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Israelische Regierung

2009-04-01T02:00:20Z

Natl1: Comment out old gov

{{Politics of Israel}}

The '''[[Cabinet (government)|Cabinet]] of [[Israel]]''' is a formal body composed of government officials chosen and led by a [[Prime Minister of Israel|Prime Minister]]. Its composition must be approved by a vote in the [[Knesset]]. The Prime Minister is able to remove members of the Cabinet, but to satisfy Israeli law he must do this in writing and new appointees must again be approved by the Knesset. Most Ministers are heads of government departments.



== Use of terms ==
The body discussed in this article is referred to in Israeli official documents as the ''Government of Israel''. This is in accordance to the normal translation of its Hebrew name,
({{lang-he|ממשלה}}, ''memshala''). In Israel, the term ''cabinet'' ({{lang-he|קבינט}}) is generally used for the ''Politics and Security Cabinet'' ({{lang-he|הקבינט המדיני-ביטחוני}}), an unofficial group of cabinet members that decides on defense and foreign policy issues.

===Interim Government===
{{main article|Deputy leaders of Israel#Interim Government}}

==Cabinet members==
As of [[31 March]] [[2009]], Israel's 31st Cabinet comprises the following Ministers:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Portfolio
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Minister
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Party
|--
|Prime Minister
|Benjamin Netanyahu
|Likud
|----
|Vice Prime Minister
|
|
|----
|
|Silvan Shalom
|Likud
|----
|
|Moshe Ya`alon
|Likud
|----
|Deputy Prime Minister
|
|
|----
|
|Ehud Barak
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|
|Avigdor Liberman
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|
|Dan Meridor
|Likud
|----
|
|Eliyahu Yishai
|Shas
|----
|Minister
|
|
|----
|
|Ze`ev Binyamin Begin
|Likud
|----
|
|Avishay Braverman
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|
|Yuli-Yoel Edelstein
|Likud
|----
|
|Daniel Hershkowitz
|Habayit Hayehudi
|----
|
|Meshulam Nahari
|Shas
|----
|
|Yossi Peled
|Likud
|----
|
|Moshe Ya`alon
|Likud
|----
|Minister Economic Strategy
|Benjamin Netanyahu
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development
|Shalom Simhon
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|Minister of Communications
|Moshe Kahlon
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Defense
|Ehud Barak
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|Minister of Education
|Gideon Sa`ar
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Environmental Protection
|Gilad Erdan
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Finance
|Yuval Steinitz
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Foreign Affairs
|Avigdor Liberman
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|Minister of Health
|Benjamin Netanyahu
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Housing and Construction
|Ariel Atias
|Shas
|----
|Minister of Immigrant Absorption
|Sofa Landver
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|Minister of Improvement of Government Services
|Michael Eitan
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Industry, Trade, and Labor
|Binyamin Ben-Eliezer
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|Minister of Intelligence and Atomic Energy
|Dan Meridor
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Internal Affairs
|Eliyahu Yishai
|Shas
|----
|Minister of Internal Security
|Yitzhak Aharonovitch
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|Minister of Justice
|Yaakov Neeman
|
|----
|Minister of National Infrastructure
|Uzi Landau
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|Minister of Pensioner Affairs
|Benjamin Netanyahu
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Religious Services
|Yakov Margi
|Shas
|----
|Minister of Science, Culture, and Sport
|Benjamin Netanyahu
|Likud
|----
|Minister of the Development of the Negev and Galil
|Silvan Shalom
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Tourism
|Stas Misezhnikov
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|Minister of Transportation and Road Safety
|Yisrael Katz
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Welfare and Social Services
|Isaac Herzog
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|Minister Regional Development
|Silvan Shalom
|Likud
|----
|Minister Without Portfolio
|Limor Livnat
|Likud
|----
|}
===Deputy Ministers===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Portfolio
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Minister
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Party
|-
|Deputy [[Defense Minister of Israel|Minister of Defense]]
|[[Matan Vilnai]]
|[[Labor Party (Israel)|Labour]]
|-
|Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs
|[[Daniel Ayalon]]
|Yisrael Beitenu
|-
|Deputy Min. of Pensioner Affairs
|Lea Nass
|Likud
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.knesset.gov.il/govt/eng/GovtByNumber_eng.asp Current and past cabinets] Knesset website {{en icon}}
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2001/3/Basic%20Law-%20The%20Government%20-2001- Basic Law:The Government (2001)] Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs {{en icon}}

{{Israeli ministers}}
{{Israeli governments}}

[[Category:National cabinets|Israel]]
[[Category:Government of Israel]]
[[Category:Government ministers of Israel| ]]
[[Category:Lists of government ministers of Israel]]

[[cs:Vláda Státu Izrael]]
[[he:ממשלת ישראל]]
[[pl:Rząd Izraela]]
[[pt:Governo de Israel]]
[[fi:Israelin hallitus]]

Israelische Regierung

2009-04-01T01:57:44Z

Natl1: /* Cabinet members */ Update Capinet

{{Politics of Israel}}

The '''[[Cabinet (government)|Cabinet]] of [[Israel]]''' is a formal body composed of government officials chosen and led by a [[Prime Minister of Israel|Prime Minister]]. Its composition must be approved by a vote in the [[Knesset]]. The Prime Minister is able to remove members of the Cabinet, but to satisfy Israeli law he must do this in writing and new appointees must again be approved by the Knesset. Most Ministers are heads of government departments.

Following a [[Israeli legislative election, 2006|general election in March, 2006]], the Prime Minister and leader of the [[Kadima]] party, [[Ehud Olmert]], formed the 31st government. His [[coalition government]] initially included three other parties; the [[Labor Party (Israel)|Labour]] party, the [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]] [[Shas]] party, and [[Gil (political party)|Gil]], the pensioner's party. His proposed list of Ministers was put before the Knesset and approved on [[4 May]] [[2006]]. The cabinet had 25 members and the parties were represented as follows: Kadima with 12 Ministers, Labour with 7, Shas with 4 and Gil with 2.

The nationalist party [[Yisrael Beiteinu]] joined the coalition in November 2006, resulting in a slight reshuffle; along with other changes, this left the distribution of ministers as follows: Kadima with 11, Labour with 6, Shas with 4, Gil with 2 and Yisrael Beiteinu with 2, alongside one independent non-MK, [[Daniel Friedmann]]. There is also one Deputy Minster (of Defense). In September 2007 another Labour minister was added to the cabinet. Yisrael Beiteinu left the coalition on 16 January 2008 in protest at peace talks with the [[Palestinian National Authority]].<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/945299.html Lieberman blasts Arab MKs, pulls party out of government] Haaretz, 16 January 2008</ref> Another Kadima MK ([[Eli Aflalo]]) was added to the cabinet on 14 July 2008.

== Use of terms ==
The body discussed in this article is referred to in Israeli official documents as the ''Government of Israel''. This is in accordance to the normal translation of its Hebrew name,
({{lang-he|ממשלה}}, ''memshala''). In Israel, the term ''cabinet'' ({{lang-he|קבינט}}) is generally used for the ''Politics and Security Cabinet'' ({{lang-he|הקבינט המדיני-ביטחוני}}), an unofficial group of cabinet members that decides on defense and foreign policy issues.

===Interim Government===
{{main article|Deputy leaders of Israel#Interim Government}}

==Cabinet members==
As of [[31 March]] [[2009]], Israel's 31st Cabinet comprises the following Ministers:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Portfolio
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Minister
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Party
|--
|Prime Minister
|Benjamin Netanyahu
|Likud
|----
|Vice Prime Minister
|
|
|----
|
|Silvan Shalom
|Likud
|----
|
|Moshe Ya`alon
|Likud
|----
|Deputy Prime Minister
|
|
|----
|
|Ehud Barak
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|
|Avigdor Liberman
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|
|Dan Meridor
|Likud
|----
|
|Eliyahu Yishai
|Shas
|----
|Minister
|
|
|----
|
|Ze`ev Binyamin Begin
|Likud
|----
|
|Avishay Braverman
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|
|Yuli-Yoel Edelstein
|Likud
|----
|
|Daniel Hershkowitz
|Habayit Hayehudi
|----
|
|Meshulam Nahari
|Shas
|----
|
|Yossi Peled
|Likud
|----
|
|Moshe Ya`alon
|Likud
|----
|Minister Economic Strategy
|Benjamin Netanyahu
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development
|Shalom Simhon
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|Minister of Communications
|Moshe Kahlon
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Defense
|Ehud Barak
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|Minister of Education
|Gideon Sa`ar
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Environmental Protection
|Gilad Erdan
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Finance
|Yuval Steinitz
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Foreign Affairs
|Avigdor Liberman
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|Minister of Health
|Benjamin Netanyahu
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Housing and Construction
|Ariel Atias
|Shas
|----
|Minister of Immigrant Absorption
|Sofa Landver
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|Minister of Improvement of Government Services
|Michael Eitan
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Industry, Trade, and Labor
|Binyamin Ben-Eliezer
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|Minister of Intelligence and Atomic Energy
|Dan Meridor
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Internal Affairs
|Eliyahu Yishai
|Shas
|----
|Minister of Internal Security
|Yitzhak Aharonovitch
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|Minister of Justice
|Yaakov Neeman
|
|----
|Minister of National Infrastructure
|Uzi Landau
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|Minister of Pensioner Affairs
|Benjamin Netanyahu
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Religious Services
|Yakov Margi
|Shas
|----
|Minister of Science, Culture, and Sport
|Benjamin Netanyahu
|Likud
|----
|Minister of the Development of the Negev and Galil
|Silvan Shalom
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Tourism
|Stas Misezhnikov
|Yisrael Beitenu
|----
|Minister of Transportation and Road Safety
|Yisrael Katz
|Likud
|----
|Minister of Welfare and Social Services
|Isaac Herzog
|Israel Labor Party
|----
|Minister Regional Development
|Silvan Shalom
|Likud
|----
|Minister Without Portfolio
|Limor Livnat
|Likud
|----
|}
===Deputy Ministers===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Portfolio
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Minister
!bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Party
|-
|Deputy [[Defense Minister of Israel|Minister of Defense]]
|[[Matan Vilnai]]
|[[Labor Party (Israel)|Labour]]
|-
|Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs
|[[Daniel Ayalon]]
|Yisrael Beitenu
|-
|Deputy Min. of Pensioner Affairs
|Lea Nass
|Likud
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.knesset.gov.il/govt/eng/GovtByNumber_eng.asp Current and past cabinets] Knesset website {{en icon}}
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2001/3/Basic%20Law-%20The%20Government%20-2001- Basic Law:The Government (2001)] Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs {{en icon}}

{{Israeli ministers}}
{{Israeli governments}}

[[Category:National cabinets|Israel]]
[[Category:Government of Israel]]
[[Category:Government ministers of Israel| ]]
[[Category:Lists of government ministers of Israel]]

[[cs:Vláda Státu Izrael]]
[[he:ממשלת ישראל]]
[[pl:Rząd Izraela]]
[[pt:Governo de Israel]]
[[fi:Israelin hallitus]]

Brothertown Indians

2009-02-19T22:49:24Z

Natl1: puic

[[Image:Brothertown Sign.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Brothertown Indians historical marker at intersection of [[U.S. Route 151|USH 151]] and [[Highway 55 (Wisconsin)|Wis 55]]{{puic|Image_name.ext|log=2009 February 19}}]]
[[Image:Rev Samson Occom.jpg|thumb|upright|The Reverend [[Samson Occom]], founder]]
[[Image:Lester Skeesuk.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Tribe member Lester Skeesuk]]
The '''Brothertown Indians''' (also ''Brotherton'') are Native American descendants of the [[Pequot]] and [[Mohegan]] ([[Algonquian language|Algonquian-speaking]]) tribes in southern [[New England]].<ref>http://home.earthlink.net/~herblst/indians.htm</ref><ref>http://192.206.48.3/wirp/ICW-157.html</ref> The Brothertown Indians were the first tribe of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] in the [[United States]] to become United States citizens and relinquish their [[tribal sovereignty]].

== Tribe forms in New England ==
The Brothertown Indian Nation (Eeyamquittoowauconnuck) was formed by [[Samson Occom]] (famed Presbyterian minister, member of the Mohegan tribe of Connecticut, and fundraiser for Dartmouth College), Joseph Johnson (Mohegan, messenger for General George Washington during the American Revolution, and Occom's son-in-law), and David Fowler (Montauk and Occom's brother-in-law).<ref>http://www.library.wisc.edu/etext/WIReader/WER0439.html</ref>
The tribe formally formed on November 7, 1785 when the so-called Christian remnants of the Mohegan, Pequots at Groton, Pequots at Stonington, Narragansett, Montauk, Niantic, and Tunxis (Farmington) tribes organized into a body politic and began to move to land provided to them by the Oneida Nation near [[Waterville, New York]] in Oneida Country. In the 1780s, they settled there while under intense pressure to again move west. By the 1830s, the Brothertown Indian Nation had sold its land to the State of New York and purchased land in Wisconsin, where the 3200-member tribe thrives in twenty-first century America.<ref>http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/dictionary/index.asp?action=view&term_id=71&keyword=brothertown</ref>

== Treaties to move west ==
In 1821, numerous New York tribes signed a treaty with the federal government and acquired 860,000 acres (3,500 km²) in [[Wisconsin]]. In 1822, another delegation acquired an additional 6.72 million acres (27,200 km²) which consisted of almost the entire western shore of [[Lake Michigan]]. The Brothertown alone were to receive about 153,000 acres (619 km²) along the southeastern side of the [[Fox River (Wisconsin)|Fox River]] near present-day [[Kaukauna, Wisconsin|Kaukauna]] and [[Wrightstown, Wisconsin|Wrightstown]]. Some of the other tribes in the 1821 treaty felt they were misled by the federal government. The treaty was hotly debated for 8 years, so it was never ratified by the [[United States Senate]]. The federal government mediated a settlement with 3 treaties in 1831 and 1832. The settlement consisted of exchanging the agreed upon lands for the 23,040 acres (93 km²) now referred to as the entire [[Brothertown, Calumet County, Wisconsin|Town of Brothertown]] in [[Calumet County, Wisconsin|Calumet County]] along the east shore of [[Lake Winnebago]].

== Tribe moves west to Wisconsin ==
The Brothertown leadership led the move west so they could live in peace and brotherhood away from non-Indian influences. The Brothertown joined their neighbors, the [[Oneida|Oneida tribe]] and the [[Stockbridge-Munsee]] tribe, and planned the move to Wisconsin. Five groups of Brothertown arrived in Wisconsin on ships at the port of [[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]] between 1831 and 1836. Upon arrival, the Brothertown cleared land and began farming after building a church near Jericho. The federal government almost immediately decided that the land in Wisconsin had fertile soil, so it decided to move the Brothertown west to [[Kansas]]. In 1834, the Brothertown Indian Nation requested U.S. citizenship and individual titles to land for tribal members(the land had been considered tribal property) so they could not be forced to move west again. On March 3, 1839, Congress passed an act granting the Brothertown Indians U.S. citizenship, making them the first Indians with U.S. citizenship. Despite popular misunderstanding of federal Indian law and Brothertown tribal history, there is no question as to whether or not the tribe gave up their sovereignty for citizenship. The Bureau of Indian Affairs has repeatedly confirmed that U.S. citizenship and sovereignty are not mutually exclusive. This is clear when considering the fact that all American Indians are now U.S. citizens, yet there are approximately 365 federally acknowledged sovereign Indian tribes. In 1878, the federal government met with the Brothertown leaders and allowed unclaimed land in the former Brothertown Indian Reservation to be sold mainly to German immigrants.<ref>http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol1/html_files/SES0173A.html "INDIAN AFFAIRS: LAWS AND TREATIES", Compiled and edited by Charles J. Kappler. Washington : Government Printing Office, 1904. Retrieved [[January 4]] [[2007]]</ref>

== Today ==
===Federal recognition status===
[[Image:BrothertownIndiansUnionCemetary.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Union Cemetery, in the town of [[Brothertown, Wisconsin]]]]
The Brothertown have been petitioning the federal government since 1981 to once again
be federally acknowledged as a tribe — in effect, re-recognized. Federal acknowledgment was initially stripped from the Brothertown people in the late 1970s at a time when many other tribes lost their government-to-government relationship with the U.S. federal government, i.e., federal acknowledgment. It is a popular misconception that the Brothertown lost their federal acknowledgment when they requested and were granted [[United States citizenship]] on March 3, 1839 in an effort to avoid being removed by the federal government. However, the Bureau of Indian Affairs has confirmed in writing to the tribe that this was not the case and that their status as the first American Indians granted United States citizenship did not strip them of their [[tribal sovereignty]] or government-to-government relationship with the U.S. federal government. Due to this decision by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Brothertown Indian Nation was eligible to petition the BIA for federal acknowledgment, a process that the tribe is currently in the middle of. Had Congress's granting of citizenship status stripped the Brothertown Indian Nation of its federal acknowledgment in 1839, the tribe would have been deemed ineligible for the BIA's federal acknowledgment process (25 CFR sec. 83), and only an act of Congress could give the tribe federal acknowledgment.<ref>http://www.indiancountrytoday.com/home/content/29790799.html</ref><ref>http://www.fdlreporter.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080918/FON06/80918006</ref>

The Brothertown Indian Nation enrolled members elect a tribal officers and a tribal council that meets monthly. They have bought back a small portion of their former reservation, and continue to function as a nation in the state of Wisconsin. There are certain rights and assistance available to the Brothertown as individual Indian descendants, but these are greatly limited due to a lack of federal acknowledgment.

===Culture===
The Brothertown remain a culturally distinct Indian community with the largest concentration residing in the [[Fond du Lac, Wisconsin]] area. There were about 2400 enrolled members in 1999.<ref>http://web.mac.com/craigcipolla/iWeb/Brothertown%20Archaeological%20Project/History.html</ref> Union Cemetery in the town of [[Brothertown, Wisconsin]], and Quinney Cemetery located just outside the former reservation boundary are resting places for many Brothertown Indians. Many Brothertown return to these grave sites yearly to honor their ancestors and tend to the burial sites. Brothertown members hold a picnic every July and a homecoming every October.

===Archaeological project===
[[University of Pennsylvania]] [[Archaeology|archaeologist]] Craig Cipolla has begun an archaeological project on historic Brothertown sites. He is hoping to get community involvement from Brothertown members and local landowners. The project is supported by the Brothertown Indian Nation. The goal of the project is to locate, map and explore sites in need of preservation.<ref>[http://web.mac.com/craigcipolla/ Brothertown Archaelogical Project], Retrieved [[June 24]] [[2007]]</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Brothertown archaeological project planned |work=[[Tri-County News (Wisconsin)]] |page=3 |date=[[May 24]] [[2007]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.brothertownindians.org/ Brothertown Indian Nation]

[[Category:Native American tribes in Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Calumet County, Wisconsin]]

Jean-Sébastien Jaurès

2008-10-05T17:06:54Z

Natl1:

{{Infobox Fußballspieler
| kurzname= Jean-Sébastien Jaurès
| bild= [[Bild:Jean-Sébastien Jaurès.jpg|200px]]
| geburtstag= [[30. September]] [[1977]]
| geburtsort= [[Tours]]
| geburtsland= [[Frankreich]]
| jetztverein= [[Borussia Mönchengladbach]]
| trikotnummer= 20
| jugendjahre= bis 1991 1991-1995
| jugendvereine= [[FC Tours]] [[AJ Auxerre]]
| jahre= 1995-2008 2008-
| vereine= [[AJ Auxerre]] [[Borussia Mönchengladbach]]
| spiele (tore)= 236 (4) 1 (0)
| lgupdate= 17.08.2008
}}

'''Jean-Sébastien Jaurès''' (* [[30. September]] [[1977]] in [[Tours]]) ist ein [[Fußball in Frankreich|französischer Fußballspieler]].

Der [[Abwehrspieler]], dessen Vorfahren aus [[Réunion]] stammen, kam 1991 von der Jugend des [[FC Tours]] zur [[AJ Auxerre]] und begann dort in der Saison 1995/96 sein Profikarriere. Zur [[Fußball-Bundesliga 2008/09|Saison 2008/09]] wechselte er ablösefrei zum Bundesligisten [[Borussia Mönchengladbach]] und steht dort bis zum 30. Juni 2011 unter Vertrag.

Gleich in seiner ersten Profisaison wurde er [[Französischer Fußballmeister|Französischer Meister]], hatte allerdings kein einziges Spiel in der [[Ligue 1|Division 1]] zu verzeichnen. Im gleichen Jahr errang er mit der französischen U19-Nationalmannschaft die Europameisterschaft. In den Jahren 2003 und 2005 gewann er mit Auxerre zweimal den [[Französischer Fußballpokal|französischen Landespokal]]; anders als 2003 kam er 2005 auch im Endspiel (2:1 n.V. über den [[CS Sedan]]) zum Einsatz.

{{Navigationsleiste Kader von Borussia Mönchengladbach}}

[[Kategorie:Mann|Jaurès, Jean-Sébastien]]
[[Kategorie:Fußballspieler (Frankreich)|Jaurès, Jean-Sébastien]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1977|Jaurès, Jean-Sébastien]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Jaurès, Jean-Sébastien
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=französischer Fußballspieler
|GEBURTSDATUM=30. September 1977
|GEBURTSORT=[[Tours]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[en:Jean-Sébastien Jaurès]]
[[fi:Jean-Sébastien Jaurès]]
[[fr:Jean-Sébastien Jaurès]]
[[it:Jean-Sébastien Jaurès]]
[[nl:Jean-Sébastien Jaurès]]

Thomas Kleine

2008-10-05T17:03:59Z

Natl1:

{{Infobox Fußballspieler
| kurzname= Thomas Kleine
| bild= [[Image:Thomas Kleine.jpg|150px]]
| geburtstag= [[28. Dezember]] [[1977]]
| geburtsort= [[Wermelskirchen]]
| geburtsland= [[Deutschland]]
| jetztverein= [[Borussia Mönchengladbach]]
| trikotnummer= 15
| jugendjahre= bis 1998 1998-2001
| jugendvereine= SV 09/35 Wermelskirchen [[Bayer 04 Leverkusen]]
| jahre= 2001-2003 2001-2003 2003-2007 2007-01/08 01/08
| vereine= [[Bayer 04 Leverkusen]] Bayer Leverkusen II [[SpVgg Greuther Fürth]] [[Hannover 96]] [[Borussia Mönchengladbach]]
| spiele (tore)= 10 (0) 36 (4) 131 (13) 9 (1) 8 (2)
| lgupdate= 17.07.2008
}}

'''Thomas Kleine''' (* [[28. Dezember]] [[1977]] in [[Wermelskirchen]]) ist ein [[deutscher]] [[Fußballspieler]] in Diensten von [[Borussia Mönchengladbach]].

In der Jugend spielte er bis 1998 für den SV 09/35 Wermelskirchen, bevor er zu den Amateuren von [[Bayer 04 Leverkusen]] wechselte. Er bestritt in der Saison 2001/02 sein erstes von zehn Bundesligaspielen für Bayer 04 Leverkusen. 2003/04 wechselte er zu Zweitligist [[SpVgg Greuther Fürth]] und war zweieinhalb Jahre Kapitän der Mannschaft. In vier Jahren bestritt er 130 Zweitligaspiele und schoss insgesamt 13 Tore. Damit war er der torgefährlichste [[Abwehrspieler]] der Zweiten Liga in der Saison 2006/07. Im Juli 2007 wechselte er zu [[Hannover 96]] in die [[Fußball-Bundesliga|Bundesliga]]. Für Hannover absolvierte er neun Partien und erzielte dabei ein Tor.

Seit dem 27. Januar 2008 spielt Kleine für Borussia Mönchengladbach, wo er einen Vertrag bis Juni 2010 besitzt. Mit der Borussia wurde er in der Saison 2007/2008 Zweitligameister und schaffte damit den Aufstieg in die 1. Bundesliga, wobei er selbst bei acht Einsätzen zwei Tore erzielte.

== Titel / Erfolge ==
2002 wurde er als Leverkusener Reservespieler jeweils Zweiter in der [[Deutscher Fußballmeister|Deutschen Meisterschaft]], im [[DFB-Pokal]] und in der [[UEFA Champions League]].

== Weblinks ==
*[http://www.transfermarkt.de/de/spieler/1116//profil.html Thomas Kleine bei transfermarkt.de]

{{Navigationsleiste Kader von Borussia Mönchengladbach}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kleine, Thomas}}
[[Kategorie:Fußballspieler (Deutschland)]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1977]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]
[[Kategorie:Person (Rheinisch-Bergischer Kreis)]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Kleine, Thomas
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Kleine, Thommy
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=deutscher Fußballspieler
|GEBURTSDATUM=28. Dezember 1977
|GEBURTSORT=[[Wermelskirchen]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[en:Thomas Kleine]]
[[it:Thomas Kleine]]

Auldhame Castle

2008-09-25T20:01:11Z

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[[Image:Auldhame Castle.jpg|thumb|300px|Ruins of Auldhame Castle]]
'''Auldhame Castle''' is a ruined [[L-plan]] [[tower house]] standing on a ridge above [[Seacliff|Seacliff beach]], about 3 miles east of [[North Berwick]] in [[East Lothian]], and less than half a mile from [[Tantallon Castle]]. The castle was built in the 16th century, probably by Adam Otterburn of Reidhall, [[List of Lords Provost of Edinburgh|Lord Provost of Edinburgh]]. It consists of a three-storey main block with a projecting stair-tower. Part of a vaulted basement remains, but the upper floors are mostly gone.

One of the three supposed corpses of [[Baldred of Tyninghame|Saint Baldred of Tyninghame]] was said to have been buried at the site in 756.

==See also==
*[[List of castles in Scotland]]
*[[Auldhame & Scoughall]]

==References==
*{{cite book | last=Coventry | first=Martin | title=The Castles of Scotland | publisher=Birlinn | date=2006 | id=ISBN 1-84158-449-5 }}
*[http://www.maybole.org/history/castles/auldhame.htm History of Auldhame Castle]

{{Scotland-castle-stub}}

[[Category:Castles in East Lothian]]

Auldhame Castle

2008-09-25T20:00:44Z

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[[Image:Auldhame Castle.jpg|thumb|300px|Ruins of Auldhame Castle}}
'''Auldhame Castle''' is a ruined [[L-plan]] [[tower house]] standing on a ridge above [[Seacliff|Seacliff beach]], about 3 miles east of [[North Berwick]] in [[East Lothian]], and less than half a mile from [[Tantallon Castle]]. The castle was built in the 16th century, probably by Adam Otterburn of Reidhall, [[List of Lords Provost of Edinburgh|Lord Provost of Edinburgh]]. It consists of a three-storey main block with a projecting stair-tower. Part of a vaulted basement remains, but the upper floors are mostly gone.

One of the three supposed corpses of [[Baldred of Tyninghame|Saint Baldred of Tyninghame]] was said to have been buried at the site in 756.

==See also==
*[[List of castles in Scotland]]
*[[Auldhame & Scoughall]]

==References==
*{{cite book | last=Coventry | first=Martin | title=The Castles of Scotland | publisher=Birlinn | date=2006 | id=ISBN 1-84158-449-5 }}
*[http://www.maybole.org/history/castles/auldhame.htm History of Auldhame Castle]

{{Scotland-castle-stub}}

[[Category:Castles in East Lothian]]

Fetteresso Castle

2008-08-10T22:02:05Z

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[[Image:Fetteresso Castle.jpg|thumb|300px|Fetteresso Castle]]
'''Fetteresso Castle''' is a 14th century [[tower house|towerhouse]], rebuilt in 1761 as a Scottish gothic style [[Palladian]] manor, with clear evidence of prehistoric use of the site. It is situated immediately west of the town of [[Stonehaven]] in [[Kincardineshire]] slightly to the west of the A90 dual carriageway. Other notable historic fortified houses or castles in this region are [[Dunnottar Castle]], [[Muchalls Castle]], [[Fiddes Castle]], [[Cowie Castle]] and [[Monboddo House]].

==Prehistory==
From [[cropmarks]] in the policies of Fetteresso Castle, there is evidence of a [[ring-ditch]] sited at the north end of a [[cursus]]. A cursus is a prehistoric set of parallel linear structures that were used for some type of athletic competition, possibly related to hunting or archery. In 1822 a [[cairn]] was discovered near Fetteresso Castle with some human remains inside. The burial site was clearly a bronze age construct by the size and shape of the chamber made of unhewn [[whinstone]]. Some legends tell that this is the grave of [[Malcolm I]], who is recorded to have been slain at Fetteresso in 954 AD. The burial hillock has become known as [[Malcolm's Mount]], even though it is not likely from current archaeological analysis that the crypt could be so recent. In 1998 a burial [[urn]] from the [[beaker people]] was found at Fetteresso Castle. The [[Roman Camp]] of [[Raedykes]] is located several miles northwest, where a full legion encamped and many archeological recoveries have been made. This location is one of a string of marching camps that connected [[Angus]] to [[Morayshire]].

==Middle Ages==
The property is recorded to have been owned by the Strachans, but passed by marriage in the 14th century to the [[Clan Keith]] [[Earl Marischal|Earls of Marischal]], who built the towerhouse. The Earls of Mariscal also held the nearby fortress, [[Dunnottar Castle]].

==Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries==
In this era the characteristic Scottish designs of [[crow-step]]ped [[gable]]s were introduced, and the battlement [[crenellation]] elements were introduced. A [[dovecote]] of considerable height was constructed in the seventeenth century to the south of the castle itself. In the year 1659 a woman named [[Jean Hunter]] lived at Fetteresso. From her behaviours she was accused of witchcraft and hanged at her home. An artist and wright named [[Alexander Charles]] worked at Fetteresso as an overseer. Charles flourished in the period 1671-1678 and published his drawings in at least one book. Late in the 17th century the Duff family controlled Fetteresso and expanded the building around the old towerhouse.

==Twentieth Century==
In the 1940s the castle was owned by Maurice and Geraldine Simpson (nee Pringle). Mrs. Simpson was the heir to the [[Pringle of Scotland|Pringle Knitware]] fortune. Subsequently the Simpsons acquired and lived in nearby [[Muchalls Castle]]. After the Simpson's tenure at Fetteresso, the roof was off the castle for some period starting around 1954, and the structure deteriorated badly. In the latter part of the 20th century the castle was restored with great interior modification to yield seven houses, which is its present use. As of 2006 Mrs. Simpson still resides in the local area.

==See also==
*[[Allardice Castle]]
*[[Kirkton of Fetteresso]]
*[[Red Cloak]]
*[[Stonehaven Tolbooth]]
*[[Ury House]]

==Bibliography==
* Benjamin T. Hudson, ''Prophecy of Berchan: Irish and Scottish Kings of the Early Middle Ages'', (1996) ISBN 0-313-29567-0
* ''Scottish Notes and Queries 1899-1900'', edited by John Bullock, A. Brown and Company, Aberdeen
* ''Historical Geography of the Clans of Scotland''
* ''Primitive Beliefs in the Northeast of Scotland''

{{Kincardine and Mearns, Aberdeenshire places|state = collapsed}}

[[Category:Castles in Aberdeenshire]]
[[Category:Listed buildings in Aberdeenshire]]

Ethie Castle

2008-08-10T20:36:30Z

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[[Image:Ethie Castle.jpg|thumb|250px|Ethie Castle]]
'''Ethie Castle''' is a [[14th Century]] [[castle]], situated around 3 miles north of the fishing town of [[Arbroath]] in [[Angus]], [[Scotland]]. Ethie Castle dates to around 1300,<ref name='ec1'> {{cite web|url=http://www.ethiecastle.com/history.shtml |title=Ethie Castle - history |accessdate=2007-07-04 }}</ref> when the monks at nearby [[Arbroath Abbey]] built a [[sandstone]] [[keep]]. The castle passed through the hands of the [[Clan Maxwell|de Maxwell]] family and into the ownership of Scotland's last [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]], [[David Beaton]] who was murdered in [[St. Andrews]] in 1546.<ref name="ec1"/> The castle was purchased in 1665 by the Carnegie family, who later became the [[Earl of Northesk|Earls of Northesk]], and was owned by them through to 1928.<ref name="ec1"/>

The castle is reputed to be the basis for the fictional Castle of Knockwhinnock in [[Walter Scott|Sir Walter Scott's]] novel ''[[The Antiquary]]''.<ref name="ec1"/><ref name='ec2'> {{cite web|url=http://guide.visitscotland.com/vs/guide/5,en,SCH1/objectId,ACC34277Svs,curr,GBP,season,at1,selectedEntry,home/home.html |title=Scottish Tourist Board - Ethie Castle |accessdate=2007-07-04 }}</ref> Sir Walter Scott was a close friend of [[William Carnegie, 8th Earl of Northesk]] and frequently stayed at Ethie Castle.<ref name="ec1"/>

The castle is presently owned by the de Morgan family and has been converted for use as a [[hotel]].<ref name="ec1"/>

==References==

<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

[[Category:Castles in Angus|Ethie Castle]]
[[Category:History of Angus|Ethie Castle]]

{{scotland-castle-stub}}

Dundas Castle

2008-08-06T11:57:57Z

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[[Image:Dundas Castle.jpg|thumb|300px|Dundas Castle]]
'''Dundas Castle''' is a 15th century castle, with substantial 19th century additions by [[William Burn]], near [[South Queensferry]], to the west of [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]. It was the home of the [[Clan Dundas|Dundas]] family, and remains in private hands.

==External links==
*[http://www.dundascastle.co.uk/index.html Dundas Castle web site]

[[Category:Castles in City of Edinburgh]]

{{scotland-struct-stub}}

Kames Castle

2008-08-03T11:12:34Z

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[[Image:Kames Castle.jpg|thumb|300px|Kames Castle]]
'''Kames Castle''' is a castellated mansion house on the [[Isle of Bute]], [[Scotland]].

On the shore of Kames Bay near [[Port Bannatyne]], the castle consists of a 14th Century tower, with a house built on it in the 18th Century. The Castle is set in 20 acres of planted grounds, including a two-acre 18th Century walled garden.

Originally the seat of the Bannatyne family, Kames is one of the oldest continuously inhabited houses in Scotland.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.kames-castle.co.uk/castle.htm| title=Kames Castle| accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref>

==Owners==
[[Sir William Macleod Bannatyne]] (Lord Bannatyne) (1743-1833) was a distinguished lawyer and judge in Edinburgh. He lost his fortune and was forced to sell Kames in 1812. <ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.myclan.com/clans/Bannatyne_153/default.php| author=MyClan.com| title=Bannatyne Clan| accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.electricscotland.com/history/nation/bannatyne.htm| author=Scottish Nation| title=Bannatyne| accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref>

James Hamilton bought Kames Castle in 1812.

Kames was the birthplace, and early home of the critic and essayist [[John Sterling (author)|John Sterling]]. [[Thomas Carlyle]] in his biography refers to the castle as 'a kind of dilapidated baronial residence to which a small farm was then attached'.

Today the castle is privately occupied with a number of cottages available as holiday lets.


==References==
<references />

[[Category:Castles in Argyll and Bute]]

{{scotland-castle-stub}}

Burg Lützelhardt (Elsass)

2008-08-02T20:08:38Z

Natl1:

[[Image:Image Luetzelhard.jpg|thumb|Ruine Lützelhardt]]
[[Image:RuineLuetzelhardt.jpg|thumb|Ruine Lützelhardt]]
Die '''Burg Lützelhardt''' (frz. ''Lutzelhardt'') ist eine [[Mittelalter|mittelalterliche]] [[Burg]]anlage westlich von [[Obersteinbach (Bas-Rhin)|Obersteinbach]] im [[Elsass]]. Sie ist eine [[Felsenburg]] und liegt in 330 Metern Höhe.

== Beschreibung ==

[[Vorburg|Vor-]] und [[Kernburg|Hauptburg]] liegen auf einem 20 Meter hohen, 60 x 10 Meter großem Felsplateau. Souterrains, [[Zisterne]], Reste des [[Bergfried|Bergfrieds]] und der Wohngebäude sind erhalten.

==Geschichte==
Das genaue Gründungsdatum ist unbekannt.
* Anfang des [[12. Jahrhundert|12. Jahrhunderts]] im Besitz der Edlen von Lützelhardt
* im [[13. Jahrhundert]] an die [[Vogt|Vögte]] von Wasselnheim
* [[1363]] an Heinrich von [[Burg Fleckenstein|Fleckenstein]]
* [[1450]] an die [[Hohenburg (Elsass)|Puller von Hohenburg]]
* [[1520]] an die [[Zweibrücken-Bitsch|Grafen von Zweibrücken-Bitsch]]
* [[1570]] an die [[Grafschaft Hanau-Lichtenberg|Grafen von Hanau-Lichtenberg]]
* [[1638]] an die [[Landgrafschaft Hessen-Darmstadt|Landgrafen von Hessen-Darmstadt]]
* im 30-jährigen Krieg zerstört

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Burg Lützelhardt (Schwarzwald)]]

{{Koordinate Artikel|49_02_44.50_N_07_39_20_E_type:landmark_region:FR-A|49° 02' 44.50" N, 7° 39' 20" E}}

[[Kategorie:Felsenburg|Luetzelhardt]]
[[Kategorie:Burg im Elsass|Luetzelhardt]]

[[en:Château de Lutzelhardt]]
[[fr:Château de Lutzelhardt]]

Burg Lützelhardt (Elsass)

2008-08-02T19:53:13Z

Natl1:

[[Image:Image Luetzelhard.jpg|thumb|Ruine Lützelhardt]]
[[Bild:ruineLuetzelhard.jpg|thumb|Ruine Lützelhardt]]
Die '''Burg Lützelhardt''' (frz. ''Lutzelhardt'') ist eine [[Mittelalter|mittelalterliche]] [[Burg]]anlage westlich von [[Obersteinbach (Bas-Rhin)|Obersteinbach]] im [[Elsass]]. Sie ist eine [[Felsenburg]] und liegt in 330 Metern Höhe.

== Beschreibung ==

[[Vorburg|Vor-]] und [[Kernburg|Hauptburg]] liegen auf einem 20 Meter hohen, 60 x 10 Meter großem Felsplateau. Souterrains, [[Zisterne]], Reste des [[Bergfried|Bergfrieds]] und der Wohngebäude sind erhalten.

==Geschichte==
Das genaue Gründungsdatum ist unbekannt.
* Anfang des [[12. Jahrhundert|12. Jahrhunderts]] im Besitz der Edlen von Lützelhardt
* im [[13. Jahrhundert]] an die [[Vogt|Vögte]] von Wasselnheim
* [[1363]] an Heinrich von [[Burg Fleckenstein|Fleckenstein]]
* [[1450]] an die [[Hohenburg (Elsass)|Puller von Hohenburg]]
* [[1520]] an die [[Zweibrücken-Bitsch|Grafen von Zweibrücken-Bitsch]]
* [[1570]] an die [[Grafschaft Hanau-Lichtenberg|Grafen von Hanau-Lichtenberg]]
* [[1638]] an die [[Landgrafschaft Hessen-Darmstadt|Landgrafen von Hessen-Darmstadt]]
* im 30-jährigen Krieg zerstört

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Burg Lützelhardt (Schwarzwald)]]

{{Koordinate Artikel|49_02_44.50_N_07_39_20_E_type:landmark_region:FR-A|49° 02' 44.50" N, 7° 39' 20" E}}

[[Kategorie:Felsenburg|Luetzelhardt]]
[[Kategorie:Burg im Elsass|Luetzelhardt]]

[[en:Château de Lutzelhardt]]
[[fr:Château de Lutzelhardt]]

Dunbeath Castle

2008-08-02T11:57:03Z

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{{Refimprove|date=April 2008}}
[[Image:Dunbeath Castle.jpg|thumb|300px|Dunbeath Castle]]
'''Dunbeath Castle''' is a [[castle]] on the east coast of [[Caithness]] in the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]].

The castle has stood on the rocky peninsula at Dunbeath since 1428 when the lands belonged to the [[Earl of Caithness]]. After passing through the hands of the Innes family, it became the property of the [[Clan Sinclair]] of Geanies through the marriage of the daughter of [[Alexander Sutherland]] to the first [[William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness|Sinclair Earl of Caithness]]. The Sinclairs replaced the existing structure with a four-storey tower house that forms part of the current castle in 1620. In 1650 Dunbeath was attacked and captured (along with Lady Sinclair) by [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose]] and not returned to the Sinclairs until the defeat of Montrose at the [[Battle of Carbisdale]] in 1650.

The castle was extensively remodelled in the 17th century by [[Sir William Sinclair]] and again in 1853 and 1881. In 1945 after 325 years of occupation by the Sinclair Family, the castle was sold to [[Stuart Avery]].

The castle remains a private residence today and is not open to the public.

==Chain Of Ownership Of Dunbeath Castle from 1894 to Present==
Since 1894, ownership of the castle has changed hands several times. Edwyn Sinclair first owned the castle for 51 years (1894 to 1945). Ownership was then passed on to Bertram Currie until 1967 when her daughter sold the castle to Harry Blythe and Helen (Sinclaire) Blythe. The castle remained in their possession until 1976 when it was sold to Ray Stanton Avery in 1976. In 1997 the castle was sold to the current owner Stuart Wyndham Murray-Threipland.

==External links==
*[http://www.dunbeath.co.uk/pages/site.htm The web site of the Dunbeath Estate]
*[http://www.caithness.org/caithnessfieldclub/bulletins/1979/april/dunbeathcastle.htm A concise history of Dunbeath]

[[Category:Castles in Highland]]

{{Scotland-castle-stub}}

Dornoch Castle

2008-08-02T11:45:46Z

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[[Image:Dornoch Castle.jpg|thumb|Dornoch Castle|300px]]
'''Dornoch Castle''' is situated opposite [[Dornoch Cathedral]] in the village of [[Dornoch]], in [[Sutherland]], [[Scotland]], a little over 40 miles north of [[Inverness]]. It was built in the 12th century and is rich with historic value. Originally the castle was home to the bishops of [[Caithness]]. Added later were a 14th century keep and a 16th century tower. Riddling the oldest parts of the building are gun portals and holes from small arms fire. Also, in 1557 a tower, now the dominant feurure, was added.

Other types of fire have broken out in Dornoch. In 1570 the Castle was set alight in a feud between the McKays and Murrays.
After the fire, it decayed rapidly in the 18th century and was then restored in the 19th century as a school and jail. Then, in 1859-60 it was made the headquarters of the Sheriff of Sutherland.

The building is currently used as a hotel. The hotel has 24 suite rooms, deluxe and superior castle rooms, and garden rooms, which were built in the 1970s. In addition, there are several personalized rooms. There is also an extremely popular restaurant. Five minutes away there is the third oldest golf course in the world, Royal Dornoch Golf Course.

==External links==
*[http://www.dornochcastlehotel.com Dornoch Castle Hotel]

[[Category:Castles in Highland]]

{{Scotland-castle-stub}}

Culcreuch Castle

2008-08-02T11:40:00Z

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{{Nofootnotes|date=March 2008}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
|name=Culcreuch Castle
|location=[[Fintry]], [[Stirlingshire]], [[Scotland]] {{gbmappingsmall|NS6193287675}}
|coordinates=
|image=[[Image:Culcreuch Castle.jpg|300px]]
|caption=
|type=[[L-Plan]] [[tower house]] with a Jacobean range
|built=c. 1296
|builder=Maurice Galbraith
|materials=Stone
|used=16th century to 21st century
|condition=
|ownership=Hideaway Country Holidays Ltd.
|open_to_public=Yes
|controlledby=
}}

'''Culcreuch Castle''' is a [[List of castles in Scotland|Scottish castle]] close to the village of [[Fintry]], near [[Loch Lomond]]. It has been the home of the Barons of Culcreuch since [[1699]], and is a popular tourist attraction.

==History==
Culcreuch Castle was built in [[1296]] by Maurice Galbraith. It was the clan seat of [[Clan Galbraith]] from [[1320]] to [[1624]], when it was sold to a cousin, Alexander Seton of [[Gargunnock]], to settle a financial debt. In [[1632]], it was purchased by Robert Napier, a younger son of [[John Napier|John Napier, the 8th Laird of Merchiston]]. The [[Clan Napier|Napier family]] held the estate for five generations. The castle was used to garrison [[Oliver Cromwell|Oliver Cromwell’s]] troops in [[1654]]. In [[1796]], the castle was sold to Alexander Spiers of [[Glasgow]], who built a cotton mill and a distillery in [[Fintry]]. It was sold in [[1890]] to J. C. Dunwaters, then again in [[1901]] to Walter Menzies. It passed into the hands of Hercules Robinson in the 1970s, the last of that line of the Menzies family. It was sold in [[1984]] to Arthur Haslam, who operates the castle as a hotel.

==Design==
Culcreuch is a rectangular [[tower house]], with three stories and an attic, topped by a [[parapet]] and slate roof. The north and east extensions to the original tower were built after [[1721]] by the Napiers, and match the original tower.

==Ghost==
Culcreuch Castle is reputedly haunted by a number of ghosts, including a phantom [[harpist]].{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

==External links==
* [http://www.culcreuch.com/ Official site]

[[Category:Castles in Stirling council area]]
[[Category:Clan Napier]]

{{scotland-castle-stub}}

Cruggleton Castle

2008-08-02T10:59:37Z

Natl1: /* Cruggleton Church */ add image

'''Cruggleton Castle''' is a ruined [[castle]] on the eastern coast of the [[Machars]] peninusula, [[Dumfries and Galloway]], [[Scotland]].

It is located on a high outcrop of [[shale]], part of the cliff edge, about 4km south east of the village of [[Garlieston]]. The name 'Cruggleton' is taken to derive from the rocky nature of the site.<ref>Ewart, Gordon et al (1985) ''Cruggleton Castle: Report of Excavations 1978-1981'', Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society</ref>

Evidence exists of a settlement at Cruggleton as far back as the [[First Century]], however it was not until the [[Twelfth Century]] that a stone tower was constructed on a [[motte]], not far from the village of Cruggleton (of which there are no remains). Cruggleton was possibly a seat of the [[Lords of Galloway]], passing to the [[Earls of Buchan]], most famously [[Edward Balliol]]. It then was held by the [[Earl of Douglas|Douglas]] family before becoming part of a grant to the [[Prior of Whithorn|Prior]] and Canons of [[Whithorn]]. By 1569 it was in possession of the [[Earl of Moray]]. Several other owners held the castle until the late seventeenth century when it had become a ruin.

Today the outward remains consist of a narrow section of [[barrel vault]]ing in what was the tower (known locally as 'The Arch' and clearly visible from the B7063 Garlieston-[[Isle of Whithorn]] road) and several sections of [[curtain wall]], mostly overgrown. The motte is still clearly visible, as is the [[bailey]] ditch about 50 metres from the structure itself.

Cruggleton Castle is accessible along a coastal path from the gardens of nearby Galloway House.

==Cruggleton Church==
[[Image:Cruggleton church.jpg|thumb|Cruggleton Church]]
'''Cruggleton Church''', about 750m due west, is of [[Norman]] origin, having been established in the early Twelfth Century by [[Fergus of Galloway|Fergus]], first Lord of Galloway. It may indicate the approximate site of the village of Cruggleton.

The church itself is not directly accessible from the castle as it is located in a [[copse]] in the middle of a field. Access is available from the B7063, where it is clearly signposted. The church is locked but the key is available locally.

==References==
<references/>
{{coor title dm|54|45.43|N|4|21.44|W|region:GB_type:landmark:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Castles in Dumfries and Galloway]]

Nicole Alexander

2008-07-08T13:01:48Z

Natl1: Reverted edits by 206.17.170.140 to last version by 71.80.226.230 (using Huggle)

{{dablink|For other individuals see [[Nicole Alexander (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox actor
|image = Replace this image female.svg  |
|imagesize = 150px |
| name = Nicole Alexander
| birthname = Nicole Alexander
| birthdate =
| birthplace = [[Detroit, Michigan]], [[United States]]
| occupation = [[Reality television]] contestant, model
| alias = Hoopz
| gender = Female
| ethnic = [[African American]], [[Italian people|Italian]]
| credits = ''[[Flavor of Love]]''
| URL = [http://www.hoopzonline.com/ www.hoopzonline.com]
| agent =
}}
'''Nicole Alexander''' is popularly known as '''Hoopz''', due to her love of basketball as a fan and a player. She is an American model and actress, best known as the winning contestant in the first season of the [[VH1]] reality show, ''[[Flavor of Love]]'', after a 10-episode nationally televised competition. Alexander is set to star in her own DVD series and two movies in 2008. She is of [[Sierra Leone|Sierra Leonean]] and [[Italians|Italian]] descent.

== Biography ==
Nicole Alexander was born in [[Detroit, Michigan]] and raised in [[Romulus, Michigan]], and graduated from [[Woodhaven High School]] in [[Brownstown, MI]], where she was a star basketball player and athlete. Mr. Hamet was her sixth grade and favorite teacher. Prior to acting, she worked with her uncle demolishing and rebuilding houses.

At the age of 23 she auditioned for [[Flavor of Love]]. Alexander eventually won after almost two months of living with the other contestants.

She has also appeared on MTV's "Wild 'N Out." She was a guest judge in season 3 during E-40's guest appearance.

As of 2007, Alexander continues to model in calendars, magazines, and for modeling agencies EyeCandy Modeling & Titanium Girlz. She has also appeared in videos such as [[Will Smith]]'s "Party Starter" & [[Lil' Keke]]'s "Chunk Up The Deuce", as well as "The Game's" "Wouldn't Get Far" video and Maddi Madd Holla Back, and is the celebrity supporter of the "East Kentucky Miners" a basketball team located in Pikeville, Kentucky.

==Legal troubles==
On [[June 13]] [[2006]], Alexander was arrested at her home in [[Dearborn, Michigan]] after a fight with a police officer.<ref>[http://www.wxyz.com/wxyz/nw_local_news/article/0,2132,WXYZ_15924_4774654,00.html]</ref> The police were responding to a neighbor's noise complaint. Hoopz claims that the officer was the instigator and grabbed her by her neck. In return, she grabbed and punched the officer's testicles. Neighbors claim that visitors to Alexander's home are disrespectful and loud, but Alexander alleges that the root-problem is racism toward her mostly black family and friends. Alexander was released on bail the day after.

==''Flavor of Love''==
{{main|Flavor of Love}}
Alexander appeared on the [[Flavor of Love (Season 1)|First season]] of ''Flavor of Love'' at age 23. After almost two months of living in "Flav's mansion" along with the show's other contestants, Flav chose her as the winner over [[Tiffany Pollard]] ("New York"), the other finalist. As a token of his affection, Flav gave Alexander a set of gold teeth similar to his own. In the series' reunion special, Alexander revealed that she and Flav were no longer a couple and that they chose to remain friends.

==''I Love Money''==
{{main|I Love Money}}
Alexander is on a new VH1 reality show, [[I Love Money]], which began airing on July 6, 2008 on Vh1. She is currently the gold Team Captain. Rumor has it she has a relationship with Real.

==Personal Life==
Alexander currently resides in [[Maryville, Tennessee]]. She keeps a [[WWE Undisputed Championship|WWE Undisputed Championship Belt]] in her house. She loves to ride horses and play basketball. She will be competing on [[I Love Money]] on [[VH1]].

==References==
<references/>
*[http://blackvoices.aol.com/black_entertainment/featurecanvas/_a/bv-entertainment-newswire-march-8-flavor/20060308141909990001 BV Entertainment Newswire March 8: Flavor of Love By Karu F. Daniels, AOL Black Voices Retrieved [[December 29]] [[2006]].]
*[http://people.famouswhy.com/nicole_alexander/ Famous Why - Explains her fame Retrieved [[December 29]] [[2006]].]
*[http://www.wxyz.com/wxyz/nw_local_news/article/0,2132,WXYZ_15924_4774654,00.html Reality TV Star Arrested in Dearborn] by Kimberly Craig, ''[[WXYZ-TV|WXYZ]] Action News'', [[June 14]] [[2006]]. Retrieved [[June 15]] [[2006]].
*{{imdb name|id=2342224|name=Nicole Alexander}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.eyecandymodeling.com/ecm/models/Nikki/ Nikki on EyeCandyModeling.com]
*[http://www.hoopzonline.com/ Nikki Alexander's official website]
*[http://www.titaniumgirlzinc.com/ Titanium Girlz Official website]
*[http://www.myspace.com/nikkihoopz Myspace Page]
{{Flavor of Love Series}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Alexander, Nicole}}
[[Category:People from Detroit, Michigan]]
[[Category:American female models]]
[[Category:Participants in American reality television series]]
[[Category:Afro-Italians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:African American actors]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans]]
[[Category:African American models]]

[[fi:Nicole Alexander]]

Carnival Glory

2008-07-07T15:22:03Z

Natl1: Reverted edits by 68.10.40.45 to last version by J.delanoy (using Huggle)

{|{{Infobox Ship Begin}}
{{Infobox Ship Image
|Ship image=[[Image:Carnival Glory.jpg|300px]]
|Ship caption=''Carnival Glory'' at ''[[St. Maarten]]'', [[October 5]], [[2005]]
}}
{{Infobox Ship Career
|Hide header=
|Ship name=''[[Carnival Glory]]''
|Ship owner=
|Ship operator=[[Carnival Cruise Lines]]
|Ship registry={{flag|Panama}}
|Ship route=
|Ship ordered=
|Ship builder=[[Fincantieri shipyard]] in [[Monfalcone]], [[Italy]]
|Ship original cost=
|Ship yard number=
|Ship way number=
|Ship laid down=
|Ship launched=
|Ship completed=
|Ship christened=
|Ship acquired=
|Ship maiden voyage=
|Ship in service=[[2003]]
|Ship out of service=
|Ship identification=
|Ship fate=
|Ship status=In service
|Ship notes=
}}
{{Infobox Ship Characteristics
|Hide header=
|Header caption=
|Ship class=[[Conquest Class]] [[cruise ship]]
|Ship tonnage=110,000 gross tons
|Ship displacement=
|Ship length={{convert|952|ft|1|m|lk=on|abbr=on}}
|Ship beam={{convert|116|ft|1|m|abbr=on}}
|Ship height=
|Ship draught=
|Ship draft=
|Ship depth=
|Ship decks=13
|Ship deck clearance=
|Ship ramps=
|Ship ice class=
|Ship sail plan=
|Ship power=
|Ship propulsion=
|Ship speed={{convert|21|kn|km/h|lk=on|sing=on}}
|Ship capacity=2,974 passengers
|Ship crew=1,150
|Ship notes=
}}
|}
The '''Carnival Glory''' is a [[Conquest Class]] [[cruise ship]] that was built by [[Fincantieri shipyard]] in Malfalcone, [[Italy]]. She is owned and operated by [[Carnival Cruise Lines]].

==Characteristics==
Some features of the ''Glory'' include nightclubs, duty-free shops, four pools, seven whirlpools, and a 214-foot water slide. Sixty percent of her staterooms have ocean views and sixty percent of those feature private balconies.<ref>http://www.carnival.com/CMS/Onboard_Activities/Glory-Onboard_Exp.aspx Carnival Cruise Lines - Glory Ship Highlights</ref><ref>[http://www.cruisecritic.com/reviews/review_page2.cfm?ShipID=280 CruiseCritic.com review]</ref>

The Glory was last drydocked by [[Northrop Grumman Newport News]] in January, 2006. During that time, hull structure maintenance was conducted as well as underwater hull equipment inspections and underwater hull painting <ref>http://www.nn.northropgrumman.com/news/internal/currents/2006/060109.pdf Northrom Grumman ''Currents'' Magazine January 9, 2006</ref>.

The Carnival Glory's home port is [[Cape Canaveral]], [[Florida]] and has been since its inaugural sailing in [[2003]]. She currently sails two alternating 7 day [[Caribbean]] itineraries.<ref>http://www.carnival.com/Itinerary.aspx?embkCode=PCV&itinCode=EC6&shipCode=GL&durDays=7&subRegionCode=CE Carnival Cruise Lines - Glory Eastern Itinerary</ref><ref>http://www.carnival.com/Itinerary.aspx?embkCode=PCV&itinCode=WCJ&shipCode=GL&durDays=7&subRegionCode=CW Carnival Cruise Lines - Glory Western Itinerary</ref>
<gallery>
Image:Carnival-Glory-Belize.JPG|''Carnival Glory'' in Belize
</gallery>
==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|Carnival Glory}}
* [http://www.carnival.com/Ship_Detail.aspx?shipCode=GL Official Carnival Glory page] on Carnival.com
* [http://www.carnival.com/CMS/Static_Templates/Virtual_Tours_Glory.aspx Virtual Ship Tour] on Carnival.com

{{Carnival Cruise Line}}

[[Category:Cruise ships]]
[[Category:Ships of Carnival Cruise Lines]]
[[Category:Ships built in Italy]]

Le Sacre de Napoléon

2008-06-17T21:11:35Z

Natl1: fix infobox

{{Infobox Painting
| image_file = Jacques-Louis David 006.jpg
| image_size = 320px
| title = The Coronation of Napoleon
| artist = [[Jacques-Louis David]]
| year = 1808
| type = [[Oil on canvas]]
| height = 621 cm
| width = 979
| city = [[Paris]], [[France]]
| museum = [[Louvre]]
}}

'''The Coronation of Napoleon''' is a painting completed in 1807 by [[Jacques-Louis David]], the official painter of [[Napoleon]].
The painting has imposing dimensions, as it is almost ten metres by six. The crowning and the coronation took place at [[Notre-Dame de Paris]], a way for Napoleon to make it clear that he was a son of the [[French Revolution|Revolution]].

== History of the work ==
The work was commissioned by [[Napoleon]] orally in September [[1804]]. [[Jacques-Louis David]] began his execution on December 21, [[1805]] in the former chapel of the [[College of Cluny]], near the [[Sorbonne]], which serves as a workshop. Assisted by his student [[Georges Rouget]], he put the finishing touches in November [[1807]]. From February 7 to 21 March 1808, the work was exhibited at the Salon anual painting display in 1810, and it is presented to the decennial price competition. The picture remaind the property of David until 1819, when he is transferred to the Royal Museums, where it was stored in the reserves until 1837. Then, it was installed in the Chamber Sacre du museum of historical Palace of Versailles on the orders of [[King Louis-Philippe]]. In 1889, the painting is Transfered to the [[Louvre]] from Versailles and replaced by a replica of the late painter's hand.

== Composition ==
[[Image:David - L'Empereur Napoleon se couronnant lui-meme.png|right|thumb|200px|The sketches of emperor [[Napoleon]] crowning itself. Drawing by David, kept at the [[Louvre]].]]
The painting is covered by several guidelines and incorporates the rules of [[neoclassicism]]. A key is that which passes through the cross and has a vertical orientation. All eyes seem to converge towards Napoleon who is the center of the composition. A diagonal line runs from the [[pope]] to the [[empress]].

==Characters==
[[Image:Jacques-Louis David Sacre.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Characters]]

# [[Napoleon]] (1769-1821), is standing, holding sacred, similar to that of Roman emperors, others are merely passive spectators.
# [[Joséphine de Beauharnais]] (1763-1814), is kneeling in a submissive position, as called for in the Civil Code french. She received the crown from the hands of her husband, not the pope. His robe is decorated with silk according to Cartoon by Jean-Francois Bony.
# [[Maria Letizia Ramolino]] (1750-1836), mother of Napoleon, was placed in the stands by the painter. It occupies a place more important than the pope. Actually, she did not attend the ceremony to protest the blurring of Napoleon with his brother Lucien. Napoleon's father, Charles Bonaparte died in 1785. Maria Letizia asked the painter to give it a place of honor. In 1808, when Napoleon discovered the canvas completed in the workshop of David, he was transported, and said his gratitude to the painter who had managed to pay tribute to posterity to the affection he was carrying a woman who shared with him the burden of his office.
# [[Louis Bonaparte]] (1778-1846), at the beginning of the empire, he received the title of grand constable. King of Holland in 1806. He married [[Hortense de Beauharnais]], the daughter of Josephine.
# [[Joseph Bonaparte]] (1768-1844), after the coronation, he received the title of imperial prince. Then he was king of Naples in 1806 and Spain in 1808.
# The young [[Charles Napoleon]] (1802-1807), son of [[Louis Bonaparte]] and [[Hortense de Beauharnais]].
# The sisters of Napoleon.
# [[Charles-Francois Lebrun]] (1739-1824), the third consul alongside Napoleon and [[Cambacérès]]. Under the [[First Empire]], it took the place of prince-architrésorier. He holds the [[sceptre]].
# [[Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès]] (1753-1824), archichancelier prince of the empire. It takes the hand of justice.
# [[Louis-Alexandre Berthier]] (1753-1815), minister of war under the [[Consulate]]. Marshal Empire in 1805. He keeps the globe surmounted by a cross.
# [[Talleyrand]] (1754-1836), grand chamberlain since July 11, 1804.
# [[Joachim Murat]] (1767-1815), marshal of empire, king of Naples after 1808, brother-in-law of [[Napoleon]] and husband of [[Caroline Bonaparte]].
# [[Pope Pius VII]] (1742-1823), was content to bless the coronation. It is surrounded by dignitaries clerics, appointed by [[Napoleon]] since the Concordat. In order not to jeopardize the new balance between Church and State, the pope accepted to attend the coronation.
# The painter [[Jacques-Louis David]] lies in the stands.

{{painting-stub}}
[[Category:1807 paintings]]
[[Category:1807 paintings|Coronation of Napoleon]]
[[Category:Neoclassical paintings|Coronation of Napoleon]]
[[Category:Paintings of the Louvre|Coronation of Napoleon]]
[[Category:Jacques-Louis David paintings|Coronation of Napoleon]]

[[eo:La kronigo de Napoleono]]
[[es:La coronación de Napoleón]]
[[fa:تاج‌گذاری ناپلئون]]
[[fr:Le Sacre de Napoléon]]
[[it:L'incoronazione di Napoleone]]
[[ru:Посвящение императора Наполеона I и коронование императрицы Жозефины в соборе Парижской Богоматери 2 декабря 1804 года]]

Le Sacre de Napoléon

2008-06-17T20:49:39Z

Natl1: fix image

{{Infobox Painting
| image_file = Jacques-Louis David 006.jpg
| image_size = 320px
| title = The Coronation of Napoleon
| artist = [[Jacques-Louis David]]
| year = 1808
| height = 621 cm
| width = 979 cm
| city = [[Paris]], [[France]]
| museum = [[Louvre]]
}}

'''The Coronation of Napoleon''' is a painting completed in 1807 by [[Jacques-Louis David]], the official painter of [[Napoleon]].
The painting has imposing dimensions, as it is almost ten metres by six. The crowning and the coronation took place at [[Notre-Dame de Paris]], a way for Napoleon to make it clear that he was a son of the [[French Revolution|Revolution]].

== History of the work ==
The work was commissioned by [[Napoleon]] orally in September [[1804]]. [[Jacques-Louis David]] began his execution on December 21, [[1805]] in the former chapel of the [[College of Cluny]], near the [[Sorbonne]], which serves as a workshop. Assisted by his student [[Georges Rouget]], he put the finishing touches in November [[1807]]. From February 7 to 21 March 1808, the work was exhibited at the Salon anual painting display in 1810, and it is presented to the decennial price competition. The picture remaind the property of David until 1819, when he is transferred to the Royal Museums, where it was stored in the reserves until 1837. Then, it was installed in the Chamber Sacre du museum of historical Palace of Versailles on the orders of [[King Louis-Philippe]]. In 1889, the painting is Transfered to the [[Louvre]] from Versailles and replaced by a replica of the late painter's hand.

== Composition ==
[[Image:David - L'Empereur Napoleon se couronnant lui-meme.png|right|thumb|200px|The sketches of emperor [[Napoleon]] crowning itself. Drawing by David, kept at the [[Louvre]].]]
The painting is covered by several guidelines and incorporates the rules of [[neoclassicism]]. A key is that which passes through the cross and has a vertical orientation. All eyes seem to converge towards Napoleon who is the center of the composition. A diagonal line runs from the [[pope]] to the [[empress]].

==Characters==
[[Image:Jacques-Louis David Sacre.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Characters]]

# [[Napoleon]] (1769-1821), is standing, holding sacred, similar to that of Roman emperors, others are merely passive spectators.
# [[Joséphine de Beauharnais]] (1763-1814), is kneeling in a submissive position, as called for in the Civil Code french. She received the crown from the hands of her husband, not the pope. His robe is decorated with silk according to Cartoon by Jean-Francois Bony.
# [[Maria Letizia Ramolino]] (1750-1836), mother of Napoleon, was placed in the stands by the painter. It occupies a place more important than the pope. Actually, she did not attend the ceremony to protest the blurring of Napoleon with his brother Lucien. Napoleon's father, Charles Bonaparte died in 1785. Maria Letizia asked the painter to give it a place of honor. In 1808, when Napoleon discovered the canvas completed in the workshop of David, he was transported, and said his gratitude to the painter who had managed to pay tribute to posterity to the affection he was carrying a woman who shared with him the burden of his office.
# [[Louis Bonaparte]] (1778-1846), at the beginning of the empire, he received the title of grand constable. King of Holland in 1806. He married [[Hortense de Beauharnais]], the daughter of Josephine.
# [[Joseph Bonaparte]] (1768-1844), after the coronation, he received the title of imperial prince. Then he was king of Naples in 1806 and Spain in 1808.
# The young [[Charles Napoleon]] (1802-1807), son of [[Louis Bonaparte]] and [[Hortense de Beauharnais]].
# The sisters of Napoleon.
# [[Charles-Francois Lebrun]] (1739-1824), the third consul alongside Napoleon and [[Cambacérès]]. Under the [[First Empire]], it took the place of prince-architrésorier. He holds the [[sceptre]].
# [[Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès]] (1753-1824), archichancelier prince of the empire. It takes the hand of justice.
# [[Louis-Alexandre Berthier]] (1753-1815), minister of war under the [[Consulate]]. Marshal Empire in 1805. He keeps the globe surmounted by a cross.
# [[Talleyrand]] (1754-1836), grand chamberlain since July 11, 1804.
# [[Joachim Murat]] (1767-1815), marshal of empire, king of Naples after 1808, brother-in-law of [[Napoleon]] and husband of [[Caroline Bonaparte]].
# [[Pope Pius VII]] (1742-1823), was content to bless the coronation. It is surrounded by dignitaries clerics, appointed by [[Napoleon]] since the Concordat. In order not to jeopardize the new balance between Church and State, the pope accepted to attend the coronation.
# The painter [[Jacques-Louis David]] lies in the stands.

{{painting-stub}}
[[Category:1807 paintings]]
[[Category:1807 paintings|Coronation of Napoleon]]
[[Category:Neoclassical paintings|Coronation of Napoleon]]
[[Category:Paintings of the Louvre|Coronation of Napoleon]]
[[Category:Jacques-Louis David paintings|Coronation of Napoleon]]

Le Sacre de Napoléon

2008-06-17T20:49:15Z

Natl1: grammer and infobox

{{Infobox Painting
| image_file = Image:Jacques-Louis David 006.jpg
| image_size = 320px
| title = The Coronation of Napoleon
| artist = [[Jacques-Louis David]]
| year = 1808
| height = 621 cm
| width = 979 cm
| city = [[Paris]], [[France]]
| museum = [[Louvre]]
}}

'''The Coronation of Napoleon''' is a painting completed in 1807 by [[Jacques-Louis David]], the official painter of [[Napoleon]].
The painting has imposing dimensions, as it is almost ten metres by six. The crowning and the coronation took place at [[Notre-Dame de Paris]], a way for Napoleon to make it clear that he was a son of the [[French Revolution|Revolution]].

== History of the work ==
The work was commissioned by [[Napoleon]] orally in September [[1804]]. [[Jacques-Louis David]] began his execution on December 21, [[1805]] in the former chapel of the [[College of Cluny]], near the [[Sorbonne]], which serves as a workshop. Assisted by his student [[Georges Rouget]], he put the finishing touches in November [[1807]]. From February 7 to 21 March 1808, the work was exhibited at the Salon anual painting display in 1810, and it is presented to the decennial price competition. The picture remaind the property of David until 1819, when he is transferred to the Royal Museums, where it was stored in the reserves until 1837. Then, it was installed in the Chamber Sacre du museum of historical Palace of Versailles on the orders of [[King Louis-Philippe]]. In 1889, the painting is Transfered to the [[Louvre]] from Versailles and replaced by a replica of the late painter's hand.

== Composition ==
[[Image:David - L'Empereur Napoleon se couronnant lui-meme.png|right|thumb|200px|The sketches of emperor [[Napoleon]] crowning itself. Drawing by David, kept at the [[Louvre]].]]
The painting is covered by several guidelines and incorporates the rules of [[neoclassicism]]. A key is that which passes through the cross and has a vertical orientation. All eyes seem to converge towards Napoleon who is the center of the composition. A diagonal line runs from the [[pope]] to the [[empress]].

==Characters==
[[Image:Jacques-Louis David Sacre.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Characters]]

# [[Napoleon]] (1769-1821), is standing, holding sacred, similar to that of Roman emperors, others are merely passive spectators.
# [[Joséphine de Beauharnais]] (1763-1814), is kneeling in a submissive position, as called for in the Civil Code french. She received the crown from the hands of her husband, not the pope. His robe is decorated with silk according to Cartoon by Jean-Francois Bony.
# [[Maria Letizia Ramolino]] (1750-1836), mother of Napoleon, was placed in the stands by the painter. It occupies a place more important than the pope. Actually, she did not attend the ceremony to protest the blurring of Napoleon with his brother Lucien. Napoleon's father, Charles Bonaparte died in 1785. Maria Letizia asked the painter to give it a place of honor. In 1808, when Napoleon discovered the canvas completed in the workshop of David, he was transported, and said his gratitude to the painter who had managed to pay tribute to posterity to the affection he was carrying a woman who shared with him the burden of his office.
# [[Louis Bonaparte]] (1778-1846), at the beginning of the empire, he received the title of grand constable. King of Holland in 1806. He married [[Hortense de Beauharnais]], the daughter of Josephine.
# [[Joseph Bonaparte]] (1768-1844), after the coronation, he received the title of imperial prince. Then he was king of Naples in 1806 and Spain in 1808.
# The young [[Charles Napoleon]] (1802-1807), son of [[Louis Bonaparte]] and [[Hortense de Beauharnais]].
# The sisters of Napoleon.
# [[Charles-Francois Lebrun]] (1739-1824), the third consul alongside Napoleon and [[Cambacérès]]. Under the [[First Empire]], it took the place of prince-architrésorier. He holds the [[sceptre]].
# [[Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès]] (1753-1824), archichancelier prince of the empire. It takes the hand of justice.
# [[Louis-Alexandre Berthier]] (1753-1815), minister of war under the [[Consulate]]. Marshal Empire in 1805. He keeps the globe surmounted by a cross.
# [[Talleyrand]] (1754-1836), grand chamberlain since July 11, 1804.
# [[Joachim Murat]] (1767-1815), marshal of empire, king of Naples after 1808, brother-in-law of [[Napoleon]] and husband of [[Caroline Bonaparte]].
# [[Pope Pius VII]] (1742-1823), was content to bless the coronation. It is surrounded by dignitaries clerics, appointed by [[Napoleon]] since the Concordat. In order not to jeopardize the new balance between Church and State, the pope accepted to attend the coronation.
# The painter [[Jacques-Louis David]] lies in the stands.

{{painting-stub}}
[[Category:1807 paintings]]
[[Category:1807 paintings|Coronation of Napoleon]]
[[Category:Neoclassical paintings|Coronation of Napoleon]]
[[Category:Paintings of the Louvre|Coronation of Napoleon]]
[[Category:Jacques-Louis David paintings|Coronation of Napoleon]]

Transatlantik-Tunnel

2007-09-08T23:11:45Z

Natl1: nomination for deletion

{{AfDM|page=Transatlantic tunnel|date=2007 September 8|substed=yes}}


A '''transatlantic tunnel''' is a structure which would span the [[Atlantic Ocean]] between [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. Plans for such a tunnel have not progressed beyond the outline concept stage and no companies or governments are actively pursuing such a project. Most conceptions of the tunnel would have it run between the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. The main barriers to constructing such a tunnel are cost and the limits of current [[materials science]]. Ideas for a transatlantic tunnel have been featured on an edition of ''[[Extreme Engineering]]'', a television program on the [[Discovery Channel]].

Ideas suggested included a tube raised above the [[ocean]] floor instead of a tunnel dug out from beneath the ocean floor. The 'tunnel' would be a 3,100-mile (5,000-km) long near-[[vacuum]] tube with [[vactrain]]s, a theoretical type of [[maglev train]], that could travel at speeds up to 5,000 mph (8,000 km/h). At this speed, the travel time between [[New York City|New York]] and [[London]] would be less than one hour. At top speed, the train would travel faster than a [[bullet]] fired from a [[gun]]. The train would be able to reach such a high speed as a result of the lack of [[friction]] and [[air resistance]].

An alternative route suggested involves trains going (as a tunnel) from [[Newfoundland]] and heading north over the ice sheet of [[Greenland]] and across [[Iceland]] until it reached [[Scotland]]. This route is the cheapest but it is considered to be one of the most difficult due to adverse weather conditions in Greenland and the added difficulty of maintaining the system near the ice sheet. Additionally, the above-ground portions of such a tunnel would likely be traversed by vehicles slower than vactrains.

==Construction==
The Transatlantic Tunnel envisioned on Extreme Engineering was a submerged floating tunnel which uses the same techniques as that of a submarine. A similar idea is also being proposed for cars to cross the [[fjords]] in [[Norway]]{{Fact|date=April 2007}}. The tunnel would be held in place by using 100,000 large tethering cables. The tunnel would be built using 54,000 prefabricated sections. The sections would consist of a layer of foam surrounded by layers of steel on either side. If ever built it would be the largest and most expensive construction project in history.

==Transatlantic tunnels in science fiction==
The [[science fiction]] concept of a transatlantic tunnel is the subject of several works:

* ''[[Der Tunnel (novel)]]'', a [[Germany|German]] novel by the author Bernhard Kellermann, published 1913 in Berlin. Two German-language films of the same title were based on the work, a 1914 silent movie by [[William Wauer]] and a 1935 film by [[Curtis Bernhardt]]
* A [[United Kingdom|British]] film based on the same work, ''The Tunnel'' (also known as ''Transatlantic Tunnel'') was released in [[1935]] film. It was directed by [[Maurice Elvey]] and based on the script to the 1935 "Der Tunnel" by [[Curtis Bernhardt]] and [[Steinbicker]], rewritten by [[Curt Siodmak]]. This film starred [[United States|American]] Actor [[Richard Dix]]. It is of note that an original poster for this film was catalogued with an estimated value of between $ 2000 - $ 3000 by Heritage Auction Galleries in [[Dallas]] in the Summer of [[2006]].
* ''A Transatlantic Tunnel, Hurrah!'' (alternative title ''[[Tunnel Through the Deeps]]''), a [[1972]] [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel by [[Harry Harrison]], set in [[1973]], with the premise that the [[American Revolution]] failed. Captain Augustine [[George Washington|Washington]] and Sir Isambard [[Thomas Brassey, 1st Earl Brassey|Brassey]]-[[Isambard Kingdom Brunel|Brunel]] get together to link the heart of the [[British Empire]] with its far-flung Atlantic colony in [[North America]]. The book describes a vacuum / maglev system but sitting on the floor of the ocean with a mile-long floating section over a major trench.
* A transatlantic tunnel can be found in [[Dan Simmons]]'s novel "[[Olympos (novel)|Olympus]]", sequel to "[[Ilium (novel)|Ilium]]".
* Transatlantic (and other ocean) tunnels are found in [[Larry Niven]]'s novel "[[A World Out of Time]]".

== See also ==
* [[Vactrain]]
* [[Archimedes bridge]]
* [[Atlantic Ocean tunnel]]

==External links==
* [http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/engineering/transatlantictunnel/interactive/interactive.html Discovery Channel documentary on a possible Transatlantic Tunnel]
* [http://www.law.harvard.edu/alumni/bulletin/2002/summer/bf_04.html Harvard Law Bulletin article on the proposed Boston-Brussels tunnel]
* [http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/nonfiction/transatlantic.htm Review of "A Transatlantic Tunnel, Hurrah!"]
* {{imdb title|id=0027131|title=The Tunnel}}

[[Category:Megastructures]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]

[[cs:Transatlantický tunel]]
[[no:Atlanterhavstunnelen (togtunnel)]]
[[pl:Tunel Transatlantycki]]

I’m Gonna Be (500 Miles)

2007-03-31T17:57:19Z

Natl1: Reverted 1 edit by 80.2.80.185 (talk) to last revision (119303085) by Rubberchix using VP

{{Infobox Single | 
| Name = I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)
| Cover = The Proclaimers.jpg
| Artist = [[The Proclaimers]]
| from Album = Sunshine on Leith
| Released = [[August 1988]] (UK), [[March 2007]] (UK Re-release), [[1993]] (US)
| Format = 7", Cassette, CD
| Recorded = 1988, 2007 (may have been recorded in 2006)
| Genre = [[Rock (music)|Rock]]
| Length = 3:37 3:42 (2007 release)
| Label = [[Chrysalis Records|Chrysalis]]
| Producer = [[The Proclaimers]]
| Chart position = <ul><li>#1 ([[ARIA Charts|Australia]])</li></ul>
<ul><li>#3 ([[United States]])</li></ul>
:<ul><li>#3 ([[US]] [[Modern Rock Tracks chart|Modern Rock]])</li></ul>
<ul><li>#1([[United Kingdom|UK]])</li></ul>
| Reviews = <ul><li>''[[All Music Guide]]'' ''(4.5/5)'' [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:9jqvad6kv8w1~T0 link]
</li></ul>
| Last single = "Make My Heart Fly" (1987)
| This single = "'''I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)'''" (1988)
| Next single = "Sunshine on Leith" (1990)
| Misc = {{Extra chronology
| Artist = [[Comic Relief]]
| Type = single
| Last single = "[[Walk This Way#Sugababes Vs. Girls Aloud|Walk This Way]] [[Girls Aloud]] vs. [[Sugababes]] (2007)
| This single = "I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)" ft. [[Andy Pipkin]] and [[Brian Potter]] (2007)
}}
| Misc = {{Extra album cover 2
| Upper caption = Re-Recorded Cover
| Type = Single
| Cover = Im_gonna_be.jpg
| Lower caption = 2007 Cover for Comic Relief
}}
}}

"'''I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)'''" is a song written and performed by [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[pop music|pop]] band [[The Proclaimers]]. It wasn't released on their [[1988]] ''Sunshine on Leith'' album, and subsequently as a single. It has become one of their most popular songs, reaching the [[UK singles chart|UK top 20]] and, five years later, #3 in the [[Billboard Hot 100]]. The song has become a live staple at their concerts. The Proclaimers played it at [[Edinburgh 50,000 - The Final Push]], the final concert of [[Live]] at [[Murrayfield Stadium]] on [[6 July]] [[2005]], to symbolise the conclusion of The Long Walk To Justice.

The song is popular in Ireland and A small shity country known as Scotland which is reall y crap and boring, where at [[Hampden Park]], every time the [[Scotland national football team|national football team]] scores, the song is played and sung along to by Scotland fans. It is the unofficial anthem of Edinburgh's [[Hibernian F.C.]], the Proclaimers being fans of the team. Their song "Sunshine On Leith" is also played frequently at [[Easter Road]], Hibernian's home ground.

''I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)'' was featured on the soundtrack to the 1993 film ''[[Benny & Joon]]''. As a result the music video features a young [[Johnny Depp]], who starred in the film.

==Tracklisting==
Original 1988 Version
# I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)
# Better Days
# Teardrops
Comic Relief 2007 Version
# I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles) - New Audio with special guests
# I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles) - Original 1988 Version
# I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles) - CD-Rom Video [New Version with special guests]
# Photo Gallery

==Covers==
* [[Down By Law (band)|Down By Law]], on their album ''[[Punkrockacademyfightsong]]''.
* [[Spunge|[spunge]]] on their covers album ''[[That Should Cover It!]]''.
* Koopa, as a [[B-side]] on their single "No Trend".
* [[Toy Dolls]], on their album ''[[One More Megabyte]]''.
* [[Steven Curtis Chapman]], on his album ''[[All About Love]]''.
* [[Phish]], on 12/30/97 at [[Madison Square Garden]] with Tom Marshall.
* [[The MacDonald Brothers]], on ''[[The X Factor (TV series)|The X Factor]]''.

==Comic Relief==
The Proclaimers re-recorded the song, just to milk it for all it is worth with [[Peter Kay]] and [[Matt Lucas]], the latter two in the guise of their characters [[Brian Potter]] and [[Andy Pipkin]] (from ''[[Phoenix Nights]]'' and ''[[Little Britain]]'' respectively). There is a slight change in the lyrics with the words "roll 500 miles" replacing "walk 500 miles". This is because the characters Brian Potter and Andy Pipkin are both in wheelchairs. This version was released as a [[charity single]] for [[Comic Relief]] on [[19 March]] [[2007]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Mutual Relief: Lucas and Kay join for charity single|url=http://www.chortle.co.uk/news/2006/11/17/4713/mutual_relief|work=Chortle| date=17/11/2006|accessdate=2006-11-17}}</ref> It reached #3 on the official [[UK Singles Chart]] on download sales alone, and one week later topped the chart at Number 1. It sold 126,000 copies in its first week making it the biggest selling number one of the year so far. Its sales were double that of the "official"( for some reason some twat decided to put that in inverted commas) Comic Relief single by [[Girls Aloud]] vs. [[Sugababes]], and their cover of [[Aerosmith]]'s ''[[Walk This Way]]''.

The Proclaimers' original version has also re-entered the Top 40, unfortunately.

==Trivia==
[[Vinnie Fiorello]], drummer and lyricist for punk band [[Less Than Jake]], has joked that it is the band's 'most downloaded song',{{Fact|date=March 2007}} despite the fact that they have never recorded their own version of it.

==References==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>

{{start box}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[Walk This Way]]" by [[Sugababes]] vs. [[Girls Aloud]]
| title = [[United Kingdom]] [[List of number-one singles from the 2000s (UK)|number-one single]] (Comic Relief version)
| years = [[25 March]] [[2007]]
| after = "[[Shine]]" by [[Take That]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1988 singles]]
[[Category:1993 singles]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Australia]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in the United Kingdom]]

{{1980s-rock-song-stub}}

Gene Anderson (Wrestler)

2007-03-30T20:22:29Z

Natl1: rvt (when a section dosen't have referances you tag it not delete it)

{{unreferenced|date=March 2007}}

'''Gene Anderson''' (born [[1933]] in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]] - [[October 31]], [[1991]]) was a [[professional wrestler]] famous for his days of teaming with his "brother" [[Ole Anderson]].

==Career==
Gene Anderson started wrestling in 1961 after being trained by [[Verne Gagne]]. In the late 1965, he formed the [[Minnesota Wrecking Crew]] with fellow collegian [[Lawrence Heinemi|Lars Anderson]] as his "brother". They wrestled in the [[Florida]] territories and won some tag team titles together.

Gene then reformed the tag team with his "brother" (another fellow collegian) [[Ole Anderson]] in 1969 after Lars left. They became one of the most successful heel tag teams in the history of professional wrestling. They dominated the Southeastern tag team scene until Gene retired to become a [[Manager (professional wrestling)|manager]] in 1981.

Gene and Ole would hold tryouts for wanna-be wrestlers during the late 1970s and early 1980s. They would beat the guys who showed up until they were bloodied and beaten. They also charged them for this torture. If anybody made it through that, they really had to want to be a wrestler. [[Allen Sarven|Al Snow]] is one that did.

When Gene quit wrestling, he became a [[Heel (professional wrestling)|heel]] manager for a few years, before retiring from wrestling in 1984. During his career, he managed [[Oreeal Perras|Ivan Koloff]], [[Ray Stevens (wrestler)|Ray Stevens]] and [[James Reiher|Jimmy Snuka]].

After retiring, Gene became a Deputy [[Sheriff]] in [[North Carolina]] but died of a sudden [[heart attack]] on [[October 31]], [[1991]].

==Trivia==
*Gene's son, [[Brad Anderson (wrestler)|Brad Anderson]], is also a professional wrestler and still competes on the independent circuit.

==Profile==
*Height: 6 ft 0 in (1.83 m)
*Weight: 250 lb (113 kg)
*Birthday: [[1939]]
*Hometown: South St Paul, Minnesota
*Death Date: October 31, 1991
*Cause of Death: [[Heart Attack]]
*Trainer: [[Verne Gagne]]
*Nickname: "Pretty Boy"
*Factions: [[Minnesota Wrecking Crew]]
*Retired: [[1981]]
*Managers: [[Paul Jones (wrestler)|Paul Jones]]

==Championships and accomplishments==
*'''[[National Wrestling Alliance]]'''
*'''World'''
:*[[NWA World Tag Team Championship]] ([[List of NWA World Tag Team Champions|9 times]]) - with [[Ole Anderson]]
*'''Regional'''
:*[[NWA Mid-Atlantic Tag Team Championship|NWA Atlantic Coast Tag Team Championship]] (3 times) - with Ole Anderson
:*NWA Florida Southern Tag Team Championship (2 times) - with Lars Anderson
:*NWA Georgia Tag Team Championship (6 times) - with Ole Anderson
:*[[NWA Georgia Television Championship]] (1 time)
:*[[NWA Mid-Atlantic Tag Team Championship]] (5 times) - with Ole Anderson
:*[[NWA Georgia World Tag Team Championship|NWA World Tag Team Championship ''(Georgia Version)'']] (1 time) - with [[Lawrence Heinemi|Lars Anderson]]

*'''[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]'''
:*PWI ranked him # '''60''' of the best tag teams during the "PWI Years" in 2003 with [[Oreeal Perras|Ivan Koloff]].
:*PWI Tag Team of the Year Award with Ole Anderson in 1975 and 1977.

[[Category:American professional wrestlers|Anderson, Gene]]
[[Category:1933 births|Anderson, Gene]]
[[Category:1991 deaths|Anderson, Gene]]
[[Category:People from Minneapolis, Minnesota|Anderson, Gene]]
[[Category:Anderson wrestling family|Anderson, Gene]]

Royal Docks

2007-03-25T21:19:18Z

Natl1: Fixing links to disambiguation pages using AWB

The '''Royal Docks''' comprise three docks in east [[London]] - the [[Royal Albert Dock]], the [[Royal Victoria Dock]] and the [[King George V Dock]]. The three docks collectively formed the largest enclosed docks in the world, with a water area of nearly 250 acres (1 km²) and an overall estate of 1100 acres (4 km²). (This is equivalent to the whole of central London from [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]] to [[Tower Bridge]].

== History ==

The three docks were completed between [[1855]] and [[1921]] on riverside marshes in the London borough of [[Newham]]. They were constructed to provide berths for large vessels that could not be accommodated further upriver. They were a great commercial success, becoming London's principal docks during the first half of the [[20th century]]. They specialised particularly in the import and unloading of foodstuffs, with rows of giant granaries and refrigerated warehouses being sited alongside the quays. The docks' great size and indented shape gave them a collective span of over 12 miles (19 km) of quaysides, serving hundreds of cargo and passenger ships at a time.

The [[General Strike]] of [[1926]] hit the Royal Docks hard, with 750,000 frozen carcasses threatened by the docks' electrical supply being cut off. Fortunately for the dock owners, the [[Royal Navy]] was able to save the day by connecting the generators of two submarines to power the warehouses' refrigerators.

Although the Royal Docks suffered severe damage from [[Germany|German]] bombing in [[World War II]], they recovered after the war but suffered a steady decline from the [[1960s]] onwards, following the adoption of [[containerization]]. Nonetheless, they survived longer than any of the other London docks, finally closing to commercial traffic only in [[1981]]. The docks' closure lead to high levels of unemployment and social deprivation in the surrounding communities of [[North Woolwich]] and [[Silvertown]].

== Redevelopment ==

Because of their relative remoteness from central London and poor transport links, the redevelopment of London's [[London Docklands|Docklands]] has proceeded more slowly in the Royals than in the other former docks. The [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] undertook much work during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] to improve local transport and promote new residential and commercial developments in the area. Thousands of new homes were built at [[Beckton]], just north of the Royal Docks, and an extension of the [[Docklands Light Railway]] opened in [[1994]] to provide direct links to the [[City of London]] and [[Canary Wharf]].

Several other major projects have been proposed or implemented since then. Many residential complexes have been built; most notably the architecturally progressive [[Eastern Quay]] on the south side of Royal Victoria Dock, Capital East on the north side of the dock and the large complex of Gallion's Reach in the extreme east of the Royal Docks. A series of major developments have seen the construction of a new university campus (for the [[University of East London]]) and the [[ExCeL Exhibition Centre]], among much else. The Royal Docks have also seen the development of [[London City Airport]] (code LCY), opened in [[1988]] on the quay between the Royal Albert Dock and the King George V dock. While the docks themselves have been preserved largely intact, little remains of the old infrastructure, although some historic warehouses and cranes have been preserved.

[[Transport for London]] is continuing to develop the transport infrastructure of the Royal Docks with further extensions of the Docklands Light Railway under construction from [[North Woolwich]] to [[Woolwich Arsenal]], and possibly from Gallions Reach to [[Dagenham]], as well as a proposed four-lane tolled bridge providing a road link between the Royal Docks area and [[Thamesmead]] on the south bank. It is also proposed that a branch of the [[Crossrail]] trans-London line will pass beneath the Royal Docks between [[Custom House]] and [[Plumstead]]. That expensive project continues to undergo close scrutiny by a parliamentary committee. A public inquiry about the need for the Thames Gateway Bridge closed in May 2006, it being particularly contentious in the residential neighbourhoods between Plumstead and the Danson Interchange (a junction on the A2).

== Navigation ==

Whilst the docks are now closed for commercial shipping, most of the water area of the docks still exists and is still navigable by craft of all sizes up to and including sizable ships. Whilst the principle usage is for watersports, the docks do see occasional visits by naval and merchant vessels, especially during the annual [[London Boat Show]] which is held at the ExCeL Exhibition Centre. The management of the water areas of the Royal Docks, including locks and bridges is now the responsibility of ''Royal Docks Management Authority Limited'' (RoDMA), which is owned and funded by the owners of the surrounding development land.

== External links ==

* [http://www.royaldocks.net/ Royal Docks Information website]
* [http://www.royaldockstrust.org.uk/ Royal Docks Trust website]
* [http://www.westsilvertownfoundation.org.uk/ West Silvertown Village Community Foundation website]
* [http://www.rodma.co.uk/ Royal Docks Management Authority Limited website]
* [http://www.cmya.co.uk/Barry_Kingscote.asp Eastern Quay Apartments]
* [http://www.bvra.org.uk Britannia Village Residents Association]
* [http://community.webshots.com/user/chinwag Naval Visits ExCeL etc]

[[Category:Docks in London]]
[[Category:Newham]]
[[Category:Redevelopment projects in London]]

St Katharine Docks

2007-03-25T20:19:08Z

Natl1: Fixing links to disambiguation pages using AWB

{| cellpadding=2 align=right
|[[Image:St_katharine_docks_2004.jpg|right|thumb|250px|St Katharine Docks, London]]
|-
|[[Image:St katharine docks 1828.jpg|right|thumb|Opening of St Katharine Docks, [[25 October]] [[1828]]]]
|}
'''St Katharine Docks''' were one of the commercial docks serving [[London]], on the north side of the river [[Thames]] just east (downstream) of the [[Tower of London]] and [[Tower Bridge]]. They were part of the [[Port of London]], in the area now known as the [[London Docklands|Docklands]], and are now a popular housing and leisure complex.

== History ==
St Katharine Docks took their name from the former hospital of [[St Catherine]] by the Tower, built in the [[12th century]], which stood on the site. By the early 19th century, over 11,000 people were crammed into insanitary slums in the area. The entire site was earmarked for redevelopment by an Act of Parliament in [[1825]], with construction commencing in May 1827. The scheme was designed by [[engineer]] [[Thomas Telford]], his only major project in London. To create as much quayside as possible, the docks were designed in the form of two linked basins (East and West), both accessed via an entrance lock from the Thames. Steam engines designed by [[James Watt]] and [[Matthew Boulton]] kept the water level in the basins about four feet above that of the tidal river.

Telford aimed to minimise the amount of quayside activity and specified that the docks' warehouses be built right on the quayside so that goods could be unloaded directly into the warehouses (designed by the [[architect]] [[Philip Hardwick]]).

The docks were officially opened on [[25 October]] [[1828]]. Although well used, they were not a great commercial success and were unable to accommodate large ships. They were amalgamated in [[1864]] with the neighbouring [[London Docks]]. In [[1909]], the [[Port of London Authority]] took over the management of almost all of the Thames docks, including the St Katharine.

The St Katharine Docks were badly damaged by [[Germany|German]] bombing during the [[Second World War]] and never fully recovered thereafter. Because of their very restricted capacity and inability to cope with large modern ships, they were the first to be closed, in [[1968]], and were sold to the [[Greater London Council]]. Most of the original warehouses were demolished and mostly replaced by modern commercial buildings in the early [[1970s]], with the docks themselves becoming a [[marina]]. The development has often been cited as a model example of successful urban redevelopment.

== The docks today ==
[[Image:Stkathswhonose.jpg|right|thumb|250px|St Katharine Docks, London]]
The area now features offices, public and private housing, a large hotel, shops and restaurants, a pub (The [[Dickens]] Inn, a former brewery dating back to the 18th century), a yachting marina and other recreational facilities. It remains a popular leisure destination.

The east dock is now dominated by the City Quay residential development. Comprising of more than 200 luxury apartments overlooking the marina.

The docks and the surroundings of the nearby [[Tower of London]] make a very pleasant walk right in the heart of a large city.

== Notable residents ==
*[[Ruth Kelly]], [[Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government]]
*[[David Mellor]], [[broadcaster]] and former [[politician]]

[[Image:St_Katarine's_Docks.jpg|right|thumb|250px|St Katharine Docks, the London's Marina]]

== St Katharine's Pier ==
St Katharine's Pier is close to the St Katharine Dock, providing a commuter river boat service to [[London Docklands|Docklands]] and [[Greenwich]] in the east and the [[West End of London|West End]] in the west, and a fast visitor service to the London Eye.

{{start LRBoat box}}
{{rail line|next=[[London Bridge station|London Bridge]]|route=[[Thames Clipper|Commuter Service]]|previous=[[Canary Wharf]]|col=007FFF}}
{{rail line|next=[[London Eye]]|route=[[Thames Clipper|Visitor Service]]|previous=Terminus|col=007FFF}}
{{end box}}

== References ==
*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/05/30/ndock30.xml&sSheet=/news/2006/05/30/ixuknews.html 'Build a tower block? Not in our dockyard'], ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', [[30 May]] [[2006]]

[[Category:Docks in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in London]]
[[Category:1828 establishments]]
[[Category:Works of Thomas Telford]]

Schwarze

2007-02-26T00:23:09Z

Natl1: Correcting spelling: particulary->particularly

[[Image:Kenyan man 2.jpg|200px|right|thumb|A [[Masai]] man in [[Kenya]]]]'''Black people''' or '''blacks''' is a [[Politics|political]], [[Sociology|social]] or [[Culture|cultural]] classification of people. No people are actually black in skin color. Many people who are considered Black have dark-colored skin. A variety of sociopolitical and biological factors are used to define categories of ''black people''.

There is no universally agreed-upon definition for who is ''black''. For example, some assert that only people of relatively recent African descent are black while others argue that ''black'' may refer to individuals with dark skin color regardless of ethnic origin.<ref>[[Negritos]] and [[Australoid]]s have dark skin, but do not have recent African ancestry. Some members of these groups consider themselves, or have been considered by others, black.</ref>

==Scientific issues==
{{further|[[Human skin color]] }}
Scientists now believe that first humans lived in Africa between 100,000 to 200, 000 years ago. About 80,000 years ago a group of them crossed the red sea and proceeded to populate the rest of the world. Dark skin helped protect against skin cancer that develops as a result of [[ultraviolet|ultraviolet light]] radiation causing mutations in the skin. Furthermore dark skin prevents Vitamin B [[folate]] from being destroyed. In short in the absence of modern medicine and diet, a person with dark skin in the tropics would live longer, be more healthy and more likely to reproduce than a person with light skin. Scientists point to the fact the white Australians have some of the highest rates of skin cancer as evidence of this<ref>http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Australia_Struggles_with_Skin_Cancer.asp</ref>
. Conversly as dark skin prevents sunlight penetrating it hinders the production of [[vitamin D|vitamin D3]]. Hence when humans migrated to less sun-intensive regions in the north, low [[vitamin D|vitamin D3]] levels became a problem and lighter skin colors started appearing. The people of Europe, who lack melanin, have an almost colorless skin pigmentation. This allows the blood vessels to become visible and gives the characteristic pale pink color of white people. The difference in skin color between black and whites is however a minor genetic difference accounting for just one letter in 3.1billion letters of DNA. code<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/15/AR2005121501728.html</ref>

==Historical context==

===Scientific racism and racial classification===
{{further|[[Race (historical definitions)]]}}
The modern concept of [[race]] has its origins in the [[Age of Enlightenment]], which gave rise to biological classifications, [[scientific racism]] and the theory of [[evolution]].<ref>George M. Fredrickson. [http://www.pbs.org/race/000_About/002_04-background-02-01.htm The Historical Origins and Development of Racism], backgrounder to ''RACE - The Power of an Illusion''', PBS. Accessed online 4 November 2006.</ref> At the end of the 17th century, a French doctor named [[Francois Bernier]] divided up humanity based on facial appearance and body type. He proposed four categories: Europeans, Far Easterners, Lapps, and blacks who he described as having woolly hair, thick lips, and very white teeth.<ref name=DSouza>D'Souza D. (1996) ''The End of Racism'', Free Press; New Ed edition (ISBN 0684825244)</ref>

Swiss [[botany|botanist]] [[Carolus Linnaeus]] divided humankind into four, main "races" loosely based on geographic distribution: ''europeaus'', the white race; ''asiaticus'', the yellow race; ''americanus'', the red race; and ''afer'' (for Africa), the black race.<ref>Gould, Stephen J. [http://www.discover.com/issues/nov-94/features/thegeometerofrac441/ "The Geometer of Race]." ''Discover'' Magazine, Vol. 15, No. 11. November 1994. Retrieved 02-17-2007.</ref> According to Linnaeus' [[Pseudo science|pseudo-scientific]] model, the black male could be defined by his skin tone, face structure, and curly hair. Today, Linneaus generally is widely regarded as a [[racism|racist]].<ref>Adams, Don and Goldbard, Arlene.[http://www.wwcd.org/issues/racism.html "Race and Redemption: Notes for a National Conversation]." Webster's World of Cultural Democracy, Institute for Cultural Democracy, 1995. Retrieved 02-17-2007.</ref> He assigned various fanciful attributes to each of his four categories, clearly favoring the "race" ''europeaus''.<ref>Akintunde, Omowale. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3935/is_199901/ai_n8835220/pg_1 "White racism, white supremacy, white privilege, & the social construction of race: Moving from modernist to postmodernist multiculturalism]." ''Multicultural Education'', Winter, 1999. Retrieved 02-17-2007.</ref> Linnaeus described blacks as cunning, passive, inattentive, and ruled by impulse. He pronounced black females shameless because, he reasoned, "they lactate profusely".<ref>Audrey Smedley, ''Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview'' (Westview, 1999), [http://library.marist.edu/diglib/coresyllabi/liberal-arts/origins/smedley-origins.htm excerpted online] at library.marist.edu. Accessed online 4 November 2006.</ref>
<table border=1 align=right>
<td colspan=8>Agreement/Disagreement of Cultural and Physical Anthropologists with the statement that "There '''are''' biological races in the species ''[[Homo sapiens]]''" 1985 vs. 1999<ref>Bindon, Jim. University of Alabama. "[http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/bindon/ant275/presentations/POST_WWII.PDF#search=%22stanley%20marion%20garn%22 Post World War II"]. 2005. August 28, 2006.</ref><td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td colspan=2>Cultural %</td>
<td colspan=2>Physical %</td>
<td colspan=2>Combined %</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>1985</td>
<td>1999</td>
<td>1985</td>
<td>1999</td>
<td>1995</td>
<td>1999</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>agree</td>
<td>30</td>
<td>14</td>
<td>50</td>
<td>24</td>
<td>39</td>
<td>18</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>neutral</td>
<td>17</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>7</td>
<td>14</td>
<td>7</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>disagree</td>
<td>53</td>
<td>80</td>
<td>40</td>
<td>69</td>
<td>47</td>
<td>75</td>
</tr>
</table>

Linnaeus's protege, [[Johann Blumenbach]], considered the founder of anthropology, added the [[brown people|brown race]], "Malay" for Polynesisians and Melanesians of Pacific Islands, and for aborigines of Australia.<ref>[http://www.discover.com/issues/nov-94/features/thegeometerofrac441/]</ref> By the nineteenth century [[Georges Cuvier]]'s more simplified threefold divisions of humans into [[Caucasian race|Caucasians]], [[Mongol]]ians, and [[Negro]]es (the Spanish word for black) would achieve widespread popularity<ref>[The End of Racism by D'nesh D'Souza, pg 124]</ref>

By the time [[Carleton S. Coon|Carleton Coon]] published his more elaborate system of races (Capoids, Congoids, Caucusoids, Mongloids, Australoids) in ''The Origin of Races'' in [[1962]], anthropologists' adherence to theories of race were already in decline, and by the end of the 20th century, race was widely dismissed as a social contruction, in part because the [[recent single-origin hypothesis]] implied that human groups had diverged too recently for significant differences to have evolved.<ref>[http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/nov/27inter.htm]</ref>

===The role of the Bible===
{{further|[[Hamitic myth]]}}
According to some historians, the tale in [[Curse of Ham|Genesis 9]] in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.<ref>Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry, (Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 28-117</ref> According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the [[Noah's Flood|Deluge]] and giving rise to three separate races.<ref>[http://www.bible-truth.org/GEN10.HTM The Descendants of Noah] (bible-truth.org)</ref>

The biblical passage, [[Book of Genesis]] 9:20-27, which deals with the [[sons of Noah]] however makes no reference to race. The reputed [[curse of Ham]] is not on Ham, but on [[Caanan]], one of [[Sons of Noah|Ham's]] sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Caanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.<ref>Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), pp. 23-87; Goldenberg, D. M. (2005) The Curse of Ham: Race & Slavery in Early Judaism, Christian, Princeton University Press </ref> The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also in not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define blacks, nor assign them to racial hierarchies.<ref>Goldenberg, op. cit.</ref>

Historians believe that by the 19th century, the belief that blacks were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery. <ref name=FRLee>Felicia R. Lee, ''[http://www.racematters.org/noahscurseslaverysrationale.htm Noah's Curse Is Slavery's Rationale]'', Racematters.org, November 1, 2003</ref> According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College, "in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery."<ref name=FRLee/>

On the other hand, author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such [[racist]] interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like [[Philo]] and [[Origen]], who equated blackness with darkness of the soul. <ref>Goldenberg, D. M. (2005) ''The Curse of Ham: Race & Slavery in Early Judaism, Christian'', Princeton University Press</ref>

==Spelling==
There is some controversy as to whether the word ''black'' should be capitalized when referring to a racial group. Section 8.43 of the [[Chicago Manual of Style]] calls for the use of lowercase letters when referring to race by color (e.g. ''black people'', ''white people''). Some scholars feel that such racial terms denote a special significance, especially the term ''black,'' and thus elect to capitalize.<ref>http://www.law.duke.edu/shell/cite.pl?49+Duke+L.+J.+1487</ref>

==Definitions==

===Social identification===

According to Professor R Bhopal a black is "A person with African ancestral origins, who self identifies, or is identified, as Black, African or Afro-Caribbean (see, African and Afro-Caribbean). The word is capitalised to signify its specific use in this way. In some circumstances the word Black signifies all non-white minority populations, and in this use serves political purposes."<ref>R Bhopal, [http://jech.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/58/6/441 ''Glossary of terms relating to ethnicity and race: for reflection and debate''], Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2004;58:441-445</ref>

In sub-Saharan Africa, terms specifically describing black people are not as commonly used as in the western world. According to [[Sri Lanka]]n activist Nirmala Rajasingam "I think the idea of a Black identity, was inspired by the Civil Rights movement in the US. Unfortunately, now Black is identified with people of African origin only, but it didn’t used to be that way. It was used as a political term of people of color uniting to fight racism".<ref name=Kadirgamar>[http://www.lines-magazine.org/Art_Aug02/Nirmala.htm Interview by Ahilan Kadirgamar] ''Lines''. August 2002. Retrieved on [[2006-10-08]]</ref>

According to psychologist Arthur Jensen, "American blacks are socially defined simply as persons who have some degree of sub-Saharan African ancestry and who identify themselves (or, in the case of children, are defined by their parents) as black or African-American"<ref>Jorion, P.J.M. (1999). [Intelligence and race: The house of cards], ''Psycoloquy'' 10(064)</ref>

====One drop rule====

According to the Untied States' [[one drop rule]], a black is any person with any known African ancestry.<ref name=Davis>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html Who is Black? One Nation's Definition (PBS)], by F. James Davis</ref> Sociologist F. [[James Davis]] in his 1991 book ''Who Is Black?'' argues that this definition, is "inextricably woven into the history of the United States. It incorporates beliefs once used to justify slavery and later used to buttress the castelike Jim Crow system of segregation." "Most Americans," according to Davis, "seem unaware that this definition of blacks is extremely unusual in other countries, perhaps even unique to the United States, and that Americans define no other minority group in a similar way"<ref>[[http://www.jonentine.com/reviews/world&I.htm]]</ref>

Not only does the one-drop rule not apply outside of America, but it often applies in reverse. Just as a person with physically recognizable sub-Saharan ancestry can claim to be Black in America, someone with recognizable Caucasian ancestry may be considered White in Latin America. Even individuals with enough African ancestry to make them as dark as [[Sidney Poitier]] can pass for White if they appear to have at least one physically visible trait commonly attributed to Caucasians{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, such as straight hair or narrow facial features. According to Jose Neinstein, a native, white Brazilian and executive director of the Brazilian-American Cultural Institute in Washington, in America, "if you are not quite white, then you are black." But in Brazil, "If you are not quite black, then you are white." Neinstein recalls talking with a man of Poitier's complexion when in Brazil: "We were discussing ethnicity, and I asked him, 'What do you think about this from your perspective as a black man?' He turned his head to me and said, 'I'm not black,' . . . It simply paralyzed me. I couldn't ask another question."<ref> http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A38089-2002Dec25?language=printer</ref>

The [[Washington Post]] described a woman named Martins, a Brazilian who, for 30 years before immigrating to the United States, considered herself a ''morena'' -- a woman with caramel-colored skin that is roughly equated with whiteness in Brazil and in some other Latin American countries. "I didn't realize I was black until I came here," she explained. The same racial culture shock has come to hundreds of thousands of dark skinned Latino immigrants to the United States from Brazil, Colombia, Panama and other Latin nations. Although most lack the degree of African ancestry required to be considered black in Brazil, they have enough to be seen as black the second they foot on U.S. soil. According to the [[Washington Post]] their refusal to embrace America’s definition of black has left many feeling attacked from all directions: Many African Americans believe they are denying their blackness; white Americans profile them in stores or on highways instead of treating them like whites; and lighter-skinned Latinos dominate Spanish-language television, even though a majority of Latin people possess some African or Indian ancestry. Many feel it is hard enough to accept a new language and culture without the additional burden of transforming from white to black. "It's overwhelming," explained Yvette Modestin, a dark-skinned native of Panama who works in Boston. "There's not a day that I don't have to explain myself." Martins expresses the same discomfort: " 'Where are you from?' they ask me. I say I'm from Brazil. They say, 'No, you are from Africa.' They make me feel like I am denying who I am."<ref> http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A38089-2002Dec25?language=printer</ref>

According to professor J.B. Bird, Latin America is not alone in rejecting the American notion than any visible African ancestry is enough to make one black: <blockquote>''In most countries of the Caribbean, Colin Powell would be described as a Creole, reflecting his mixed heritage. In Belize, he might further be described as a "High Creole," because of his extremely light complexion. So which is he, black or Creole? It depends on the culture making the distinction. Ethnicity purports to be based on human biology''<ref>[[http://www.johnhorse.com/black-seminoles/faq-black-seminoles.htm]]</ref></blockquote> Even the U.S. itself is increasingly rejecting the [[one drop rule]] and even question whether even as much as 50% black ancestry should be considered black. Although [[Barack Obama]] self-identifies as black despite having a white mother, 55 percent of whites classified him as biracial instead of black after being told of his maternal descent, and 61 percent of Hispanics did so as well. Blacks were less likely to acknowledge a mulitiracial category, with 66% considering him black. <ref>[[http://bbsnews.net/article.php/20061222014017231]]</ref>

Although America’s one drop rule originated as a racist attempt to keep the white race pure of any black contamination, today some of it’s biggest defenders are African-Americans such as professor [[Jon Michael Spencer]]. According to Spencer, who teaches American studies and music at the University of Richmond, attempts to relinquish the one drop rule in favor of multiracial categories is ''"the postmodern conspiracy to explode racial identity"''<ref>[[http://www.people.vcu.edu/~albest/misc/OneDropOfBlood.html]]</ref>. Spencer, who claims that blacks and whites in Africa view him as 'colored' rather than black because he happen to be very brown in complexion <ref>[[http://www.people.vcu.edu/~albest/misc/OneDropOfBlood.html]]</ref>, worries that Federal relief funds for blacks will dwindle if their officially registered population declines<ref>[[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E05E1DC123FF935A15753C1A961958260]]</ref>. He also fears that new multiracial classifications will sap the black community of skill and vigor. In an New York Newsday article about the nascent multiracial movement he stated: ''"If the multiracial movement had taken root, or a 'mulatto' category had been kept throughout the 20th century, black progress might have been no progress at all."''<ref>[[http://www.webcom.com/~intvoice/editor2.html]]</ref> Spencer denigrates the motives of his opponents in this debate:
<Blockquote>As some multiracialists begin down the road of racial bigotry by cock-a-doodling about their alleged specialness, certainly in part to bolster the identity and self-esteem of themselves or that of their mixed-race children, they subtly assault the identity and self-esteem of black Americans.<ref>[[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E05E1DC123FF935A15753C1A961958260]]</ref></Blockquote>

[[Jared Taylor]]'s right-wing publication [[American Renaissance (magazine)]] argues that one-drop-rule also serves "Afrocentric" interests too, arguing that "without the one drop rule, not even the most brazen of them can claim that Nefertiti, Jesus, Rameses, and Beethoven were "black."<ref>[[http://www.amren.com/9911issue/9911issue.html]]</ref> Taylor has been criticized in the mainstream press as "the cultivated, cosmopolitan face of [[white supremacy]]."<ref>Roddy, Dennis.[http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05023/446341.stm "Jared Taylor, a racist in the guise of 'expert']." ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette''. January 23, 2005. Retrieved 02-25-2007.</ref> According to [[Martin Bernal]] the ancient Egyptians were black in the sense that they wouldn’t be served coffee in a restaurant in the segregated South.<ref>The End of Racism by Dínesh D’souza pg 380</ref> [[Cheikh Anta Diop]] goes further, arguing that the French, the Spanish, the Italians, and the Greeks, may all be considered black.<ref>The African Origin of Civilization, pg 117, by Cheikh Anta Diop.</ref>

===Legal definitions===
====U.S.====
{{2000 Race US Census map|float=left}}
[[Image:Hefny.jpg|thumb|right|Mostafa Hefny is white under US law, due to his national heritage]]
The [[Race (United States Census)|U.S. census race definitions]] says a black is a person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro," or provide written entries such as African American, Afro American, Kenyan, Nigerian, or Haitian. The Census Bureau however notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as being scientific or anthropological in nature.<ref>http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_309540.htm Quickfacts: U.S. Bureau of the Census</ref>
Self-identifying as Black is not enough to be considered Black under U.S. law. This was discovered by Egyptian immigrant Mostafa Hefny, who describes himself as dark skinned with kinky hair, but nonetheless is legally White not Black. The U.S. Office of Management and Budget, which defines Blacks as having origins with the Black racial groups of Africa and Whites as having origins with original peoples of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, including Egypt. Mostafa insists that he is more black than Detroit Mayor Dennis Archer and retired Gen. Colin Powell. "I was born and raised in Africa and they were not," he said. "And yet they are classified as Black and I am classified as White." Although Mostafa admits the region of Africa he comes from is North of the Sahara, he claims his ancestors from the ancient kingdom of Nubia, now part of Egypt and Sudan, qualifies him as Black. Mostafa has attempted to sue the U.S. government to get his racial identity changed.<ref>[[ http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1355/is_n5_v92/ai_19543513]]</ref> Mostafa's case is part of the larger controversy concerning the [[Racial characteristics of ancient Egyptians|degree of black blood in ancient Egypt]].

====South Africa====
[[Image:Coloured-family.jpg|285 px|thumb|right|This extended family has too much non-African descent to have been classified as Black under South Africa's former Apartheid laws]]
In [[South Africa]] during the [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|apartheid era]], the population was classified into four groups: Black, White, Asian (mostly Indian), and "Coloured". (These terms are capitalised to denote their legal definitions in South African law). The Coloured group included people of mixed [[Bantu]], [[Khoisan]], and [[European]] descent (with some [[Malay people|Malay]] ancestry, especially in the [[Western Cape]]). The Apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria at the time that the Population Registration Act was implemented to determine who was Coloured. Minor officials would administer tests to determine if someone should be categorised either Coloured or Black, or if another person should be categorised either Coloured or White. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether someone had enough black blood to be considered coloured or black, the pencil test was employed. This involved inserting a pencil in a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough for the pencil to get stuck.<ref>[http://www.canada.com/topics/travel/features/story.html?id=59ec6285-c9fb-41ab-93f9-419f62733f07&k=67896]</ref>

When asked to explain the difference between Blacks and Coloureds a South African official replied: “Well, Coloureds are always mixed bloods . . . and you know them by their language and by their looks.” When it was suggested that Blacks can also be mixed, he replied: <blockquote>''Er, yes but . . . not really. They may be mixed with other Black 'tribes,' but they are not mixed with whites, because if they were mixed with white they would be classified as 'coloured.' […] and up until now a person with any mixed blood would certainly 'go' for the coloured classification. It would be impossible for him to pass as white, and there would be no reason to try and pass as Black because being colored naturally gave a person more opportunities--better schooling, better housing, social mobility . . . all those material benefits . . . But there are also ''real'' differences in culture between the two groups.''<ref>http://www.nhc.rtp.nc.us/publications/hongkong/scheper.htm</ref>
</blockquote>

===Black as an "African race"===

Some people take the view that Black people are a definable "racial" group, these people routinely use the term Black when they mean "of recent African origin", for example [[Psychiatry|Psychiatrist]] [[Sally Satel]] has stated that <blockquote>The entities we call ‘racial groups’ essentially represent individuals united by a common descent — a huge extended family, as evolutionary biologists like to say. Blacks, for example, are a racial group defined by their possessing some degree of recent African ancestry (recent because, after all, everyone of us is out of Africa, the origin of Homo sapiens).<ref>[http://www.hoover.org/publications/policyreview/3462856.html Medicine's Race Problem] By Sally Satel. in '''Policy Review''', December2001-January 2002. Retreived 14 February 2007.</ref></blockquote> Satel has written for the politically [[right wing]] [[Policy Review]], and is a fellow of the right wing [[American Enterprise Institute]].<ref>[http://www.nndb.com/magazine/978/000050828/]</ref>

The company "DNAPrint Genomics "analyzes DNA to determine the exact percentage of Indo-European, sub-Saharan, East Asian, and Native American heritage someone has and assigns the to the categories White, Black, East Asian, Native American, or mixed race accordingly.<ref>http://www.racesci.org/in_media/canadian_police.htm</ref>

[[University of Ontario]] [[psychology]] professor [[J. Phillipe Rushton]] states: "In both everyday life and evolutionary biology, a 'Black' is anyone most of whose ancestors were born in sub-Saharan Africa"<ref>Rushton J. P. (2000) ''[[Race, Evolution, and Behavior]]: A Life History Perspective'', Charles Darwin Research Inst. Pr; 3rd edition (ISBN 0965683613). Abstract available [http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/JP_Rushton/Race.htm here]</ref> [[University of Ontario]] professor [[J. Phillipe Rushton]] states: "In both everyday life and evolutionary biology, a 'Black' is anyone most of whose ancestors were born in sub-Saharan Africa"<ref>Rushton J. P. (2000) ''[[Race, Evolution, and Behavior]]: A Life History Perspective'', Charles Darwin Research Inst. Pr; 3rd edition (ISBN 0965683613). Abstract available [http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/JP_Rushton/Race.htm here]</ref> Rushton was accused of being an "academic racist." He has posited an inverse relationship between brain and penis size and argued that Asians are smarter than whites, who are in turn smarter than blacks.<ref>[http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=580 "Into the Mainstream: Academic Racists' Work Inching Toward Legitimacy]." ''Intelligence Report'', Southern Poverty Law Center, Winter 2005. Retrived 02-17-20007</ref> He heads the [[Pioneer Fund]], which has been accused of misusing social science to fuel the politics of oppression, and funding specialized research that seeks to prove the inferiority of blacks while denying any political agenda, <ref>[http://www.press.uillinois.edu/f02/tucker.html]</ref> and has posited an inverse relationship between [[brain]] and [[penis]] size; arguing that Asians are smarter than whites, who are in turn smarter than blacks.<ref>[http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=580 "Into the Mainstream: Academic Racists' Work Inching Toward Legitimacy]." ''Intelligence Report'', Southern Poverty Law Center, Winter 2005. Retrived 02-17-20007</ref>

People who support the view that Black people are an "African race" have often been accused of applying their definitions less than objectively in order to support racial stereotypes. In a book review of ''Taboo: Why Black Athletes Dominate Sports and Why We Are Afraid to Talk About It'' professor Stephen L Sniderman criticizes author Jon Entine for his lack of consistency:
<blockquote>The most significant flaw in Entine’s argument, though, involves his use of black, a problematic word that he should have handled much more carefully. From the title to the final sentence, that term, unfortunately, means whatever suits Entine’s purpose. He ostensibly defines the term in his introduction: "Elite athletes who trace most or all of their ancestry to Africa are by and large better than the competition" (emphasis added). But that's certainly not the definition he uses to identify black athletes throughout the book. When he includes superstars with light brown skin (such as Muhammad Ali, Maury Wills, Joe Louis, and O.J. Simpson) in the category he labels black, he offers no evidence that they "trace most or all of their ancestry to Africa."<ref>[http://www.jonentine.com/reviews/world&I.htm]]</ref></blockquote>

The idea that race or ethnicity can be anything other than a social construct is disputed, for example Arash Abizadeh, an assistant professor of Politics states <blockquote>Neither ethnicity nor race is genealogically or biologically determined; they are both social constructs. Shared genealogy cannot by itself determine ethnicity or race because one must arbitrarily choose which genealogical line to trace and how far back to locate the first ancestor. Similarly, shared biology must be arbitrarily fixed by picking out which particular traits are the relevant markers of difference. Racial categories are thus produced sociopolitically, ''via'' power-relations and social practices that offend human dignity. The transformation of these practices requires a positive anticipatory undertaking, centred on a vision of the oneness of humanity, that addresses the political, economic, and spiritual dynamics of racial production.<ref>''[http://profs-polisci.mcgill.ca/abizadeh/Ethnicity.htm Ethnicity, Race, and a Possible Humanity.]'' by Arash Abizadeh. ''World Order'' 33.1 (2001): 23-34.</ref> </blockquote> He is therefore claiming that any racial classification is inherently socially based. In addition U.S. sociologist Troy Duster and ethicist Pilar Ossorio say:
<blockquote> Some percentage of people who look white will possess genetic markers indicating that a significant majority of their recent ancestors were African. Some percentage of people who look black will possess genetic markers indicating the majority of their recent ancestors were European.</blockquote><ref>http://www.racesci.org/in_media/canadian_police.htm</ref>

Dr. [[Cheikh Anta Diop]] argues that Black people historically have had a global presence: "There are two well-defined Black races: one has a black skin and woolly hair; the other also has black skin, often exceptionally black, with straight hair, aquiline nose, thin lips, an acute cheekbone angle. We find a prototype of this race in India: the [[Dravidian people|Dravidian]]. It is also known that certain Nubians likewise belong to the same Negro type...Thus, it is inexact, anti-scientific, to do anthropological research, encounter a Dravidian type, and then conclude that the Negro type is absent." Although Diop agrees that blacks are an African race, he refuses to confine the term "black" to only dark skinned ethnicities of relatively recent African descent, instead arguing that all dark skinned groups are [[Africoid]]. [[Runoko Rashidi]] also views all dark skinned ethnicities as part of a "global African community" <ref>[http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/india2.html The African presence in Indian antiquity] by Runoko Rashidi</ref>

==Criticism of definitions==
[[Image:Sahara desert.jpg|thumb|right| Some feel the term sub-Saharan is rooted in racism]]
There are objections to the standard definitions of black people, as well as criticism of the term itself.

Cultural writer and filmmaker [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] says "as a political term it was fiery and trendy but never was it an official racial classification of peoples who have a 120,000 year old history. Indians are from India, Chinese from China. There is no country called Blackia or Blackistan. Hence, the ancestry-nationality model is more respectful and accurate: African-American, African-British, African-Brazilian, and African-Caribbean." 'Alik Shahadah also objects that "in addition, because it is a term placed on us, we have no bases for its control, and hence they are able to say; 'Ancient Egyptians weren't black.' Black has no meaning; except the meaning they place on it, if and when they chose."<ref name=Shahadah/>

[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] states "the notion of some invisible border, which divides the North of African from the South, is rooted in racism, which in part assumes that a little sand is an obstacle for African people. This barrier of sand hence confines/confined Africans to the bottom of this make-believe location, which exist neither politically or physically". Shahadah argues that the term sub-Saharan Africa is a product of European imperialism, "Sub-Saharan Africa is a byword for primitive African: a place, which has escaped advancement. Hence, we see statements like 'no written languages exist in Sub-Saharan Africa.' 'Egypt is not a Sub-Saharan African civilization.'<ref name=Shahadah>[http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm Linguistics for a new African reality] by [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]], first published at the Cheikh Anta Diop conference in 2005</ref>

Activist [[Nirmala Rajasingam]] considers most standard definitions of black too narrow: "It was a failure because it divided the Black community into its constituent parts.. into Jamaican or Punjabi or Sri Lankan Tamil and so on, rather than build up Black unity.. But you know, there are young Asians who would like to call themselves Black, but the African youth will say 'You are not Black, you are Asian. We are Black'. Similarly, there are young Asians who will say 'We are not Black, we are Asian.'. So it has all become diluted and depoliticized."<ref name=Kadirgamar>[http://www.lines-magazine.org/Art_Aug02/Nirmala.htm interview by Ahilan Kadirgamar] ''Lines''. August 2002. Retrieved on [[2006-10-08]]</ref>

[[Lewis R. Gordon]] (Director of the Institute for the Study of Race and Social Thought at Temple University) says "Not all people who are designated African in the contemporary world are also considered black anywhere. And similarly, not all people who are considered in most places to be black are considered African anywhere. There are non-black Africans who are descended from more than a millennia of people living on the African continent, and there are indigenous Pacific peoples and peoples of India whose consciousness and life are marked by a black identity".<ref>[http://www.lpp-uerj.net/olped/documentos/1267.pdf ''African-American Philosophy, Race, and the Geography of Reason'']</ref>

Psychiatrist Ikechukwu Obialo Azuonye says "being dark skinned is a widespread phenomenon which does not define any specific group of human beings. The tendency to reserve the designation black to sub-Saharan Africans and people of their extraction is manifestly misinformed".<ref>Azuonye I. O. [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/313/7059/760 Who is "black" in medical research?], ''British Medical Journal'' 1996;313:760</ref>
==Population information and distribution==

There is no agreed upon definition of who is black.

=== Sub-Saharan Africa population===
The population reference bureau has the population of sub-saharan africa at 767 million in 2006. Currently there are a number of non-indigenous peoples who living in sub-Saharan Africa. Examples include 4-5 million of European descent, 1 million of Indian descent in [[South Africa]]<ref>https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sf.html</ref>, and 800,000 of Indian descent in [[Mauritius]]<ref>https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mp.html</ref>. Information from country profiles of the CIA factbook shows that the total non-indigenous population of sub-Saharan Africa is no more than 10 million.

===The Americas===

While there may be as many as 150 million people living in the Americas who are part of the [[African Diaspora]], no more than half identify themselves as Black. Many Afro-descendents, particularly in Latin america are multiracial of black, amerindian and white lineage. In Brazil for example 45% of the population are Afro-Brazilian but only 6.2% identify themselves as black.

===Europe===
Country by country statistics are not kept in a consistent manner.

===[[Papua New Guinea]], [[New Caledonia]] and surrounding islands===
Approximately 6 million.

===Australia===
[http://www.aihw.gov.au/indigenous/ The institute of health] has the indigenous population of Australians as 500,000.

==Gallery==

<gallery>
Image:SenatorBarackObama.jpg| US [[Senator]] [[Barack Obama]].
Image:Wangari Maathai potrait by Martin Rowe.jpg|[[Wangari Maathai|Wangari Muta Maathai]] is a Kenyan environmental and political activist and winner of the [[Nobel Prize]].
Image:Mandela minus Clinton.jpg| Nobel Prize recipient and former South African president [[Nelson Mandela]].
Image:CathyFreeman-Stamp.jpg| [[Cathy Freeman]] an [[Indigenous Australian]] after winning the Gold medal at the Sydney Olympics.
Image:Kofi Annan.jpg| [[Kofi Annan]], former secretary general of the [[United Nations]].
Image:FrankRijkaard2.jpg| [[Dutchman]] [[Frank Rijkaard]], coach of [[FC Barcelona]].
Image:Oprah Winfrey (2004).jpg| [[Film]] and [[television]] mogul [[Oprah Winfrey]].
Image:Hallies.jpg |[[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia]], former Emperor of Ethiopia





</gallery>

== See also==
* [[African American]]
* [[Brown people]]
* [[Human genetic variation]]
* [[Recent single-origin hypothesis]]
* [[Race]]
* [[Race (historical definitions)]]

==References and notes==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Pan-Africanism|*]]
[[Category:African diaspora]]
[[Category:Words referring to ethnic groups]]
[[Category:Social issues]]
[[Category:Social groups]]
[[Category:Race]]
[[Category:Definition]]

[[de:Schwarzafrikaner]]
[[fr:Race noire]]
[[he:שחורים]]
[[pl:Czarna rasa człowieka]]
[[ru:Негр]]
[[ru:Негроидная раса]]
[[zh:黑色人种]]

Duncan Tucker

2007-02-24T13:54:07Z

Natl1: Correcting spelling: univesity->university

'''Duncan Tucker''' was born in [[Arizona]] and graduated at New York University. After the [[short subject]] ''[[the mountain king]]'', which took part to over 30 international festivals, he wrote and directed his first [[feature film]], ''[[Transamerica]]''. Tucker enjoys to write and paint. His tale ''[[Many Fish]]'' is published by Ascent, and his photos and pictures are exposed in many New York art galleries.

[[Category:American film directors|Tucker, Duncan]]
[[Category:American screenwriters|Tucker, Duncan]]
[[Category:English-language film directors|Tucker, Duncan]]

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