT INTO employee(LastName, DepartmentID) VALUES('Smith', 34);
INSERT INTO employee(LastName, DepartmentID) VALUES('John', NULL);
</source>

==Cross join==
CROSS JOIN returns the [[Cartesian product]] of rows from tables in the join. In other words, it will produce rows which combine each row from the first table with each row from the second table.<ref>[http://www.sqlguides.com/sql_cross_join.php SQL CROSS JOIN]</ref>

Example of an explicit cross join:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee CROSS JOIN department;
</source>

Example of an implicit cross join:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee, department;
</source>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Employee.LastName !! Employee.DepartmentID !! Department.DepartmentName !! Department.DepartmentID
|-
| Rafferty || 31 || Sales || 31
|-
| Jones || 33 || Sales || 31
|-
| Steinberg || 33 || Sales || 31
|-
| Smith || 34 || Sales || 31
|-
| Robinson || 34 || Sales || 31
|-
| John || {{null result}} || Sales || 31
|-
| Rafferty || 31 || Engineering || 33
|-
| Jones || 33 || Engineering || 33
|-
| Steinberg || 33 || Engineering || 33
|-
| Smith || 34 || Engineering || 33
|-
| Robinson || 34 || Engineering || 33
|-
| John || {{null result}} || Engineering || 33
|-
| Rafferty || 31 || Clerical || 34
|-
| Jones || 33 || Clerical || 34
|-
| Steinberg || 33 || Clerical || 34
|-
| Smith || 34 || Clerical || 34
|-
| Robinson || 34 || Clerical || 34
|-
| John || {{null result}} || Clerical || 34
|-
| Rafferty || 31 || Marketing || 35
|-
| Jones || 33 || Marketing || 35
|-
| Steinberg || 33 || Marketing || 35
|-
| Smith || 34 || Marketing || 35
|-
| Robinson || 34 || Marketing || 35
|-
| John || {{null result}} || Marketing || 35
|}

The cross join does not apply any predicate to filter records from the joined table. Programmers can further filter the results of a cross join by using a <code>WHERE</code> clause.

In the [[SQL:2011]] standard, cross joins are part of the optional F401, “Extended joined table”, package.

==Inner join==
An ''''''inner join'''''' is the most common join operation used in [[Application software|applications]] and can be regarded as the default join-type. Inner join creates a new result table by combining column values of two tables (A and B) based upon the join-predicate. The query compares each row of A with each row of B to find all pairs of rows which satisfy the join-predicate. When the join-predicate is satisfied, column values for each matched pair of rows of A and B are combined into a result row. The result of the join can be defined as the outcome of first taking the [[Cartesian product]] (or [[#Cross join|Cross join]]) of all records in the tables (combining every record in table A with every record in table B)—then return all records which satisfy the join predicate. Actual SQL implementations normally use other approaches like a [[hash join]] or a [[sort-merge join]] where possible, since computing the Cartesian product is very inefficient.

SQL specifies two different syntactical ways to express joins: "explicit join notation" and "implicit join notation".

The "explicit join notation" uses the '''<code>JOIN</code>''' keyword to specify the table to join, and the '''<code>ON</code>''' keyword to specify the predicates for the join, as in the following example:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee INNER JOIN department
ON employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID;
</source>

The "implicit join notation" simply lists the tables for joining, in the <code>FROM</code> clause of the <code>SELECT</code> statement, using commas to separate them. Thus it specifies a [[#Cross join|cross join]], and the <code>WHERE</code> clause may apply additional filter-predicates (which function comparably to the join-predicates in the explicit notation).

The following example is equivalent to the previous one, but this time using implicit join notation:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee, department
WHERE employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID;
</source>

The queries given in the examples above will join the Employee and Department tables using the DepartmentID column of both tables. Where the DepartmentID of these tables match (i.e. the join-predicate is satisfied), the query will combine the ''LastName'', ''DepartmentID'' and ''DepartmentName'' columns from the two tables into a result row. Where the DepartmentID does not match, no result row is generated.

Thus the result of the [[Query plan|execution]] of either of the two queries above will be:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Employee.LastName !! Employee.DepartmentID !! Department.DepartmentName !! Department.DepartmentID
|-
| Robinson || 34 || Clerical || 34
|-
| Jones || 33 || Engineering || 33
|-
| Smith || 34 || Clerical || 34
|-
| Steinberg || 33 || Engineering || 33
|-
| Rafferty || 31 || Sales || 31
|-
|}

'''Note:''' Programmers should take special care when joining tables on columns that can contain [[Null (SQL)|NULL]] values, since NULL will never match any other value (not even NULL itself), unless the join condition explicitly uses the <code>IS NULL</code> or <code>IS NOT NULL</code> predicates.

Notice that the employee "John" and the department "Marketing" do not appear in the query execution results. Neither of these has any matching records in the other respective table: "John" has no associated department, and no employee has the department ID 35 ("Marketing"). Depending on the desired results, this behavior may be a subtle bug, which can be avoided with an [[#Outer join|outer join]].

One can further classify inner joins as equi-joins, as natural joins, or as cross-joins.

===Equi-join===
An '''equi-join''' is a specific type of comparator-based join, that uses only [[equality (mathematics)|equality]] comparisons in the join-predicate. Using other comparison operators (such as <code><</code>) disqualifies a join as an equi-join. The query shown above has already provided an example of an equi-join:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee JOIN department
ON employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID;
</source>

We can write equi-join as below,

<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee, department
WHERE employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID;
</source>

If columns in an equi-join have the same name, [[SQL-92]] provides an optional shorthand notation for expressing equi-joins, by way of the <code>USING</code> construct:<ref>[http://www.java2s.com/Tutorial/Oracle/0140__Table-Joins/SimplifyingJoinswiththeUSINGKeyword.htm Simplifying Joins with the USING Keyword]</ref>
<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee INNER JOIN department USING (DepartmentID);
</source>

The <code>USING</code> construct is more than mere [[syntactic sugar]], however, since the result set differs from the result set of the version with the explicit predicate. Specifically, any columns mentioned in the <code>USING</code> list will appear only once, with an unqualified name, rather than once for each table in the join. In the above case, there will be a single <code>DepartmentID</code> column and no <code>employee.DepartmentID</code> or <code>department.DepartmentID</code>.

The <code>USING</code> clause is not supported by MS SQL Server and Sybase.

====Natural join====
A [[natural join]] is a type of equi-join where the join predicate arises implicitly by comparing all columns in both tables that have the same column-names in the joined tables. The resulting joined table contains only one column for each pair of equally named columns.

Most experts agree that NATURAL JOINs are dangerous and therefore strongly discourage their use.<ref>[http://asktom.oracle.com/pls/asktom/f?p=100:11:0::::P11_QUESTION_ID:13430766143199 Ask Tom "Oracle support of ANSI joins."] [http://awads.net/wp/2006/03/20/back-to-basics-inner-joins/#comment-2837 Back to basics: inner joins » Eddie Awad's Blog]</ref> The danger comes from inadvertently adding a new column, named the same as another column in the other table. An existing natural join might then "naturally" use the new column for comparisons, making comparisons/matches using different criteria (from different columns) than before. Thus an existing query could produce different results, even though the data in the tables have not been changed, but only augmented.

The above sample query for inner joins can be expressed as a natural join in the following way:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee NATURAL JOIN department;
</source>

As with the explicit <code>USING</code> clause, only one DepartmentID column occurs in the joined table, with no qualifier:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! DepartmentID !! Employee.LastName !! Department.DepartmentName
|-
| 34 || Smith || Clerical
|-
| 33 || Jones || Engineering
|-
| 34 || Robinson || Clerical
|-
| 33 || Steinberg || Engineering
|-
| 31 || Rafferty || Sales
|}

PostgreSQL, MySQL and Oracle support natural joins, but not Microsoft T-SQL or IBM DB2. The columns used in the join are implicit so the join code does not show which columns are expected, and a change in column names may change the results. An INNER JOIN performed on 2 tables having the same field name has the same effect.<ref>[http://database.blogs.webucator.com/2010/03/31/why-sql-server-doesnt-support-natural-join-syntax/ Why SQL Server Doesn’t Support Natural Join Syntax]</ref> In the [[SQL:2011]] standard, natural joins are part of the optional F401, “Extended joined table”, package.

==Outer join==
An '''outer join''' does not require each record in the two joined tables to have a matching record. The joined table retains each record—even if no other matching record exists. Outer joins subdivide further into left outer joins, right outer joins, and full outer joins, depending on which table's rows are retained (left, right, or both).

(In this case ''left'' and ''right'' refer to the two sides of the <code>JOIN</code> keyword.)

No implicit join-notation for outer joins exists in standard SQL.

===Left outer join===
The result of a ''left outer join'' (or simply '''left join''') for table A and B always contains all records of the "left" table (A), even if the join-condition does not find any matching record in the "right" table (B). This means that if the <code>ON</code> clause matches 0 (zero) records in B (for a given record in A), the join will still return a row in the result (for that record)—but with NULL in each column from B. A '''left outer join''' returns all the values from an inner join plus all values in the left table that do not match to the right table.

For example, this allows us to find an employee's department, but still shows the employee(s) even when they have not been assigned to a department (contrary to the inner-join example above, where unassigned employees were excluded from the result).

Example of a left outer join, with the additional result row (compared with the inner join) italicized:

<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee LEFT OUTER JOIN department
ON employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID;
</source>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! Employee.LastName !! Employee.DepartmentID !! Department.DepartmentName !! Department.DepartmentID
|-
| Jones || 33 || Engineering || 33
|-
| Rafferty || 31 || Sales || 31
|-
| Robinson || 34 || Clerical || 34
|-
| Smith || 34 || Clerical || 34
|-
| ''John'' || {{null result}} || {{null result}} || {{null result}}
|-
| Steinberg || 33 || Engineering || 33
|}

Oracle supports the alternate syntax:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee, department
WHERE employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID(+)
</source>
Sybase supports the alternate syntax:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee, department
WHERE employee.DepartmentID *= department.DepartmentID
</source>

===Right outer join===
A '''right outer join''' (or '''right join''') closely resembles a left outer join, except with the treatment of the tables reversed. Every row from the "right" table (B) will appear in the joined table at least once. If no matching row from the "left" table (A) exists, NULL will appear in columns from A for those records that have no match in B.

A right outer join returns all the values from the right table and matched values from the left table (NULL in the case of no matching join predicate). For example, this allows us to find each employee and his or her department, but still show departments that have no employees.

Below is an example of a right outer join, with the additional result row italicized:

<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee RIGHT OUTER JOIN department
ON employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID;
</source>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! Employee.LastName !! Employee.DepartmentID !! Department.DepartmentName !! Department.DepartmentID
|-
| Smith || 34 || Clerical || 34
|-
| Jones || 33 || Engineering || 33
|-
| Robinson || 34 || Clerical || 34
|-
| Steinberg || 33 || Engineering || 33
|-
| Rafferty || 31 || Sales || 31
|-
| {{null result}} || {{null result}} || ''Marketing'' || ''35''
|}

Oracle supports the alternate syntax:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee, department
WHERE employee.DepartmentID(+) = department.DepartmentID
</source>

Right and left outer joins are functionally equivalent. Neither provides any functionality that the other does not, so right and left outer joins may replace each other as long as the table order is switched.

===Full outer join===
Conceptually, a '''full outer join''' combines the effect of applying both left and right outer joins. Where records in the FULL OUTER JOINed tables do not match, the result set will have NULL values for every column of the table that lacks a matching row. For those records that do match, a single row will be produced in the result set (containing fields populated from both tables).

For example, this allows us to see each employee who is in a department and each department that has an employee, but also see each employee who is not part of a department and each department which doesn't have an employee.

Example full outer join:

<source lang=sql>
SELECT *
FROM employee FULL OUTER JOIN department
ON employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID;
</source>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! Employee.LastName !! Employee.DepartmentID !! Department.DepartmentName !! Department.DepartmentID
|-
| Smith || 34 || Clerical || 34
|-
| Jones || 33 || Engineering || 33
|-
| Robinson || 34 || Clerical || 34
|-
| ''John'' || {{null result}} || {{null result}} || {{null result}}
|-
| Steinberg || 33 || Engineering || 33
|-
| Rafferty || 31 || Sales || 31
|-
| {{null result}} || {{null result}} || ''Marketing'' || ''35''
|}

Some database systems do not support the full outer join functionality directly, but they can emulate it through the use of an inner join and UNION ALL selects of the "single table rows" from left and right tables respectively. The same example can appear as follows:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT employee.LastName, employee.DepartmentID,
department.DepartmentName, department.DepartmentID
FROM employee
INNER JOIN department ON employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID

UNION ALL

SELECT employee.LastName, employee.DepartmentID,
cast(NULL as varchar(20)), cast(NULL as integer)
FROM employee
WHERE NOT EXISTS (
SELECT * FROM department
WHERE employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID)

UNION ALL

SELECT cast(NULL as varchar(20)), cast(NULL as integer),
department.DepartmentName, department.DepartmentID
FROM department
WHERE NOT EXISTS (
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID)
</source>

==Self-join==
A self-join is joining a table to itself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Shah|2005|p=165}}</ref>

===Example===
A query to find all pairings of two employees in the same country is desired. If there were two separate tables for employees and a query which requested employees in the first table having the same country as employees in the second table, a normal join operation could be used to find the answer table. However, all the employee information is contained within a single large table.<ref>Adapted from {{harvnb|Pratt|2005|pp=115–6}}</ref>

Consider a modified <code>Employee</code> table such as the following:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:left; margin-right:5px"
|+Employee Table
|-
! EmployeeID !! LastName !! Country !! DepartmentID
|-
| 123 || Rafferty || Australia || 31
|-
| 124 || Jones || Australia || 33
|-
| 145 || Steinberg || Australia || 33
|-
| 201 || Robinson || United States || 34
|-
| 305 || Smith || Germany || 34
|-
| 306 || John || Germany || {{null result}}
|}
 

An example solution query could be as follows:

<source lang=sql>
SELECT F.EmployeeID, F.LastName, S.EmployeeID, S.LastName, F.Country
FROM Employee F INNER JOIN Employee S ON F.Country = S.Country
WHERE F.EmployeeID < S.EmployeeID
ORDER BY F.EmployeeID, S.EmployeeID;
</source>

Which results in the following table being generated.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:left; margin-right:5px"
|+Employee Table after Self-join by Country
|-
! EmployeeID !! LastName !! EmployeeID !! LastName !! Country
|-
| 123 || Rafferty || 124 || Jones || Australia
|-
| 123 || Rafferty || 145 || Steinberg || Australia
|-
| 124 || Jones || 145 || Steinberg || Australia
|-
| 305 || Smith || 306 || John || Germany
|}
 
For this example:
* <code>F</code> and <code>S</code> are [[alias (SQL)|aliases]] for the first and second copies of the employee table.
* The condition <code>F.Country = S.Country</code> excludes pairings between employees in different countries. The example question only wanted pairs of employees in the same country.
* The condition <code>F.EmployeeID < S.EmployeeID</code> excludes pairings where the <code>EmployeeID</code> of the first employee is greater than or equal to the <code>EmployeeID</code> of the second employee. In other words, the effect of this condition is to exclude duplicate pairings and self-pairings. Without it, the following less useful table would be generated (the table below displays only the "Germany" portion of the result):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:left; margin-right:5px"
! EmployeeID !! LastName !! EmployeeID !! LastName !! Country
|-
| 305 || Smith || 305 || Smith || Germany
|-
| 305 || Smith || 306 || John || Germany
|-
| 306 || John || 305 || Smith || Germany
|-
| 306 || John || 306 || John || Germany
|}
 
Only one of the two middle pairings is needed to satisfy the original question, and the topmost and bottommost are of no interest at all in this example.

==Merge rows==
{{Off-topic|date=May 2012}}
To be able to do a select so as to merge multiple rows into 1 row : "group_concat notation".

[[MySQL]] and [[CUBRID]] use the <code>group_concat</code> keyword to achieve that goal, and [[PostgreSQL]] 9.0 has the <code>string_agg</code> function. Versions before 9.0 required the use of something like
array_to_string(array_agg(value),', ')
or the creation of an aggregate function.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:left; margin-right:5px"
|+Using the Employee Table:
|-
! LastName !! DepartmentID
|-
| Rafferty ||31
|-
| Jones || 33
|-
| Steinberg || 33
|-
| Robinson || 34
|-
| Smith|| 34
|-
| John || {{null result}}
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:left; margin-left:5px"
|+ to achieve the following results Table
|-
! DepartmentID !! LastNames
|-
| {{null result}} || John
|-
| 31 || Rafferty
|-
| 33 || Jones, Steinberg
|-
| 34 || Robinson, Smith
|}

 

===MySQL===
<source lang=sql>
SELECT DepartmentID, group_concat(LastName) as LastNames
FROM employee
GROUP BY DepartmentID;
</source>

===Oracle 11g R2===
<source lang=sql>
SELECT DepartmentID,
listagg(LastName, ', ') WITHIN GROUP (ORDER BY LastName) as LastNames
FROM employee
GROUP BY DepartmentID;
</source>

===CUBRID===
<source lang=sql>
SELECT DepartmentID,
GROUP_CONCAT(LastName ORDER BY LastName SEPARATOR ',') as LastNames
FROM employee
GROUP BY DepartmentID;
</source>

===PostgreSQL===
{{Off-topic|date=May 2012}}
First the function _group_concat and aggregate group_concat need to be created before that query can be possible.
<source lang=sql>
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION _group_concat(text, text)
RETURNS text AS $$
SELECT CASE
WHEN $2 IS NULL THEN $1
WHEN $1 IS NULL THEN $2
ELSE $1 operator(pg_catalog.||) ', ' operator(pg_catalog.||) $2
END
$$ IMMUTABLE LANGUAGE SQL;

error// Join SQL
CREATE AGGREGATE group_concat (
BASETYPE = text,
SFUNC = _group_concat,
STYPE = text
);

SELECT DepartmentID, group_concat(LastName) as LastNames
FROM employee
GROUP BY DepartmentID;
</source>

From version 9.0:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT DepartmentID, string_agg(LastName, ', ') as LastNames
FROM employee
GROUP BY DepartmentID;
</source>

===Microsoft T-SQL===
For versions prior to Microsoft SQL Server 2005, the function group_concat must be created as a user-defined aggregate function before that query can be possible, shown here in C#.
<source lang=csharp>
using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Data.SqlTypes;
using System.IO;
using Microsoft.SqlServer.Server;

[Serializable]
[SqlUserDefinedAggregate(Format.UserDefined, MaxByteSize=8000)]
public struct group_concat : IBinarySerialize{
private List values;

public void Init() {
this.values = new List();
}

public void Accumulate(SqlString value) {
this.values.Add(value.Value);
}

public void Merge(strconcat value) {
this.values.AddRange(value.values.ToArray());
}

public SqlString Terminate() {
return new SqlString(string.Join(", ", this.values.ToArray()));
}

public void Read(BinaryReader r) {
int itemCount = r.ReadInt32();
this.values = new List(itemCount);
for (int i = 0; i < itemCount; i++) {
this.values.Add(r.ReadString());
}
}

public void Write(BinaryWriter w) {
w.Write(this.values.Count);
foreach (string s in this.values) {
w.Write(s);
}
}
}
</source>
Then you can use the following query:
<source lang=sql>
SELECT DepartmentID, dbo.group_concat(LastName) as LastNames
FROM employee
GROUP BY DepartmentID;
</source>

From version 2005, one can accomplish this task using FOR XML PATH:

<source lang=sql>
SELECT DepartmentID,
STUFF(
(SELECT
',' + LastName
FROM (
SELECT LastName
FROM employee e2
WHERE e1.DepartmentID=e2.DepartmentID OR
(e1.DepartmentID IS NULL AND e2.DepartmentID IS NULL)
) t1
ORDER BY LastName
FOR XML PATH('')
)
,1,1, ''
) AS LastNames
FROM employee e1
GROUP BY DepartmentID
</source>
 

==Alternatives==
The effect of an outer join can also be obtained using a UNION ALL between an INNER JOIN and a SELECT of the rows in the "main" table that do not fulfill the join condition. For example

<source lang=sql>
SELECT employee.LastName, employee.DepartmentID, department.DepartmentName
FROM employee
LEFT OUTER JOIN department ON employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID;
</source>

can also be written as

<source lang=sql>
SELECT employee.LastName, employee.DepartmentID, department.DepartmentName
FROM employee
INNER JOIN department ON employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID

UNION ALL

SELECT employee.LastName, employee.DepartmentID, cast(NULL as varchar(20))
FROM employee
WHERE NOT EXISTS (
SELECT * FROM department
WHERE employee.DepartmentID = department.DepartmentID)
</source>

==Implementation==
Much work in database-systems has aimed at efficient implementation of joins, because relational systems commonly call for joins, yet face difficulties in optimising their efficient execution. The problem arises because inner joins operate both [[commutative]]ly and [[associative]]ly. In practice, this means that the user merely supplies the list of tables for joining and the join conditions to use, and the database system has the task of determining the most efficient way to perform the operation. A [[query optimizer]] determines how to execute a query containing joins. A query optimizer has two basic freedoms:

# '''Join order''': Because it joins functions commutatively and associatively, the order in which the system joins tables does not change the final result set of the query. However, join-order '''could''' have an enormous impact on the cost of the join operation, so choosing the best join order becomes very important.
# '''Join method''': Given two tables and a join condition, multiple [[algorithm]]s can produce the result set of the join. Which algorithm runs most efficiently depends on the sizes of the input tables, the number of rows from each table that match the join condition, and the operations required by the rest of the query.

Many join-algorithms treat their inputs differently. One can refer to the inputs to a join as the "outer" and "inner" join operands, or "left" and "right", respectively. In the case of nested loops, for example, the database system will scan the entire inner relation for each row of the outer relation.

One can classify query-plans involving joins as follows:<ref name=Yu1998>{{Harvnb|Yu|Meng|1998|p=213}}
</ref>

; left-deep : using a base table (rather than another join) as the inner operand of each join in the plan
; right-deep : using a base table as the outer operand of each join in the plan
; bushy : neither left-deep nor right-deep; both inputs to a join may themselves result from joins

These names derive from the appearance of the [[query plan]] if drawn as a [[Tree data structure|tree]], with the outer join relation on the left and the inner relation on the right (as convention dictates).

===Join algorithms===
Three fundamental algorithms for performing a join operation exist: [[nested loop join]], [[sort-merge join]] and [[hash join]].

===Join Indexes===
Join indexes are [[database index]]es that facilitate the processing of join queries in [[data warehouse]]s: they are currently (2012) available in implementations by [[Oracle database|Oracle]]<ref>Oracle Bitmap Join Index. URL: http://www.dba-oracle.com/art_builder_bitmap_join_idx.htm</ref> and [[Teradata]].<ref>Teradata Join Indexes. http://www.coffingdw.com/sql/tdsqlutp/join_index.htm</ref>

In the Teradata implementation, specified columns, aggregate functions on columns, or components of date columns from one or more tables are specified using a syntax similar to the definition of a [[database view]]: up to 64 columns/column expressions can be specified in a single join index. Optionally, a column that defines the [[primary key]] of the composite data may also be specified: on parallel hardware, the column values are used to partition the index's contents across multiple disks. When the source tables are updated interactively by users, the contents of the join index are automatically updated. Any query whose [[Where (SQL)|WHERE clause]] specifies any combination of columns or column expressions that are an exact subset of those defined in a join index (a so-called "covering query") will cause the join index, rather than the original tables and their indexes, to be consulted during query execution.

The Oracle implementation limits itself to using [[bitmap index]]es. A ''bitmap join index'' is used for low-cardinality columns (i.e., columns containing less than 300 distinct values, according to the Oracle documentation): it combines low-cardinality columns from multiple related tables. The example Oracle uses is that of an inventory system, where different suppliers provide different parts. The schema has three linked tables: two "master tables", Part and Supplier, and a "detail table", Inventory. The last is a many-to-many table linking Supplier to Part, and contains the most rows. Every part has a Part Type, and every supplier is based in the USA, and has a State column. There are not more than 60 states+territories in the USA, and not more than 300 Part Types. The bitmap join index is defined using a standard three-table join on the above three tables, and specifying the Part_Type and Supplier_State columns for the index. However, it is defined on the Inventory table, even though the columns Part_Type and Supplier_State are "borrowed" from Supplier and Part respectively.

As for Teradata, an Oracle bitmap join index is only utilized to answer a query when the query's [[Where (SQL)|WHERE clause]] specifies columns limited to those that are included in the join index.

==See also==
* [[Join (relational algebra)]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{More footnotes|date=April 2009}}
* {{citation
|last= Pratt
|first= Phillip J
|title= A Guide To SQL, Seventh Edition
|publisher= Thomson Course Technology
|year= 2005
|isbn= 978-0-619-21674-0
}}
* {{citation
|last=Shah
|first= Nilesh
|title= Database Systems Using Oracle – A Simplified Guide to SQL and PL/SQL Second Edition
|edition= International
|publisher= Pearson Education International
|origyear= 2002
|year= 2005
|isbn= 0-13-191180-5
}}
* {{citation
|url= http://books.google.com/?id=aBHRDhrrehYC
|accessdate= 2009-03-03
|title= Principles of Database Query Processing for Advanced Applications
|last = Yu
|first= Clement T.
|last2= Meng
|first2= Weiyi
|year= 1998
|publisher= Morgan Kaufmann
|isbn= 978-1-55860-434-6
}}

==External links==
* Specific to products
** [http://infocenter.sybase.com/help/index.jsp?topic=/com.sybase.help.ase_15.0.sqlug/html/sqlug/sqlug138.htm Sybase ASE 15 Joins]
** [http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.5/en/join.html MySQL 5.5 Joins]
** [http://www.postgresqlguide.com/retrieving-data-from-multiple-tables-by-using-sql-join.aspx PostgreSQL Join with Query Explain]
** [http://www.postgresql.org/docs/8.3/static/tutorial-join.html PostgreSQL 8.3 Joins]
** [http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms191517.aspx Joins in Microsoft SQL Server]
** [http://maxdb.sap.com/currentdoc/45/f31c38e95511d5995d00508b5d5211/content.htm Joins in MaxDB 7.6]
** [http://download.oracle.com/docs/cd/B28359_01/server.111/b28286/queries006.htm Joins in Oracle 11g]
* General
** [http://www.codinghorror.com/blog/archives/000976.html A Visual Explanation of SQL Joins]
** [http://www.halfgaar.net/sql-joins-are-easy Another visual explanation of SQL joins, along with some set theory]
** [http://www.gplivna.eu/papers/sql_join_types.htm SQL join types classified with examples]
** [http://weblogs.sqlteam.com/jeffs/archive/2007/04/19/Full-Outer-Joins.aspx An alternative strategy to using FULL OUTER JOIN]
** [http://blog.sqlauthority.com/2009/04/13/sql-server-introduction-to-joins-basic-of-joins/ Latest article explaining Join in simple diagrams and relevant code]
** [http://www.flickr.com/photos/mattimattila/8190148857/ Visual representation of 7 possible SQL joins between two sets]

{{SQL}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Join (Sql)}}
[[Category:SQL keywords]]
[[Category:Articles with example SQL code]]

Bamburgh Castle

2013-06-21T09:20:53Z

Oliverlyc: Reverted edits by 31.25.2.89 (talk) to last revision by Oliverlyc (HG)

[[File:Bamburgh 2006 closeup.jpg|thumb|300px|Bamburgh Castle from the north west]]
{{coord|55.608|N|1.709|W|region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}
'''Bamburgh Castle''' is located on the coast at [[Bamburgh]] in [[Northumberland]], England. It is a Grade I [[listed building]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?pid=1&id=237848|title=Images of England: Bamburgh Castle |accessdate=2007-12-05 |publisher=[[English Heritage]] }}</ref>

==History==
{{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=left|image1=Bamburgh Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1030813.jpg|image2=Aerial photo of Bamburgh Castle - geograph.org.uk - 654112.jpg|width1=270|width2=270|footer=The south west face of Bamburgh Castle seen from ground level and above}}
Built on a [[basalt]] outcrop, the location was previously home to a fort of the native Britons known as ''Din Guarie'' and may have been the capital of the British kingdom of the region (see [[Gododdin]], [[Bryneich]] and [[Hen Ogledd]])<ref>'An English empire: Bede and the early Anglo-Saxon kings' by N. J. Higham, Manchester University Press ND, 1995, ISBN 0-7190-4423-5, ISBN 978-0-7190-4423-6</ref> from the realm's foundation in c.420 until 547, the year of the first written reference to the castle. In that year the citadel was captured by the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] ruler [[Ida of Bernicia]] ([[Bernicia|Beornice]]) and became Ida's seat. It was briefly retaken by the Britons from his son [[Hussa of Bernicia|Hussa]] during the war of 590 before being relieved later the same year.

His grandson [[Æthelfrith of Northumbria|Æðelfriþ]] passed it on to his wife Bebba, from whom the early name ''Bebbanburgh'' was derived. The [[Vikings]] destroyed the original fortification in 993.

The [[Normans]] built a new castle on the site, which forms the core of the present one. [[William II of England|William II]] unsuccessfully besieged it in 1095 during a revolt supported by its owner, [[Robert de Mowbray]], Earl of Northumbria. After Robert was captured, his wife continued the defence until coerced to surrender by the king's threat to blind her husband.

Bamburgh then became the property of the reigning English monarch. [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] probably built the [[keep]]. As an important English outpost, the castle was the target of occasional raids from [[Scotland]]. In 1464 during the [[Wars of the Roses]], it became the first castle in England to be defeated by [[artillery]], at the end of a nine-month [[siege]] by [[Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick]].

The Forster family of Northumberland<ref>''The History and Antiquities of North Durham'' Rev James Raine MA (1840) pp306-10 History and pedigree of Forster family</ref> provided the Crown with twelve successive governors of the castle for some 400 years until the Crown granted ownership to Sir John Forster. The family retained ownership until Sir William Forster (d. 1700) was posthumously declared bankrupt, and his estates, including the castle, were sold to [[Nathaniel Crew, 3rd Baron Crew|Lord Crew, Bishop of Durham]] (husband of his sister Dorothy) under an Act of Parliament to settle the debts.

The castle deteriorated but was restored by various owners during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was finally bought by the [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[industrialist]] [[William George Armstrong|William Armstrong]], who completed the restoration.

During the Second World War, the Royal Navy [[corvette]] [[HMS Bamborough Castle|HMS ''Bamborough Castle'']] was named after it.

[[File:Bamburgh Castle June 1973.jpg|thumb|300px|An aerial photograph from 1973 showing the position of the castle north east of Bamburgh village]]

The castle still belongs to the Armstrong family, and is opened to the public. It also hosts weddings and corporate events. It has been used as a film location since the 1920s, featuring in films such as ''[[Ivanhoe (1952 film)|Ivanhoe]]'' (1952), ''[[El Cid (film)|El Cid]]'' (1961), ''[[Mary, Queen of Scots (film)|Mary, Queen of Scots]]'' (1972), and ''[[Elizabeth (film)|Elizabeth]]'' (1998).

==Vicinity features==
About {{convert|9|mi|0}} to the south on a point of coastal land is the ancient fortress of [[Dunstanburgh Castle]] and about {{convert|5|mi|0}} to the north is [[Lindisfarne Castle]] on [[Lindisfarne|Holy Island]].

==Environmental factors==

Air quality levels at Bamburgh Castle are excellent due to the absence of industrial sources in the region. Sound levels near the north-south road passing by Bamburgh Castle are in the range of 59 to 63 [[A-weighting|dBA]] in the daytime (''Northumberland Sound Mapping Study'', Northumberland, England, June, 2003). Nearby are breeding colonies of Arctic and common terns on the inner [[Farne Islands]], and of [[Atlantic puffin]], [[cormorant|shag]] and [[razorbill]] on [[Staple Island]].

==Archaeology at Bamburgh==
Since 1996, the Bamburgh Research Project has been investigating the archaeology and history of the Castle and Bamburgh area. The project has concentrated on the fortress site and the early medieval burial ground at the Bowl Hole, to the south of the castle.

Archaeological excavations were started in the 1960s by [[Brian Hope-Taylor|Dr. Brian Hope-Taylor]], who discovered the gold plaque known as the Bamburgh Beast as well as the [[Bamburgh Sword]].

The project runs a training dig for 10 weeks every summer for students to learn more about archaeological techniques and to further research into the Castle.

==Armstrong and Aviation Artefacts Museum==
The castle's laundry rooms feature the Armstrong and Aviation Artefacts Museum, with exhibits about Victorian industrialist [[William George Armstrong|William Armstrong]] and [[Armstrong Whitworth]], the manufacturing company he founded. Displays include engines, artillery and weaponry, and aviation artefacts from two world wars.

==Bamburgh Castle in film and television==
[[File:Bamborough 1825 plan.png|thumb|550px|Plan of Bamborough Castle in 1825]]
* 1927: ''[[Huntingtower (film)|Huntingtower]]''
* 1949: '' [[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1949 film)|A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (film)]]
* 1964: ''[[Becket (1964 film)]]''
* 1971 ''[[The Devils (film)|The Devils]]''
* 1984–86 ''[[Robin of Sherwood]]''
* 2001: ''[[Revelation (2001 film)|Revelation]]''
* 2006: "[[Most Haunted]]"
* 2010: ''[[Robin Hood (2010 film)]]''
*2011: Channel 4's [[Time Team]] dig at Bamburgh Castle

==See also==
*[[Bamburgh Sword]]
*[[Bebbanburg]]
*[[Cragside]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.visitnorthumberland.com/site/highlights/the-icons/bamburgh-castle/ Bamburgh Castle Guide from VisitNorthumberland.com - Includes Video]
*[http://www.ukattraction.com/northumbria/map/bamburgh-castle.htm Bamburgh Castle - Map]

==References==
{{commons category}}
*[http://www.bamburghcastle.com/ Bamburgh Castle]
*[http://www.bamburghresearchproject.co.uk/ Bamburgh Research Project]
*[http://www.northofthetyne.co.uk/BamburghCastle.html Images of Bamburgh castle]
* Glen Lyndon Dodds, (Albion Press, 2002), ''Historic Sites of Northumberland & Newcastle upon Tyne'', pp 33–39
* David Ford Nash, "Early British Kingdoms".
*{{cite book | last =Fry | first =Plantagenet Somerset | authorlink =Plantagenet Somerset Fry | coauthors = | title =The David & Charles Book of Castles |edition= | publisher =David & Charles | year =1980 | location =Newton Abbot | pages =182–183 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn =0-7153-7976-3 }}

{{Castles in North East England}}

[[Category:Castles in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Country houses in Northumberland]]
[[Category:History of Northumberland]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Technology museums in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Reportedly haunted locations in England]]

Bamburgh Castle

2013-06-21T09:16:52Z

Oliverlyc: Reverted edits by 31.25.2.89 (talk) to last revision by Oliverlyc (HG)

Bamburgh Castle

2013-06-21T09:16:24Z

Oliverlyc: Reverted edits by 31.25.2.89 (talk) to last revision by Nev1 (HG)

Humber Super Snipe

2013-06-19T09:45:04Z

Oliverlyc: Reverted edits by 101.175.76.188 (talk) to last revision by Charles01 (HG)

{{Infobox automobile
| image = Humber Super Snipe Series II first reg nov 1959 2965cc and having now become a red(dish) car.JPG
| caption = Humber Super Snipe Series II
| name = Humber Super Snipe
| manufacturer = [[Rootes Group]]
| production = 1938-1967
| assembly = [[United Kingdom]] [[Australia]] <ref name=Davis>Pedr Davis, The Macquarie Dictionary of Motoring, 1986, page 226</ref>
| predecessor =
| successor =
| designer =
| related = [[Humber Hawk]] [[Humber Snipe]] [[Humber Pullman]] [[Humber Imperial]]
}}

The '''Humber Super Snipe''' is a car which was produced from 1938 to 1967 by the British-based [[Humber (car)|Humber]] car company, part of the [[Rootes Group]].

==Pre-war Super Snipe==
{{Infobox automobile
| name = Humber Super Snipe
| image = Humber Military reg 1939 4000 cc allegedly.JPG
| production = 1938-1940 1500 (approx) made<ref name=Gillies-A-Z>{{cite book |last=Sedgwick |first=M. |authorlink= |coauthors= Gillies. M|title=A-Z of Cars 1930|year=1989 |publisher=Bay View Books |location=Devon, UK |isbn=1-870979-38-9}}</ref>
| predecessor = [[Humber Snipe]]
| body_style = 4-door [[sedan (car)|saloon]] Sports saloon Drophead coupé
| engine = 4086 cc Straight-6 side valve
| transmission =
| length = {{Convert|175|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
| width = {{Convert|70|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
| height =
| weight =
| wheelbase = {{Convert|114|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}<ref name=Culshaw-BritishCars>{{cite book |last=Culshaw |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=Horrobin |title=Complete Catalogue of British Cars |year=1974 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |isbn=0-333-16689-2}}</ref>
}}

The Super Snipe was introduced in October 1938, derived by combining the four-litre inline six-cylinder engine from the larger [[Humber Pullman]] with the chassis and body of the [[Humber Snipe]], normally powered by a three-litre engine. The result was a car of enhanced performance and a top speed of {{convert|79|mi/h|km/h|0|abbr=on}} —fast for its day.<ref name=Culshaw-BritishCars /> Its design was contributed to by American engine genius [[Delmar "Barney" Roos]] who left a successful career at [[Studebaker]] to join Rootes in 1936.<ref name=hendrym>{{cite book|title=Studebaker: One can do a lot of remembering in South Bend|last=Hendry|first=Maurice M|publisher=[http://www.autoquarterly.com Automobile Quarterly]|location=[[New Albany, Indiana|New Albany]]|pages=228–275|id=Vol X, 3rd Q, 1972}}</ref>{{rp|p247}}

The Super Snipe was marketed to upper-middle-class managers, professional people and government officials. It was relatively low-priced for its large size and performance, and was similar to American cars in appearance and concept, and in providing value for money.

Within a year of introduction, World War II broke out in Europe but the car continued in production as a British military staff car, the '''Car, 4-seater, 4x2''', while the same chassis was used for an armoured reconnaissance vehicle, the [[Humber Light Reconnaissance Car]].

===Military operators===

*{{flag|United Kingdom}}: [[British Army]], [[Royal Navy]], [[RAF]]
{{clear}}

==Super Snipe Mark I to III==
{{Infobox automobile
| name = Humber Super Snipe Mark I-III
| image = Humber Super Snipe 4086cc 1952.JPG
| caption = Humber Super Snipe Mk III (1952)
| production = 1945-1952 production 3909 (Mk I) 8361 (Mk II) 8703 (Mk III)<ref name=Sedgwick-A-Z>{{cite book |last=Sedgwick |first=M. |authorlink= |coauthors= Gillies. M|title=A-Z of Cars 1945-1970|year=1986 |publisher=Bay View Books |location=Devon, UK |isbn=1-870979-39-7}}</ref>
| body_style = 4-door [[sedan (car)|saloon]] <ref name=Sedgwick-A-Z/> [[drophead coupe]] <ref name=Sedgwick-A-Z/> [[estate car]] <ref name=Sedgwick-A-Z/>
| engine = 4086 cc Straight-6 side valve (I to III)
| transmission =
| length = {{Convert|180|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (I) {{Convert|187|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (II) {{Convert|191|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (III)
| width = {{Convert|69|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (I) {{Convert|74|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (II & III)
| height =
| weight =
| wheelbase = {{Convert|114|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (I)<ref name=Culshaw-BritishCars /> {{Convert|117|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (I to III)
}}
In 1946, post-war civilian production resumed and the Super Snipe evolved though several versions, each designated by a Mark number, each generally larger, more powerful, and more modern, until production ended in 1957 with the Mark IVB version.

===Mk I===
The '''Mark I''' was essentially an enlarged version of the 1945 Humber Hawk, itself a facelifted pre-war car. A version of the 1930s [[Humber Snipe|Snipe]] remained available, with the 1936-introduced 2731 cc engine. However, the standard Super Snipe engine was the 4086cc side-valve engine that had appeared in the [[Humber Pullman]] nearly a decade earlier, in 1936, and which would continue to power post-[[Second World War|war]] Super Snipes until 1952.<ref name="Autocar1950">{{cite journal | authorlink = Unsigned |title =Humber Super Snipe Saloon (road test)| journal =[[Autocar]]| volume = | pages = | date = March August 25, 1950}}</ref> Throughout the years 1936 - 1952 the maximum power output of the engine was always given by the manufacturer as 100 bhp at 3400 rpm.<ref name="Autocar1950"/>
[[File:Humber Super Snipe Mk I 1946.JPG|thumb|left|Humber Super Snipe Mark I (1946)]]
{{-}}

===Mk II===
For the 1948 '''Mark II''' the body was updated, headlights fitted into the wings and running-boards re-introduced. Transverse-spring independent suspension, first introduced on the Snipe and Pullman in 1935, continued to be used. A few drophead coupés were made by [[Tickford]] in 1949 and 1950. The smaller-engined Snipe was discontinued. Early Mark II Super Snipes can be distinguished by round fog lamps below the head lamps. These were dropped in 1949 in favour of rectangular side lamps which were continued in the Mark III.
[[File:Humber Super Snipe 4086cc April 1949.JPG|thumb|left|Humber Super Snipe Mark II (1949)]]
{{-}}

===Mk III===
The '''Mk III''' followed in 1950 and was externally very similar but had a [[Panhard rod]] added to the rear suspension<ref name="Autocar1950"/> which limited sideways movement of the rear wheels and so permitted the use of softer springs. The 1950 car can be readily distinguished from the previous model by the simpler dome-shaped bumpers and the rectangular stainless-steel foot-treads on the running-boards.

A Mk III tested by [[The Motor (magazine)|The Motor]] magazine in 1951 had a top speed of {{convert|81.6|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} and could accelerate from 0-{{convert|60|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in 19.1 seconds. A fuel consumption of {{convert|17.7|mpgimp|L/100 km mpgus}} was recorded. The test car cost £1471 including taxes.<ref name=Motor1951>{{cite journal | authorlink = Unsigned |title = The Humber Super Snipe Mk III| journal =[[The Motor (magazine)|The Motor]]| volume = | pages = | date = June 13, 1951}}</ref>
{{clear}}
[[File:Humber Super Snipe 1951 ex military.JPG|thumb|left|Humber Super Snipe Mark III (1951)]]
{{-}}

==Mk IV==
{{Infobox automobile
| name = Humber Super Snipe Mark IV
| image =
| production = 1952-1958 production 17,993 (IV)<ref name="Sedgwick-A-Z"/>
| body_style = 4-door [[sedan (car)|saloon]]
| engine = 4138 cc Straight-6 ohv
| transmission = 4-speed manual
| length = {{Convert|197|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
| width = {{Convert|71|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
| height = {{convert|54|in|mm|abbr=on}}<ref name=PracticalMotorist196004>{{cite journal| authorlink = | title = Second Hand car guide supplement| journal = Practical Motorist| volume = 6 Nbr 68| pages = between pages 768 & 769 |date = date April 1960}}</ref>
| weight =
| wheelbase = {{Convert|116|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
}}

The '''Mark IV''' of 1952 used a 1950 [[Humber Hawk#Humber Hawk Mark III to V|Hawk Mk IV]] body shell lengthened by {{convert|6|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} but with a 4138 cc {{convert|113|bhp|abbr=on}} overhead-valve engine based on one from a [[Commer]] truck. Chassis and suspension components were uprated to take the greater weight and power of the Super Snipe, those parts ceasing to be interchangeable with those of the Hawk. From 1955, overdrive was available as an option, followed in 1956 by an automatic gearbox.

In 1953 ''The Motor'' tested a Mk IV and found the larger engine had increased performance with the top speed now {{convert|91|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} and acceleration from 0-{{convert|60|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in 14.7 seconds. Fuel consumption had increased to {{convert|15.5|mpgimp|L/100 km mpgus}}. The test car cost slightly more at £1481, including taxes.<ref name=Motor1953>{{cite journal | authorlink = Unsigned |title = The Humber Super Snipe Road Test| journal =[[The Motor (magazine)|The Motor]]| volume = | pages = | date = August 5, 1953}}</ref>
{{-}}

==New Super Snipe Series I to V==
{{Infobox automobile
| name = Humber Super Snipe Series I-V
| image = Humber Super Snipe Series III.jpg
| production = 1958-1967 production 6072 (I) 7175 (II) 7257 (III) 6495 (IV)3032 (V)<ref name=Sedgwick-A-Z />
| body_style = 4-door [[sedan (car)|saloon]] Estate car limousine
| engine = 2651 cc Straight-6 ohv (I) 2965 cc ohv (II-V)
| transmission = 3 speed manual Overdrive and automatic optional
| length = {{Convert|185|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}<ref name=Motor1960/> (I & II) {{Convert|188|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (III to V)
| width = {{Convert|69.5|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}<ref name=Motor1960/>
| height = {{Convert|62|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}<ref name=Motor1960/>
| weight =
| wheelbase = {{Convert|110|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}<ref name=Culshaw-BritishCars />
}}
In October 1958, a new Super Snipe was introduced and, confusingly, the designation returned to the Super Snipe I but, this time, the variants were identified by a ''series'' number. The new car was based on the unitized chassis and body of the four-cylinder [[Humber Hawk]], but with a new 2.6 litre, 2,651 cc, six-cylinder overhead-valve engine based on an [[Armstrong Siddeley]] design with bore and stroke of {{convert|82.55|mm}} and near-hemispherical combustion chambers. The Rootes Group ceased production of the Series VA version in July 1967, by which time the group was under the control of the American [[Chrysler]] Corporation. The last of the big Humbers were assembled by Chrysler in [[Melbourne]], Australia. Plans to introduce a V8 engine, and for the [[Chrysler 180]]/2L to be marketed as a Humber in the UK did not eventuate.

===Series I===
The Series I Super Snipe had a three-speed manual transmission with optional Laycock de Normanville overdrive on second and top gears, or Borg Warner DG automatic transmission. Power steering was available as an option. Also offered was a touring limousine model with glass partition.

The new Super Snipe was smaller on the outside, but larger on the inside, with improved performance and more modern appearance, similar to mid-1950s American [[Chrysler Corporation]] cars like the 1958 [[Plymouth Fury]].

===Series II===
For the 1959 Series II, the engine was enlarged to 3 litres, 2,965 cc, by increasing the bore to {{Convert|87.2|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}. Girling {{convert|11.5|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} [[disc brake]]s were introduced on the front wheels with {{convert|11|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} drums on the rear axle.

A Series II with overdrive and power steering was tested by ''The Motor'' in 1960 and had a top speed of {{convert|94.7|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} and could accelerate from 0-{{convert|60|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in 16.5 seconds. A fuel consumption of {{convert|24.6|mpgimp|L/100 km mpgus}} was recorded. The test car cost £1601 including taxes. The basic car cost £1453.<ref name=Motor1960>{{cite journal | authorlink = Unsigned |title = The Humber Super Snipe| journal =[[The Motor (magazine)|The Motor]]| volume = | pages = | date = February 10, 1960}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Humber_Super_Snipe_Series_II_front.jpg|Series II front
File:Humber_Super_Snipe_Series_II_rear.jpg|Series II rear</gallery>

===Series III===

The styling of the 1960 '''Series III''' is distinguishable by its four headlights and revised full-width grille. The nose of the car had also been lengthened by {{convert|3.25|in}} to accommodate an additional pulley mounted on the front of the crankshaft so that air conditioning could be included as an option, principally for the North American market.
{{clear}}

===Series IV===

The 1964 Series IV had a slightly higher-tuned engine giving {{convert|124.5|bhp|kW|0|abbr=on}} as against {{convert|121|bhp|kW|0|abbr=on}}. It can be distinguished by its revised rear-window treatment (doesn't wrap around quite as much as earlier models), Snipe bird badge on grille, opening quarter-light windows in the rear doors, and other trim differences.

<gallery>
File:Ac_Humber_Super_Snipe_Series_IV_head.jpg|First British car with quadruple headlamps
File:Humber_Super_Snipe_Series_IV_rear.jpg|Series IV rear
</gallery>

===Series V===
The final '''Series V''' version of the Saloon saw an upper body restyle, also applied to the [[Hawk]] Saloon, with a flat roofline and rear window, six-light side windows and a larger, taller windscreen. The Estate body in both marques remained unchanged. Twin [[Zenith carburettor|Zenith]] Stromberg 175CD carburettors were fitted along with a [[Weslake|Harry Weslake]] tuned cylinder head, increasing the power to {{convert|128.5|bhp|abbr=on}}, and [[synchromesh]] was fitted to all ratios in the gearbox—on the previous versions it had only been on the upper two. [[Hydrosteer]] power steering was available as an optional extra, as was an automatic transmission (Borg Warner Type 35 on Series VA), and metallic paint finishes.
Rootes Group ceased Humber production with the Series VA in July 1967, by which time the company was under control of the American Chrysler Corporation, as Chrysler Europe. The last of the Humbers were assembled by Chrysler Australia at Fishermen's Bend Port Melbourne, Australia in the early 1970s.
There were several attempts to fit existing Chrysler V8 engines in this body, but proved unsatisfactory. Advance plans and prototypes were produced for a completely new V6 motor installed into the Chrysler 180/2L and marketed as a Humber in the UK did not eventuate.

<gallery>
File:Humber Super Snipe V.jpg|Larger windscreen for Series V saloon
File:Humber Super Snipe Series V Estate front.jpg|Older windscreen for Estate wagon
File:Humber Super Snipe Series V Estate rear.jpg|Split tailgate for Estate wagon
</gallery>

===Humber Imperial===
The '''Imperial''' version had a vinyl roof, automatic transmission and [[hydrosteer]] power steering as standard, though a manual 3-speed transmission could be ordered. It also featured electrically adjustable rear shock absorber settings, a rear heater and optional West-of-England cloth-trimmed seats.
[[File:Humber Imperial rear.jpg|thumb|left|Humber Imperial 1964-67]]
{{clear}}

==Export markets & foreign assembly==
While the post-World War II home market for the car continued as before, the Rootes Group also marketed the car for export. The Super Snipe was assembled in [[Australia]], commencing in 1953 with the Mark IV.<ref name=Davis/> From 1956 the car was available with [[automatic transmission]], but the model was discontinued shortly afterwards.

Super Snipes were also assembled in New Zealand for a number of years by Rootes Group and Chrysler importer Todd Motors which later became Mitsubishi New Zealand.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.humber.org.uk Post Vintage Humber Car Club]
*[http://www.philseed.com/hb-snipe-s1.html Humber Super Snipe Series I-III 1957-1962] at Phil Seed's Virtual Car Museum
*[http://silverstone.fortunecity.com/mosside/65/Humber.html Humber Super Snipe Series III, 1961, Restoration by Kev Warburton]
*[http://www.motorbase.com/manufacturer/by-id/46/ Motorbase] entry on the Humber marque

[[Category:Humber vehicles|Super Snipe]]
[[Category:World War II military vehicles]]
[[Category:Soft-skinned vehicles]]
[[Category:1930s automobiles]]
[[Category:1940s automobiles]]
[[Category:1950s automobiles]]
[[Category:1960s automobiles]]
[[Category:Vehicles introduced in 1938]]
[[Category:Cars assembled in Australia]]

Çapuling

2013-06-05T14:04:36Z

Oliverlyc: Reverted edits by 24.133.216.105 (talk) to last revision by Bora Aydeniz (HG)

{{notability}}
{{neologism}}

[[File:Chappuling-day-2013.jpg|thumb|Graffiti from a chapulling day in Turkey, 2013.]]
[[File:Ntv-workers-chapulling.jpg|thumb|A news channel's workers announcing that they are "chapulling".]]
'''Chapulling''' ( also '''Çapuling''' ) is a [[neologism]] derived from the [[2013 protests in Turkey]] after [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Prime Minister Erdogan]]'s speech. He used the word "çapulcu" (roughly translated to "looter" and "marauder") to describe the peaceful demonstrators conducting a sit-in, on [[Taksim_Gezi_Park|Gezi Park]] grounds in central Istanbul, similar in character to worldwide [[Occupy_movement|occupy]] movements. The word quickly caught on, adopted and anglicized by the demonstrators with a new meaning: fighting for one's rights.

== Background ==

The Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan said during a speech referring to the protesters: "We cannot just watch some marauders (looters) inciting our people. [...] Yes, we will also build a mosque. I do not need permission for this; neither from the head of the Republican People's Party (CHP) nor from a few marauders (looters). I took permission from the fifty percent of the citizens who elected us as the governing party.<ref>http://www.radikal.com.tr/politika/erdogan_akm_yikilacak_taksime_cami_de_yapilacak-1135947</ref>"

The protesters quickly decided to take over the term to describe themselves as ''çapulcu'', and altered the meaning. Within days, the usually negative term was being used as a positive term of self-identification. International supporters of the Gezi Park events took photos of themselves with messages of "I'm chapulcu, as well" and posted them on social media, addressed to the protesters in Turkey. The movement was supported by the linguist and political critic [[Noam Chomsky]], who defined himself as a ''chapuller'', giving the message that "everywhere is Taksim, everywhere is resistance". <ref> [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OE0Rcbiv9ZM Noam Chomsky de çapulcu oldu] </ref> Cem Boyner, Chairman of [[Boyner Holding]], also supported the movement by holding a banner saying "I'm neither rightist nor leftist, I am a chapuller."<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/23438303.asp | title = Cem Boyner'den, 'Ben de çapulcuyum' çıkışı | accessdate = 5 June 2013 | publisher=Hürriyet |language=Turkish}}</ref>

The word appeared as a graffiti inscription of "Everyday I'm chapulling" during the demonstrations, alluding to the lyrics of [[LMFAO]]'s [[Party Rock Anthem]] ("Everyday I'm shuffling").<ref>http://www.izlesene.com/video/everyday-im-capuling-6-haziran-22-00/6968654</ref>

==See also==

*[[Reappropriation]]
*[[2013 protests in Turkey]]
*[[Republic Protests|Republic Protests (2007)]]
*[[Environmental issues in Turkey]]
*[http://www.occupygezi.org OccupyGezi]
*[http://www.youtube.com/user/DirenGeziPark OccupyGezi Official Youtube Channel]

== References ==

<references />

== External Links ==

* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/turkce/multimedya/2013/06/130605_sokaktakiler_gokhan_tan.shtml BBC Article About Gezi Parkı] {{tr}}
* [http://www.itusozluk.com/goster.php/chapulling itüsözlük entry for Chapulling] {{tr}}
* [http://www.posta.com.tr/turkiye/HaberDetay/Yeni-internet-fenomeni--Chapulling.htm?ArticleID=180614 Yeni Internet Fenomeni - Chapulling] {{tr}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=64q2GIqH7S8 Cover version of LMFAO - Everyday I'm Shuffelin]

[[Category:Turkish-language culture]]
[[Category:Neologisms]]
[[Category:Protests in Turkey]]
[[Category:2013 in Turkey]]

Benutzer:Bjs/Baustelle/Süße Limette

2012-06-20T02:49:55Z

Oliverlyc: Good faith revert of edit(s) by 69.125.0.134 using STiki

{{italic title}}
{{taxobox
|name = sweet lemon
|image = sweet lemon.jpeg
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]]
|ordo = [[Sapindales]]
|familia = [[Rutaceae]]
|genus = ''[[Citrus]]''
|species = '''''C. limetta'''''
|binomial = ''Citrus limetta''
|binomial_authority = [[Joseph Antoine Risso|Risso]]
|}}

'''''Citrus limetta''''' is a species of [[citrus]]. Common names for varieties of this species include '''sweet limetta''', '''Mediterranean sweet lemon''', '''sweet lemon''', and '''sweet lime'''. In [[Iran]] it is called '''Limu Shirin''' لیمو شیرین (in [[Persian language|Persian]]: Limu = Lemon and Shirin = Sweet). In [[India]], it is commonly called as '''Moosambi''' (Kannada), '''sathukudi''' (in Tamil), '''mousambi''', '''mosambi''', or '''musambi'''.<ref> [http://www.sailusfood.com/categories/beverages_indian_drinks_sharbats/page/2/]</ref>(in Hindi/Urdu) and Bathaya Kaayalu (in Telugu). The Tamil name derived from the name of a village "sattukkudi' (சாத்துக்குடி) where this fruit was cultivated first in Tamil Nadu.

== Appearance ==
[[File:CrossSectionsofLotsofLemonsAnd1SweetLime.jpg|thumb|Sweet lime along with other types of lemons.]]
It is a small tree which may reach 8 m in height. The sweet lemon has irregular branches, and relatively smooth, brownish-grey bark. It possesses numerous thorns which may grow to anywhere from 1.5 to 7.5 cm long. The [[petiole (botany)|petiole]]s of the sweet lemon are narrowly but distinctly [[winged]], and are 8 to 29 mm long. It has [[leaflet]]s rather than leaves, which are [[obovate]] and 5.5 to 17 cm long, 2.8 to 8 cm wide. The apex of the leaflet is [[leaf shape|acuminate]], and the base of the leaflet is rounded. Flowers are white in bud and in bloom, ranging from 2 to 3 cm wide. The petals soon fall away, leaving the fruit to grow. The skin of the fruit is light yellow at maturity; the [[peel (fruit)|rind]] is white and about 5 mm thick. The [[Juice vesicles|pulp]] is greenish and the juice is sweet rather than acidic.It is also referred as [[Orange (fruit)|orange]] in some places of the world.
[[File:Sweet-lime.jpg|thumb|A slice of Sweet lime.]]
== Range ==
[[File:Sweet lime and pomegranate juice.jpg|thumb|Sweet lime juice and [[pomegranate]] juice.]]
It is native to [[South Asia]] and [[South East Asia]] and is cultivated in the [[Mediterranean region]].<ref name="ars-grin.gov">[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Citrus%20limetta Results of your search: Citrus limetta]</ref> It has been introduced to other regions of the world by [[humans]]. It is [[plant propagation|propagated]] by seed.

== Uses ==
The fruit of the sweet lemon is edible, and contains [[essential oils]]. The tree is used for [[ornamental]] purposes or for [[grafting|graft stock]].<ref name="ars-grin.gov"/> In Iran, it is particularly used to treat [[flu]] and cold. The fruit has high levels of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C). The juice is used by all, especially those who are sick.

== Nutrition Facts ==
Serving Size 1 fruit (100g)
Calories 43% Daily Values*
Total Fat 0.2g- 0%
Saturated Fat - 0%
Cholesterol - 0%
Sodium - 0%
Total Carbohydrate 11g 4%
Dietary Fiber 3g 12%
Sugars 1.7g
Protein 0.7g

*Percent Daily Values are based on a 2000 calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs.
[http://ayurvedicindia.info/591/health-benefits-sweet-lime-juice-indian-sweet-lime-drink/ ayurvedic medicine]
==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Citrus|limetta]]

[[ca:Citrus limetta]]
[[es:Citrus × limetta]]
[[eo:Limedujo]]
[[fa:لیمو شیرین]]
[[fr:Citrus limetta]]
[[gu:મોસંબી]]
[[hi:मौसम्बी]]
[[io:Limeto]]
[[kn:ಮೂಸಂಬಿ]]
[[sw:Mndimu Mtamu]]
[[mr:मोसंबी]]
[[sa:मधुपाकफलम्]]

Andrea Libman

2012-05-14T06:50:30Z

Oliverlyc: Reverted edits by 99.239.119.134 (talk) to last revision by Gobonobo (HG)

{{Infobox person
| name = Andrea Eva Libman
| image =
| caption =
| birth_place = [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1984|7|19|mf=y}}
| occupation = [[Actress]], [[singer]]
| years_active = 1991-present
}}

'''Andrea Eva Libman''' (born July 19, 1984) is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[actress]], [[television writer]], and [[singer]], whose most popular on-screen appearances are on the ''[[Little Women]]'' movie, ''[[Andre (film)|Andre]]'' and a guest-role on ''[[The X-Files]]''. Her best known voice roles include ''[[Dragon Ball (franchise)|Dragon Ball]]'', ''[[Madeline]]'' (taking the role of the lead character from [[Tracey Lee Smyth]] in 1995 and holding on to it until ''My Fair Madeline'' in 2002, in which the role was passed on to [[Chantal Strand]]), the season three version of [[X-23]] in ''[[X-Men: Evolution]]'', young AndrAIa in ''[[ReBoot]]'', Emmy in the PBS children's animated series ''[[Dragon Tales]]'' and Isabelle in ''[[Finley the Fire Engine]]''. Andrea is currently voicing Harmony Bear in ''[[Care Bears: Adventures in Care-a-Lot]]'', Cathy in the ''[[Monster Buster Club]]'', and [[Pinkie Pie]] and [[Fluttershy]] in ''[[My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic]]''.

She has appeared on camera in films and television shows including ''[[Highlander: The Series]]'', ''[[Susie Q (film)|Susie Q]]'', ''[[The Lotus Eaters (TV series)|The Lotus Eaters]]'', and ''[[Lyddie]]''. Libman has also written several episodes of ''[[Corneil and Bernie]]''.

==Filmography==
===Animation===
* ''[[Barbie: A Fashion Fairy Tale]]'' - Glimmer
* ''[[Barbie: Mermaidia]]'' (film series)
* ''[[Being Ian]]''
* ''[[Care Bears: Adventures in Care-a-Lot]]'' - Harmony Bear
* ''[[Dinobabies]]'' - LaBrea
* ''[[Dragon Tales]]'' - Emmy<ref>{{cite news|title=The Family Room|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=57k8AAAAIBAJ&sjid=4i0MAAAAIBAJ&pg=1249,2307304&dq=andrea-libman&hl=en|newspaper=Bangor Daily News|date=July 22, 2005}}</ref>
* ''[[Bubble Guppies]]'' - Molly
* ''[[George of the Jungle (2007 TV series)|George of the Jungle]]''
* ''[[Johnny Test]]''
* ''[[Krypto the Superdog]]''
* ''[[Liberty's Kids]]''
* ''[[Mary-Kate and Ashley in Action!]]''
* ''[[Maya the Bee]]''
* ''[[Monster Buster Club]]'' - Cathy
* ''[[Mr. Bean: The Animated Series]]''
* ''[[My Little Pony]]'' (TV specials) - Sweetie Belle,<ref>{{cite news|title=EFR: Andrea Libman Interview|url=http://www.derpyhoovesnews.com/efr-andrea-libman-interview/|newspaper=Derpy Hooves News|date=May 7, 2012}}</ref> Zipzee<ref>{{cite web|title=My Little Pony - The Princess Promenade|url=http://www.dvdtalk.com/reviews/20056/my-little-pony-the-princess-promenade/|publisher=DVD Talk|date=February 7, 2006}}</ref>
* ''[[My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic]]'' - [[Pinkie Pie]] (speaking voice only), [[Fluttershy]] (speaking and singing voice), Pumpkin Cake
* ''[[The New Adventures of Madeline.]]'' - [[Madeline]]
* ''[[Pac-Man]]'' - Selindria
* ''[[Pocket Dragon Adventures]]''
* ''[[Rainbow Fish]]''
* ''[[ReBoot]]'' - young AndrAIa
* ''[[Salty's Lighthouse]]'' - Claude
* ''[[Sonic Underground]]''
* ''[[Strawberry Shortcake's Berry Bitty Adventures]]'' - Lemon Meringue
* ''[[Super Why!]]'' - Baby Dino
* ''[[The 6th Day]]'' (2000 Sci-Fi thriller) - SlimPal Cindy
* ''[[Ultimate Book of Spells]]''
* ''[[X-Men: Evolution]]'' - [[X-23]]
* ''[[Yakkity Yak]]''
* ''[[The Lotso Kids]]'' - Kaylee Lotso

===Anime Roles===
* ''[[Card Captors]]''
* ''[[Cybersix]]''
* ''[[Darkstalkers]]''
* ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' (1995 English dub)
* ''[[Elemental Gelade]]''
* ''[[Gundam 00]]'' - [[Mileina Vashti]]
* ''[[Kishin Corps: Alien Defender Geo-Armor]]''
* ''[[Maison Ikkoku]]''
* ''[[Mega Man: Upon a Star]]''
* ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]''
* ''[[Ranma ½]]''

===Other===
* ''[[X-Play]]'' (game show) - Kanaren King

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|0508877}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Libman, Andrea
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Canadian actress
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1986-1-30
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Libman, Andrea}}
[[Category:1984 births]]
[[Category:Canadian child actors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Canadian television actors]]
[[Category:Canadian film actors]]
[[Category:Canadian voice actors]]
[[Category:Canadian female singers]]
[[Category:Canadian television writers]]
[[Category:People from Toronto]]
[[Category:Actors from Ontario]]

{{canada-voice-actor-stub}}

[[it:Andrea Libman]]
[[simple:Andrea Libman]]
[[fi:Andrea Libman]]

BR-Klasse 166

2012-05-13T03:22:50Z

Oliverlyc: Good faith revert of edit(s) by 149.254.57.127 using STiki

{{Refimprove|date=February 2009}}
{{Infobox DMU
| name = British Rail Class 166 ''Networker Turbo Express''
| image = 166218 London Paddington.JPG
| imagesize = 300px
| caption = [[First Great Western]] unit 166218 stands at {{rws|London Paddington}}.
| background = #000066
| manufacturer = [[ABB Group|ABB]] York
| family = [[Networker (train)|Networker]]
| formation = 3 cars per trainset
| fleetnumbers = 166201 - 166221
| numberbuilt = 21 trainsets
| service = 1992 - Present
| yearconstruction = 1992 - 1993
| carbody = Welded aluminium
| weight =
| capacity =
| maxspeed = {{convert|90|mph|km/h|0|abbr=on}}
| brakes =
| engine = One per car, {{convert|350|hp|0|abbr=on}} [[Perkins Engines Company Limited|Perkins 2006TWH]] Diesel
| transmission = Voith Hydraulic T211r 2 axles driven per car
| operator = [[First Great Western]]
| safety = [[Automatic Warning System#British_Rail_AWS|AWS]], [[Train Protection & Warning System|TPWS]]
| coupling=BSI<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rssb.co.uk/RGS/Pages/MECHANICALANDELECTRICALCOUPLINGINDEX.aspx |title=Mechanical And Electrical Coupling Index |accessdate=20 December 2010 |publisher=Rail Safety and Standards Board}}</ref>
}}
The [[British Rail]] '''Class 166 ''Turbo Express''''' is a fleet of [[diesel multiple unit]]s (DMUs), originally specified by and built for [[British Rail]], the then [[United Kingdom]] state owned railway operator. They were built by [[ABB Group|ABB]] at [[York]] Works between 1992 and 1993.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://209.85.135.104/search?hl=en&client=safari&rls=en-us&q=cache%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.firstgreatwestern.info%2Fcotswolds.html+thames+turbo&btnG=Search|title=First Great Western Info}}{{dead link|date=June 2011}}</ref> The trains were designed as a faster, air conditioned variant of the [[British Rail Class 165|Class 165 ''Turbo'']], intended for longer distance services, and, like the 165s, belong to the [[Networker (train)|Networker family of trains]]. They were originally known as '''''Networker Turbos''''' to distinguish them from the electrically propelled members of that family.

The class is still in service, and is operated by [[First Great Western]] on its services out of [[London Paddington station]]. The trains, along with that operator's Class 165 trains, are often known as '''''Thames Turbos'''''.

==Description==
These units are a modification of the [[British Rail Class 165|Class 165]] design. They have a top speed of {{convert|90|mph|km/h|0|abbr=on}} (suitable for mainline use), are carpeted throughout and have air-conditioning. Externally, the class 166 can be distinguished from a [[British Rail Class 165|Class 165]] by having a first class section at each end of the train, and opening hoppers on every other window.

Other differences over a 165 are as follows:
*Air conditioning
*Two toilets (a 165 only has one toilet per unit)
*Tables in first class and in one third of the middle carriage
*Dedicated cycle/luggage storage in the middle carriage
*Different interior panelling between the door and seating areas
*Grab rails painted in yellow instead of the blue found in the 165s (Unrefurbished trains)

Twenty-one 3-car units were built, numbered 166201-221. Each unit was formed of two outer driving motors, and an intermediate motor. The technical description of the formation is DMCL+MS+DMCL. Individual carriages are numbered as follows:
*58101-58121 - DMCO
*58601-58621 - MSO
*58122-58142 - DMCO

The units were built to replace elderly [[British Rail Class 117|Class 117]], [[British Rail Class 119|Class 119]] and [[British Rail Class 121|Class 121]] "Heritage" DMUs, and locomotive-hauled trains on services from [[London Paddington]] along the [[Great Western Main Line]].

Six cars were added to the original order in 1991 after [[Network SouthEast]] acquired some of the [[Cotswold Line]] line services from [[Regional Railways]] to allow [[British Rail Class 158|Class 158]] units to be converted to [[British Rail Class 159|Class 159s]] for the [[West of England Main Line|''West of England'']] services.<ref name="hansard">{{cite journal| url=http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1991/jun/06/turbo-trains| title=Turbo-trains| work=Hansard| date=6 June 1991| volume=192| page=278W| accessdate=9 June 2011| language-English}}</ref><ref name="semgonline">{{cite web| url=http://www.semgonline.com/gallery/class159_1.html| title=Class 159| publisher=Southern E-Group| accessdate=9 June 2011| language-English}}</ref>

Class 166 units were some of the first trains in Britain to be designed for Driver Only Operation, in cases were a Guard is required they must carry out their door operation duties via a bell system to signal the Drivers to close doors and start the train. This requires the Guard to return to a vacant cab at each station to carry out these duties, examples of this [[First Great Western]] services on the Cotswolds Line.

==Operations==
[[File:Oxford railway station MMB 06 166220.jpg|thumb|right|166220 arrives at {{rws|Oxford}} with a service to {{rws|London Paddington}}.]]
When built, these units were operated by the ''Thames Line'' and ''North Downs Line'' subdivisions of [[Network SouthEast]] and therefore carried NSE blue, red and white livery with ''Turbo Express'' branding between the two first class windows of the DMCL carriages.

Their main destinations included fast-trains to [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[Newbury, Berkshire|Newbury]] and [[Oxford]], with some services continuing beyond Oxford to [[Banbury]] and [[Stratford-upon-Avon]], or along the [[Cotswold Line]] to [[Evesham, Worcestershire|Evesham]], [[Worcester, England|Worcester]], [[Great Malvern]] and [[Hereford]]. Units are also used on the Reading to [[Gatwick Airport]] services along the [[North Downs Line]]. Many services operated by the 166 were branded as ''Turbo Express'' in the timetables.

A rail user's group has suggested that Class 165 ''Turbo'' and the express variant, Class 166 ''Turbo Express'' will work services on the {{Stnlnk|Cardiff Central}} to {{Stnlnk|Portsmouth Harbour}} route after the [[Thameslink]] cascade, subject to line clearance.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.firstgreatwestern.info/coffeeshop/index.php?topic=1656.0| title=London to the Cotswolds - General Information| work=First Great Western Passengers' Forum| date=6 February 2008| accessdate=9 June 2011 }}</ref> However, a Network Rail document released in 2011 cast doubts on whether this would actually happen after revealing the gauge between Cardiff and Portsmouth is currently not suitable for Class 166s. <ref>http://www.networkrail.co.uk/browse%20documents/rus%20documents/route%20utilisation%20strategies/network/working%20group%203%20-%20passenger%20rolling%20stock%20and%20depots/network%20rus%20-%20passenger%20rolling%20stock.pdf Network RUS: Passenger Rolling Stock - Network Ral</ref>

Following privatisation, the units passed to the [[Thames Trains]] franchise, who introduced a new blue, white and green livery. There were two variants of this livery; the Class 166 units had the 'express' variant.

In April 2004, operation of the Thames Trains franchise passed to the [[First Group]], who now operate the company as [[First Great Western]]. The livery remained the same, but FGW Link branding was applied over the obsolete Thames Trains logo.

In 2012, First Great Western will be take delivery of five Class 180 ''Adelante'' units for [[Cotswold Line]] services, and three-car {{brc|150}} ''Sprinter'' units for [[Reading to Basingstoke Line]] services, allowing Class 165 and 166 units to be used to be used entirely for Thames Valley services.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://railnews.co.uk/news/general/2011/11/23-return-of-adelantes-to-first.html|title=Return of Adelantes to First Great Western confirmed|publisher=Railnews.co.uk|accessdate=2011-11-23|date=2011-11-23}}</ref>

==London and Thames Valley Refresh==
[[File:166217 at Reading.JPG|thumb|right|166217 in [[Thames Trains]] livery with [[First Great Western Link]] branding. FGWL never repainted the units before being subsumed into the Greater Western franchise as part of [[First Great Western]].]]
Towards the end of January 2010, First Great Western announced an £8,000,000 refresh programme to their fleet of Class 166 Turbo DMU trains.<ref>{{cite press release| url=http://www.firstgreatwestern.co.uk/NewsItem.aspx?id=632| title=Train operator gives Thames Valley Trains an £8million makeover| publisher=First Great Western| date=25 January 2010| accessdate=9 June 2011 }}</ref>
The carpets & seats were retrimmed, interiors repainted, Passenger Information Displays replaced with a GPS based system and toilets upgraded. The refresh work was carried out at Reading Depot. All 151 vehicles have now been refurbished.

==Fleet details==
{| class="wikitable"
!Class
!Operator
!No. Built
!Year Built
!Cars per Set
!Unit nos.
|-
|'''Class 166'''
|First Great Western
|align=center|21
|align=center|1992–1993
|align=center|3
|166201 - 166221
|}

==Liveries and interiors==
<gallery>
File:Oxford. - geograph.org.uk - 123732.jpg|A 166 in [[Network SouthEast]] livery at {{rws|Oxford}}.
File:166202 at Evesham.JPG|166202 in [[Thames Trains]] livery with [[First Great Western Link]] branding.
File:Firstgreatwesternclass166.JPG|166205 at Pershore in [[First Group]] "Dynamic Lines" livery.
Image:166207 DMCO First Class Interior.JPG|The interior of the First Class cabin aboard a First Great Western Class 166, showing both carpets and seats in First Group moquette trim.
Image:166207 DMCO Interior.JPG|The interior of Standard Class in the DMCO vehicle, aboard a First Great Western Class 166, showing both carpets and seats in First Group moquette trim.
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{commons category|British Rail Class 166}}
{{Networker}}
{{British Rail DMU}}

[[Category:British Rail diesel multiple units|166]]

[[pl:British Rail Class 166]]
[[simple:British Rail Class 166]]