https://de.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=MoxyWikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]2025-08-07T15:09:09ZBenutzerbeiträgeMediaWiki 1.45.0-wmf.13https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170029245Canadian National Vimy Memorial2017-04-09T17:47:07Z<p>Moxy: /* Pilgrimage and unveiling */ <ref name="Cook2017">{{cite book|author=Tim Cook|title=Vimy: The Battle and the Legend|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWFeDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT258|year=2017|publisher=Penguin Canada|isbn=978-0-7352-3317-1|pages=258–261}}</</p>
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<div>{{featured article}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}<br />
{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br/><small>Mémorial national du Canada à Vimy</small><br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br/>[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = Vimy Memorial - Allward design submission.jpg<br />
|image_size = 300<br />
|alt = A black and white drawing of a white limestone memorial built on the top of a hill. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall.<br />
|caption = Walter Allward's memorial design submission<br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and missing, presumed dead, in France<br />
|unveiled = {{start date and age|1936|07|26|df=yes}}<br/>By King [[Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50.379444|2.773611|region:FR-HDF_type:landmark_scale:2500|format=dms|display=it}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{refn|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, several individuals are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.{{sfn|Reynolds|2008|pp=57–68}} Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial, only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br/>{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|source = {{cwgc cemetery|87900}}<br />
|embedded = {{Designation list|embed=yes|designation1=NHSC|designation1_offname=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada|designation1_date=1996}}<br />
}}<br />
The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a [[war memorial]] site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[Military history of Canada during World War I|First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for Canadian soldiers of the First World War killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|100|ha|acre|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the initial [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] offensive of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[trench warfare|trenches]], craters, and [[unexploded ordnance|unexploded munitions]] still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, several other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park.<br />
<br />
The project took designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] eleven years to see built. King [[Edward VIII]] unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]] and a crowd of over 50,000 people, including 6,200 attendees from Canada. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] re-dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The site is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]. The Vimy Memorial is one of only two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] located outside the country.<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}} The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length, {{convert|700|m|ft}} wide at its narrowest point, and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|loc=pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3}}<br />
<br />
===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under [[German Empire|German]] control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the [[Allies of World War I|Franco-British]] and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.{{sfn|Boire|2007|pp=52–53}} The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French [[Moroccan Division (France)|1st Moroccan Division]] briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=68}} The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=8}}<br />
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The British [[XVII Corps (United Kingdom)|XVII Corps]] relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.{{sfn|Boire|1992|p=15}} On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|1800|m|yd|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{refn|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=149}}|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref>{{cite news|title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds|url=https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|format=PDF|publisher=The New York Times Company|date=21 August 1916|accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{refn|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Canadian Corps relieved the British [[IV Corps (United Kingdom)|IV Corps]] stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}<br />
<br />
===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main article|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=120}} The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=229}} Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=39}} The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under [[I Royal Bavarian Reserve Corps|I Bavarian Reserve Corps]] commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=149}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines – Black, Red, Blue, and Brown|alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|91|m|yd}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<br />
{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=117}} The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]], and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Canadian Divisions captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=255}}{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=178–179}}{{sfn|Hayes|2007|p=200}} The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=202–203}} Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}}{{refn|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades.{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=309}}|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=179}} The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=179–181}} By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=182}} By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}} On 12 April, the [[10th Canadian Infantry Brigade|10th Canadian Brigade]] attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.{{sfn|Moran|2007|p=139}} The German [[6th Army (German Empire)|Sixth Army]] suffered an unknown number of casualties, and around 4,000 men became [[Prisoner of war#World War I|prisoners of war]].<ref name=Gibbs>{{cite news|first=Philip|last=Gibbs|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF|title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans|newspaper=The New York Times|publisher=The New York Times Company|format=PDF|date=11 April 1917|accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=1}}{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=233}} According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}} The idea that Canada's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}}<br />
{{-}}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Selection===<br />
{{see also|Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission}}<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone-walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=205}}{{refn|The eight sites were Vimy, [[Bourlon Wood Memorial|Bourlon Wood]], [[Le Quesnel Memorial|Le Quesnel]], [[Dury Memorial|Dury]], and [[Courcelette Memorial|Courcelette]] in France and [[Saint Julien Memorial|St. Julien]], [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood)]], and [[Passchendaele Memorial|Passchendaele]] in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee|publisher=Veteran Affairs Canada|date=25 March 2007|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/Memorials/can_battle_committee|accessdate=12 January 2008}}</ref>|group=Note}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement, and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=205}} In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors, and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/> The jury consisted of [[Charles Herbert Reilly]] representing the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]], [[Paul Philippe Cret]] representing the [[Société centrale des architectes français]] and [[Frank Darling (architect)|Frank Darling]] representing the [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]].{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials, and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings, and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref>{{cite web|title=Design Competition|publisher=Veteran Affairs Canada|date=25 March 2007|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} In October 1921, the commission formally selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] as the winner of the competition; The design submitted by Frederick Chapman Clemesha was selected as runner-up.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}} The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor [[Percy Erskine Nobbs]], who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}} The consensus went in Allward's favour, his design receiving both public and critical approval.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}{{refn|Critical approval included [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]] artist [[A. Y. Jackson]] providing a supporting position in a letter published by [[Canadian Forum]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}|group="Note"}} The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—those of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|left|A design model of the memorial|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background]]<br />
At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The jury's assessment was that Allward's submission was best suited to a "low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge".{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} The commission committee initially recommended placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]], near the location of the [[Battle of Mont Sorrel]], as the site provided an imposing view.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=283}} This ran counter to the desires of Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] who, while speaking in the [[House of Commons of Canada]] in May 1922, argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} King's position received the unanimous support of the House and, in the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|pp=66–69}} The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward's design.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} On 5 December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|100|ha|acre}} of land on Vimy Ridge, inclusive of Hill 145, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name=DFAIT>{{cite web|title=Canada Treaty Information|publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade|date=26 February 2002|url=http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661|accessdate=4 January 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055852/http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661|archivedate=21 September 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name=DFAIT/><br />
<br />
===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half-finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.|Laying the foundation of the memorial]]<br />
<br />
Following the competition, Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} After selling his home and studio, Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} and spent several months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then Paris, though he eventually set up a studio in [[London]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}<br />
<br />
Allward had initially hoped to use white [[marble]] for the memorial's facing stone,{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a "ghost like" appearance.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} He found it in the ruins of [[Diocletian's Palace]] at [[Split, Croatia]]; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, which Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} His choice—Seget [[limestone]]—came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].{{sfn|Fabijančić|2003|p=127}} The difficulties with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927, and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
<br />
On Allward's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=285}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Faber had recently designed the substructure for the [[Menin Gate]] at Ypres, and he selected a design that employed cast-in-place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web|title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge – Fast Facts|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/battle|work=VAC Canada Remembers|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=n.d.|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}}<br />
<br />
While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and make the Grange Subway more accessible.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument: limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of Seget limestone.<ref name=Picard>{{cite news|last=Picard|first=Andréa|title=Restoring Loss at Vimy|periodical=Canadian Architect|publication-date=May 2006|url=http://www.canadianarchitect.com/news/restoring-loss-at-vimy/1000204056/|publisher=Business Information Group|accessdate=1 August 2009|ref=harv}}</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 approximately double life-sized human figures on site from large blocks of stone.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=9}} The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=206}} The carvers conducted their work year-round inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory|title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial|date=12 August 1998|accessdate=22 May 2013|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design, and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{refn|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
{{-}}<br />
<br />
===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[File:1936 Vimy pilgrimage passport.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Special passport issued by Canada for the 1936 Vimy pilgrimage|alt=A Passport with the Canadian coat of arms in the middle and text in both French and English identifying the book as a passport for the Vimy Pigrimage]]<br />
<br />
In 1919, the year after the war ended, around 60,000 British tourists and mourners made [[pilgrimage]]s to the Western Front.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The transatlantic voyage was longer and more expensive from Canada; many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed, and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small, unofficial groups.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the [[Canadian Legion]] passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields. A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial, which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Due to construction delays with the memorial, it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial. Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set, the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic—1,200 inquiries by November 1934.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on [[Canada Day|Dominion Day]], 1 July 1936, even though the government still did not know when it would be completed.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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For event planning purposes, the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible. The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial. The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage. For the Legion this included planning meals, accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=41}} The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers, and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3½-week trip, inclusive of all meals, accommodation, health insurance, and sea and land transportation would be {{CAD|160}} per person (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|CA|160|1935|r=2}}}} as of 2016). Indirect assistance came in a number of forms. The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=197}} The government and private sector also provided paid leave for their participating employees.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date, 26 July 1936.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} On 16 July, the five transatlantic liners, escorted by {{HMCS|Champlain|1919|6}} and {{HMCS|Saguenay|D79|6}}, departed the [[Port of Montreal]] with approximately 6,200 passengers and arrived in [[Le Havre]] on 24 and 25 July.{{refn|The ships were {{SS|Montrose|1922|6}}, {{SS|Montcalm}}, [[RMS Antonia|SS ''Antonia'']], [[RMS Ascania (1923)|SS ''Ascania'']] and [[RMS Empress of France (1928)|SS ''Duchess of Bedford'']].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}|group="Note"}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}{{sfn|Reynolds|2007|p=68}}<ref name="Cook2017">{{cite book|author=Tim Cook|title=Vimy: The Battle and the Legend|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWFeDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT258|year=2017|publisher=Penguin Canada|isbn=978-0-7352-3317-1|pages=258–261}}</ref> The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}<br />
{{rquote|right|''It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.''|King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy|url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx|accessdate=4 January 2010|date=n.d.|publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>}}<br />
[[File:HM King Edward VIII unveiling the figure of Canada on the Vimy Ridge Memorial.jpg|thumb|left|King [[Edward VIII]] unveiling the figure ''Canada Bereft'' on the Vimy Ridge Memorial|alt=A figure standing on flag-covered stage located in from of the statue of Canada Bereft]]<br />
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On 26 July, the day of the ceremony, pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument. For the ceremony, sailors from HMCS ''Saguenay'' provided the [[guard of honour]]. Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band, French army engineers, and French-Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the [[Second Battle of Artois]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the [[Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission]] over [[shortwave radio]], with facilities of the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] transmitting the ceremony to Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President [[Albert François Lebrun|Albert Lebrun]], and a crowd of over 50,000 attended the event.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|pp=37-38}}<ref>{{cite news|last=Cook|first=Tim|date=2 April 2017|title=The event that recast the Battle of Vimy Ridge|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/2017/04/02/the-event-that-recast-the-battle-of-vimy-ridge.html|work=Toronto Star|location=Toronto|access-date=8 April 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Evans|2007|p=126}} Absent, though, was Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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Before the ceremony began, King [[Edward VIII]], present in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|king of Canada]], inspected the guard of honour, was introduced to the honoured guests, and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} Two [[Royal Air Force]] and two [[French Air Force]] squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the [[Church of England]], the [[United Church of Canada]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} [[Ernest Lapointe]], [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Canadian Minister of Justice]], spoke first,{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} followed by Edward VIII who, in both French and English, thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The King then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].{{sfn|Morton|Wright|1987|p=221}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}}{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=139}} The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name=Foot>{{Cite news|last=Foot|first=Richard|title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own|newspaper=The Vancouver Sun|publication-place=Vancouver|date=4 April 2007|page=A4}}</ref> The pilgrimage continued, and most participants toured [[Ypres]] before being taken to London to be hosted by the [[British Legion]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=51}} One-third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August, while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=52}}<br />
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===Second World War===<br />
[[File:Hitler touring Vimy Memorial in June 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|Hitler touring the Vimy Memorial in 1940|alt=A group of men dressed in Nazi German soldier, front and centre is Adolf Hitler, June 1940. The twin pylons of the memorial are clearly displayed in the background.]]<br />
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In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial. Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments. When war did break out in September 1939, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] (BEF) deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}} In late May 1940, following the British [[Battle of Dunkirk|retreat to Dunkirk]] after the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]].{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=293}} The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=300}} The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=294}} The rumours led the German [[Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda|Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=297}} To demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated, [[Adolf Hitler]], who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature, was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Canadian Unknown Soldier|journal=After the Battle|issue=109|publisher=Battle of Britain Intl. Ltd.|issn=0306-154X}}</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when British troops of the 2nd Battalion, [[Welsh Guards]] of the [[Guards Armoured Division]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=298}}<br />
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===Post-war years===<br />
Immediately following the Second World War, very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=76}} The ''[[Winnipeg Free Press]]'' and ''The Legionary'', the magazine of the [[Royal Canadian Legion]], were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=79}} The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice, with only the ''[[Halifax Herald]]'' making any mention.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the 50th anniversary of the battle, paired with the [[Canadian Centennial]].{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of [[Canadian Confederation]] and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] and at least 5,000 people<!-- were these 5000 Canadians? -->.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Ridge 'sacrifice' forged unity PM declares|newspaper=Toronto Star|page=A3|first=Patrick|last=Doyle|date=10 April 1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=107}} Subsequent smaller-scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://legionmagazine.com/en/1997/09/return-to-the-ridge/|title=Return To The Ridge|date=1 September 1997|magazine=Legion Magazine|first=Tom|last=MacGregor|publisher=Royal Canadian Legion}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ceremony marks 85th anniversary of Vimy Ridge battle|publisher=Canadian Press|date=7 April 2002}}</ref><br />
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===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
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By the end of the century, the many repairs undertaken since the memorial's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours, and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major [[Canadian dollar|C$]]30&nbsp;million restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name=Valpy>{{cite news|first=Michael|last=Valpy|title=Setting a legend in stone|url=http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070407.wvimymemorial0407/front/Front/Front/|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|location=Toronto|date=7 April 2007|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name=Valpy/><br />
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Time, wear, and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive being [[water damage]].<ref name=Valpy/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} through its walls and platforms, dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name=Valpy/> As the water exited, it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces, obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform, terrace, and stairs.<ref name=Valpy/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs, and platforms.<ref name=Valpy/> In order to respect Allward's initial vision of a seamless structure, the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs, replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia, and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze-thaw activity.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} Underlying structural flaws were also corrected.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=53}}<br />
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Queen [[Elizabeth II]], escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=140}} Other senior Canadian officials, including Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]] among them, attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV">{{Cite episode|title=|date=9 April 2007|series=National News|series-link=|first=Tom|last=Kennedy|network=CTV Television Network}}</ref> The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV"/><br />
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===Centennial commemoration===<br />
{{external media | width = 210px| float = right<br />
| video1 =[https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2017/04/08/thousands-to-gather-in-france-for-100th-anniversary-of-vimy-ridge.html Justin Trudeau, dignitaries pay homage to fallen Canadian soldiers at Vimy Ridge], The Canadian Press -, April 8, 2017, (4 hrs)}}<br />
The centennial commemoration of the Battle of Vimy Ridge took place at the memorial on 9 April 2017, coincidentally during the [[150th anniversary of Canada]]. Estimates before the event indicated that an audience of up to 30,000 would be present.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2017/03/31/toronto-photographer-commemorates-vimy-100th.html|title=Toronto photographer to open exhibition to commemorate battle of Vimy Ridge|date=31 March 2017|publisher=Toronto Star|first=Alicja|last=Siekierska|accessdate=1 April 2017}}</ref> The Mayor of [[Arras]], Frédéric Leturque, thanked Canadians, as well as Australians and British, New Zealanders, and South Africans, for their role in the First World War battles in the area.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.nationalnewswatch.com/2017/04/09/justin-trudeau-in-france-to-mark-the-100th-anniversary-of-vimy-ridge-2/#.WOpNcfnyvX5| title=Canadian and French leaders pay homage to fallen soldiers at Vimy Ridge |author=The Canadian Press| date=9 April 2017| publisher=National Newswatch Inc| accessdate=7 April 2017}}</ref><br />
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Attending dignitaries for Canada included [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[David Johnston]]; [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles]]; [[Prince William, Duke of Cambridge]]; [[Prince Harry]]; and Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]]. [[President of France|President]] [[François Hollande]] and [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Bernard Cazeneuve]] represented France.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-39541940| title=Vimy Ridge: Royals commemorate defining WW1 battle| date=9 April 2017| publisher=BBC| accessdate=9 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{citation| url=http://www.lavoixdunord.fr/138040/article/2017-03-25/francois-hollande-et-bernard-cazeneuve-confirment-leur-venue-vimy-le-9-avril| title=François Hollande et Bernard Cazeneuve confirment leur venue à Vimy le 9 avril| date=25 March 2017| accessdate=1 April 2017| publisher=Le Voix du Nord}}</ref> Elizabeth II issued a statement via the Governor General, remarking "[Canadians] fought courageously and with great ingenuity in winning the strategic high point of Vimy Ridge, though victory came at a heavy cost".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://gg.ca/document.aspx?id=16771&lan=eng| author=Elizabeth II| title=Message from Her Majesty The Queen on the 100th Anniversary of the Battle of Vimy Ridge| date=9 April 2017| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| accessdate=9 April 2017}}</ref><br />
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Two postage stamps are being released jointly by [[Canada Post]] and France's [[La Poste (France)|La Poste]] featuring the memorial, one designed by each country, to commemorate the centennial of the Battle of Vimy Ridge.<ref>{{citation| url=http://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/governor-general-french-ambassador-unveil-vimy-centenary-memorial-stamps| title=Governor General, French ambassador unveil Vimy centenary memorial stamps| publisher=Ottawa Citizen| first=Bruce| last=Deachman| date=22 March 2016| accessdate=4 April 2017}}</ref><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete, are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three-walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the [[trench warfare|trench lines]] of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=216}}{{sfn|Lloyd|1998|p=120}} The total area of the site is {{convert|100|ha|acre}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and buried [[unexploded ordnance|unexploded munitions]] make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name=CWGC2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf|title=Annual Report 2007–2008|format=PDF|year=2008|accessdate=10 January 2010|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|page=16|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614233601/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf|archivedate=14 June 2011}}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=7}}<br />
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The site was established to honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but it also contains other memorials. These are dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]], and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries on site: [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/2103985/CANADIAN%20CEMETERY%20NO.2,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST|title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|date=n.d.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/68402/GIVENCHY%20ROAD%20CANADIAN%20CEMETERY,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST|title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref>[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park, and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret|title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=22 March 2007|accessdate=14 November 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113094920/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials%2Fww1mem%2Fvimy%2Finterpret|archivedate=13 November 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/cbmr|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=19 January 2007}}</ref><br />
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===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial (September 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|Left-front view showing an entire aspect of the Memorial|alt=The Vimy memorial from the front facing side. The memorial is very wide, indicative of being a photo from after the restoration.]]<br />
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Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=12}} The memorial contains many stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} There is a cannon barrel draped in [[laurel wreath|laurel]] and [[olive branch]]es carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize victory and peace.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.{{sfn|Bolling|2003|p=310}} This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.{{sfn|Prost|1997|p=316}} The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada's sympathy for the weak and oppressed.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=156}}<br />
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The figure of a cloaked young woman stands on top and at the centre of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. She has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]] and a sword, and draped in laurel branches.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}}{{refn|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space, which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre, that fanned out from the monument's front wall for a distance of {{convert|270|ft|m}} while the battle-damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=46}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name]]<br />
The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform; one bears the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France, and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name=Valpy/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace'';{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=13}} ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}} The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} The remainder of the ''Chorus'' is located directly below the senior figures: ''Faith'', ''Hope'' and ''Truth'' on the eastern pylon; and ''Honour'', ''Charity'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western pylon.{{sfn|Vincent|2011|p=59}} Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain, and France. Large [[memorial cross|crosses]] adorn the outside of each pylon.{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments, and a dedicatory message to Canada's war dead in both French and English are located at the base of the pylons. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base between the two pylons.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'' by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}}<br />
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The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France whose final resting place is unknown.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format in a manner that permits the modification of panels as remains are found and identified. Allward instead sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name=Valpy/>{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} As a consequence, as remains were discovered it was not possible to remove commemorated names without interrupting the seamless list, and as a consequence there are individuals who have a known grave but are commemorated on the memorial. The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]], and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name=VCs>{{cite web|title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/medals-decorations/orders-decorations/canadian-victoria-cross-recipients|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
{{Main article|Moroccan Division (France)|Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the [[Moroccan Division (France)|Moroccan Division]], killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925, having been built without planning permission.<ref name=France24/><ref>{{Citation|title=Inauguration du monument à la Division marocaine élevé à la cote 140, plateau de Vimy, route de Neuville-Saint-Vaast à Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), le 14 juin 1925|location=Paris|publisher=Berger-Levrault|trans-title=Inauguration of the Moroccan Division raised on hill 140, Vimy Ridge, Road Neuville-Saint-Vaast in Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), 14 June 1925|year=1926|language=french}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism-lenslievin.co.uk/monument-aux-morts-de-la-division-marocaine/givenchy-en-gohelle/tabid/20656/offreid/47f2449b-2791-4864-8e41-7b4680260aa1/details.aspx|publisher=Lens-Liévin Tourist Information and Cultural Heritage Office|title=Monument aux morts de la division marocaine|trans-title=War memorial of the Moroccan division|date=n.d.}}</ref> Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the memorial, campaign battles are inscribed on the left- and right-hand side corner view of the memorial. The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only division where all subordinate units had been awarded the [[Legion of Honour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf|title=Forgotten Heroes North Africans and the Great War 1914–1919|publisher=Forgotten Heroes 14–19 Foundation|page=10|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019160735/http://forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf|archivedate=19 October 2014|df=dmy}}</ref><br />
<br />
The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the [[Marching Division of Morocco]]. The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise, it did not in fact contain any units originating from [[Morocco]].{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}} [[Moroccans]] were part of the [[Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion]] which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the [[1st Foreign Regiment]] with the 2nd Marching Regiment of the [[2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment|2nd Foreign Regiment]], both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades. The division contained [[Tirailleur]]s and [[Zouave]]s, of principally [[Tunisia]]n and [[Algeria]]n origin, and most notably [[French Foreign Legion|Legionnaires]] from the [[2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment]] and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment.{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<ref name=France24>{{cite web|title=Grande Guerre : la Division marocaine qui n'avait de marocaine que le nom|trans-title=Great War: the Moroccan Division is Moroccan in name only|first=Stéphanie|last=Trouillard|date=6 May 2015|publisher=France 24|language=french|url=http://www.france24.com/fr/20150509-premiere-guerre-mondiale-division-marocaine-vimy-crete-tirailleurs-algeriens-tunisiens-legions-etrangeres-artois}}</ref> The French Legionnaires came, as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial, from 52 different countries and included amongst them American, Polish, Russian, Italian, Greek, German, Czech, Swedish and Swiss volunteers, such as writer [[Blaise Cendrars]].{{sfn|Das|2011|p=316}}{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<br />
<br />
In the battle, General [[Victor d'Urbal]], commander of the [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]], sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]].{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains.{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division did however suffer heavy casualties. Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division's brigade commanders, Colonels [[Gaston Cros]] and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legionetrangere.fr/index.php/archives/79-infos-fsale/489-histoire-la-bataille-de-l-artois-du-9-mai-au-22-juin-1915-avec-l-attaque-du-2e-regiment-de-marche-du-1er-etranger|title=HISTOIRE : La bataille de l'Artois du 9 mai au 22 juin 1915 avec l'attaque du 2e Régiment de marche du 1er Etranger|publisher=Fédération des Sociétés d' Anciens de la Légion étrangère|trans-title=HISTORY: The Battle of Artois from 9 May to 22 June 1915 with the attack of the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion|language=french|date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways, and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely, and unseen.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=90}}<br />
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The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}}<br />
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===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistic Corps]], and a leading British [[bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news|first=Paul|last=Beaver|title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html|work=[[The Independent]]|date=14 August 1998|accessdate=26 April 2009|location=London}}</ref> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
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===Visitors' centre===<br />
The site has a visitors' centre, staffed by Canadian student guides, which is open seven days a week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/overseas/first-world-war/france/vimy/vimy_contact |title=Visitor information|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|accessdate=10 February 2016|date=n.d.}}</ref> During the memorial restoration, the original visitors' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one, which remains in use today.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/news/salute/article/870|title=New Visitor Education Centre For Vimy|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=25 November 2015|accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The visitors' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines, close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway.{{sfn|Pedersen|2012|loc=Chapter 7}} Construction of a new educational visitors' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017, in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle.<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Ridge Memorial in France to get visitor centre|url=http://globalnews.ca/news/560616/vimy-ridge-memorial-to-get-visitor-centre/|publisher=Global News|date=14 May 2013|accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The new {{CAD|10}} million visitor centre is a [[public-private partnership]] between government and the [[Vimy Foundation]].<ref name="blair">{{citation|url=http://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/corporate-branding-will-be-subtle-and-tasteful-at-new-vimy-ridge-centre-in-france|title=Corporate branding will be 'subtle' and 'tasteful' at new Vimy Ridge centre in France|first=Blair|last=Crawford|date=11 January 2017|accessdate=17 March 2017|publisher=Ottawa Citizen}}</ref> In order to raise funds the Vimy Foundation granted naming rights in various halls of the visitor centre to sponsors, an approach which has met some level of controversy due to the site being a memorial park.<ref name="blair"/><br />
<br />
==Sociocultural influence==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial war recruitment poster.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The Vimy Memorial displayed in a Canadian [[World War II]] recruitment poster|alt=A white skeleton body holds alight a torch and the background the two white pillars of the Vimy memorial are displayed. the entire poster is displayed in white with a background of blue.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely repeated in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}} Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].{{sfn|Thomson|1995–1996|pp=5–27}} Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War, while expressing the enormous impact of war in general,{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} and also considers that the 2005 restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}}<br />
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The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as one of the [[National Historic Sites of Canada]]; it was so designated in 1996, and is one of only two outside of Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/pages/vimyridge.aspx|title=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada|date=9 September 2000|accessdate=2 April 2017|publisher=Parks Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. Remembrance has also taken other forms: the [[Vimy Foundation]], having been established to preserve and promote Canada's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, and [[Vimy Ridge Day]], to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/about/mission/|title=Mission|publisher=Vimy Foundation|accessdate=9 February 2016|date=n.d.}}</ref> Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen|last=Harris|newspaper=[[London Free Press]]|publisher=Sum Media Corp|title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets|date=13 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne|last=Arsenault|url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company|title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
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The memorial is not without its critics. Alana Vincent has argued that constituent parts of the monument are in conflict, and as a result the message conveyed by the monument is not unified.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=58–60}} Visually, Vincent argues there is a dichotomy between the triumphant pose of the figures at the top of the pylons and the mourning posture of those figures at the base. Textually, she argues the inscription text celebrating the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge strikes a very different tone to the list of names of the missing at the base of the monument.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=59–60}}<br />
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[[File:Ghosts_of_Vimy_Ridge.jpeg|thumb|left|''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'' by [[Will Longstaff]]]]<br />
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name="longstaff">{{cite web|url=https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes/|title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate)|date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010|publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada, including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The 1936 'Vimy Ridge' Issue|issue=259|date=March 2011|first=Mick|last=Bister|publisher=Journal of the France and Colonies Philatelic Society}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial, and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory|title=Designing and Constructing|series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|date=5 May 2000|accessdate=8 January 2010|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The [[Never Forgotten National Memorial]] was intended to be a {{convert|24|m|ft|adj=on}} statue inspired by the ''Canada Bereft'' statue on the memorial, before the project was cancelled in February 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parks Canada backs out of controversial 'Mother Canada' war memorial project in Cape Breton|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/parks-canada-backs-out-of-controversial-mother-canada-war-memorial-project-in-cape-breton|accessdate=8 February 2016|work=National Post|date=5 February 2016}}</ref> A 2001 Canadian [[historical novel]] ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'' by [[Jane Urquhart]] involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial.{{sfn|Cavell|2015|pp=68–69}} In 2007, the memorial was a short-listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Memorial, France|url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html|accessdate=7 January 2010|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company|date=n.d.}}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on several occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian [[military awards and decorations|military]] [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Canada|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref>{{cite news|title=New military medal to honour combat casualties|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-military-medal-to-honour-combat-casualties-1.770264|date=29 August 2008|accessdate=7 January 2010|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent [[bas relief]] sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit|url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm|date=January 2004|accessdate=10 January 2010|publisher=Embassy of France in Canada}}</ref> The memorial is featured on the [[obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the [[Frontier Series]] Canadian polymer [[Canadian twenty-dollar bill|$20]] banknote, which was released by the [[Bank of Canada]] on 7 November 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadians-see-twin-towers-pornography-in-20-bill-design-1.806190|accessdate=6 May 2012|publisher=CTV|date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}<br />
* [[World War I memorials]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Citations==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914–1918 |last1=Barton |first1=Peter |last2=Doyle |first2=Peter |last3=Vandewalle |first3=Johan |year=2004 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal & Kingston |isbn=0-7735-2949-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Bell |first1=Lynne |last2=Bousfield |first2=Arthur |last3=Toffoli |first3=Gary |title=Queen and Consort:Elizabeth and Philip – 60 Years of Marriage |publisher=Dundurn Press |year=2007 |location=Toronto |isbn=978-1-55002-725-9 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Boire |first=Michael |title=The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=15–24 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 1992 |url=http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf |accessdate=2 January 2009 |format=PDF |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305091040/http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf |archivedate=5 March 2009 |df=dmy-all}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Boire |first=Michael |year=2007 |contribution=The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914–1916 |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=51–61 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Bolling |first=Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers |pages=295–318 |title=Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor1-last=Antor |editor1-first=Heinz |editor2-last=Brown |editor2-first=Sylvia |editor3-last=Considine |editor3-first=John |editor4-last=Stierstorfer |editor4-first=Klaus |year=2003 |publisher=de Gruyter |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-11-017666-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Borestad |first=Lane |title=Walter Allward: Sculptor and Architect of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |pages=23–38 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |first=Laura |last=Brandon |contribution=Canvas of War |title=Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |editor-last=Busch |editor-first=Briton Cooper |year=2003 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X |ref=harv |pages=203–215}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Art or Memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art |last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 |publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Brown |first=Eric |last2=Cook |first2=Tim |title=The 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=33–54 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=David |year=2007 |contribution=The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=171–192 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Cavell |first=Richard |editor-last=Sugars |editor-first=Cynthia |title=Remembering Canada: The Politics of Cultural Memory |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Literature |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-994186-5 |pages=64–79 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Tim |year=2007 |contribution=The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=105–124 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Race, Empire and First World War Writing |first=Santanu |last=Das |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-50984-8 |year=2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Doughty |first=Robert A. |title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War |year=2005 | publisher=Belknap Press |publication-place=Cambridge and London |isbn=0-674-01880-X |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Duffy |first=Denis |title=Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward |journal=American Review of Canadian Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=189–206 |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |doi=10.1080/02722010809481708 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Durflinger |first=Serge |year=2007 |contribution=Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=291–305 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Suzanne |date=9 February 2007 |title=Mothers of Heroes, Mothers of Martyrs: World War I and the Politics of Grief |location=Montreal |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=0773531882 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first=Tony |year=2003 |publisher=University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first=Don |year=2007 |publisher=Helion & Company Limited |location=Solihull |isbn=978-1-874622-99-4 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Godefroy |first=Andrew |authorlink=Andrew Godefroy |year=2007 |contribution=The German Army at Vimy Ridge |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=225–238 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Geoffrey |year=2007 |contribution=The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=193–210 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement |last=Hopkins |first=J. Castell |year=1919 |publisher=Canadian Annual Review |location=Toronto |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hucker |first=Jacqueline |year=2007 |contribution=The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=279–290 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Hucker |first=Jacqueline |title=Vimy: A Monument for the Modern World |pages=39–48 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Humphries |first=Mark Osborne |year=2007 |contribution='Old Wine in New Bottles': A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=65–85 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Inglis |first=Dave |title=Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years |year=1995 |publisher=Simon Fraser University |location=Burnaby |url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6687/b17448906.pdf |accessdate=22 May 2013 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first=David |year=1998 |publisher=Berg Publishing |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first=Duncan E. |year=1967 |publisher=Peter Martin Associates |location=Toronto |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Moran |first=Heather |year=2007 |contribution=The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=139–154 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Morton |first1=Desmond |first2=Glenn |last2=Wright |title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915–1930 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last=Nicholson |first=Gerald W. L. |year=1962 |publisher=Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location=Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=1 January 2007 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title="We will remember&nbsp;...": Overseas Memorials to Canada's War Dead |last=Nicholson |first=Gerald W. L. |year=1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location=Ottawa |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Pierce |first=John |title=Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=4–14 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 1992 |url=http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf |accessdate=2 February 2009 |format=PDF |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305091036/http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf |archivedate=5 March 2009 |df=dmy}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=ANZACS on the Western Front: The Australian War Memorial Battlefield Guide |last=Pedersen |first=Peter |year=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=New York |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Prost |first=Antoine |year=1997 |contribution=Monuments to the Dead |editor-last=Nora |editor-first=Pierre |editor2-last=Kritzman |editor2-first=Lawrence |editor3-last=Goldhammer |editor3-first=Arthur |title=Realms of memory: the construction of the French past |publication-place=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |pages=307–332 |isbn=0-231-10634-3 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2007 |title="Not A Man Fell Out and the Party Marched Into Arras Singing": The Royal Guard and the Unveiling of the Vimy Memorial, 1936 |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–68 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2008 |title=From Alberta to Avion: Private Herbert Peterson, 49th Battalion, CEF |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=67–74 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1=Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year=2000 |publisher=Geological Society |location=London |isbn=0-85052-463-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996 |publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Saunders |first=Nicholas |title=Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001 |journal=Antiquity |volume=76 |issue=291 |pages=101–108 |publisher=Portland Press |year=2002 |ref=Saunders}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914–1917 |last=Sheldon |first=Jack |year=2008 |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |location=Barnsley (UK) |isbn=978-1-84415-680-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917–1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Julian |title=Restoring Vimy: The Challenges of Confronting Emerging Modernism |pages=49–56 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |first=Denise |last=Thomson |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918–1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995–1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia |editor-last=Tucker |editor-first=Spencer |year=1996 |publisher=Garland Publishing |location=New York |isbn=0-8153-0399-8 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander |year=2005 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997 |publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{citation |chapter=Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians&nbsp;... From Africa to the Artois |first=Philippe |last=Vincent-Chaissac |publisher=L'Echo du Pas-de-Calais |title=They Came from Across the Globe |p=3 |chapter-url=http://memoire.pas-de-calais.com/images/_uk/pdf-nationalites/marocain.pdf |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Literature and Theology: New Interdisciplinary Spaces |year=2011 |editor-first=Heather |editor-last=Walton |publisher=Ashgate |contribution=Two (and two, and two) Towers: Interdisciplinary, Borrowing and Limited Interpretation |first=Alana |last=Vincent |pages=55–66 |isbn=978-1-4094-0011-0 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Making Memory: Jewish and Christian Explorations in Monument, Narrative, and Liturgy |first=Alana |last=Vincent |year=2014 |publisher=James Clarke & Co |isbn=978-0-227-17431-9 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General |last=Williams |first=Jeffery |year=1983 |publisher=Secker & Warburg |location=London |isbn=0-436-57110-2 |ref=harv}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* {{Official website}}<br />
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation] – Canadian educational charity<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1936-vimy-ridge-memorial-unveiled Radio recording of King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony] from [[CBC Archives]]<br />
* [http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/87900/VIMY%20MEMORIAL Vimy Memorial] and casualty records at [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
* {{Find a Grave cemetery|1119613}}<br />
* [https://www.britishpathe.com/video/canadians-at-vimy-ridge Canadians at Vimy Ridge in 1940], news reel from [[British Pathé]]<br />
* [http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx Return to Vimy], including video clip of the 1936 unveiling (Archives of Ontario)<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
{{NHSC}}<br />
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada in France]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:World War I in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170029243Canadian National Vimy Memorial2017-04-09T17:38:56Z<p>Moxy: /* Centennial commemoration */ ce</p>
<hr />
<div>{{featured article}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}<br />
{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br/><small>Mémorial national du Canada à Vimy</small><br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br/>[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = Vimy Memorial - Allward design submission.jpg<br />
|image_size = 300<br />
|alt = A black and white drawing of a white limestone memorial built on the top of a hill. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall.<br />
|caption = Walter Allward's memorial design submission<br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and missing, presumed dead, in France<br />
|unveiled = {{start date and age|1936|07|26|df=yes}}<br/>By King [[Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50.379444|2.773611|region:FR-HDF_type:landmark_scale:2500|format=dms|display=it}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{refn|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, several individuals are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.{{sfn|Reynolds|2008|pp=57–68}} Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial, only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br/>{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|source = {{cwgc cemetery|87900}}<br />
|embedded = {{Designation list|embed=yes|designation1=NHSC|designation1_offname=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada|designation1_date=1996}}<br />
}}<br />
The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a [[war memorial]] site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[Military history of Canada during World War I|First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for Canadian soldiers of the First World War killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|100|ha|acre|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the initial [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] offensive of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[trench warfare|trenches]], craters, and [[unexploded ordnance|unexploded munitions]] still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, several other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park.<br />
<br />
The project took designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] eleven years to see built. King [[Edward VIII]] unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]] and a crowd of over 50,000 people, including 6,200 attendees from Canada. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] re-dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The site is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]. The Vimy Memorial is one of only two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] located outside the country.<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}} The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length, {{convert|700|m|ft}} wide at its narrowest point, and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|loc=pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3}}<br />
<br />
===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under [[German Empire|German]] control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the [[Allies of World War I|Franco-British]] and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.{{sfn|Boire|2007|pp=52–53}} The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French [[Moroccan Division (France)|1st Moroccan Division]] briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=68}} The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=8}}<br />
<br />
The British [[XVII Corps (United Kingdom)|XVII Corps]] relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.{{sfn|Boire|1992|p=15}} On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|1800|m|yd|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{refn|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=149}}|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref>{{cite news|title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds|url=https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|format=PDF|publisher=The New York Times Company|date=21 August 1916|accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{refn|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Canadian Corps relieved the British [[IV Corps (United Kingdom)|IV Corps]] stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}<br />
<br />
===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main article|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=120}} The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=229}} Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=39}} The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under [[I Royal Bavarian Reserve Corps|I Bavarian Reserve Corps]] commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=149}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines – Black, Red, Blue, and Brown|alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|91|m|yd}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<br />
{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=117}} The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]], and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Canadian Divisions captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=255}}{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=178–179}}{{sfn|Hayes|2007|p=200}} The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=202–203}} Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}}{{refn|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades.{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=309}}|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=179}} The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=179–181}} By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=182}} By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}} On 12 April, the [[10th Canadian Infantry Brigade|10th Canadian Brigade]] attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.{{sfn|Moran|2007|p=139}} The German [[6th Army (German Empire)|Sixth Army]] suffered an unknown number of casualties, and around 4,000 men became [[Prisoner of war#World War I|prisoners of war]].<ref name=Gibbs>{{cite news|first=Philip|last=Gibbs|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF|title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans|newspaper=The New York Times|publisher=The New York Times Company|format=PDF|date=11 April 1917|accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=1}}{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=233}} According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}} The idea that Canada's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}}<br />
{{-}}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Selection===<br />
{{see also|Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission}}<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone-walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=205}}{{refn|The eight sites were Vimy, [[Bourlon Wood Memorial|Bourlon Wood]], [[Le Quesnel Memorial|Le Quesnel]], [[Dury Memorial|Dury]], and [[Courcelette Memorial|Courcelette]] in France and [[Saint Julien Memorial|St. Julien]], [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood)]], and [[Passchendaele Memorial|Passchendaele]] in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee|publisher=Veteran Affairs Canada|date=25 March 2007|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/Memorials/can_battle_committee|accessdate=12 January 2008}}</ref>|group=Note}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement, and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=205}} In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors, and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/> The jury consisted of [[Charles Herbert Reilly]] representing the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]], [[Paul Philippe Cret]] representing the [[Société centrale des architectes français]] and [[Frank Darling (architect)|Frank Darling]] representing the [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]].{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials, and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings, and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref>{{cite web|title=Design Competition|publisher=Veteran Affairs Canada|date=25 March 2007|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} In October 1921, the commission formally selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] as the winner of the competition; The design submitted by Frederick Chapman Clemesha was selected as runner-up.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}} The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor [[Percy Erskine Nobbs]], who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}} The consensus went in Allward's favour, his design receiving both public and critical approval.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}{{refn|Critical approval included [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]] artist [[A. Y. Jackson]] providing a supporting position in a letter published by [[Canadian Forum]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}|group="Note"}} The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—those of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|left|A design model of the memorial|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background]]<br />
At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The jury's assessment was that Allward's submission was best suited to a "low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge".{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} The commission committee initially recommended placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]], near the location of the [[Battle of Mont Sorrel]], as the site provided an imposing view.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=283}} This ran counter to the desires of Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] who, while speaking in the [[House of Commons of Canada]] in May 1922, argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} King's position received the unanimous support of the House and, in the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|pp=66–69}} The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward's design.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} On 5 December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|100|ha|acre}} of land on Vimy Ridge, inclusive of Hill 145, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name=DFAIT>{{cite web|title=Canada Treaty Information|publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade|date=26 February 2002|url=http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661|accessdate=4 January 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055852/http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661|archivedate=21 September 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name=DFAIT/><br />
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===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half-finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.|Laying the foundation of the memorial]]<br />
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Following the competition, Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} After selling his home and studio, Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} and spent several months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then Paris, though he eventually set up a studio in [[London]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}<br />
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Allward had initially hoped to use white [[marble]] for the memorial's facing stone,{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a "ghost like" appearance.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} He found it in the ruins of [[Diocletian's Palace]] at [[Split, Croatia]]; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, which Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} His choice—Seget [[limestone]]—came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].{{sfn|Fabijančić|2003|p=127}} The difficulties with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927, and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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On Allward's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=285}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Faber had recently designed the substructure for the [[Menin Gate]] at Ypres, and he selected a design that employed cast-in-place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web|title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge – Fast Facts|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/battle|work=VAC Canada Remembers|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=n.d.|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}}<br />
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While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and make the Grange Subway more accessible.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument: limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of Seget limestone.<ref name=Picard>{{cite news|last=Picard|first=Andréa|title=Restoring Loss at Vimy|periodical=Canadian Architect|publication-date=May 2006|url=http://www.canadianarchitect.com/news/restoring-loss-at-vimy/1000204056/|publisher=Business Information Group|accessdate=1 August 2009|ref=harv}}</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 approximately double life-sized human figures on site from large blocks of stone.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=9}} The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=206}} The carvers conducted their work year-round inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory|title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial|date=12 August 1998|accessdate=22 May 2013|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design, and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{refn|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
{{-}}<br />
<br />
===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[File:1936 Vimy pilgrimage passport.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Special passport issued by Canada for the 1936 Vimy pilgrimage|alt=A Passport with the Canadian coat of arms in the middle and text in both French and English identifying the book as a passport for the Vimy Pigrimage]]<br />
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In 1919, the year after the war ended, around 60,000 British tourists and mourners made [[pilgrimage]]s to the Western Front.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The transatlantic voyage was longer and more expensive from Canada; many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed, and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small, unofficial groups.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the [[Canadian Legion]] passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields. A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial, which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Due to construction delays with the memorial, it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial. Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set, the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic—1,200 inquiries by November 1934.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on [[Canada Day|Dominion Day]], 1 July 1936, even though the government still did not know when it would be completed.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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For event planning purposes, the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible. The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial. The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage. For the Legion this included planning meals, accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=41}} The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers, and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3½-week trip, inclusive of all meals, accommodation, health insurance, and sea and land transportation would be {{CAD|160}} per person (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|CA|160|1935|r=2}}}} as of 2016). Indirect assistance came in a number of forms. The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=197}} The government and private sector also provided paid leave for their participating employees.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date, 26 July 1936.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} On 16 July, the five transatlantic liners, escorted by {{HMCS|Champlain|1919|6}} and {{HMCS|Saguenay|D79|6}}, departed the [[Port of Montreal]] with approximately 6,200 passengers and arrived in [[Le Havre]] on 24 and 25 July.{{refn|The ships were {{SS|Montrose|1922|6}}, {{SS|Montcalm}}, [[RMS Antonia|SS ''Antonia'']], [[RMS Ascania (1923)|SS ''Ascania'']] and [[RMS Empress of France (1928)|SS ''Duchess of Bedford'']].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}|group="Note"}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}{{sfn|Reynolds|2007|p=68}} The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}<br />
{{rquote|right|''It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.''|King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy|url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx|accessdate=4 January 2010|date=n.d.|publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>}}<br />
[[File:HM King Edward VIII unveiling the figure of Canada on the Vimy Ridge Memorial.jpg|thumb|left|King [[Edward VIII]] unveiling the figure ''Canada Bereft'' on the Vimy Ridge Memorial|alt=A figure standing on flag-covered stage located in from of the statue of Canada Bereft]]<br />
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On 26 July, the day of the ceremony, pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument. For the ceremony, sailors from HMCS ''Saguenay'' provided the [[guard of honour]]. Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band, French army engineers, and French-Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the [[Second Battle of Artois]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the [[Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission]] over [[shortwave radio]], with facilities of the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] transmitting the ceremony to Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President [[Albert François Lebrun|Albert Lebrun]], and a crowd of over 50,000 attended the event.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|pp=37-38}}<ref>{{cite news|last=Cook|first=Tim|date=2 April 2017|title=The event that recast the Battle of Vimy Ridge|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/2017/04/02/the-event-that-recast-the-battle-of-vimy-ridge.html|work=Toronto Star|location=Toronto|access-date=8 April 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Evans|2007|p=126}} Absent, though, was Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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Before the ceremony began, King [[Edward VIII]], present in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|king of Canada]], inspected the guard of honour, was introduced to the honoured guests, and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} Two [[Royal Air Force]] and two [[French Air Force]] squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the [[Church of England]], the [[United Church of Canada]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} [[Ernest Lapointe]], [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Canadian Minister of Justice]], spoke first,{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} followed by Edward VIII who, in both French and English, thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The King then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].{{sfn|Morton|Wright|1987|p=221}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}}{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=139}} The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name=Foot>{{Cite news|last=Foot|first=Richard|title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own|newspaper=The Vancouver Sun|publication-place=Vancouver|date=4 April 2007|page=A4}}</ref> The pilgrimage continued, and most participants toured [[Ypres]] before being taken to London to be hosted by the [[British Legion]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=51}} One-third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August, while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=52}}<br />
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===Second World War===<br />
[[File:Hitler touring Vimy Memorial in June 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|Hitler touring the Vimy Memorial in 1940|alt=A group of men dressed in Nazi German soldier, front and centre is Adolf Hitler, June 1940. The twin pylons of the memorial are clearly displayed in the background.]]<br />
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In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial. Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments. When war did break out in September 1939, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] (BEF) deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}} In late May 1940, following the British [[Battle of Dunkirk|retreat to Dunkirk]] after the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]].{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=293}} The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=300}} The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=294}} The rumours led the German [[Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda|Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=297}} To demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated, [[Adolf Hitler]], who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature, was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Canadian Unknown Soldier|journal=After the Battle|issue=109|publisher=Battle of Britain Intl. Ltd.|issn=0306-154X}}</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when British troops of the 2nd Battalion, [[Welsh Guards]] of the [[Guards Armoured Division]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=298}}<br />
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===Post-war years===<br />
Immediately following the Second World War, very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=76}} The ''[[Winnipeg Free Press]]'' and ''The Legionary'', the magazine of the [[Royal Canadian Legion]], were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=79}} The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice, with only the ''[[Halifax Herald]]'' making any mention.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the 50th anniversary of the battle, paired with the [[Canadian Centennial]].{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of [[Canadian Confederation]] and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] and at least 5,000 people<!-- were these 5000 Canadians? -->.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Ridge 'sacrifice' forged unity PM declares|newspaper=Toronto Star|page=A3|first=Patrick|last=Doyle|date=10 April 1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=107}} Subsequent smaller-scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://legionmagazine.com/en/1997/09/return-to-the-ridge/|title=Return To The Ridge|date=1 September 1997|magazine=Legion Magazine|first=Tom|last=MacGregor|publisher=Royal Canadian Legion}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ceremony marks 85th anniversary of Vimy Ridge battle|publisher=Canadian Press|date=7 April 2002}}</ref><br />
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===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
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By the end of the century, the many repairs undertaken since the memorial's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours, and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major [[Canadian dollar|C$]]30&nbsp;million restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name=Valpy>{{cite news|first=Michael|last=Valpy|title=Setting a legend in stone|url=http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070407.wvimymemorial0407/front/Front/Front/|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|location=Toronto|date=7 April 2007|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name=Valpy/><br />
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Time, wear, and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive being [[water damage]].<ref name=Valpy/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} through its walls and platforms, dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name=Valpy/> As the water exited, it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces, obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform, terrace, and stairs.<ref name=Valpy/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs, and platforms.<ref name=Valpy/> In order to respect Allward's initial vision of a seamless structure, the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs, replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia, and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze-thaw activity.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} Underlying structural flaws were also corrected.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=53}}<br />
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Queen [[Elizabeth II]], escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=140}} Other senior Canadian officials, including Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]] among them, attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV">{{Cite episode|title=|date=9 April 2007|series=National News|series-link=|first=Tom|last=Kennedy|network=CTV Television Network}}</ref> The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV"/><br />
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===Centennial commemoration===<br />
{{external media | width = 210px| float = right<br />
| video1 =[https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2017/04/08/thousands-to-gather-in-france-for-100th-anniversary-of-vimy-ridge.html Justin Trudeau, dignitaries pay homage to fallen Canadian soldiers at Vimy Ridge], The Canadian Press -, April 2017, (4 hrs)}}<br />
The centennial commemoration of the Battle of Vimy Ridge at the memorial took place on 9 April 2017, coincidentally during the [[150th anniversary of Canada]]. Estimates before the event indicated that an audience of up to 30,000 would be present.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2017/03/31/toronto-photographer-commemorates-vimy-100th.html|title=Toronto photographer to open exhibition to commemorate battle of Vimy Ridge|date=31 March 2017|publisher=Toronto Star|first=Alicja|last=Siekierska|accessdate=1 April 2017}}</ref> Attending dignitaries for Canada included [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[David Johnston]]; [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles]]; [[Prince William, Duke of Cambridge]]; [[Prince Harry]]; and Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]]. [[President of France|President]] [[François Hollande]] and [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Bernard Cazeneuve]] represented France.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-39541940| title=Vimy Ridge: Royals commemorate defining WW1 battle| date=9 April 2017| publisher=BBC| accessdate=9 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{citation| url=http://www.lavoixdunord.fr/138040/article/2017-03-25/francois-hollande-et-bernard-cazeneuve-confirment-leur-venue-vimy-le-9-avril| title=François Hollande et Bernard Cazeneuve confirment leur venue à Vimy le 9 avril| date=25 March 2017| accessdate=1 April 2017| publisher=Le Voix du Nord}}</ref> Prior to the official ceremony, the Mayor of [[Arras]], Frédéric Leturque, thanked Canadians, as well as Australians and British, New Zealanders, and South Africans, for their role in the First World War battles in the area.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.nationalnewswatch.com/2017/04/09/justin-trudeau-in-france-to-mark-the-100th-anniversary-of-vimy-ridge-2/#.WOpNcfnyvX5| title=Canadian and French leaders pay homage to fallen soldiers at Vimy Ridge |author=The Canadian Press| date=9 April 2017| publisher=National Newswatch Inc| accessdate=7 April 2017}}</ref><br />
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Two postage stamps are being released jointly by [[Canada Post]] and France's [[La Poste (France)|La Poste]] featuring the memorial, one designed by each country, to commemorate the centennial of the Battle of Vimy Ridge.<ref>{{citation| url=http://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/governor-general-french-ambassador-unveil-vimy-centenary-memorial-stamps| title=Governor General, French ambassador unveil Vimy centenary memorial stamps| publisher=Ottawa Citizen| first=Bruce| last=Deachman| date=22 March 2016| accessdate=4 April 2017}}</ref><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete, are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three-walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the [[trench warfare|trench lines]] of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=216}}{{sfn|Lloyd|1998|p=120}} The total area of the site is {{convert|100|ha|acre}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and buried [[unexploded ordnance|unexploded munitions]] make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name=CWGC2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf|title=Annual Report 2007–2008|format=PDF|year=2008|accessdate=10 January 2010|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|page=16|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614233601/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf|archivedate=14 June 2011}}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=7}}<br />
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The site was established to honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but it also contains other memorials. These are dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]], and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries on site: [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/2103985/CANADIAN%20CEMETERY%20NO.2,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST|title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|date=n.d.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/68402/GIVENCHY%20ROAD%20CANADIAN%20CEMETERY,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST|title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref>[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park, and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret|title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=22 March 2007|accessdate=14 November 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113094920/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials%2Fww1mem%2Fvimy%2Finterpret|archivedate=13 November 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/cbmr|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=19 January 2007}}</ref><br />
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===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial (September 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|Left-front view showing an entire aspect of the Memorial|alt=The Vimy memorial from the front facing side. The memorial is very wide, indicative of being a photo from after the restoration.]]<br />
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Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=12}} The memorial contains many stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} There is a cannon barrel draped in [[laurel wreath|laurel]] and [[olive branch]]es carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize victory and peace.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.{{sfn|Bolling|2003|p=310}} This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.{{sfn|Prost|1997|p=316}} The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada's sympathy for the weak and oppressed.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=156}}<br />
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The figure of a cloaked young woman stands on top and at the centre of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. She has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]] and a sword, and draped in laurel branches.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}}{{refn|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space, which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre, that fanned out from the monument's front wall for a distance of {{convert|270|ft|m}} while the battle-damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=46}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name]]<br />
The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform; one bears the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France, and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name=Valpy/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace'';{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=13}} ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}} The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} The remainder of the ''Chorus'' is located directly below the senior figures: ''Faith'', ''Hope'' and ''Truth'' on the eastern pylon; and ''Honour'', ''Charity'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western pylon.{{sfn|Vincent|2011|p=59}} Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain, and France. Large [[memorial cross|crosses]] adorn the outside of each pylon.{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments, and a dedicatory message to Canada's war dead in both French and English are located at the base of the pylons. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base between the two pylons.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'' by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}}<br />
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The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France whose final resting place is unknown.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format in a manner that permits the modification of panels as remains are found and identified. Allward instead sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name=Valpy/>{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} As a consequence, as remains were discovered it was not possible to remove commemorated names without interrupting the seamless list, and as a consequence there are individuals who have a known grave but are commemorated on the memorial. The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]], and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name=VCs>{{cite web|title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/medals-decorations/orders-decorations/canadian-victoria-cross-recipients|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref><br />
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===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
{{Main article|Moroccan Division (France)|Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the [[Moroccan Division (France)|Moroccan Division]], killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925, having been built without planning permission.<ref name=France24/><ref>{{Citation|title=Inauguration du monument à la Division marocaine élevé à la cote 140, plateau de Vimy, route de Neuville-Saint-Vaast à Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), le 14 juin 1925|location=Paris|publisher=Berger-Levrault|trans-title=Inauguration of the Moroccan Division raised on hill 140, Vimy Ridge, Road Neuville-Saint-Vaast in Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), 14 June 1925|year=1926|language=french}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism-lenslievin.co.uk/monument-aux-morts-de-la-division-marocaine/givenchy-en-gohelle/tabid/20656/offreid/47f2449b-2791-4864-8e41-7b4680260aa1/details.aspx|publisher=Lens-Liévin Tourist Information and Cultural Heritage Office|title=Monument aux morts de la division marocaine|trans-title=War memorial of the Moroccan division|date=n.d.}}</ref> Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the memorial, campaign battles are inscribed on the left- and right-hand side corner view of the memorial. The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only division where all subordinate units had been awarded the [[Legion of Honour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf|title=Forgotten Heroes North Africans and the Great War 1914–1919|publisher=Forgotten Heroes 14–19 Foundation|page=10|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019160735/http://forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf|archivedate=19 October 2014|df=dmy}}</ref><br />
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The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the [[Marching Division of Morocco]]. The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise, it did not in fact contain any units originating from [[Morocco]].{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}} [[Moroccans]] were part of the [[Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion]] which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the [[1st Foreign Regiment]] with the 2nd Marching Regiment of the [[2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment|2nd Foreign Regiment]], both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades. The division contained [[Tirailleur]]s and [[Zouave]]s, of principally [[Tunisia]]n and [[Algeria]]n origin, and most notably [[French Foreign Legion|Legionnaires]] from the [[2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment]] and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment.{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<ref name=France24>{{cite web|title=Grande Guerre : la Division marocaine qui n'avait de marocaine que le nom|trans-title=Great War: the Moroccan Division is Moroccan in name only|first=Stéphanie|last=Trouillard|date=6 May 2015|publisher=France 24|language=french|url=http://www.france24.com/fr/20150509-premiere-guerre-mondiale-division-marocaine-vimy-crete-tirailleurs-algeriens-tunisiens-legions-etrangeres-artois}}</ref> The French Legionnaires came, as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial, from 52 different countries and included amongst them American, Polish, Russian, Italian, Greek, German, Czech, Swedish and Swiss volunteers, such as writer [[Blaise Cendrars]].{{sfn|Das|2011|p=316}}{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<br />
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In the battle, General [[Victor d'Urbal]], commander of the [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]], sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]].{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains.{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division did however suffer heavy casualties. Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division's brigade commanders, Colonels [[Gaston Cros]] and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legionetrangere.fr/index.php/archives/79-infos-fsale/489-histoire-la-bataille-de-l-artois-du-9-mai-au-22-juin-1915-avec-l-attaque-du-2e-regiment-de-marche-du-1er-etranger|title=HISTOIRE : La bataille de l'Artois du 9 mai au 22 juin 1915 avec l'attaque du 2e Régiment de marche du 1er Etranger|publisher=Fédération des Sociétés d' Anciens de la Légion étrangère|trans-title=HISTORY: The Battle of Artois from 9 May to 22 June 1915 with the attack of the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion|language=french|date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
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===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways, and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely, and unseen.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=90}}<br />
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The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}}<br />
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===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistic Corps]], and a leading British [[bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news|first=Paul|last=Beaver|title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html|work=[[The Independent]]|date=14 August 1998|accessdate=26 April 2009|location=London}}</ref> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
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===Visitors' centre===<br />
The site has a visitors' centre, staffed by Canadian student guides, which is open seven days a week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/overseas/first-world-war/france/vimy/vimy_contact |title=Visitor information|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|accessdate=10 February 2016|date=n.d.}}</ref> During the memorial restoration, the original visitors' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one, which remains in use today.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/news/salute/article/870|title=New Visitor Education Centre For Vimy|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=25 November 2015|accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The visitors' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines, close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway.{{sfn|Pedersen|2012|loc=Chapter 7}} Construction of a new educational visitors' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017, in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle.<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Ridge Memorial in France to get visitor centre|url=http://globalnews.ca/news/560616/vimy-ridge-memorial-to-get-visitor-centre/|publisher=Global News|date=14 May 2013|accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The new {{CAD|10}} million visitor centre is a [[public-private partnership]] between government and the [[Vimy Foundation]].<ref name="blair">{{citation|url=http://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/corporate-branding-will-be-subtle-and-tasteful-at-new-vimy-ridge-centre-in-france|title=Corporate branding will be 'subtle' and 'tasteful' at new Vimy Ridge centre in France|first=Blair|last=Crawford|date=11 January 2017|accessdate=17 March 2017|publisher=Ottawa Citizen}}</ref> In order to raise funds the Vimy Foundation granted naming rights in various halls of the visitor centre to sponsors, an approach which has met some level of controversy due to the site being a memorial park.<ref name="blair"/><br />
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==Sociocultural influence==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial war recruitment poster.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The Vimy Memorial displayed in a Canadian [[World War II]] recruitment poster|alt=A white skeleton body holds alight a torch and the background the two white pillars of the Vimy memorial are displayed. the entire poster is displayed in white with a background of blue.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely repeated in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}} Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].{{sfn|Thomson|1995–1996|pp=5–27}} Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War, while expressing the enormous impact of war in general,{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} and also considers that the 2005 restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}}<br />
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The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as one of the [[National Historic Sites of Canada]]; it was so designated in 1996, and is one of only two outside of Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/pages/vimyridge.aspx|title=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada|date=9 September 2000|accessdate=2 April 2017|publisher=Parks Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. Remembrance has also taken other forms: the [[Vimy Foundation]], having been established to preserve and promote Canada's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, and [[Vimy Ridge Day]], to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/about/mission/|title=Mission|publisher=Vimy Foundation|accessdate=9 February 2016|date=n.d.}}</ref> Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen|last=Harris|newspaper=[[London Free Press]]|publisher=Sum Media Corp|title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets|date=13 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne|last=Arsenault|url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company|title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
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The memorial is not without its critics. Alana Vincent has argued that constituent parts of the monument are in conflict, and as a result the message conveyed by the monument is not unified.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=58–60}} Visually, Vincent argues there is a dichotomy between the triumphant pose of the figures at the top of the pylons and the mourning posture of those figures at the base. Textually, she argues the inscription text celebrating the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge strikes a very different tone to the list of names of the missing at the base of the monument.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=59–60}}<br />
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[[File:Ghosts_of_Vimy_Ridge.jpeg|thumb|left|''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'' by [[Will Longstaff]]]]<br />
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name="longstaff">{{cite web|url=https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes/|title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate)|date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010|publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada, including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The 1936 'Vimy Ridge' Issue|issue=259|date=March 2011|first=Mick|last=Bister|publisher=Journal of the France and Colonies Philatelic Society}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial, and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory|title=Designing and Constructing|series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|date=5 May 2000|accessdate=8 January 2010|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The [[Never Forgotten National Memorial]] was intended to be a {{convert|24|m|ft|adj=on}} statue inspired by the ''Canada Bereft'' statue on the memorial, before the project was cancelled in February 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parks Canada backs out of controversial 'Mother Canada' war memorial project in Cape Breton|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/parks-canada-backs-out-of-controversial-mother-canada-war-memorial-project-in-cape-breton|accessdate=8 February 2016|work=National Post|date=5 February 2016}}</ref> A 2001 Canadian [[historical novel]] ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'' by [[Jane Urquhart]] involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial.{{sfn|Cavell|2015|pp=68–69}} In 2007, the memorial was a short-listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Memorial, France|url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html|accessdate=7 January 2010|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company|date=n.d.}}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on several occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian [[military awards and decorations|military]] [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Canada|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref>{{cite news|title=New military medal to honour combat casualties|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-military-medal-to-honour-combat-casualties-1.770264|date=29 August 2008|accessdate=7 January 2010|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent [[bas relief]] sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit|url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm|date=January 2004|accessdate=10 January 2010|publisher=Embassy of France in Canada}}</ref> The memorial is featured on the [[obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the [[Frontier Series]] Canadian polymer [[Canadian twenty-dollar bill|$20]] banknote, which was released by the [[Bank of Canada]] on 7 November 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadians-see-twin-towers-pornography-in-20-bill-design-1.806190|accessdate=6 May 2012|publisher=CTV|date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}<br />
* [[World War I memorials]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Citations==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914–1918 |last1=Barton |first1=Peter |last2=Doyle |first2=Peter |last3=Vandewalle |first3=Johan |year=2004 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal & Kingston |isbn=0-7735-2949-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Bell |first1=Lynne |last2=Bousfield |first2=Arthur |last3=Toffoli |first3=Gary |title=Queen and Consort:Elizabeth and Philip – 60 Years of Marriage |publisher=Dundurn Press |year=2007 |location=Toronto |isbn=978-1-55002-725-9 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Boire |first=Michael |title=The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=15–24 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 1992 |url=http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf |accessdate=2 January 2009 |format=PDF |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305091040/http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf |archivedate=5 March 2009 |df=dmy-all}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Boire |first=Michael |year=2007 |contribution=The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914–1916 |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=51–61 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Bolling |first=Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers |pages=295–318 |title=Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor1-last=Antor |editor1-first=Heinz |editor2-last=Brown |editor2-first=Sylvia |editor3-last=Considine |editor3-first=John |editor4-last=Stierstorfer |editor4-first=Klaus |year=2003 |publisher=de Gruyter |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-11-017666-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Borestad |first=Lane |title=Walter Allward: Sculptor and Architect of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |pages=23–38 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |first=Laura |last=Brandon |contribution=Canvas of War |title=Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |editor-last=Busch |editor-first=Briton Cooper |year=2003 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X |ref=harv |pages=203–215}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Art or Memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art |last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 |publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Brown |first=Eric |last2=Cook |first2=Tim |title=The 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=33–54 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=David |year=2007 |contribution=The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=171–192 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Cavell |first=Richard |editor-last=Sugars |editor-first=Cynthia |title=Remembering Canada: The Politics of Cultural Memory |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Literature |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-994186-5 |pages=64–79 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Tim |year=2007 |contribution=The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=105–124 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Race, Empire and First World War Writing |first=Santanu |last=Das |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-50984-8 |year=2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Doughty |first=Robert A. |title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War |year=2005 | publisher=Belknap Press |publication-place=Cambridge and London |isbn=0-674-01880-X |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Duffy |first=Denis |title=Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward |journal=American Review of Canadian Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=189–206 |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |doi=10.1080/02722010809481708 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Durflinger |first=Serge |year=2007 |contribution=Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=291–305 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Suzanne |date=9 February 2007 |title=Mothers of Heroes, Mothers of Martyrs: World War I and the Politics of Grief |location=Montreal |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=0773531882 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first=Tony |year=2003 |publisher=University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first=Don |year=2007 |publisher=Helion & Company Limited |location=Solihull |isbn=978-1-874622-99-4 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Godefroy |first=Andrew |authorlink=Andrew Godefroy |year=2007 |contribution=The German Army at Vimy Ridge |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=225–238 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Geoffrey |year=2007 |contribution=The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=193–210 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement |last=Hopkins |first=J. Castell |year=1919 |publisher=Canadian Annual Review |location=Toronto |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hucker |first=Jacqueline |year=2007 |contribution=The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=279–290 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Hucker |first=Jacqueline |title=Vimy: A Monument for the Modern World |pages=39–48 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Humphries |first=Mark Osborne |year=2007 |contribution='Old Wine in New Bottles': A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=65–85 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Inglis |first=Dave |title=Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years |year=1995 |publisher=Simon Fraser University |location=Burnaby |url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6687/b17448906.pdf |accessdate=22 May 2013 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first=David |year=1998 |publisher=Berg Publishing |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first=Duncan E. |year=1967 |publisher=Peter Martin Associates |location=Toronto |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Moran |first=Heather |year=2007 |contribution=The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=139–154 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Morton |first1=Desmond |first2=Glenn |last2=Wright |title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915–1930 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last=Nicholson |first=Gerald W. L. |year=1962 |publisher=Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location=Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=1 January 2007 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title="We will remember&nbsp;...": Overseas Memorials to Canada's War Dead |last=Nicholson |first=Gerald W. L. |year=1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location=Ottawa |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Pierce |first=John |title=Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=4–14 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 1992 |url=http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf |accessdate=2 February 2009 |format=PDF |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305091036/http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf |archivedate=5 March 2009 |df=dmy}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=ANZACS on the Western Front: The Australian War Memorial Battlefield Guide |last=Pedersen |first=Peter |year=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=New York |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Prost |first=Antoine |year=1997 |contribution=Monuments to the Dead |editor-last=Nora |editor-first=Pierre |editor2-last=Kritzman |editor2-first=Lawrence |editor3-last=Goldhammer |editor3-first=Arthur |title=Realms of memory: the construction of the French past |publication-place=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |pages=307–332 |isbn=0-231-10634-3 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2007 |title="Not A Man Fell Out and the Party Marched Into Arras Singing": The Royal Guard and the Unveiling of the Vimy Memorial, 1936 |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–68 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2008 |title=From Alberta to Avion: Private Herbert Peterson, 49th Battalion, CEF |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=67–74 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1=Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year=2000 |publisher=Geological Society |location=London |isbn=0-85052-463-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996 |publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Saunders |first=Nicholas |title=Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001 |journal=Antiquity |volume=76 |issue=291 |pages=101–108 |publisher=Portland Press |year=2002 |ref=Saunders}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914–1917 |last=Sheldon |first=Jack |year=2008 |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |location=Barnsley (UK) |isbn=978-1-84415-680-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917–1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Julian |title=Restoring Vimy: The Challenges of Confronting Emerging Modernism |pages=49–56 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |first=Denise |last=Thomson |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918–1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995–1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia |editor-last=Tucker |editor-first=Spencer |year=1996 |publisher=Garland Publishing |location=New York |isbn=0-8153-0399-8 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander |year=2005 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997 |publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{citation |chapter=Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians&nbsp;... From Africa to the Artois |first=Philippe |last=Vincent-Chaissac |publisher=L'Echo du Pas-de-Calais |title=They Came from Across the Globe |p=3 |chapter-url=http://memoire.pas-de-calais.com/images/_uk/pdf-nationalites/marocain.pdf |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Literature and Theology: New Interdisciplinary Spaces |year=2011 |editor-first=Heather |editor-last=Walton |publisher=Ashgate |contribution=Two (and two, and two) Towers: Interdisciplinary, Borrowing and Limited Interpretation |first=Alana |last=Vincent |pages=55–66 |isbn=978-1-4094-0011-0 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Making Memory: Jewish and Christian Explorations in Monument, Narrative, and Liturgy |first=Alana |last=Vincent |year=2014 |publisher=James Clarke & Co |isbn=978-0-227-17431-9 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General |last=Williams |first=Jeffery |year=1983 |publisher=Secker & Warburg |location=London |isbn=0-436-57110-2 |ref=harv}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* {{Official website}}<br />
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation] – Canadian educational charity<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1936-vimy-ridge-memorial-unveiled Radio recording of King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony] from [[CBC Archives]]<br />
* [http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/87900/VIMY%20MEMORIAL Vimy Memorial] and casualty records at [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
* {{Find a Grave cemetery|1119613}}<br />
* [https://www.britishpathe.com/video/canadians-at-vimy-ridge Canadians at Vimy Ridge in 1940], news reel from [[British Pathé]]<br />
* [http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx Return to Vimy], including video clip of the 1936 unveiling (Archives of Ontario)<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
{{NHSC}}<br />
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada in France]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:World War I in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170029242Canadian National Vimy Memorial2017-04-09T17:33:31Z<p>Moxy: /* Centennial commemoration */ {{external media | width = 210px| float = right | video1 =[https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2017/04/08/thousands-to-gather-in-france-for-100th-anniversary-of-vimy-ridge.html Justin Trudeau, dignitaries pay homage to fallen</p>
<hr />
<div>{{featured article}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}<br />
{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br/><small>Mémorial national du Canada à Vimy</small><br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br/>[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = Vimy Memorial - Allward design submission.jpg<br />
|image_size = 300<br />
|alt = A black and white drawing of a white limestone memorial built on the top of a hill. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall.<br />
|caption = Walter Allward's memorial design submission<br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and missing, presumed dead, in France<br />
|unveiled = {{start date and age|1936|07|26|df=yes}}<br/>By King [[Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50.379444|2.773611|region:FR-HDF_type:landmark_scale:2500|format=dms|display=it}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{refn|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, several individuals are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.{{sfn|Reynolds|2008|pp=57–68}} Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial, only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br/>{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|source = {{cwgc cemetery|87900}}<br />
|embedded = {{Designation list|embed=yes|designation1=NHSC|designation1_offname=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada|designation1_date=1996}}<br />
}}<br />
The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a [[war memorial]] site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[Military history of Canada during World War I|First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for Canadian soldiers of the First World War killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|100|ha|acre|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the initial [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] offensive of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[trench warfare|trenches]], craters, and [[unexploded ordnance|unexploded munitions]] still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, several other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park.<br />
<br />
The project took designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] eleven years to see built. King [[Edward VIII]] unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]] and a crowd of over 50,000 people, including 6,200 attendees from Canada. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] re-dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The site is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]. The Vimy Memorial is one of only two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] located outside the country.<br />
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==Background==<br />
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===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}} The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length, {{convert|700|m|ft}} wide at its narrowest point, and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|loc=pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3}}<br />
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===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under [[German Empire|German]] control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the [[Allies of World War I|Franco-British]] and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.{{sfn|Boire|2007|pp=52–53}} The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French [[Moroccan Division (France)|1st Moroccan Division]] briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=68}} The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=8}}<br />
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The British [[XVII Corps (United Kingdom)|XVII Corps]] relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.{{sfn|Boire|1992|p=15}} On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|1800|m|yd|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{refn|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=149}}|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref>{{cite news|title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds|url=https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|format=PDF|publisher=The New York Times Company|date=21 August 1916|accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{refn|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Canadian Corps relieved the British [[IV Corps (United Kingdom)|IV Corps]] stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}<br />
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===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main article|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=120}} The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=229}} Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=39}} The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under [[I Royal Bavarian Reserve Corps|I Bavarian Reserve Corps]] commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=149}}<br />
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[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines – Black, Red, Blue, and Brown|alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|91|m|yd}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<br />
{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=117}} The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]], and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Canadian Divisions captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=255}}{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=178–179}}{{sfn|Hayes|2007|p=200}} The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=202–203}} Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}}{{refn|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades.{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=309}}|group="Note"}}<br />
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On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=179}} The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=179–181}} By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=182}} By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}} On 12 April, the [[10th Canadian Infantry Brigade|10th Canadian Brigade]] attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.{{sfn|Moran|2007|p=139}} The German [[6th Army (German Empire)|Sixth Army]] suffered an unknown number of casualties, and around 4,000 men became [[Prisoner of war#World War I|prisoners of war]].<ref name=Gibbs>{{cite news|first=Philip|last=Gibbs|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF|title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans|newspaper=The New York Times|publisher=The New York Times Company|format=PDF|date=11 April 1917|accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
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Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=1}}{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=233}} According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}} The idea that Canada's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}}<br />
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<br />
==History==<br />
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===Selection===<br />
{{see also|Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission}}<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone-walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=205}}{{refn|The eight sites were Vimy, [[Bourlon Wood Memorial|Bourlon Wood]], [[Le Quesnel Memorial|Le Quesnel]], [[Dury Memorial|Dury]], and [[Courcelette Memorial|Courcelette]] in France and [[Saint Julien Memorial|St. Julien]], [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood)]], and [[Passchendaele Memorial|Passchendaele]] in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee|publisher=Veteran Affairs Canada|date=25 March 2007|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/Memorials/can_battle_committee|accessdate=12 January 2008}}</ref>|group=Note}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement, and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=205}} In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors, and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/> The jury consisted of [[Charles Herbert Reilly]] representing the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]], [[Paul Philippe Cret]] representing the [[Société centrale des architectes français]] and [[Frank Darling (architect)|Frank Darling]] representing the [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]].{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials, and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings, and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref>{{cite web|title=Design Competition|publisher=Veteran Affairs Canada|date=25 March 2007|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} In October 1921, the commission formally selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] as the winner of the competition; The design submitted by Frederick Chapman Clemesha was selected as runner-up.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}} The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor [[Percy Erskine Nobbs]], who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}} The consensus went in Allward's favour, his design receiving both public and critical approval.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}{{refn|Critical approval included [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]] artist [[A. Y. Jackson]] providing a supporting position in a letter published by [[Canadian Forum]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}|group="Note"}} The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—those of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|left|A design model of the memorial|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background]]<br />
At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The jury's assessment was that Allward's submission was best suited to a "low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge".{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} The commission committee initially recommended placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]], near the location of the [[Battle of Mont Sorrel]], as the site provided an imposing view.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=283}} This ran counter to the desires of Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] who, while speaking in the [[House of Commons of Canada]] in May 1922, argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} King's position received the unanimous support of the House and, in the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|pp=66–69}} The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward's design.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} On 5 December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|100|ha|acre}} of land on Vimy Ridge, inclusive of Hill 145, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name=DFAIT>{{cite web|title=Canada Treaty Information|publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade|date=26 February 2002|url=http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661|accessdate=4 January 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055852/http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661|archivedate=21 September 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name=DFAIT/><br />
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===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half-finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.|Laying the foundation of the memorial]]<br />
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Following the competition, Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} After selling his home and studio, Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} and spent several months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then Paris, though he eventually set up a studio in [[London]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}<br />
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Allward had initially hoped to use white [[marble]] for the memorial's facing stone,{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a "ghost like" appearance.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} He found it in the ruins of [[Diocletian's Palace]] at [[Split, Croatia]]; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, which Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} His choice—Seget [[limestone]]—came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].{{sfn|Fabijančić|2003|p=127}} The difficulties with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927, and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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On Allward's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=285}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Faber had recently designed the substructure for the [[Menin Gate]] at Ypres, and he selected a design that employed cast-in-place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web|title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge – Fast Facts|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/battle|work=VAC Canada Remembers|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=n.d.|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}}<br />
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While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and make the Grange Subway more accessible.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument: limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of Seget limestone.<ref name=Picard>{{cite news|last=Picard|first=Andréa|title=Restoring Loss at Vimy|periodical=Canadian Architect|publication-date=May 2006|url=http://www.canadianarchitect.com/news/restoring-loss-at-vimy/1000204056/|publisher=Business Information Group|accessdate=1 August 2009|ref=harv}}</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 approximately double life-sized human figures on site from large blocks of stone.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=9}} The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=206}} The carvers conducted their work year-round inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory|title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial|date=12 August 1998|accessdate=22 May 2013|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design, and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{refn|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[File:1936 Vimy pilgrimage passport.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Special passport issued by Canada for the 1936 Vimy pilgrimage|alt=A Passport with the Canadian coat of arms in the middle and text in both French and English identifying the book as a passport for the Vimy Pigrimage]]<br />
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In 1919, the year after the war ended, around 60,000 British tourists and mourners made [[pilgrimage]]s to the Western Front.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The transatlantic voyage was longer and more expensive from Canada; many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed, and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small, unofficial groups.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the [[Canadian Legion]] passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields. A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial, which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Due to construction delays with the memorial, it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial. Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set, the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic—1,200 inquiries by November 1934.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on [[Canada Day|Dominion Day]], 1 July 1936, even though the government still did not know when it would be completed.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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For event planning purposes, the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible. The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial. The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage. For the Legion this included planning meals, accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=41}} The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers, and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3½-week trip, inclusive of all meals, accommodation, health insurance, and sea and land transportation would be {{CAD|160}} per person (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|CA|160|1935|r=2}}}} as of 2016). Indirect assistance came in a number of forms. The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=197}} The government and private sector also provided paid leave for their participating employees.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date, 26 July 1936.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} On 16 July, the five transatlantic liners, escorted by {{HMCS|Champlain|1919|6}} and {{HMCS|Saguenay|D79|6}}, departed the [[Port of Montreal]] with approximately 6,200 passengers and arrived in [[Le Havre]] on 24 and 25 July.{{refn|The ships were {{SS|Montrose|1922|6}}, {{SS|Montcalm}}, [[RMS Antonia|SS ''Antonia'']], [[RMS Ascania (1923)|SS ''Ascania'']] and [[RMS Empress of France (1928)|SS ''Duchess of Bedford'']].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}|group="Note"}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}{{sfn|Reynolds|2007|p=68}} The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}<br />
{{rquote|right|''It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.''|King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy|url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx|accessdate=4 January 2010|date=n.d.|publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>}}<br />
[[File:HM King Edward VIII unveiling the figure of Canada on the Vimy Ridge Memorial.jpg|thumb|left|King [[Edward VIII]] unveiling the figure ''Canada Bereft'' on the Vimy Ridge Memorial|alt=A figure standing on flag-covered stage located in from of the statue of Canada Bereft]]<br />
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On 26 July, the day of the ceremony, pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument. For the ceremony, sailors from HMCS ''Saguenay'' provided the [[guard of honour]]. Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band, French army engineers, and French-Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the [[Second Battle of Artois]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the [[Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission]] over [[shortwave radio]], with facilities of the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] transmitting the ceremony to Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President [[Albert François Lebrun|Albert Lebrun]], and a crowd of over 50,000 attended the event.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|pp=37-38}}<ref>{{cite news|last=Cook|first=Tim|date=2 April 2017|title=The event that recast the Battle of Vimy Ridge|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/2017/04/02/the-event-that-recast-the-battle-of-vimy-ridge.html|work=Toronto Star|location=Toronto|access-date=8 April 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Evans|2007|p=126}} Absent, though, was Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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Before the ceremony began, King [[Edward VIII]], present in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|king of Canada]], inspected the guard of honour, was introduced to the honoured guests, and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} Two [[Royal Air Force]] and two [[French Air Force]] squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the [[Church of England]], the [[United Church of Canada]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} [[Ernest Lapointe]], [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Canadian Minister of Justice]], spoke first,{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} followed by Edward VIII who, in both French and English, thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The King then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].{{sfn|Morton|Wright|1987|p=221}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}}{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=139}} The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name=Foot>{{Cite news|last=Foot|first=Richard|title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own|newspaper=The Vancouver Sun|publication-place=Vancouver|date=4 April 2007|page=A4}}</ref> The pilgrimage continued, and most participants toured [[Ypres]] before being taken to London to be hosted by the [[British Legion]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=51}} One-third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August, while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=52}}<br />
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===Second World War===<br />
[[File:Hitler touring Vimy Memorial in June 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|Hitler touring the Vimy Memorial in 1940|alt=A group of men dressed in Nazi German soldier, front and centre is Adolf Hitler, June 1940. The twin pylons of the memorial are clearly displayed in the background.]]<br />
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In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial. Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments. When war did break out in September 1939, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] (BEF) deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}} In late May 1940, following the British [[Battle of Dunkirk|retreat to Dunkirk]] after the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]].{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=293}} The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=300}} The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=294}} The rumours led the German [[Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda|Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=297}} To demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated, [[Adolf Hitler]], who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature, was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Canadian Unknown Soldier|journal=After the Battle|issue=109|publisher=Battle of Britain Intl. Ltd.|issn=0306-154X}}</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when British troops of the 2nd Battalion, [[Welsh Guards]] of the [[Guards Armoured Division]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=298}}<br />
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===Post-war years===<br />
Immediately following the Second World War, very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=76}} The ''[[Winnipeg Free Press]]'' and ''The Legionary'', the magazine of the [[Royal Canadian Legion]], were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=79}} The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice, with only the ''[[Halifax Herald]]'' making any mention.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the 50th anniversary of the battle, paired with the [[Canadian Centennial]].{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of [[Canadian Confederation]] and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] and at least 5,000 people<!-- were these 5000 Canadians? -->.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Ridge 'sacrifice' forged unity PM declares|newspaper=Toronto Star|page=A3|first=Patrick|last=Doyle|date=10 April 1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=107}} Subsequent smaller-scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://legionmagazine.com/en/1997/09/return-to-the-ridge/|title=Return To The Ridge|date=1 September 1997|magazine=Legion Magazine|first=Tom|last=MacGregor|publisher=Royal Canadian Legion}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ceremony marks 85th anniversary of Vimy Ridge battle|publisher=Canadian Press|date=7 April 2002}}</ref><br />
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===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
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By the end of the century, the many repairs undertaken since the memorial's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours, and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major [[Canadian dollar|C$]]30&nbsp;million restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name=Valpy>{{cite news|first=Michael|last=Valpy|title=Setting a legend in stone|url=http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070407.wvimymemorial0407/front/Front/Front/|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|location=Toronto|date=7 April 2007|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name=Valpy/><br />
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Time, wear, and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive being [[water damage]].<ref name=Valpy/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} through its walls and platforms, dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name=Valpy/> As the water exited, it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces, obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform, terrace, and stairs.<ref name=Valpy/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs, and platforms.<ref name=Valpy/> In order to respect Allward's initial vision of a seamless structure, the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs, replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia, and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze-thaw activity.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} Underlying structural flaws were also corrected.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=53}}<br />
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Queen [[Elizabeth II]], escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=140}} Other senior Canadian officials, including Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]] among them, attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV">{{Cite episode|title=|date=9 April 2007|series=National News|series-link=|first=Tom|last=Kennedy|network=CTV Television Network}}</ref> The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV"/><br />
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===Centennial commemoration===<br />
{{external media | width = 210px| float = right<br />
| video1 =[https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2017/04/08/thousands-to-gather-in-france-for-100th-anniversary-of-vimy-ridge.html Justin Trudeau, dignitaries pay homage to fallen Canadian soldiers at Vimy Ridge], The Canadian Press -, April 8, 2017, (4 hrs)}}<br />
The centennial commemoration of the Battle of Vimy Ridge at the memorial took place on 9 April 2017, coincidentally during the [[150th anniversary of Canada]]. Estimates before the event indicated that an audience of up to 30,000 would be present.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2017/03/31/toronto-photographer-commemorates-vimy-100th.html|title=Toronto photographer to open exhibition to commemorate battle of Vimy Ridge|date=31 March 2017|publisher=Toronto Star|first=Alicja|last=Siekierska|accessdate=1 April 2017}}</ref> Attending dignitaries for Canada included [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[David Johnston]]; [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles]]; [[Prince William, Duke of Cambridge]]; [[Prince Harry]]; and Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]]. [[President of France|President]] [[François Hollande]] and [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Bernard Cazeneuve]] represented France.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-39541940| title=Vimy Ridge: Royals commemorate defining WW1 battle| date=9 April 2017| publisher=BBC| accessdate=9 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{citation| url=http://www.lavoixdunord.fr/138040/article/2017-03-25/francois-hollande-et-bernard-cazeneuve-confirment-leur-venue-vimy-le-9-avril| title=François Hollande et Bernard Cazeneuve confirment leur venue à Vimy le 9 avril| date=25 March 2017| accessdate=1 April 2017| publisher=Le Voix du Nord}}</ref> Prior to the official ceremony, the Mayor of [[Arras]], Frédéric Leturque, thanked Canadians, as well as Australians and British, New Zealanders, and South Africans, for their role in the First World War battles in the area.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.nationalnewswatch.com/2017/04/09/justin-trudeau-in-france-to-mark-the-100th-anniversary-of-vimy-ridge-2/#.WOpNcfnyvX5| title=Canadian and French leaders pay homage to fallen soldiers at Vimy Ridge |author=The Canadian Press| date=9 April 2017| publisher=National Newswatch Inc| accessdate=7 April 2017}}</ref><br />
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Two postage stamps are being released jointly by [[Canada Post]] and France's [[La Poste (France)|La Poste]] featuring the memorial, one designed by each country, to commemorate the centennial of the Battle of Vimy Ridge.<ref>{{citation| url=http://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/governor-general-french-ambassador-unveil-vimy-centenary-memorial-stamps| title=Governor General, French ambassador unveil Vimy centenary memorial stamps| publisher=Ottawa Citizen| first=Bruce| last=Deachman| date=22 March 2016| accessdate=4 April 2017}}</ref><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete, are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three-walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the [[trench warfare|trench lines]] of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=216}}{{sfn|Lloyd|1998|p=120}} The total area of the site is {{convert|100|ha|acre}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and buried [[unexploded ordnance|unexploded munitions]] make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name=CWGC2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf|title=Annual Report 2007–2008|format=PDF|year=2008|accessdate=10 January 2010|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|page=16|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614233601/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf|archivedate=14 June 2011}}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=7}}<br />
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The site was established to honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but it also contains other memorials. These are dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]], and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries on site: [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/2103985/CANADIAN%20CEMETERY%20NO.2,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST|title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|date=n.d.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/68402/GIVENCHY%20ROAD%20CANADIAN%20CEMETERY,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST|title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref>[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park, and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret|title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=22 March 2007|accessdate=14 November 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113094920/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials%2Fww1mem%2Fvimy%2Finterpret|archivedate=13 November 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/cbmr|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=19 January 2007}}</ref><br />
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===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial (September 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|Left-front view showing an entire aspect of the Memorial|alt=The Vimy memorial from the front facing side. The memorial is very wide, indicative of being a photo from after the restoration.]]<br />
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Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=12}} The memorial contains many stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} There is a cannon barrel draped in [[laurel wreath|laurel]] and [[olive branch]]es carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize victory and peace.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.{{sfn|Bolling|2003|p=310}} This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.{{sfn|Prost|1997|p=316}} The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada's sympathy for the weak and oppressed.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=156}}<br />
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The figure of a cloaked young woman stands on top and at the centre of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. She has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]] and a sword, and draped in laurel branches.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}}{{refn|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space, which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre, that fanned out from the monument's front wall for a distance of {{convert|270|ft|m}} while the battle-damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=46}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name]]<br />
The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform; one bears the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France, and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name=Valpy/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace'';{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=13}} ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}} The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} The remainder of the ''Chorus'' is located directly below the senior figures: ''Faith'', ''Hope'' and ''Truth'' on the eastern pylon; and ''Honour'', ''Charity'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western pylon.{{sfn|Vincent|2011|p=59}} Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain, and France. Large [[memorial cross|crosses]] adorn the outside of each pylon.{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments, and a dedicatory message to Canada's war dead in both French and English are located at the base of the pylons. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base between the two pylons.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'' by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}}<br />
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The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France whose final resting place is unknown.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format in a manner that permits the modification of panels as remains are found and identified. Allward instead sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name=Valpy/>{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} As a consequence, as remains were discovered it was not possible to remove commemorated names without interrupting the seamless list, and as a consequence there are individuals who have a known grave but are commemorated on the memorial. The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]], and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name=VCs>{{cite web|title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/medals-decorations/orders-decorations/canadian-victoria-cross-recipients|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref><br />
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===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
{{Main article|Moroccan Division (France)|Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the [[Moroccan Division (France)|Moroccan Division]], killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925, having been built without planning permission.<ref name=France24/><ref>{{Citation|title=Inauguration du monument à la Division marocaine élevé à la cote 140, plateau de Vimy, route de Neuville-Saint-Vaast à Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), le 14 juin 1925|location=Paris|publisher=Berger-Levrault|trans-title=Inauguration of the Moroccan Division raised on hill 140, Vimy Ridge, Road Neuville-Saint-Vaast in Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), 14 June 1925|year=1926|language=french}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism-lenslievin.co.uk/monument-aux-morts-de-la-division-marocaine/givenchy-en-gohelle/tabid/20656/offreid/47f2449b-2791-4864-8e41-7b4680260aa1/details.aspx|publisher=Lens-Liévin Tourist Information and Cultural Heritage Office|title=Monument aux morts de la division marocaine|trans-title=War memorial of the Moroccan division|date=n.d.}}</ref> Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the memorial, campaign battles are inscribed on the left- and right-hand side corner view of the memorial. The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only division where all subordinate units had been awarded the [[Legion of Honour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf|title=Forgotten Heroes North Africans and the Great War 1914–1919|publisher=Forgotten Heroes 14–19 Foundation|page=10|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019160735/http://forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf|archivedate=19 October 2014|df=dmy}}</ref><br />
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The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the [[Marching Division of Morocco]]. The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise, it did not in fact contain any units originating from [[Morocco]].{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}} [[Moroccans]] were part of the [[Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion]] which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the [[1st Foreign Regiment]] with the 2nd Marching Regiment of the [[2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment|2nd Foreign Regiment]], both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades. The division contained [[Tirailleur]]s and [[Zouave]]s, of principally [[Tunisia]]n and [[Algeria]]n origin, and most notably [[French Foreign Legion|Legionnaires]] from the [[2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment]] and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment.{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<ref name=France24>{{cite web|title=Grande Guerre : la Division marocaine qui n'avait de marocaine que le nom|trans-title=Great War: the Moroccan Division is Moroccan in name only|first=Stéphanie|last=Trouillard|date=6 May 2015|publisher=France 24|language=french|url=http://www.france24.com/fr/20150509-premiere-guerre-mondiale-division-marocaine-vimy-crete-tirailleurs-algeriens-tunisiens-legions-etrangeres-artois}}</ref> The French Legionnaires came, as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial, from 52 different countries and included amongst them American, Polish, Russian, Italian, Greek, German, Czech, Swedish and Swiss volunteers, such as writer [[Blaise Cendrars]].{{sfn|Das|2011|p=316}}{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<br />
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In the battle, General [[Victor d'Urbal]], commander of the [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]], sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]].{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains.{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division did however suffer heavy casualties. Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division's brigade commanders, Colonels [[Gaston Cros]] and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legionetrangere.fr/index.php/archives/79-infos-fsale/489-histoire-la-bataille-de-l-artois-du-9-mai-au-22-juin-1915-avec-l-attaque-du-2e-regiment-de-marche-du-1er-etranger|title=HISTOIRE : La bataille de l'Artois du 9 mai au 22 juin 1915 avec l'attaque du 2e Régiment de marche du 1er Etranger|publisher=Fédération des Sociétés d' Anciens de la Légion étrangère|trans-title=HISTORY: The Battle of Artois from 9 May to 22 June 1915 with the attack of the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion|language=french|date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways, and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely, and unseen.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=90}}<br />
<br />
The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}}<br />
<br />
===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistic Corps]], and a leading British [[bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news|first=Paul|last=Beaver|title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html|work=[[The Independent]]|date=14 August 1998|accessdate=26 April 2009|location=London}}</ref> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
<br />
===Visitors' centre===<br />
The site has a visitors' centre, staffed by Canadian student guides, which is open seven days a week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/overseas/first-world-war/france/vimy/vimy_contact |title=Visitor information|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|accessdate=10 February 2016|date=n.d.}}</ref> During the memorial restoration, the original visitors' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one, which remains in use today.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/news/salute/article/870|title=New Visitor Education Centre For Vimy|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=25 November 2015|accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The visitors' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines, close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway.{{sfn|Pedersen|2012|loc=Chapter 7}} Construction of a new educational visitors' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017, in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle.<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Ridge Memorial in France to get visitor centre|url=http://globalnews.ca/news/560616/vimy-ridge-memorial-to-get-visitor-centre/|publisher=Global News|date=14 May 2013|accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The new {{CAD|10}} million visitor centre is a [[public-private partnership]] between government and the [[Vimy Foundation]].<ref name="blair">{{citation|url=http://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/corporate-branding-will-be-subtle-and-tasteful-at-new-vimy-ridge-centre-in-france|title=Corporate branding will be 'subtle' and 'tasteful' at new Vimy Ridge centre in France|first=Blair|last=Crawford|date=11 January 2017|accessdate=17 March 2017|publisher=Ottawa Citizen}}</ref> In order to raise funds the Vimy Foundation granted naming rights in various halls of the visitor centre to sponsors, an approach which has met some level of controversy due to the site being a memorial park.<ref name="blair"/><br />
<br />
==Sociocultural influence==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial war recruitment poster.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The Vimy Memorial displayed in a Canadian [[World War II]] recruitment poster|alt=A white skeleton body holds alight a torch and the background the two white pillars of the Vimy memorial are displayed. the entire poster is displayed in white with a background of blue.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely repeated in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}} Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].{{sfn|Thomson|1995–1996|pp=5–27}} Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War, while expressing the enormous impact of war in general,{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} and also considers that the 2005 restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}}<br />
<br />
The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as one of the [[National Historic Sites of Canada]]; it was so designated in 1996, and is one of only two outside of Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/pages/vimyridge.aspx|title=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada|date=9 September 2000|accessdate=2 April 2017|publisher=Parks Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. Remembrance has also taken other forms: the [[Vimy Foundation]], having been established to preserve and promote Canada's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, and [[Vimy Ridge Day]], to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/about/mission/|title=Mission|publisher=Vimy Foundation|accessdate=9 February 2016|date=n.d.}}</ref> Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen|last=Harris|newspaper=[[London Free Press]]|publisher=Sum Media Corp|title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets|date=13 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne|last=Arsenault|url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company|title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
The memorial is not without its critics. Alana Vincent has argued that constituent parts of the monument are in conflict, and as a result the message conveyed by the monument is not unified.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=58–60}} Visually, Vincent argues there is a dichotomy between the triumphant pose of the figures at the top of the pylons and the mourning posture of those figures at the base. Textually, she argues the inscription text celebrating the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge strikes a very different tone to the list of names of the missing at the base of the monument.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=59–60}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Ghosts_of_Vimy_Ridge.jpeg|thumb|left|''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'' by [[Will Longstaff]]]]<br />
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name="longstaff">{{cite web|url=https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes/|title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate)|date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010|publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada, including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The 1936 'Vimy Ridge' Issue|issue=259|date=March 2011|first=Mick|last=Bister|publisher=Journal of the France and Colonies Philatelic Society}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial, and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory|title=Designing and Constructing|series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|date=5 May 2000|accessdate=8 January 2010|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The [[Never Forgotten National Memorial]] was intended to be a {{convert|24|m|ft|adj=on}} statue inspired by the ''Canada Bereft'' statue on the memorial, before the project was cancelled in February 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parks Canada backs out of controversial 'Mother Canada' war memorial project in Cape Breton|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/parks-canada-backs-out-of-controversial-mother-canada-war-memorial-project-in-cape-breton|accessdate=8 February 2016|work=National Post|date=5 February 2016}}</ref> A 2001 Canadian [[historical novel]] ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'' by [[Jane Urquhart]] involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial.{{sfn|Cavell|2015|pp=68–69}} In 2007, the memorial was a short-listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Memorial, France|url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html|accessdate=7 January 2010|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company|date=n.d.}}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on several occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian [[military awards and decorations|military]] [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Canada|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref>{{cite news|title=New military medal to honour combat casualties|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-military-medal-to-honour-combat-casualties-1.770264|date=29 August 2008|accessdate=7 January 2010|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent [[bas relief]] sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit|url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm|date=January 2004|accessdate=10 January 2010|publisher=Embassy of France in Canada}}</ref> The memorial is featured on the [[obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the [[Frontier Series]] Canadian polymer [[Canadian twenty-dollar bill|$20]] banknote, which was released by the [[Bank of Canada]] on 7 November 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadians-see-twin-towers-pornography-in-20-bill-design-1.806190|accessdate=6 May 2012|publisher=CTV|date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}<br />
* [[World War I memorials]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Citations==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914–1918 |last1=Barton |first1=Peter |last2=Doyle |first2=Peter |last3=Vandewalle |first3=Johan |year=2004 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal & Kingston |isbn=0-7735-2949-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
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* {{cite journal |last=Boire |first=Michael |title=The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=15–24 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 1992 |url=http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf |accessdate=2 January 2009 |format=PDF |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305091040/http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf |archivedate=5 March 2009 |df=dmy-all}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Boire |first=Michael |year=2007 |contribution=The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914–1916 |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=51–61 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Bolling |first=Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers |pages=295–318 |title=Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor1-last=Antor |editor1-first=Heinz |editor2-last=Brown |editor2-first=Sylvia |editor3-last=Considine |editor3-first=John |editor4-last=Stierstorfer |editor4-first=Klaus |year=2003 |publisher=de Gruyter |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-11-017666-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Borestad |first=Lane |title=Walter Allward: Sculptor and Architect of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |pages=23–38 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |first=Laura |last=Brandon |contribution=Canvas of War |title=Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |editor-last=Busch |editor-first=Briton Cooper |year=2003 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X |ref=harv |pages=203–215}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Art or Memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art |last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 |publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Brown |first=Eric |last2=Cook |first2=Tim |title=The 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=33–54 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=David |year=2007 |contribution=The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=171–192 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Cavell |first=Richard |editor-last=Sugars |editor-first=Cynthia |title=Remembering Canada: The Politics of Cultural Memory |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Literature |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-994186-5 |pages=64–79 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Tim |year=2007 |contribution=The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=105–124 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Race, Empire and First World War Writing |first=Santanu |last=Das |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-50984-8 |year=2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Doughty |first=Robert A. |title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War |year=2005 | publisher=Belknap Press |publication-place=Cambridge and London |isbn=0-674-01880-X |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Duffy |first=Denis |title=Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward |journal=American Review of Canadian Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=189–206 |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |doi=10.1080/02722010809481708 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Durflinger |first=Serge |year=2007 |contribution=Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=291–305 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Suzanne |date=9 February 2007 |title=Mothers of Heroes, Mothers of Martyrs: World War I and the Politics of Grief |location=Montreal |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=0773531882 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first=Tony |year=2003 |publisher=University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first=Don |year=2007 |publisher=Helion & Company Limited |location=Solihull |isbn=978-1-874622-99-4 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Godefroy |first=Andrew |authorlink=Andrew Godefroy |year=2007 |contribution=The German Army at Vimy Ridge |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=225–238 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Geoffrey |year=2007 |contribution=The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=193–210 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement |last=Hopkins |first=J. Castell |year=1919 |publisher=Canadian Annual Review |location=Toronto |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hucker |first=Jacqueline |year=2007 |contribution=The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=279–290 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Hucker |first=Jacqueline |title=Vimy: A Monument for the Modern World |pages=39–48 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Humphries |first=Mark Osborne |year=2007 |contribution='Old Wine in New Bottles': A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=65–85 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Inglis |first=Dave |title=Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years |year=1995 |publisher=Simon Fraser University |location=Burnaby |url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6687/b17448906.pdf |accessdate=22 May 2013 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first=David |year=1998 |publisher=Berg Publishing |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first=Duncan E. |year=1967 |publisher=Peter Martin Associates |location=Toronto |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Moran |first=Heather |year=2007 |contribution=The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=139–154 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Morton |first1=Desmond |first2=Glenn |last2=Wright |title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915–1930 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last=Nicholson |first=Gerald W. L. |year=1962 |publisher=Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location=Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=1 January 2007 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title="We will remember&nbsp;...": Overseas Memorials to Canada's War Dead |last=Nicholson |first=Gerald W. L. |year=1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location=Ottawa |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Pierce |first=John |title=Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=4–14 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 1992 |url=http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf |accessdate=2 February 2009 |format=PDF |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305091036/http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf |archivedate=5 March 2009 |df=dmy}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=ANZACS on the Western Front: The Australian War Memorial Battlefield Guide |last=Pedersen |first=Peter |year=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=New York |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Prost |first=Antoine |year=1997 |contribution=Monuments to the Dead |editor-last=Nora |editor-first=Pierre |editor2-last=Kritzman |editor2-first=Lawrence |editor3-last=Goldhammer |editor3-first=Arthur |title=Realms of memory: the construction of the French past |publication-place=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |pages=307–332 |isbn=0-231-10634-3 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2007 |title="Not A Man Fell Out and the Party Marched Into Arras Singing": The Royal Guard and the Unveiling of the Vimy Memorial, 1936 |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–68 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2008 |title=From Alberta to Avion: Private Herbert Peterson, 49th Battalion, CEF |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=67–74 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1=Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year=2000 |publisher=Geological Society |location=London |isbn=0-85052-463-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996 |publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Saunders |first=Nicholas |title=Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001 |journal=Antiquity |volume=76 |issue=291 |pages=101–108 |publisher=Portland Press |year=2002 |ref=Saunders}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914–1917 |last=Sheldon |first=Jack |year=2008 |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |location=Barnsley (UK) |isbn=978-1-84415-680-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917–1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Julian |title=Restoring Vimy: The Challenges of Confronting Emerging Modernism |pages=49–56 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |first=Denise |last=Thomson |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918–1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995–1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia |editor-last=Tucker |editor-first=Spencer |year=1996 |publisher=Garland Publishing |location=New York |isbn=0-8153-0399-8 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander |year=2005 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997 |publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{citation |chapter=Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians&nbsp;... From Africa to the Artois |first=Philippe |last=Vincent-Chaissac |publisher=L'Echo du Pas-de-Calais |title=They Came from Across the Globe |p=3 |chapter-url=http://memoire.pas-de-calais.com/images/_uk/pdf-nationalites/marocain.pdf |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Literature and Theology: New Interdisciplinary Spaces |year=2011 |editor-first=Heather |editor-last=Walton |publisher=Ashgate |contribution=Two (and two, and two) Towers: Interdisciplinary, Borrowing and Limited Interpretation |first=Alana |last=Vincent |pages=55–66 |isbn=978-1-4094-0011-0 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Making Memory: Jewish and Christian Explorations in Monument, Narrative, and Liturgy |first=Alana |last=Vincent |year=2014 |publisher=James Clarke & Co |isbn=978-0-227-17431-9 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General |last=Williams |first=Jeffery |year=1983 |publisher=Secker & Warburg |location=London |isbn=0-436-57110-2 |ref=harv}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* {{Official website}}<br />
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation] – Canadian educational charity<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1936-vimy-ridge-memorial-unveiled Radio recording of King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony] from [[CBC Archives]]<br />
* [http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/87900/VIMY%20MEMORIAL Vimy Memorial] and casualty records at [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
* {{Find a Grave cemetery|1119613}}<br />
* [https://www.britishpathe.com/video/canadians-at-vimy-ridge Canadians at Vimy Ridge in 1940], news reel from [[British Pathé]]<br />
* [http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx Return to Vimy], including video clip of the 1936 unveiling (Archives of Ontario)<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
{{NHSC}}<br />
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada in France]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:World War I in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170029229Canadian National Vimy Memorial2017-04-09T15:23:10Z<p>Moxy: /* Centennial commemoration */ will try to find another source. ...no daily mail pls</p>
<hr />
<div>{{featured article}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}<br />
{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br/><small>Mémorial national du Canada à Vimy</small><br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br/>[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = Vimy Memorial - Allward design submission.jpg<br />
|image_size = 300<br />
|alt = A black and white drawing of a white limestone memorial built on the top of a hill. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall.<br />
|caption = Walter Allward's memorial design submission<br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and missing, presumed dead, in France<br />
|unveiled = {{start date and age|1936|07|26|df=yes}}<br/>By King [[Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50.379444|2.773611|region:FR-HDF_type:landmark_scale:2500|format=dms|display=it}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{refn|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, several individuals are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.{{sfn|Reynolds|2008|pp=57–68}} Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial, only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br/>{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|source = {{cwgc cemetery|87900}}<br />
|embedded = {{Designation list|embed=yes|designation1=NHSC|designation1_offname=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada|designation1_date=1996}}<br />
}}<br />
The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a [[war memorial]] site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[Military history of Canada during World War I|First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for Canadian soldiers of the First World War killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|100|ha|acre|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the initial [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] offensive of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[trench warfare|trenches]], craters, and [[unexploded ordnance|unexploded munitions]] still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, several other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park.<br />
<br />
The project took designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] eleven years to see built. King [[Edward VIII]] unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]] and a crowd of over 50,000 people, including 6,200 attendees from Canada. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] re-dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The site is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]. The Vimy Memorial is one of only two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] located outside the country.<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}} The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length, {{convert|700|m|ft}} wide at its narrowest point, and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|loc=pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3}}<br />
<br />
===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under [[German Empire|German]] control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the [[Allies of World War I|Franco-British]] and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.{{sfn|Boire|2007|pp=52–53}} The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French [[Moroccan Division (France)|1st Moroccan Division]] briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=68}} The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=8}}<br />
<br />
The British [[XVII Corps (United Kingdom)|XVII Corps]] relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.{{sfn|Boire|1992|p=15}} On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|1800|m|yd|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{refn|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=149}}|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref>{{cite news|title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds|url=https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|format=PDF|publisher=The New York Times Company|date=21 August 1916|accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{refn|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Canadian Corps relieved the British [[IV Corps (United Kingdom)|IV Corps]] stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}<br />
<br />
===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main article|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=120}} The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=229}} Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=39}} The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under [[I Royal Bavarian Reserve Corps|I Bavarian Reserve Corps]] commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=149}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines – Black, Red, Blue, and Brown|alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|91|m|yd}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<br />
{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=117}} The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]], and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Canadian Divisions captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=255}}{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=178–179}}{{sfn|Hayes|2007|p=200}} The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=202–203}} Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}}{{refn|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades.{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=309}}|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=179}} The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=179–181}} By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=182}} By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}} On 12 April, the [[10th Canadian Infantry Brigade|10th Canadian Brigade]] attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.{{sfn|Moran|2007|p=139}} The German [[6th Army (German Empire)|Sixth Army]] suffered an unknown number of casualties, and around 4,000 men became [[Prisoner of war#World War I|prisoners of war]].<ref name=Gibbs>{{cite news|first=Philip|last=Gibbs|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF|title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans|newspaper=The New York Times|publisher=The New York Times Company|format=PDF|date=11 April 1917|accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=1}}{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=233}} According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}} The idea that Canada's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}}<br />
{{-}}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Selection===<br />
{{see also|Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission}}<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone-walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=205}}{{refn|The eight sites were Vimy, [[Bourlon Wood Memorial|Bourlon Wood]], [[Le Quesnel Memorial|Le Quesnel]], [[Dury Memorial|Dury]], and [[Courcelette Memorial|Courcelette]] in France and [[Saint Julien Memorial|St. Julien]], [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood)]], and [[Passchendaele Memorial|Passchendaele]] in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee|publisher=Veteran Affairs Canada|date=25 March 2007|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/Memorials/can_battle_committee|accessdate=12 January 2008}}</ref>|group=Note}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement, and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=205}} In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors, and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/> The jury consisted of [[Charles Herbert Reilly]] representing the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]], [[Paul Philippe Cret]] representing the [[Société centrale des architectes français]] and [[Frank Darling (architect)|Frank Darling]] representing the [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]].{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials, and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings, and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref>{{cite web|title=Design Competition|publisher=Veteran Affairs Canada|date=25 March 2007|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} In October 1921, the commission formally selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] as the winner of the competition; The design submitted by Frederick Chapman Clemesha was selected as runner-up.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}} The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor [[Percy Erskine Nobbs]], who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}} The consensus went in Allward's favour, his design receiving both public and critical approval.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}{{refn|Critical approval included [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]] artist [[A. Y. Jackson]] providing a supporting position in a letter published by [[Canadian Forum]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}|group="Note"}} The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—those of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|left|A design model of the memorial|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background]]<br />
At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The jury's assessment was that Allward's submission was best suited to a "low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge".{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} The commission committee initially recommended placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]], near the location of the [[Battle of Mont Sorrel]], as the site provided an imposing view.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=283}} This ran counter to the desires of Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] who, while speaking in the [[House of Commons of Canada]] in May 1922, argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} King's position received the unanimous support of the House and, in the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|pp=66–69}} The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward's design.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} On 5 December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|100|ha|acre}} of land on Vimy Ridge, inclusive of Hill 145, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name=DFAIT>{{cite web|title=Canada Treaty Information|publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade|date=26 February 2002|url=http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661|accessdate=4 January 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055852/http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661|archivedate=21 September 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name=DFAIT/><br />
<br />
===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half-finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.|Laying the foundation of the memorial]]<br />
<br />
Following the competition, Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} After selling his home and studio, Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} and spent several months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then Paris, though he eventually set up a studio in [[London]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}<br />
<br />
Allward had initially hoped to use white [[marble]] for the memorial's facing stone,{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a "ghost like" appearance.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} He found it in the ruins of [[Diocletian's Palace]] at [[Split, Croatia]]; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, which Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} His choice—Seget [[limestone]]—came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].{{sfn|Fabijančić|2003|p=127}} The difficulties with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927, and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
<br />
On Allward's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=285}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Faber had recently designed the substructure for the [[Menin Gate]] at Ypres, and he selected a design that employed cast-in-place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web|title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge – Fast Facts|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/battle|work=VAC Canada Remembers|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=n.d.|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}}<br />
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While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and make the Grange Subway more accessible.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument: limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of Seget limestone.<ref name=Picard>{{cite news|last=Picard|first=Andréa|title=Restoring Loss at Vimy|periodical=Canadian Architect|publication-date=May 2006|url=http://www.canadianarchitect.com/news/restoring-loss-at-vimy/1000204056/|publisher=Business Information Group|accessdate=1 August 2009|ref=harv}}</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 approximately double life-sized human figures on site from large blocks of stone.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=9}} The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=206}} The carvers conducted their work year-round inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory|title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial|date=12 August 1998|accessdate=22 May 2013|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design, and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{refn|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
{{-}}<br />
<br />
===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[File:1936 Vimy pilgrimage passport.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Special passport issued by Canada for the 1936 Vimy pilgrimage|alt=A Passport with the Canadian coat of arms in the middle and text in both French and English identifying the book as a passport for the Vimy Pigrimage]]<br />
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In 1919, the year after the war ended, around 60,000 British tourists and mourners made [[pilgrimage]]s to the Western Front.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The transatlantic voyage was longer and more expensive from Canada; many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed, and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small, unofficial groups.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the [[Canadian Legion]] passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields. A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial, which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Due to construction delays with the memorial, it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial. Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set, the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic—1,200 inquiries by November 1934.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on [[Canada Day|Dominion Day]], 1 July 1936, even though the government still did not know when it would be completed.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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For event planning purposes, the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible. The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial. The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage. For the Legion this included planning meals, accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=41}} The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers, and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3½-week trip, inclusive of all meals, accommodation, health insurance, and sea and land transportation would be {{CAD|160}} per person (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|CA|160|1935|r=2}}}} as of 2016). Indirect assistance came in a number of forms. The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=197}} The government and private sector also provided paid leave for their participating employees.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date, 26 July 1936.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} On 16 July, the five transatlantic liners, escorted by {{HMCS|Champlain|1919|6}} and {{HMCS|Saguenay|D79|6}}, departed the [[Port of Montreal]] with approximately 6,200 passengers and arrived in [[Le Havre]] on 24 and 25 July.{{refn|The ships were {{SS|Montrose|1922|6}}, {{SS|Montcalm}}, [[RMS Antonia|SS ''Antonia'']], [[RMS Ascania (1923)|SS ''Ascania'']] and [[RMS Empress of France (1928)|SS ''Duchess of Bedford'']].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}|group="Note"}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}{{sfn|Reynolds|2007|p=68}} The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}<br />
{{rquote|right|''It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.''|King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy|url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx|accessdate=4 January 2010|date=n.d.|publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>}}<br />
[[File:HM King Edward VIII unveiling the figure of Canada on the Vimy Ridge Memorial.jpg|thumb|left|King [[Edward VIII]] unveiling the figure ''Canada Bereft'' on the Vimy Ridge Memorial|alt=A figure standing on flag-covered stage located in from of the statue of Canada Bereft]]<br />
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On 26 July, the day of the ceremony, pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument. For the ceremony, sailors from HMCS ''Saguenay'' provided the [[guard of honour]]. Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band, French army engineers, and French-Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the [[Second Battle of Artois]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the [[Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission]] over [[shortwave radio]], with facilities of the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] transmitting the ceremony to Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President [[Albert François Lebrun|Albert Lebrun]], and a crowd of over 50,000 attended the event.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|pp=37-38}}<ref>{{cite news|last=Cook|first=Tim|date=2 April 2017|title=The event that recast the Battle of Vimy Ridge|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/2017/04/02/the-event-that-recast-the-battle-of-vimy-ridge.html|work=Toronto Star|location=Toronto|access-date=8 April 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Evans|2007|p=126}} Absent, though, was Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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Before the ceremony began, King [[Edward VIII]], present in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|king of Canada]], inspected the guard of honour, was introduced to the honoured guests, and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} Two [[Royal Air Force]] and two [[French Air Force]] squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the [[Church of England]], the [[United Church of Canada]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} [[Ernest Lapointe]], [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Canadian Minister of Justice]], spoke first,{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} followed by Edward VIII who, in both French and English, thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The King then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].{{sfn|Morton|Wright|1987|p=221}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}}{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=139}} The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name=Foot>{{Cite news|last=Foot|first=Richard|title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own|newspaper=The Vancouver Sun|publication-place=Vancouver|date=4 April 2007|page=A4}}</ref> The pilgrimage continued, and most participants toured [[Ypres]] before being taken to London to be hosted by the [[British Legion]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=51}} One-third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August, while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=52}}<br />
<br />
===Second World War===<br />
[[File:Hitler touring Vimy Memorial in June 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|Hitler touring the Vimy Memorial in 1940|alt=A group of men dressed in Nazi German soldier, front and centre is Adolf Hitler, June 1940. The twin pylons of the memorial are clearly displayed in the background.]]<br />
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In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial. Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments. When war did break out in September 1939, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] (BEF) deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}} In late May 1940, following the British [[Battle of Dunkirk|retreat to Dunkirk]] after the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]].{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=293}} The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=300}} The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=294}} The rumours led the German [[Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda|Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=297}} To demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated, [[Adolf Hitler]], who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature, was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Canadian Unknown Soldier|journal=After the Battle|issue=109|publisher=Battle of Britain Intl. Ltd.|issn=0306-154X}}</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when British troops of the 2nd Battalion, [[Welsh Guards]] of the [[Guards Armoured Division]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=298}}<br />
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===Post-war years===<br />
Immediately following the Second World War, very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=76}} The ''[[Winnipeg Free Press]]'' and ''The Legionary'', the magazine of the [[Royal Canadian Legion]], were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=79}} The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice, with only the ''[[Halifax Herald]]'' making any mention.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the 50th anniversary of the battle, paired with the [[Canadian Centennial]].{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of [[Canadian Confederation]] and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] and at least 5,000 people<!-- were these 5000 Canadians? -->.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Ridge 'sacrifice' forged unity PM declares|newspaper=Toronto Star|page=A3|first=Patrick|last=Doyle|date=10 April 1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=107}} Subsequent smaller-scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://legionmagazine.com/en/1997/09/return-to-the-ridge/|title=Return To The Ridge|date=1 September 1997|magazine=Legion Magazine|first=Tom|last=MacGregor|publisher=Royal Canadian Legion}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ceremony marks 85th anniversary of Vimy Ridge battle|publisher=Canadian Press|date=7 April 2002}}</ref><br />
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===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
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By the end of the century, the many repairs undertaken since the memorial's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours, and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major [[Canadian dollar|C$]]30&nbsp;million restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name=Valpy>{{cite news|first=Michael|last=Valpy|title=Setting a legend in stone|url=http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070407.wvimymemorial0407/front/Front/Front/|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|location=Toronto|date=7 April 2007|accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name=Valpy/><br />
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Time, wear, and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive being [[water damage]].<ref name=Valpy/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} through its walls and platforms, dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name=Valpy/> As the water exited, it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces, obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform, terrace, and stairs.<ref name=Valpy/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs, and platforms.<ref name=Valpy/> In order to respect Allward's initial vision of a seamless structure, the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs, replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia, and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze-thaw activity.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} Underlying structural flaws were also corrected.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=53}}<br />
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Queen [[Elizabeth II]], escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=140}} Other senior Canadian officials, including Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]] among them, attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV">{{Cite episode|title=|date=9 April 2007|series=National News|series-link=|first=Tom|last=Kennedy|network=CTV Television Network}}</ref> The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV"/><br />
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===Centennial commemoration===<br />
The centennial commemoration of the Battle of Vimy Ridge at the memorial took place on 9 April 2017. An estimated crowd of 30,000 attended and the event was televised live in Canada.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2017/03/31/toronto-photographer-commemorates-vimy-100th.html|title=Toronto photographer to open exhibition to commemorate battle of Vimy Ridge|date=31 March 2017|publisher=Toronto Star|first=Alicja|last=Siekierska|accessdate=1 April 2017}}</ref><br />
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Attending dignitaries included Canadian Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]], Governor General [[David Johnston]] as representative of the [[Monarchy of Canada]], [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles]] as representative of the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom]], [[Prince William, Duke of Cambridge]], [[Prince Harry]], the President of France [[François Hollande]], and the Prime Minister of France [[Bernard Cazeneuve]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pm.gc.ca/eng/news/2017/03/24/prime-minister-travel-france-100th-anniversary-battle-vimy-ridge|title=Prime Minister to travel to France for the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Vimy Ridge|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=24 March 2017|website=Prime Minister of Canada|publisher=Government of Canada|access-date=31 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.lavoixdunord.fr/138040/article/2017-03-25/francois-hollande-et-bernard-cazeneuve-confirment-leur-venue-vimy-le-9-avril|title=François Hollande et Bernard Cazeneuve confirment leur venue à Vimy le 9 avril|date=25 March 2017|accessdate=1 April 2017|publisher=Le Voix du Nord}}</ref> Two postage stamps are being released jointly by [[Canada Post]] and France's [[La Poste]] featuring the memorial, one designed by each country, to commemorate the centennial of the Battle of Vimy Ridge.<ref>{{citation|url=http://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/governor-general-french-ambassador-unveil-vimy-centenary-memorial-stamps|title=Governor General, French ambassador unveil Vimy centenary memorial stamps|publisher=Ottawa Citizen|first=Bruce|last=Deachman|date=22 March 2016|accessdate=4 April 2017}}</ref> Prior to the official ceremony, the Mayor of [[Arras]], Frederic Leturque, thanked Canadians, as well as Australians and British, New Zealanders and South Africans, for their role in the First World War battles in the area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalnewswatch.com/2017/04/09/justin-trudeau-in-france-to-mark-the-100th-anniversary-of-vimy-ridge-2/#.WOpNcfnyvX5 |title=Canadian and French leaders pay homage to fallen soldiers at Vimy Ridge |author=The Canadian Press<!--Not stated--> |date=9 April 2017 |website=National Newswatch |publisher=National Newswatch Inc. |access-date=7 April 2017}}</ref><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete, are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three-walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the [[trench warfare|trench lines]] of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=216}}{{sfn|Lloyd|1998|p=120}} The total area of the site is {{convert|100|ha|acre}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and buried [[unexploded ordnance|unexploded munitions]] make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name=CWGC2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf|title=Annual Report 2007–2008|format=PDF|year=2008|accessdate=10 January 2010|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|page=16|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614233601/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf|archivedate=14 June 2011}}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=7}}<br />
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The site was established to honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but it also contains other memorials. These are dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]], and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries on site: [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/2103985/CANADIAN%20CEMETERY%20NO.2,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST|title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|date=n.d.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/68402/GIVENCHY%20ROAD%20CANADIAN%20CEMETERY,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST|title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref>[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park, and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret|title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=22 March 2007|accessdate=14 November 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113094920/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials%2Fww1mem%2Fvimy%2Finterpret|archivedate=13 November 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/cbmr|accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=19 January 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial (September 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|Left-front view showing an entire aspect of the Memorial|alt=The Vimy memorial from the front facing side. The memorial is very wide, indicative of being a photo from after the restoration.]]<br />
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Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.{{sfn|Brandon|2003|p=12}} The memorial contains many stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} There is a cannon barrel draped in [[laurel wreath|laurel]] and [[olive branch]]es carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize victory and peace.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.{{sfn|Bolling|2003|p=310}} This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.{{sfn|Prost|1997|p=316}} The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada's sympathy for the weak and oppressed.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=156}}<br />
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The figure of a cloaked young woman stands on top and at the centre of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. She has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]] and a sword, and draped in laurel branches.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}}{{refn|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space, which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre, that fanned out from the monument's front wall for a distance of {{convert|270|ft|m}} while the battle-damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=46}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name]]<br />
The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform; one bears the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France, and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name=Valpy/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace'';{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=13}} ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}} The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} The remainder of the ''Chorus'' is located directly below the senior figures: ''Faith'', ''Hope'' and ''Truth'' on the eastern pylon; and ''Honour'', ''Charity'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western pylon.{{sfn|Vincent|2011|p=59}} Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain, and France. Large [[memorial cross|crosses]] adorn the outside of each pylon.{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments, and a dedicatory message to Canada's war dead in both French and English are located at the base of the pylons. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base between the two pylons.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'' by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}}<br />
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The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France whose final resting place is unknown.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format in a manner that permits the modification of panels as remains are found and identified. Allward instead sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name=Valpy/>{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} As a consequence, as remains were discovered it was not possible to remove commemorated names without interrupting the seamless list, and as a consequence there are individuals who have a known grave but are commemorated on the memorial. The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]], and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name=VCs>{{cite web|title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/medals-decorations/orders-decorations/canadian-victoria-cross-recipients|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref><br />
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===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
{{Main article|Moroccan Division (France)|Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the [[Moroccan Division (France)|Moroccan Division]], killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925, having been built without planning permission.<ref name=France24/><ref>{{Citation|title=Inauguration du monument à la Division marocaine élevé à la cote 140, plateau de Vimy, route de Neuville-Saint-Vaast à Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), le 14 juin 1925|location=Paris|publisher=Berger-Levrault|trans-title=Inauguration of the Moroccan Division raised on hill 140, Vimy Ridge, Road Neuville-Saint-Vaast in Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), 14 June 1925|year=1926|language=french}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism-lenslievin.co.uk/monument-aux-morts-de-la-division-marocaine/givenchy-en-gohelle/tabid/20656/offreid/47f2449b-2791-4864-8e41-7b4680260aa1/details.aspx|publisher=Lens-Liévin Tourist Information and Cultural Heritage Office|title=Monument aux morts de la division marocaine|trans-title=War memorial of the Moroccan division|date=n.d.}}</ref> Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the memorial, campaign battles are inscribed on the left- and right-hand side corner view of the memorial. The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only division where all subordinate units had been awarded the [[Legion of Honour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf|title=Forgotten Heroes North Africans and the Great War 1914–1919|publisher=Forgotten Heroes 14–19 Foundation|page=10|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019160735/http://forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf|archivedate=19 October 2014|df=dmy}}</ref><br />
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The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the [[Marching Division of Morocco]]. The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise, it did not in fact contain any units originating from [[Morocco]].{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}} [[Moroccans]] were part of the [[Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion]] which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the [[1st Foreign Regiment]] with the 2nd Marching Regiment of the [[2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment|2nd Foreign Regiment]], both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades. The division contained [[Tirailleur]]s and [[Zouave]]s, of principally [[Tunisia]]n and [[Algeria]]n origin, and most notably [[French Foreign Legion|Legionnaires]] from the [[2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment]] and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment.{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<ref name=France24>{{cite web|title=Grande Guerre : la Division marocaine qui n'avait de marocaine que le nom|trans-title=Great War: the Moroccan Division is Moroccan in name only|first=Stéphanie|last=Trouillard|date=6 May 2015|publisher=France 24|language=french|url=http://www.france24.com/fr/20150509-premiere-guerre-mondiale-division-marocaine-vimy-crete-tirailleurs-algeriens-tunisiens-legions-etrangeres-artois}}</ref> The French Legionnaires came, as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial, from 52 different countries and included amongst them American, Polish, Russian, Italian, Greek, German, Czech, Swedish and Swiss volunteers, such as writer [[Blaise Cendrars]].{{sfn|Das|2011|p=316}}{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<br />
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In the battle, General [[Victor d'Urbal]], commander of the [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]], sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]].{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains.{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division did however suffer heavy casualties. Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division's brigade commanders, Colonels [[Gaston Cros]] and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legionetrangere.fr/index.php/archives/79-infos-fsale/489-histoire-la-bataille-de-l-artois-du-9-mai-au-22-juin-1915-avec-l-attaque-du-2e-regiment-de-marche-du-1er-etranger|title=HISTOIRE : La bataille de l'Artois du 9 mai au 22 juin 1915 avec l'attaque du 2e Régiment de marche du 1er Etranger|publisher=Fédération des Sociétés d' Anciens de la Légion étrangère|trans-title=HISTORY: The Battle of Artois from 9 May to 22 June 1915 with the attack of the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion|language=french|date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
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===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways, and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely, and unseen.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=90}}<br />
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The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}}<br />
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===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistic Corps]], and a leading British [[bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news|first=Paul|last=Beaver|title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html|work=[[The Independent]]|date=14 August 1998|accessdate=26 April 2009|location=London}}</ref> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
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===Visitors' centre===<br />
The site has a visitors' centre, staffed by Canadian student guides, which is open seven days a week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/overseas/first-world-war/france/vimy/vimy_contact |title=Visitor information|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|accessdate=10 February 2016|date=n.d.}}</ref> During the memorial restoration, the original visitors' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one, which remains in use today.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/news/salute/article/870|title=New Visitor Education Centre For Vimy|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|date=25 November 2015|accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The visitors' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines, close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway.{{sfn|Pedersen|2012|loc=Chapter 7}} Construction of a new educational visitors' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017, in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle.<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Ridge Memorial in France to get visitor centre|url=http://globalnews.ca/news/560616/vimy-ridge-memorial-to-get-visitor-centre/|publisher=Global News|date=14 May 2013|accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The new {{CAD|10}} million visitor centre is a [[public-private partnership]] between government and the [[Vimy Foundation]].<ref name="blair">{{citation|url=http://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/corporate-branding-will-be-subtle-and-tasteful-at-new-vimy-ridge-centre-in-france|title=Corporate branding will be 'subtle' and 'tasteful' at new Vimy Ridge centre in France|first=Blair|last=Crawford|date=11 January 2017|accessdate=17 March 2017|publisher=Ottawa Citizen}}</ref> In order to raise funds the Vimy Foundation granted naming rights in various halls of the visitor centre to sponsors, an approach which has met some level of controversy due to the site being a memorial park.<ref name="blair"/><br />
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==Sociocultural influence==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial war recruitment poster.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The Vimy Memorial displayed in a Canadian [[World War II]] recruitment poster|alt=A white skeleton body holds alight a torch and the background the two white pillars of the Vimy memorial are displayed. the entire poster is displayed in white with a background of blue.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely repeated in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}} Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].{{sfn|Thomson|1995–1996|pp=5–27}} Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War, while expressing the enormous impact of war in general,{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} and also considers that the 2005 restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}}<br />
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The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as one of the [[National Historic Sites of Canada]]; it was so designated in 1996, and is one of only two outside of Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/pages/vimyridge.aspx|title=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada|date=9 September 2000|accessdate=2 April 2017|publisher=Parks Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. Remembrance has also taken other forms: the [[Vimy Foundation]], having been established to preserve and promote Canada's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, and [[Vimy Ridge Day]], to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/about/mission/|title=Mission|publisher=Vimy Foundation|accessdate=9 February 2016|date=n.d.}}</ref> Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen|last=Harris|newspaper=[[London Free Press]]|publisher=Sum Media Corp|title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets|date=13 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne|last=Arsenault|url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company|title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
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The memorial is not without its critics. Alana Vincent has argued that constituent parts of the monument are in conflict, and as a result the message conveyed by the monument is not unified.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=58–60}} Visually, Vincent argues there is a dichotomy between the triumphant pose of the figures at the top of the pylons and the mourning posture of those figures at the base. Textually, she argues the inscription text celebrating the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge strikes a very different tone to the list of names of the missing at the base of the monument.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=59–60}}<br />
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[[File:Ghosts_of_Vimy_Ridge.jpeg|thumb|left|''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'' by [[Will Longstaff]]]]<br />
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name="longstaff">{{cite web|url=https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes/|title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate)|date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010|publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada, including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The 1936 'Vimy Ridge' Issue|issue=259|date=March 2011|first=Mick|last=Bister|publisher=Journal of the France and Colonies Philatelic Society}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial, and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory|title=Designing and Constructing|series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|date=5 May 2000|accessdate=8 January 2010|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The [[Never Forgotten National Memorial]] was intended to be a {{convert|24|m|ft|adj=on}} statue inspired by the ''Canada Bereft'' statue on the memorial, before the project was cancelled in February 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parks Canada backs out of controversial 'Mother Canada' war memorial project in Cape Breton|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/parks-canada-backs-out-of-controversial-mother-canada-war-memorial-project-in-cape-breton|accessdate=8 February 2016|work=National Post|date=5 February 2016}}</ref> A 2001 Canadian [[historical novel]] ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'' by [[Jane Urquhart]] involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial.{{sfn|Cavell|2015|pp=68–69}} In 2007, the memorial was a short-listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Vimy Memorial, France|url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html|accessdate=7 January 2010|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company|date=n.d.}}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on several occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian [[military awards and decorations|military]] [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Canada|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref>{{cite news|title=New military medal to honour combat casualties|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-military-medal-to-honour-combat-casualties-1.770264|date=29 August 2008|accessdate=7 January 2010|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent [[bas relief]] sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit|url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm|date=January 2004|accessdate=10 January 2010|publisher=Embassy of France in Canada}}</ref> The memorial is featured on the [[obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the [[Frontier Series]] Canadian polymer [[Canadian twenty-dollar bill|$20]] banknote, which was released by the [[Bank of Canada]] on 7 November 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadians-see-twin-towers-pornography-in-20-bill-design-1.806190|accessdate=6 May 2012|publisher=CTV|date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
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==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}<br />
* [[World War I memorials]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Citations==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914–1918 |last1=Barton |first1=Peter |last2=Doyle |first2=Peter |last3=Vandewalle |first3=Johan |year=2004 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal & Kingston |isbn=0-7735-2949-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Bell |first1=Lynne |last2=Bousfield |first2=Arthur |last3=Toffoli |first3=Gary |title=Queen and Consort:Elizabeth and Philip – 60 Years of Marriage |publisher=Dundurn Press |year=2007 |location=Toronto |isbn=978-1-55002-725-9 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Boire |first=Michael |title=The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=15–24 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 1992 |url=http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf |accessdate=2 January 2009 |format=PDF |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305091040/http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf |archivedate=5 March 2009 |df=dmy-all}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Boire |first=Michael |year=2007 |contribution=The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914–1916 |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=51–61 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Bolling |first=Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers |pages=295–318 |title=Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor1-last=Antor |editor1-first=Heinz |editor2-last=Brown |editor2-first=Sylvia |editor3-last=Considine |editor3-first=John |editor4-last=Stierstorfer |editor4-first=Klaus |year=2003 |publisher=de Gruyter |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-11-017666-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Borestad |first=Lane |title=Walter Allward: Sculptor and Architect of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |pages=23–38 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |first=Laura |last=Brandon |contribution=Canvas of War |title=Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |editor-last=Busch |editor-first=Briton Cooper |year=2003 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X |ref=harv |pages=203–215}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Art or Memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art |last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 |publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Brown |first=Eric |last2=Cook |first2=Tim |title=The 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=33–54 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=David |year=2007 |contribution=The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=171–192 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Cavell |first=Richard |editor-last=Sugars |editor-first=Cynthia |title=Remembering Canada: The Politics of Cultural Memory |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Literature |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-994186-5 |pages=64–79 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Tim |year=2007 |contribution=The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=105–124 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Race, Empire and First World War Writing |first=Santanu |last=Das |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-50984-8 |year=2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Doughty |first=Robert A. |title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War |year=2005 | publisher=Belknap Press |publication-place=Cambridge and London |isbn=0-674-01880-X |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Duffy |first=Denis |title=Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward |journal=American Review of Canadian Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=189–206 |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |doi=10.1080/02722010809481708 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Durflinger |first=Serge |year=2007 |contribution=Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=291–305 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Suzanne |date=9 February 2007 |title=Mothers of Heroes, Mothers of Martyrs: World War I and the Politics of Grief |location=Montreal |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=0773531882 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first=Tony |year=2003 |publisher=University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first=Don |year=2007 |publisher=Helion & Company Limited |location=Solihull |isbn=978-1-874622-99-4 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Godefroy |first=Andrew |authorlink=Andrew Godefroy |year=2007 |contribution=The German Army at Vimy Ridge |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=225–238 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Geoffrey |year=2007 |contribution=The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=193–210 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement |last=Hopkins |first=J. Castell |year=1919 |publisher=Canadian Annual Review |location=Toronto |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hucker |first=Jacqueline |year=2007 |contribution=The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=279–290 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Hucker |first=Jacqueline |title=Vimy: A Monument for the Modern World |pages=39–48 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Humphries |first=Mark Osborne |year=2007 |contribution='Old Wine in New Bottles': A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=65–85 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Inglis |first=Dave |title=Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years |year=1995 |publisher=Simon Fraser University |location=Burnaby |url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6687/b17448906.pdf |accessdate=22 May 2013 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first=David |year=1998 |publisher=Berg Publishing |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first=Duncan E. |year=1967 |publisher=Peter Martin Associates |location=Toronto |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Moran |first=Heather |year=2007 |contribution=The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Iarocci |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Bechthold |editor3-first=Mike |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |publication-place=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=139–154 |isbn=0-88920-508-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Morton |first1=Desmond |first2=Glenn |last2=Wright |title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915–1930 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last=Nicholson |first=Gerald W. L. |year=1962 |publisher=Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location=Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=1 January 2007 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title="We will remember&nbsp;...": Overseas Memorials to Canada's War Dead |last=Nicholson |first=Gerald W. L. |year=1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location=Ottawa |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Pierce |first=John |title=Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=4–14 |publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies |date=Spring 1992 |url=http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf |accessdate=2 February 2009 |format=PDF |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305091036/http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf |archivedate=5 March 2009 |df=dmy}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=ANZACS on the Western Front: The Australian War Memorial Battlefield Guide |last=Pedersen |first=Peter |year=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=New York |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Prost |first=Antoine |year=1997 |contribution=Monuments to the Dead |editor-last=Nora |editor-first=Pierre |editor2-last=Kritzman |editor2-first=Lawrence |editor3-last=Goldhammer |editor3-first=Arthur |title=Realms of memory: the construction of the French past |publication-place=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |pages=307–332 |isbn=0-231-10634-3 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2007 |title="Not A Man Fell Out and the Party Marched Into Arras Singing": The Royal Guard and the Unveiling of the Vimy Memorial, 1936 |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–68 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2008 |title=From Alberta to Avion: Private Herbert Peterson, 49th Battalion, CEF |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=67–74 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1=Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year=2000 |publisher=Geological Society |location=London |isbn=0-85052-463-6 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996 |publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Saunders |first=Nicholas |title=Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001 |journal=Antiquity |volume=76 |issue=291 |pages=101–108 |publisher=Portland Press |year=2002 |ref=Saunders}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914–1917 |last=Sheldon |first=Jack |year=2008 |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |location=Barnsley (UK) |isbn=978-1-84415-680-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917–1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Julian |title=Restoring Vimy: The Challenges of Confronting Emerging Modernism |pages=49–56 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |volume=33 |issue=1 |publisher=Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada |date=2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |first=Denise |last=Thomson |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918–1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995–1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia |editor-last=Tucker |editor-first=Spencer |year=1996 |publisher=Garland Publishing |location=New York |isbn=0-8153-0399-8 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander |year=2005 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997 |publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{citation |chapter=Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians&nbsp;... From Africa to the Artois |first=Philippe |last=Vincent-Chaissac |publisher=L'Echo du Pas-de-Calais |title=They Came from Across the Globe |p=3 |chapter-url=http://memoire.pas-de-calais.com/images/_uk/pdf-nationalites/marocain.pdf |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Literature and Theology: New Interdisciplinary Spaces |year=2011 |editor-first=Heather |editor-last=Walton |publisher=Ashgate |contribution=Two (and two, and two) Towers: Interdisciplinary, Borrowing and Limited Interpretation |first=Alana |last=Vincent |pages=55–66 |isbn=978-1-4094-0011-0 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Making Memory: Jewish and Christian Explorations in Monument, Narrative, and Liturgy |first=Alana |last=Vincent |year=2014 |publisher=James Clarke & Co |isbn=978-0-227-17431-9 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General |last=Williams |first=Jeffery |year=1983 |publisher=Secker & Warburg |location=London |isbn=0-436-57110-2 |ref=harv}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* {{Official website}}<br />
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation] – Canadian educational charity<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1936-vimy-ridge-memorial-unveiled Radio recording of King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony] from [[CBC Archives]]<br />
* [http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/87900/VIMY%20MEMORIAL Vimy Memorial] and casualty records at [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
* {{Find a Grave cemetery|1119613}}<br />
* [https://www.britishpathe.com/video/canadians-at-vimy-ridge Canadians at Vimy Ridge in 1940], news reel from [[British Pathé]]<br />
* [http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx Return to Vimy], including video clip of the 1936 unveiling (Archives of Ontario)<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
{{NHSC}}<br />
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada in France]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:World War I in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917993420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2016-04-28T01:13:53Z<p>Moxy: Reverted edits by 104.171.225.65 (talk) to last version by Dcirovic</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders, Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 420<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = <br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]] at [[San Rafael High School]], said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] [[counterculture]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
{{Cannabis sidebar}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term that refers to the annual consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with [[cannabis culture]]. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20&nbsp;p.m., as well as smoking and celebrating cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date and time notation in the United States|U.S. form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A group of people in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating.|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about,<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> based on a [[treasure map]] made by the grower.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Bay-Area-originators-of-420-term-marijuana-7255771.php|date=April 20, 2016|title=Local originators of term 420 solve 45-year-old mystery|author=Alyssa Pereira|publisher=San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20&nbsp;p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Several failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean marijuana-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steven Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult-like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20&nbsp;p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] [[holiday]] in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/><ref name="hightimes.com">{{cite web |url=http://hightimes.com/read/power-420 |title=The power of 420 |last1=Halnon |first1=Karen Bettez |last2= |first2= |date=11 April 2005 |website= |publisher= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>[http://cannabis.shoutwiki.com/wiki/420_event_lists 420 event lists - Cannabis Wiki]</ref> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held at Hippie Hill in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montreal, Quebec, at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]], at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> and Vancouver, British Columbia, formerly at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://wiki4weed.com/archive/thousands-marijuana-smokers-gather-vancouver-celebrate-420/ |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> but as of 2016 at [[Sunset Beach (Vancouver)|Sunset Beach]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/4-20-pot-rally-vancouver-1.3545092|title=4/20 pot rally draws tens of thousands in Vancouver|first=Lisa|last=Johnson|work=CBC News|date=20 April 2016|accessdate=20 April 2016}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=7 April 2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410164141/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/ci_12087719?|archivedate=10 April 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand, at the [[Daktory]]<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at the [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Impact ==<br />
Signs bearing the number "420" have been frequently stolen. In Colorado, the [[Colorado Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on I-70 east of Denver with one reading 419.99 in an attempt to stop the thievery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9news.com/news/story.aspx?storyid=372755|title=State alters 420 MM sign to thwart thieves |work=[[KUSA-TV]] |accessdate=January 11, 2014}}</ref> The [[Idaho Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on U.S. Highway 95, just south of Coeur d'Alene, with Mile Marker 419.9.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ktvb.com/story/news/local/idaho/2015/08/18/idaho-replaces-mile-marker-420-with-4199-to-thwart-stoners/31928433/|title=Idaho replaces mile marker 420 with 419.9 to thwart stoners |work=[[KTVB]] |accessdate=August 18, 2015}}</ref> In Goodhue County, Minnesota, officials have changed "420 St" street signs to "42x St".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postbulletin.com/news/local/after-deadline-county-finds-fix-for-missing-signs/article_b88939fb-3c91-5523-b41e-a3b6c2dff8e4.html|title=County finds fix for missing 420 signs |work=[[Post-Bulletin]] |accessdate=July 20, 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Gallery ==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:420 - Glasgow Green, Easter 2014 12 Stall and overlooking Clyde.jpeg|2014 [[Glasgow Green]] 420 event<br />
File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|<center>420 event in [[Golden Gate Park]], [[San Francisco]], April 20, 2013</center><br />
File:UCSC 420 celebration.jpg|<center>Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event in Porter Meadow at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.</center><br />
File:Vancouver Canada 2012 April 20 crowd.jpg|[[Vancouver]] Canada 2012 April 20 crowd<br />
File:420 cannabis event at University of Colorado at Boulder - panorama 3.jpg|420 cannabis event at [[University of Colorado]] at Boulder<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Hash Bash]], held annually the first Saturday in April since 1972 at the [[University of Michigan]]<br />
* [[Hanfparade]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Commonscat-inline|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:International observances]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917987420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2016-04-24T22:45:01Z<p>Moxy: Undid revision 716934556 by 70.176.188.179 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{distinguish|Section 420}}<br />
<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders, Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 420<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = <br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]] at [[San Rafael High School]], said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] [[counterculture]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
{{Cannabis sidebar}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term that refers to the annual consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with [[cannabis culture]]. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20&nbsp;p.m., as well as smoking and celebrating cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date and time notation in the United States|U.S. form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A group of people in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating.|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about,<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> based on a [[treasure map]] made by the grower.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Bay-Area-originators-of-420-term-marijuana-7255771.php|date=April 20, 2016|title=Local originators of term 420 solve 45-year-old mystery|author=Alyssa Pereira|publisher=San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20&nbsp;p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Several failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean marijuana-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steven Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult-like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20&nbsp;p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20th observances ==<br />
April 20th has become a [[counterculture]] [[holiday]] in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/><ref name="hightimes.com">{{cite web |url=http://hightimes.com/read/power-420 |title=The power of 420 |last1=Halnon |first1=Karen Bettez |last2= |first2= |date=11 April 2005 |website= |publisher= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>[http://cannabis.shoutwiki.com/wiki/420_event_lists 420 event lists - Cannabis Wiki]</ref> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held at Hippie Hill in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montreal, Quebec, at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]], at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> and Vancouver, British Columbia, formerly at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://wiki4weed.com/archive/thousands-marijuana-smokers-gather-vancouver-celebrate-420/ |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> but as of 2016 at [[Sunset Beach (Vancouver)|Sunset Beach]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/4-20-pot-rally-vancouver-1.3545092|title=4/20 pot rally draws tens of thousands in Vancouver|first=Lisa|last=Johnson|work=CBC News|date=20 April 2016|accessdate=20 April 2016}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=7 April 2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410164141/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/ci_12087719?|archivedate=10 April 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand, at the [[Daktory]]<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at the [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Impact ==<br />
Signs bearing the number "420" have been frequently stolen. In Colorado, the [[Colorado Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on I-70 east of Denver with one reading 419.99 in an attempt to stop the thievery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9news.com/news/story.aspx?storyid=372755|title=State alters 420 MM sign to thwart thieves |work=[[KUSA-TV]] |accessdate=January 11, 2014}}</ref> The [[Idaho Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on U.S. Highway 95, just south of Coeur d'Alene, with Mile Marker 419.9.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ktvb.com/story/news/local/idaho/2015/08/18/idaho-replaces-mile-marker-420-with-4199-to-thwart-stoners/31928433/|title=Idaho replaces mile marker 420 with 419.9 to thwart stoners |work=[[KTVB]] |accessdate=August 18, 2015}}</ref> In Goodhue County, Minnesota, officials have changed "420 St" street signs to "42x St".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postbulletin.com/news/local/after-deadline-county-finds-fix-for-missing-signs/article_b88939fb-3c91-5523-b41e-a3b6c2dff8e4.html|title=County finds fix for missing 420 signs |work=[[Post-Bulletin]] |accessdate=July 20, 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Gallery ==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:420 - Glasgow Green, Easter 2014 12 Stall and overlooking Clyde.jpeg|2014 [[Glasgow Green]] 420 event<br />
File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|<center>420 event in [[Golden Gate Park]], [[San Francisco]], April 20, 2013</center><br />
File:UCSC 420 celebration.jpg|<center>Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event in Porter Meadow at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.</center><br />
File:Vancouver Canada 2012 April 20 crowd.jpg|[[Vancouver]] Canada 2012 April 20 crowd<br />
File:420 cannabis event at University of Colorado at Boulder - panorama 3.jpg|420 cannabis event at [[University of Colorado]] at Boulder<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Hash Bash]], held annually the first Saturday in April since 1972 at the [[University of Michigan]]<br />
* [[Hanfparade]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Commonscat-inline|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:International observances]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917936420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2016-02-04T13:54:06Z<p>Moxy: Undid revision 703264954 by 70.129.118.124 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{distinguish|Section 420}}<br />
<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders, Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 420<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = <br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]] at [[San Rafael High School]], said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] [[counterculture]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
{{Cannabis sidebar}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with [[cannabis culture]]. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20&nbsp;p.m., as well as smoking and celebrating cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date and time notation in the United States|U.S. form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A group of people in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating.|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20&nbsp;p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Several failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean marijuana-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steven Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult-like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20&nbsp;p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] [[holiday]] in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/><ref name="hightimes.com">{{cite web |url=http://hightimes.com/read/power-420 |title=The power of 420 |last1=Halnon |first1=Karen Bettez |last2= |first2= |date=11 April 2005 |website= |publisher= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>[http://cannabis.shoutwiki.com/wiki/420_event_lists 420 event lists - Cannabis Wiki]</ref> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held at Hippie Hill in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montreal, Quebec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://wiki4weed.com/archive/thousands-marijuana-smokers-gather-vancouver-celebrate-420/ |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=7 April 2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410164141/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/ci_12087719?|archivedate=10 April 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]]<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Impact ==<br />
Signs bearing the number "420" have been frequently stolen. In Colorado, the [[Colorado Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on I-70 east of Denver with one reading 419.99 in an attempt to stop the thievery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9news.com/news/story.aspx?storyid=372755|title=State alters 420 MM sign to thwart thieves |work=[[KUSA-TV]] |accessdate=January 11, 2014}}</ref> The [[Idaho Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on U.S. Highway 95, just south of Coeur d'Alene, with Mile Marker 419.9.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ktvb.com/story/news/local/idaho/2015/08/18/idaho-replaces-mile-marker-420-with-4199-to-thwart-stoners/31928433/|title=Idaho replaces mile marker 420 with 419.9 to thwart stoners |work=[[KTVB]] |accessdate=August 18, 2015}}</ref> In Goodhue County, Minnesota, officials have changed "420 St" street signs to "42x St".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postbulletin.com/news/local/after-deadline-county-finds-fix-for-missing-signs/article_b88939fb-3c91-5523-b41e-a3b6c2dff8e4.html|title=County finds fix for missing 420 signs |work=[[Post-Bulletin]] |accessdate=July 20, 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Gallery ==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|<center>420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20, 2013</center><br />
File:UCSC 420 celebration.jpg|<center>Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event in Porter Meadow at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.</center><br />
</gallery><br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Hash Bash]], held annually the first Saturday in April since 1972 at the [[University of Michigan]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Commonscat-inline|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:International observances]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917935420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2016-02-03T17:53:49Z<p>Moxy: Undid revision 703122240 by 166.177.184.96 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{distinguish|Section 420}}<br />
<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders, Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 420<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = <br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]] at [[San Rafael High School]], said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] [[counterculture]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
{{Cannabis sidebar}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with [[cannabis culture]]. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20&nbsp;p.m., as well as smoking and celebrating cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date and time notation in the United States|U.S. form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A group of people in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating.|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20&nbsp;p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Several failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean marijuana-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steven Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult-like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20&nbsp;p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] [[holiday]] in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/><ref name="hightimes.com">{{cite web |url=http://hightimes.com/read/power-420 |title=The power of 420 |last1=Halnon |first1=Karen Bettez |last2= |first2= |date=11 April 2005 |website= |publisher= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>[http://cannabis.shoutwiki.com/wiki/420_event_lists 420 event lists - Cannabis Wiki]</ref> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held at Hippie Hill in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montreal, Quebec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://wiki4weed.com/archive/thousands-marijuana-smokers-gather-vancouver-celebrate-420/ |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=7 April 2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410164141/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/ci_12087719?|archivedate=10 April 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]]<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Impact ==<br />
Signs bearing the number "420" have been frequently stolen. In Colorado, the [[Colorado Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on I-70 east of Denver with one reading 419.99 in an attempt to stop the thievery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9news.com/news/story.aspx?storyid=372755|title=State alters 420 MM sign to thwart thieves |work=[[KUSA-TV]] |accessdate=January 11, 2014}}</ref> The [[Idaho Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on U.S. Highway 95, just south of Coeur d'Alene, with Mile Marker 419.9.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ktvb.com/story/news/local/idaho/2015/08/18/idaho-replaces-mile-marker-420-with-4199-to-thwart-stoners/31928433/|title=Idaho replaces mile marker 420 with 419.9 to thwart stoners |work=[[KTVB]] |accessdate=August 18, 2015}}</ref> In Goodhue County, Minnesota, officials have changed "420 St" street signs to "42x St".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postbulletin.com/news/local/after-deadline-county-finds-fix-for-missing-signs/article_b88939fb-3c91-5523-b41e-a3b6c2dff8e4.html|title=County finds fix for missing 420 signs |work=[[Post-Bulletin]] |accessdate=July 20, 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Gallery ==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|<center>420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20, 2013</center><br />
File:UCSC 420 celebration.jpg|<center>Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event in Porter Meadow at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.</center><br />
</gallery><br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Hash Bash]], held annually the first Saturday in April since 1972 at the [[University of Michigan]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Commonscat-inline|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:International observances]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917932420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2016-01-19T18:54:30Z<p>Moxy: Reverted edits by 86.145.243.184 (talk) to last version by Mr. Granger</p>
<hr />
<div>{{distinguish|Section 420}}<br />
<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders, Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 420<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = <br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]] at [[San Rafael High School]], said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] [[counterculture]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
{{Cannabis sidebar}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with [[cannabis culture]]. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20&nbsp;p.m., as well as smoking and celebrating cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date and time notation in the United States|U.S. form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A group of people in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating.|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20&nbsp;p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Several failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean marijuana-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steven Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult-like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20&nbsp;p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] [[holiday]] in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/><ref name="hightimes.com">{{cite web |url=http://hightimes.com/read/power-420 |title=The power of 420 |last1=Halnon |first1=Karen Bettez |last2= |first2= |date=11 April 2005 |website= |publisher= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>[http://cannabis.shoutwiki.com/wiki/420_event_lists 420 event lists - Cannabis Wiki]</ref> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held at Hippie Hill in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montreal, Quebec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://wiki4weed.com/archive/thousands-marijuana-smokers-gather-vancouver-celebrate-420/ |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=7 April 2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410164141/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/ci_12087719?|archivedate=10 April 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]]<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Impact ==<br />
Signs bearing the number "420" have been frequently stolen. In Colorado, the [[Colorado Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on I-70 east of Denver with one reading 419.99 in an attempt to stop the thievery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9news.com/news/story.aspx?storyid=372755|title=State alters 420 MM sign to thwart thieves |work=[[KUSA-TV]] |accessdate=January 11, 2014}}</ref> The [[Idaho Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on U.S. Highway 95, just south of Coeur d'Alene, with Mile Marker 419.9.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ktvb.com/story/news/local/idaho/2015/08/18/idaho-replaces-mile-marker-420-with-4199-to-thwart-stoners/31928433/|title=Idaho replaces mile marker 420 with 419.9 to thwart stoners |work=[[KTVB]] |accessdate=August 18, 2015}}</ref> In Goodhue County, Minnesota, officials have changed "420 St" street signs to "42x St".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postbulletin.com/news/local/after-deadline-county-finds-fix-for-missing-signs/article_b88939fb-3c91-5523-b41e-a3b6c2dff8e4.html|title=County finds fix for missing 420 signs |work=[[Post-Bulletin]] |accessdate=July 20, 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Gallery ==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|<center>420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20, 2013</center><br />
File:UCSC 420 celebration.jpg|<center>Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event in Porter Meadow at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.</center><br />
</gallery><br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Hash Bash]], held annually the first Saturday in April since 1972 at the [[University of Michigan]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Commonscat-inline|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:International observances]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917892420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2015-10-06T04:41:09Z<p>Moxy: Reverted edits by 70.77.213.152 (talk) to last version by TheRedPenOfDoom</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders, Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = <br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] [[counterculture]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
{{Cannabis sidebar}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[drug subcultures|subculture]] or simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20&nbsp;p.m., as well as smoking and celebrating cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date and time notation in the United States|U.S. form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A group of people in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating.|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20&nbsp;p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean marijuana-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steven Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20&nbsp;p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|thumb|420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20, 2013]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event in Porter Meadow at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] [[holiday]] in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/><ref name="hightimes.com">{{cite web |url=http://hightimes.com/read/power-420 |title=The power of 420 |last1=Halnon |first1=Karen Bettez |last2= |first2= |date=11 April 2005 |website= |publisher= |access-date=}}</ref><ref>[http://cannabis.shoutwiki.com/wiki/420_event_lists 420 event lists - Cannabis Wiki]</ref> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held at Hippie Hill in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://wiki4weed.com/archive/thousands-marijuana-smokers-gather-vancouver-celebrate-420/ |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=7 April 2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410164141/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/ci_12087719?|archivedate=10 April 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]]<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Impact ==<br />
Signs bearing the number "420" have been frequently stolen. In Colorado, the [[Colorado Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on I-70 east of Denver with one reading 419.99 in an attempt to stop the thievery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9news.com/news/story.aspx?storyid=372755|title=State alters 420 MM sign to thwart thieves |work=[[KUSA-TV]] |accessdate=January 11, 2014}}</ref> The [[Idaho Department of Transportation]] replaced the Mile Marker 420 sign on U.S. Highway 95, just south of Coeur d'Alene, with Mile Marker 419.9.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ktvb.com/story/news/local/idaho/2015/08/18/idaho-replaces-mile-marker-420-with-4199-to-thwart-stoners/31928433/|title=Idaho replaces mile marker 420 with 419.9 to thwart stoners |work=[[KTVB]] |accessdate=August 18, 2015}}</ref> In Goodhue County, Minnesota, officials have changed "420 St" street signs to "42x St".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postbulletin.com/news/local/after-deadline-county-finds-fix-for-missing-signs/article_b88939fb-3c91-5523-b41e-a3b6c2dff8e4.html|title=County finds fix for missing 420 signs |work=[[Post-Bulletin]] |accessdate=July 20, 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Hash Bash]], held annually the first Saturday in April since 1972 at the [[University of Michigan]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Commonscat-inline|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:International observances]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917783420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2015-04-07T16:01:22Z<p>Moxy: /* Origins */ http://www.laweekly.com/news/mythbusting-420-its-one-true-origin-and-a-whole-lot-of-false-ones-4177495</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders, Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] [[counterculture]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[drug subcultures|subculture]] or simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20&nbsp;p.m (16:20) on any given day, as well as smoking and celebrating cannabis on the date April 20th (4/20 in [[Date and time notation in the United States|U.S. form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A group of people in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20&nbsp;p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean marijuana-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20&nbsp;p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|thumb|420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20, 2013]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event in Porter Meadow at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] [[holiday]] in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name="hightimes.com">{{cite web |url=http://hightimes.com/read/power-420 |title=The power of 420 |last1=Halnon |first1=Karen Bettez |last2= |first2= |date=11 April 2005 |website= |publisher= |access-date=}}</ref><ref name=UCSC/><ref>[http://cannabis.shoutwiki.com/wiki/420_event_lists 420 event lists - Cannabis Wiki]</ref> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://wiki4weed.com/archive/thousands-marijuana-smokers-gather-vancouver-celebrate-420/ |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=7 April 2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410164141/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/ci_12087719?|archivedate=10 April 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]]<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Impact ==<br />
In Colorado, the [[Colorado Department of Transportation]] replaced the frequently stolen Mile Marker 420 sign on I-70 east of Denver with one reading 419.99 in an attempt to stop the thievery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9news.com/news/story.aspx?storyid=372755|title=State alters 420 MM sign to thwart thieves |work=[[KUSA-TV]] |accessdate=January 11, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Commonscat-inline|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917748420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2015-03-05T16:13:33Z<p>Moxy: Undid revision 649997421 by Master-B00mshanks (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders, Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] [[counterculture]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[drug subcultures|subculture]] or simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20&nbsp;p.m (16:20) (with some sources also indicating 4:20&nbsp;a.m.<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="hightimes.com">http://hightimes.com/read/power-420</ref>) on any given day, as well as smoking and celebrating cannabis on the date April 20th (4/20 in [[Date and time notation in the United States|U.S. form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20&nbsp;p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean marijuana-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20&nbsp;p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|thumb|420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20, 2013]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event in Porter Meadow at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] [[holiday]] in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name="hightimes.com"/><ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://wiki4weed.com/archive/thousands-marijuana-smokers-gather-vancouver-celebrate-420/ |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]]<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Impact ==<br />
In Colorado, the [[Colorado Department of Transportation]] replaced the frequently stolen Mile Marker 420 sign on I-70 east of Denver with one reading 419.99 in an attempt to stop the thievery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9news.com/news/story.aspx?storyid=372755|title=State alters 420 MM sign to thwart thieves |work=[[KUSA-TV]] |accessdate=January 11, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Commonscat-inline|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917746420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2015-03-02T17:26:10Z<p>Moxy: Undid revision 649547535 by 69.56.127.211 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders, Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] [[counterculture]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[drug subcultures|subculture]] or simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20&nbsp;p.m (16:20) (with some sources also indicating 4:20&nbsp;a.m.<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="hightimes.com">http://hightimes.com/read/power-420</ref>) on any given day, as well as smoking and celebrating cannabis on the date April 20th (4/20 in [[Date and time notation in the United States|U.S. form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20&nbsp;p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean marijuana-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20&nbsp;p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|thumb|420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20, 2013]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event in Porter Meadow at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] [[holiday]] in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name="hightimes.com"/><ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://wiki4weed.com/archive/thousands-marijuana-smokers-gather-vancouver-celebrate-420/ |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]]<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Impact ==<br />
In Colorado, the [[Colorado Department of Transportation]] replaced the frequently stolen Mile Marker 420 sign on I-70 east of Denver with one reading 419.99 in an attempt to stop the thievery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9news.com/news/story.aspx?storyid=372755|title=State alters 420 MM sign to thwart thieves |work=[[KUSA-TV]] |accessdate=January 11, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Commonscat-inline|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St._Thomas_(Ontario)&diff=183642354St. Thomas (Ontario)2014-05-09T01:57:18Z<p>Moxy: Reverted edits by Merlin the 3rd (talk) to last version by Ssbbplayer</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox settlement<br />
|official_name = St. Thomas<br />
|settlement_type = City<br />
|other_name =<br />
|native_name = <!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --><br />
|nickname =<br />
|motto = Strength through progress<br />
|image_skyline = St Thomas City Hall National Historic Site of Canada.jpg<br />
|imagesize =<br />
|image_caption = St. Thomas City Hall; A designated National Historic Site of Canada.<br />
|image_flag =<br />
|flag_size =<br />
|image_seal =<br />
|seal_size =<br />
|image_shield =<br />
|shield_size =<br />
|image_blank_emblem =<br />
|blank_emblem_size =<br />
|image_map = St Thomas, Ontario Location.png<br />
|mapsize = 200px<br />
|map_caption =<br />
|coordinates_display = inline,title<br />
|coordinates_region = CA-ON<br />
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br />
|subdivision_name = {{CAN}}<br />
|subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]<br />
|subdivision_name1 = {{ON}}<br />
|subdivision_type2 = County<br />
|subdivision_name2 = [[Elgin County|Elgin]]<br />
|government_type =<br />
|leader_title =[[List of mayors of St. Thomas, Ontario|Mayor]]<br />
|leader_name = Heather Jackson<br />
|leader_title1 = Governing Body<br />
|leader_name1 =[[St. Thomas City Council]]<br />
|leader_title2 =[[Canadian House of Commons|MPs]]<br />
|leader_name2 =[[Joe Preston (politician)|Joe Preston]] ([[Conservative Party of Canada|CPC]])<br />
|leader_title3 =[[Legislative Assembly|MPPs]]<br />
|leader_name3 =[[Jeff Yurek]] ([[Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario|OPC]])<br />
|leader_title4 =<br />
|leader_name4 =<br />
|established_title = Settled<br />
|established_date = 1810<br />
|established_title2 = Incorporated<br />
|established_date2 = 1852 (Village)<br />
|established_title3 = &nbsp;<br />
|established_date3 = 1861 (town) <br>1881 (city)<br />
|area_magnitude =<br />
|unit_pref = <!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--><br />
|area_footnotes = <ref name=SC11/><br />
|area_total_km2 =<br />
|area_land_km2 = 35.52<br />
|area_water_km2 =<br />
|area_water_percent =<br />
|area_urban_km2 =<br />
|area_metro_km2 =<br />
|population_as_of = 2011<br />
|population_footnotes = <ref name=SC11>{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=3534021&Geo2=CSD&Code2=3534021&Data=Count&SearchText=St.%20Thomas&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom=&TABID=1 |title=St. Thomas community profile |publisher=Statistics Canada |work=[[Canada 2011 Census|2011 Census data]] |accessdate=2012-02-08}}</ref><br />
|population_note =<br />
|population_total = 37,905<br />
|population_density_km2 = 1067.3<br />
|population_urban =<br />
|population_density_urban_km2 =<br />
|timezone = [[North American Eastern Time Zone|EST]]<br />
|utc_offset = -5<br />
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]<br />
|utc_offset_DST = -4<br />
|latd=42 |latm=46.5 |latNS=N<br />
|longd=81 |longm=11 |longEW=W<br />
|elevation_footnotes = <ref name="Climate"/><br />
|elevation_m = 209.10<br />
|postal_code_type = Postal code span<br />
|postal_code = N5P, N5R<br />
|area_code = [[Area codes 519 and 226|519 and 226]]<br />
|website = http://stthomas.ca/<br />
|footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''St. Thomas''' (2011 population 37,905) is a city in [[Southwestern Ontario]], [[Canada]]. It gained its city [[charter]] on March 4, 1881. The city is also the seat for [[Elgin County]], although it is independent of the county. It is part of the [[London, Ontario|London]] [[census metropolitan area]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The city, located at the intersection of two historical roads, was first settled in 1810. It was named the seat of the new [[Elgin County]] in 1844 and was [[incorporation (municipal government)|incorporated]] as a [[village]] in 1852, as a [[town]] in 1861. In 1881 St. Thomas became a [[city]]. It was named after [[Thomas Talbot (Upper Canada)|Thomas Talbot]]<ref>Rayburn, Alan (1997), ''Place Names of Ontario'', University of Toronto Press, Pg. 304 ISBN 0-8020-7207-0</ref> who helped promote the development of this region during the early 19th century. <br />
<br />
The founder of the settlement that became St. Thomas was Capt. Daniel Rapelje, descendant of a [[Walloons|Walloon]] [[Sarah Rapelje|family]] settled in [[New Amsterdam]], now [[New York City]], at its inception in the seventeenth century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ontarioplaques.com/Plaques_DEF/Plaque_Elgin12.html |title=Capt. Daniel Rapelje, 1774–1828 |publisher=Ontarioplaques.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-07}}</ref> In 1820, Rapelje, the town's first settler, divided his land into town lots suitable for a village. Owner of the New England Mill, Rapelje subsequently donated two acres of land for the building of [[Old St. Thomas Church]].<ref>[http://www.elgin.ca/tweedsmuir/Wallacetown%20Vol%204/page%200148%20-%200153.pdf History of St. Thomas Church Begins with Rapelje]{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 1871, the developing village of Millersburg, which included these lands east of the London and Port Stanley Railway, amalgamated with St. Thomas.<ref>[http://www.downtownstthomas.com/web/pages/about-us/history.php ]{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
In the late 19th century and early 20th century several railways were constructed through the city, and St. Thomas became an important railway junction. A total of 26 railways have passed through the city since the first railway was completed in 1856. In the 1950s and 1960s, with the decline of the railway as a mode of transportation, other industry began to locate in the city, principally primary and secondary automotive manufacturing.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Jumbo1St.jpg|thumb|left|Life-sized [[Jumbo]] statue]][[Jumbo]] the elephant died here on September 15, 1885, when a locomotive crashed into him. There is a life-sized commemorative statue that was erected in 1985.<br />
<br />
In 1824, [[Charles Duncombe (Upper Canada Rebellion)|Charles Duncombe]] and [[John Rolph (politician)|John Rolph]] established the first medical school in Upper Canada, in St. Thomas, under the patronage of Colonel Thomas Talbot.<ref>http://www.heritagefdn.on.ca/userfiles/HTML/nts_1_7016_1.html</ref> Duncombe's house now forms part of The [[Elgin Military Museum]] complex. Between 1881 and 1988 the city had a private woman's school operating called [[Alma College (St. Thomas, Ontario)|Alma College]] which was destroyed by fire in 2008.<br />
<br />
St. Thomas' late 19th- early 20th century architecture includes the Elgin County Court House, Wellington Street public school, Myrtle St. School, Balaclava St. School, Elmdale Schol and its city hall, most designated heritage properties and all designed by former resident [[Neil R. Darrach]].<br />
<br />
==Government==<br />
Heather Jackson is the current mayor of St. Thomas. The [[St. Thomas City Council|City Council]] consists of the mayor and seven aldermen, all elected at large, meaning that there are no wards and councillors are elected on a citywide basis.<br />
<br />
==Military==<br />
[[31 Combat Engineer Regiment]] (The Elgins) was created in 1997 when the former Elgin Regiment (RCAC) was re-roled from an armour tasking. The regiment had been associated with St. Thomas since its creation; St. Thomas is currently home to one of its two component field squadrons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://army.ca/wiki/index.php/31_Combat_Engineer_Regiment_(The_Elgins) |title=31 Combat Engineer Regiment (The Elgins) |publisher=Army.ca |date=2006-11-29 |accessdate=2012-06-07}}</ref> St. Thomas Armoury is a recognized Federal Heritage building 1992 on the Register of the Government of Canada Heritage Buildings.<ref>[http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/beefp-fhbro/FHB_Rech_Search_e.asp Register of the Government of Canada Heritage Buildings.]</ref><br />
<br />
==Demographics==<br />
<br />
According to the 2011 census, St. Thomas had a population of 37,905 people in 2011, which was an increase of 5.6% from the 2006 census count. The median household income in 2006 for St. Thomas was $54,876, which is below the Ontario provincial average of $60,455.<ref name=SC06>{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92-591/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=3534021&Geo2=PR&Code2=35&Data=Count&SearchText=st.%20thomas&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom= |title=St. Thomas community profile |publisher=Statistics Canada |work=[[Canada 2006 Census|2006 Census data]] |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
95.5% of the population is [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]], 1.2% [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]], and 3.3% [[Visible minority|Visible minorities]].<br />
<br />
Religious affiliation is 52.1% [[Protestantism|Protestant]], 21% [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]], 22.1% No affiliation, and 4.8% Other.<br />
<br />
Population trend:<ref>Statistics Canada: [[Canada 1996 Census|1996]], [[Canada 2001 Census|2001]], [[Canada 2006 Census|2006]] census</ref><br />
* Population in 2011: 37,905<br />
* Population in 2006: 36,110<br />
* Population in 2001: 33,236 (or 33,303 when adjusted to 2006 boundaries)<br />
* Population in 1996: 32,275 (or 31,407 when adjusted to 2001 boundaries)<br />
* Population in 1991: 30,332<br />
<br />
==Education==<br />
[[Fanshawe College]] has a campus in St. Thomas. [[Catholic school|Catholic]] schools are controlled by the [[London District Catholic School Board]] and [[Public education|public]] schools are controlled by the [[Thames Valley District School Board]]. There are two independent Christian elementary schools, St. Thomas Community Christian School and Faith Christian Academy. [[Algoma University]] has a campus in St. Thomas that offers the first two years of selected Bachelor of Arts courses, after the two years students transfer to Algoma's main campus.<br />
<br />
==Economy==<br />
The local economy has been dominated by automotive manufacturing, with two plants operated by [[Magna International]], the [[Ford Motor Company of Canada|Ford]] [[St. Thomas Assembly]] in nearby Talbotville, and the [[Sterling Trucks]] plant. However, the recent global recession that impacted the auto sector ultimately trickled down to the city; the Sterling plant closed in March 2009, and the Ford plant closed in late 2011. This had a domino effect on the other part manufacturers in town, such as [[Lear Corporation|Lear Seating]]. One automotive materials supplier, [[A. Schulman]], had previously closed its local manufacturing plant in 2008, one of the first actions of a new CEO installed in January.<ref name="Minter2010">{{cite web<br />
|url=http://www.industryweek.com/articles/on_the_rise_--_a-_schulman_inc-_molding_a_global_strategy_21294.aspx<br />
|title=On the Rise -- A. Schulman Inc.: Molding a Global Strategy |author=Steve Minter |date=17 March 2010 |accessdate=6 August 2010<br />
|work=Industry Week (IW) |publisher=[[Penton Media]] |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5rlwB0w4a |archivedate=6 August 2010}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Masco|Masco Canada's]] consolidation of their Canadian operations into the former Sterling Truck assembly plant in 2010<ref>{{cite web|url=http://st-thomas.org/2010/07/masco-moves-more-business-to-st-thomas/ |title=Masco Moves More Business to St. Thomas &#124; St. Thomas EDC |publisher=St-thomas.org |date= |accessdate=2012-06-07}}</ref> and Toyota supplier Takumi Stamping Canada's expansion in the same year<ref>{{cite web|url=http://st-thomas.org/2010/07/takumi-stamping-canada-inc-expands-in-st-thomas/ |title=Takumi Stamping Canada Inc. expands in St. Thomas &#124; St. Thomas EDC |publisher=St-thomas.org |date= |accessdate=2012-06-07}}</ref> brought over 500 jobs to St. Thomas.<br />
<br />
==Transportation==<br />
[[File:Highway4StThomas.JPG|thumb|left|The Highway 4 / Talbot Street junction.]]<br />
St. Thomas is accessible via The Kings [[Ontario Highway 3|Highway 3]] and The Kings [[Ontario Highway 4|Highway 4]], the later of which provides access to [[London, Ontario|London]], [[Ontario Highway 401|Highway 401]] and [[Ontario Highway 402|Highway 402]].<br />
<br />
[[St. Thomas Transit]], which includes both conventional bus service and paratransit, is owned by the city and staffed and operated by [[Voyageur Transportation]].<br />
<br />
The city is served by the [[St. Thomas Municipal Airport (Ontario)|St. Thomas Municipal Airport]] (YQS), just east in the [[Central Elgin, Ontario|Municipality of Central Elgin]]. There are no scheduled flights, the airport is used for general aviation only. A bi-annual large-scale air show takes place at the St. Thomas Municipal Airport.<br />
<br />
{{Geographic location<br />
|title = '''Destinations from St. Thomas'''<br />
|Northwest = [[Strathroy-Caradoc|Strathroy]] <br /><small>''via [[Ontario Highway 4|Highway 4]] and [[Ontario Highway 402|Highway 402]]''</small><br />
|North = [[London, Ontario|London]] <br /><small>''via Highbury Avenue and Wellington Road''</small><br />
|Northeast = [[Belmont, Ontario|Belmont]] <br /><small>''via [[Ontario Highway 3|Highway 3]]''</small><br />
|West = [[Sarnia]] <br /><small>''via [[Ontario Highway 4|Highway 4]] and [[Ontario Highway 402|Highway 402]]''</small><br />
|Centre = St. Thomas<br />
|East = [[Aylmer, Ontario|Aylmer]] <br /><small>''via [[Ontario Highway 3|Highway 3]]''</small><br />
|Southwest = [[Chatham-Kent|Chatham]] <br /><small>''via [[Ontario Highway 4|Highway 4]] and [[Ontario Highway 401|Highway 401]]''</small><br />
|South = [[Port Stanley, Ontario|Port Stanley]] <br /><small>''via [[Ontario Highway 4|Highway 4]]''</small><br />
|Southeast = [[Port Bruce, Ontario|Port Bruce]] <br /><small>''via [[Ontario Highway 3|Highway 3]] and Elgin County Road 73''</small><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Media==<br />
St. Thomas has several media outlets based in the city. The ''[[St. Thomas Times-Journal]]'' is the city's newspaper, owned by [[Sun Media]] ([[Quebecor]]). <br />
The St. Thomas - Elgin Weekly News is a weekly newspaper published in St. Thomas, that is distributed for free to all residents of St. Thomas and Elgin County. The Elgin County Market is a weekly publication that is also distributed for free to all residents of St. Thomas and Elgin County, it features various local business flyers and advertisements.<br />
<br />
[[Rogers Cable]] operates a local [[community channel (Canada)|community channel]] consisting mostly of local and dedicated volunteers. [[CFPL-DT]], branded as CTV Two London, covers many news stories from St. Thomas.<br />
<br />
St. Thomas's only local commercial radio station, [[CKZM-FM]] 94.1 FM was launched on May 20, 2011. Also a low-power [[FM radio]] station &mdash; [[VF8016]], 90.1 [[Megahertz|MHz]] &mdash; broadcasts religious activities from Faith Baptist Church of St. Thomas. [[CFHK-FM]], branded as ''103.1 Fresh FM'', is also licensed to St. Thomas, although its programming originates from, and largely targets the [[London, Ontario|London]] market.<br />
<br />
==Sports==<br />
There is a dragway called [[St. Thomas Raceway Park]]. The dragway is located a reasonable distance away from the town and minutes east of [[Sparta, Ontario|the historical community of Sparta]].<br />
{{-}} <!-- Make sure this won't overlap sidebar --><br />
<br />
==Climate==<br />
<center>{{Weather box<br />
|location = St. Thomas, Ontario (1981−2010)<br />
|metric first = Y<br />
|single line = Y<br />
|Jan record high C = 14.5<br />
|Feb record high C = 18.5<br />
|Mar record high C = 24.5<br />
|Apr record high C = 29.5<br />
|May record high C = 32.5<br />
|Jun record high C = 38.0<br />
|Jul record high C = 37.0<br />
|Aug record high C = 34.5<br />
|Sep record high C = 33.0<br />
|Oct record high C = 26.5<br />
|Nov record high C = 21.5<br />
|Dec record high C = 18.5<br />
|year record high C = 38.0<br />
|Jan high C = -0.8<br />
|Feb high C = 0.7<br />
|Mar high C = 5.6<br />
|Apr high C = 13.0<br />
|May high C = 19.6<br />
|Jun high C = 24.7<br />
|Jul high C = 27.0<br />
|Aug high C = 25.9<br />
|Sep high C = 21.8<br />
|Oct high C = 15.1<br />
|Nov high C = 8.3<br />
|Dec high C = 2.0<br />
|year high C = 13.6<br />
|Jan mean C = −4.7<br />
|Feb mean C = −3.6<br />
|Mar mean C = 1.0<br />
|Apr mean C = 7.6<br />
|May mean C = 13.7<br />
|Jun mean C = 18.8<br />
|Jul mean C = 21.2<br />
|Aug mean C = 20.3<br />
|Sep mean C = 16.4<br />
|Oct mean C = 10.1<br />
|Nov mean C = 4.5<br />
|Dec mean C = -1.4<br />
|year mean C = 8.7<br />
|Jan low C = -8.5<br />
|Feb low C = -7.8<br />
|Mar low C = -3.7<br />
|Apr low C = 2.1<br />
|May low C = 7.7<br />
|Jun low C = 12.9<br />
|Jul low C = 15.4<br />
|Aug low C = 14.7<br />
|Sep low C = 10.9<br />
|Oct low C = 5.1<br />
|Nov low C = 0.6<br />
|Dec low C = -4.8<br />
|year low C = 3.7<br />
|Jan record low C = −31.0<br />
|Feb record low C = −30.0<br />
|Mar record low C = −25.5<br />
|Apr record low C = −16.0<br />
|May record low C = −3.0<br />
|Jun record low C = 1.0<br />
|Jul record low C = 6.0<br />
|Aug record low C = 0.0<br />
|Sep record low C = −2.0<br />
|Oct record low C = −7.0<br />
|Nov record low C = −13.5<br />
|Dec record low C = −27.5<br />
|year record low C = −31.0<br />
|precipitation colour = green<br />
|Jan precipitation mm = 73.5<br />
|Feb precipitation mm = 63.2<br />
|Mar precipitation mm = 65.7<br />
|Apr precipitation mm = 83.4<br />
|May precipitation mm = 87.3<br />
|Jun precipitation mm = 92.4<br />
|Jul precipitation mm = 83.0<br />
|Aug precipitation mm = 80.0<br />
|Sep precipitation mm = 94.8<br />
|Oct precipitation mm = 85.7<br />
|Nov precipitation mm = 98.7<br />
|Dec precipitation mm = 85.3<br />
|year precipitation mm = 993.0<br />
|rain colour = green<br />
|Jan rain mm = 35.2<br />
|Feb rain mm = 37.3<br />
|Mar rain mm = 48.5<br />
|Apr rain mm = 79.9<br />
|May rain mm = 87.3<br />
|Jun rain mm = 92.4<br />
|Jul rain mm = 83.0<br />
|Aug rain mm = 80.0<br />
|Sep rain mm = 94.8<br />
|Oct rain mm = 85.4<br />
|Nov rain mm = 92.4<br />
|Dec rain mm = 58.1<br />
|year rain mm = 874.4<br />
|snow colour = green<br />
|Jan snow cm = 38.3<br />
|Feb snow cm = 25.9<br />
|Mar snow cm = 17.1<br />
|Apr snow cm = 3.5<br />
|May snow cm = 0.0<br />
|Jun snow cm = 0.0<br />
|Jul snow cm = 0.0<br />
|Aug snow cm = 0.0<br />
|Sep snow cm = 0.0<br />
|Oct snow cm = 0.3<br />
|Nov snow cm = 6.3<br />
|Dec snow cm = 27.3<br />
|year snow cm = 118.6<br />
|unit precipitation days = 0.2 mm<br />
|Jan precipitation days = 14.7<br />
|Feb precipitation days = 11.4<br />
|Mar precipitation days = 12.1<br />
|Apr precipitation days = 15.2<br />
|May precipitation days = 14.1<br />
|Jun precipitation days = 11.1<br />
|Jul precipitation days = 12.4<br />
|Aug precipitation days = 11.1<br />
|Sep precipitation days = 13.2<br />
|Oct precipitation days = 13.9<br />
|Nov precipitation days = 15.3<br />
|Dec precipitation days = 14.5<br />
|year precipitation days = 159.0<br />
|unit rain days = 0.2 mm<br />
|Jan rain days = 6.0<br />
|Feb rain days = 5.7<br />
|Mar rain days = 9.1<br />
|Apr rain days = 14.3<br />
|May rain days = 14.1<br />
|Jun rain days = 11.1<br />
|Jul rain days = 12.4<br />
|Aug rain days = 11.1<br />
|Sep rain days = 13.2<br />
|Oct rain days = 13.9<br />
|Nov rain days = 13.5<br />
|Dec rain days = 8.5<br />
|year rain days = 132.9<br />
|unit snow days = 0.2 cm<br />
|Jan snow days = 9.6<br />
|Feb snow days = 7.0<br />
|Mar snow days = 4.2<br />
|Apr snow days = 1.3<br />
|May snow days = 0.0<br />
|Jun snow days = 0.0<br />
|Jul snow days = 0.0<br />
|Aug snow days = 0.0<br />
|Sep snow days = 0.0<br />
|Oct snow days = 0.15<br />
|Nov snow days = 2.3<br />
|Dec snow days = 7.3<br />
|year snow days = 31.8<br />
|source 1 = Environment Canada<ref name="Climate">{{cite web<br />
| publisher = [[Environment Canada]]<br />
| url = http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=4689&lang=e&dCode=1&province=ONT&provBut=Go&month1=0&month2=12<br />
| title = St. Thomas WPCP<br />
| work = Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010<br />
| accessdate = April 12, 2014}}</ref><br />
|date = August 2010}}<br />
</center><br />
<br />
==Parks==<br />
[[Image:St Thomas Ontario region SPOT GeoBase 2006.png|thumb|right|Satellite image of St. Thomas]]<br />
[[Image:Railway Station St Thomas Ontario 2008.JPG|thumb|right|St. Thomas railway station, built between 1871 and 1873. It is currently being restored.]]<br />
[[File:Jumbo2St.jpg|thumb|Circus mural with Jumbo on the northwest corner of the Manitoba St. and Talbot St. intersection.]]<br />
<br />
There are two major parks in the city: ''Pinafore Park'' in the south, beside Pinafore Lake; and ''Waterworks Park'' in the north, which is straddled by [[Kettle Creek (Ontario)|Kettle Creek]] and the Waterworks Reservoir nearby.<br />
<br />
The [[Trans Canada Trail]] goes through St. Thomas, with a [[pavilion]] located in ''Jonas Street Park''.<br />
<br />
The ''Lions Club Dog Park'' is located at the far west end of main street, at 25 Talbot Road. The park is managed by the St. Thomas Dog Owners Association in partnership with the City of St. Thomas. The park is open from dawn to dusk, daily.<br />
<br />
V.A. Barrie Park, located on Sunset Drive, and Waterworks Park include popular Disc Golf courses.<br />
<br />
==Cultural activities==<br />
The [[Elgin Military Museum]] is located in the west end of St. Thomas. While the museum recounts the stories of Elgin County residents from the War of 1812 to Afghanistan, it also includes two M113 Armoured Personnel Carriers and a collection of some 600 UN and NATO badges described by one appraiser as "the best collection I have seen outside of the UN in New York". In late 2009, The Elgin Military Museum began the process to acquire the Cold War Oberon Class Submarine HMCS Ojibwa, The submarine is planned to be stationed outside of St. Thomas in [[Port Burwell, Ontario|Port Burwell]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}<br />
<br />
The [[Elgin County Railway Museum]] is located in central St. Thomas.<br />
<br />
St. Thomas is also home to the [[North America Railway Hall of Fame]], which is located in the CASO train station. The station was built in the 1870s and was a centre of travel between New York City and Chicago.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} It is located on Talbot Street downtown.<br />
<br />
The Elgin Theatre Guild is located at 40 Princess Avenue, and is home to a thriving community theatre, as well as hosting small musical groups. The building is a former church, built in 1907 by architect Neil Darrach. In 2001, St. Thomas City Council designated 40 Princess Avenue as a building of historic and architectural value in the City of St. Thomas.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}<br />
<br />
St. Thomas is home to the Railway City Brewing Company, one of 29 members of the Ontario Craft Brewers.<br />
<br />
St. Thomas' sister city is [[Bowling Green, OH]].<ref>http://www.bgsu.edu/downloads/cas/file38948.pdf</ref><br />
<br />
==Notable residents==<br />
<!-- ALPHABETICAL ORDER --><br />
* [[Cory Emmerton]], professional [[ice hockey]] player ([[Detroit Red Wings]], [[Grand Rapids Griffins]], [[Kingston Frontenacs]])<br />
* [[Jack Graney]], professional [[baseball]] player and broadcaster, namesake of the [[Jack Graney Award]]<br />
* [[Paul Hackman]] (1953–1992), guitarist and songwriter from the [[rock band]] [[Helix (band)|Helix]]<br />
* [[Dell Henderson]], Hollywood actor of 304 films, director of 208 films and writer of 35.<br />
* [[Dave Hudson]], former professional [[ice hockey]] player ([[New York Islanders]], [[Kansas City Scouts]], [[Colorado Rockies (NHL)|Colorado Rockies]])<br />
* [[DJ Kennington]], [[NASCAR Nationwide Series]] driver<br />
* [[Rachel McAdams]], [[actress]]<br />
* [[Stephen Ouimette]], [[actor]], [[theatre direction|director]] widely known for his work at the Stratford Festival of Canada<br />
* [[Steve Peters (politician)|Stephen J. Peters]], [[politician]], [[Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario)|MPP]] for [[Elgin—Middlesex—London]], former [[Minister of Labour (Ontario)]] and [[Minister of Agriculture and Food (Ontario)]], [http://speaker.ontla.on.ca/ Speaker of the Ontario Legislature] 2007-2011.<br />
* [[Philip Francis Pocock]], former Catholic archbishop of Toronto<br />
* [[Janet Podleski|Janet]] and [[Greta Podleski]], bestselling cookbook authors (Looneyspoons, Crazy Plates, Eat, Shrink & Be Merry!), Food Network hosts and Reader's Digest columnists<br />
* [[Joe Preston (politician)|Joe Preston]], entrepreneur and member of parliament representing Elgin—Middlesex—London riding.<br />
* Capt. [[Old St. Thomas Church|Daniel Rapelje]], (1774&ndash;1828), born in [[New York State]], founder of St. Thomas, Ontario<br />
* [[Helen Shaver]], [[actress]], [[film director|director]], [[Film producer|producer]] (''[[The Amityville Horror (1979 film)|The Amityville Horror]], [[The Color of Money]], [[Judging Amy]]'')<br />
* [[David Shaw (ice hockey)|David Shaw]], former professional [[ice hockey]] player ([[Stratford Cullitons]], [[Kitchener Rangers]], [[Quebec Nordiques|Québec Nordiques]], [[New York Rangers]], [[Edmonton Oilers]], [[Minnesota North Stars]], [[Boston Bruins]], [[Tampa Bay Lightning]], [[Chicago Wolves]], and [[Las Vegas Thunder]]))<br />
* [[Joe Thornton]], professional [[ice hockey]] player ([[San Jose Sharks]], [[Boston Bruins]], [[Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds]], [[St. Thomas Stars]])<br />
* [[Aaron Walpole]], the third-place finisher in the third season of Canadian Idol<br />
* [[Kari-Lynn Winters]], children's book author, dramatist, literacy educator<br />
* [[Marline Yan]] (1993-), actress and singer<br />
* [[Greg Mckegg]] professional [[ice hockey]] player ([[Toronto Maple Leafs]], [[Toronto Marlies]], [[Erie Otters]], [[London Knights]])<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Port Stanley Terminal Rail]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.city.st-thomas.on.ca/ City of St. Thomas]<br />
<br />
{{Prone to spam|date=June 2012}}<br />
{{Z148}}<!-- {{No more links}}<br />
<br />
Please be cautious adding more external links.<br />
<br />
Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. <br />
<br />
Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. <br />
<br />
See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details.<br />
<br />
If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on<br />
the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at <br />
the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}.<br />
<br />
--><br />
<br />
{{Geographic location <!-- This geo box is for DIRECTLY ADJACENT municipalities as standardized for all other municipalities --><br />
| Centre = St. Thomas<br />
| North = [[Central Elgin, Ontario|Central Elgin]]<br />
| Northeast =<br />
| East = [[Central Elgin, Ontario|Central Elgin]]<br />
| Southeast =<br />
| South = [[Central Elgin, Ontario|Central Elgin]]<br />
| Southwest =<br />
| West = [[Southwold, Ontario|Southwold]]<br />
| Northwest =<br />
}}<br />
{{Subdivisions of Ontario}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:St. Thomas, Ontario| ]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917624420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2014-04-19T16:57:21Z<p>Moxy: Reverted edits by 82.34.186.12 (talk) to last version by RjwilmsiBot</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders, Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] [[counterculture]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[drug subcultures|subculture]] or simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. (with some sources also indicating 4:20 a.m.<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="hightimes.com">http://hightimes.com/read/power-420</ref>), on any given day, as well as smoking and celebrating cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date and time notation in the United States|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]], calling themselves the Waldos<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012|date=April 20, 2000}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> began using the term in connection with a plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about in autumn 1971.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> Although their typical "hang-out spot was a wall outside the school," the Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos referred to this initial plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis", but after multiple attempts to find the crop failed, the phrase evolved in form and use—shortened simply to "4:20", the teens increasingly relied on the codeword to refer to pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> ''[[High Times]]'', particularly the editor [[Steven Hager]], was responsible for bringing the Waldos story to a national audience.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|authorlink=Mike Edison|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref> Hager called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted time of day to consume cannabis and attributed the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|thumb|420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event in Porter Meadow at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name="hightimes.com"/><ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Impact ==<br />
In Colorado, the [[Colorado Department of Transportation]] replaced the frequently stolen Mile Marker 420 sign on I-70 east of Denver with one reading 419.99 in an attempt to stop the thievery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9news.com/news/story.aspx?storyid=372755|title=State alters 420 MM sign to thwart thieves |work=[[KUSA-TV]] |accessdate=January 11, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917571420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2014-01-08T16:15:39Z<p>Moxy: Undid revision 589716644 by 66.172.207.198 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term used primarily in North America that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with [[cannabis subculture]] or simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. (with some sources also indicating 4:20 a.m.<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="hightimes.com">http://hightimes.com/read/power-420</ref>), on any given day, as well as smoking cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date and time notation in the United States|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A widely discussed story says that a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because, "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|thumb|420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name="hightimes.com"/><ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917551420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2013-12-04T19:29:54Z<p>Moxy: removed unsourced section</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term used primarily in North America that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]] or simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. (with some sources also indicating 4:20 a.m.<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="hightimes.com">http://hightimes.com/read/power-420</ref>), on any given day, as well as smoking cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date format by country|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A widely discussed story says that a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because, "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|thumb|420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name="hightimes.com"/><ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[South Africa]], [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_America&diff=175598096British America2013-12-04T00:01:20Z<p>Moxy: Undid revision 584445709 by 71.180.1.100 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{For|American people of British descent|British American}}<br />
{{Refimprove|date=April 2011}}<br />
{{Infobox Former Country<br />
|native_name=<br />
|conventional_long_name = <small>British America and the British West Indies</small><br />
|common_name=British America<br />
|ag d|continent = North America<br />
|region = <br />
|country = [[Canada]], [[United States]]<br />
|status = Colonies<br />
|status_text= [[Crown colony|Colonies]] of [[Kingdom of England|England]] <small>(1607–1707)</small><br>Colonies of [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] <small>(1707–1783)</small><br />
|empire = Britain<br />
||life_span = 1607–1783<br />
|government_type = Constitutional monarchy<br />
||event_start = [[Colony of Virginia|Virginia Colony]]<br />
|year_start = 1607<br />
|date_start = <br />
|event_end = [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]]<br />
|year_end = 1783<br />
|date_end = <br />
|event1 = [[Plymouth Council for New England|New England]]<br />
|date_event1 = 1620<br />
|event2 = [[Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations|King Charles II charter for Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]]<br />
|date_event2 = 1663<br />
|event3 = [[Rupert's Land]]<br />
|date_event3 = 1670<br />
|event4 = [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]]<br />
|date_event4 = 1713<br />
|event5 = [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]]<br />
|date_event5 = 1763<br />
|p1 = New Netherland<br />
|flag_p1 = Prinsenvlag.svg<br />
|p2 = New France<br />
|flag_p2 = Pavillon LouisXIV.svg<br />
|p3 = Spanish Florida<br />
|flag_p3 = Flag of New Spain.svg<br />
|s1 = United States<br />
|flag_s1 = US flag 13 stars – Betsy Ross.svg<br />
|s2 = Spanish Florida<br />
|flag_s2 = Flag of New Spain.svg<br />
|s3 = British North America<br />
|flag_s3 = Union flag 1606 (Kings Colors).svg<br />
|s4 = British West Indies<br />
|flag_s4 = Union flag 1606 (Kings Colors).svg<br />
|flag = Flag of Great Britain<br />
|flag_type = <br />
|image_flag = Union flag 1606 (Kings Colors).svg<br />
|symbol = <br />
|symbol_type = <br />
|image_coat = <br />
|image_map = British America.png<br />
|image_map_caption = British colonies in North America which were part of British America (red) at its peak, and other dependencies held by the British Crown at the time (pink)<br />
|capital = Administered from [[London]], [[England]]<br />
|national_motto = <br />
|national_anthem = [[God Save the King]]<br />
|common_languages = [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]]<br />
|religion = [[Church of England|Anglicanism]], [[Roman Catholic]], [[Native American religion]]<br />
|currency = [[Pound sterling]]<br />
||<!--- Titles and names of the first and last leaders and their deputies ---><br />
|leader1 = [[James I of England|King James I]]<br />
|year_leader1 = 1607–1625<br />
|leader2 = [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]]<br />
|year_leader2 = 1625–1649<br />
|leader3 = [[Oliver Cromwell]] and [[Richard Cromwell]]<br />
|year_leader3 = 1649–1660<br />
|leader4 = [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]]<br />
|year_leader4 = 1660–1685<br />
|leader5 = [[James II of England|King James II]]<br />
|year_leader5 = 1685–1688<br />
|leader6 = [[William and Mary|King William and Queen Mary]]<br />
|year_leader6 = 1689–1694<br />
|leader7 = [[William III of England|King William III]]<br />
|year_leader7 = 1689–1702<br />
|leader7 = [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne of England and of Great Britain]]<br />
|year_leader7 = 1702–1707 and 1707–1714<br />
|leader8 = [[George I of Great Britain|King George I]]<br />
|year_leader8 = 1714–1727<br />
|leader9 = [[George II of Great Britain|King George II]]<br />
|year_leader9 = 1727–1760<br />
|leader10 = [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]]<br />
|year_leader10 = 1760–1783<br />
|title_deputy = <br />
||legislature = <br />
||<!--- Area and population of a given year ---><br />
|stat_year1 = <br />
|stat_area1 = <br />
|stat_pop1 = <br />
|stat_year2 =<br />
|stat_pop2 = <br />
|political_subdiv =<br />
|today = {{flag|Anguilla}}<br>{{flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}<br>{{flag|Bahamas}}<br>{{flag|Barbados}}<br>{{flag|Belize}}<br>{{flag|Bermuda}}<br>{{flag|British Virgin Islands}}<br>{{flag|Canada}}<br>{{flag|Cayman Islands}}<br>{{flag|Dominica}}<br>{{flag|Grenada}}<br>{{flag|Guyana}}<br>{{flag|Honduras}}<br>{{flag|Jamaica}}<br>{{flag|Mexico}}<br>{{flag|Montserrat}}<br>{{flag|Nicaragua}}<br>{{flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}<br>{{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}<br>{{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}<br>{{flag|Turks and Caicos Islands|name=Turks and Caicos}}<br>{{flag|United States}}<br />
|footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
'''English America''', and later '''British America''', refers to the [[Kingdom of England|English]], and later [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[Crown colony|territories]] in [[North America]] (including [[Bermuda]]), [[Central America]], the [[Caribbean]], and [[Guyana]] from 1607 to 1783. Formally, the British Colonies in North America were known as '''British America and the [[British West Indies]]''' until 1776, when the [[Thirteen Colonies|Thirteen British Colonies]] located along the Atlantic seaboard declared their independence and formed the [[United States of America]].<ref>{{cite web|title=A Summary View of the Rights of British America – Thomas Jefferson|url=http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch14s10.html}}</ref> After that, [[British North America]] (or, simply but not inclusively, [[Canada]]) was used to describe the remainder of Britain's continental North American possessions. The term "British North America" was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the [[Report on the Affairs of British North America]] (1839), called the Durham Report.<br />
<br />
British America gained large amounts of new territory following the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] which ended [[Great Britain in the Seven Years War|Britain's involvement in the Seven Years' War]]. At the start of the [[American War of Independence]] in 1775, the [[First British Empire|British Empire]] included 20 colonies north and east of [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|New Spain]] (Present day areas of [[Mexico]] and the [[Western United States]]). [[East Florida]] and [[West Florida]] were ceded to [[Spain]] in the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]] which ended the American Revolution, and then ceded by Spain to the [[United States]] in 1819. All but one of the remaining colonies of British North America apart from the British West Indies united together from 1867 to 1873 forming the [[Dominion of Canada]]. [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] joined Canada in 1949.<br />
<br />
==List of colonies in 1775==<br />
There were twenty British colonies in North America in 1775.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canada and the American Revolution|url=http://www.americanrevolutioncenter.org/reflections/canada-and-american-revolution|work=Museum of the American Revolution|accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> These were:<br />
<br />
1) The [[Thirteen Colonies]] that eventually formed the original states of the United States of America:<br />
<br />
:; [[New England Colonies]]:<br />
:*[[Province of Massachusetts Bay]]<br />
:*[[Province of New Hampshire]]<br />
:*[[Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]] – founded in 1636 as a sanctuary for religious freedom by [[Baptists]] expelled from Massachusetts Bay by the [[Puritans]] and formally authorized by charter of [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] on July 8, 1663.<ref name="King Charles II Rhode Island Charter"/><ref name="Church History – King Charles II Rhode Island Charter"/><br />
:*[[Connecticut Colony]]<br />
<br />
:; [[Middle Colonies]]:<br />
:*[[Province of New York]]<br />
:*[[Province of New Jersey]]<br />
:*[[Province of Pennsylvania]]<br />
:*[[Delaware Colony]]<br />
<br />
:; [[Southern Colonies]]: (Virginia and Maryland may also be grouped as the [[Chesapeake Colonies]])<br />
:*[[Province of Maryland]]<br />
:*[[Colony of Virginia]]<br />
:*[[Province of North Carolina]]<br />
:*[[Province of South Carolina]]<br />
:*[[Province of Georgia]]<br />
<br />
2) Other British colonies and territories (ruled by Britain since 1763) that were later ceded by Britain to Spain in 1783; these eventually became part of the United States of America:<br />
<br />
:*Province of [[East Florida]]<br />
:*Province of [[West Florida]]<br />
:*[[Indian Reserve (1763)|Indian Reserve]]<br />
<br />
3) British colonies and territories that would eventually become part of Canada:<br />
<br />
:*[[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]]<br />
:*[[Nova Scotia|Province of Nova Scotia]]<br />
:*[[Prince Edward Island|Island of St. John]]<br />
:*[[Colony of Newfoundland]]<br />
:*[[Rupert's Land]]<br />
<br />
==List of colonies in 1783==<br />
<br />
The colonies remaining under [[British Empire|British rule]] after 1783:<br />
<br />
:; [[British North America]]:<br />
:*[[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] (the southwest portion was lost to the newly created United States)<br />
:*[[Colony of Newfoundland]]<br />
:*[[Nova Scotia|Province of Nova Scotia]]<br />
:*[[New Brunswick|Province of New Brunswick]]<br />
:*[[Prince Edward Island|Island of St. John]]<br />
:*[[Rupert's Land]]<br />
<br />
:; Divisions of the [[British Leeward Islands|Colony of the Leeward Islands]]:<br />
:*[[Saint Kitts|Saint Christopher]] (de facto Capital)<br />
:*[[Antigua]]<br />
:*[[Barbuda]]<br />
:*[[British Virgin Islands]]<br />
:*[[Montserrat]]<br />
:*[[Nevis]]<br />
:*[[Anguilla]]<br />
<br />
:; [[British_West_Indies#Jamaica_and_dependencies|Island of Jamaica and its Dependencies]]:<br />
:*[[Jamaica|Island of Jamaica]]<br />
:*[[British Honduras|Settlement of Belize in the Bay of Honduras]]<br />
:*[[Mosquito Coast]]<br />
:*[[Bay Islands (department)|Bay Islands]]<br />
:*[[Cayman Islands]]<br />
<br />
:; Other Possessions in the [[British West Indies]]:<br />
:*[[Bahamas|Colony of the Bahama Islands]]<br />
:*[[Bermuda|Colony of Bermuda]]<br />
:*[[Barbados|Island of Barbados]]<br />
:*[[Grenada|Island of Grenada]]<br />
:*[[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|Island of St. Vincent]] (detached from Grenada in 1776)<br />
:*[[Tobago|Island of Tobago]] (detached from Grenada in 1768)<br />
:*[[Dominica|Island of Dominica]] (detached from Grenada in 1770)<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|British Empire|History of Canada|North America}}<br />
{{portal|United States|Canada|Caribbean}}<br />
*[[British colonization of the Americas]]<br />
*[[British Empire]]<br />
*[[Evolution of the British Empire]]<br />
*[[British North America Acts]]<br />
*[[British North America]]<br />
*[[British West Indies]]<br />
*[[British overseas territories]]<br />
*[[Former colonies and territories in Canada]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
===Citations===<br />
{{Reflist<br />
| colwidth = <br />
| refs =<br />
<br />
<ref name="King Charles II Rhode Island Charter"><br />
{{cite web<br />
| url = http://sos.ri.gov/library/history/charter/<br />
| title = Rhode Island Royal Charter of 1663<br />
| author = <br />
| date = <br />
| month = <br />
| year = <br />
| work = {{URL|sos.ri.gov}} <br />
| publisher = [[Secretary of State of Rhode Island]]<br />
| format = <br />
| archiveurl = <br />
| archivedate = <br />
| accessdate = 14 April 2011<br />
| quote = <br />
| postscript = . <br />
}}<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
<ref name="Church History – King Charles II Rhode Island Charter"><br />
{{cite web<br />
| url = http://www.christianity.com/ChurchHistory/11630142/<br />
| title = Charles II Granted Rhode Island New Charter<br />
| author = <br />
| date = 8 July 1663<br />
| month = <br />
| year = <br />
| work = {{URL|christianity.com}} <br />
| publisher = [[Christianity.com]]<br />
| format = <br />
| archiveurl = <br />
| archivedate = <br />
| accessdate = 14 April 2011<br />
| quote = <br />
| postscript = . <br />
}}<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
<!-- the two entries below do nothing: is it necessary to define "British" as the UK did not formally come into being until the Act of Union 1707? See also Union_of_the_Crowns#British --><br />
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/British<br />
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/british<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:British colonization of the Americas]]<br />
[[Category:British North America]]<br />
[[Category:Colonial United States (British)]]<br />
[[Category:Colonization history of the United States]]<br />
[[Category:History of the Caribbean]]<br />
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[[Category:1783 disestablishments in the British Empire]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170028785Canadian National Vimy Memorial2013-12-03T06:44:32Z<p>Moxy: /* See also */ remove odd link not related to war</p>
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<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br />[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = [[Image:Vimy memorial .jpg|300px|alt=A white limestone memorial is built into the side of a hill and surrounded by green grass and backed by a blue sky. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall. Human statues are located at the base of the wall on both ends, the top centre of the wall, at the base between the stone towers and near the top of the stone towers themselves.]]<br />
|caption = The front of the Vimy Memorial.<br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and First World War Canadian missing, presumed dead in France.<br />
|unveiled = 26 July 1936<br />By [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50|22|46|N|02|46|25|E|scale:2500|display=title}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br/>{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{#tag:ref|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, there are a number of individuals who are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.<ref name="Peterson">{{citation |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2008 |title=From Alberta to Avion: Private Herbert Peterson, 49th Battalion, CEF |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–68}}</ref> Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|source={{cwgc cemetery|87900}}<br />
}}<br />
The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a memorial site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|100|ha|acre|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the grounds over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]], a military engagement fought as part of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion whereupon all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and thus became a Canadian nationalistic symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge under the understanding that the Canadians use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[Trench warfare|trenches]], craters and unexploded munitions still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, there are a number of other memorials and cemeteries contained within the site.<br />
<br />
The memorial took monument designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] eleven years to build. [[King Edward VIII]] unveiled the memorial on 26 July 1936, in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]], 50,000 or more Canadian and French veterans, and their families. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] rededicated the memorial on 9 April 2007 during a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The memorial site is one of two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] located outside of [[Canada]] and is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]] (the other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]]).<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.<ref name="Farr 147"/> The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.<ref name="Farr 147"/><ref name="Geology 396-397">[[#Geology|Rose & Nathanail]] pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3</ref><br />
<br />
===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.<ref name="Boire 52-53">[[#Boire2|Boire (2007)]] pp. 52–53</ref> The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.<ref name="Boire 56">[[#Boire2|Boire (2007)]] p. 56</ref> The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.<ref name="Tucker 68">[[#Tucker|Tucker]] p. 68</ref> The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.<ref name="Turner 8">[[#Turner|Turner]] p. 8</ref><br />
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The [[United Kingdom|British]] XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.<ref>[[#Boire|Boire (1992)]] p. 15</ref> On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|1800|m|yd|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" >[[#Samuels|Samuels]] pp. 200–202</ref> The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" />{{#tag:ref|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" /><ref name="Sheldon2">[[#Sheldon2|Sheldon]] p. 149</ref>|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref name="Jones NY Times">{{cite news |title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF |newspaper=[[New York Times]]|format=PDF |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=21 August 1916 |accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" /> The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.<ref name="Farr 147">[[#Farr|Farr]] p. 147</ref><br />
<br />
===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.<ref name="Cook 120">[[#Cook|Cook]] p. 120</ref> The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.<ref name = "Nicholson 229">[[#Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 229</ref> Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.<ref name="Turner 39">[[#Turner|Turner]] p. 39</ref> The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.<ref name="Williams 149">[[#Williams|Williams]] p. 149</ref><br />
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[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines{{spaced ndash}}Black, Red, Blue and Brown. |alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[Barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|91|m|yd}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<ref name="Cook 117">[[#Cook|Cook]] p. 117</ref> The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]] and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.<ref name="Nicholson 254">[[#Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 254</ref> The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.<ref name="Nicholson 254" /> The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Canadian Division captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.<ref name="Nicholson 255">[[#Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 255</ref><ref name="Campbell 178-179">[[#Campbell|Campbell]] pp. 178–179</ref><ref name="Hayes 200">[[#Hayes|Hayes]] p. 200</ref> The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.<ref name="Hayes 202-203">[[#Hayes|Hayes]] pp. 202–203</ref> Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.<ref name="Godefroy 220">[[#Godefroy|Godefroy (2007a)]] p. 220</ref>{{#tag:ref|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds and grenades.<ref name="Sheldon 300">[[#Sheldon2|Sheldon]] p. 309</ref>|group="Note"}}<br />
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On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.<ref name="Campbell 179">[[#Campbell|Campbell]] pp. 179</ref> The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.<ref name="Campbell 179-181">[[#Campbell|Campbell]] pp. 179–181</ref> By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.<ref name="Campbell 182">[[#Campbell|Campbell]] p. 182</ref> By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.<ref name="Godefroy 220" /> On 12 April, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.<ref name="Nicholson 263">[[#Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 263</ref> By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.<ref name="Nicholson 263"/> The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.<ref name="Moran 139">[[#Moran|Moran]] p. 139</ref> The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} with an approximate 4,000 men becoming [[prisoners of war]].<ref name="Gibbs">{{cite news| first=Philip |last=Gibbs |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF |title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans |newspaper=New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |format=PDF |date=11 April 1917 |accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge has considerable significance for Canada.<ref name="Inglis 1">[[#Inglis|Inglis]] p. 1</ref> Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement gave the battle importance.<ref name="Vance 233">[[#Vance|Vance]] p. 233</ref> According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."<ref name="Pierce 5">[[#Pierce|Pierce]] p. 5</ref> The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.<ref name="Inglis 2">[[#Inglis|Inglis]] p. 2</ref><ref name="Humphries 66">[[#Humphries|Humphries]] p. 66</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Selection===<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions.|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.<ref name="Busch 205">[[#Busch|Busch]] p. 205</ref>{{#tag:ref|The eight sites were Vimy, Bourlon Wood, Le Quesnel, Dury and Courcelette in France, and St. Julien, Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood) and Passchendaele in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/>|group="Note"}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.<ref name="Busch 205">[[Canadian National Vimy Memorial#Busch|Busch]] p. 205</ref> In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.<ref name="Vance 66">[[#Vance|Vance]] p. 66</ref> The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web | title = Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/Memorials/can_battle_committee | accessdate =12 January 2008}}</ref> Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref name="VAC Design Comp">{{cite web | title = Design Competition | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition | accessdate =22 May 2013}}</ref> In October 1921, the commission selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer Walter Seymour Allward as the winner of the competition, and that of Frederick Chapman Clemesha as runner-up.<ref name="Vance 66"/> The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.<ref name="Vance 67">[[#Vance|Vance]] p. 67</ref> The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—that of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.<ref name="Vance 67"/> At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.<ref name="Vance 66"/> Committee member and former Canadian Corps commander, Lieutenant-General [[Arthur Currie]] argued in favour of the government placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]].<ref name="Pierce 5"/><ref name="Hucker 283">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p. 283</ref> In the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site, largely because of its elevation above the plain below.<ref name="Vance 66–69">[[#Vance|Vance]] pp. 66–69</ref><br />
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The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward’s design.<ref name="Inglis 61">[[#Inglis|Inglis]] p. 61</ref> In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.<ref name="Inglis 61"/> In December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|100|ha|acre}} of land on Vimy Ridge, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name="DFAIT">{{cite web | title = Canada Treaty Information | publisher = Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade | date = 26 February 2002 | url = http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661 | accessdate =4 January 2008}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name="DFAIT"/><br />
<br />
===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|Laying the foundation of the memorial.|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.]]<br />
In 1924, the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] hired Dr. Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, to prepare foundation plans as well as provide general supervision of the foundation work.<ref name="Hucker 285">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p. 285</ref> Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.<ref name="Durflinger 292">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 292</ref><ref name="Hucker 286"/> Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise the construction of the monument and the carving of the sculptures.<ref name="Pierce 6">[[#Pierce|Pierce]] p. 6</ref> Construction of the memorial commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts"/> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.<ref name="Pierce 6"/><br />
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In June 1922, Allward set up a studio in [[London]], [[England]] and toured for almost two years in an attempt to find a stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity for the memorial.<ref name="Hucker 286">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p. 286</ref> He eventually found it in the ruins of the [[Diocletian's Palace]]. Allward observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, a fact that Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Allward's choice, Seget limestone, came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].<ref name="Fabijančić 127">[[#Fabijančić|Fabijančić]] p. 127</ref> The difficulties associated with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the stone, which consequently delayed construction of the memorial.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> The first shipment of stone did not arrive at the memorial site until 1927, and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.<ref name="Hucker 286"/><br />
<br />
While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line as well make the Grange Subway more accessible.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.<ref name="Hucker 286"/><br />
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[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress.|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument; limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of a Seget limestone.<ref name="Picard">[[#Picard|Picard]] (online)</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 human figures on-site, from large blocks of stone. The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.<ref name="Busch 206">[[#Busch|Busch]] p. 206</ref> The carvers conducted their work year-round, inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref name="VAC construction">{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory | title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |date=12 August 1998|accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design and Allward was unhappy when the government subsequently asked him to include them.<ref name="Duffy 197">[[#Duffy|Duffy]] p. 197</ref>{{#tag:ref|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.<ref name="Duffy 197"/>|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.<ref name="Duffy 197"/> Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.<ref name="Duffy 197"/> The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.<ref name="Duffy 197"/> The task of inscribing the names did not begin until early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed specifically for the monument.<ref name="Hucker 286"/><br />
<br />
===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Dedication - aerial shot of ceremony.jpg|thumb|right|The dedication of the Vimy Memorial.|alt=A memorial ceremony. Thousands of people are surround the monument on all sides. A crowd of people are also standing on the main platform of the memorial.]]<br />
In preparation for the 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage, the [[Government of Canada]] made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims, at no extra cost.<ref name = "MacIntyre 197">[[#MacIntyre|MacIntyre]] p. 197</ref> On 16 July 1936, five trans-Atlantic liners departed the port of [[Montreal]] for the unveiling of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in France.{{#tag:ref|The ships were the SS ''Montrose'', SS ''Montcalm'', SS ''Antonia'', SS ''Ascania'' and the SS ''Duchess of Bedford''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/feature/vimy90/media/backgrounders/1936dedication |archiveurl =http://archive.is/lRta |archivedate=30 June 2012 |title=1936 Dedication of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher= Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007 |accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>|group="Note"}} About 6,400 people sailed on the five steamships from Canada and 1,365 Canadians came from England.<ref name = "MacIntyre 159">[[#MacIntyre|MacIntyre]] p. 159</ref> Edward VIII, in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|King of Canada]], officially unveiled the monument on 26 July 1936.<ref name="CITEREF_Bell_2007 139">[[#CITEREF Bell 2007|Bell, Bousfield and Toffoli]] p. 139</ref><ref name="Foot">{{Cite news | last=Foot | first=Richard | title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own| newspaper=[[The Vancouver Sun]] | publication-place=Vancouver | date=4 April 2007 | page=A4 }}</ref><ref name="Lloyd 221">[[#Lloyd|Lloyd]] p. 221</ref> The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name="Foot"/> Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President Albert Lebrun, and over 50,000 Canadian, British, and French veterans and their families attended the event.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web | title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge – Fast Facts | url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/battle | work=VAC Canada Remembers | publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada | date=n.d. | accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The ceremony included a guard of honour made of [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] officers, [[Royal Canadian Navy]] members with rifles, and flyovers by two Canadian squadrons and two French squadrons. Edward VIII gave a speech, starting in French and switching to English, thanking France for its generosity and assuring those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The king then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].<ref name="Morton 221">[[#Morton|Morton & Wright]] p. 221</ref><br />
<br />
===Second World War===<br />
The general safety of the memorial was a cause for concern for the Canadian government. In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government’s level of concern. Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments. When war did break out, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.<ref name="Durflinger 292"/> In late May 1940, following the British retreat in the aftermath of the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown.<ref name="Durflinger 293">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 293</ref> The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.<ref name="Durflinger 300">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 300</ref><br />
The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in both Canada and the United Kingdom.<ref name="Durflinger 294">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 294</ref> The rumours eventually led the German [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to publish denials.<ref name="Durflinger 297">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 297</ref> [[Adolf Hitler]], who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature,{{r|haggart20070407}} was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940 to demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated.<ref>(2000). "Remembrance: The Canadian Unknown Soldier". In: ''After The Battle'', '''109'''. [[ISSN|ISSN 0306-154X]].</ref> He ordered [[Waffen-SS]] troops to guard the memorial from both German and Allied armies. While all Australian World War I memorial graves in France were damaged during the war, the Vimy memorial was preserved<ref name="haggart20070407">{{cite news | url=http://www.thestar.com/news/2007/04/07/how_hitler_spared_vimy_ridge.html | title=How Hitler spared Vimy Ridge | work=Toronto Star | date=7 April 2007 | accessdate=2013-05-22 | author=Haggart, Ron}}</ref> although the undamaged state of the memorial was not conclusively confirmed until September 1944 when the [[Welsh Guards]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.<ref name="Durflinger 298">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 298</ref><br />
<br />
===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits.|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major 30&nbsp;million [[Canadian dollar]] restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name="Valpy">{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Valpy | title=Setting a legend in stone |url=http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070407.wvimymemorial0407/front/Front/Front/ |work=[[Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=2013-05-22}}</ref><ref name="Hucker 288">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p. 288</ref> In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name="Valpy"/><br />
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Time, wear and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive problem being water damage.<ref name="Valpy"/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.<ref name="Hucker 288"/> The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure.<ref name="Hucker 288"/> Over time, water entered the monument through its walls and platforms and coursed through the structure, dissolving lime from the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name="Valpy"/> As the water exited, it deposited lime on exterior surface walls obscuring many of the names inscribed on the memorial.<ref name="Hucker 288"/> Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant erosion and deterioration to the platform, terrace and stairs.<ref name="Valpy"/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of the deterioration and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs and platforms of the memorial.<ref name="Valpy"/><br />
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Queen Elizabeth II, escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.<ref name="CITEREF_Bell_2007 140">[[#CITEREF Bell 2007|Bell, Bousfield and Toffoli]] p.140</ref> Other senior Canadian officials, including [[Prime Minister of Canada|Canadian Prime Minister]] [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, such as [[Prime Minister of France|French Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]], attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV"/> The rededication ceremony comprised the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV">Tom Kennedy, CTV National News, 9 April 2007.</ref><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete.|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the trench lines of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.<ref name="Geology 216">[[#Geology|Rose & Nathanail]] p. 216</ref><ref name="Lloyd 120">[[#Lloyd|Lloyd]] p. 120</ref> The total area of the site is {{convert|100|ha|acre}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and unearthed unexploded munitions make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name="CWGC2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |title=Annual Report 2007-2008 | format=PDF |year=2008 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|page=16}}{{dead link|date=May 2013}}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.<ref name="Turner 7">[[#Turner|Turner]] p. 7</ref><br />
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The site was founded to principally honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but also contains a number of other memorials. These include memorials dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]] and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission maintained cemeteries on site; [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref name="cwgc CCN2">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/2103985/CANADIAN%20CEMETERY%20NO.2,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref><ref name="cwgc GRCC">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/68402/GIVENCHY%20ROAD%20CANADIAN%20CEMETERY,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast| accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref name="archeology 1">[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref name="VAC Museum">{{cite web| url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=22 March 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2009 }}{{dead link|date=May 2013}}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref name="VAC Restoration">{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project| url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/cbmr |accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|right|A design model of the memorial.|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background.]]<br />
Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.<ref name="Busch 12">[[#Busch|Busch]] p. 12</ref> The memorial contains a large number of stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.<ref name="Pierce 6"/> There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.<ref name="Brandon 10"/> The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.<ref name="Hucker 282"/> Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.<ref name="Hucker 282"/> There is a cannon barrel draped in laurel and olive branches carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize peace.<ref name="Brandon 10">[[#Brandon|Brandon]] p. 10</ref><ref name="Hopkins 188">[[#Hopkins|Hopkins]] p. 188</ref> In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.<ref name="Hucker 282"/> This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.<ref name="Bolling 310">[[#Bolling|Bolling]] p. 310</ref> This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.<ref name="Prost 316">[[#Prost|Prost]] p. 316</ref> The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.<ref name="Pierce 6"/> Allward later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.<ref name="Pierce 6"/> In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada’s sympathy for the weak and oppressed.<ref name = "MacIntyre 156">[[#MacIntyre|MacIntyre]] p. 156</ref><br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial.|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name.]]<br />
The figure of a cloaked young female stands on top of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. The woman has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level of the former battlefield is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]], a sword and draped in laurel branches.<ref name="Hucker 282">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p. 282</ref> The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.<ref name="Hucker 282"/>{{#tag:ref|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.<ref name="Hucker 286"/>|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.<ref name="Duffy 194">[[#Duffy|Duffy]] p. 194</ref> Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.<ref name="Duffy 194"/> The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.<ref name="Duffy 194"/><br />
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The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform. The twin white pylons, one bearing the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France, symbolize the unity and sacrifice of both countries.<ref name="Brandon 10"/> At the top of the two pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name="Valpy"/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace''.<ref name="Brandon 13">[[#Brandon|Brandon]] p. 13</ref> ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.<ref name="Nicholson 33">[[#Nicholson 2|Nicholson (1973)]] p. 33</ref> The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].<ref name="Brandon 12">[[#Brandon|Brandon]] p. 12</ref> The figures of ''Hope'', ''Charity'', ''Honour'' and ''Faith'' are located below ''Justice'' and ''Peace'' on the eastern side, with ''Truth'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western side. Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain and France. Large crosses adorn the outside of each pylon.<ref name="Hopkins 188"/> The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments and a dedicatory inscription to Canada's war dead, in both French and English, also appear on the monument. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base between the two pylons.<ref name="Duffy 194"/> In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.<ref name="Duffy 194"/> In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'' by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.<ref name="Nicholson 33"/><br />
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{{Quote box | quote =It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.<ref name="Mould Fonds 62-63">{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx |accessdate=4 January 2010 |date=n.d. |publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>| source = King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech. | width = 30% | align =right}}<br />
The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]], [[Italy]].<ref name="Brandon 12"/> Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France, and whose final resting place is unknown.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format. Allward sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name="Valpy"/> The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]] and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name="VCs">{{cite web| title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=feature/vimy90/media/backgrounders/vimyvc |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=31 November 2007 |accessdate=5 January 2010}}{{dead link|date=May 2013}}</ref><br />
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{{Gallery<br />
| title = Elements of the Vimy Memorial<br />
| lines = 4<br />
| width = 125<br />
|File:Vimy Memorial - Front Wall, Breaking of the Sword (postcard).jpg|alt1=A large limestone wall from an angled perspective. In the foreground is one grouping of statues and in the farground an additional group of statues. |The front wall representing an impenetrable wall of defence.<br />
|File:Vimy3 tango7174.jpg|alt2=A statue of four people. One man stands tall and erect while three other figures are crouched and kneeling around him.|''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless''.<br />
|File:Vimy2 tango7174.jpg|alt3=A statue of three muscular young men. Two men are standing and one is crouching and breaking a sword.|''Breaking of the Swords''<br />
|File:Vimy Memorial - Canons.JPG|alt4=The mouth of a cannon draped in laurel carved into the upper edge of a stone wall.|Cannons covered in laurel further symbolizing peace.<br />
|File:Canadian National Vimy Memorial - .Mother Canada.JPG|alt5=A statue of a mourning cloaked young woman. In one hand she has a bunch of laurel and holds her chin in the other hand.|''Mother Canada'' mourning her dead.<br />
|File:Vimy Memorial - Sarcophagus.jpg|alt6=A sword, army helmet and laurel sit on top of a stone sarcophagus that is located in front of a stone wall.|The stone sarcophagus representing Canada's war dead.<br />
|File:Vimy Memorial - Spirit of Sacrifice figure.jpg|alt7=A gaunt man stands in a crucifixion pose. Behind him, a man stands holding a torch aloft. Both men stand between two large stone towers.|The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' passing the torch.<br />
|File:Vimy1 tango7174.jpg|alt8=Two stone towers. A grouping of statues are located at the base between the two towers and at the top of each tower.|The twin pylons representing France and Canada, partners in arms.<br />
|File:Vimy Memorial - Chorus western side (black and white).jpg|alt9=Angelic figures located near the top of two stone pylons.|The statues of ''The Chorus'' on the western side: ''Truth'' and ''Knowledge''.<br />
|File:Canadian National Vimy Memorial - male defender.JPG|alt10=A reclined male statue. The head of the half-naked figure sits in its right hand while its left hand sits on its knee.|''Mourning Parents'': the male.<br />
|File:Canadian National Vimy Memorial - female defender (colour).JPG|alt11=A reclined topless female statue that is visibly upset. Her hands fiddle with the sheet that covers her from her waist to her feet.|''Mourning Parents'': the female.<br />
|File:Vimy Memorial - names (black and white).JPG|alt12=A stone wall full of carved names.|Names of the missing carved on the memorial walls.<br />
}}<br />
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===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the members of the French Moroccan Division killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.<ref name="Boire 56"/> General Victor d'Urbal, commander of the French Tenth Army, sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette.<ref name="Simkins 48">[[#Simkins|Simkins]] p. 48</ref> When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Corps made significant territorial gains.<ref name="Simkins 48"/> The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.<ref name="Doughty 159">[[#Doughty|Doughty]] p. 159</ref> The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.<ref name="Boire 56"/> Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.<ref name="Doughty 159"/><br />
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===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely and unseen.<ref name="Geology 398">[[#Geology|Rose & Nathanail]] p. 398</ref> A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.<ref name="Turner 90">[[#Turner|Turner]] p. 90</ref><br />
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The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.<ref name="Geology 398"/> As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been an active feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.<ref name="Geology 398"/> In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.<ref name="Barton 200"/> The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.<ref name="Barton 200">[[#Barton|Barton]] p. 200</ref> The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.<ref name="Geology 398"/> This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.<ref name="Barton 200"/><br />
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===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Ridge - Watkins memorial.JPG|thumb|Memorial plaque to Lieutenant Colonel Michael Watkins, MBE]]<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment (United Kingdom)|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistics Corps]] and a leading British [[Bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Beaver |title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html |work=[[The Independent]] |date=14 August 1998 |accessdate=26 April 2009 |location=[[London]]}}</ref> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
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===Georges Devloo===<br />
The memorial site is accessible by car, taxi and tour bus, but not by public transport. Canadians looking for transportation used to be able to get rides from a senior resident of Vimy, Georges Devloo. Known as the Grandpa of Vimy to the Canadian guides, he would offer car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen |last=Harris |newspaper=[[London Free Press]]| publisher=Sum Media Corp |title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets |date=13 November 2009}}</ref> Devloo died in February 2009; he had been giving free rides to Canadians for 13 years.<ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne |last=Arsenault<br />
|url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
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==Sociocultural influence==<br />
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The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely published in military and general histories of Canada.<ref name="Inglis 2" /><ref name="Humphries 66"/> Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].<ref name="Thomas">[[#Thomas|Thomas]] p. 5–27</ref> Meanwhile, Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole of the First World War, while concurrently expressing the enormous impact of war in general.<ref name="Hucker 280">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p.280</ref> Hucker also suggest that the most recent restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.<ref name="Hucker 280"/><br />
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[[Image:Ghosts of Vimy Ridge.jpeg|225px|left|thumb|''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'' by Will Longstaff|alt=A crowd of dark and ghostly soldiers are scattered on a hill of churned ground, shell holes and general battlefield detritus. A memorial, painted in white, is located at the top of the hill.]]The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as a National Historic Site of Canada; it was so designated, one of only two outside of Canada, in 1997.<ref name="VAC NHS">{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vimycerm | title=Canadian National Historic Site Designation |date=9 September 1999 |accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name="longstaff">{{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes.asp |title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate) |date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010 |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref name="Tomb design">{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory |title=Designing and Constructing |series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier |date= 5 May 2000 |accessdate=8 January 2010 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref><br />
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A 2001 Canadian [[bestseller|bestselling]] [[historical novel]] ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'' by [[Jane Urquhart]] involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial. In 2007, the memorial was a short listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref name="CBC 7WoC">{{cite news| title=Vimy Memorial, France |url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |date=n.d }}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on a number of occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian military [[Military awards and decorations|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref name="SM web">{{cite news |title=New military medal to honour combat casualties |url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/08/29/sacrifice-medal.html?ref=rss&Authorized=1&AuthenticationKey=1_45_4c64df9a-89f8-4b1a-94ac-8efd26447be0.pakdllcidpafph |date=29 August 2008 |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent bas relief sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref name="FR embassy">{{cite web| title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit |url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm |date=January 2004 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Embassy of France in Canada }}</ref> The memorial is featured on the backside of the [[Frontier Series]] Canadian polymer [[Canadian twenty-dollar bill|$20]] banknote, which was released by the [[Bank of Canada]] on 7 November 7, 2012.<ref name="CTV $20 Bill">{{cite web| title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadians-see-twin-towers-pornography-in-20-bill-design-1.806190 |accessdate=6 May 2012 |publisher=CTV |date=n.d }}</ref><br />
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== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}<br />
* [[World War I memorials]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
*{{cite book |title= Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914–1918 |last= Barton | first=Peter | coauthors= Doyle, Peter; Vandewalle, Johan |year= 2004 |publisher= McGill-Queen's University Press|location= Montreal & Kingston | isbn = 0-7735-2949-7|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=wLZjfmkh3jYC&lpg=PP1&dq=Beneath%20Flanders%20Fields%3A%20The%20Tunnellers'%20War%201914-1918&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Barton<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book| last1=Bell| first1=Lynne| last2=Bousfield |first2=Arthur |last3=Toffoli |first3=Gary| title=Queen and Consort:Elizabeth and Philip – 60 Years of Marriage| publisher=Dundurn Press| year=2007| location=Toronto| url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=sqFPntVyzK4C&lpg=PP1&dq=Queen%20and%20Consort%3AElizabeth%20and%20Philip%20-%2060%20Years%20of%20Marriage&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true| isbn=978-1-55002-725-9|ref=CITEREF_Bell_2007<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite journal |last = Boire |first = Michael| title = The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 15–24| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf| accessdate =2 January 2009 |format=PDF|ref=Boire<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |last = Boire |first = Michael| year = 2007 | contribution = The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914–1916 | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =51–61 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PP1&dq=Vimy%20Ridge%3A%20A%20Canadian%20Reassessment&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Boire2<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |last = Bolling |first = Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers|pages=295–318 | title= Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor-last=Antor |editor-first = Heinz | editor2-last = Brown | editor2-first = Sylvia | editor3-last = Considine | editor3-first = John | editor4-last = Stierstorfer | editor4-first = Klaus|year= 2003 |publisher= de Gruyter|location= Berlin | isbn = 978-3-11-017666-7|url=http://books.google.com/?id=CEocfbvIMMMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Refractions+of+Germany+in+Canadian+Literature+and+Culture#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Bolling<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book| title= Art or memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art|last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 | publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1|ref=Brandon<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book| title= Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |last=Busch |first=Briton Cooper |year=2003| publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=LLKqAyUl6TAC&lpg=PP1&dq=Canada%20and%20the%20Great%20War%3A%20Western%20Front%20Association%20Papers&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Busch<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book | last = Campbell | first = David | year = 2007 | contribution = The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =171–192 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PA171&dq=The%202nd%20Canadian%20Division%3A%20A%20'Most%20Spectacular%20Battle'&pg=PA171#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Campbell<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book | last = Cook | first = Tim | year = 2007 | contribution = The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike | title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =105–124 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PA171&dq=The%202nd%20Canadian%20Division%3A%20A%20'Most%20Spectacular%20Battle'&pg=PA105#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Cook<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book| last=Doughty| first=Robert A.| title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War|year=2005| publisher=Belknap Press|publication-place =Cambridge and London|isbn=0-674-01880-X|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=vZRmHkdGk44C&lpg=PP1&dq=Pyrrhic%20Victory%3A%20French%20Strategy%20and%20Operation%20in%20the%20Great%20War&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Doughty<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite journal |last = Duffy |first = Denis| title = Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward | journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–206| publisher = Routledge | date = Summer 2008 | url = http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb009/is_2_38/ai_n29452626/| accessdate =1 June 2009 |doi = 10.1080/02722010809481708|ref=Duffy<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |last = Durflinger |first = Serge| year = 2007 | contribution = Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War| editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =291–305 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=Durflinger<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first= Tony |year= 2003 |publisher= University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=sppa_IWNmosC&printsec=frontcover |accessdate =2 January 2009|ref=Fabijančić<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first= Don |year= 2007 |publisher= Helion & Company Limited |location= Solihull |isbn=978-1-874622-99-4|ref=Farr|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=70hVl257oPIC&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20Silent%20General%3A%20A%20Biography%20of%20Haig's%20Trusted%20Great%20War%20Comrade-in-Arms&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |last = Godefroy |first = Andrew| authorlink=Andrew Godefroy| year = 2007 | contribution = The German Army at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =225–238 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PA171&dq=The%202nd%20Canadian%20Division%3A%20A%20'Most%20Spectacular%20Battle'&pg=PA225#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Godefroy<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |last = Hayes |first = Geoffrey| year = 2007 | contribution = The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =193–210 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PA171&dq=The%202nd%20Canadian%20Division%3A%20A%20'Most%20Spectacular%20Battle'&pg=PA193#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Hayes<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|title= Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement|last= Hopkins|first= J. Castell|year= 1919|publisher= Canadian Annual Review|location= Toronto|ref=Hopkins<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline|year = 2007 | contribution = The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =279–290 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PA171&dq=The%202nd%20Canadian%20Division%3A%20A%20'Most%20Spectacular%20Battle'&pg=PA279#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Hucker<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|last = Humphries|first = Mark Osborne| year = 2007| contribution = "Old Wine in New Bottles": A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| publication-place = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =65–85| isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=Humphries}}<br />
*{{cite book|last= Inglis|first= Dave| title = Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years| year = 1995| publisher=Simon Fraser University| location=Burnaby|url =http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6687/b17448906.pdf| accessdate =22 May 2013|ref=Inglis<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first= David |year= 1998 |publisher= Berg Publishing |location= Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0|ref=Lloyd<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first= David |year= 1967 |publisher= Peter Martin Associates |location= Toronto|ref=MacIntyre<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |last = Moran |first = Heather| year = 2007 | contribution = The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =139–154 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=Moran<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book | last1=Morton | first1=Desmond | first2=Glenn | last2=Wright | title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915–1930 | publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=Morton<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |title= Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1962 |publisher= Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location= Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf | format=PDF |accessdate =1 January 2007| ref=Nicholson}}<br />
*{{cite book |title= "We will remember…": Overseas Memorials to Canada’s War Dead |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location= Ottawa|ref=”Nicholson 2”<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite news | last=Picard | first=Andréa | title=Restoring Loss at Vimy |periodical =Canadian Architect | publication-date=May 2006 | url=http://www.canadianarchitect.com/news/restoring-loss-at-vimy/1000204056/ |publisher=Business Information Group |accessdate =1 August 2009|ref=Picard<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite journal |last = Pierce |first = John| title = Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial| journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 4–14| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf| accessdate =2 February 2009|format=PDF|ref=Pierce<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |last = Prost |first = Antoine| year = 1997 | contribution = Monuments to the Dead | editor-last = Nora | editor-first = Pierre | editor2-last = Kritzman | editor2-first = Lawrence | editor3-last = Goldhammer | editor3-first = Arthur | title = Realms of memory: the construction of the French past | publication-place = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | pages =307–332| isbn = 0-231-10634-3|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=_Va9svbIgLwC&lpg=PP1&dq=Realms%20of%20memory%3A%20the%20construction%20of%20the%20French%20past%201997&pg=PA307#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Prost<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1= Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year= 2000 |publisher= Geological Society |location= London |isbn=0-85052-463-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=OEdlfb1VnMUC&lpg=PP1&dq=Geology%20and%20Warfare%3A%20Examples%20of%20the%20Influence%20of%20Terrain%20and%20Geologists%20on%20Military%20Operations&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Geology<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book| title= Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996| publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2|ref=Samuels}}<br />
*{{cite journal |last = Saunders |first = Nicholas| title =Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001| journal = Antiquity | volume = 76 | issue = 291 | pages = 101–108| publisher = Portland Press| year = 2002 |ref=Saunders<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|title= The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914–1917|last= Sheldon| first= Jack|year= 2008|publisher= Pen & Sword Military|location= Barnsley (UK)| isbn = 978-1-84415-680-1|ref=Sheldon2}}<br />
*{{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917–1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=EB3ABsBOAgYC&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20First%20World%20War%3A%20The%20Western%20Front%2C%201917-1918&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Simkins}}<br />
*{{cite journal| first=Denise | last=Thomas |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918–1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995–1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3683/is_199501/ai_n8719631/pg_5/|ref=Thomas<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book| title= The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia| editor-last = Tucker| editor-first = Spencer| year=1996| publisher= Garland Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0-8153-0399-8|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=EHI3PCjDtsUC&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20European%20powers%20in%20the%20First%20World%20War%3A%20an%20encyclopedia&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Tucker}}<br />
*{{cite book| title= Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander| year=2005| publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5|ref=Turner<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book| title= Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997| publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3wABF2KyvXEC&lpg=PP1&dq=Death%20So%20Noble%3A%20Memory%2C%20Meaning%2C%20and%20the%20First%20World%20War&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Vance<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|title= Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General|last= Williams|first= Jeffery|year= 1983|publisher= Secker & Warburg|location= London| isbn = 0-436-57110-2|ref=Williams<br />
}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commons category|Canadian National Vimy Memorial}}<br />
* [http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/ Canadian National Vimy Memorial (Official Site) ]<br />
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation]<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/war-conflict/first-world-war/the-first-world-war-canada-remembers/vimy-ridge-memorial-unveiled.html CBC Archives: King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony]<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
{{NHSC}}<br />
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}<br />
{{good article}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]<br />
[[Category:First World War in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada in France]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]<br />
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917530420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2013-11-04T20:04:18Z<p>Moxy: Reverted edits by 108.66.8.164 (talk) to last version by ClueBot NG</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term used primarily in North America that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]] or simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. (with some sources also indicating 4:20 a.m.<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="hightimes.com">http://hightimes.com/read/power-420</ref>), on any given day, as well as smoking cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date format by country|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A widely discussed story says that a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because, "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|thumb|420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name="hightimes.com"/><ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917527420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2013-10-28T23:44:05Z<p>Moxy: Undid revision 579189854 by 76.27.213.91 (talk) - unsourced</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|scheduling = same day each year<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
|frequency = annual<br />
|duration = 1 day<br />
}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term used primarily in North America that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]] or simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. (with some sources also indicating 4:20 a.m.<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="hightimes.com">http://hightimes.com/read/power-420</ref>), on any given day, as well as smoking cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date format by country|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A widely discussed story says that a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because, "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webm|thumb|420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name="hightimes.com"/><ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917483420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2013-08-13T19:42:46Z<p>Moxy: restore ... bring the source to the talk page for a talk - this writing is not coherent</p>
<hr />
<div>{{TAFI}}<br />
<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = <br />
}}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term used primarily in North America that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]] or simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. (with some sources also indicating 4:20 a.m.<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="hightimes.com">http://hightimes.com/read/power-420</ref>), on any given day, as well as smoking cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date format by country|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A widely discussed story says that a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael – Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection with a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origin of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|work=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013.webmhd.webm|thumb|420 event in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, April 20th 2013]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name="hightimes.com"/><ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event – Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors Hill Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws – 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]] caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009 stating: "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the university and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|work=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|work=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal|Cannabis}}<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
{{Cannabis}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuidang-Bewegung&diff=159688635Tuidang-Bewegung2013-07-22T22:50:59Z<p>Moxy: Reverted edits by 178.94.230.10 (talk) to last version by 128.208.7.11</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Tuidang Service Center outside Causeway Bay Station 1.JPG|thumb|Tuidang Service Center outside [[Causeway Bay Station]] in [[Hong Kong]].]]<br />
<br />
The '''Tuidang movement''' ({{lang|zh|退黨運動}}/{{lang|zh|退党运动}}; ''Tuìdǎng yùndòng'') is a Chinese [[dissident]] phenomenon that began in late 2004. The movement, whose name translates literally as "withdraw from the [Communist] party," was catalyzed by the publication of the editorial series "Nine Commentaries on the Communist Party" (''Jiuping Gongchandang'') in the U.S.-based Chinese-language newspaper ''[[The Epoch Times]]'' (''Dajiyuan''). The series criticized Communist Party rule in China, with a focus on the party's history of political repression, its propaganda apparatus, and its assaults on traditional culture and value systems.<br />
<br />
Soon after the publication the Nine Commentaries, ''The Epoch Times'' began publishing letters from readers wishing to symbolically disavow their affiliations to Communist Party organizations, including the [[Communist Youth League of China|Communist Youth League]] and [[Young Pioneers of China|Young Pioneers]]. Among the movement's participants are political dissidents, lawyers, scholars, diplomats, and former police or military personnel.<ref name=Steel/><ref name=CSM/><ref name=Gertz/><br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
[[File:Jiuping cover.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cover of the "Nine Commentaries on the Communist Party," a collection of editorials that catalyzed the Tuidang movement and outlines its philosophy.]]<br />
The Tuidang movement, and the publication of the Nine Commentaries in particular, can be understood in part as an outgrowth of the [[Falun Gong]] movement's resistance to suppression in China.<br />
<br />
Falun Gong is a [[qigong]] practice with roots in Buddhist and Daoist philosophy which achieved great popularity in the 1990s.<ref>Renee Schoff, "Growing group poses a dilemma for China," Associated Press, April 26, 1999.</ref> Since 1999 it has seen heavy persecution from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).<ref>Amnesty International, [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engASA170112000 "China: The crackdown on Falun Gong and other so-called "heretical organizations"], 23 March 2000</ref><ref>Congressional Executive Commission on China, [http://www.cecc.gov/pages/annualRpt/annualRpt09/CECCannRpt2009.pdf 'Annual Report 2009'], 10 October 2009</ref><br />
<br />
In the early 2000s, United States-based practitioners created news organizations intended to challenge the Communist Party's hegemony over Chinese-language media and provide an opposition voice. Through these organizations, notably [[The Epoch Times]] and [[New Tang Dynasty Television]], Falun Gong came to establish a "de facto media alliance" with other Chinese dissident groups.<ref>Zhao, Yuezhi (2003). Falun Gong, Identity, and the Struggle over Meaning Inside and Outside China. Rowman & Littlefield publishers, inc.. pp. 209–223. ISBN 978-0-7425-2385-2.</ref><br />
<br />
As part of its struggle against the CCP, The Epoch Times published the Nine Commentaries on the Communist Party in November 2004, and began inviting readers to renounce the party. Hu Ping describes this foray into political commentary a "logical progression" resulting from Falun Gong's inability to end the persecution against them through other means, but points out that the practice itself is apolitical in nature: "Originally Falun Gong aimed the brunt of its criticism at [[Jiang Zemin]], but after Jiang left office and the new Hu Jintao regime refused to rehabilitate Falun Gong and continued to persecute practitioners, Falun Gong broadened its aim to include the entire regime and the Communist Party ... This change, if not exactly natural, must surely be considered reasonable. If some people insist on regarding Falun Gong as political, it can only be in the sense that Vaclav Havel described as "antipolitical politics."<ref name=Hu>Hu Ping, ''The Falun Gong Phenomenon'', in "Challenging China: Struggle and Hope in an Era of Change," Sharon Hom and Stacy Mosher ed. Human Rights in China, 2008. pp 228 - 230.</ref><br />
<br />
==Nine Commentaries on the Communist Party==<br />
The Nine Commentaries on the Communist Party is a book-length collection of nine editorials which present a critical history of Communist Party rule from the [[Yan'an Rectification Movement]] to the present. It details events such as the [[Great Leap Forward]] and resulting [[Great Chinese Famine|famine]], the [[Cultural Revolution]], the destruction and appropriation of religions, the [[Tiananmen Square massacre|1989 Tiananmen Square Massacre]], and the [[persecution of Falun Gong]], among other topics which are subject to censorship in mainland China.<br />
<br />
In addition to the historical accounts, the Nine Commentaries contains lengthy editorializing on the nature and character of the Communist Party, arguing that it is innately violent, duplicitous, immoral, and that its philosophy betrays the [[Tao]] and universal laws.<ref name=FDIC>Falun Dafa Information Center, [http://faluninfo.net/article/1140/?cid=141 'The Tuidang Movement and Falun Gong'], 1 July 2011.</ref> Unlike some Chinese dissident movements that draw heavily on liberal democratic concepts,the Tuidang movement "employs distinctly Chinese language and meaning. More Confucian than humanist, [the Nine Commentaries] often makes its points by drawing on Buddhist and Daoist spirituality. Denouncing the party is thus not simply political activism, but takes on spiritual meaning as a process of cleansing the conscience and reconnecting to traditional ethics and values."<ref name=CSM>Caylan Ford, "An underground challenge to China's status quo," The Christian Science Monitor, 21 Oct 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
The Nine Commentaries does not explicitly set out recommendations for an alternative political system in China, nor does it view institutional change as the solution to the country's ills.<ref name=FDIC/> It is like other Falun Gong writings, which in the words of historian Arthur Waldron, "espouse cures to the pathologies of communism in the traditional Chinese values of truthfulness and human heartedness."<ref>Arthur Waldron, [http://faluninfo.net/article/504/?cid=141 "The Falun Gong Factor"], 28 June 2007.</ref><br />
<br />
The series itself has received mixed reviews in the Western world. Historian David Ownby writes of the series "Although there is undoubtedly some truth in the commentaries, they lack balance and nuance, and read like the anti-Communist propaganda written in Taiwan in the 1950s."<ref>David Ownby, ''Falun Gong and the Future of China'', (Oxford University Press 2008), p 221.</ref> By contrast, the Asian American Journalists Association bestowed an award on the Epoch Times for the series' publication in 2005.<ref>The Epoch Times, [http://www.theepochtimes.com/news/5-8-19/31392.html 'Nine Commentaries Wins National Journalism Award in U.S.], August 19, 2005.</ref><br />
<br />
==Dissemination in China==<br />
[[File:法轮功人民币.jpg|200px|thumb|A ￥1 banknote printed with Tuidang slogans]]<br />
Copies of the Nine Commentaries have been sent into China from abroad by email, fax, or snail mail. In February 2006, Forbes magazine estimated that over 172 million copies had been sent into China through these means. A documentary version of the series is broadcast into Mainland China via satellite by New Tang Dynasty Television.<ref>Richard Morais, [http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2006/0227/090_3.html "Cracks in the Wall"], Forbes, Feb 27 2006.</ref> The internet has also played an important role both in disseminating copies of the Nine Commentaries and circulating information on the resulting response.<ref name=Thornton>Patricia Thonrton, ''Manufacturing Dissent in Transnational China'' in "Popular Protest in China," Kevin O'Brien ed. Harvard University Press 2008.</ref><ref name=Gutmann>Ethan Gutmann, ''The Chinese Internet: A dream deferred?'', Testimony given at the National Endowment for Democracy panel discussion "Tiananmen 20 years on", 2 June 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
Activists within China adopt their own methods of dissemination, including distributing copies door-to-door, or displaying slogans in public locations.<ref name=CSM/> In rural areas and northern cities such as Beijing, Falun Gong adherents print Tuidang-related slogans on RMB bank notes. The Financial Times reported a typical message as reading "Chinese Communist Party is destined to be destroyed by heaven, the lives of those who resign from the Communist Party will be quickly saved!"<ref>Jamil Anderlini, [http://blogs.ft.com/beyond-brics/2011/07/22/falun-gong-uses-rmb-to-spread-the-word/#axzz1p6UaYK5E Rmb:Falun Gong's new voice], Financial Times blog, 22 July 2011.</ref><br />
<br />
==Withdrawing from the Party==<br />
Following the publication of the Nine Commentaries, The Epoch Times' website began publishing letters from readers stating their desire to sever their affiliations to the [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]], [[Communist Youth League of China|Communist Youth League]] and [[Young Pioneers of China|Young Pioneers]]. The newspaper created a website dedicated to the cause, which featured an online submission form for statements. For reasons of personal safety, many participants sign using aliases.<ref name=FDIC/><br />
<br />
The process of issuing withdrawal statements is referred to in Chinese as "Tuìdǎng" (退党), which can be translated as "withdraw from the party" or "quit the party." The term is something of a misnomer, as average citizens aren't able to officially leave the party and risk imprisonment if they speak out against it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Robertson|first=Matthew|title=Gao Zhisheng To Serve Three Year Prison Sentence|url=http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/china-news/gao-zhisheng-to-serve-three-year-prison-sentence-160267.html|publisher=The Epoch Times Newspaper|accessdate=12 August 2012}}</ref> Many participants feel, however, that leaving the CCP is a moral act, one that separates them from the CCP's history of violence and corruption. This is analogous to a German living under Nazi rule formally stating that he (or she) does not support the actions of the Nazi regime, and is not a part of that political movement.<br />
<br />
As of August 2011, The Epoch Times has posted over 100 million names and aliases of Tuidang participants. Due to the anonymous nature of the statements, these numbers are difficult to verify.<ref name=CSM/><ref name=Thornton/> Nonetheless, says Ethan Gutmann, "the significance is very real. [The Tuidang statements] are promissory gestures of rejection from Chinese citizens of all backgrounds and beliefs. And while the numbers are as shaky as any Internet-based survey, I think we can say with confidence that it is well into the millions."<ref name=Gutmann/><br />
<br />
==Notable participants==<br />
A number of high-profile Chinese dissidents are counted among the Tuidang movement's participants. These include [[Wei Jingsheng]], a leader of the 1978 Beijing Spring democracy movement; [[Weiquan movement|human rights lawyers]] including [[Gao Zhisheng]], [[Guo Guoting]],<ref name=Steel>Kevin Steel, 'Revolution number nine,' ''The Western Standard'', 11 July 2005.</ref> and [[Zheng Enchong]]; and defectors [[Chen Yonglin]], [[Hao Fengjun]] and [[Li Fengzhi]].<ref name=Gertz>Bill Gertz, [http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/mar/19/exclusive-chinese-spy-who-defected-tells-all/ 'Chinese spy who defects tells all'], ''Washington Times'', 19 March 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
Other participants whose stories have attracted media attention are Masha Ma, a University of Toronto graduate student who resigned from the Communist Party after watching a documentary on the Tiananmen Square Massacre and reading the Nine Commentaries.<ref name=Steel/> 74-year-old Ding Weikun, Communist Party veteran from Zhejiang Province renounced his membership after he was jailed his protests against a land grab by the local government in his village.<ref name=CSM/><br />
<br />
==Communist Party response==<br />
The Communist Party authorities and public security agencies have responded to the Tuidang movement through censorship and coercive measures, including the arrest of dozens of participants.<ref name=CSM/> A 2005 study conducted jointly by researchers from Harvard University, Cambridge University and the University of Toronto found that words related to the Tuidang movement were the most intensively censored terms on the Chinese internet.<ref>Jonathan Zittrain et al, [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=706681 "Internet Filtering in China in 2004-2005: A Country Study"] April 15, 2005.</ref> A series of editorials published in the journal of the [[People's Liberation Army]] in March 2011 intended to refute the demands of reformers contained an inadvertent admission that the Tuidang movement was having an effect of undermining morale within the military's rank and file.<ref>Ching Cheong, [http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/opinion/china-prepares-for-war-without-gun-smoke/435812 'China prepares for war without gun smoke'], Jakarta Globe, 16 April 2011.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{commons category}}<br />
* [[Protest and dissent in the People's Republic of China]]<br />
* [[Charter 08]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://tuidang.epochtimes.com/ Tuidang movement homepage]<br />
{{Falun Gong}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tuidang Movement}}<br />
[[Category:Chinese democracy movement]]<br />
[[Category:Political movements]]<br />
[[Category:Political repression in China]]<br />
[[Category:2004 establishments in China]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Religionsfreiheit_in_China&diff=168568256Religionsfreiheit in China2013-07-22T22:50:33Z<p>Moxy: Reverted edits by 178.94.230.10 (talk) to last version by 75.147.241.82</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Freedom of religion in the People's Republic of China''' is provided for by the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|country's constitution]],<ref name=constitution>[[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]], Chapter 2, Article 36.</ref> with an important caveat. Namely, the government protects what it calls "normal religious activity," defined in practice as activities that take place within government-sanctioned religious organizations and registered places of [[worship]]. Human rights bodies have criticized this differentiation as falling short of international standards for the protection of religious freedom.<ref name=CECC2011>Congressional-Executive Commission on China, [http://www.cecc.gov/pages/annualRpt/annualRpt11/AR2011final.pdf Annual Report 2011], Oct 2011.</ref><br />
<br />
China's five officially sanctioned religious organizations are the [[Buddhist Association of China]], [[Chinese Taoist Association]], [[Islamic Association of China]], [[Three-Self Patriotic Movement]] and [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association]]. These groups are afforded a degree protection, but are subject to restrictions and controls under the [[State Administration for Religious Affairs]]. Unregistered religious groups—including [[Chinese house church|house churches]], [[Falun Gong]], [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhists]], underground [[Catholics]], and [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] Muslims—face varying degrees of harassment, including imprisonment, torture, and [[forced conversion|forced religious conversion]].<ref name=CECC2011/><br />
<br />
== Legal framework ==<br />
The constitution of the People's Republic of China states “Citizens of the People’s Republic of China enjoy freedom of religion. No state organ, public organization or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not to believe in, any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens because they do, or do not believe in religion." This protection is extended only to what is called "normal religious activity," generally understood to refer to religions that submit to state control via the State Administration for Religious Affairs.<ref name=IRFR2010/> The Constitution further forbids the use of religion to "engage in activities that disrupt social order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the educational system of the state. Religious organizations and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign dominance.”<ref name=constitution/><br />
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The law affords protection to five officially sanctioned religions: the [[Buddhist Association of China]], [[Chinese Taoist Association]], [[Islamic Association of China]], [[Three-Self Patriotic Movement]] and [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association]]. Religious groups are required to register with the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA, formerly known as the central Religious Affairs Bureau) or its provincial and local offices (still known as Religious Affairs Bureaus (RABs)). SARA and the RABs are responsible for monitoring and judging the legitimacy of religious activity.<br />
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Proselytizing is only permitted in private settings or within registered houses of worship. Proselytization in public, in unregistered churches or temples, or by foreigners is prohibited.<ref name=IRFR2010/> Members of the officially atheist [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]] are strongly discouraged from holding religious faith.<ref>Xinhua News Agency, [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90785/7681240.html 'CPC members shall not believe in religion: senior official'], 19 Dec 2011.</ref><br />
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A significant number of non-sanctioned churches and temples exist, attended by locals and foreigners alike. Unregistered or underground churches are not officially banned, but are not permitted to openly conduct religious services. These bodies may face varying degrees of interference, harassment, and persecution by state and party organs. In some instances, unregistered religious believers and leaders have been charged with "illegal religious activities" or "disrupting social stability."<ref name=IRFR2010/> Religious believers have also been charged under article 300 of the criminal code, which forbids using heretical organizations to "undermine the implementation of the law."<ref name="Amnesty1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA17/011/2000/en/7a361a8e-df70-11dd-acaa-7d9091d4638f/asa170112000en.html |title=China: The crackdown on Falun Gong and other so-called 'heretical organizations'|date=23 March 2000|publisher=Amnesty International|accessdate=17 March 2010}}</ref> An extrajudicial, Communist Party-led security organ called the [[6-10 Office]] oversees the suppression of Falun Gong and, increasingly, other unregistered religious organizations.<ref name=Jamestown>Sarah Cook and Leeshai Lemish, [http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=38411&cHash=2dff246d80ffd78112de97e280ce9725 ‘The 610 Office:Policing the Chinese Spirit’], China Brief , Volume 11 Issue 17 (9 November 2011).</ref><ref name=CECC2009>Congressional-Executive Commission on China, [http://www.cecc.gov/pages/annualRpt/annualRpt09/CECCannRpt2009.pdf ‘Annual Report 2009’], 10 October 2009</ref><br />
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Folk religions, though not officially protected, are sometimes tolerated by authorities. The State Administration for Religious Affairs has created a department to oversee the management of folk religion.<ref>United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, [http://www.uscirf.gov/images/book%20with%20cover%20for%20web.pdf Annual Report 2011], May 2011.</ref><br />
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==Christianity==<br />
{{Main|Christianity in China}}<br />
Christianity has had a presence in China dating as far back as the [[Tang dynasty]], and accumulated a following in China with the arrival of large numbers of missionaries during the [[Qing dynasty]]. Missionaries were expelled from China in 1949 when the Communist Party came to power, and the religion was associated with Western imperialism. However, Christianity experienced a resurgence of popularity since the reforms under [[Deng Xiaoping]] in the late 1970s and 1980s. By 2011, approximately 60 million Chinese citizens were estimated to be practicing Protestantism or Catholicism. The majority of these do not belong to the state-sanctioned churches.<ref name=Gardam>Tim Gardam, [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-14838749 Christians in China: Is the country in spiritual crisis?] BBC, 11 Sept 2011.</ref><br />
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Religious practices are still often tightly controlled by government authorities. Chinese over age 18 in Mainland China are permitted to be involved with officially sanctioned Christian meetings through the [[Three-Self Patriotic Movement]] or the [[Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association]]s.<br />
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===Roman Catholicism===<br />
{{Main|Roman Catholicism in China}}<br />
[[File:Catholic Church Cizhong Yunnan China.jpg|thumb|right|A Roman Catholic church by the Lancang (Mekong) River at Cizhong, Yunnan Province, China]]<br />
China is home to an estimated 12 million Catholics, the majority of whom worship outside the official [[Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association]] (CPA). The State Administration for Religious Affairs states that there are 5.3 million Catholics belonging to the official Catholic Patriotic Association, which oversees 70 bishops, and approximately 6,000 churches nationwide.<ref name=IRFR2010>U.S Department of State, [http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010/148863.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2010: China], 17 Nov 2010.</ref> In addition, there are roughly 40 bishops unordained by the CPA who operate unofficially, and recognize the authority of the Vatican.<ref name=IRFR2010/><br />
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The state-sanctioned church appoints its own bishops, and as with all official religious, exercises control over the doctrine and leadership of the religion.<ref name=CECC2011/> As a matter of maintaining autonomy and rejecting foreign intervention, the official church has no official contact with the [[Roman Catholic Church|Vatican]], and does not recognize its authority. However, the CPA has allowed for unofficial Vatican approval of ordinations. Although the CPA continues to carry out ordinations opposed by the Holy See, the majority of CPA bishops are now recognized by both authorities.<ref name=Gardam/> In addition to overseeing the practice of the Catholic faith, the CPA espouses politically oriented objectives as well. [[Liu Bainian]], chairman of the CPA and the Bishops Conference of the Catholic Church in China, stated in a 2011 interview that the church needed individuals who "love the country and love religion: politically, they should respect the Constitution, respect the law, and fervently love the socialist motherland.’’<ref name=CECC2011/><br />
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Some Catholics who recognize the authority of the Holy See choose to worship clandestinely due to the risk of harassment from authorities. Several underground Catholic bishops have been reported disappeared or imprisoned, and harassment of unregistered bishops and priests is common.<ref name=IRFR2010/> There are reports of Catholic bishops and priests being forced by authorities to attend the ordination ceremonies for bishops who had not gained Vatican approval.<ref name=CECC2011/> Chinese authorities also have reportedly pressured Catholics to break communion with the Vatican by requiring them to renounce an essential belief in Roman Catholicism, the [[papal primacy|primacy]] of the Roman Pontiff. In other instances, however, authorities have permitted Vatican-loyal churches to carry out operations.<ref name=IRFR2010/><br />
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===Protestantism===<br />
{{Main|Protestantism in China}}<br />
The [[Three-Self Patriotic Movement]], National Committee of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement of the Protestant Churches in China; the Three-Self Church) or "TSPM" is the government-sanctioned ("patriotic") [[Christian]] organization in the [[People's Republic of China]]. Known in combination with the [[China Christian Council]] as the [[lianghui]], they form the only state-sanctioned ("registered") [[Protestant]] church in [[mainland China]]. All other Protestant denominations are illegal.<br />
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[[Chinese house church]]es are a religious movement of unregistered assemblies of [[Christian]]s in the People's Republic of China, which operate independently of the government-run Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) and China Christian Council (CCC) for Protestant groups and the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association (CCPA) and the Chinese Catholic Bishops Council (CCBC) for Catholics. They are also known as the "Underground" Church or the "Unofficial" Church, although this is somewhat of a misnomer as they are collections of unrelated individual churches rather than a single unified church. They are called "house churches" because as they are not officially registered organizations, they cannot independently own property and hence they meet in private houses, often in secret for fear of arrest or imprisonment.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q-7pfn04PxAC&pg=PA95&dq=falun+homosexuality&cd=7#v=onepage&q=house%20churches&f=false |title=Understanding modern East Asian politics<br />
|first=Christian |last=Schafferer |year=2005 |isbn=1-59454-505-7}}</ref><br />
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==Buddhism==<br />
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===Tibetan Buddhism===<br />
{{Main|Tibetan Buddhism}}<br />
[[File:IMG 1972 Sakya.jpg|thumb|right|Two young Tibetan Buddhists at the Sakya Monastery in southern Tibet]]<br />
The People's Republic of China took full control of [[Tibet]] in 1959. In the wake of the takeover and especially during the [[cultural revolution]] many [[Buddhist monastery|monasteries]] were destroyed and many [[monk]]s and laypeople killed. The [[14th Dalai Lama]] fled to India and has since ceded temporal power to an elected government-in-exile. The current [[Dalai Lama]] has attempted to negotiate with the Chinese authorities for greater autonomy and religious freedom for Tibet. As various high-ranking [[Lama]]s in the country have died, the authorities have proposed their own candidates on the religious authorities, which has led at times to rival claimants to the same position. In an effort to control this, the Chinese government passed a law in 2007 requiring a [[Reincarnation Application]] be completed and approved for all lamas wishing to reincarnate.<ref name="Daily">{{cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-08/04/content_5448242.htm|date=4 August 2007|title=Reincarnation of living Buddha needs gov't approval|publisher=China Daily|accessdate=2007-08-09}}</ref><br />
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The present incarnation of the [[Panchen Lama]] is disputed. The Dalai Lama recognises [[Gedhun Choekyi Nyima]]; however, the Chinese government recognises [[Gyaincain Norbu]] as the incarnation of the 11th Panchen Lama.<ref>China Tibet Information Center [http://zt.tibet.cn/tibetzt/panchen/banchan.html The 11th Panchen]</ref> Exile Tibetan sources allege that Gedhun Choekyi Nyima was kidnapped by the Chinese government.<ref>BBC news, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4551425.stm Tibet's Missing Spiritual Guide], May 6, 2005</ref> The identity of the Panchen Lama is of critical importance{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}} to Tibetan Buddhism because he is one of the authorities that must approve the next Dalai Lama.<br />
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==Taoism==<br />
[[Taoism|Taoist]] practitioners are required to register with the state-controlled Chinese Taoist Association (CTA), which exercises control over religious doctrine and personnel.<ref name=CECC2011/> Local governments restrict the construction of Taoist temples and statues, and call for abandonment of practices they deem to be "superstitious" or "feudal." The CTA dictates the proper interpretation of Taoist doctrine, and exhorts Taoist practitioners to support the Communist Party and the state. For example, a Taoist scripture reading class held by the CTA in November 2010 required participants to ‘‘fervently love the socialist motherland [and] uphold the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party.’’<ref name=CECC2011/><br />
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==Islam==<br />
[[File:Hui family eid.jpg|thumb|left|An ethnic Hui family celebrates Eid]]<br />
The State Administration for Religious Affairs places the number of Muslims in China at approximately 21 million, while independent estimates suggest the number could be upwards of 50 million.<ref name=IRFR2010/> According to a 2000 census, 96 percent of 20.3 million reported Muslims belong to three ethnic groups: Hui, Uyghur, and Kazakh. Most Hui Muslims live in [[Ningxia]], [[Qinghai]], and [[Gansu]] provinces, while Uyghur Muslims are found predominantly in the [[Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]] (XUAR).<ref name=IRFR2010/><br />
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The state-run Islamic Association of China (IAC) oversees the practice of Islam, though many Muslims worship outside the state system. The IAC regulates the content of sermons and interpretation of religious scripture, exercises control over the confirmation of religious leaders, and monitors overseas pilgrimages. In 2001, the IAC established a committee to ensure that scriptures were interpreted in a manner to serve the interests of the Chinese government and Communist Party.<ref name=CECC2011/> Authorities in Xinjiang impose rigid controls over religious expression, particularly Islam. Human rights reports indicate that crackdowns on religion are frequently integrated into security campaigns.<ref name=CECC2011/> Authorities monitor mosques, restrict the observation of Ramadan, and enact campaigns to prevent Muslim men from wearing beards.<ref name=CECC2011/> Muslims worshiping independently have been detained and charged with conducting "illegal religious activities."<ref name=IRFR2010/><br />
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==Falun Gong==<br />
{{Main|History of Falun Gong|Falun Gong}}<br />
<!-- [[File:Falun-Dafa-Practice-beijing.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Pre-Persecution Group Practice of Falun Gong in [[Beijing]], [[China]]]] --><br />
Falun Gong has been the focus of international attention since July 20, 1999, when the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) began a nationwide crackdown, except in the [[Special administrative region (People's Republic of China)|special administrative regions]] of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]]. The Chinese government banned the group for allegedly engaging in "illegal activities, advocating superstition and spreading fallacies, hoodwinking people, inciting and creating disturbances, and jeopardizing social stability."<ref>[http://english.people.com.cn/special/fagong/1999072200A101.html "China Bans Falun Gong"], (July 22, 1999) ''People's Daily Online'', retrieved June 14, 2006</ref> Several governments, international human rights organizations and scholars consider the ban a human rights violation. Particular concerns have been raised over reports of torture, beatings, executions, illegal imprisonment, forced labour, psychiatric abuses, and live organ harvesting of Falun Gong practitioners in China.<ref name=amnesty1>[http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engASA170112000 The crackdown on Falun Gong and other so-called ''heretical organizations''], Amnesty International, 23 March 2000</ref><ref>[http://www.faluninfo.net/displayAnArticle.asp?ID=5983 U.S. Congress Unanimously Passes Resolution Calling on Jiang Zemin Regime to Cease Persecution of Falun Gong], Falun Dafa Information Center, July 25, 2002</ref><ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/hrcn1073.doc.htm Press Release HR/CN/1073], United Nations, February 4, 2004, retrieved September 12, 2006</ref> Amnesty stated that "the crackdown is politically motivated, with legislation being used retroactively to convict people on {{Sic|hide=y|politically|-}}driven charges, and new regulations introduced to further restrict fundamental freedoms."<ref name=amnesty1/><br />
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Article 36 Citizens of the People’s Republic of China enjoy freedom of religious belief.<br />
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No State organ, public organization or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not to believe in, any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in, or do not believe in, any religion.<br />
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The State protects normal religious activities. No one may make use of religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the educational system of the State.<br />
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Religious bodies and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign domination.<br />
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Article 37 Freedom of the person of citizens of the People’s Republic of China is inviolable.<br />
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==References==<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{cite web<br />
| url = http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148863.htm<br />
| title = International Religious Freedom Report 2010 - PRC<br />
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{{Asia topic|Freedom of religion in}}<br />
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[[Category:Religion in China]]<br />
[[Category:Freedom of religion by country|China]]<br />
[[Category:Human rights in China]]<br />
[[Category:Torture in China]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917449420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2013-05-22T14:27:52Z<p>Moxy: no need for child edit...</p>
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<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = jones<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term used primarily in North America that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and by extension, as way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]], and also simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. (with some sources also indicating 4:20 a.m.<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref>), on any given day, as well as smoking cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date format by country|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
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== Origins ==<br />
A widely discussed story says that a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origination of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
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Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
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== April 20 observances ==<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors_Hill_Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at UC Santa Cruz caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009, which stated in part "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the University and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|230px|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* {{portal-inline|Cannabis}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917414420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2013-04-29T15:14:31Z<p>Moxy: rv copy and paste from http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=4%3A20</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term used primarily in North America that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]], as well as simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. (with some sources also indicating 4:20 a.m.<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref>), on any given day, as well as smoking cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date format by country|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A widely discussed story says that a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origination of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors_Hill_Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at UC Santa Cruz caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009, which stated in part "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the University and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|230px|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
Contemporary counterculture author and occultist Victor Cypert, on the website for the rock band Tool, has pointed to a passage from the story [[In the Walls of Eryx]] by the pulp fiction author H. P. Lovecraft and Kenneth J. Sterling, written in January 1936, as a possible origin for the number "4:20" being code for smoking marijuana:<br />
<br />
"Although everything was spinning perilously, I tried to start in the right direction and hack my way ahead. My route must have been far from straight, for it seemed hours before I was free of the mirage-plant's pervasive influence. Gradually the dancing lights began to disappear, and the shimmering spectral scenery began to assume the aspect of solidity. When I did get wholly clear I looked at my watch and was astonished to find the time was only 4:20. Though eternities had seemed to pass, the whole experience could have consumed little more than a half-hour."<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Hash Bash]] at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor<br />
* {{portal-inline|Cannabis}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917413420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2013-04-29T15:12:59Z<p>Moxy: Undid revision 552734385 by 83.117.196.245 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term used primarily in North America that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]], as well as simply cannabis itself. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. (with some sources also indicating 4:20 a.m.<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref>), on any given day, as well as smoking cannabis on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date format by country|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A widely discussed story says that a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origination of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
The coincidence of this number with the return on April 20, 1941 of the Emperor [[Haile Selassie I]] (worshipped as the returned [[Messiah]] by [[Rastafarians]]) to his native Ethiopia following the expulsion of the Italians by the British (as related by [[Sir Winston Churchill]] in his book [[The Second World War]]), as well as the annual celebration of his visit to [[Jamaica]] on the same day {{cite web|url=http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110102/lead/lead6.html|title=Haile Selassie Celebration - Rastafarians To Commemorate The 45th Anniversary Of Selassie's Three-Day Visit In April}}, suggests a different explanation for the origin of this number.<br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors_Hill_Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]] at the [[Alberta Legislature Building]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmontonsun.com/2013/04/20/hundreds-of-tokers-flood-alberta-legislature-in-protest-to-push-for-legalization-of-marijuana|title=Hundreds of Tokers Flood Alberta Legislature in Protest to Push for Legalization of Marijuana|accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at UC Santa Cruz caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009, which stated in part "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the University and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|230px|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
Contemporary counterculture author and occultist Victor Cypert, on the website for the rock band Tool, has pointed to a passage from the story [[In the Walls of Eryx]] by the pulp fiction author H. P. Lovecraft and Kenneth J. Sterling, written in January 1936, as a possible origin for the number "4:20" being code for smoking marijuana:<br />
<br />
"Although everything was spinning perilously, I tried to start in the right direction and hack my way ahead. My route must have been far from straight, for it seemed hours before I was free of the mirage-plant's pervasive influence. Gradually the dancing lights began to disappear, and the shimmering spectral scenery began to assume the aspect of solidity. When I did get wholly clear I looked at my watch and was astonished to find the time was only 4:20. Though eternities had seemed to pass, the whole experience could have consumed little more than a half-hour."<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Hash Bash]] at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor<br />
* {{portal-inline|Cannabis}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917376420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2013-04-22T15:49:59Z<p>Moxy: Undid revision 551647758 by Unknowntoyou1 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term used primarily in North America that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]]. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. (with some sources also indicating 4:20am<ref name="philly">{{cite news|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/breaking/How_420_became_a_marijuana_holiday.html|title=How 420 became a marijuana holiday|last=Chris Goldstein|date=April 17, 2013|work=[[Philadelphia Media Network]]|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref>), as well as on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date format by country|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
A widely discussed story says that a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school",<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/> [[Mike Edison]] says that [[Steve Hager]] of ''[[High Times]]'' was responsible for taking the story about the Waldos to "mind-boggling, cult like extremes" and "suppressing" all other stories about the origination of the term.<ref name="Edison2009">{{cite book|last=Edison|first=Mike|title=I Have Fun Everywhere I Go: Savage Tales of Pot, Porn, Punk Rock, Pro Wrestling, Talking Apes, Evil Bosses, Dirty Blues, American Heroes, and the Most Notorious Magazines in the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207|accessdate=20 April 2013|date=2009-05-12|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=9780865479036|pages=207–}}</ref><br />
<br />
Hager wrote "Are You Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=Stoner Smart, or Stoner Stupid?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
April 20 has become a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors_Hill_Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> The growing size of the unofficial event at UC Santa Cruz caused the Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs to send an e-mail to parents in 2009, which stated in part "The growth in scale of this activity has become a concern for both the University and surrounding community."<ref name="SCS2009">{{cite news | url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719|title=Mom and Dad now know about '4/20' | first=Genevieve | last=Bookwalter|date=04/07/2009|work=Santa Cruz Sentinel|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|230px|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Hash Bash]] at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor<br />
* {{portal-inline|Cannabis}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Secular holidays]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917353420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2013-04-20T16:49:55Z<p>Moxy: copy and past from http://books.google.ca/books?id=y9lMGpb0HD4C&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&dq=And+dig+Bob+Dylan%E2%80%99s+Stoner+anthem+Rainy+Day+Woman+%23+12+%26+35,+better+known+as+%E2%80%9CEverybody+Must+Get+Stoned,%E2%80%9D+%E2%80%94+12+multiplied+by+35+is+42</p>
<hr />
<div>{{pp-protected|expiry=2013-04-22T00:00:00Z|small=yes}}<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term used primarily in North America that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]]. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. as well as on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date format by country|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
The earliest use of the term began among a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]], in 1971,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school".<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The group first used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/><br />
<br />
''[[High Times]]'' editor [[Steven Hager]] wrote "Are You Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=STONER SMART, OR STONER STUPID?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
April 20 has evolved into a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors_Hill_Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|230px|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Hash Bash]] at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor<br />
* {{portal-inline|Cannabis}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number] by Ryan Grim, ''The Huffington Post'', April 20, 2009<br />
* [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719 Mom and Dad now know about '4/20'] by Gevevieve Bookwalter, ''Santa Cruz Sentinel'', April 7, 2009<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917351420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2013-04-20T16:42:43Z<p>Moxy: unsourced and not formatted</p>
<hr />
<div>{{pp-protected|expiry=2013-04-22T00:00:00Z|small=yes}}<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]], which is said to be the site of the original 4:20 gatherings.<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a code-term used primarily in North America that refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]]. Observances based on the number 420 include smoking cannabis around the time 4:20 p.m. as well as on the date April 20 (4/20 in [[Date format by country|American form]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
The earliest use of the term began among a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]], in 1971,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school".<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The group first used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/><br />
<br />
''[[High Times]]'' editor [[Steven Hager]] wrote "Are You Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=STONER SMART, OR STONER STUPID?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadhead|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
April 20 has evolved into a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. North American observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com<br />
|date=2010-04-20<br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and [[Majors_Hill_Park|Major's Hill Park]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> as well as Vancouver, British Columbia at the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|230px|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Hash Bash]] at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor<br />
* {{portal-inline|Cannabis}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number] by Ryan Grim, ''The Huffington Post'', April 20, 2009<br />
* [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719 Mom and Dad now know about '4/20'] by Gevevieve Bookwalter, ''Santa Cruz Sentinel'', April 7, 2009<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917317420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2013-04-17T23:05:15Z<p>Moxy: not sure what this is</p>
<hr />
<div><!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]].<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a term used primarily in North America to refer to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]]. Observances based on the number include the time (4:20 p.m.) as well as the date (April 20).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
The earliest use of the term began among a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]] in 1971,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school".<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The group first used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/><br />
<br />
''[[High Times]]'' editor [[Steven Hager]] wrote "Are You Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=STONER SMART, OR STONER STUPID?|year=2008|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> He attributes the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadheads|Grateful Dead followers]], who were also linked to the city of San Rafael.<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
April 20 has evolved into a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the legalization of cannabis. Observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/ <br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com <br />
|date=2010-04-20 <br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and Major's Hill<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> Vancouver, British Columbia at the Vancouver Art Gallery.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> Events have also occurred in [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather for a "420 Day" event at a meadow near the Santa Cruz campus on April 20, 2007.]]<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Hash Bash]] at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|420 (cannabis culture)}}<br />
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number] by Ryan Grim, ''The Huffington Post'', April 20, 2009<br />
* [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719 Mom and Dad now know about '4/20'] by Gevevieve Bookwalter, ''Santa Cruz Sentinel'', April 7, 2009<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OC_Transpo&diff=121404834OC Transpo2013-01-22T21:59:45Z<p>Moxy: Major code fix and filling in 15 references using Reflinks</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Coord|45|24|44.5|N|75|37|55.5|W|display=title}}<br />
{{Infobox Bus transit<br />
| name = OC Transpo<br />
| logo = OCTranspo red small.png<br />
| logo_size = 250<br />
| image = St-Laurent Station.JPG|250px<br />
| image_size =<br />
| image_caption =<br />
| company_slogan =<br />
| parent =<br />
| founded =<br />
| headquarters = 1500 [[St. Laurent Boulevard]]<br />
| locale = [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]]<br />
| service_area = [[National Capital Region (Canada)|National Capital Region]]<br />
| service_type = [[bus service]], [[paratransit]], [[bus rapid transit]], [[light rail]]<br />
| alliance =<br />
| routes = 136 (includes school routes)<br />
| destinations =<br />
| stops =<br />
| hubs =<br />
| stations =<br />
| lounge =<br />
| fleet = 1 048 [[OC Transpo#Active fleet|buses]], 91 [[OC Transpo#Para Transpo|wheel trans buses]], 9 [[O-Train#Fleet|light rail cars]] <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.octranspo1.com/about-octranspo/bus_fleet |title=OC Transpo - Bus Fleet |publisher=Octranspo1.com |date=2010-12-31 |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref><br />
| ridership = 535,600<ref name=ridership>{{cite web|url=http://www.apta.com/resources/statistics/Documents/Ridership/2010_q1_ridership_APTA.pdf|publisher=American Public Transportation Association |title=APTA transit ridership report, First Quarter, 2010|date = 2010-06-01|format=PDF|accessdate=2010-07-06}}</ref><br />
| fuel_type = [[Biodiesel]], [[Diesel fuel|Diesel]], [[Hybrid electric bus|Hybrid Technology]], [[Ultra-low sulfur diesel|Ultra-low Sulfur Diesel]]<br />
| operator = [[City of Ottawa]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ottawa.ca/city_hall/charts/index_en.html |title=City of Ottawa, Main Administrative Structure |publisher=Ottawa.ca |date= |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref><br />
| ceo = <br />
| website = [http://www.octranspo1.com/ www.octranspo1.com]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''OC Transpo''' is the urban transit service of the City of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. An integrated [[hub-and-spoke]] system of services is available consisting of: (1) regular buses travelling on fixed routes in mixed traffic, typical of most urban transit systems; (2) a [[bus rapid transit]] (BRT) system — a high frequency bus service operating on the [[Ottawa Rapid Transit|transitway]] — a network of mostly grade-separated dedicated bus lanes within their own right-of-way and having full stations with Park & Ride facilities further supported by on-road reserved bus lanes and priority traffic signal controls; (3) a [[light rail]] transit (LRT) system known as the ''[[Ottawa O-Train|O-Train]]'' operating on one north-south route; and (4) a door-to-door bus service for the disabled known as ParaTranspo. In December 2012, Council approved a major infrastructure project to build a 12.5&nbsp;km east-west LRT line, the [[Confederation Line]] through the downtown to replace the existing BRT by 2017.<ref name="DISPOSITION 47">{{cite web |url=http://app05.ottawa.ca/sirepub/cache/2/k3uovt5ags24s2ctntpj1asr/371691220201205104498.PDF |title=1. DESIGN, BUILD, FINANCE AND MAINTENANCE OF OTTAWA’S LIGHT RAIL TRANSIT (OLRT) PROJECT |author= |date=19 December 2012 |work=DISPOSITION 47 |publisher=Ottawa City Council |accessdate=December 2012}}</ref> <br />
<br />
OC Transpo routes also provides service to the downtown core of the nearby city of [[Gatineau]], [[Quebec]], especially during rush hour. Rush-hour service is also provided to a park and ride lot in the [[Russell, Ontario|Township of Russell]].<br />
<br />
== Features ==<br />
OC Transpo currently has a fleet of 1,048 buses (as of September 2011) that run on regular streets, all of which are fully accessible.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://octranspo.com/admin/Facts_Figures/Facts_active.htm| title=Active fleet facts| publisher=OC Transpo}}</ref> The vast majority of regular routes are served by [[low-floor bus]]es. OC Transpo utilizes many [[articulated bus]]es to provide service. Some of the routes that run on the Transitway, including the city's most-used bus routes, are served almost exclusively by articulated buses (e.g. [[OC Transpo Route 95|95]], [[OC Transpo Route 96|96]], and [[OC Transpo Route 97|97]]). It is the most expansive public transportion in Canada.<br />
<br />
[[File:otrain.jpg|thumb|left|The [[O-Train]] at [[Carleton University]]]]<br />
In 2001, a pilot diesel-powered [[light rail]] service project, known as the [[Ottawa O-Train|O-Train]], was introduced. The local government had announced expansion plans for the light rail to other parts of Ottawa, including a possible link to the [[Ottawa Macdonald-Cartier International Airport|Ottawa International Airport]]. Service to [[Gatineau]] would have also been possible, over the nearby [[Prince of Wales Bridge|Prince of Wales railway bridge]] over the [[Ottawa River]]. However, on December 14, 2006, [[Ottawa City Council|City Council]] led by Mayor [[Larry O'Brien (Canadian politician)|Larry O'Brien]] had cancelled the north-south extension project. A new model of the project, to have a city-wide integrated light rail system, has been made and the revised project should be completed by 2007, with work beginning as early as 2008. This new project envisions rapid LRT service at metro standard on the original Transiways from [[Baseline Station]] in the west to [[Blair Station]] in the east. The current gap between the east end west branches of Transitway will be replaced by a new downtown Subway under Queen and Rideau streets with 3 150 meter underground stations. The [[O-Train]] will be converted to a dual track LRT metro and extended to [[Riverside South, Ottawa|Riverside South]] and include a spur to the [[Ottawa Macdonald-Cartier International Airport]], thus creating direct airport to downtown service. As for the suburbs, they will be served by 65&nbsp;km of new Transitways. The first phase of the project includes 12.5&nbsp;km of rail between [[Tunney's Pasture]] and Blair including the downtown subway.<br />
<br />
For a number of years, OC Transpo has carried [[Bicycle carrier|bicycle rack]]s on some routes as a part of the "Rack&Roll" campaign. These racks carry up to two bicycles at the front of the bus, and fold up against the bus when not in use. Although it started only on three routes, this service has been expanded to include routes 1, [[OC Transpo Route 2|2]], [[OC Transpo Route 4|4]], 7, 12, 14, 85, [[OC Transpo Route 95|95]], [[OC Transpo Route 96|96]], [[OC Transpo Route 97|97]], [[OC Transpo Route 99|99]] [[OC Transpo Route 101|101]], [[OC Transpo Route 102|102]], 105, 118, the [[O-Train]], all articulated (long) buses<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.octranspo1.com/routes/rack_roll |title=OC Transpo Rack & Roll Page |publisher=Octranspo1.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref> and several new Invero low-floor buses (in addition, bike racks do randomly end up on other routes from time to time). Traditionally, the racks have been available only between April and October, and there has been much debate over continuing the program throughout the year. However, cyclists may use the racks at any time, on any bus that is equipped with a rack (including routes that don't normally offer them), provided there is room for the cyclist in the bus.<br />
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There are four bus depots located throughout the city. The largest and headquarters is located at 1500 [[St. Laurent Boulevard]], with two other smaller but frequently used depots being located at 168 Colonnade Road (Merivale Garage) and the other on Queensview Drive (Pinecrest Garage). A depot which opened its doors late 2010 is located on Industrial Ave. The Queensview and Colonnade garages are usually for employees working during the rush hour and generally not used during weekends. For the latter two stations, it consists mostly of older buses although some articulated buses (in the 60xx's) can be found at Colonnade and other low-floor buses at both Colonnade (Inveros in the 42xx's) and Queensview (Orion VI).<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early history===<br />
{{further|Ottawa Electric Railway}}<br />
Ottawa's first public transportation system began in 1886 with the operation of a [[horsecar]] system.{{sfn|Wetering|1997|pp=28}} The horse-drawn streetcars travelled back and fourth from [[New Edinburgh]] to the [[Chaudière Bridge]].{{sfn|Wetering|1997|pp=28}} The horsecar would remain a staple means of public transportation until 1891 after [[Thomas Ahearn]] founded the [[Ottawa Electric Railway|Ottawa Electric Railway Company]]. This private enterprise eventually provided heated streetcar service covering the downtown core.{{sfn|Wetering|1997|pp=28}} Electricity had been employed in a few places in Ottawa since the first demonstration of the incandescent bulb in 1883 (the earliest were Parliament Hill and [[LeBreton Flats]]).{{sfn|Woods|pp=162}} In May 1885, electric lighting commenced in the city. In 1885 council contracted [[Hydro Ottawa|Ottawa Electric Light Company]] to install 165 arc lamps on the city's streets.{{sfn|Woods|pp=162}}<br />
<br />
===1973: Formation===<br />
Transit in Ottawa was provided by the [[Ottawa Transportation Commission]] until 1973, when transit service in the city and its suburbs was transferred to the auspices of the [[Regional Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton]]. Its formal name was the '''Ottawa-Carleton Regional Transit Commission''', but the service would be promoted in both English and French under the '''OC Transpo''' name, whose OC initials are derived from '''O'''ttawa-'''C'''arleton.<br />
<br />
===1979: Strike===<br />
The 20-day 1979 strike was fought over a wage difference of a nickel and became known as "the five-cent bus strike." A pay increase of 16.5% was rejected by the union.<ref name=NP09Dec2008>{{cite news | url=http://www.nationalpost.com/news/canada/story.html?id=1052073 | publisher=[[National Post]] | title=<br />
Ottawa transit talks break off, strike looms | date=2008-12-09 | accessdate=2009-01-21 }}</ref><br />
<br />
===1980s: Transitway===<br />
{{Main|Ottawa Rapid Transit}}<br />
In the early 1980s, OC Transpo began planning for a [[bus rapid transit]] system, the Transitway. Construction of its various stations and segments followed over many years. The first segments were from [[Baseline Station (OC Transpo)|Baseline]] to [[Lincoln Fields Station (OC Transpo)|Lincoln Fields]] in the west end and from [[Lees Station (OC Transpo)|Lees]] to [[Hurdman Station (OC Transpo)|Hurdman]] in the east end.<br />
<br />
===1996: Strike===<br />
The second strike for OC Transpo ran from November 25, 1996 to December 16. The strike ended under arbitration.<ref name=NP09Dec2008 /><br />
<br />
===1999 shooting===<br />
On Tuesday April 6, 1999, former OC Transpo employee Pierre Lebrun shot six people, killing four, in a shooting spree at OC Transpo's St. Laurent Boulevard garage, before killing himself.<ref name=Gunman>{{Cite news |title=Gunman opens fire in Ottawa, killing five |url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/1999/04/06/shooting990406.html |publisher=CBC News |date=1999-04-06 |accessdate=2010-10-15}}</ref><ref name=Persists>{{Cite news |title=Workplace mistrust persists, 10 years after OC Transpo shooting: driver |url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/ottawa/story/2009/04/06/ot-090406-transit-shooting.html |publisher=CBC News |date=2009-04-06 |accessdate=2010-10-15}}</ref> Lebrun had been fired in August 1997 but was later reinstated, and quit in 1998.<ref name=Persists/><ref name=Memorials>{{Cite news |title=Memorials planned for Ottawa transit shooting victims |url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/1999/04/08/shooting990408.html |publisher=CBC News |date=1999-04-08 |accessdate=2010-10-15}}</ref><br />
<br />
An inquest into the shooting revealed that Lebrun had been the subject of teasing for his [[speech impediment]], and that his complaints to management had not been investigated.<ref name=Wraps>{{Cite news |title=OC Transpo inquest wraps up |url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2000/02/22/octranspo000222.html |publisher=CBC News |date=2000-11-11 |accessdate=2010-10-15}}</ref> The inquest revealed an "atmosphere of [[bullying]]", described as a "poisoned" [[Hostile work environment|environment]] by an [[Employment equity (Canada)|employment equity]] manager.<ref name=Persists/><ref name=Wraps/> In response, OC Transpo instigated zero-tolerance policies regarding workplace [[harassment]], a new employee-management communications program, and increased training on workplace respect.<ref name=Indepth>{{Cite news |title=Dying for a job - Health-care workers beware |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/workplace-safety/sick-workplace.html |work=Indepth: Workplace Safety |publisher=CBC News |date=2006-04-24 |accessdate=2010-10-15}}</ref> However, studies in 2003 and 2004 found there to be lingering elements of a negative work environment,<ref name=Indepth/> and employee-management communication was reported to be strained following the 1996 strike.<ref name=Persists/><br />
<br />
===History from 2001 to October, 2008===<br />
<br />
====Transition to new city government====<br />
The province of Ontario ordered the amalgamation of the [[Regional Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton]] and its component municipalities into a single City of Ottawa municipality. When the new local governance took effect in 2001, OC Transpo became a department of the new city.<br />
<br />
Following amalgamation, a [[bilingual]] [[Backronym#Replacement|replacement backronym]] for "OC" was sought, but no suitable candidates have been found. The now-ambiguous acronym has been kept, instead of the costly task of replacing the decals on all buses, bus stops, bus stations, and promotional material.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}<br />
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====December 12, 2005: Southwest Transitway extension====<br />
A new section of the southwest Transitway opened on December 12, 2005, between the [[Nepean Sportsplex]] and Fallowfield Station. The new section runs parallel to [[Woodroffe Avenue (Ottawa)|Woodroffe Avenue]] and was built at a cost of $10 million. The new section has no stations and has replaced service along [[Woodroffe Avenue (Ottawa)|Woodroffe Avenue]] between the Nepean Sportsplex and [[Fallowfield Station]]. There are further plans to extend the Transitway south into the heart of the ever-growing community of [[Barrhaven]] where a new station called [[Strandherd Station (OC Transpo)|Strandherd]] opened on January 2, 2007. There are also long range plans for other extensions in the [[Orléans, Ontario|Orleans]] and [[Kanata]] areas to keep up with more growing communities there too.<br />
<br />
====December 14, 2006: Light Rail Expansion cancellation====<br />
During the [[Ottawa municipal election, 2006|2006 municipal election campaign]], [[Larry O'Brien (Canadian politician)|Larry O'Brien]] (who would be elected as mayor) was sceptical of the project's benefits, and promised to cancel the project if elected, assuming the City's legal position did not preclude this{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}. After multiple votes deciding the fate of the city's [[Ottawa O-Train#Beyond the pilot: Extension and electrification|north-south light rail expansion project]], post-election City Council decided to annul the project by a margin of 13-11 on December 14, 2006.<br />
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===December 2008-February 2009: ATU 279 strike===<br />
OC Transpo drivers, dispatchers, and maintenance workers under [[Amalgamated Transit Union]] local 279 went on [[Strike action|strike]] December 10, 2008 at 12:01am.<ref name=CBC10Dec2008>{{cite news | url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/ottawa/story/2008/12/09/transit-strike.html | publisher=[[CBC News]] | title=Push to call transit 'essential' fails; Ottawa bus strike continues | date=2008-12-10 | accessdate=2008-12-21 }}</ref> The main causes of the strike were disagreements between the City of Ottawa and the union regarding scheduling, payroll and seniority. [[Rona Ambrose]], the [[Minister of Labour (Canada)|Federal Minister of Labour]] ordered a union membership vote on January 8, 2009 on the city's contract proposal<ref name=OC05Jan2009>{{cite news | url=http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/story.html?id=13bfabce-c3c9-481e-ae03-ece4ce2bd245 | publisher=[[Ottawa Citizen]] | title=Don't 'bow down,' striking transit workers told | date=2009-01-05 | accessdate=2009-01-05}}</ref> in response to a request from [[mayor]] [[Larry O'Brien (Canadian politician)|Larry O'Brien]].<ref name=NP01Jan2009>{{cite news | url=http://www.nationalpost.com/news/story.html?id=1132084 | publisher=[[National Post]] | title=Ambrose orders Ottawa transit union to vote on strike resolution | date=2009-01-01 | accessdate=2009-01-04}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Both the city and the union published their positions on respective websites.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.octranspo.com/mapscheds/Contingency/FAQ_ATU_Offer.htm | title = Frequently Asked Questions: City’s Final Offer of Settlement to ATU | accessdate = 2009-01-30 | publisher = OC Transpo}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ottawatransitstrike.com/ | title = Ottawa Transit Strike - Amalgamated Transit Union, Local 279 | publisher = [[Amalgamated Transit Union]] Local 279 | accessdate = 2008-01-29 }}</ref> Vote results released on January 9, 2009 revealed that of those eligible to vote, 64% rejected the offer.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.cbc.ca/canada/ottawa/story/2009/01/07/ot-090107-transit-vote.html | title = Ottawa transit strike still on as union members reject contract offer | work = [[CBC News]] | date = 2009-01-09 | accessdate = 2009-01-30 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Meetings were held with a mediator throughout the month, but talks were repeatedly broken off. The ATU had requested to send all issues not related to scheduling to arbitration, which the city refused as they requested all issues to be sent to an arbitrator. As the strike entered the 50th day, Ambrose, who had initially refused to table back-to-work legislation, announced that such legislation would be introduced. However, on January 29, the city and the ATU reached a deal that sent every issue to binding arbitration, thus ending the 51-day long strike.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.cbc.ca/canada/ottawa/story/2009/01/29/ot-090129-strike-ends.html | title = City, union reach deal to end Ottawa transit strike | accessdate = 2009-01-30 | date = 2009-01-29 | work = [[CBC News]]}}</ref> On February 2, 2009 the O-Train started service after being out of service due to the strike. Buses followed the following Monday February 9, 2009. Not all buses returned at once and OC Transpo said that all buses and routes were due to return by April 6, 2009. OC Transpo offered free transit for a week. December pass holders could either use their December passes until March, or could get a refund. December pass holders were also subject to a 60% discount on March passes in order to win back transit users.<br />
<br />
==OC Transpo routes==<br />
{{Main|OC Transpo routes}}<br />
OC Transpo has approximately 136 bus routes that are grouped both by their number and the colour with which they are represented on system maps and on bus stop flags.<br />
<br />
==Active fleet==<br />
[[File:Octranspobusinside.JPG|thumb|Inside an OC Transpo bus]]<br />
<br />
* '''Source''':[http://www.angelfire.com/ca/TORONTO/octranspo.html]<br />
Only models with at least some buses currently in service are listed, and the number in fleet is based on the number originally ordered. All GMDD models of 1982 or before (also known by many as [[GM New Look (Fishbowl) Bus|fishbowls]] or [[GM New Look (Fishbowl) Bus|New Looks]]) were retired by the beginning of April. <br />
<br />
In 2006 and 2007, OC Transpo evaluated a double-decker bus on the Transitway and express routes. This bus, an [[Enviro500]] built by British firm [[Alexander Dennis]], can carry nearly 100 passengers. The initial service demonstration ran from June 28 to July 12, 2006, with a further demonstration under winter conditions in February 2007. The City of Ottawa purchased three Enviro500 buses and they were delivered in November 2008. OC Transpo decals were added to the buses in December, but the [[OC Transpo#December 2008-February 2009: ATU 279 strike|strike]] delayed the introduction of these buses. The buses started service in February. <br />
<br />
The OC Transpo fleet numbering scheme changed in 1999. Prior to 1999, the two last digits of the year of purchase were the first two digits of the fleet number. The scheme was changed because OC Transpo ordered 140 Orion 06.501, and also because buses purchased in 2000 would have been in the 0000 series, which was not favoured by the computer system. The new numbering scheme starts with 4 for 40-foot buses, 6 for 60-foot buses, 1 for the Enviro500 double-decker buses, and 5 for the Orion VII NG HEV, followed by a three-digit consecutive fleet number.<br />
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[[File:Articulated bus Ottawa 11 2011 3507.jpg|thumb|left|OC Transpo articulated bus in downtown Ottawa]]<br />
<br />
In August 2010, OC Transpo took advantage of an offer by [[New Flyer Industries]], replacing 226 of its older 60-foot D60LF articulated buses (purchased between 2001 and 2004), and replacing then with brand new D60LFR models. The bus exchange was completed in March 2011. OC Transpo also received other incentives as part of the deal, including rebates on the trading-in of the old buses and a credit on new parts. Eighty new D60LFR articulated buses were also purchased from New Flyer, bringing the combined total to 306 buses.<ref name="ottawacitizen.com">[http://www.ottawacitizen.com/news/Fast+track+deal+approved+council/2963744/story.html Ottawa Citizen story on new articulated bus purchase]{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://newflyer.com/index/news-app/story.80 |title=New Flyer story on new articulated bus purchase |publisher=Newflyer.com |date=2010-04-28 |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref> All of the 2001-2004 D60LFs are now retired. Some of the older [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D60LF sixty-foot articulated buses have caught on fire during the summer of 2006 and the Summer/Fall of 2010, due to overheating engines, effectively putting them out of service.<br />
<br />
OC Transpo has created a business plan for their bus fleet. The plan includes a purchase of 75 more Enviro500 double-decker buses to replace the older 40-foot models currently in service (namely the buses purchased between 1997 and 1999). These extra double-decker buses would be used mainly on express routes. Double-decker buses use about the same amount of fuel as an articulated 60-foot bus, but only take up the same road area as a regular 40 foot bus, meaning they free up space (especially downtown), and provide increased passenger capacity. This will help lower OC Transpo's operating costs. As a result of the purchase, the 60-foot articulated buses will be moved from express routes to Transitway and other mainline routes, replacing the 40-foot models currently used on some trips by those routes. Those 40-foot models will replace the older 40-foot models currently used on local routes. The older 40-foot buses will be retired from service.<ref>[http://www.octranspo1.com/about-octranspo/transit_planning ]{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref> This plan was approved by the Transit Commission on April 20, 2011. The extra 75 Alexander Dennis E500 double-decker buses are expected to be in service between fall 2012 and spring 2013. <br />
<br />
However, not everything about the new double-decker buses is good news. Advocates against the purchase of the new double-decker buses have said the buses are too top-heavy and prone to tipping over, and the maintenance of the fleet was complicated by adding buses from another manufacturer (OC Transpo already had buses from New Flyer and Orion before purchasing the double-deckers from Alexander Dennis). In cold and wet weather, condensation is prone to collecting on the roof of the upper deck, dripping on passengers below.<ref>{{cite web|last=Reevely |first=David |url=http://www.ottawacitizen.com/news/ottawa/Condensation+means+rain+inside+double+decker+buses/7716144/story.html |title=Condensation means 'rain' inside double-decker buses, passengers complain |publisher=Ottawacitizen.com |date=2012-12-18 |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref> Accessibility is also an issue with new buses, because the ramps on the double-deckers are also not well suited for express routes, where buses travel on various roads without proper sidewalks, and the wheelchair spots have seat belts that do not function as well as those found on the rest of the fleet. <br />
<br />
On July 12, 2011, OC Transpo announced that all remaining high floor buses were retired.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.octranspo1.com/about-octranspo/news/39295#news-39295 |title=OC Transpo - News |publisher=Octranspo1.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref><br />
<br />
The first few double-decker buses arrived in [[Ottawa]] on August 23, 2012. The following day Ottawa mayor Jim Watson and transit chair Diane Deans introduced the first of the 75 double-decker buses at a ceremony at Ottawa city hall. The new double-deckers are starting to enter service in October 2012, and will be primarily used on express routes from [[Kanata, Ontario|Kanata]], [[Barrhaven]], and [[Orleans, Ontario|Orleans]].<ref name="octranspo1.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.octranspo1.com/about-octranspo/new_double_decker_buses_arriving_in_2012 |title=OC Transpo - NEW Double Decker buses arriving in 2012 |publisher=Octranspo1.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref> Express routes 35, 61, and 77 were the first three routes to use the new buses, with several other express routes receiving them over the following months, as they became available. Rapid transit route 93 is also using the new buses.<br />
<br />
Two of the new double-decker buses were in service as of September 10, 2012, and were temporarily used on express routes 22 and 30 (serving Orleans). This lasted until a [[sinkhole]] on [[Regional Road 174]] was fixed in mid-September.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.octranspo1.com/?from=splash |title=Welcome to OC Transpo |publisher=Octranspo1.com |date=2013-01-01 |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref><br />
<br />
Eight double-decker buses entered service on October 15, 2012, on routes 30, 35, 38, 60, 61, 62, 70, 71, 76, and 77. Six more entered service on October 29, 2012, on routes 20, 21, 31, 34, 41, 68, and 93. On November 5, 2012, six more entered service, bringing the total number of double-deckers in service to 20 buses, and introducing them on route 66 in addition to the aforementioned routes. As of January 21, 2013, 37 buses are in service.<ref name="octranspo1.com"/><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center; border:0; margin-top:0.2em; background:#hhhhhh; width:100%;"<br />
|-<br />
! '''Model'''<br />
|| '''Year'''<br />
|| '''Bus Numbers'''<br />
| '''No. In Fleet*'''<br />
|| '''Notes'''<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] VI 06.501 {{access icon|15px}}<br />
| 1999–2000 || 4001-4140 || 140<br />
| These buses are low-floor allowing full access for strollers and wheelchairs. Buses numbered 4010, 4139 and 4140 received bike racks for one season only.<br>They are used on various local routes, and some express route and peak route trips.<br>Some retired and will be replaced by the new double-deckers.<br />
|-<br />
| [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D40i "Invero" {{access icon|15px}}<br />
| 2003 || 4201-4202 || 2<br />
| This order of two buses was the first order of Inveros. Bus number 4201 was sent ahead as a demo. All New Flyer D40i Invero models (buses 4201-4526) have working Thermo King air conditioning and are low-floor and fully accessible for wheelchairs and strollers.<br />
|-<br />
| [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D40i "Invero" {{access icon|15px}}<br />
| 2004 || 4203-4273 || 71<br />
| On September 20, 2005, the 4200 and 4300 series buses had been governed to 50&nbsp;km/h because of steering problems caused during high speeds.<ref name="titcomb">Titcomb, Bert. _"[http://www.transport2000.ca/Hotlines/hl050923.htm Transport 2000 Canada Hot Line : 2 - Ottawa bus confusion]"_. 23 September 2005. Transport 2000 Canada. Accessed May 15, 2008.</ref> According to Transport 2000 "several bus drivers reported that the front end of the bus vibrates when driven at more than 60&nbsp;km/h."<ref name="titcomb"/> An ''Operations and Safety'' Memorandum claims that on Friday, 21 October 2005, steering dampers where to be installed on one hundred and nine Invero buses and that the governors were to be raised to 100&nbsp;km/h on buses 4201 to 4227 (except bus 4205), resolving the problems.<ref>Zinck, Peter. _"Invero Steering Problems Resolved"_ Memorandum, Bulletin No: 305/05, 19 October 2005, City of Ottawa - Operations and Safety, Accessed 15 May 2008.</ref> Bus 4209 suffered an engine fire in November 2010. Bus 4244 suffered a brake fire in June 2011.<br />
|-<br />
| [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D40i "Invero" {{access icon|15px}}<br />
| 2005–2006 || 4274-4439 || 166<br />
| Bus number 4299 was crashed into a median en route to the stop at [[Queensway Station (OC Transpo)|Queensway Station]]. It has been rebuilt and has re-entered service. <br>Buses 4427 to 4439 are equipped with bike racks between May and October.<br />
|-<br />
| [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D40i "Invero" {{access icon|15px}}<br />
| 2007 || 4440-4526 || 87<br />
| Bus number 4444 is used for Ottawa's Santa Claus Parade.<br>All have entered service as of October 2007.<br>The drivers seat has arm rests and the stop-request chime is different from all other OC Transpo buses.<br>These buses are equipped with bike racks between May and October.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] VII 07.501 NG HEV {{access icon|15px}}<br />
| 2008–2009 || 5001-5177 || 177<br />
| These vehicles are diesel-electric hybrids, and therefore they are mostly used on routes that do not use the Transitway or highways.<br>Most bus routes that use 40 foot buses use these buses. Some express trips also use them, because these buses replaced a lot of older high-floor buses previously used during peak periods.<br>Buses 5001 and 5002 were the first to arrive in November 2008. As of July 2010, all 177 buses have entered service. Bus 5117 was involved in a major accident in August 2010 and has re-entered service June 22, 2011.<br />
|-<br />
| [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D60LF {{access icon|15px}}<br />
| 2008 || 6351-6398 || 48<br />
| As of October 16, 2008, buses numbered 6351-6398 have entered service. Bus number 6394 had a special wrapping for the Transitway Anniversary, but it was removed in April 2010.<br>There was a recall on these buses because of overheating brakes, so New Flyer Industries sent the required parts to fix this problem.<br>The Axion destination signs look the same but when there is something written, it is pushed to one side. The route number displayed on the rear of these buses are larger and more readable than those on the New Flyer D60LF buses from 2001-2004.<br>Bus number 6387 was in a collision with a 5 ton truck in downtown Ottawa. On August 1, 2010, bus 6391 was involved in a major front end collision when it rear-ended bus 4290. Bus 6391 has since re-entered service.<br>All New Flyer D60LF and New Flyer D60LFR models are [[articulated bus]]es and all are fully accessible for strollers and the disabled.<br>These buses are equipped with bike racks between May and October.<br />
|-<br />
| [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D60LF {{access icon|15px}}<br />
| 2009–2010 || 6399-6403 || 5<br />
| Bus number 6399 arrived during the last week of 2009, and buses 6400-6403 arrived the week of January 17–23, 2010. Bus number 6399 entered service January 29, 2010. Since, buses 6400-6403 have also entered service.<br>They use the same bus design, and the same Axion destination signs (front, side, back), as buses 6351-6398 from 2008 (see above).<br>These buses are equipped with bike racks between May and October.<br />
|-<br />
| [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D60LFR {{access icon|15px}}<br />
| 2010–2011 || 6404-6709 || 306<br />
| They are 226 buses that have replaced the [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D60LF buses from 2001–2004, and 80 new buses that expanded OC Transpo's bus fleet. All arrived in Ottawa between August 2010 and March 2011.<ref name="ottawacitizen.com"/><br>The 306 buses came from two different manufacturing plants in Minnesota. Buses 6404-6579 came from St. Cloud and buses 6580-6709 came from Crookston.<br/>Starting in September 2010, OC Transpo received deliveries of fifteen D60LFR buses a week.<br/>The first bus, 6404, entered service on August 30, 2010. As of April 4, 2011, all 2011 D60LFR buses have entered service.<br>All of these buses come with the Next Stop Announcement System already installed.<br>These buses are equipped with bike racks between May and October.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Alexander Dennis]] [[Enviro500]] {{access icon|15px}} || 2012-2013 || 8001-8075 || 75* || [[Double-decker bus]]es purchased by OC Transpo for use on its express routes. Expected to be in service in 2012-2013. Newer model than buses 1201-1203 (see Retired fleet) with a redesigned front end. <br> Bus 8003 arrived in Ottawa on August 23, 2012. <br> Two of these buses entered service on September 10 on routes 22 and 30 due to a sinkhole which caused lane closures on Regional Road 174. <br> The first eight buses entered service on October 15, 2012. As of January 21, 2013, 37 buses are in service. <br> All double-decker buses are equipped with bike racks between May and October. <br />
|-<br />
| [[Bombardier Transportation|Bombardier]] [[Talent (train)|Talent]] BR643 {{access icon|15px}}<br />
| 2000 || C1-C3 || 3 || This is the light-rail vehicle used by OC Transpo for the O-Train, which runs North/South between [[Bayview Station (OC Transpo)|Bayview Station]] and [[Greenboro Station (OC Transpo)|Greenboro Station]].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{access icon|15px}} denotes wheelchair accessibility<br />
<br />
==Retired fleet==<br />
<br />
* This is a list of retired GM, Ford, Orion Bus Industries, Nova, and Alexander Dennis bus fleets.<ref>{{cite web|author=Alan Gryfe, agryfe@usa.net |url=http://www.angelfire.com/ca/TORONTO/octranspo.html |title=OC TRANSPO (1AU72-present) Fleet |publisher=Angelfire.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center; border:0; margin-top:0.2em; font-size:100%; background:#fff;"<br />
|-<br />
! style="text-align: left;" | ''GM and Ford Buses''<br />
|-<br />
| style="border:solid 1px silver; padding:8px; background:white; text-align:left;"|<br />
<br />
===GM and other buses===<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center; border:0; margin-top:0.2em; background:#hhhhhh; width:100%;"<br />
|-<br />
| '''Model''' || '''Year''' || '''Bus Numbers'''<br />
| '''No. In Fleet*''' || '''Notes'''<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] TDH-5301<br />
| 1961 || 6101-6112 || 12<br />
| 6101 was preserved to its historical fleet<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] TDH-5301<br />
| 1962 || 6221-6230 || 10 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] TDH-5303<br />
| 1963 || 6331-6340 || 10 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] TDH-5303<br />
| 1964 || 6441-6452 || 12 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] TDH-5303<br />
| 1965 || 6561-6573 || 13 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] TDH-5303<br />
| 1966 || 6674-6697 || 24 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] TDH-5303<br />
| 1967 || 6701-6726 || 26 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5305<br />
| 1968 || 6831-6850 || 20 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5305<br />
| 1969 || 6961-6990 || 30 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5305<br />
| 1970 || 7001-7020 || 20 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5305<br />
| 1971 || 7121-7140 || 20 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1972–1973 || 7241-7290 || 50<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1972–1973 || 7301-7320 & 7331-7357<br />
| 47 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1974 || 7401-7460 || 60 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1975 || 5701-5769 || 69<br />
| The first two numbers were switched from the year the buses were built, due to heavy demand for buses for that year.<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1975 || 7501-7545 & 7551-7570 || 65 || Retired by 2003<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1976 || 7601-7653 || 53 || Retired in 2003-2004<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1977 || 7701-7765 || 65 || Retired in 2004-2005. 7742 and 7757 were sold to the STO and remain in active service with the same fleet numbers.<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1978 || 7801-7858 || 58 || Fully retired in 2006<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1979 || 7901-7930 || 30 || 7926 returned to service in September after being temporarily retired in mid-August, finally being put to rest in late-March 2007. Last series equipped with a single rear exit door.<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1980 || 8001-8012 || 12 || Last series equipped with rear exit push bar doors. Fully retired in April 2007<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1981 || 8101-8122 || 22 || Fully retired in April 2007<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] TA60-102N<br />
| 1982 || 8201-8221 || 21<br />
| First articulated buses purchased, some of them from the [[Hamilton Street Railway]]. Sold off in the late 1980s. One briefly returned to service in 1999 until 2002, renumbered 8222.<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] T6H-5307N<br />
| 1982 || 8231-8240 || 10 || 8238 was the last New Look in service - Retired April 17, 2007.<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] TC40-102N<br />
| 1984 || 8401-8425 || 25 || Retired in 2004-2005. 8413 was sold to the STO.<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] TC40-102N<br />
| 1985 || 8541-8555 || 15<br />
| Fully retired in April 2007. 8545 was sold to the [[Société de Transport de l'Outaouais (STO)|Société de transport de l'Outaouais (STO)]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Diesel Division Buses|GMDD]] TC40-102N<br />
| 1987 || 8765-8799 || 35<br />
| Fully retired as of December 1, 2009. 8792 was the last unit in service.<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Corporation|GMC]] T6H-4523A<br />
| 1973 || 1751–1755 || 5 || Purchased from [[Big Blue Bus|Santa Monica Transit]] in 1995 and quickly sold.<br />
|-<br />
| [[General Motors Corporation|GMC]] T8H-5307A<br />
| 1973 || 1756–1770 || 15<br />
| Purchased from Santa Monica Transit in 1995. Only 12 actually entered service. Retired in 2003.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Motor Coach Industries|MCI]] TC40-102N<br />
| 1988–1989 || 8901-8960 || 60<br />
| These buses have all been retired as of June 2010. These buses contained roll signs. Many of these buses had lots of rust near the window frames, the headlights and the ad signs on the side of the buses - especially those painted in the original scheme. Several of the buses had been repainted in the maple leaf scheme and they showed little signs of rust.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Motor Coach Industries|MCI]] TC40-102A<br />
| 1991 || 9101-9125 || 25<br />
| These buses have all been retired as of June 2010. 9110-9119 were former sightseeing buses and all of these buses had roll signs.<br />
|-<br />
| [[NovaBus]] TC40-102A || 1993 || 9301-9330<br />
| 30<br />
| 9302 was retired due to collision with a fuel tanker truck.<ref>http://ottawabuspage.fotopic.net/p31199049.html{{Dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref> 9307, 9309, 9311, 9314, 9315 and 9316 were leased to [[Société de transport de Laval]] but most have returned after the opening of the [[Montreal Metro]]'s [[Line 2 Orange (Montreal Metro)|Orange Line]] extension to [[Laval, Quebec|Laval]]. Theses buses had inoperative Sutrak A/C units on the roof. 9304 was also retired due to an accident in March 2010. Buses 9307, 9311, 9321 and 9326 were the last ones to remain in service in June 2010.<br />
|-<br />
| [[NovaBus]] LFS || 1997 || 9721-9740<br />
| 20<br />
| These buses all retired on July 12, 2011 (with the remaining Orion V's) and some have been sold to [[Saskatoon Transit]] & [[Guelph Transit]].<br />
|-<br />
| [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] [[Ford E-Series|E450]]<br />
| 2005 || 2601 || 1<br />
| This minibus operated primarily on Route 123.<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center; border:0; margin-top:0.2em; font-size:100%; background:#fff;"<br />
|-<br />
! style="text-align: left;" | ''New Flyer Industries''<br />
|-<br />
| style="border:solid 1px silver; padding:8px; background:white; text-align:left;"|<br />
<br />
===New Flyer buses===<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center; border:0; margin-top:0.2em; background:#hhhhhh; width:100%;"<br />
|-<br />
| [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D40HF<br />
| 1989–1990 || 9001-9055 ||55<br />
| These buses have all been retired. 9054 was completely rebuilt after major accident. 9026-9050 had roll signs and 9001-9025 had green luminator on its signs. All of these buses were repainted to the Maple Leaf. Last units retire March 31, 2010.<br />
|-<br />
|| [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D40HF<br />
| 1992 || 9201-9227 ||27<br />
| These buses have all been retired. 9211-9227 had green luminators and 9201-9210 had Balios signs. They also had Sutrak A/C units but these were disconnected in the mid 1990s. 9203 was retired September 30, 2008. Its last run was E-125. All of these buses were repainted to the Maple Leaf. Last units retire March 31, 2010.<br />
|-<br />
|| [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D60LF<br />
| 2001–2002 || 6001-6100, 6102-6178 ||177<br />
| These buses have all been retired by March 2011 and have been replaced by the D60LFRs. 6101 was skipped because it is the number of a historically important bus in Ottawa's history. 6017 caught fire and didn't enter service until December 2006. These buses were equipped with bike racks.<br />
|-<br />
|| [[New Flyer Industries|New Flyer]] D60LF<br />
| 2003–2004 || 6301-6350 ||50<br />
| These buses have all been retired by March 2011 and have been replaced by the D60LFRs. These buses used the same design as the 2001-2002 D60LFs. These buses used Ultra-Low Sulphur Diesel engines. These buses were equipped with bike racks.<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center; border:0; margin-top:0.2em; font-size:100%; background:#fff;"<br />
|-<br />
! style="text-align: left;" | ''Orion Bus Industries''<br />
|-<br />
| style="border:solid 1px silver; padding:8px; background:white; text-align:left;"|<br />
<br />
===Orion buses===<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center; border:0; margin-top:0.2em; background:#hhhhhh; width:100%;"<br />
|-<br />
| '''Model''' || '''Year''' || '''Bus Numbers'''<br />
| '''No. In Fleet*''' || '''Notes'''<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] I 01.501 || 1978<br />
| 8801-8832 || 32 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] I 01.501 || 1982<br />
| 8241-8266 || 36 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] I 01.501 || 1983<br />
| 8371-8392 || 22<br />
| 8390 is preserved in the historical fleet.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] III 03.501 || 1985–1986<br />
| 8501-8533 || 33<br />
| First Orion-Ikarus articulated buses (a rebadged [[Crown-Ikarus 286]]{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}). 8501 is preserved to its historical fleet and parts of 8529 are used to refurbish 8501.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] III 03.501 || 1987<br />
| 8601-8655 || 55<br />
| Some buses were equipped with newer powertrains prior to retirement in 2003<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] III 03.501 || 1987<br />
| 8719-8764 || 46 ||<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] III 03.501 || 1988<br />
| 8841-8870 || 29 <br />
| This series was equipped with 4-piece exit doors (since the 2-piece exit doors built on the previous models would always shut on people as they were exiting)<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] III 03.501 || 1988–1989<br />
| 8875-8899 || 25<br />
| Purchased from the [[Toronto Transit Commission]] in 1997-1998 (This series was equipped with 4-piece exit doors).<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] V 05.501<br />
| 1990–1991 || 9126-9150 || 25<br />
| Fully retired by May 2007 due to premature corrosion. Five units (9137, 9142, 9144, 9145, 9147) remained in the original paint scheme, while the rest were repainted to the maple leaf scheme.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] V 05.501<br />
| 1992 || 9231-9258 || 28<br />
| Fully retired by July 2007 due to premature corrosion. All buses were repainted to the maple leaf scheme.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] V 05.501<br />
| 1997–1998 || 9701-9720 || 20<br />
| Fully retired by July 12, 2011. <br />
|-<br />
| [[Orion Bus Industries|Orion]] V 05.501<br />
| 1998 || 9801-9885 || 85<br />
| Fully retired by July 12, 2011. These were the last high-floor buses purchased by OC Transpo, and the last high-floor buses to retire in the fleet.<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center; border:0; margin-top:0.2em; font-size:100%; background:#fff;"<br />
|-<br />
! style="text-align: left;" | ''Alexander Dennis Buses''<br />
|-<br />
| style="border:solid 1px silver; padding:8px; background:white; text-align:left;"|<br />
<br />
===Alexander Dennis Buses===<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center; border:0; margin-top:0.2em; background:#hhhhhh; width:100%;"<br />
|-<br />
| '''Model''' || '''Year''' || '''Bus Numbers'''<br />
| '''No. In Fleet*''' || '''Notes'''<br />
|-<br />
| [[Alexander Dennis]] [[Enviro500]] <br />
| 2008-2009 || 1201-1203 || 3<br />
| These double-decker buses were used as a pilot project, and have been sold to [[BC Transit]]. The last day of service was on June 22, 2012 with 1202 being the only one in serivce.<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fares==<br />
OC Transpo fares can be paid in [[coin]]s or [[bus ticket]]s, which are must be purchased in advance at various retail outlets or [[Ottawa Rapid Transit#Rapid transit stations|bus stations]] for a lower fare ($1.30 each). Transfers are given to passengers upon boarding and are valid for minimum 90 minutes in any direction, with stopovers allowed.<br />
<br />
OC Transpo has 2 levels of fares for its buses:<br />
* Regular fare ($3.30, or 2 tickets)<br />
* Express fare ($4.65, or 3 tickets)<br />
<br />
Additionally, children 6 to 11 can ride for $1.10, or 1 ticket, and children age 5 and younger ride free. Full-day passes are $7.75 and can only be purchased on the bus.<br />
<br />
Tickets for the [[O-Train]] light rail line are $2.85 each, and are sold at O-train stations. They can be exchanged for bus transfers.<br />
<br />
Monthly and annual passes are also available for all route classes with cost differences for adults, students, and seniors. Passes require OC Transpo photo ID card, which available at extra cost. Additionally, Ecopasses (reduced-rate monthly passes) are available through participating employers in the city, providing applicable OC Transpo riders with single-card indefinite passes in exchange for a flat bi-weekly, semi-monthly or monthly payroll deduction.<br />
<br />
As of the December 1, 2005, fare increase, OC Transpo had the highest basic cash bus fares of any major transit service in Canada.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} This fare was matched by [[Société de transport de l'Outaouais|STO]], the transit operator across the [[Ottawa River]] in [[Gatineau]], [[Québec]] on January 1, 2006. OC Transpo & [[York Region Transit]] have the highest cash fares in Canada, at $3.50.<br />
<br />
On July 2008, fares were increased by 7.5% because of a shortage in funding for the [[City of Ottawa]]. This fare hike was supposed to be in effect until 2010 including a 6.5% hike in 2009. This meant Ottawa residents saw regular adult passes rise from $73 a month to $81 and adult express passes from $90 to $101 a month. However, cash fares remained the same.<ref>{{cite web|last=Citizen |first=Ottawa |url=http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=1977e375-2fa4-47e1-a04c-d4e8c683c177&k=21176 |title=Council OKs average 7.5% bus fare hike |publisher=Canada.com |date=2007-12-12 |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref><br />
<br />
On 18 January 2013, OC Transpo starting the final testing of its Presto Card deployment as part of the NEXT-ON program. Ten thousand customers who take the bus frequently were able to order a Presto Card online or pick one up at select OC Transpo transitway stations, and use it for OC Transpo's final testing of the prepaid cards. As of 19 January 2013, most of the 10,000 Presto cards have been purchased. A limited number of Presto cards are still available at [[Baseline Station]] on 22 January 2013, and at [[Fallowfield Station (OC Transpo)|Fallowfield Station]] on 24 January 2013. A final release date for Presto in [[Ottawa]] is still unknown.<br />
<br />
===History of Fares===<br />
This table only lists the Regular Adult cash fares.<br />
{| BORDER="0" CELLPADDING="3" CELLSPACING="0" <br />
|- style="text-align:center; background:#e0e0e0;"<br />
! style="text-align:center;"| Year<br />
! style="text-align:center;"| Rate<br />
! style="text-align:center;"| Rate in constant 2012 dollars<ref>{{cite web|author=Bank of Canada |url=http://www.bankofcanada.ca/rates/related/inflation-calculator |title=Inflation Calculator - Bank of Canada |publisher=Bankofcanada.ca |date= |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref><br />
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1951<br />
|| $0.10<br />
|| $0.85<br />
|- style="text-align:center; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1954<br />
|| $0.15<br />
|| $1.29<br />
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1961<br />
|| $0.20<br />
|| $1.55<br />
|- style="text-align:center; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1968<br />
|| $0.25<br />
|| $1.59<br />
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1970<br />
|| $0.30<br />
|| $1.79<br />
|- style="text-align:center; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1976<br />
|| $0.40<br />
|| $1.53<br />
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1977<br />
|| $0.50<br />
|| $1.76<br />
|- style="text-align:center; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1978<br />
|| $0.55<br />
|| $1.77<br />
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1980<br />
|| $0.60<br />
|| $1.59<br />
|- style="text-align:center; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1981<br />
|| $0.65<br />
|| $1.54<br />
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1984<br />
|| $0.90<br />
|| $1.79<br />
|- style="text-align:center; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1986 (peak hours)<br />
|| $1.50<br />
|| $2.74<br />
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 1986 (off-peak hours)<ref>http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=b64yAAAAIBAJ&sjid=c-4FAAAAIBAJ&pg=5056,5218234&dq=carlingwood&hl=en</ref><br />
|| $0.75<br />
|| $1.37<br />
|- style="text-align:center; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 2009<br />
|| $3.00<br />
|| $3.17<br />
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 2010<br />
|| $3.25<br />
|| $3.37<br />
|- style="text-align:center; text-align:center;"<br />
|| 2012<br />
|| $3.30<br />
|| $3.30<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Para Transpo==<br />
'''Para Transpo''' is an accessible [[paratransit]] service available to Ottawa patrons who find it extremely difficult or impossible to use the conventional OC Transpo routes. Service is provided directly to the residences of eligible users who book trip appointments with a call centre at least one day in advance. Para Transpo drivers will provide some assistance to passengers to board designated vehicle and to access building entrances.<ref name="Accessible Transit">{{cite web|url=http://www.octranspo.com/acc_menue.htm |title=Accessible Transit |publisher=Octranspo.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-22}}</ref><br />
<br />
Para Transpo operations were contracted to [[FirstGroup plc|First Bus Canada]], previously operated by [[Laidlaw]]. On January 1, 2008, the [[City of Ottawa]] assumed complete control of this service.<ref name="Accessible Transit"/><br />
<br />
The transit strike of 2008 did not interrupt Para Transpo service. However, Para Transpo service did encounter delays, facing the traffic increase due to the strike.<br />
<br />
==Advertising==<br />
Advertising on OC Transpo buses is contracted to [[Pattison Outdoor Advertising]]. Advertising on bus shelters is contracted to [[Clear Channel Outdoor]]. There has also been local funding to advertise on local TV stations such as [[CTV Television Network|CTV]] and [[A (TV system)|A Channel]].<br />
<br />
==Amalgamated Transit Union - Local 279==<br />
The [[Amalgamated Transit Union]], [http://www.atu279.ca/ Local 279] is the OC Transpo employees' union consisting of over 1700 members consisting of bus operators as well as other staffing positions within the company, including mechanics located at various garage depots throughout the city.<br />
<br />
==Gallery of bus models==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Oc9044-sm.jpg|New Flyer D40HF <br>#9044 (1990) (Retired)<br />
File:Oc6036.jpg|New Flyer D60LF <br>#6036 (2001) (Retired)<br />
File:Oc6136.jpg|New Flyer D60LF <br>#6136 (2002) (Retired)<br />
File:Image708.jpg|New Flyer D60LF <br>#6354 (2008)<br />
File:Oc4254-2.jpg|New Flyer Invero <br>#4254 (2004)<br />
File:Oc4285.jpg|New Flyer Invero <br>#4285 (2005)<br />
File:Oc9736.jpg|NovaBus LFS <br>#9736 (1997) (Retired)<br />
File:Oc9257.jpg|Orion V <br>#9257 (1992) (Retired)<br />
File:Oc9819.jpg|Orion V <br>#9819 (1998) (Retired)<br />
File:Oc4067.jpg|Orion VI <br>#4067 (1999)<br />
File:Oc5001.JPG|Orion VII NG HEV <br>#5001 (2008)<br />
File:OC Transpo Orion VII NG HEV.jpg|Orion VII NG HEV <br>#5012 (2009)<br />
File:OC Transpo double-decker bus at Rideau Centre.jpg|Alexander Dennis Enviro500 <br>#1201 (2008) (Retired)<br />
File:OC Transpo double-decker bus on route 97X.jpg|Alexander Dennis Enviro500 <br>#1202 (2008) (Retired)<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Ottawa}}<br />
* [[Ottawa Rapid Transit]]<br />
* [[Société de transport de l'Outaouais]] (STO) in Gatineau, Québec<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Wikibooks|How To Ride The Bus}}<br />
{{wikinewshas|News related to this article|<br />
[[Wikinews:OCTranspo's "new year" of efficiencies?|OC Transpo "new year" of efficiencies?]]<br />
}}<br />
{{Commons category|OC Transpo}}<br />
* [http://www.octranspo.com/ OC Transpo Website]<br />
* [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=M1ARTM0011943 OC Transpo Massacre]<br />
* [http://www.busdrawings.com/Transit/ontario/ottawa/index.htm Drawings and photos of Ottawa Transit buses]<br />
* [http://www.moving-ottawa.ca/ Moving Ottawa - The Mayor of Ottawa's Task Force on Transportation]<br />
* [https://www.prestocard.ca/Home/SplashInit PRESTO Card Website]<br />
{{clr}}<br />
{{Public transit systems in Canada}}<br />
{{Ottawa}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Oc Transpo}}<br />
[[Category:OC Transpo| ]]<br />
[[Category:Transport in Ottawa]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:OC Transpo]]<br />
[[ru:Общественный транспорт в Оттаве]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917194420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2012-04-20T17:34:30Z<p>Moxy: /* Origins */ ce</p>
<hr />
<div>{{pp-protected|expiry=2012-10-19T14:36:58Z|small=yes}}<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]].<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is primarily a term used in North America and refers to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]]. Observances based on the number include the time (4:20 {{p.m.}}) as well as the date ([[April 20]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref> <br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
The earliest use of the term began among a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school,"<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> the group first used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 {{p.m.}} as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword that the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/><br />
<br />
''[[High Times]]'' editor [[Steven Hager]] wrote "Are You Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 {{p.m.}} to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=STONER SMART, OR STONER STUPID?|year=2008|accessdate=04-20-2012}}</ref> He would go on to attribute the early spread of the phrase to [[Deadheads]].<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
<br />
April 20 has evolved into a [[counterculture]] holiday in North America, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the [[decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States]].<br />
<br />
Observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/ <br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com <br />
|date=2010-04-20 <br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]],<ref name=NYT2009 /><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario, at [[Parliament Hill]] and Major's Hill<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> Vancouver, British Columbia at the Vancouver Art Gallery <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref>{{wide image|420 cannabis event at University of Colorado at Boulder - panorama 1.jpg|900px|Panorama of the University of Colorado at Boulder on 20 April 2010.}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Partial View of Hippie Hill in San Francisco.jpg|thumb|Partial View of Golden Gate Park in San Francisco]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather to smoke [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] at a meadow near [[Porter College]] on April 20, 2007—"420 Day".]]<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Hash Bash]] at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor<br />
* [[420 (Family Guy)|420]] ''Family Guy'' episode<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number] by Ryan Grim, ''The Huffington Post'', April 20, 2009<br />
* [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719 Mom and Dad now know about '4/20'] by Gevevieve Bookwalter, ''Santa Cruz Sentinel'', April 7, 2009<br />
* [http://articles.latimes.com/2009/aug/30/image/ig-potculture30 Marijuana's New High Life] by ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''<br />
<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[cs:Světový den marihuany]]<br />
[[es:420 (cannabis)]]<br />
[[fr:420 (cannabis)]]<br />
[[ka:420 (მარიხუანა)]]<br />
[[la:420 (fumatio cannabis)]]<br />
[[nl:420 (cannabiscultuur)]]<br />
[[ja:420 (大麻)]]<br />
[[pt:420 (cultura canábica)]]<br />
[[ru:420 (культура употребления марихуаны)]]<br />
[[fi:420 (kannabiskulttuuri)]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917179420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2012-04-20T02:30:21Z<p>Moxy: /* Origins */ ce</p>
<hr />
<div>{{pp-protected|expiry=2012-10-19T14:36:58Z|small=yes}}<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]].<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') refers to consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]]. Observances based on the number include the time (4:20 {{Smallcaps|p.m.}}) as well as the date ([[April 20]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref> <br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
The earliest use of the term began among a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school,"<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> the group first used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/><br />
<br />
''[[High Times]]'' editor [[Steven Hager]] wrote "Are You Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref name=dead>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=STONER SMART, OR STONER STUPID?|year=2008|accessdate=04-20-2012}}</ref> He would go on to attribute the early spread of the phrase among [[Deadheads]].<ref name=dead/><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:Partial View of Hippie Hill in San Francisco.jpg|thumb|Partial View of Golden Gate Park in San Francisco]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather to smoke [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] at a meadow near [[Porter College]] on April 20, 2007—"420 Day".]]<br />
<br />
April 20 (4/20 in U.S. [[Date and time notation by country#United States|date notation]]) has evolved into a [[counterculture]] holiday, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the [[decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States]].<br />
<br />
Observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/ <br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com <br />
|date=2010-04-20 <br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]], <ref name=point><br />
{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley<br />
|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change<br />
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html<br />
|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have urged students to just say no. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."<br />
|work=[[The New York Times]]<br />
|date=April 19, 2009 |accessdate=April 20, 2009<br />
|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090421092627/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html<br />
| archivedate= 21 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref> <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario at [[Parliament Hill]] and Major's Hill<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> Vancouver, British Columbia at the Vancouver Art Gallery <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref>{{wide image|420 cannabis event at University of Colorado at Boulder - panorama 1.jpg|900px|Panorama of the University of Colorado at Boulder on 20 April 2010.}}<br />
<br />
===Canadian observance===<br />
====Ottawa, Ontario====<br />
Annually, on April 20, thousands of activists gather on [[Parliament Hill]] and Major's Hill to look toward the peace tower as they join each other in smoking marijuana when the clock strikes 4:20. Police keep an eye on protesters to make sure the peace is kept within correlation to law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Montréal, Québec ====<br />
Every year on April 20, thousands of people gather at [[Mount Royal]] monument to celebrate 4/20. Police don't make arrests, although they do make their presence known.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== London, Ontario ====<br />
<br />
Each year on 4/20 thousands gather at Victoria Park downtown to celebrate. Over 2,000 people joined the festivities in 2010 that included live music. London police made a presence but announced they were not going to lay any marijuana related charges. London is also the hometown of Canadian cannabis policy reform advocate [[Marc Emery]].<br />
<br />
==== Toronto, Ontario ====<br />
<br />
Every year on the first Saturday in May (in observance of 4/20), a march takes through the city streets in advocacy of legalizing marijuana. The march ends up at Queen's Park Circle just north of the Ontario Provincial Parliament to celebrate 4/20 where there are both vendors and entertainers. Though the event is police-patrolled, no tickets were issued in 2010 while over 30,000 people participated in the revelry.<br />
<br />
There is also a Hashmob sponsored protest on April 20th, normally at Dundas Square, which is timed for 4:20pm.<br />
<br />
==== Vancouver, British Columbia ====<br />
<br />
On April 20, 2009, an estimated nearly 10,000 people gathered around the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]] to celebrate "420". The police did not attempt to make arrests. This event has taken place in Vancouver annually for many years, and the police are generally tolerant of all marijuana use on April 20, and most other days.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== United Kingdom observance ===<br />
====London====<br />
In [[London]], 420 protests are held every year; with the 2011 4/20 having the highest turnout for a number of years. On April 20, 2011 around 2,000 people attended 420London, situated in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]] [[Speakers Corner]]. The event was marked by several speeches, notably from Peter Reynolds of the newly formed [[CLEAR campaign|CLEAR]] (Cannabis law reform) political party. Despite police presence throughout the event, which lasted around 5 hours, there was no police enforcement of cannabis prohibition laws and no arrests.<br />
<br />
=== New Zealand observance ===<br />
====Auckland====<br />
In [[Auckland]], New Zealand a 420 group meets regularly at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Dunedin====<br />
In [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, members of [[Otago NORML]] and some students at [[University of Otago]] meet every Wednesday and Friday at 4:20&nbsp;p.m. under a Walnut tree on the University's Union Lawn to smoke cannabis in defiance of New Zealand's cannabis law. There was considerable media and police interest in the '420' group in 2008, resulting in the arrest of a student and the issuance of trespass notices to members of the public at one of the 4:20&nbsp;pm meetings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref> The group leader was arrested for cannabis possession at a university Market Day unrelated to the 4:20 meetings,<ref name="ODT_guilty">{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/42645/norml-leader-guilty|title=Norml leader guilty |date=February 10, 2009|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=August 23, 2009}}</ref> but was later discharged without conviction on all charges.<ref>{{cite journal | authorlink = Court Reporter<br />
| title = Ex-Norml leader discharged<br />
| journal = The Otago Daily Times<br />
| date = 4 December 2009}}</ref> The group celebrated their 5th anniversary on 11 September 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/73731/fifth-anniversary-420-protests|title=Fifth anniversary of 4:20 protests|last=Gibb|first=John |date=September 12, 2009|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=December 9, 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091130181201/http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/73731/fifth-anniversary-420-protests| archivedate= 30 November 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Hash Bash]] at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor<br />
* [[420 (Family Guy)|420]] ''Family Guy'' episode<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number] by Ryan Grim, ''The Huffington Post'', April 20, 2009<br />
* [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719 Mom and Dad now know about '4/20'] by Gevevieve Bookwalter, ''Santa Cruz Sentinel'', April 7, 2009<br />
* [http://articles.latimes.com/2009/aug/30/image/ig-potculture30 Marijuana's New High Life] by ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''<br />
<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[cs:Světový den marihuany]]<br />
[[es:420 (cannabis)]]<br />
[[fr:420 (cannabis)]]<br />
[[ka:420 (მარიხუანა)]]<br />
[[la:420 (fumatio cannabis)]]<br />
[[nl:420 (cannabiscultuur)]]<br />
[[ja:420 (大麻)]]<br />
[[pt:420 (cultura canábica)]]<br />
[[ru:420 (культура употребления марихуаны)]]<br />
[[fi:420 (kannabiskulttuuri)]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917178420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2012-04-20T02:22:23Z<p>Moxy: /* Origins */ fix LOL sorry enjoying the day</p>
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<div>{{pp-protected|expiry=2012-10-19T14:36:58Z|small=yes}}<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]].<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') refers to consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]]. Observances based on the number include the time (4:20 {{Smallcaps|p.m.}}) as well as the date ([[April 20]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref> <br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
The earliest use of the term began among a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school,"<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> the group first used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"/><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/><br />
<br />
''[[High Times]]'' editor [[Steven Hager]] wrote "Are You Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" (October 1998) in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=STONER SMART, OR STONER STUPID?|year=2008|accessdate=04-20-2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:Partial View of Hippie Hill in San Francisco.jpg|thumb|Partial View of Golden Gate Park in San Francisco]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather to smoke [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] at a meadow near [[Porter College]] on April 20, 2007—"420 Day".]]<br />
<br />
April 20 (4/20 in U.S. [[Date and time notation by country#United States|date notation]]) has evolved into a [[counterculture]] holiday, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the [[decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States]].<br />
<br />
Observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/ <br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com <br />
|date=2010-04-20 <br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]], <ref name=point><br />
{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley<br />
|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change<br />
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html<br />
|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have urged students to just say no. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."<br />
|work=[[The New York Times]]<br />
|date=April 19, 2009 |accessdate=April 20, 2009<br />
|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090421092627/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html<br />
| archivedate= 21 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref> <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario at [[Parliament Hill]] and Major's Hill<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> Vancouver, British Columbia at the Vancouver Art Gallery <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref>{{wide image|420 cannabis event at University of Colorado at Boulder - panorama 1.jpg|900px|Panorama of the University of Colorado at Boulder on 20 April 2010.}}<br />
<br />
===Canadian observance===<br />
====Ottawa, Ontario====<br />
Annually, on April 20, thousands of activists gather on [[Parliament Hill]] and Major's Hill to look toward the peace tower as they join each other in smoking marijuana when the clock strikes 4:20. Police keep an eye on protesters to make sure the peace is kept within correlation to law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Montréal, Québec ====<br />
Every year on April 20, thousands of people gather at [[Mount Royal]] monument to celebrate 4/20. Police don't make arrests, although they do make their presence known.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== London, Ontario ====<br />
<br />
Each year on 4/20 thousands gather at Victoria Park downtown to celebrate. Over 2,000 people joined the festivities in 2010 that included live music. London police made a presence but announced they were not going to lay any marijuana related charges. London is also the hometown of Canadian cannabis policy reform advocate [[Marc Emery]].<br />
<br />
==== Toronto, Ontario ====<br />
<br />
Every year on the first Saturday in May (in observance of 4/20), a march takes through the city streets in advocacy of legalizing marijuana. The march ends up at Queen's Park Circle just north of the Ontario Provincial Parliament to celebrate 4/20 where there are both vendors and entertainers. Though the event is police-patrolled, no tickets were issued in 2010 while over 30,000 people participated in the revelry.<br />
<br />
There is also a Hashmob sponsored protest on April 20th, normally at Dundas Square, which is timed for 4:20pm.<br />
<br />
==== Vancouver, British Columbia ====<br />
<br />
On April 20, 2009, an estimated nearly 10,000 people gathered around the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]] to celebrate "420". The police did not attempt to make arrests. This event has taken place in Vancouver annually for many years, and the police are generally tolerant of all marijuana use on April 20, and most other days.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== United Kingdom observance ===<br />
====London====<br />
In [[London]], 420 protests are held every year; with the 2011 4/20 having the highest turnout for a number of years. On April 20, 2011 around 2,000 people attended 420London, situated in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]] [[Speakers Corner]]. The event was marked by several speeches, notably from Peter Reynolds of the newly formed [[CLEAR campaign|CLEAR]] (Cannabis law reform) political party. Despite police presence throughout the event, which lasted around 5 hours, there was no police enforcement of cannabis prohibition laws and no arrests.<br />
<br />
=== New Zealand observance ===<br />
====Auckland====<br />
In [[Auckland]], New Zealand a 420 group meets regularly at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Dunedin====<br />
In [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, members of [[Otago NORML]] and some students at [[University of Otago]] meet every Wednesday and Friday at 4:20&nbsp;p.m. under a Walnut tree on the University's Union Lawn to smoke cannabis in defiance of New Zealand's cannabis law. There was considerable media and police interest in the '420' group in 2008, resulting in the arrest of a student and the issuance of trespass notices to members of the public at one of the 4:20&nbsp;pm meetings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref> The group leader was arrested for cannabis possession at a university Market Day unrelated to the 4:20 meetings,<ref name="ODT_guilty">{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/42645/norml-leader-guilty|title=Norml leader guilty |date=February 10, 2009|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=August 23, 2009}}</ref> but was later discharged without conviction on all charges.<ref>{{cite journal | authorlink = Court Reporter<br />
| title = Ex-Norml leader discharged<br />
| journal = The Otago Daily Times<br />
| date = 4 December 2009}}</ref> The group celebrated their 5th anniversary on 11 September 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/73731/fifth-anniversary-420-protests|title=Fifth anniversary of 4:20 protests|last=Gibb|first=John |date=September 12, 2009|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=December 9, 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091130181201/http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/73731/fifth-anniversary-420-protests| archivedate= 30 November 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Hash Bash]] at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor<br />
* [[420 (Family Guy)|420]] ''Family Guy'' episode<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number] by Ryan Grim, ''The Huffington Post'', April 20, 2009<br />
* [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719 Mom and Dad now know about '4/20'] by Gevevieve Bookwalter, ''Santa Cruz Sentinel'', April 7, 2009<br />
* [http://articles.latimes.com/2009/aug/30/image/ig-potculture30 Marijuana's New High Life] by ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''<br />
<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
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[[cs:Světový den marihuany]]<br />
[[es:420 (cannabis)]]<br />
[[fr:420 (cannabis)]]<br />
[[ka:420 (მარიხუანა)]]<br />
[[la:420 (fumatio cannabis)]]<br />
[[nl:420 (cannabiscultuur)]]<br />
[[ja:420 (大麻)]]<br />
[[pt:420 (cultura canábica)]]<br />
[[ru:420 (культура употребления марихуаны)]]<br />
[[fi:420 (kannabiskulttuuri)]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917177420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2012-04-20T02:21:20Z<p>Moxy: /* Origins */ fix ref</p>
<hr />
<div>{{pp-protected|expiry=2012-10-19T14:36:58Z|small=yes}}<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]].<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') refers to consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]]. Observances based on the number include the time (4:20 {{Smallcaps|p.m.}}) as well as the date ([[April 20]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref> <br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
The earliest use of the term began among a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school,"<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> the group first used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/><br />
<br />
''[[High Times]]'' editor [[Steven Hager]] wrote "Are You Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" (October 1998) in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=STONER SMART, OR STONER STUPID?|year=2008|accessdate=04-20-2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:Partial View of Hippie Hill in San Francisco.jpg|thumb|Partial View of Golden Gate Park in San Francisco]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather to smoke [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] at a meadow near [[Porter College]] on April 20, 2007—"420 Day".]]<br />
<br />
April 20 (4/20 in U.S. [[Date and time notation by country#United States|date notation]]) has evolved into a [[counterculture]] holiday, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the [[decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States]].<br />
<br />
Observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/ <br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com <br />
|date=2010-04-20 <br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]], <ref name=point><br />
{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley<br />
|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change<br />
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html<br />
|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have urged students to just say no. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."<br />
|work=[[The New York Times]]<br />
|date=April 19, 2009 |accessdate=April 20, 2009<br />
|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090421092627/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html<br />
| archivedate= 21 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref> <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario at [[Parliament Hill]] and Major's Hill<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> Vancouver, British Columbia at the Vancouver Art Gallery <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref>{{wide image|420 cannabis event at University of Colorado at Boulder - panorama 1.jpg|900px|Panorama of the University of Colorado at Boulder on 20 April 2010.}}<br />
<br />
===Canadian observance===<br />
====Ottawa, Ontario====<br />
Annually, on April 20, thousands of activists gather on [[Parliament Hill]] and Major's Hill to look toward the peace tower as they join each other in smoking marijuana when the clock strikes 4:20. Police keep an eye on protesters to make sure the peace is kept within correlation to law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Montréal, Québec ====<br />
Every year on April 20, thousands of people gather at [[Mount Royal]] monument to celebrate 4/20. Police don't make arrests, although they do make their presence known.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== London, Ontario ====<br />
<br />
Each year on 4/20 thousands gather at Victoria Park downtown to celebrate. Over 2,000 people joined the festivities in 2010 that included live music. London police made a presence but announced they were not going to lay any marijuana related charges. London is also the hometown of Canadian cannabis policy reform advocate [[Marc Emery]].<br />
<br />
==== Toronto, Ontario ====<br />
<br />
Every year on the first Saturday in May (in observance of 4/20), a march takes through the city streets in advocacy of legalizing marijuana. The march ends up at Queen's Park Circle just north of the Ontario Provincial Parliament to celebrate 4/20 where there are both vendors and entertainers. Though the event is police-patrolled, no tickets were issued in 2010 while over 30,000 people participated in the revelry.<br />
<br />
There is also a Hashmob sponsored protest on April 20th, normally at Dundas Square, which is timed for 4:20pm.<br />
<br />
==== Vancouver, British Columbia ====<br />
<br />
On April 20, 2009, an estimated nearly 10,000 people gathered around the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]] to celebrate "420". The police did not attempt to make arrests. This event has taken place in Vancouver annually for many years, and the police are generally tolerant of all marijuana use on April 20, and most other days.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== United Kingdom observance ===<br />
====London====<br />
In [[London]], 420 protests are held every year; with the 2011 4/20 having the highest turnout for a number of years. On April 20, 2011 around 2,000 people attended 420London, situated in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]] [[Speakers Corner]]. The event was marked by several speeches, notably from Peter Reynolds of the newly formed [[CLEAR campaign|CLEAR]] (Cannabis law reform) political party. Despite police presence throughout the event, which lasted around 5 hours, there was no police enforcement of cannabis prohibition laws and no arrests.<br />
<br />
=== New Zealand observance ===<br />
====Auckland====<br />
In [[Auckland]], New Zealand a 420 group meets regularly at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Dunedin====<br />
In [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, members of [[Otago NORML]] and some students at [[University of Otago]] meet every Wednesday and Friday at 4:20&nbsp;p.m. under a Walnut tree on the University's Union Lawn to smoke cannabis in defiance of New Zealand's cannabis law. There was considerable media and police interest in the '420' group in 2008, resulting in the arrest of a student and the issuance of trespass notices to members of the public at one of the 4:20&nbsp;pm meetings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref> The group leader was arrested for cannabis possession at a university Market Day unrelated to the 4:20 meetings,<ref name="ODT_guilty">{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/42645/norml-leader-guilty|title=Norml leader guilty |date=February 10, 2009|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=August 23, 2009}}</ref> but was later discharged without conviction on all charges.<ref>{{cite journal | authorlink = Court Reporter<br />
| title = Ex-Norml leader discharged<br />
| journal = The Otago Daily Times<br />
| date = 4 December 2009}}</ref> The group celebrated their 5th anniversary on 11 September 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/73731/fifth-anniversary-420-protests|title=Fifth anniversary of 4:20 protests|last=Gibb|first=John |date=September 12, 2009|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=December 9, 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091130181201/http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/73731/fifth-anniversary-420-protests| archivedate= 30 November 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Hash Bash]] at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor<br />
* [[420 (Family Guy)|420]] ''Family Guy'' episode<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number] by Ryan Grim, ''The Huffington Post'', April 20, 2009<br />
* [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719 Mom and Dad now know about '4/20'] by Gevevieve Bookwalter, ''Santa Cruz Sentinel'', April 7, 2009<br />
* [http://articles.latimes.com/2009/aug/30/image/ig-potculture30 Marijuana's New High Life] by ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''<br />
<br />
<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
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[[cs:Světový den marihuany]]<br />
[[es:420 (cannabis)]]<br />
[[fr:420 (cannabis)]]<br />
[[ka:420 (მარიხუანა)]]<br />
[[la:420 (fumatio cannabis)]]<br />
[[nl:420 (cannabiscultuur)]]<br />
[[ja:420 (大麻)]]<br />
[[pt:420 (cultura canábica)]]<br />
[[ru:420 (культура употребления марихуаны)]]<br />
[[fi:420 (kannabiskulttuuri)]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=420_(Cannabis-Kultur)&diff=153917176420 (Cannabis-Kultur)2012-04-20T02:19:49Z<p>Moxy: /* Origins */ add real refs</p>
<hr />
<div>{{pp-protected|expiry=2012-10-19T14:36:58Z|small=yes}}<!--Please note, this article is about how the number 420 relates to cannabis culture. If you have come here to add information about the Columbine High School Murders. Hitler's birthday or add an example of 420 in pop culture please know it is not relevant. Anything added to this article should relate to both the number 420 and cannabis culture.--><br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{Infobox holiday<br />
|holiday_name = 4/20<br />
|type = secular<br />
|image = 420Louis.jpg<br />
|imagesize = 220px<br />
|caption = Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]].<br />
|official_name =<br />
|nickname =<br />
|observedby = Cannabis [[counterculture]], [[Medical cannabis|medical patients]], [[Legality of cannabis|legal reformers]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|entheogenic spiritualists]]<br />
|significance =<br />
|date = April 20<br />
|observances = [[Cannabis consumption]]<br />
|relatedto = }}<br />
'''420''', '''4:20''', or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') refers to consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]]. Observances based on the number include the time (4:20 {{Smallcaps|p.m.}}) as well as the date ([[April 20]]).<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref> <br />
<br />
== Origins ==<br />
The earliest use of the term began among a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/04/20/MN101165.DTL|title=Stoner Chic Traces Origin To San Rafael - Snickering high schoolers brought `420' into lexicon|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have discouraged students from participating. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110120011019/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html| archivedate= 20 January 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Calling themselves the Waldos,<ref name="Times2012">{{cite book|author=High Times|title=The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook: More Than 50 Irresistible Recipes That Will Get You High|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W-vas6K75YYC&pg=PA97|accessdate=19 April 2012|date=21 March 2012|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-1-4521-0133-0|pages=97–}}</ref> because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school,"<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> the group first used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name="Times2012"><ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/><br />
<br />
''[[High Times]]'' editor [[Steven Hager]] wrote "Are You Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" (October 1998) in which he called for 4:20 p.m. to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hightimes.com/entertainment/ht_admin/834|publisher=High Times|title=STONER SMART, OR STONER STUPID?|year=2008|accessdate=04-20-2012}}<br />
<br />
== April 20 observances ==<br />
[[File:Partial View of Hippie Hill in San Francisco.jpg|thumb|Partial View of Golden Gate Park in San Francisco]]<br />
[[File:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|Students and others gather to smoke [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] at a meadow near [[Porter College]] on April 20, 2007—"420 Day".]]<br />
<br />
April 20 (4/20 in U.S. [[Date and time notation by country#United States|date notation]]) has evolved into a [[counterculture]] holiday, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the [[decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States]].<br />
<br />
Observances have been held in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Golden Gate Park]] near the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district,<ref><br />
{{cite web|url=http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/ <br />
|title=A Huge Turn Out for 420 Day on Hippie Hill in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park " San Francisco Citizen |publisher=Sfcitizen.com <br />
|date=2010-04-20 <br />
|accessdate=2011-04-20<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430000040/http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/<br />
| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]], <ref name=point><br />
{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley<br />
|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change<br />
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html<br />
|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have urged students to just say no. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."<br />
|work=[[The New York Times]]<br />
|date=April 19, 2009 |accessdate=April 20, 2009<br />
|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]<br />
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090421092627/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html<br />
| archivedate= 21 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1><br />
[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref> <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu |title=Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera |publisher=Dailycamera.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110430022905/http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com| archivedate= 30 April 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ottawa, Ontario at [[Parliament Hill]] and Major's Hill<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Montréal, Québec at [[Mount Royal]] monument<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref> Vancouver, British Columbia at the Vancouver Art Gallery <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref> [[Auckland]], New Zealand at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=April 2012}} and [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, at [[University of Otago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref>{{wide image|420 cannabis event at University of Colorado at Boulder - panorama 1.jpg|900px|Panorama of the University of Colorado at Boulder on 20 April 2010.}}<br />
<br />
===Canadian observance===<br />
====Ottawa, Ontario====<br />
Annually, on April 20, thousands of activists gather on [[Parliament Hill]] and Major's Hill to look toward the peace tower as they join each other in smoking marijuana when the clock strikes 4:20. Police keep an eye on protesters to make sure the peace is kept within correlation to law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html |title=Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca |publisher=Cnews.canoe.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 |title=Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |date= |accessdate=2011-04-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102321/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409| archivedate= 11 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
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==== Montréal, Québec ====<br />
Every year on April 20, thousands of people gather at [[Mount Royal]] monument to celebrate 4/20. Police don't make arrests, although they do make their presence known.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samesun.com/blog/420-day-cannabis-festival/ |title=420 Day- Cannabis Festival |publisher=samesun.com Samesun Nation Travel Blog|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/April2011/19/c5308.html|title=Canada's marijuana activists unite against American-style drug laws - 420 vote mobs to be held in over 10 cities across Canada on April 20th|publisher=newswire.ca CNW Group|date= |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><br />
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==== London, Ontario ====<br />
<br />
Each year on 4/20 thousands gather at Victoria Park downtown to celebrate. Over 2,000 people joined the festivities in 2010 that included live music. London police made a presence but announced they were not going to lay any marijuana related charges. London is also the hometown of Canadian cannabis policy reform advocate [[Marc Emery]].<br />
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==== Toronto, Ontario ====<br />
<br />
Every year on the first Saturday in May (in observance of 4/20), a march takes through the city streets in advocacy of legalizing marijuana. The march ends up at Queen's Park Circle just north of the Ontario Provincial Parliament to celebrate 4/20 where there are both vendors and entertainers. Though the event is police-patrolled, no tickets were issued in 2010 while over 30,000 people participated in the revelry.<br />
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There is also a Hashmob sponsored protest on April 20th, normally at Dundas Square, which is timed for 4:20pm.<br />
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==== Vancouver, British Columbia ====<br />
<br />
On April 20, 2009, an estimated nearly 10,000 people gathered around the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]] to celebrate "420". The police did not attempt to make arrests. This event has taken place in Vancouver annually for many years, and the police are generally tolerant of all marijuana use on April 20, and most other days.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref><br />
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=== United Kingdom observance ===<br />
====London====<br />
In [[London]], 420 protests are held every year; with the 2011 4/20 having the highest turnout for a number of years. On April 20, 2011 around 2,000 people attended 420London, situated in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]] [[Speakers Corner]]. The event was marked by several speeches, notably from Peter Reynolds of the newly formed [[CLEAR campaign|CLEAR]] (Cannabis law reform) political party. Despite police presence throughout the event, which lasted around 5 hours, there was no police enforcement of cannabis prohibition laws and no arrests.<br />
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=== New Zealand observance ===<br />
====Auckland====<br />
In [[Auckland]], New Zealand a 420 group meets regularly at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100112102900/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide| archivedate= 12 January 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
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====Dunedin====<br />
In [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, members of [[Otago NORML]] and some students at [[University of Otago]] meet every Wednesday and Friday at 4:20&nbsp;p.m. under a Walnut tree on the University's Union Lawn to smoke cannabis in defiance of New Zealand's cannabis law. There was considerable media and police interest in the '420' group in 2008, resulting in the arrest of a student and the issuance of trespass notices to members of the public at one of the 4:20&nbsp;pm meetings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022143006/http://ch9.co.nz/node/7704| archivedate= 22 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref> The group leader was arrested for cannabis possession at a university Market Day unrelated to the 4:20 meetings,<ref name="ODT_guilty">{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/42645/norml-leader-guilty|title=Norml leader guilty |date=February 10, 2009|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=August 23, 2009}}</ref> but was later discharged without conviction on all charges.<ref>{{cite journal | authorlink = Court Reporter<br />
| title = Ex-Norml leader discharged<br />
| journal = The Otago Daily Times<br />
| date = 4 December 2009}}</ref> The group celebrated their 5th anniversary on 11 September 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/73731/fifth-anniversary-420-protests|title=Fifth anniversary of 4:20 protests|last=Gibb|first=John |date=September 12, 2009|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=December 9, 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091130181201/http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/73731/fifth-anniversary-420-protests| archivedate= 30 November 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><br />
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== See also ==<br />
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* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]<br />
* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]<br />
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]<br />
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
* [[Drug subculture]]<br />
* [[Hash Bash]] at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor<br />
* [[420 (Family Guy)|420]] ''Family Guy'' episode<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number] by Ryan Grim, ''The Huffington Post'', April 20, 2009<br />
* [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719 Mom and Dad now know about '4/20'] by Gevevieve Bookwalter, ''Santa Cruz Sentinel'', April 7, 2009<br />
* [http://articles.latimes.com/2009/aug/30/image/ig-potculture30 Marijuana's New High Life] by ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''<br />
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<br />
{{drug use}}<br />
<br />
{{Cannabis resources}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}<br />
{{U.S. Holidays}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}<br />
[[Category:April observances]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]<br />
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]<br />
[[Category:In-jokes]]<br />
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]<br />
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[[cs:Světový den marihuany]]<br />
[[es:420 (cannabis)]]<br />
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[[ka:420 (მარიხუანა)]]<br />
[[la:420 (fumatio cannabis)]]<br />
[[nl:420 (cannabiscultuur)]]<br />
[[ja:420 (大麻)]]<br />
[[pt:420 (cultura canábica)]]<br />
[[ru:420 (культура употребления марихуаны)]]<br />
[[fi:420 (kannabiskulttuuri)]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proteste_gegen_SOPA_und_PIPA&diff=98701848Proteste gegen SOPA und PIPA2012-01-22T07:50:08Z<p>Moxy: ce</p>
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<div>{{selfref|For the [[Wikipedia community]] proposal that led to the English Wikipedia blackout, see [[Wikipedia:SOPA initiative]].}}<br />
[[File:History Wikipedia English SOPA 2012 Blackout2.jpg|thumb|370px|A screenshot of the [[English Wikipedia]] landing page, symbolically its only page during the 18 January 2012 blackout]]<br />
<br />
<!--Per MOS:BOLDTITLE, neither the article's title nor related text appears in bold.-->On 18 January 2012, a series of coordinated protests took place against two proposed laws in the [[United States Congress]]—the [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA). These followed smaller protests in late 2011. Protests were based on concerns that the bills, intended to provide more robust responses to [[copyright infringement]] (colloquially known as piracy) arising outside the United States, contained measures that could cause great harm to online freedom of speech, websites, and internet communities. Protesters also argued that there were insufficient safeguards in place to protect sites based upon user-generated content. <br />
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The move to a formal protest was initiated when some websites, including [[Reddit]] and the [[English Wikipedia|English Wikipedia's]] [[Wikipedia community|community of editors]], considered temporarily closing their content and redirecting users to a message opposing the proposed legislation. Others, such as [[Google]], [[Mozilla]], and [[Flickr]], soon featured protests against the acts. Some shut completely, while others kept some or all of their content accessible. In all, over 115,000 websites<ref name="NYT 19 Jan">Wortham, Jenna (19 January 2012). [http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/20/technology/public-outcry-over-antipiracy-bills-began-as-grass-roots-grumbling.html?pagewanted=1&ref=technology "Public outcry over antipiracy bills began as grassroots grumbling"]. ''New York Times''. Retrieved 21 January 2012.</ref> and unknown tens of millions of individuals<ref>At least 10 million emails were received and 24 million tweets are documented; reliable sources do not estimate how many participated but it can be identified from sources as being at least "tens of millions".</ref> joined the internet protest. In addition to the online protests, there were simultaneous physical demonstrations in several U.S. cities, including New York City, San Francisco and Seattle, and separately during December 2011 a mass boycott of then&ndash;supporter [[Go Daddy]]. The protests were reported globally.<br />
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The January protest, initially planned to coincide with the first SOPA hearing of the year, drew huge publicity and reaction. Days prior to the action, the White House issued a statement that it would "not support legislation that reduces freedom of expression, increases cybersecurity risk, or undermines the dynamic, innovative global internet."<ref name=whitehouse/> On 18 January itself, over 8 million people looked up their representative on Wikipedia,<ref name="LA Times 19 Jan">{{cite news | url = http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2012/01/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-congressional-representatives.html | title = Wikipedia: SOPA protest led 8 million to look up reps in Congress | first = Deborah | last = Netburn | date = 19 January 2012 | accessdate =20 January 2012 | publisher = Los Angeles Times }}</ref> a petition at [[Google]] recorded over 4.5 million signatures,<ref name="LA Times 19 Jan" /> more than 1 million email messages were sent to congress through the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]],<ref name="EFF 19 Jan">{{cite web | url = https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/thank-you-internet-and-fight-continues | title = Thank You, Internet! And the Fight Continues | first = Corynne | last = McSherry | first2= Julie | last2= Samuels | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 | publisher = [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] }}</ref> for several hours [[Twitter]] received over 1/4 million tweets an hour concerning SOPA, lawmakers collected "more than 14 million names - more than 10 million of them voters".<ref name="NYT-20120120" /> <br />
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During and after the January protest, a number of politicians who had previously supported the bills expressed concerns with the proposals in their existing form, while others withdrew their support entirely. Internationally, "scathing" <ref name="Berners-Lee" /> criticism of the bills was voiced from [[World Wide Web]] inventor [[Sir Tim Berners-Lee]],<ref name="Berners-Lee" /> as well as the [[European Commissioner for Digital Agenda|European Commissioner for the Digital Agenda]].<ref name=Kroes /> Some media outlets were critical of the pressure placed upon supporters of the bills; the ''[[Boston Herald]]'' described the service withdrawals as evidence of "how very powerful these cyber-bullies can be."<ref name=heraldresponse/> Former Senator and MPAA Director [[Chris Dodd]] stated that the coordinated shutdown was "an abuse of power given the freedoms these companies enjoy in the marketplace today." <ref name=doddquote/> Others such as ''[[The New York Times]]'' saw the protests as "a political coming of age for the tech industry."<ref name="nytimes1">http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/18/technology/web-wide-protest-over-two-antipiracy-bills.html?scp=11&sq=SOPA&st=cse</ref> <br />
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By 20 January 2012, the political environment regarding both bills had shifted significantly. The bills were removed from further voting; ostensibly to be revised to take into consideration the issues raised,<ref name="NYT-20120120">{{cite news |last=Weisman|first=Jonathan|title=After an Online Firestorm, Congress Shelves Antipiracy Bills<br />
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/21/technology/senate-postpones-piracy-vote.html|date=January 20, 2012 |publisher=The New York Times |accessdate=January 20, 2012}}</ref> and according to ''[[The New York Times]]'' probably "shelved" <ref name="NYT-20120120" /> following a "flight away from the bill".<ref name="NYT-20120120" /> Opposers noted the bills had been "indefinitely postponed" but cautioned they were "not dead" and "would return".<ref>{{cite web|last=Gardner|first=Sue|title=Wikimedia Foundation: Statement on Jan 20 events in Washington|url=http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Press_releases/Statement_on_Jan_20_events_in_Washington|work=2012-01-20|publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]]|accessdate=2012-01-22}}</ref> <br />
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[[Image:Ja + nl.PNG|thumb|270px|Main pages of the [[Japanese Wikipedia]] and the [[Dutch Wikipedia]] on 18 January, expressing support for the English Wikipedia protest.]]<br />
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==Background==<br />
{{Main|PROTECT IP Act|Stop Online Piracy Act}}<br />
=== Background to bills ===<br />
The [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA) are bills that were introduced into the [[United States House of Representatives]] and the [[United States Senate]] in the last quarter of 2011. Both are responses to the problem of enforcement of U.S. laws against websites outside U.S. jurisdiction. While the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] (DMCA) and other existing laws have generally been considered effective against illegal content or activities on U.S. based sites,<ref name="cnnmoney">{{cite news | url = http://money.cnn.com/2012/01/17/technology/sopa_explained/ | title= SOPA explained: What it is and why it matters | publisher = [[CNNMoney]] | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | first = Julianne | last = Pepitone }}</ref> action is more difficult against overseas websites.<ref name="cnnmoney" /> SOPA and PIPA proposed to rectify this by cutting off infringing sites from their US based funding (particularly advertising), payment processors, appearances on search engines, and visibility on [[web browser]]s, instead. The most common providers of all these services are predominantly U.S. based. Notably, the provisions also involved modifying the [[Domain Name System|DNS system]], a crucial service that underpins the entire internet and allows computers to locate each other reliably around the world.<br />
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Supporter included media companies and industry associations such as the [[Motion Picture Association of America]], the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] and the [[Entertainment Software Association]]. Supporters generally identified a need to have more effective laws to combat illegal domestic sales of products and services, and worldwide copyright infringing activities, that were hard to prevent since they originated outside the United States.<br />
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Opposers include a mixture of technology and Internet firms and associations, content creators such as the [[Wikipedia community]], [[free software]] authors, [[free speech]] organizations, lawmakers, and other websites and organizations, as well as members of the public using their services. Opposers generally identified two main areas of severe side-effects: (1) effects on internet websites, communities and user-generated content, and (2) effects on critically fundamental internet architecture and security:<br />
<br />
:* ''Effects on websites, web communities and user-generated content'' - The scope, language, definitions, procedures, remedies, and provision for [[Immunity from prosecution|immunity]] following wrongful allegations was seen as insufficiently narrow and well-defined. Legal analysts suggested that draconian court orders could be obtained without undue difficulty to "take down" an entire site, without dialog or notification, due process, or liability for compensation if incorrect, even if the site were legitimate.{{cn|date=January 2012}}<!-- <br />
<br />
The original text stated as an example:<br />
"For example, what entails 'deliberate actions to avoid confirming a high probability' for a website?"<br />
<br />
We need a cited source, can anyone find a good example to add?<br />
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--> Perceived consequences included serious [[internet censorship|undermining of free speech on the Internet]], devastation of the internet's communities, and widespread closure and [[chilling effect (law)|chilling]] of websites, particularly those including user-created content. Observers also noted the laws could be used strategically against legitimate competitors or during [[election]]s.<ref name="Berners-Lee" /><br />
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:* ''Effects on critical internet architecture'' - Technical experts testified that the proposed DNS measures conflicted with the fundamental basis of the internet and would "break" ongoing attempts to make the net more secure against malicious use.<br />
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[[Google]]'s policy director, Bob Boorstin, stated that a site like [[YouTube]] supporting user-generated content "would just go dark immediately" to comply with the legislation.<ref name="cnnmoney"/> [[Tumblr]], the first website active in grassroots activism against the bills, added a feature that "self-censored" its website on November 21, 2011, and the [[social media]] aggregator [[Reddit]] also became deeply involved.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/20/technology/public-outcry-over-antipiracy-bills-began-as-grass-roots-grumbling.html?ref=technology</ref><br />
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=== Legislative and protest timeline ===<br />
On 16 November 2011, a first hearing by the [[U.S. House Judiciary Committee]] was marked by online protests involving blackened website banners, popularly described as "American Censorship Day".<br />
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On 15 December 2011, the first House Judiciary Committee [[markup (legislation)|mark-up hearing]] took place for SOPA, prior to its eventual move to the House floor.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/246093/house_panel_to_move_forward_on_stop_online_piracy_act.html | title = House Panel to Move Forward on Stop Online Piracy Act | first = Grant | last = Gross | date = December 12, 2011 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | work = [[PC World (magazine)|PC World]] }}</ref> During the markup session, several proposed amendments to address technological and other concerns were defeated. The mark-up process was put on hold to be resumed after the new year. <br />
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Around this time, numerous websites began displaying banners and messages promoting their readerships to contact Congress to stop the progress of the bill, and some websites began to discuss or endorse a possible "internet blackout" before any vote on SOPA in the House, as a means of further protest.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2080066/Top-web-firms-set-impose-blackout-protest-Big-Brother-online-piracy-bill.html?ito=feeds-newsxml | title = Top web firms set to impose a blackout in protest against 'Big Brother' online piracy bill | first = Hugo | last = Guy | date = December 30, 2011 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | work = [[Daily Mail]] }}</ref> [[Reddit]] was the first major site to announce an "Internet blackout" for January 18, 2012, and several other sites shortly followed, coordinating actions for that day.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://venturebeat.com/2012/01/10/reddit-blackout-sopa-pipa/ | title = Reddit goes black Jan.&nbsp;18&nbsp;to protest SOPA & PIPA&nbsp;— Who else will join? | first = Tom | last = Cheredar | date = January 10, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Online discussions of a blackout and concerns over the bills continued unabated and increased in prominence after the markup hearing. On 11 January, Senator [[Patrick Leahy]], the main sponsor for SOPA, conceded that one contended issue, the controversial changes to DNS, would be "studied before implementing",<ref>{{cite news|last=Masnick|first=Mike|title=Senator Leahy Hopes To Rush Through PIPA By Promising To Study DNS Blocking... Later?!?|url=http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20120112/14322317392/senator-leahy-hopes-to-rush-through-pipa-promising-to-study-dns-blocking-later.shtml|accessdate=2012-01-22|newspaper=[[Techdirt]]|date=2012-01-12}}</ref> reported by some papers as removal of those provisions.<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2012/01/leahy-pipa-amendment/ | title = Leahy Offers to Remove Net-Altering DNS Redirects in Anti-Piracy Bill | work = [[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] | date = January 12, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | first = David | last = Kravets }}</ref> Opposers deemed this a tactical withdrawal allowing reintroduction at a later stage and ignoring other concerns as well as provisions in PIPA, and evidence that the bill had not been understood or checked by its own creators and that proposals for a blackout were gaining impact.<ref>{{cite news|last=Masnick|first=Mike|title=Don't Be Fooled: Leahy Is NOT Removing DNS Blocking Provisions, Merely Delaying Them|url=http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20120112/18452517396/dont-be-fooled-leahy-is-not-removing-dns-blocking-provisions-merely-delaying-them.shtml|accessdate=2012-01-22|newspaper=[[Techdirt]]|date=2012-01-13}}</ref> Momentum for the protests continued unchanged<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2012/01/leahy-pipa-amendment/ | title = Leahy Offers to Remove Net-Altering DNS Redirects in Anti-Piracy Bill | work = [[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] | date = January 12, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | first = David | last = Kravets }}</ref> since the bills had merely been postponed, and due to their other contentious provisions.<br />
<br />
A notable political response to the November 2011 protests was the outlining in early December of a [[bipartisan]] third, alternative, bill with the support of technology companies{{which|date=January 2012}}, which unusually had been posted on the internet to allow public comment and suggestions in light of the widespread protests related to the SOPA and PIPA bills. It was formally introduced as the [[Online Protection and Enforcement of Digital Trade Act]] (OPEN) in the Senate on 17 December 2011 by Senator [[Ron Wyden]] and in the House on January 18 by Representative [[Darrell Issa]]. It proposed placing enforcement of copyright-infringing websites in the hands of the [[United States International Trade Commission]] rather than the Justice department, keeping provisions that targeted financial and advertising of infringing websites, and more tightly targeted wording to avoid many other key areas of concern in SOPA and PIPA.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://thehill.com/blogs/hillicon-valley/technology/204975-issa-introduces-piracy-alternative | title = Issa pushes alternative anti-piracy bill | publisher = [[The Hill (newspaper)]] | first = Brendan | last = Sasso | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 18, 2012 }}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:MozillaStopCensorshipDoodle-cropped.png|thumb|right|Mozilla's SOPA protest, displayed in [[Firefox]] on November 16, 2011.]]<br />
=={{anchor|American Censorship Day}}Protests of 16 November 2011 ("American Censorship Day") ==<br />
On November 16, 2011, SOPA was discussed by the U.S. [[United States House Committee on the Judiciary|House Committee on the Judiciary]]. [[Tumblr]], Mozilla, Techdirt, the [[Center for Democracy and Technology]] were among many Internet companies who protested by participating in 'American Censorship Day', by displaying black banners over their site logos with the words "STOP CENSORSHIP."<ref name="American Censorship Day Bloomberg">{{cite web |title='American Censorship Day' Makes an Online Statement: The Ticker |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-11-16/-american-censorship-day-makes-an-online-statement-the-ticker.html |work='American Censorship Day' Makes an Online Statement: The Ticker |publisher=Bloomberg |accessdate=November 17, 2011 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== December 2011 boycott of Go Daddy ==<br />
<br />
On 22 December 2011, users at [[Reddit]] proposed a [[boycott]] and a public day for switching away from then&ndash;SOPA supporter [[Go Daddy]],<ref>{{cite web|title=GoDaddy supports SOPA, I'm transferring 51 domains & suggesting a move your domain day|url=http://www.reddit.com/r/politics/comments/nmnie/godaddy_supports_sopa_im_transferring_51_domains/|accessdate=22 December 2011}}</ref> the largest [[ICANN]]-accredited [[Domain name registrar|registrar]] in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://domainnamewire.com/2010/08/17/go-daddy-marches-toward-1-billion/ |title=Domain Name Wire |publisher=Domain Name Wire |date=2010-08-17 |accessdate=2010-08-24}}</ref> The date was later set as 29 December 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Boycott GoDaddy Over Their Support of SOPA|url=http://godaddyboycott.org|accessdate=22 December 2011}}</ref> <br />
<br />
Popular websites that moved domains included [[Cheezburger]] which stated it would remove over 1,000 domains from Go Daddy if they continued their support of SOPA.<ref>{{cite web|last=Greg|first=Kumparak|title=Cheezburger’s Ben Huh: If GoDaddy Supports SOPA, We’re Taking Our 1000+ Domains Elsewhere|url=http://techcrunch.com/2011/12/22/cheezburgers-ben-huh-if-godaddy-supports-sopa-were-taking-our-1000-domains-elsewhere/|work=Techcrunch Article|publisher=techcrunch|accessdate=23 December 2011}}</ref> the [[Wikimedia Foundation]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Wales|first=Jimmy|title=Jimmy Wales Twitter post|url=https://twitter.com/#!/jimmy_wales/status/150287579642740736/|accessdate=24 December 2011}}</ref> and [[imgur]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Schaaf|first=Alan|title=Alan Schaaf reddit post|url=http://www.reddit.com/r/technology/comments/nnynm/imgurcom_is_with_godaddy_alan_schaaf_the_founder/c3al6ld|accessdate=24 December 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
On 23 December Go Daddy withdrew its support for SOPA, releasing a statement saying "Go Daddy will support it when and if the Internet community supports it."<ref>{{cite web|last=Lowensohn |first=Josh |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-13578_3-57347915-38/go-daddy-spanks-sopa-yanks-support/ |title=Go Daddy spanks SOPA, yanks support |publisher=CNET News |date=December 23, 2011 |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.godaddy.com/newscenter/release-view.aspx?news_item_id=378 |title=Go Daddy No Longer Supports SOPA |publisher=Go Daddy |date= |accessdate=December 23, 2011}}</ref> Later that day, CEO Warren Adelman couldn’t commit to changing Go Daddy's position on the record in Congress when asked, but said “I’ll take that back to our legislative guys, but I agree that’s an important step.”<ref name="coldewey1">{{cite web|last=Coldewey|first=Devin|title=GoDaddy CEO: “There Has To Be Consensus About The Leadership Of The Internet Community”|url=http://techcrunch.com/2011/12/23/godaddy-ceo-there-has-to-be-consensus-about-the-leadership-of-the-internet-community=23 December 2011}}</ref> when pressed, he said “We’re going to step back and let others take leadership roles.”<ref name="coldewey1"/> Further outrage was due to the fact that many Internet sites would be subject to shutdowns under SOPA, but GoDaddy is in a narrow class of exempted businesses that would have immunity, where many other other domain operators would not.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://idealab.talkingpointsmemo.com/2011/12/sopa-hearing-will-never-end.php |title=SOPA Hearing Will Never End &#124; TPM Idea Lab |first=Carl |last=Franzen |work=talkingpointsmemo.com |year=15 December 2011 |accessdate=23 December 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
On December 26, 2011, a [[Google bomb]] was started against Go Daddy to remove them from the #1 place on Google for the term "Domain Registration" in retaliation for supporting [[SOPA]].<ref>Kohr, Robert [https://plus.google.com/115702843161763309837/posts/2QqAe6xP7Xk "A better way to fight SOPA"]</ref> This was then disseminated through [[Hacker News]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=3393177 |title="Attack GoDaddy - better than a boycott " |publisher=News.ycombinator.com |date= |accessdate=2011-12-27}}</ref> Reddit users noted by 22 December 2011 that SOPA supporters were discovering the backlash that could arise from ignoring social media users.<ref>{{cite news|last=Masnick|first=Mike|title=SOPA Supporters Learning (Slowly) That Pissing Off Reddit Is A Bad Idea|url=http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20111222/13292217173/sopa-supporters-learning-slowly-that-pissing-off-reddit-is-bad-idea.shtml|accessdate=2012-01-22|newspaper=Reddit|date=2011-12-22}}</ref> <br />
<br />
Reports up to 29 December described Go Daddy as "hemmoraging" customers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Cheredar|first=Tom|title=Not even a shift to full SOPA opposition can stop Go Daddy from hemorrhaging customers|url=http://venturebeat.com/2011/12/29/not-even-a-shift-to-full-sopa-opposition-can-stop-go-daddy-from-hemorrhaging-customers/|accessdate=2012-01-22|newspaper=Venturebeat.com|date=2011-12-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Bosker|first=Bianca|title=Wikipedia Ditching GoDaddy Over SOPA, Jimmy Wales Says|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/12/26/wikipedia-godaddy-sopa_n_1170034.html|accessdate=2012-01-22|newspaper=[[Huffington Post]]|date=2011-12-26}}</ref> On December 25, 2011 (Christmas Day), Go Daddy lost a net 16,191 domains as a result of the boycott.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://activepolitic.com:82/News/2011-12-26c/Godaddy_Looses_Domains.._This_time_for_real..html|title=Godaddy Loses Domains.. This time for real.|publisher=activepolitic.com}}</ref> However, on December 29 itself, Go Daddy gained a net of 20,748 domains, twice as many as it lost that day, attributed by Techdirt to a number of causes, in particular customer response to their change of position over SOPA.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20111230/01453717233/godaddy-boycott-fizzles-twice-as-many-domains-transfer-as-out.shtml|title=Godaddy Boycott Fizzles;Twice as many domains transfer in as out|publisher=Techdirt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.business2community.com/trends-news/godaddy-boycott-fizzles-and-may-work-in-companys-favor-0115027|title=GoDaddy Boycott Fizzles And May Work In Company’s Favor|publisher=Business2Community}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Protests of January 18, 2012==<br />
[[File:Wikipediablackout.png|center|thumb|780px|Banner announcing the imminent blackout of the English Wikipedia, shown during the final 24 hours before midnight EST on 18 January 2012.]] <br />
===Protestors===<br />
====Wikimedia community====<br />
[[File:Wikimedia Foundation SOPA War Room Meeting 1-17-2012-1-9.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Sue Gardner]] of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], discussing the [[English Wikipedia]] blackout on the evening of January 17, 2012]]<br />
[[File:Wikimedia Foundation Wikipedia Blackout SOPA January 18, 2012.theora.ogv|thumb|right|300px|The staff at the Wikimedia Foundation the moment the blackout happened]]<br />
On December 10, 2011, [[Wikipedia]] co-founder [[Jimmy Wales]] drew attention to concerns over SOPA, which he described as a "much worse law" than the ''[[DDL intercettazioni]]'' (Wiretapping Bill)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.camera.it/Camera/view/doc_viewer_full?url=http%3A//www.camera.it/_dati/leg16/lavori/stampati/pdf/16PDL0038530.pdf&back_to=http%3A//www.camera.it/126%3FPDL%3D1415-B%26leg%3D16%26tab%3D2%26stralcio%3D%26navette%3D |title=Camera dei Deputati: disegno di legge N. 1415-B |language=Italian |accessdate=October 4, 2011 |work=[http://www.camera.it/ Camera dei Deputati]}}</ref> in Italy some months earlier, which was being fast-tracked through [[Congress]] under a "misleading title". He stated he was attending high level meetings on this, and wanted to gauge the sense of the [[Wikipedia community|English Wikipedia community]] on the issue, and specifically on the question of a blackout similar to [[Italian Wikipedia blackout|that held successfully]] in October 2011 by [[Italian Wikipedia]] editors over the proposed media censorship law in that country:<ref name=atlantic-jimmy>{{cite news|last=Rosen|first=Rebecca|title=Wikipedia Considers Black Out to Protest Anti-Piracy Law|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/12/wikipedia-considers-black-out-to-protest-anti-piracy-law/249922/|accessdate=2012-01-20|newspaper=[[Atlantic Wire]]|date=2011-12-13}}</ref> <br />
<br />
: I thought this would be a good time to take a quick reading of the community feeling on this issue ..... To be clear, this is NOT a vote on whether or not to have a strike. This is merely a straw poll to indicate overall interest. If this poll is firmly "opposed" then I'll know that now. But even if this poll is firmly in "support" we'd obviously go through a much longer process to get some kind of consensus around parameters, triggers, and timing.<br />
<br />
Following initial informal discussions which resulted in a positive response, a formal consultation titled "SOPA Initiative" was opened by the community to consider specific proposals and preferred options. These included matters such as location (United States only or worldwide), and whether content should be disabled completely or still accessible after a click-through page. Eventually, the discussion led to a decision strongly in favor of a 24 hour global blackout of the site on January 18, disabling normal reading and editing functions, affirmed in a vote of approximately 1,800 editors.<ref name="cnn wales">{{cite news | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/17/tech/web/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-qa/index.html | title = Why Wikipedia is going down at midnight | first = John | last =Sutter | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | publisher = CNN }}</ref> The blocking action was purposely not complete; users could access Wikipedia content from the mobile interface or mirror sites, or if they disabled [[Javascript]] or other web browser functions.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.extremetech.com/computing/114233-surviving-the-wikipedia-blackout-mirrors-caches-alternatives-apps-and-more| title= Surviving the Wikipedia blackout: Mirrors, caches, alternatives, apps, and more| first = Sebastian | last = Anthony | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 | work = [[ExtremeTech]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first = Emily | last = Steel | accessdate = January 17, 2012 | url = http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2012/01/17/need-wikipedia-wednesday-heres-how-to-access-it/ | title = Need Wikipedia Wednesday? Here’s How to Access It | work = [[The Wall Street Journal]] | date = January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_Wikipedia_anti-SOPA_blackout/Technical_FAQ&oldid=3270637 | title = Wikipedia anti-SOPA blackout/Technical FAQ | publisher = [[Wikimedia Foundation]] | accessdate=January 20, 2012 | date=January 18, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.extremetech.com/computing/114233-surviving-the-wikipedia-blackout-mirrors-caches-alternatives-apps-and-more| title= Surviving the Wikipedia blackout: Mirrors, caches, alternatives, apps, and more| first = Sebastian | last = Anthony | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 18, 2012 | work = [[ExtremeTech]] }}</ref><br />
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The vote formally affected English Wikipedia only; other language editions and Wikimedia projects were left free to decide whether to hold their own protests given the potential worldwide impact of the legislation, with technical support on offer from the Foundation.<ref name="cnn wales"/> The editor communities of at least 30 other [[Wikimedia Foundation#projects|sister projects]] chose to do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:SOPA_initiative/Actions_by_other_communities|title=Wikipedia:SOPA initiative/Actions by other communities|publisher=English Wikipedia|accessdate=January 20, 2012}}</ref><br />
[[File:Navajo SOPA.png|thumb|right|250px|The Navajo Wikipedia, a sister project, instituted a soft- or click-through blackout in solidarity. Here a [[censor bars|censor bar]] merely roves the opening screen.]]<br />
<br />
On January 17, 2012, Jimmy Wales affirmed the results of the community's decision and that the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], which hosts the English Wikipedia website, would support the community's decision. He called for a "public uprising" against the proposed legislation, which critics fear would threaten free speech. He added that factors such as funding or donations had not been part of the community's considerations, but the matter had arisen as a "a principled stand" from the community, and that in his view "our best long-term prospect for Wikipedia in terms of our survival ... depends on us being principled".<ref name="jimmy-17 jan">{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/why-i-want-to-bring-down-the-internet--for-a-day-6290703.html|title=Why I want to bring down the internet&nbsp;– for a day|first=Jerome|last=Taylor|accessdate=January 17, 2012|date=January 17, 2012|work=The Independent}}</ref> He commented on editors' reasons for the decision:<ref name="jimmy-17 jan" /><br />
<br />
: Free speech includes the right to not speak. We are a community of volunteers. We have written this thing that we believe to be a gift to the world. We don't charge people for it. It's freely available to anybody who wants to (use it). We are a charity. And I think it's important for people to realize that the ability of our community to come together and give this kind of gift to the world depends on a certain legal infrastructure that makes it possible for people to share knowledge freely -- that the First Amendment is incredibly important in terms of the creation of this kind of thing.<br />
<br />
Wikimedia Executive Director [[Sue Gardner]] posted an announcement of the Foundation's support for the blackout proposal on Wikimedia's blog. The post received over 7000 responses from the general public within the first 24 hours of its posting.<ref>[http://blog.wikimedia.org/2012/01/16/wikipedias-community-calls-for-anti-sopa-blackout-january-18/ Wikipedia’s community calls for anti-SOPA blackout January 18] ''[[Wikimedia Foundation]]'' Accessed: January 17, 2012</ref> On January 16, Wikimedia founder [[Jimmy Wales]] and Wikimedia Foundation Executive Director [[Sue Gardner]] announced the blackout after conducting a 72-hour poll of the editing community. The blackout ran for 24 hours starting at 05:00 UTC ([[midnight]] [[Eastern Time Zone|Eastern Standard Time]]) on January 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news.com.au/technology/wedsites-blackout-in-sopa-anti-piracy-protest/story-e6frfro0-1226248013015|title=Websites blackout in SOPA anti-piracy protest|work=News.com.au|accessdate=January 19, 2012|date=January 19, 2012}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Wikipedia Blackout Over.png|thumb|300px|Image of the screen shown after the blackout ended, midnight EST 19 January 2012]]<br />
Despite the support of those polled for the action, a small number of Wikipedia editors blacked out their own user profile pages or resigned their administrative positions in protest of the blackout; one editor stated his "main concern is that it puts the organization in the role of advocacy, and that's a slippery slope".<ref>{{cite news | url = http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/wikipedia-editors-question-sites-planned-blackout-15381673 | title = Wikipedia Editors Question Site's Planned Blackout | first = Peter | last = Svensson | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | agency = Associated Press }}</ref><br />
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====Other websites====<br />
<br />
More than 115,000 websites participated in the protest.<ref name="NYT 19 Jan" /> Websites that participated in the blackout included [[Craigslist]], [[Boing Boing]], [[A Softer World]], [[Cake Wrecks]], [[Destructoid]], DeckTech.net, [[Free Press (organization)|Free Press]], [[Failblog]], [[Newgrounds]], [[Good (magazine)|Good.is]], [[Good Old Games]], [[Mojang]], [[MoveOn.org]], [[Mozilla]], [[Rate Your Music]], [[Oh No They Didn't]], [[Tucows]], [[What Dat.net]], [[ThatGuyWithTheGlasses]], [[Tumblr]], [[TwitPic]], [[VGMusic]], [[Wikia]], [[Wordpress]], [[xkcd]], [[Galobuzz]] as well as the corporate site of the [[Linux]] distribution [[openSUSE]] and the congressional websites of [[Silicon Valley]] representatives [[Anna Eshoo]] and [[Zoe Lofgren]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.spectator.co.uk/books/blog/7588528/wikiworld.thtml | title = Wiki-world| first = David | last = Blackburn | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate = January 19, 2012 | publisher = [[The Spectator]] }}</ref><ref name=Sopastrike>{{cite web |url=http://sopastrike.com/ |title=Web Goes On Strike |publisher=Sopastrike |accessdate=January 17, 2011}}</ref> [[Google]] announced their intention to join the blackout by altering their logo for US visitors for the day, almost entirely obscuring it with an interactive black redaction swath. Clicking through the specially designed logo took readers to an informational page about the bills, and the opportunity to sign a petition to be sent to Congress stating their concerns.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57360291/google-plans-to-use-home-page-to-protest-sopa/ | title = Google plans to use home page to protest SOPA | first = Greg | last = Sandoval | first2 = Declan | last2= McCullagh | publisher = [[CNet]] | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012}}</ref> <br />
<br />
The [[Mozilla Foundation]] altered the default start page of their [[Firefox]] web browser, blacking it out and providing links with more information on the SOPA/PIPA bills and the opposition to them, and to allow users to email their Congressional representatives.<ref name="mozilla">{{cite web | url = http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57362433-93/mozilla-reaches-40-million-people-in-anti-sopa-campaign/ | title = Mozilla reaches 40 million people in anti-SOPA campaign | publisher = [[CNet]] | first = Dana | last = Kerr | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate = January 20, 2019 }}</ref><br />
<br />
''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'' magazine's online site used Javascript to place black bars on most of the text on their page, as if the text was redacted, outside of their key article regarding SOPA/PIPA; readers could remove the bars with a mouse click.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/technology/2012/01/sopa-blackout-wikipedia-google-wired-join-protest-against-internet-censorship/ | title = SOPA Blackout: Wikipedia, Google, Wired Protest ‘Internet Censorship’ | publisher = [[ABC News]] | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 19, 2012 | first = Ned | last = Potter }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2012/01/why-weve-censored-wired-com/ | title = Why We’ve Censored Wired.com | first = Evan | last = Hansen | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 18, 2012 | work = [[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] }}</ref><br />
<br />
The photo-sharing website [[Flickr]] created the ability for a registered user to "censor" an unlimited number (up from an initial limit of ten) of photos as demonstration of how SOPA/PIPA regulation would affect the site; the user-selected photographs were greyed out, and included informational text.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2399029,00.asp | title = Flickr SOPA Protest Lets You Black Out Photos | first = Chloe | last = Albanesius | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 18, 2012 | work = [[PC Magazine]] }}</ref><br />
<br />
[[4chan]] ran a banner and "censored" posts by users on all image boards,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20120118/12072517457/gallery-sopa-blackout-protest-screens.shtml | title=A Gallery Of The SOPA Blackout Protest Screens | accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref> which could be viewed by hovering over them.<br />
<br />
StumbleUpon added numerous links to anti-SOPA/PIPA websites.<br />
<br />
A video was circulated by the League for Gamers (founded by [[Mark Kern]] and supported by [[ScrewAttack]], ''[[Extra Credits]]'', and ''[[LoadingReadyRun]]'') protesting the [[Entertainment Software Association]]'s support of SOPA by gathering support to boycott the ESA's popular [[Electronic Entertainment Expo|E3 convention]].<ref>[http://www.screwattack.com/StandTogether Stand Together: The Gaming Community vs SOPA and PIPA] on [[ScrewAttack]].com</ref><br />
<br />
====Physical demonstrations====<br />
[[File:Sopa protests new york city january 18 2012.jpg|thumb|right|SOPA/PIPA protesters in New York City, in coordination with the Internet blackout]]<br />
In addition to the online blackouts, protests in cities such as New York City, San Francisco, and Seattle were held on January 18 to raise awareness of the two bills.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://techcrunch.com/2012/01/19/tctv-hundreds-rally-in-the-streets-of-nyc-to-defend-the-internet/ | title = TCTV: Hundreds Rally In The Streets Of NYC To Defend The Internet | first = Jason | last = Kinkaid | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate = January 19, 2012 | publisher = [[TechCrunch]] }}</ref><ref name="nytimes reaction"/><br />
<br />
=== Reaction ===<br />
<br />
====World reaction====<br />
<br />
=====Pre-protest=====<br />
The announcement of the blackout was reported worldwide. Media that covered the story included<!--alphabetical list please--> [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC Australia]],<ref name=ABC>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-01-17/wiki-to-go-dark-in-piracy-protest/3778452|title=Wikipedia to go dark in piracy protest|publisher=ABC Australia|accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]],<ref name=CBC>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2012/01/17/wikipedia-dark-protest.html|title=Wikipedia to go dark tonight protesting anti-piracy act|publisher=CBC|accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]],<ref name=BBC>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16590585|title=Wikipedia joins web blackout in Sopa Act protest|publisher=BBC|accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[der Spiegel]]'',<ref name=derspiegel>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/web/0,1518,809499,00.html|title=Wikipedia schaltet ab&nbsp;— aus Protest |publisher=spiegel.de |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[Le Figaro]]'',<ref name=Figaro>{{cite web |url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/hightech/2012/01/17/01007-20120117ARTFIG00609-la-version-anglaise-de-wikipedia-fermee-mercredi.php |title=Google se voile de noir pour protester contre la loi SOPA |publisher=Le Figaro |language=French |date=January 17, 2012 |accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref> ''[[Le Monde]]'',<ref name=lemonde>{{cite web |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/technologies/article/2012/01/17/loi-antipiratage-wikipedia-va-fermer-pendant-24-heures_1630565_651865.html|title=Loi antipiratage : Wikipedia va fermer pendant 24 heures|publisher=lemonde.fr |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[Libération]]'',<ref name=libération>{{cite web |url=http://www.liberation.fr/medias/01012384070-projet-de-loi-sopa-internet-pique-de-greve |title=Projet de loi Sopa : Internet piqué de grève |publisher=liberation.fr |author=Sophian Fanen |accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref>'' [[Fox News]]'',<ref name="fox-news">{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2012/01/17/wikipedia-to-go-dark-for-24-hours-to-protest-anti-piracy-bill/ |title=Wikipedia to go Dark 24 Hours |date=January 17, 2012 |work=Fox News}}</ref> ''[[The Guardian]]'',<ref name=Guardian>{{cite web |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/17/wikipedia-blackout-looms-sopa|title=Wikipedia's blackout looms|publisher=''The Guardian''|last=Sweney|first=Mark|date=January 17, 2012|accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref> Menafn,<ref name=Menafn>{{cite web |url=http://www.menafn.com/qn_news_story.asp?StoryId={3ce5c04e-b13a-4f1b-bcd0-58a3a0f4f17f}&src=RSS |title=Wikipedia to shut down in censorship row |publisher=Menafn.com |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> [[News Limited]],<ref name=NL>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.com.au/technology/wikipedia-may-black-out-wednesday-in-sopa-protest/story-e6frfro0-1226246462274?from=public_rss |title=Wikipedia will black out for a whole day.... Oh, the horror |publisher=News Limited |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> [[Sky News]],<ref name=Sky16150438>{{cite web |url=http://news.sky.com/home/technology/article/16150438 |title=Wikipedia Blackout In Anti-Piracy Law Protest |publisher=Sky News |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Age]]'',<ref name=Age>{{cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/technology/technology-news/antipiracy-protest-triggers-wikipedia-shutdown-20120117-1q3wu.html |title=Anti-piracy protest triggers Wikipedia shutdown |first=Georgia |last=Wilkins |publisher=The Age |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Hindu]]'',<ref name=Hindu2807792>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/internet/article2807792.ece |title=Wikipedia to go dark against U.S. anti-piracy bill |publisher=The Hindu |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref name=NYT>{{cite web |url=http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/16/wikipedia-plans-to-go-dark-on-wednesday-to-protest-sopa/ |title=Wikipedia to Go Dark on Wednesday to Protest Bills on Web Piracy |first=Jenna |last=Wortham |publisher=The New York Times |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20120117">{{cite news |last=Wortham |first=Jenna |title=Protest on Web Uses Shutdown to Take On Two Piracy Bills |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/18/technology/web-wide-protest-over-two-antipiracy-bills.html |date=January 17, 2012 |publisher=[[NYTimes]] |accessdate=January 17, 2012 }}</ref> ''[[Taipei Times]]'',<ref>{{cite news|title=Wikipedia to be blacked out in anti-piracy bill protest|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2012/01/18/2003523489|accessdate=January 17, 2012|newspaper=[[Taipei Times]]|date=January 18, 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]'',<ref name=WP>{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/wikipedia-blackout-coming-jan-18-says-co-founder-jimmy-wales/2012/01/16/gIQAh2Ke3P_blog.html?wprss= |title=Wikipedia blackout coming Jan.&nbsp;18,&nbsp;says co-founder Jimmy Wales |first=Melissa |last=Bell |publisher=The Washington Post |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''<ref>{{cite news |url= http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204555904577166741285522030.html |title=Wikipedia Plans Blackout Over Piracy Bill&nbsp;— WSJ.com |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date= January 17, 2012|publisher=[[Dow Jones & Company|Dow Jones]] |location=[[New York, NY|New York]] |issn=0099-9660 |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> and ''[[The Times of India]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-01-17/internet/30634825_1_sopa-combat-online-piracy-jimmy-wales |title=Wikipedia to shut down for 24 hours |publisher=Articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date= |accessdate=2012-01-20}}</ref><br />
<br />
Several media organizations including ''[[The Washington Post]]'', ''[[The Guardian]]'', and [[NPR]] encouraged a "[[crowdsourcing]] solution for those left searching for answers" during the Wikipedia blackout by inviting users to ask questions on [[Twitter]] using the hashtag #altwiki.<ref>David Beard (January 17, 2012), [http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/wikipedia-blackout-an-altwiki-band-aid/2012/01/17/gIQAWbg25P_blog.html Wikipedia Blackout: An #altwiki Band-Aid] ''[[The Washington Post]]''</ref><br />
<br />
An executive of the [[Motion Picture Association of America]] (MPAA) dubbed the blackout plan an example of the "gimmicks and distortion" that inflamed passions while failing to solve the problem of copyright infringement by "draw[ing] people away from trying to resolve what is a real problem, which is that foreigners continue to steal the hard work of Americans".<ref>James Rainey, (January 16, 2012) [http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-ct-wikipedia-20120117,0,4565597.story Wikipedia to go offline to protest anti-piracy legislation] ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''</ref> Former U.S. Senator and MPAA Director [[Chris Dodd]] stated that the coordinated shutdown was "also an abuse of power given the freedoms these companies enjoy in the marketplace today."<ref name=doddquote>[http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2012/01/dodd-lashes-out-at-sopa-strike.html MPAA's Chris Dodd takes aim at SOPA strike] ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]'' January 17, 2012</ref><br />
<br />
[[Dick Costolo]], CEO of social networking site [[Twitter]], rejected calls for Twitter to join the protest, tweeting that "[c]losing a global business in reaction to single-issue national politics is foolish."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/16/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-slammed-twitter|title=Twitter boss slams Wikipedia's 'silly' Sopa protest|work=The Guardian|accessdate=January 17, 2012|date=January 17, 2012|first=Dominic|last=Rushe}}</ref> Originally, some thought Costolo referred to all of the blackout movements on January 18th, but afterwards clarified that he was referring to a hypothetical blackout of Twitter, and that he was supportive of the Wikipedia blackout itself.<ref>{{cite web|author=Mark Sweney |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/17/wikipedia-blackout-looms-sopa |title=Wikipedia's blackout looms |publisher=The Guardian |date= |accessdate=2012-01-20}}</ref><br />
<br />
The sponsor of the bill, Representative [[Lamar S. Smith]], called the blackout a "publicity stunt," stating "it is ironic a website dedicated to providing information is spreading misinformation about the Stop Online Piracy Act."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thehill.com/blogs/hillicon-valley/technology/204629-gop-chairman-wikipedia-blackout-a-publicity-stunt|title=Sponsor of online piracy bill calls Wikipedia blackout a 'publicity stunt'|work=The Hill|accessdate=January 17, 2012|date=January 17, 2012|first=Brendan|last=Sasso}}</ref><br />
<br />
On January 17, 2012, in response to growing concerns over PIPA and SOPA, the White House stated that it "will not support legislation that reduces freedom of expression, increases cybersecurity risk, or undermines the dynamic, innovative global internet."<ref name=whitehouse>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/technology-16574977|title=Rupert Murdoch Sopa attack rebuffed by Google|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=January 17, 2012|date=January 16, 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====January 18=====<br />
The Wikimedia Foundation reported that there were over 162 million visits to the blacked-out version of Wikipedia during the 24-hour period, with at least 8 million uses of the site's front page to look up contact information for their U.S. Congressional representatives.<ref name="WMF 19 Jan">{{cite web|title=Press release: Wikipedia blackout affirms overwhelming support for free and open Internet|url=http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Press_releases/Wikipedia_blackout_supports_free_and_open_internet|publisher=[[Wikimedia Foundation]]|accessdate=2012-01-21|date=2012-01-19}}</ref><ref name="LA Times 19 Jan" /> The usage of Wikipedia's front page increased enormously during the blackout with 17,535,733 page views recorded, compared with 4,873,388 on the previous day.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wikipedia article traffic statistics|url=http://stats.grok.se/en/201201/Main_Page|publisher=stats.grok.se|date=January 19, 2012|accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref> A petition created and linked to by Google recorded over 4.5 million signatures,<ref name="LA Times 19 Jan" /> while the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] reported that more than 1 million email messages were sent to congressmen through their site during the blackout.<ref name="EFF 19 Jan" /> [[MSNBC]] reported that over 2.4 million [[Twitter]] messages about SOPA, PIPA, and the blackouts were made during a 16-hour period on January 18; this included [[Facebook]] founder [[Mark Zuckerburg]], who had not used the service since 2009, to encourage his followers to contact their congressmen.<ref name="MSNBC 19 Jan">{{cite web | url = http://technolog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/01/19/10190155-twitter-more-than-24-million-sopa-tweets | title = Twitter: More than 2.4 million SOPA tweets | publisher = [[MSNBC]] | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate = January 19, 2012 | first = Athima | last = Chansanchai }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://technolog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/01/18/10182610-sopa-inspires-mark-zuckerbergs-first-tweet-since-2009 | title = SOPA inspires Mark Zuckerberg's first tweet since 2009 | first = Helen A.S. | last = Popkin | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 18, 2012 | publisher = [[MSNBC]]}}</ref> Many internet users took to Twitter to vent their frustration and anger over the blackout.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://techland.time.com/2012/01/19/did-it-work-day-after-results-of-the-sopa-pipa-blackout/?xid=gonewsedit| title= Did It Work? ‘Day After’ Results of the SOPA, PIPA Blackout | publisher= Time Techland, techland.time.com | accessdate= January 19, 2012}}</ref> [[Ron Wyden|Sen. Ron Wyden (D-OR)]], a key opponent of the bills, said that "lawmakers had collected more than 14 million names - more than 10 million of them voters" to protest the legislation.<ref name="NYT-20120120" /> <br />
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[[Creative America]], a coalition representing movie studios, entertainment unions, and television networks, used the blackout to prompt those affected by it to enjoy other forms of entertainment in place of their normal Internet activities; such ads appeared at [[Times Square]] in New York City and on various websites.<ref name="nytimes reaction">{{cite news | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/technology/protests-of-antipiracy-bills-unite-web.html?ref=technology | title = With Twitter, Blackouts and Demonstrations, Web Flexes Its Muscle | work = [[New York Times]] | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate = January 19, 2012 | first = Jenna | last = Wortham }}</ref><br />
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CTV news in Canada published a "survival guide" for "getting around the blackout" on their national website, citing Wikipedia as the answer to "burning questions such as "Are chinchillas rodents?" and "What does ‘rickrolling' mean?" The guide provided detailed instructions on how to circumvent the ban and access the English Wikipedia during the protest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/TopStories/20120118/wikipedia-blackout-survival-guide-120118/ |title=Getting around the Wikipedia blackout: A survival guide Read more: http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/TopStories/20120118/wikipedia-blackout-survival-guide-120118/#ixzz1k2fIZDDt<br />
|publisher=Ctv.ca |date=2009-11-29 |accessdate=2012-01-20}}</ref> CTV referred to the protest as "a date that will live in ignorance."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/SciTech/20120118/wikipedia-shuts-down-120118/ |title=Wikipedia shuts down |publisher=Ctv.ca |date=2011-12-14 |accessdate=2012-01-20}}</ref><br />
<br />
During the blackout, libraries at several universities used the outage to remind students that the traditional paper encyclopedias were available for research. Students who grew up turning to the internet to look up information were encouraged to visit the library as an alternative source of information.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/story/2012-01-19/wikipedia-blackout-sopa-pipa-library/52681124/1| title= Librarians lure students back during Wikipedia blackout | publisher= USA Today | accessdate= January 19, 2012}}</ref> On Twitter, a joke hashtag #factswithoutWikipedia trended with users posting humorous fake "facts."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mediabistro.com/galleycat/facts-without-wikipedia-sweeps-twitter_b45576|title=Facts Without Wikipedia Hashtag Sweeps Twitter|publisher=Gallycat|accessdate= January 21,2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====Post-protest=====<br />
The impact of the coordinated action was generally considered to be significant. [[Yochai Benkler]] of the [[Berkman Center for Internet & Society]] stated that the January 18 blackout was "a very strong public demonstration to suggest that what historically was seen as a technical system of rules that only influences the content industry has become something more," further adding "You've got millions of citizens who care enough to act. That's not trivial."<ref>{{cite news | url = http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2017274222_sopa19.html | title = Internet's dark day: Anti-piracy bills take a beating | work = [[Seattle Times]] | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 }}</ref> California House member [[Darrell Issa]] called the collective effort an unprecedented means for upsetting a backroom [[lobbying]] effort,<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-19/google-protest-of-anti-piracy-bills-upends-traditional-lobbying-process.html | title = Google Protest of Anti-Piracy Bills Upends Traditional Lobbying | first = Eric | last = Engleman | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 | work = [[Bloomberg L.P.]] }}</ref> and the immediate political efficacy of the widespread online protest was characterised in terms of a [[Isoroku Yamamoto's sleeping giant quote|sleeping giant]] having awakened and of a new player being in town.<ref>{{cite web|author=January 20, 2012 by Chris Taylor 31 |url=http://mashable.com/2012/01/20/rip-sopa/ |title=RIP SOPA: The Internet Kills Its Attackers |publisher=Mashable.com |date= |accessdate=2012-01-22}}</ref> One [[Silicon Valley]] lobbyist said the content industry had "a lot to learn," noting that they don't have grassroots support: "There are no Facebook pages to call your congressman to support PIPA and SOPA."<ref>{{cite web|author1 = Palmer, Anna|author2 = Allen, Jonathan|date = January 18, 2012|accessdate =January 18, 2012|url = http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0112/71640.html|title = SOPA: Libertarians, tech titans poke old-school GOPers|publisher = [[Politico]]}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'', which framed the netizens' revolt in terms of the new economy versus the old economy,<ref>Weisman, Jonathan (January 18, 2012). [http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/technology/web-protests-piracy-bill-and-2-key-senators-change-course.html?pagewanted=all&src=ISMR_AP_LO_MST_FB "In fight against piracy bills, new economy rises against old"]. ''New York Times''. Retrieved January 21, 2012.</ref> headlined the activism as a "political coming of age for the tech industry."<ref name="nytimes1"/><br />
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Newspaper editorials had mixed views. The ''[[Boston Herald]]'' called the protest a "hissy fit" by "Internet powerhouses" saying, "within hours of the online protest, political supporters of the bill... began dropping like flies, thus proving how very powerful these cyber-bullies can be."<ref name=heraldresponse>[http://www.bostonherald.com/news/opinion/editorials/view/20220119a_halt_to_online_theft/ "A halt to online theft"] ''[[Boston Herald]]'' January 18, 2012</ref> The ''[[New York Times]]'' described the protest as "Noted, but as a Brief Inconvenience"<ref name="NYT-Cohen-20120118">{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Noam |title=Wikipedia Absence Is Noted, but as a Brief Inconvenience |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/business/media/wikipedia-protest-noticed-but-some-yawn.html |date=January 18, 2012 |publisher=[[NYTimes]] |accessdate=January 19, 2012 }}</ref> and, as well, offered an [[Editorial|Opinion]] about the protest and possible accomplishments.<ref "NYT-Op-20120118">{{cite news |author=NYTimes Staff |title=Online Piracy and Political Overreach |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/opinion/online-piracy-and-political-overreach.html |date=January 18, 2012 |publisher=[[NYTimes]] |accessdate=January 19, 2012 }}</ref> [[BBC News]] technology writer [[Rory Cellan-Jones]] was of the opinion that the blackout achieved its objectives but possibly at some cost to Wikipedia's reputation.<ref>Rory Cellan-Jones (January 19, 2012), [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16614643 "Wikipedia - after the blackout"] ''[[BBC News]]''</ref> The shutdown also prompted a response from [[cartoon]]ist [[Matt Pritchett|Matt]] (Matthew Pritchett) in the British ''[[Daily Telegraph]]''.<ref>[http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/02113/190112-MATT-web_2113225a.gif Matt cartoon], Daily Telegraph January 19, 2012, accessed January 19, 2012</ref><br />
<br />
MPAA Chairman Dodd admitted that the content industry had lost the public relations battle with the internet industry, remarking that "[y]ou've got an opponent who has the capacity to reach millions of people with a click of a mouse and there's no fact-checker. They can say whatever they want."<ref>Richard Verrier (21 January 2012), [http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-ct-hollywood-post-sopa-20120121,0,300154.story "Hollywood regroups after losing battle over anti-piracy bills"] ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''</ref> Dodd called for Hollywood and Silicon Valley to work out a compromise on the legislation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/20/technology/dodd-calls-for-hollywood-and-silicon-valley-to-meet.html|title=Dodd Calls for Hollywood and Silicon Valley to Meet|publisher=''The New York Times''|date=January 19, 2012|accessdate=January 20, 2012}}</ref> The Executive Director of Creative America argued that "[t]hey've misidentified this issue as an issue about your Internet, your Internet is being jeopardized. In fact their business model is being asked to be subjected to regulation. They're misleading their huge base."<ref>Alan Fram (21 January 2012), [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2012/01/21/national/w092012S93.DTL&ao=2#ixzz1k8IiIOPL "INFLUENCE GAME: Online companies win piracy fight"] ''[[Associated Press]]''</ref><br />
<br />
==== Legislative Impact and aftermath====<br />
During the day of January 18, six senators who had been sponsors of the bills, including [[Marco Rubio]], PIPA's co-sponsor, [[Orrin Hatch]], [[Kelly Ayotte]], [[Roy Blunt]], [[John Boozman]], and [[Mark Kirk]], stated that they would withdraw their support for the bills.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2012/01/18/amidst-sopa-blackout-senate-copyright-bill-loses-a-key-supporter/ | title= Amidst SOPA Blackout, Senate Copyright Bill Loses Key Supporters | first = Andy | last = Greenberg | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 | work = [[Forbes]] }}</ref> Several other congressmen issued statements critical of the current versions of both bills.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.cnet.com/8301-31921_3-57361237-281/protests-lead-to-weakening-support-for-protect-ip-sopa/ | title = Protests lead to weakening support for Protect IP, SOPA | first = Declan | last = McCullagh | first2 = Elinor | last2 = Mills | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 | publisher = [[CNet]] }}</ref><ref name=BBC16623831>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-16623831 |title=Sopa: US backers end support for anti-piracy bill |publisher=BBC News Online |accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref> <br />
<br />
By the following day, eighteen of the 100 senators, including eleven of the original sponsors of the PIPA bill, had announced that they no longer supported PIPA.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.forbes.com/sites/insertcoin/2012/01/19/internet-blackout-causes-18-senators-to-flee-from-pipa|title= Internet Blackout Causes 18 Senators to Flee from PIPA|last1= Tassi|first1= Paul|date= January 19, 2012|work= |publisher= Forbes|accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref> By one account, the shift in stated positions on SOPA/PIPA by members of Congress had gone overnight from 80 for and 31 against to 65 for and 101 against.<ref>http://s3.amazonaws.com/propublica/assets/images/sopa-opera-count.png</ref> An initial floor vote was scheduled for January 24 prior to the Internet blackout, but following these responses, Senator Majority Leader [[Harry Reid]] announced that the vote will be postponed, urging the bill's main sponsor, Senator [[Patrick Leahy]], to work out compromise in the bill "to forge a balance between protecting Americans' intellectual property, and maintaining openness and innovation on the Internet".<ref name="NYT-20120120" /><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-57362675-503544/pipa-vote-postponed-in-the-senate/ | title = PIPA vote postponed in the Senate | first = Stephanie | last = Condon | date = January 20, 2012 | accessdate = January 20, 2012 | publisher = [[CBS News]] }}</ref> Similarly, the House Judiciary Subcommittee chairman, Representative [[Lamar S. Smith]], announced that further voting on SOPA would be placed on hold "until there is wider agreement on a solution".<ref>{{cite news | first = Stephanie | last = Condon | date = January 20, 2012 | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-57362675-503544/pipa-sopa-put-on-hold-in-wake-of-protests | title = PIPA, SOPA put on hold in wake of protests | publisher = [[CBS News]] | accessdate = January 20, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://money.cnn.com/2012/01/20/technology/SOPA_PIPA_postponed/ | title = SOPA and PIPA postponed indefinitely after protests | first = Julianne | last = Petipone | date = January 20, 2012 | accessdate = January 20, 2012 | publisher = CNN }}</ref> Later, an updated [[New York Times]] news story reported that the two bills were "indefinitely shelved."<ref name="NYT-20120120" /><br />
<br />
===== International responses =====<br />
[[World Wide Web]] inventor [[Sir Tim Berners-Lee]] "scathingly"<ref name="Berners-Lee">{{cite news|last=Worth|first=Dan|title=Web inventor Tim Berners-Lee slams SOPA and PIPA legislation|url=http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2139758/web-inventor-tim-berners-lee-slams-sopa-pipa-legislation|accessdate=2012-01-20|newspaper=V3|date=2012-01-18}}</ref> attacked the SOPA and PIPA legislation. Speaking at an industry event in [[Florida]] he praised the protests by major sites for the attention they had drawn, and described the bills as a "grave threat to the openness of the internet" that "had to be stopped":<ref name="Berners-Lee" /><br />
<br />
: '''"'''The laws have been put together to allow an industry body to ask the government to turn off a web site and the government can make people turn off the site without trial ... There are times when that could be very powerful and damaging, like before an election and it is crossing a line and we have to protect the internet as an open space, we have to respect it.'''"'''<ref name="Berners-Lee" /><br />
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Two days later, [[Vice-President of the European Commission]] and [[European Commissioner for Digital Agenda|European Commissioner for the Digital Agenda]] [[Neelie Kroes]] described the bills as "bad legislation" that would "threaten the basic foundation of the success of the web".<ref name=Kroes>{{cite news|last=Worth|first=Dan|title=European Commission digital chief backs anti-SOPA protests|url=http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2140390/european-commission-digital-chief-backs-anti-sopa-protests|accessdate=http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2140390/european-commission-digital-chief-backs-anti-sopa-protests|newspaper=V3|date=http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2140390/european-commission-digital-chief-backs-anti-sopa-protests}}</ref> She also said there "should be safeguarding benefits of open net." "Speeding is illegal too but you don't put speed bumps on the motorway,” she said.<ref>{{cite web|last=Steinhauser|first=Gabriele|title=EU Internet czar tweets against SOPA|url=http://www.sacbee.com/2012/01/20/4202034/eu-internet-czar-comes-out-agaist.html|work=[[The Sacramento Bee]]|accessdate=January 21, 2012|date=January 20, 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Gallery ==<br />
=== Online sites during the blackout ===<br />
<gallery><br />
File:ScreenWikiBlackout.png|<p>[[English Wikipedia]] front page</p><p>''(See also: [[commons:category:SOPA initiative screenshots|gallery of other Wikimedia communities' front pages]]'')<br />
File:Google Doodle Censored.jpg|[[Google]] front page<br />
File:Mozilla.org.png|[[Mozilla]]<br />
File:Seattle.craigslist.org.png|[[Craigslist]]<br />
File:Wordpress.org.png|[[Wordpress]]<br />
File:Eff.org.png|[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]<br />
File:Boingboing.net.png|[[Boingboing]]<br />
File:Greenpeace.org.png|[[Greenpeace]]<br />
File:Moveon.org.png|[[MoveOn]]<br />
File:Fsf.org.png|[[Free Software Foundation]]<br />
File:Creative Commons Anti SOPA banner 2012-01-19.png|[[Creative Commons]]<br />
File:Uncyclopedia-blackout.png|[[Uncyclopedia]]<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
=== Other images ===<br />
<gallery><br />
File:SOPA protest San Francisco City Hall January 2012.jpg|Protest, [[Civic Center, San Francisco|Civic Center]], [[San Francisco]], California<br />
File:Sopa protests new york city january 18 2012.jpg|Protest, [[New York]]<br />
File:Wikipedia Blackout Over.png|Screen shown on English Wikipedia after blackout ended<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
=== Wikimedia community and Foundation preparations===<br />
<!-- KEEP THIS SHORT, ARTICLE IS NOT ABOUT WIKIMEDIA ITSELF OR ITS PHOTO SHOWROOM. <br />
ARTICLE CAN DO WITH A COUPLE OF IMAGES OF THIS, BUT NOT MORE.<br />
--><br />
<gallery><br />
File:Wikimedia Foundation SOPA War Room Meeting 1-17-2012-1-10.jpg|Wikimedia offices: planning<br />
File:Wikimedia Foundation SOPA War Room Meeting 1-17-2012-1-13.jpg|Wikimedia offices: planning<br />
File:Wikimedia Foundation SOPA War Room Meeting 1-17-2012-1-7.jpg|Testing web pages across different platforms<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Internet|Social movements|Politics|}}<br />
* [[Italian Wikipedia blackout|2011 Italian Wikipedia blackout]], also undertaken to oppose a proposed law.<br />
* [[New Zealand Internet Blackout]]<br />
* [[Internet activism]]<br />
* [[List of organizations with official stances on the Stop Online Piracy Act]]<br />
{{-}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*{{cite web | url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57359773/wikipedia-to-join-web-blackout-protesting-sopa/ | title=Wikipedia to join Web blackout protesting SOPA | publisher=[[CBS News]] | date=January 16, 2012 | accessdate=January 16, 2012 | author=Musil, Steven}}<br />
*{{cite web | url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2012/01/most-people-probably-havent-paid-much-attention-to-thehuge-corporations-waging-war-in-washington-over-legislation-designed-to.html | title=Wikipedia blackout to protest SOPA progress in Congress | work=[[Los Angeles Times]] | date=January 16, 2012 | accessdate=January 16, 2012 | author=Rainey, James}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Wikinews|Wikipedia, Reddit in 'blackout' against SOPA, PROTECT IP laws}}<br />
{{commons|Anti-SOPA blackout screenshot|other websites that participated in the blackout (where [[free license|freely licensed]])}}<br />
* [[wmf:Press releases/English Wikipedia to go dark|Wikimedia Foundation's official statement]] and [[wmf:English Wikipedia anti-SOPA blackout|Wikimedia CEO's statement]].<br />
* [http://www.sopastrike.com SOPA Strike] - Listing of all participating websites for the Internet blackout<br />
* [http://s3.amazonaws.com/propublica/assets/images/sopa-opera-count.png Congressional shift] - Infographic of the overnight change in positions regarding SOPA/PIPA by numerous members of Congress<br />
<br />
{{Wikipedia}}<br />
{{use mdy dates|date=January 2012}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:History of Wikipedia]]<br />
[[Category:History of the Internet]]<br />
[[Category:Internet activism]]<br />
[[Category:Internet censorship]]<br />
[[Category:2012 protests]]<br />
[[Category:2012 in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[ar:حجب ويكيبيديا الإنجليزية]]<br />
[[be:Пратэсты супраць SOPA і PIPA, 18 студзеня 2012]]<br />
[[ca:Apagada de la Viquipèdia en anglès]]<br />
[[es:Apagón de Wikipedia en inglés]]<br />
[[eu:Ingelesezko Wikipediaren itzalaldia]]<br />
[[fa:تعطیلی ویکیپدیای انگلیسی]]<br />
[[fr:Manifestations contre SOPA et PIPA]]<br />
[[gl:Apagamento da Wikipedia en inglés]]<br />
[[id:Pemadaman Wikipedia bahasa Inggris]]<br />
[[ko:SOPA와 PIPA 반대 시위]]<br />
[[lt:2012 m. angliškos Vikipedijos išjungimas]]<br />
[[ml:ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് വിക്കിപീഡിയ ബ്ലാക്ക്ഔട്ട്]]<br />
[[ms:Pencegahan siaran Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris]]<br />
[[pt:Blecaute da Wikipédia anglófona em 2012]]<br />
[[ru:Протесты против SOPA и PIPA (18 января 2012)]]<br />
[[ta:ஆங்கில விக்கிப்பீடியா இருட்டடிப்பு]]<br />
[[th:การปิดวิกิพีเดียภาษาอังกฤษ]]<br />
[[tr:2012 İngilizce Vikipedi karartması]]<br />
[[vi:Wikipedia tiếng Anh bị phủ đen]]<br />
[[zh-yue:英文維基百科閂站事件]]<br />
[[zh:反SOPA和PIPA抗議]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proteste_gegen_SOPA_und_PIPA&diff=98700681Proteste gegen SOPA und PIPA2012-01-18T03:00:35Z<p>Moxy: ce fix ref</p>
<hr />
<div>{{current event}}<br />
{{for|the [[Wikipedia:Community|community]] proposal that led to the blackout|WP:SOPA}}<br />
[[File:WP_SOPA_Screen_Dark_Simple.png|thumb|350px|The 18 January blackout page (as proposed by WMF on 16 January)]]<br />
The '''2012 English Wikipedia blackout''' is a scheduled<ref>[http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/English_Wikipedia_anti-SOPA_blackout English Wikipedia anti-SOPA blackout], Wikimedia Foundation, retrieved 17 January 2012</ref> blackout of the English Wikipedia for 24 hours on 18–19 January 2012. In place of articles, the site will show only a message opposing the [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA), legislation that has been deemed a threat to the existence of Wikipedia. <br />
<br />
This proposal was made by the English Wikipedia community after a month of discussions on the project in various polls and requests for comment. The date was chosen to coincide with similar action by other websites, such as [[Reddit]], and will run for 24 hours starting at 05:00 UTC on 18 January.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://m.skynews.com/article/worldnews/16150438|title=Wikipedia blackout in anti-piracy law protest|work=Sky News|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012}}</ref> The [[Wikimedia Foundation]] published a letter of support for the action later that day.<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
{{main2|PROTECT IP Act|Stop Online Piracy Act}}<br />
The [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA) are bills that were introduced into the [[United States House of Representatives]] and the [[United States Senate]] in the last quarter of 2011. The two bills, though different means, are designed to provide legal mechanisms for copyright holders, such as music and movie studios, to combat [[copyright infringment|digital piracy]] that occurs on non-United States websites. Both bills are extensions of the earlier [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] (DMCA) that enabled content producers to issue "take down" notices to [[Internet Service Providers]] (ISPs) and websites to remove infringing content. While the DMCA has been considered effective for patrolling of websites within the United States, the DMCA fails to address infringement from foreign websites.<ref name="cnnmoney">{{cite news | url = http://money.cnn.com/2012/01/17/technology/sopa_explained/ | title= SOPA explained: What it is and why it matters | publisher = [[CNNMoney]] | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | first = Julianne | last = Pepitone }}</ref> Part of the language of the bills when originally proposed would allow for copyright owners to issue complaints to ISPs and other major websites, like [[Google]] or [[Bing]], requiring them to remove the hostnames of infringing sites from their [[Domain name registry]] and to delist entries in search engines to these sites.<br />
<br />
Many of the companies and organizations supporting the proposed legislation are content producers, such as the [[Motion Picture Association of America]], the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] and the [[Entertainment Software Association]], and identified the need to have such laws to combat revenue losses associated with the copyright infringement from these foreign websites. However, some lawmakers and many technology and Internet firms and associations have expressed concerns that two bills' languages are too broad, and the concept of domain name blocking and search engine removal would create a new type of [[censorship]] of the Internet. A common criticism of the bill addresses broad language like what entails "deliberate actions to avoid confirming a high probability" for a website; sites that support user-generated content, such as [[YouTube]] would likely have to be shuttered to comply with the law as written.<ref name="cnnmoney"/><br />
<br />
In December 2011, SOPA was brought to the U.S. House Judicary Committee to begin the process of marking up the bill prior to introduction to the House floor.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/246093/house_panel_to_move_forward_on_stop_online_piracy_act.html | title = House Panel to Move Forward on Stop Online Piracy Act | first = Grant | last = Gross | date = December 12, 2011 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 | work = [[PC World (magazine)|PC World]] }}</ref> During this time, numerous websites began displaying banners and messages promoting their readerships to contact Congress to stop the progress of the bill, stating that their sites would be "blacked out" should the bill pass as a law. The markup session, in which several proposed amendments to address the concerns of technology companies were defeated, was eventually put on hold prior to the end of the year, to be restarted once Congress came back in session. Several technology websites began proposing the idea of an "Internet blackout" on the same day to protest SOPA and PIPA to occur before SOPA would be voted on on the House floor as a means of further protest.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2080066/Top-web-firms-set-impose-blackout-protest-Big-Brother-online-piracy-bill.html?ito=feeds-newsxml | title = Top web firms set to impose a blackout in protest against 'Big Brother' online piracy bill | first = Hugo | last = Guy | date = December 30, 2011 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 | work = [[Daily Mail]] }}</ref> [[Reddit]] was the first major site to announce an "Internet blackout" on January 18, 2012, and several other sites shortly followed, coordinating actions on that day.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://venturebeat.com/2012/01/10/reddit-blackout-sopa-pipa/ | title = Reddit goes black Jan. 18 to protest SOPA & PIPA — Who else will join? | first = Tom | last = Cheredar | date = January 10, 2012 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 }}</ref><br />
<br />
In January 2012, in response to concerns over PIPA and SOPA, the White House stated that it "will not support legislation that reduces freedom of expression, increases cybersecurity risk, or undermines the dynamic, innovative global internet."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/technology-16574977|title=Rupert Murdoch Sopa attack rebuffed by Google|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=16 January 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
===English Wikipedia's response===<br />
In line with the initial voices to stage an Internet blackout in December 2011, Wikipedia founder [[Jimmy Wales]] called for a "public uprising" against the proposed legislation, which critics fear would threaten free speech.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/why-i-want-to-bring-down-the-internet--for-a-day-6290703.html|title=Why I want to bring down the internet&nbsp;– for a day|first=Jerome|last=Taylor|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|work=The Independent}}</ref><br />
<br />
An initial discussion about whether this made sense was held on Wales's [[User talk:Jimbo Wales|talk page]] on the English Wikipedia, before being moved to its own project page, where the means of how the blackout would be implemented was discussed, such as whether to restrict the blackout to United States users based on [[geolocation]], or whether to simply have a single black page presented to the user prior to passing through to the site's content. Eventually, the discussion led to the choice of enacting a 24 hour blackout of the site on January 18, disabling normal reading and editing functions. A vote taken of about 1,800 editors favored the action.<ref name="cnn wales">{{cite web | url = http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/17/tech/web/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-qa/index.html | title = Why Wikipedia is going down at midnight | first = John | last =Sutter | date = 17 January 2012 | accessdate = 17 January 2012 | publisher = [[CNN]] }}</ref> Other Wikimedia projects were free to stage their own protest with the Foundation's support for any technical implementations. The German and Italian Wikipedia projects, and the Wikimedia Commons project voted to include banner images to support the blackout actions.<ref name="cnn wales"/><br />
<br />
Wikimedia Executive Director [[Sue Gardner]] posted an announcement of the Foundation's support for the blackout proposal on Wikimedia's blog. The post received over 7000 responses from the general public within the first 24 hours of its posting.<ref>[http://blog.wikimedia.org/2012/01/16/wikipedias-community-calls-for-anti-sopa-blackout-january-18/ Wikipedia’s community calls for anti-SOPA blackout 18 January] ''[[Wikimedia Foundation]]'' Accessed: 17 January 2012</ref><br />
<br />
====Counterprotest====<br />
On January 17 the [[Associated Press]] noted that a minority of Wikipedia editors had blacked out their own user profile pages or resigned their administrative positions in protest of the protest, and quoted a veteran editor who said his "main concern is that it puts the organization in the role of advocacy, and that's a slippery slope."<ref>Peter Svensson (17 January 2012), [http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/wikipedia-editors-question-sites-planned-blackout-15381673 Wikipedia Editors Question Site's Planned Blackout] ''[[Associated Press]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Coordination of the 18 January action==<br />
Although there were no plans to block any mobile version of Wikipedia,<ref>Emily Steel (17 January 2012), [http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2012/01/17/need-wikipedia-wednesday-heres-how-to-access-it/ Need Wikipedia Wednesday? Here’s How to Access It] ''[[The Wall Street Journal]] Technology Blog''</ref> [[German Wikipedia]], [[Portuguese Wikipedia]] and [[Wikimedia Commons]] were expected to run banners on January 18, without a full blackout. Other sites indicating an intention to run banners included [[Google]],<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57360291/google-plans-to-use-home-page-to-protest-sopa/ | title = Google plans to use home page to protest SOPA | first = Greg | last = Sandoval | first2 = Declan | last2= McCullagh | publisher = [[CNet]] | date = 2012-01-17 | accessdate = 2012-01-17}}</ref> while websites planning a full blackout of at least several hours duration included [[Reddit]], [[Boing Boing]], [[A Softer World]], [[Cake Wrecks]], [[Destructoid]], dotSUB, [[Free Press (organization)|Free Press]], [[Good (magazine)|Good.is]], [[Good Old Games]], little-apps.org, [[Mojang]], [[MoveOn.org]], [[Mozilla]], [[Tucows]] CallAvoiders.com and [[TwitPic]], as well as a number of other sites.<ref name=Sopastrike>{{cite web |url=http://sopastrike.com/ |title=Web Goes On Strike |publisher=Sopastrike |accessdate=17 January 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Reaction==<br />
===Pre-blackout===<br />
The announcement of the blackout was reported worldwide. Media that covered the story included<!--alphabetical list please--> [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC Australia]],<ref name=ABC>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-01-17/wiki-to-go-dark-in-piracy-protest/3778452|title=Wikipedia to go dark in piracy protest|publisher=ABC Australia|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]],<ref name=CBC>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2012/01/17/wikipedia-dark-protest.html|title=Wikipedia to go dark tonight protesting anti-piracy act|publisher=CBC|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]],<ref name=BBC>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16590585|title=Wikipedia joins web blackout in Sopa Act protest|publisher=BBC|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[der Spiegel]]'',<ref name=derspiegel>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/web/0,1518,809499,00.html|title=Wikipedia schaltet ab - aus Protest |publisher=spiegel.de |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[le Monde]]'',<ref name=lemonde>{{cite web |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/technologies/article/2012/01/17/loi-antipiratage-wikipedia-va-fermer-pendant-24-heures_1630565_651865.html|title=Loi antipiratage : Wikipedia va fermer pendant 24 heures|publisher=lemonde.fr |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[Fox News]]'',<ref name="fox-news">{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2012/01/17/wikipedia-to-go-dark-for-24-hours-to-protest-anti-piracy-bill/ |title=Wikipedia to go Dark 24 Hours |date=17 January 2012 |work=Fox News}}</ref> Menafn,<ref name=Menafn>{{cite web |url=http://www.menafn.com/qn_news_story.asp?StoryId={3ce5c04e-b13a-4f1b-bcd0-58a3a0f4f17f}&src=RSS |title=Wikipedia to shut down in censorship row |publisher=Menafn.com |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[News Limited]],<ref name=NL>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.com.au/technology/wikipedia-may-black-out-wednesday-in-sopa-protest/story-e6frfro0-1226246462274?from=public_rss |title=Wikipedia will black out for a whole day.... Oh, the horror |publisher=News Limited |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[Sky News]],<ref name=Sky16150438>{{cite web |url=http://news.sky.com/home/technology/article/16150438 |title=Wikipedia Blackout In Anti-Piracy Law Protest |publisher=Sky News |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Age]]'',<ref name=Age>{{cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/technology/technology-news/antipiracy-protest-triggers-wikipedia-shutdown-20120117-1q3wu.html |title=Anti-piracy protest triggers Wikipedia shutdown |first=Georgia |last=Wilkins |publisher=The Age |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Hindu]]'',<ref name=Hindu2807792>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/internet/article2807792.ece |title=Wikipedia to go dark against U.S. anti-piracy bill |publisher=The Hindu |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[WP:SIGNPOST|The Signpost]]'',<ref name=Signpost>{{cite web |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2012-01-16/Special_report |title=English Wikipedia to go dark on January&nbsp;18&nbsp;|author=[[User:SMasters|SMasters]] |date=16 January 2012 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref name=NYT>{{cite web |url=http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/16/wikipedia-plans-to-go-dark-on-wednesday-to-protest-sopa/ |title=Wikipedia to Go Dark on Wednesday to Protest Bills on Web Piracy |first=Jenna |last=Wortham |publisher=The New York Times |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]'',<ref name=WP>{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/wikipedia-blackout-coming-jan-18-says-co-founder-jimmy-wales/2012/01/16/gIQAh2Ke3P_blog.html?wprss= |title=Wikipedia blackout coming Jan.&nbsp;18,&nbsp;says co-founder Jimmy Wales |first=Melissa |last=Bell |publisher=The Washington Post |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref>, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''<ref>{{cite news |url= http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204555904577166741285522030.html |title=Wikipedia Plans Blackout Over Piracy Bill - WSJ.com |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date= 17 January 2012|publisher=[[Dow Jones & Company|Dow Jones]] |location=[[New York, NY|New York]] |issn=0099-9660 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> and ''[[The Times of India]]''. <ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/news/internet/Wikipedia-to-shut-down-for-24-hours/articleshow/11517715.cms Wikipedia to shut down for 24 hours - The Times of India<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
A [[Motion Picture Association of America]] executive dubbed the blackout plan an example of the "gimmicks and distortion" that inflamed passions while failing to solve the problem of copyright infringement by "draw[ing] people away from trying to resolve what is a real problem, which is that foreigners continue to steal the hard work of Americans".<ref>James Rainey, (16 January 2012) [http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-ct-wikipedia-20120117,0,4565597.story Wikipedia to go offline to protest anti-piracy legislation] ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''</ref> Dick Costolo, CEO of social networking site [[Twitter]], rejected calls for Twitter to join the protest saying "[c]losing a global business in reaction to single-issue national politics is foolish."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/16/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-slammed-twitter|title=Twitter boss slams Wikipedia's 'silly' Sopa protest|work=The Guardian|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|first=Dominic|last=Rushe}}</ref> He later clarified he was referring to a blackout of Twitter and is supportive of the Wikipedia blackout.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/17/wikipedia-blackout-looms-sopa Wikipedia's blackout looms | Technology | The Guardian<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
The sponsor of the bill, Representative [[Lamar S. Smith]], called the blackout a "publicity stunt," stating "it is ironic a website dedicated to providing information is spreading misinformation about the Stop Online Piracy Act."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://thehill.com/blogs/hillicon-valley/technology/204629-gop-chairman-wikipedia-blackout-a-publicity-stunt|title=Sponsor of online piracy bill calls Wikipedia blackout a 'publicity stunt'|work=The Hill|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|first=Brendan|last=Sasso}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Social movements}}<br />
* [[Italian Wikipedia#2011 mass blanking protest|2011 Italian Wikipedia blackout]], also undertaken to oppose a proposed law. <br />
::([http://blog.wikimedia.org/2011/10/04/regarding-recent-events-on-italian-wikipedia/ Regarding recent events on Italian Wikipedia] - Wikimedia Foundation)<br />
* [[New Zealand Internet Blackout]]<br />
* [[Hacktivism]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
*{{cite web | url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57359773/wikipedia-to-join-web-blackout-protesting-sopa/ | title=Wikipedia to join Web blackout protesting SOPA | publisher=[http://www.cbsnews.com CBS News] | date=16 January 2012 | accessdate=16 January 2012 | author=Musil, Steven}}<br />
*{{cite web | url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2012/01/most-people-probably-havent-paid-much-attention-to-thehuge-corporations-waging-war-in-washington-over-legislation-designed-to.html | title=Wikipedia blackout to protest SOPA progress in Congress | publisher=[http://latimesblogs.latimes.com ''Los Angeles Times] | date=16 January 2012 | accessdate=16 January 2012 | author=Rainey, James}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Wikinews|Wikipedia, Reddit in 'blackout' against SOPA, PROTECT IP laws}}<br />
* [[wmf:Press releases/English Wikipedia to go dark|Wikimedia Foundation's official statement]] and [[wmf:English Wikipedia anti-SOPA blackout|Wikimedia CEO's statement]].<br />
<br />
{{Wikipedia}}<br />
{{use dmy dates|date=January 2012}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:History of Wikipedia]]<br />
[[Category:History of the Internet]]<br />
[[Category:Internet censorship]]<br />
[[Category:Protests]]<br />
<br />
[[pt:Blecaute da Wikipédia anglófona em 2012]]<br />
[[es:Apagón de Wikipedia en inglés]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proteste_gegen_SOPA_und_PIPA&diff=98700675Proteste gegen SOPA und PIPA2012-01-18T02:44:42Z<p>Moxy: /* See also */ ce</p>
<hr />
<div>{{current event}}<br />
{{for|the [[Wikipedia:Community|community]] proposal that led to the blackout|WP:SOPA}}<br />
[[File:WP_SOPA_Screen_Dark_Simple.png|thumb|350px|The 18 January blackout page (as proposed by WMF on 16 January)]]<br />
The '''2012 English Wikipedia blackout''' is a scheduled<ref>[http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/English_Wikipedia_anti-SOPA_blackout], Wikimedia Foundation, retrieved 17 January 2012</ref> blackout of the English Wikipedia for 24 hours on 18–19 January 2012. In place of articles, the site will show only a message opposing the [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA), legislation that has been deemed a threat to the existence of Wikipedia. <br />
<br />
This proposal was made by the English Wikipedia community after a month of discussions on the project in various polls and requests for comment. The date was chosen to coincide with similar action by other websites, such as [[Reddit]], and will run for 24 hours starting at 05:00 UTC on 18 January.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://m.skynews.com/article/worldnews/16150438|title=Wikipedia blackout in anti-piracy law protest|work=Sky News|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012}}</ref> The [[Wikimedia Foundation]] published a letter of support for the action later that day.<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
{{main2|PROTECT IP Act|Stop Online Piracy Act}}<br />
The [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA) are bills that were introduced into the [[United States House of Representatives]] and the [[United States Senate]] in the last quarter of 2011. The two bills, though different means, are designed to provide legal mechanisms for copyright holders, such as music and movie studios, to combat [[copyright infringment|digital piracy]] that occurs on non-United States websites. Both bills are extensions of the earlier [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] (DMCA) that enabled content producers to issue "take down" notices to [[Internet Service Providers]] (ISPs) and websites to remove infringing content. While the DMCA has been considered effective for patrolling of websites within the United States, the DMCA fails to address infringement from foreign websites.<ref name="cnnmoney">{{cite news | url = http://money.cnn.com/2012/01/17/technology/sopa_explained/ | title= SOPA explained: What it is and why it matters | publisher = [[CNNMoney]] | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | first = Julianne | last = Pepitone }}</ref> Part of the language of the bills when originally proposed would allow for copyright owners to issue complaints to ISPs and other major websites, like [[Google]] or [[Bing]], requiring them to remove the hostnames of infringing sites from their [[Domain name registry]] and to delist entries in search engines to these sites.<br />
<br />
Many of the companies and organizations supporting the proposed legislation are content producers, such as the [[Motion Picture Association of America]], the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] and the [[Entertainment Software Association]], and identified the need to have such laws to combat revenue losses associated with the copyright infringement from these foreign websites. However, some lawmakers and many technology and Internet firms and associations have expressed concerns that two bills' languages are too broad, and the concept of domain name blocking and search engine removal would create a new type of [[censorship]] of the Internet. A common criticism of the bill addresses broad language like what entails "deliberate actions to avoid confirming a high probability" for a website; sites that support user-generated content, such as [[YouTube]] would likely have to be shuttered to comply with the law as written.<ref name="cnnmoney"/><br />
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In December 2011, SOPA was brought to the U.S. House Judicary Committee to begin the process of marking up the bill prior to introduction to the House floor.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/246093/house_panel_to_move_forward_on_stop_online_piracy_act.html | title = House Panel to Move Forward on Stop Online Piracy Act | first = Grant | last = Gross | date = December 12, 2011 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 | work = [[PC World (magazine)|PC World]] }}</ref> During this time, numerous websites began displaying banners and messages promoting their readerships to contact Congress to stop the progress of the bill, stating that their sites would be "blacked out" should the bill pass as a law. The markup session, in which several proposed amendments to address the concerns of technology companies were defeated, was eventually put on hold prior to the end of the year, to be restarted once Congress came back in session. Several technology websites began proposing the idea of an "Internet blackout" on the same day to protest SOPA and PIPA to occur before SOPA would be voted on on the House floor as a means of further protest.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2080066/Top-web-firms-set-impose-blackout-protest-Big-Brother-online-piracy-bill.html?ito=feeds-newsxml | title = Top web firms set to impose a blackout in protest against 'Big Brother' online piracy bill | first = Hugo | last = Guy | date = December 30, 2011 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 | work = [[Daily Mail]] }}</ref> [[Reddit]] was the first major site to announce an "Internet blackout" on January 18, 2012, and several other sites shortly followed, coordinating actions on that day.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://venturebeat.com/2012/01/10/reddit-blackout-sopa-pipa/ | title = Reddit goes black Jan. 18 to protest SOPA & PIPA — Who else will join? | first = Tom | last = Cheredar | date = January 10, 2012 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 }}</ref><br />
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In January 2012, in response to concerns over PIPA and SOPA, the White House stated that it "will not support legislation that reduces freedom of expression, increases cybersecurity risk, or undermines the dynamic, innovative global internet."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/technology-16574977|title=Rupert Murdoch Sopa attack rebuffed by Google|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=16 January 2012}}</ref><br />
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===English Wikipedia's response===<br />
In line with the initial voices to stage an Internet blackout in December 2011, Wikipedia founder [[Jimmy Wales]] called for a "public uprising" against the proposed legislation, which critics fear would threaten free speech.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/why-i-want-to-bring-down-the-internet--for-a-day-6290703.html|title=Why I want to bring down the internet&nbsp;– for a day|first=Jerome|last=Taylor|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|work=The Independent}}</ref><br />
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An initial discussion about whether this made sense was held on Wales's [[User talk:Jimbo Wales|talk page]] on the English Wikipedia, before being moved to its own project page, where the means of how the blackout would be implemented was discussed, such as whether to restrict the blackout to United States users based on [[geolocation]], or whether to simply have a single black page presented to the user prior to passing through to the site's content. Eventually, the discussion led to the choice of enacting a 24 hour blackout of the site on January 18, disabling normal reading and editing functions. A vote taken of about 1,800 editors favored the action.<ref name="cnn wales">{{cite web | url = http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/17/tech/web/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-qa/index.html | title = Why Wikipedia is going down at midnight | first = John | last =Sutter | date = 17 January 2012 | accessdate = 17 January 2012 | publisher = [[CNN]] }}</ref> Other Wikimedia projects were free to stage their own protest with the Foundation's support for any technical implementations. The German and Italian Wikipedia projects, and the Wikimedia Commons project voted to include banner images to support the blackout actions.<ref name="cnn wales"/><br />
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Wikimedia Executive Director [[Sue Gardner]] posted an announcement of the Foundation's support for the blackout proposal on Wikimedia's blog. The post received over 7000 responses from the general public within the first 24 hours of its posting.<ref>[http://blog.wikimedia.org/2012/01/16/wikipedias-community-calls-for-anti-sopa-blackout-january-18/ Wikipedia’s community calls for anti-SOPA blackout 18 January] ''[[Wikimedia Foundation]]'' Accessed: 17 January 2012</ref><br />
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==Coordination of the 18 January action==<br />
Although there were no plans to block any mobile version of Wikipedia,<ref>Emily Steel (17 January 2012), [http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2012/01/17/need-wikipedia-wednesday-heres-how-to-access-it/ Need Wikipedia Wednesday? Here’s How to Access It] ''[[The Wall Street Journal]] Technology Blog''</ref> [[German Wikipedia]], [[Portuguese Wikipedia]] and [[Wikimedia Commons]] were expected to run banners on January 18, without a full blackout. Other sites indicating an intention to run banners included [[Google]],<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57360291/google-plans-to-use-home-page-to-protest-sopa/ | title = Google plans to use home page to protest SOPA | first = Greg | last = Sandoval | first2 = Declan | last2= McCullagh | publisher = [[CNet]] | date = 2012-01-17 | accessdate = 2012-01-17}}</ref> while websites planning a full blackout of at least several hours duration included [[Reddit]], [[Boing Boing]], [[A Softer World]], [[Cake Wrecks]], [[Destructoid]], dotSUB, [[Free Press (organization)|Free Press]], [[Good (magazine)|Good.is]], [[Good Old Games]], little-apps.org, [[Mojang]], [[MoveOn.org]], [[Mozilla]], [[Tucows]] CallAvoiders.com and [[TwitPic]], as well as a number of other sites.<ref name=Sopastrike>{{cite web |url=http://sopastrike.com/ |title=Web Goes On Strike |publisher=Sopastrike |accessdate=17 January 2011}}</ref><br />
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==Reaction==<br />
===Pre-blackout===<br />
The announcement of the blackout was reported worldwide. Media that covered the story included<!--alphabetical list please--> [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC Australia]],<ref name=ABC>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-01-17/wiki-to-go-dark-in-piracy-protest/3778452|title=Wikipedia to go dark in piracy protest|publisher=ABC Australia|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]],<ref name=CBC>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2012/01/17/wikipedia-dark-protest.html|title=Wikipedia to go dark tonight protesting anti-piracy act|publisher=CBC|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]],<ref name=BBC>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16590585|title=Wikipedia joins web blackout in Sopa Act protest|publisher=BBC|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[der Spiegel]]'',<ref name=derspiegel>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/web/0,1518,809499,00.html|title=Wikipedia schaltet ab - aus Protest |publisher=spiegel.de |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[le Monde]]'',<ref name=lemonde>{{cite web |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/technologies/article/2012/01/17/loi-antipiratage-wikipedia-va-fermer-pendant-24-heures_1630565_651865.html|title=Loi antipiratage : Wikipedia va fermer pendant 24 heures|publisher=lemonde.fr |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[Fox News]]'',<ref name="fox-news">{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2012/01/17/wikipedia-to-go-dark-for-24-hours-to-protest-anti-piracy-bill/ |title=Wikipedia to go Dark 24 Hours |date=17 January 2012 |work=Fox News}}</ref> Menafn,<ref name=Menafn>{{cite web |url=http://www.menafn.com/qn_news_story.asp?StoryId={3ce5c04e-b13a-4f1b-bcd0-58a3a0f4f17f}&src=RSS |title=Wikipedia to shut down in censorship row |publisher=Menafn.com |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[News Limited]],<ref name=NL>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.com.au/technology/wikipedia-may-black-out-wednesday-in-sopa-protest/story-e6frfro0-1226246462274?from=public_rss |title=Wikipedia will black out for a whole day.... Oh, the horror |publisher=News Limited |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[Sky News]],<ref name=Sky16150438>{{cite web |url=http://news.sky.com/home/technology/article/16150438 |title=Wikipedia Blackout In Anti-Piracy Law Protest |publisher=Sky News |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Age]]'',<ref name=Age>{{cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/technology/technology-news/antipiracy-protest-triggers-wikipedia-shutdown-20120117-1q3wu.html |title=Anti-piracy protest triggers Wikipedia shutdown |first=Georgia |last=Wilkins |publisher=The Age |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Hindu]]'',<ref name=Hindu2807792>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/internet/article2807792.ece |title=Wikipedia to go dark against U.S. anti-piracy bill |publisher=The Hindu |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[WP:SIGNPOST|The Signpost]]'',<ref name=Signpost>{{cite web |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2012-01-16/Special_report |title=English Wikipedia to go dark on January&nbsp;18&nbsp;|author=[[User:SMasters|SMasters]] |date=16 January 2012 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref name=NYT>{{cite web |url=http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/16/wikipedia-plans-to-go-dark-on-wednesday-to-protest-sopa/ |title=Wikipedia to Go Dark on Wednesday to Protest Bills on Web Piracy |first=Jenna |last=Wortham |publisher=The New York Times |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]'',<ref name=WP>{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/wikipedia-blackout-coming-jan-18-says-co-founder-jimmy-wales/2012/01/16/gIQAh2Ke3P_blog.html?wprss= |title=Wikipedia blackout coming Jan.&nbsp;18,&nbsp;says co-founder Jimmy Wales |first=Melissa |last=Bell |publisher=The Washington Post |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref>, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''<ref>{{cite news |url= http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204555904577166741285522030.html |title=Wikipedia Plans Blackout Over Piracy Bill - WSJ.com |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date= 17 January 2012|publisher=[[Dow Jones & Company|Dow Jones]] |location=[[New York, NY|New York]] |issn=0099-9660 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> and ''[[The Times of India]]''. <ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/news/internet/Wikipedia-to-shut-down-for-24-hours/articleshow/11517715.cms Wikipedia to shut down for 24 hours - The Times of India<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
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A [[Motion Picture Association of America]] executive dubbed the blackout plan an example of the "gimmicks and distortion" that inflamed passions while failing to solve the problem of copyright infringement by "draw[ing] people away from trying to resolve what is a real problem, which is that foreigners continue to steal the hard work of Americans".<ref>James Rainey, (16 January 2012) [http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-ct-wikipedia-20120117,0,4565597.story Wikipedia to go offline to protest anti-piracy legislation] ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''</ref> Dick Costolo, CEO of social networking site [[Twitter]], rejected calls for Twitter to join the protest saying "[c]losing a global business in reaction to single-issue national politics is foolish."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/16/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-slammed-twitter|title=Twitter boss slams Wikipedia's 'silly' Sopa protest|work=The Guardian|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|first=Dominic|last=Rushe}}</ref> He later clarified he was referring to a blackout of Twitter and is supportive of the Wikipedia blackout.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/17/wikipedia-blackout-looms-sopa Wikipedia's blackout looms | Technology | The Guardian<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
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The sponsor of the bill, Representative [[Lamar S. Smith]], called the blackout a "publicity stunt," stating "it is ironic a website dedicated to providing information is spreading misinformation about the Stop Online Piracy Act."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://thehill.com/blogs/hillicon-valley/technology/204629-gop-chairman-wikipedia-blackout-a-publicity-stunt|title=Sponsor of online piracy bill calls Wikipedia blackout a 'publicity stunt'|work=The Hill|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|first=Brendan|last=Sasso}}</ref><br />
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==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Social movements}}<br />
* [[Italian Wikipedia#2011 mass blanking protest|2011 Italian Wikipedia blackout]], also undertaken to oppose a proposed law. <br />
::([http://blog.wikimedia.org/2011/10/04/regarding-recent-events-on-italian-wikipedia/ Regarding recent events on Italian Wikipedia] - Wikimedia Foundation)<br />
* [[New Zealand Internet Blackout]]<br />
* [[Hacktivism]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
*{{cite web | url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57359773/wikipedia-to-join-web-blackout-protesting-sopa/ | title=Wikipedia to join Web blackout protesting SOPA | publisher=[http://www.cbsnews.com CBS News] | date=16 January 2012 | accessdate=16 January 2012 | author=Musil, Steven}}<br />
*{{cite web | url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2012/01/most-people-probably-havent-paid-much-attention-to-thehuge-corporations-waging-war-in-washington-over-legislation-designed-to.html | title=Wikipedia blackout to protest SOPA progress in Congress | publisher=[http://latimesblogs.latimes.com ''Los Angeles Times] | date=16 January 2012 | accessdate=16 January 2012 | author=Rainey, James}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
{{Wikinews|Wikipedia, Reddit in 'blackout' against SOPA, PROTECT IP laws}}<br />
* [[wmf:Press releases/English Wikipedia to go dark|Wikimedia Foundation's official statement]] and [[wmf:English Wikipedia anti-SOPA blackout|Wikimedia CEO's statement]].<br />
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{{Wikipedia}}<br />
{{use dmy dates|date=January 2012}}<br />
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[[Category:History of Wikipedia]]<br />
[[Category:History of the Internet]]<br />
[[Category:Internet censorship]]<br />
[[Category:Protests]]<br />
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[[pt:Blecaute da Wikipédia anglófona em 2012]]<br />
[[es:Apagón de Wikipedia en inglés]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proteste_gegen_SOPA_und_PIPA&diff=98700674Proteste gegen SOPA und PIPA2012-01-18T02:32:06Z<p>Moxy: Reflinks: Converting bare references</p>
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<div>{{current event}}<br />
{{for|the [[Wikipedia:Community|community]] proposal that led to the blackout|WP:SOPA}}<br />
[[File:WP_SOPA_Screen_Dark_Simple.png|thumb|350px|The 18 January blackout page (as proposed by WMF on 16 January)]]<br />
The '''2012 English Wikipedia blackout''' is a scheduled<ref>[http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/English_Wikipedia_anti-SOPA_blackout], Wikimedia Foundation, retrieved 17 January 2012</ref> blackout of the English Wikipedia for 24 hours on 18–19 January 2012. In place of articles, the site will show only a message opposing the [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA), legislation that has been deemed a threat to the existence of Wikipedia. <br />
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This proposal was made by the English Wikipedia community after a month of discussions on the project in various polls and requests for comment. The date was chosen to coincide with similar action by other websites, such as [[Reddit]], and will run for 24 hours starting at 05:00 UTC on 18 January.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://m.skynews.com/article/worldnews/16150438|title=Wikipedia blackout in anti-piracy law protest|work=Sky News|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012}}</ref> The [[Wikimedia Foundation]] published a letter of support for the action later that day.<br />
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== Background ==<br />
{{main2|PROTECT IP Act|Stop Online Piracy Act}}<br />
The [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA) are bills that were introduced into the [[United States House of Representatives]] and the [[United States Senate]] in the last quarter of 2011. The two bills, though different means, are designed to provide legal mechanisms for copyright holders, such as music and movie studios, to combat [[copyright infringment|digital piracy]] that occurs on non-United States websites. Both bills are extensions of the earlier [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] (DMCA) that enabled content producers to issue "take down" notices to [[Internet Service Providers]] (ISPs) and websites to remove infringing content. While the DMCA has been considered effective for patrolling of websites within the United States, the DMCA fails to address infringement from foreign websites.<ref name="cnnmoney">{{cite news | url = http://money.cnn.com/2012/01/17/technology/sopa_explained/ | title= SOPA explained: What it is and why it matters | publisher = [[CNNMoney]] | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | first = Julianne | last = Pepitone }}</ref> Part of the language of the bills when originally proposed would allow for copyright owners to issue complaints to ISPs and other major websites, like [[Google]] or [[Bing]], requiring them to remove the hostnames of infringing sites from their [[Domain name registry]] and to delist entries in search engines to these sites.<br />
<br />
Many of the companies and organizations supporting the proposed legislation are content producers, such as the [[Motion Picture Association of America]], the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] and the [[Entertainment Software Association]], and identified the need to have such laws to combat revenue losses associated with the copyright infringement from these foreign websites. However, some lawmakers and many technology and Internet firms and associations have expressed concerns that two bills' languages are too broad, and the concept of domain name blocking and search engine removal would create a new type of [[censorship]] of the Internet. A common criticism of the bill addresses broad language like what entails "deliberate actions to avoid confirming a high probability" for a website; sites that support user-generated content, such as [[YouTube]] would likely have to be shuttered to comply with the law as written.<ref name="cnnmoney"/><br />
<br />
In December 2011, SOPA was brought to the U.S. House Judicary Committee to begin the process of marking up the bill prior to introduction to the House floor.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/246093/house_panel_to_move_forward_on_stop_online_piracy_act.html | title = House Panel to Move Forward on Stop Online Piracy Act | first = Grant | last = Gross | date = December 12, 2011 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 | work = [[PC World (magazine)|PC World]] }}</ref> During this time, numerous websites began displaying banners and messages promoting their readerships to contact Congress to stop the progress of the bill, stating that their sites would be "blacked out" should the bill pass as a law. The markup session, in which several proposed amendments to address the concerns of technology companies were defeated, was eventually put on hold prior to the end of the year, to be restarted once Congress came back in session. Several technology websites began proposing the idea of an "Internet blackout" on the same day to protest SOPA and PIPA to occur before SOPA would be voted on on the House floor as a means of further protest.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2080066/Top-web-firms-set-impose-blackout-protest-Big-Brother-online-piracy-bill.html?ito=feeds-newsxml | title = Top web firms set to impose a blackout in protest against 'Big Brother' online piracy bill | first = Hugo | last = Guy | date = December 30, 2011 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 | work = [[Daily Mail]] }}</ref> [[Reddit]] was the first major site to announce an "Internet blackout" on January 18, 2012, and several other sites shortly followed, coordinating actions on that day.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://venturebeat.com/2012/01/10/reddit-blackout-sopa-pipa/ | title = Reddit goes black Jan. 18 to protest SOPA & PIPA — Who else will join? | first = Tom | last = Cheredar | date = January 10, 2012 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 }}</ref><br />
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In January 2012, in response to concerns over PIPA and SOPA, the White House stated that it "will not support legislation that reduces freedom of expression, increases cybersecurity risk, or undermines the dynamic, innovative global internet."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/technology-16574977|title=Rupert Murdoch Sopa attack rebuffed by Google|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=16 January 2012}}</ref><br />
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===English Wikipedia's response===<br />
In line with the initial voices to stage an Internet blackout in December 2011, Wikipedia founder [[Jimmy Wales]] called for a "public uprising" against the proposed legislation, which critics fear would threaten free speech.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/why-i-want-to-bring-down-the-internet--for-a-day-6290703.html|title=Why I want to bring down the internet&nbsp;– for a day|first=Jerome|last=Taylor|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|work=The Independent}}</ref><br />
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An initial discussion about whether this made sense was held on Wales's [[User talk:Jimbo Wales|talk page]] on the English Wikipedia, before being moved to its own project page, where the means of how the blackout would be implemented was discussed, such as whether to restrict the blackout to United States users based on [[geolocation]], or whether to simply have a single black page presented to the user prior to passing through to the site's content. Eventually, the discussion led to the choice of enacting a 24 hour blackout of the site on January 18, disabling normal reading and editing functions. A vote taken of about 1,800 editors favored the action.<ref name="cnn wales">{{cite web | url = http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/17/tech/web/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-qa/index.html | title = Why Wikipedia is going down at midnight | first = John | last =Sutter | date = 17 January 2012 | accessdate = 17 January 2012 | publisher = [[CNN]] }}</ref> Other Wikimedia projects were free to stage their own protest with the Foundation's support for any technical implementations. The German and Italian Wikipedia projects, and the Wikimedia Commons project voted to include banner images to support the blackout actions.<ref name="cnn wales"/><br />
<br />
Wikimedia Executive Director [[Sue Gardner]] posted an announcement of the Foundation's support for the blackout proposal on Wikimedia's blog. The post received over 7000 responses from the general public within the first 24 hours of its posting.<ref>[http://blog.wikimedia.org/2012/01/16/wikipedias-community-calls-for-anti-sopa-blackout-january-18/ Wikipedia’s community calls for anti-SOPA blackout 18 January] ''[[Wikimedia Foundation]]'' Accessed: 17 January 2012</ref><br />
<br />
==Coordination of the 18 January action==<br />
Although there were no plans to block any mobile version of Wikipedia,<ref>Emily Steel (17 January 2012), [http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2012/01/17/need-wikipedia-wednesday-heres-how-to-access-it/ Need Wikipedia Wednesday? Here’s How to Access It] ''[[The Wall Street Journal]] Technology Blog''</ref> [[German Wikipedia]], [[Portuguese Wikipedia]] and [[Wikimedia Commons]] were expected to run banners on January 18, without a full blackout. Other sites indicating an intention to run banners included [[Google]],<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57360291/google-plans-to-use-home-page-to-protest-sopa/ | title = Google plans to use home page to protest SOPA | first = Greg | last = Sandoval | first2 = Declan | last2= McCullagh | publisher = [[CNet]] | date = 2012-01-17 | accessdate = 2012-01-17}}</ref> while websites planning a full blackout of at least several hours duration included [[Reddit]], [[Boing Boing]], [[A Softer World]], [[Cake Wrecks]], [[Destructoid]], dotSUB, [[Free Press (organization)|Free Press]], [[Good (magazine)|Good.is]], [[Good Old Games]], little-apps.org, [[Mojang]], [[MoveOn.org]], [[Mozilla]], [[Tucows]] CallAvoiders.com and [[TwitPic]], as well as a number of other sites.<ref name=Sopastrike>{{cite web |url=http://sopastrike.com/ |title=Web Goes On Strike |publisher=Sopastrike |accessdate=17 January 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Reaction==<br />
===Pre-blackout===<br />
The announcement of the blackout was reported worldwide. Media that covered the story included<!--alphabetical list please--> [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC Australia]],<ref name=ABC>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-01-17/wiki-to-go-dark-in-piracy-protest/3778452|title=Wikipedia to go dark in piracy protest|publisher=ABC Australia|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]],<ref name=CBC>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2012/01/17/wikipedia-dark-protest.html|title=Wikipedia to go dark tonight protesting anti-piracy act|publisher=CBC|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]],<ref name=BBC>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16590585|title=Wikipedia joins web blackout in Sopa Act protest|publisher=BBC|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[der Spiegel]]'',<ref name=derspiegel>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/web/0,1518,809499,00.html|title=Wikipedia schaltet ab - aus Protest |publisher=spiegel.de |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[le Monde]]'',<ref name=lemonde>{{cite web |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/technologies/article/2012/01/17/loi-antipiratage-wikipedia-va-fermer-pendant-24-heures_1630565_651865.html|title=Loi antipiratage : Wikipedia va fermer pendant 24 heures|publisher=lemonde.fr |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[Fox News]]'',<ref name="fox-news">{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2012/01/17/wikipedia-to-go-dark-for-24-hours-to-protest-anti-piracy-bill/ |title=Wikipedia to go Dark 24 Hours |date=17 January 2012 |work=Fox News}}</ref> Menafn,<ref name=Menafn>{{cite web |url=http://www.menafn.com/qn_news_story.asp?StoryId={3ce5c04e-b13a-4f1b-bcd0-58a3a0f4f17f}&src=RSS |title=Wikipedia to shut down in censorship row |publisher=Menafn.com |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[News Limited]],<ref name=NL>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.com.au/technology/wikipedia-may-black-out-wednesday-in-sopa-protest/story-e6frfro0-1226246462274?from=public_rss |title=Wikipedia will black out for a whole day.... Oh, the horror |publisher=News Limited |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[Sky News]],<ref name=Sky16150438>{{cite web |url=http://news.sky.com/home/technology/article/16150438 |title=Wikipedia Blackout In Anti-Piracy Law Protest |publisher=Sky News |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Age]]'',<ref name=Age>{{cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/technology/technology-news/antipiracy-protest-triggers-wikipedia-shutdown-20120117-1q3wu.html |title=Anti-piracy protest triggers Wikipedia shutdown |first=Georgia |last=Wilkins |publisher=The Age |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Hindu]]'',<ref name=Hindu2807792>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/internet/article2807792.ece |title=Wikipedia to go dark against U.S. anti-piracy bill |publisher=The Hindu |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[WP:SIGNPOST|The Signpost]]'',<ref name=Signpost>{{cite web |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2012-01-16/Special_report |title=English Wikipedia to go dark on January&nbsp;18&nbsp;|author=[[User:SMasters|SMasters]] |date=16 January 2012 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref name=NYT>{{cite web |url=http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/16/wikipedia-plans-to-go-dark-on-wednesday-to-protest-sopa/ |title=Wikipedia to Go Dark on Wednesday to Protest Bills on Web Piracy |first=Jenna |last=Wortham |publisher=The New York Times |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]'',<ref name=WP>{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/wikipedia-blackout-coming-jan-18-says-co-founder-jimmy-wales/2012/01/16/gIQAh2Ke3P_blog.html?wprss= |title=Wikipedia blackout coming Jan.&nbsp;18,&nbsp;says co-founder Jimmy Wales |first=Melissa |last=Bell |publisher=The Washington Post |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref>, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''<ref>{{cite news |url= http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204555904577166741285522030.html |title=Wikipedia Plans Blackout Over Piracy Bill - WSJ.com |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date= 17 January 2012|publisher=[[Dow Jones & Company|Dow Jones]] |location=[[New York, NY|New York]] |issn=0099-9660 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> and ''[[The Times of India]]''. <ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/news/internet/Wikipedia-to-shut-down-for-24-hours/articleshow/11517715.cms Wikipedia to shut down for 24 hours - The Times of India<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
A [[Motion Picture Association of America]] executive dubbed the blackout plan an example of the "gimmicks and distortion" that inflamed passions while failing to solve the problem of copyright infringement by "draw[ing] people away from trying to resolve what is a real problem, which is that foreigners continue to steal the hard work of Americans".<ref>James Rainey, (16 January 2012) [http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-ct-wikipedia-20120117,0,4565597.story Wikipedia to go offline to protest anti-piracy legislation] ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''</ref> Dick Costolo, CEO of social networking site [[Twitter]], rejected calls for Twitter to join the protest saying "[c]losing a global business in reaction to single-issue national politics is foolish."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/16/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-slammed-twitter|title=Twitter boss slams Wikipedia's 'silly' Sopa protest|work=The Guardian|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|first=Dominic|last=Rushe}}</ref> He later clarified he was referring to a blackout of Twitter and is supportive of the Wikipedia blackout.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/17/wikipedia-blackout-looms-sopa Wikipedia's blackout looms | Technology | The Guardian<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
The sponsor of the bill, Representative [[Lamar S. Smith]], called the blackout a "publicity stunt," stating "it is ironic a website dedicated to providing information is spreading misinformation about the Stop Online Piracy Act."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://thehill.com/blogs/hillicon-valley/technology/204629-gop-chairman-wikipedia-blackout-a-publicity-stunt|title=Sponsor of online piracy bill calls Wikipedia blackout a 'publicity stunt'|work=The Hill|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|first=Brendan|last=Sasso}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Social movements}}<br />
* [[Italian Wikipedia#2011 mass blanking protest|2011 Italian Wikipedia blackout]], also undertaken to oppose a proposed law. [http://blog.wikimedia.org/2011/10/04/regarding-recent-events-on-italian-wikipedia/]<br />
* [[New Zealand Internet Blackout]]<br />
* [[Hacktivism]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
*{{cite web | url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57359773/wikipedia-to-join-web-blackout-protesting-sopa/ | title=Wikipedia to join Web blackout protesting SOPA | publisher=[http://www.cbsnews.com CBS News] | date=16 January 2012 | accessdate=16 January 2012 | author=Musil, Steven}}<br />
*{{cite web | url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2012/01/most-people-probably-havent-paid-much-attention-to-thehuge-corporations-waging-war-in-washington-over-legislation-designed-to.html | title=Wikipedia blackout to protest SOPA progress in Congress | publisher=[http://latimesblogs.latimes.com ''Los Angeles Times] | date=16 January 2012 | accessdate=16 January 2012 | author=Rainey, James}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Wikinews|Wikipedia, Reddit in 'blackout' against SOPA, PROTECT IP laws}}<br />
* [[wmf:Press releases/English Wikipedia to go dark|Wikimedia Foundation's official statement]] and [[wmf:English Wikipedia anti-SOPA blackout|Wikimedia CEO's statement]].<br />
<br />
{{Wikipedia}}<br />
{{use dmy dates|date=January 2012}}<br />
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[[Category:History of Wikipedia]]<br />
[[Category:History of the Internet]]<br />
[[Category:Internet censorship]]<br />
[[Category:Protests]]<br />
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[[pt:Blecaute da Wikipédia anglófona em 2012]]<br />
[[es:Apagón de Wikipedia en inglés]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proteste_gegen_SOPA_und_PIPA&diff=98700672Proteste gegen SOPA und PIPA2012-01-18T02:31:30Z<p>Moxy: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{current event}}<br />
{{for|the [[Wikipedia:Community|community]] proposal that led to the blackout|WP:SOPA}}<br />
[[File:WP_SOPA_Screen_Dark_Simple.png|thumb|350px|The 18 January blackout page (as proposed by WMF on 16 January)]]<br />
The '''2012 English Wikipedia blackout''' is a scheduled<ref>[http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/English_Wikipedia_anti-SOPA_blackout], Wikimedia Foundation, retrieved 17 January 2012</ref> blackout of the English Wikipedia for 24 hours on 18–19 January 2012. In place of articles, the site will show only a message opposing the [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA), legislation that has been deemed a threat to the existence of Wikipedia. <br />
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This proposal was made by the English Wikipedia community after a month of discussions on the project in various polls and requests for comment. The date was chosen to coincide with similar action by other websites, such as [[Reddit]], and will run for 24 hours starting at 05:00 UTC on 18 January.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://m.skynews.com/article/worldnews/16150438|title=Wikipedia blackout in anti-piracy law protest|work=Sky News|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012}}</ref> The [[Wikimedia Foundation]] published a letter of support for the action later that day.<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
{{main2|PROTECT IP Act|Stop Online Piracy Act}}<br />
The [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA) are bills that were introduced into the [[United States House of Representatives]] and the [[United States Senate]] in the last quarter of 2011. The two bills, though different means, are designed to provide legal mechanisms for copyright holders, such as music and movie studios, to combat [[copyright infringment|digital piracy]] that occurs on non-United States websites. Both bills are extensions of the earlier [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] (DMCA) that enabled content producers to issue "take down" notices to [[Internet Service Providers]] (ISPs) and websites to remove infringing content. While the DMCA has been considered effective for patrolling of websites within the United States, the DMCA fails to address infringement from foreign websites.<ref name="cnnmoney">{{cite news | url = http://money.cnn.com/2012/01/17/technology/sopa_explained/ | title= SOPA explained: What it is and why it matters | publisher = [[CNNMoney]] | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | first = Julianne | last = Pepitone }}</ref> Part of the language of the bills when originally proposed would allow for copyright owners to issue complaints to ISPs and other major websites, like [[Google]] or [[Bing]], requiring them to remove the hostnames of infringing sites from their [[Domain name registry]] and to delist entries in search engines to these sites.<br />
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Many of the companies and organizations supporting the proposed legislation are content producers, such as the [[Motion Picture Association of America]], the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] and the [[Entertainment Software Association]], and identified the need to have such laws to combat revenue losses associated with the copyright infringement from these foreign websites. However, some lawmakers and many technology and Internet firms and associations have expressed concerns that two bills' languages are too broad, and the concept of domain name blocking and search engine removal would create a new type of [[censorship]] of the Internet. A common criticism of the bill addresses broad language like what entails "deliberate actions to avoid confirming a high probability" for a website; sites that support user-generated content, such as [[YouTube]] would likely have to be shuttered to comply with the law as written.<ref name="cnnmoney"/><br />
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In December 2011, SOPA was brought to the U.S. House Judicary Committee to begin the process of marking up the bill prior to introduction to the House floor.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/246093/house_panel_to_move_forward_on_stop_online_piracy_act.html | title = House Panel to Move Forward on Stop Online Piracy Act | first = Grant | last = Gross | date = December 12, 2011 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 | work = [[PC World (magazine)|PC World]] }}</ref> During this time, numerous websites began displaying banners and messages promoting their readerships to contact Congress to stop the progress of the bill, stating that their sites would be "blacked out" should the bill pass as a law. The markup session, in which several proposed amendments to address the concerns of technology companies were defeated, was eventually put on hold prior to the end of the year, to be restarted once Congress came back in session. Several technology websites began proposing the idea of an "Internet blackout" on the same day to protest SOPA and PIPA to occur before SOPA would be voted on on the House floor as a means of further protest.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2080066/Top-web-firms-set-impose-blackout-protest-Big-Brother-online-piracy-bill.html?ito=feeds-newsxml | title = Top web firms set to impose a blackout in protest against 'Big Brother' online piracy bill | first = Hugo | last = Guy | date = December 30, 2011 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 | work = [[Daily Mail]] }}</ref> [[Reddit]] was the first major site to announce an "Internet blackout" on January 18, 2012, and several other sites shortly followed, coordinating actions on that day.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://venturebeat.com/2012/01/10/reddit-blackout-sopa-pipa/ | title = Reddit goes black Jan. 18 to protest SOPA & PIPA — Who else will join? | first = Tom | last = Cheredar | date = January 10, 2012 | accessdate = January 17, 2012 }}</ref><br />
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In January 2012, in response to concerns over PIPA and SOPA, the White House stated that it "will not support legislation that reduces freedom of expression, increases cybersecurity risk, or undermines the dynamic, innovative global internet."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/technology-16574977|title=Rupert Murdoch Sopa attack rebuffed by Google|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=16 January 2012}}</ref><br />
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===English Wikipedia's response===<br />
In line with the initial voices to stage an Internet blackout in December 2011, Wikipedia founder [[Jimmy Wales]] called for a "public uprising" against the proposed legislation, which critics fear would threaten free speech.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/why-i-want-to-bring-down-the-internet--for-a-day-6290703.html|title=Why I want to bring down the internet&nbsp;– for a day|first=Jerome|last=Taylor|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|work=The Independent}}</ref><br />
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An initial discussion about whether this made sense was held on Wales's [[User talk:Jimbo Wales|talk page]] on the English Wikipedia, before being moved to its own project page, where the means of how the blackout would be implemented was discussed, such as whether to restrict the blackout to United States users based on [[geolocation]], or whether to simply have a single black page presented to the user prior to passing through to the site's content. Eventually, the discussion led to the choice of enacting a 24 hour blackout of the site on January 18, disabling normal reading and editing functions. A vote taken of about 1,800 editors favored the action.<ref name="cnn wales">{{cite web | url = http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/17/tech/web/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-qa/index.html | title = Why Wikipedia is going down at midnight | first = John | last =Sutter | date = 17 January 2012 | accessdate = 17 January 2012 | publisher = [[CNN]] }}</ref> Other Wikimedia projects were free to stage their own protest with the Foundation's support for any technical implementations. The German and Italian Wikipedia projects, and the Wikimedia Commons project voted to include banner images to support the blackout actions.<ref name="cnn wales"/><br />
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Wikimedia Executive Director [[Sue Gardner]] posted an announcement of the Foundation's support for the blackout proposal on Wikimedia's blog. The post received over 7000 responses from the general public within the first 24 hours of its posting.<ref>[http://blog.wikimedia.org/2012/01/16/wikipedias-community-calls-for-anti-sopa-blackout-january-18/ Wikipedia’s community calls for anti-SOPA blackout 18 January] ''[[Wikimedia Foundation]]'' Accessed: 17 January 2012</ref><br />
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==Coordination of the 18 January action==<br />
Although there were no plans to block any mobile version of Wikipedia,<ref>Emily Steel (17 January 2012), [http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2012/01/17/need-wikipedia-wednesday-heres-how-to-access-it/ Need Wikipedia Wednesday? Here’s How to Access It] ''[[The Wall Street Journal]] Technology Blog''</ref> [[German Wikipedia]], [[Portuguese Wikipedia]] and [[Wikimedia Commons]] were expected to run banners on January 18, without a full blackout. Other sites indicating an intention to run banners included [[Google]],<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57360291/google-plans-to-use-home-page-to-protest-sopa/ | title = Google plans to use home page to protest SOPA | first = Greg | last = Sandoval | first2 = Declan | last2= McCullagh | publisher = [[CNet]] | date = 2012-01-17 | accessdate = 2012-01-17}}</ref> while websites planning a full blackout of at least several hours duration included [[Reddit]], [[Boing Boing]], [[A Softer World]], [[Cake Wrecks]], [[Destructoid]], dotSUB, [[Free Press (organization)|Free Press]], [[Good (magazine)|Good.is]], [[Good Old Games]], little-apps.org, [[Mojang]], [[MoveOn.org]], [[Mozilla]], [[Tucows]] CallAvoiders.com and [[TwitPic]], as well as a number of other sites.<ref name=Sopastrike>{{cite web |url=http://sopastrike.com/ |title=Web Goes On Strike |publisher=Sopastrike |accessdate=17 January 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Reaction==<br />
===Pre-blackout===<br />
The announcement of the blackout was reported worldwide. Media that covered the story included<!--alphabetical list please--> [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC Australia]],<ref name=ABC>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-01-17/wiki-to-go-dark-in-piracy-protest/3778452|title=Wikipedia to go dark in piracy protest|publisher=ABC Australia|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]],<ref name=CBC>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2012/01/17/wikipedia-dark-protest.html|title=Wikipedia to go dark tonight protesting anti-piracy act|publisher=CBC|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]],<ref name=BBC>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16590585|title=Wikipedia joins web blackout in Sopa Act protest|publisher=BBC|accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[der Spiegel]]'',<ref name=derspiegel>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/web/0,1518,809499,00.html|title=Wikipedia schaltet ab - aus Protest |publisher=spiegel.de |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[le Monde]]'',<ref name=lemonde>{{cite web |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/technologies/article/2012/01/17/loi-antipiratage-wikipedia-va-fermer-pendant-24-heures_1630565_651865.html|title=Loi antipiratage : Wikipedia va fermer pendant 24 heures|publisher=lemonde.fr |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[Fox News]]'',<ref name="fox-news">{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2012/01/17/wikipedia-to-go-dark-for-24-hours-to-protest-anti-piracy-bill/ |title=Wikipedia to go Dark 24 Hours |date=17 January 2012 |work=Fox News}}</ref> Menafn,<ref name=Menafn>{{cite web |url=http://www.menafn.com/qn_news_story.asp?StoryId={3ce5c04e-b13a-4f1b-bcd0-58a3a0f4f17f}&src=RSS |title=Wikipedia to shut down in censorship row |publisher=Menafn.com |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[News Limited]],<ref name=NL>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.com.au/technology/wikipedia-may-black-out-wednesday-in-sopa-protest/story-e6frfro0-1226246462274?from=public_rss |title=Wikipedia will black out for a whole day.... Oh, the horror |publisher=News Limited |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> [[Sky News]],<ref name=Sky16150438>{{cite web |url=http://news.sky.com/home/technology/article/16150438 |title=Wikipedia Blackout In Anti-Piracy Law Protest |publisher=Sky News |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Age]]'',<ref name=Age>{{cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/technology/technology-news/antipiracy-protest-triggers-wikipedia-shutdown-20120117-1q3wu.html |title=Anti-piracy protest triggers Wikipedia shutdown |first=Georgia |last=Wilkins |publisher=The Age |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Hindu]]'',<ref name=Hindu2807792>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/internet/article2807792.ece |title=Wikipedia to go dark against U.S. anti-piracy bill |publisher=The Hindu |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[WP:SIGNPOST|The Signpost]]'',<ref name=Signpost>{{cite web |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2012-01-16/Special_report |title=English Wikipedia to go dark on January&nbsp;18&nbsp;|author=[[User:SMasters|SMasters]] |date=16 January 2012 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref name=NYT>{{cite web |url=http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/16/wikipedia-plans-to-go-dark-on-wednesday-to-protest-sopa/ |title=Wikipedia to Go Dark on Wednesday to Protest Bills on Web Piracy |first=Jenna |last=Wortham |publisher=The New York Times |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]'',<ref name=WP>{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/wikipedia-blackout-coming-jan-18-says-co-founder-jimmy-wales/2012/01/16/gIQAh2Ke3P_blog.html?wprss= |title=Wikipedia blackout coming Jan.&nbsp;18,&nbsp;says co-founder Jimmy Wales |first=Melissa |last=Bell |publisher=The Washington Post |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref>, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''<ref>{{cite news |url= http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204555904577166741285522030.html |title=Wikipedia Plans Blackout Over Piracy Bill - WSJ.com |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date= 17 January 2012|publisher=[[Dow Jones & Company|Dow Jones]] |location=[[New York, NY|New York]] |issn=0099-9660 |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref> and ''[[The Times of India]]''. <ref>http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/news/internet/Wikipedia-to-shut-down-for-24-hours/articleshow/11517715.cms</ref><br />
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A [[Motion Picture Association of America]] executive dubbed the blackout plan an example of the "gimmicks and distortion" that inflamed passions while failing to solve the problem of copyright infringement by "draw[ing] people away from trying to resolve what is a real problem, which is that foreigners continue to steal the hard work of Americans".<ref>James Rainey, (16 January 2012) [http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-ct-wikipedia-20120117,0,4565597.story Wikipedia to go offline to protest anti-piracy legislation] ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''</ref> Dick Costolo, CEO of social networking site [[Twitter]], rejected calls for Twitter to join the protest saying "[c]losing a global business in reaction to single-issue national politics is foolish."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/16/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-slammed-twitter|title=Twitter boss slams Wikipedia's 'silly' Sopa protest|work=The Guardian|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|first=Dominic|last=Rushe}}</ref> He later clarified he was referring to a blackout of Twitter and is supportive of the Wikipedia blackout.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/17/wikipedia-blackout-looms-sopa</ref><br />
<br />
The sponsor of the bill, Representative [[Lamar S. Smith]], called the blackout a "publicity stunt," stating "it is ironic a website dedicated to providing information is spreading misinformation about the Stop Online Piracy Act."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://thehill.com/blogs/hillicon-valley/technology/204629-gop-chairman-wikipedia-blackout-a-publicity-stunt|title=Sponsor of online piracy bill calls Wikipedia blackout a 'publicity stunt'|work=The Hill|accessdate=17 January 2012|date=17 January 2012|first=Brendan|last=Sasso}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Social movements}}<br />
* [[Italian Wikipedia#2011 mass blanking protest|2011 Italian Wikipedia blackout]], also undertaken to oppose a proposed law. [http://blog.wikimedia.org/2011/10/04/regarding-recent-events-on-italian-wikipedia/]<br />
* [[New Zealand Internet Blackout]]<br />
* [[Hacktivism]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
*{{cite web | url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57359773/wikipedia-to-join-web-blackout-protesting-sopa/ | title=Wikipedia to join Web blackout protesting SOPA | publisher=[http://www.cbsnews.com CBS News] | date=16 January 2012 | accessdate=16 January 2012 | author=Musil, Steven}}<br />
*{{cite web | url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2012/01/most-people-probably-havent-paid-much-attention-to-thehuge-corporations-waging-war-in-washington-over-legislation-designed-to.html | title=Wikipedia blackout to protest SOPA progress in Congress | publisher=[http://latimesblogs.latimes.com ''Los Angeles Times] | date=16 January 2012 | accessdate=16 January 2012 | author=Rainey, James}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Wikinews|Wikipedia, Reddit in 'blackout' against SOPA, PROTECT IP laws}}<br />
* [[wmf:Press releases/English Wikipedia to go dark|Wikimedia Foundation's official statement]] and [[wmf:English Wikipedia anti-SOPA blackout|Wikimedia CEO's statement]].<br />
<br />
{{Wikipedia}}<br />
{{use dmy dates|date=January 2012}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:History of Wikipedia]]<br />
[[Category:History of the Internet]]<br />
[[Category:Internet censorship]]<br />
[[Category:Protests]]<br />
<br />
[[pt:Blecaute da Wikipédia anglófona em 2012]]<br />
[[es:Apagón de Wikipedia en inglés]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geschichte_der_kanadischen_Zeitungen&diff=159301704Geschichte der kanadischen Zeitungen2011-12-16T07:18:58Z<p>Moxy: /* See Also */ -->See also</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Culture of Canada sidebar}}<br />
In Canada, the emergence of the '''free press''' was a difficult process that took many years to come to realization after a beginning rife with censorship and government control. "Compared to Europe, or even what became the United States, newspapering came to Canada rather late in the day, in the second half of the eighteenth century".<ref name=Fetherline /> Newspapers existed in the British colonies before the [[French and Indian War]], but they had been transplanted from America. Presses were forbidden in Quebec until the Conquest; after the Conquest, they too were brought in from the U.S. "It remains an unassailable irony, however, that printing became a part of Canadian society only with the establishment of British rule and, moreover, that nearly all the earliest printers were Americans."<ref name=Fetherline /><br />
<br />
The press in Canada was born as a tool of the government, subsidized and controlled by the overseas British rulers of the colonies and their colonial governors. Eventually, the government powers came to realize that the press held the potential for a great amount of power. "The discovery of such unrealized potential frightened the powers that be, who commenced a centuries-long period of harassment and intimidation in order to check what today is called the power of the press". <ref name=Fetherline /> In fact, it was due to persecution that the earliest newspaper editors of the America's fled from England and immigrated to the American colonies, where they then moved the craft north, to the Canadian colonies. However, being a colonial society, the editors and printers were perhaps even more censored and persecuted for printing anything that could be construed as being an anti-government sentiment, especially after the explosive [[American Revolution]] in 1763.<ref name=Fetherline /> New France (after the Conquest known as Lower Canada or Quebec) experienced the heaviest censorship; printing presses were banned by the French government in an effort to foster a sense of loyalty to and dependence upon the motherland. The French colonial authorities kept the colonial inhabitants illiterate and didn't let them communicate with each other. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
Eventually, the Canadian printers began the process of printing more than just government news and proclamations. However, due to such strict censorship, they were heavily persecuted for what was perceived as disloyalty and a threat to the power of the government. Many of the early editors and printers were large personalities who used their newspapers as instruments of their own political beliefs and suffered great hardships at the hands of the government because of it. <ref name=Raible /> It was their suffering that made the way for the press to become it's own liberated entity.<br />
<br />
There were three important periods in the history of Canadian newspapers responsible for the eventual development of the newspaper in the [[public sphere]]. These are the Transplant Period from 1750-1800, when printing and newspapers initially came to Canada as publications of Government news and proclamations; followed by the Public Sphere Partisan Period from 1800-1850, when individual printers and editors began 'freeing' the press and moving away from the "Sphere of Public Authority"<ref name=Habermas /> and into the [[public sphere]]; and finally the Nation Building Period from 1850-1900, when Canadian editors began the work of establishing a common nationalistic view of Canadian society.<br />
<br />
== The Gazette/Transplant Period (1750-1800) ==<br />
This was the period that introduced print culture to British North America and began fostering a reading public. All newspapers but ''The Upper Canada Gazette'' were started by Americans. This is partly because the British-American colonies settled earlier than British-Canadian colonies. In 1763 50,000 British loyalists moved north after the American Revolution, bringing printing presses with them. All of the first newspapers started life as official government organs. They were all dependent on government patronage and printed solely information condoned by the government. In every province, there was a weekly [[Gazette]] (named after the [[London Gazette]], the English governmental organ since 1665) that carried the many notices colonial administrators wanted to circulate. <ref name=Raible /> <br />
<br />
At this time, there was no '''political sphere''', as all political news was controlled by the elite. <ref name=Raible /> In the early decades of British North America, the primary purpose of the press was to propagate official propaganda - freedom of the press was an alien idea. <ref name=Raible /> Prior to the approximate turn of the 18th into the 19th century, there was no [[public sphere]] in Canada and therefore no press in the public sphere. <br />
<br />
===The First Printers and Publishers===<br />
It was the first printers and publishers working during the turn of the century who began the slow and difficult work of creating a true, liberated press in Canada. These men faced many obstacles, including beatings, jailing, and the very serious and oft-carried out threat of being charged with criminal or seditious libel. As the early printing press was an essential tool of colonial administration, anyone who attempted to publish anything other than the government notices experienced hardships. There was a prohibition on publishing legislature proceedings which kept the writers out of the courts. These were colonial laws used by British authorities to manufacture loyalty, and the punishments were severe. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Fetherline /> As a result, many of these brave early printers and publishers lived in fear, massive debt, and constant persecution.<br />
<br />
==== John Bushell (1715-1761) ====<br />
{{main|John Bushell}} <br />
<br />
Bushell partnered with [[Bartholomew Green]] (1690-1751), who died before their plans were realized. Bushell relocated from Boston to Halifax and opened up a printing office, and on March 23, 1752, Bushell published the first edition of the [[Halifax Gazette]] and became the colony's first "Kings Printer".<ref name=Raible /> He was an independent entrepreneur, given no government salary <ref name=Fetherline />, and what government administrators thought their subjects needed and what Bushell's subscribers and advertisers wanted were not necessarily the same. He was stuck in between. The government did not trust his loyalty and so made the Provincial Secretary the editor of his paper. <ref name=Raible /> Bushell, faced with these obstacles, struggled with debt and alcoholism which eventually led to his death.<ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Anton Heinrich (1734-1800)====<br />
{{main|Henry B. Anthony}}<br />
<br />
Heinrich learned his trade in Germany but came to America as a fifer in the British Army before relocating to Halifax and anglicizing his name to the more appropriate Henry Anthony. <ref name=Raible /> Henry acquired Bushell's enterprise, including the ''Gazette''. In October of 1765 he printed an editorial in the ''Gazette'' that suggested that Nova Scotians were opposed to the [[Stamp Act]] which resulted in doubts about his loyalty, and he fled back to Massachusetts and the ''Gazette'' was shut down. Eventually, he made his way back into the government's good graces and was recommissioned to print the ''Royal Gazette''. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==== William Brown (1737-1789) and Thomas Gilmore (1741-1773) ====<br />
Originally from Philadelphia <ref name=Dictionary />, in 1764 the two men launched the government sponsored [[Quebec Gazette]]. The paper was bilingual and was heavily censured and scrutinized by the government.<ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Fleury Mesplet (1734-1794)====<br />
{{main|Fleury Mesplet}}<br />
Immigrated to Montreal from France with the intent of being a printer. However, he was jailed out of suspicion before printing anything due to his status as an American sympathizer and relationship with Benjamin Franklin.<ref name=Dictionary /> In 1778 he printed Canada's first entirely French newspaper, [[The Gazette (Montreal)]]. His editor, Valentin Jautard, chose articles with a radical tone and both men were imprisoned. In 1782, Mesplet was released and allowed to go back to work for the government because he was the only capable printer, though he technically remained imprisoned. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Louis Roy (1771-1799)====<br />
On April 18, 1793, Roy launched the "Upper Canada Gazette", which continued until 1845. In 1797, Roy left the paper due to political persecution after printing some incendiary opinions and fled to New York. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==The Public Sphere Partisan Period (1800-1850) ==<br />
{{see also|Public Sphere}}<br />
<br />
This is the period in which the printers and publishers began to see success in their efforts to free the press from it's government control. The discussion and debate surrounding the '''public sphere''' in the North Atlantic was actively undertaken in Upper Canada and partisan newspapers of the 1800's became "pure" inhabitants of the public sphere. <ref name=Fetherline /> Big steps were taken towards the democratization of the press, and in 1891, the right to report on political proceedings was finally won. <ref name=Fetherline /> The papers of this period were non-deferrential, and demanded democratization of information. They undermined finally began to undermine the traditional hierarchical societal structure. <br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
The development of the public sphere in Canada was closely linked with the development of a free press and there are many parallels. Most of the early publishers were - or became - very active politicians up to the mid-1800s.<br />
At this time, there was a growing market for political debate, and the independent printers of this period began using their columns for opinions, to challenge policies, expose government errors, and even promote certain candidates. These men were large personalities, unafraid to strongly voice unpopular opinions. As a result, the newspapers often became a forum for debate between the disagreeing printers. <br />
The political issue most often debated was that of [[Responsible government]]. In responsible government the executive branch is responsible to the elected legislature and no laws can be passed without the approval of said legislature. However, in Upper Canada, the appointed executive remained responsible only to the colonial governor who had to answer to Britain until 1855. Many of the publisher and printer-cum-politicians of this time were debating this key issue.<br />
During this period the printers were still working under very difficult conditions. Like the printers before them, many of the printers and publishers were still plagued by debt and had to work tirelessly to earn enough to support their political careers and keep the newspapers running. These men continued the difficult work of liberating the Canadian press and it is in the stories of these men that we start to see some success along with the difficulty.<br />
<br />
====Gideon and Sylvester Tiffany====<br />
These brothers started as official government printers in the 1790's, but refused to print only government sanctioned news and instead printed news from America. When they refused to heed warnings from the government, they were more formally persecuted. In April of 1797, Gideon was charged with blasphemy, fired, fined, and jailed. Sylvester was then also charged with "treasonable and seditious conduct". In his defense he declared that "As the people's printer, it is my duty to devote my head, heart and hands to their service...The interests of the King and people are inseparable". <ref name=Raible /> Eventually the brothers were forced to give up printing, through Sylvester attempted a number of other papers before moving to New York. <br />
<br />
====Titus Geer Simons====<br />
Simmons was appointed as the new King's printer following the legal persecution of the Tiffany brothers, though he was not officially trained in printing. The Tiffany brothers remained on, and continued to determine much of the paper's content until 1799. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Lyon Mackenzie====<br />
{{main|William Lyon Mackenzie}} <br />
<br />
Mackenzie was a great influence for political development in [[Upper Canada]] and a fierce advocate for '''responsible government'''. In 1824, he founded the ''Colonial Advocate'', which was the first independent paper in the province to have significant political impact.<ref name="Colonial Advocate"/> <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie viewed the colonial administration as incompetent, ineffective, and expensive, and he used the Advocate to state these opinions. Though the paper became the most widely circulated paper, it was not profitable for Mackenzie and he struggled with debt for many years. In 1826 his printing office was broken into and destroyed by a mob. When MacKenzie sued the assailants, he won his case and collected enough in damages to repair the press and pay off his debts, as well as gain public sympathy. <ref name=Dictionary /> <br />
Two years after the incident he was elected to the general house of assembly where he became a vigorous advocate of reform and critic of government waste and excess until in 1834 he became the first mayor of Toronto. By 1837, he was out of office and still remained politically frustrated. He planned a rebellion against the government, and when it failed he fled to the U.S. <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie is a prime example of an editor who used his printing as a tool to take on the troubled politics of the time and open the door for the newspaper to enter the public sphere.<br />
<br />
====Joseph Howe====<br />
{{main|Joseph Howe}}<br />
<br />
In 1828, Joseph Howe took over Halifax's ''Weekly Chronicle'', renaming it the ''Acadian''. He then also purchased the ''[[Novascotian]]''; these papers were both very loyal to the British government. It was over the next few years that he became increasingly loyal to his Nova Scotia and frustrated with the British administration. Howe, like MacKenzie, was in favor of '''responsible government'''.<br />
In 1835, Howe was prosecuted for criminal libel for one of his articles. He spoke in argument for a free press at his trial and though he was technically guilty according to the law, the jury was quick to acquit. His success during his trial made him a local hero in Nova Scotia. It was this success that took Howe into the provincial parliament, and he eventually became a provincial premiere. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Henry David Winton (1793-1855)====<br />
Winton arrived in Newfoundland on August 28, 1818. In 1820, he founded the ''Public Ledger and Newfoundland General Advisor'', the fourth newspaper in St. John's. Winton used the paper to publish his own political ideas staunchly in support of '''responsible government'''. Because of his strong political sentiments he eventually became the enemy of Catholics as well as those in favor of reform - to the extent that some people wished him harm. On May 19, 1835, Winton was attacked by a group of unknown assailants and his ears were cut off. Despite this and further similar threats, Winton continued to write in opposition of the reform government until his death. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Wilkie====<br />
Wilkie lived in Halifax and in 1820 was charged by the crown with criminal libel for having published a pamphlet entitled "A letter to the people of Halifax, containing strictures on the conduct of the magistrates" which heavily criticized the appointed civic authorities of Halifax at the time. He was found guilty and sentenced to two years of hard labor. Throughout this, public sentiment remained in favor of Wilkie. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====John Ryan (1761-1847) and William Lewis====<br />
Ryan was an American expatriate who, in 1807 and with the help of William Lewis, published the first issue of the ''Royal St. John's Gazette'', the earliest newspaper in Newfoundland. Ryan soon began exposing government favoritism and unfairness in the Gazette, much to the chagrin of officials. In March of 1784, both men were indicted for libel. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Joseph Willcocks (1773-1814)====<br />
{{main|Joseph Willcocks}} <br />
In 1806, Willcocks moved to Niagra where he began publishing the ''Upper Canada Guardian; or Freeman's Journal'' which he used as a vehicle for his political opinions and criticisms. That same year, he was jailed for contempt of the house. <br />
in 1808, he rejoined politics officially and became Canada's first true leader of the Opposition against those aligned with the colonial government. He stopped printing his journal in 1812. <br />
In July of 1813, he offered his services to the Americans while holding a seat in the Legislative Assembly and was formally charged with treason in 1814. He died a traitor. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Pierre Bédard, Francois Blancet, and Étienne Parent====<br />
All three of these men were imprisoned in Quebec for publishing - or attempting to publish - writings that opposed the colonial administration. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
== Nation Building/Myth Making Period (1850-1900) ==<br />
By this period, newspaper editors were free from direct governmental control. However, the government continued to influence them in other underhanded ways, such as privately persuading editorial content and putting paid advertising only into assenting newspapers. <ref name=Raible /> For the most part, the radical newspapers of the Public Sphere Period had served their purposes and the papers of this period were somewhat more unbiased. More than ever, technology and progress were of great importance. <br />
The papers of this time took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. In publications of this period, there was a celebration of conformity and orthodoxy. Unlike the incendiary publications of the past, there was no justification seen for the rejection of order. <ref name=Fetherline /> In many ways, this Canadian identity still prevails.<br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
During this period, largely free from the government restrictions of the past, that the printers and publishers took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. As before, many of them were personally involved in politics as well and continued to use their papers to exert their political sentiments and to push for progress and change. <br />
<br />
====George Brown (1818-1880)====<br />
In 1844, Brown founded [[The Globe and Mail]], a paper with strong political ambitions. Brown bought out many competitors and increased circulation using advanced technology. By 1860 it was Canada's largest newspaper. <br />
In the 1850's, Brown entered politics and became the Reform Party leader and eventually reached an agreement that led to the Confederation and the founding of the Dominion of Canada. Afterwards, he resigned from Parliament, but continued to write about his politics in the "Globe". <br />
Throughout his publishing career, he struggled with his employees and the unions. In 1880 he was shot by a disgruntled employee and died. <br />
<ref name=Fetherline /> <ref name=Dictionary /> <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Modeste Demers (1809-1871)====<br />
In Victoria in 1856, Bishop Modeste Demers imported a hand press intending to publish religious materials. It remained unused until 1858, when the American printer Frederick Marriott used the "Demers press" to publish four different British Columbia newspapers, the most influential of which was the ''British Colonist''. The Demers press continued to be used for printing until 1908. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Amor De Cosmos (1825-1897)====<br />
{{main|Amor De Cosmos}}<br />
<br />
Amor De Cosmos was the founder of the "British Colonist". He was well known for using it's pages to express his political opinions. <br />
De Cosmos also eventually entered politics, assumed leadership, urged political reform and pushed for "responsible government''. He was elected to represent Victoria in the House of Commons while at the same time serving as the provincial premiere of British Columbia. <br />
He was outspoken and eccentric, and made quite a few enemies throughout his life. He was accused of a scandal with the unions which eventually forced him to leave politics. When he died he had fallen into a complete breakdown. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{portal box|Journalism|Canada}}<br />
*[[The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]]<br />
*[[Mass media in Canada]]<br />
*[[List of early Canadian newspapers]] - (historical)<br />
*[[List of defunct newspapers of Quebec]] - (historical)<br />
*[[List of newspapers in Canada]] - (modern)<br />
*[[List of newspapers in Canada by circulation]] - (modern)<br />
*[[First Nations Periodicals]] <br />
*[[Freedom of the press]]<br />
*[[History of free speech in Canada]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist<br />
|refs=<br />
<ref name=Fetherline>{{cite book|last=Fetherling|first=Douglas|title=The Rise of the Canadian Newspaper|year=1949|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Raible>{{cite book|last=Raible|first=Chris|title=The Power of the Press: The Story of Early Canadian Printers and Publishers|year=2007|publisher=James Lorimer & Company LTD|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Dictionary>{{cite web|last=English|first=John|title=Dictionary of Canadian Biography|url=http://www.biographi.ca/index-e.html}}</ref><br />
<ref name=Habermas>{{cite book|last=Jürgen|first=Habermas|title=The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeoise Society|year=German(1962) English Translation 1989|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=0-262-58108-6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=e799caakIWoC&pg=PA30|pages=30|editor=Thomas Burger}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Colonial Advocate">{{cite news|last=Mackenzie|first=William Lyon|newspaper=The Colonial Advocate|date=January 26, 1832}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading ==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
*{{Cite book<br />
| publisher = Available from Canadian Govt. Pub. Centre Supply and Services Canada<br />
| isbn = 9780660109541<br />
| last = Canada.<br />
| title = Royal Commission on Newspapers.<br />
| location = Hull Que.<br />
| date = 1981<br />
| url = http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/200/301/pco-bcp/commissions-ef/kent1981-eng/kent1981-eng.htm<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Rutherford|first=Paul|title=A Victorian Authority: the daily press in late nineteenth-century Canada|year=1944|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Craick|first=W.A.|title=A History of Canadian Journalism|year=1959|publisher=The Ontario Publishing Company, Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Desbarats|first=Peter|title=Guide to Canadian News Media|year=1996|publisher=Harcourt Brace & Company, Ltd.|location=1996}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Kesterton|first=W.H.|title=A History of Journalism in Canada|year=1967|publisher=McClelland and Stewart Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|first=Marjory |last=Louise Lang|title=Women who made the news: female journalists in Canada, 1880-1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cAt4MQ-da1AC&pg=PP1|date=26 August 1999|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-1838-4}}<br />
*{{cite book|author= Russell, Nick|title=Morals and the media: ethics in Canadian journalism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V3RqfJkN-8oC&pg=PP1|year=2006|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1089-0}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links ==<br />
{{commons cat|Newspapers of Canada}}<br />
*[http://library.uvic.ca/micro/newsmicroguide.pdf An Annotated Guide to Historical Canadian Newspapers on Microfilm (PDF)] - University of Victoria<br />
*[http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/intro_e.shtml Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War] - Canadian War Museum<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:History of mass media]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian journalism]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geschichte_der_kanadischen_Zeitungen&diff=159301703Geschichte der kanadischen Zeitungen2011-12-16T07:17:48Z<p>Moxy: /* References */ |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=e799caakIWoC&pg=PA30</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Culture of Canada sidebar}}<br />
In Canada, the emergence of the '''free press''' was a difficult process that took many years to come to realization after a beginning rife with censorship and government control. "Compared to Europe, or even what became the United States, newspapering came to Canada rather late in the day, in the second half of the eighteenth century".<ref name=Fetherline /> Newspapers existed in the British colonies before the [[French and Indian War]], but they had been transplanted from America. Presses were forbidden in Quebec until the Conquest; after the Conquest, they too were brought in from the U.S. "It remains an unassailable irony, however, that printing became a part of Canadian society only with the establishment of British rule and, moreover, that nearly all the earliest printers were Americans."<ref name=Fetherline /><br />
<br />
The press in Canada was born as a tool of the government, subsidized and controlled by the overseas British rulers of the colonies and their colonial governors. Eventually, the government powers came to realize that the press held the potential for a great amount of power. "The discovery of such unrealized potential frightened the powers that be, who commenced a centuries-long period of harassment and intimidation in order to check what today is called the power of the press". <ref name=Fetherline /> In fact, it was due to persecution that the earliest newspaper editors of the America's fled from England and immigrated to the American colonies, where they then moved the craft north, to the Canadian colonies. However, being a colonial society, the editors and printers were perhaps even more censored and persecuted for printing anything that could be construed as being an anti-government sentiment, especially after the explosive [[American Revolution]] in 1763.<ref name=Fetherline /> New France (after the Conquest known as Lower Canada or Quebec) experienced the heaviest censorship; printing presses were banned by the French government in an effort to foster a sense of loyalty to and dependence upon the motherland. The French colonial authorities kept the colonial inhabitants illiterate and didn't let them communicate with each other. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
Eventually, the Canadian printers began the process of printing more than just government news and proclamations. However, due to such strict censorship, they were heavily persecuted for what was perceived as disloyalty and a threat to the power of the government. Many of the early editors and printers were large personalities who used their newspapers as instruments of their own political beliefs and suffered great hardships at the hands of the government because of it. <ref name=Raible /> It was their suffering that made the way for the press to become it's own liberated entity.<br />
<br />
There were three important periods in the history of Canadian newspapers responsible for the eventual development of the newspaper in the [[public sphere]]. These are the Transplant Period from 1750-1800, when printing and newspapers initially came to Canada as publications of Government news and proclamations; followed by the Public Sphere Partisan Period from 1800-1850, when individual printers and editors began 'freeing' the press and moving away from the "Sphere of Public Authority"<ref name=Habermas /> and into the [[public sphere]]; and finally the Nation Building Period from 1850-1900, when Canadian editors began the work of establishing a common nationalistic view of Canadian society.<br />
<br />
== The Gazette/Transplant Period (1750-1800) ==<br />
This was the period that introduced print culture to British North America and began fostering a reading public. All newspapers but ''The Upper Canada Gazette'' were started by Americans. This is partly because the British-American colonies settled earlier than British-Canadian colonies. In 1763 50,000 British loyalists moved north after the American Revolution, bringing printing presses with them. All of the first newspapers started life as official government organs. They were all dependent on government patronage and printed solely information condoned by the government. In every province, there was a weekly [[Gazette]] (named after the [[London Gazette]], the English governmental organ since 1665) that carried the many notices colonial administrators wanted to circulate. <ref name=Raible /> <br />
<br />
At this time, there was no '''political sphere''', as all political news was controlled by the elite. <ref name=Raible /> In the early decades of British North America, the primary purpose of the press was to propagate official propaganda - freedom of the press was an alien idea. <ref name=Raible /> Prior to the approximate turn of the 18th into the 19th century, there was no [[public sphere]] in Canada and therefore no press in the public sphere. <br />
<br />
===The First Printers and Publishers===<br />
It was the first printers and publishers working during the turn of the century who began the slow and difficult work of creating a true, liberated press in Canada. These men faced many obstacles, including beatings, jailing, and the very serious and oft-carried out threat of being charged with criminal or seditious libel. As the early printing press was an essential tool of colonial administration, anyone who attempted to publish anything other than the government notices experienced hardships. There was a prohibition on publishing legislature proceedings which kept the writers out of the courts. These were colonial laws used by British authorities to manufacture loyalty, and the punishments were severe. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Fetherline /> As a result, many of these brave early printers and publishers lived in fear, massive debt, and constant persecution.<br />
<br />
==== John Bushell (1715-1761) ====<br />
{{main|John Bushell}} <br />
<br />
Bushell partnered with [[Bartholomew Green]] (1690-1751), who died before their plans were realized. Bushell relocated from Boston to Halifax and opened up a printing office, and on March 23, 1752, Bushell published the first edition of the [[Halifax Gazette]] and became the colony's first "Kings Printer".<ref name=Raible /> He was an independent entrepreneur, given no government salary <ref name=Fetherline />, and what government administrators thought their subjects needed and what Bushell's subscribers and advertisers wanted were not necessarily the same. He was stuck in between. The government did not trust his loyalty and so made the Provincial Secretary the editor of his paper. <ref name=Raible /> Bushell, faced with these obstacles, struggled with debt and alcoholism which eventually led to his death.<ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Anton Heinrich (1734-1800)====<br />
{{main|Henry B. Anthony}}<br />
<br />
Heinrich learned his trade in Germany but came to America as a fifer in the British Army before relocating to Halifax and anglicizing his name to the more appropriate Henry Anthony. <ref name=Raible /> Henry acquired Bushell's enterprise, including the ''Gazette''. In October of 1765 he printed an editorial in the ''Gazette'' that suggested that Nova Scotians were opposed to the [[Stamp Act]] which resulted in doubts about his loyalty, and he fled back to Massachusetts and the ''Gazette'' was shut down. Eventually, he made his way back into the government's good graces and was recommissioned to print the ''Royal Gazette''. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==== William Brown (1737-1789) and Thomas Gilmore (1741-1773) ====<br />
Originally from Philadelphia <ref name=Dictionary />, in 1764 the two men launched the government sponsored [[Quebec Gazette]]. The paper was bilingual and was heavily censured and scrutinized by the government.<ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Fleury Mesplet (1734-1794)====<br />
{{main|Fleury Mesplet}}<br />
Immigrated to Montreal from France with the intent of being a printer. However, he was jailed out of suspicion before printing anything due to his status as an American sympathizer and relationship with Benjamin Franklin.<ref name=Dictionary /> In 1778 he printed Canada's first entirely French newspaper, [[The Gazette (Montreal)]]. His editor, Valentin Jautard, chose articles with a radical tone and both men were imprisoned. In 1782, Mesplet was released and allowed to go back to work for the government because he was the only capable printer, though he technically remained imprisoned. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Louis Roy (1771-1799)====<br />
On April 18, 1793, Roy launched the "Upper Canada Gazette", which continued until 1845. In 1797, Roy left the paper due to political persecution after printing some incendiary opinions and fled to New York. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==The Public Sphere Partisan Period (1800-1850) ==<br />
{{see also|Public Sphere}}<br />
<br />
This is the period in which the printers and publishers began to see success in their efforts to free the press from it's government control. The discussion and debate surrounding the '''public sphere''' in the North Atlantic was actively undertaken in Upper Canada and partisan newspapers of the 1800's became "pure" inhabitants of the public sphere. <ref name=Fetherline /> Big steps were taken towards the democratization of the press, and in 1891, the right to report on political proceedings was finally won. <ref name=Fetherline /> The papers of this period were non-deferrential, and demanded democratization of information. They undermined finally began to undermine the traditional hierarchical societal structure. <br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
The development of the public sphere in Canada was closely linked with the development of a free press and there are many parallels. Most of the early publishers were - or became - very active politicians up to the mid-1800s.<br />
At this time, there was a growing market for political debate, and the independent printers of this period began using their columns for opinions, to challenge policies, expose government errors, and even promote certain candidates. These men were large personalities, unafraid to strongly voice unpopular opinions. As a result, the newspapers often became a forum for debate between the disagreeing printers. <br />
The political issue most often debated was that of [[Responsible government]]. In responsible government the executive branch is responsible to the elected legislature and no laws can be passed without the approval of said legislature. However, in Upper Canada, the appointed executive remained responsible only to the colonial governor who had to answer to Britain until 1855. Many of the publisher and printer-cum-politicians of this time were debating this key issue.<br />
During this period the printers were still working under very difficult conditions. Like the printers before them, many of the printers and publishers were still plagued by debt and had to work tirelessly to earn enough to support their political careers and keep the newspapers running. These men continued the difficult work of liberating the Canadian press and it is in the stories of these men that we start to see some success along with the difficulty.<br />
<br />
====Gideon and Sylvester Tiffany====<br />
These brothers started as official government printers in the 1790's, but refused to print only government sanctioned news and instead printed news from America. When they refused to heed warnings from the government, they were more formally persecuted. In April of 1797, Gideon was charged with blasphemy, fired, fined, and jailed. Sylvester was then also charged with "treasonable and seditious conduct". In his defense he declared that "As the people's printer, it is my duty to devote my head, heart and hands to their service...The interests of the King and people are inseparable". <ref name=Raible /> Eventually the brothers were forced to give up printing, through Sylvester attempted a number of other papers before moving to New York. <br />
<br />
====Titus Geer Simons====<br />
Simmons was appointed as the new King's printer following the legal persecution of the Tiffany brothers, though he was not officially trained in printing. The Tiffany brothers remained on, and continued to determine much of the paper's content until 1799. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Lyon Mackenzie====<br />
{{main|William Lyon Mackenzie}} <br />
<br />
Mackenzie was a great influence for political development in [[Upper Canada]] and a fierce advocate for '''responsible government'''. In 1824, he founded the ''Colonial Advocate'', which was the first independent paper in the province to have significant political impact.<ref name="Colonial Advocate"/> <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie viewed the colonial administration as incompetent, ineffective, and expensive, and he used the Advocate to state these opinions. Though the paper became the most widely circulated paper, it was not profitable for Mackenzie and he struggled with debt for many years. In 1826 his printing office was broken into and destroyed by a mob. When MacKenzie sued the assailants, he won his case and collected enough in damages to repair the press and pay off his debts, as well as gain public sympathy. <ref name=Dictionary /> <br />
Two years after the incident he was elected to the general house of assembly where he became a vigorous advocate of reform and critic of government waste and excess until in 1834 he became the first mayor of Toronto. By 1837, he was out of office and still remained politically frustrated. He planned a rebellion against the government, and when it failed he fled to the U.S. <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie is a prime example of an editor who used his printing as a tool to take on the troubled politics of the time and open the door for the newspaper to enter the public sphere.<br />
<br />
====Joseph Howe====<br />
{{main|Joseph Howe}}<br />
<br />
In 1828, Joseph Howe took over Halifax's ''Weekly Chronicle'', renaming it the ''Acadian''. He then also purchased the ''[[Novascotian]]''; these papers were both very loyal to the British government. It was over the next few years that he became increasingly loyal to his Nova Scotia and frustrated with the British administration. Howe, like MacKenzie, was in favor of '''responsible government'''.<br />
In 1835, Howe was prosecuted for criminal libel for one of his articles. He spoke in argument for a free press at his trial and though he was technically guilty according to the law, the jury was quick to acquit. His success during his trial made him a local hero in Nova Scotia. It was this success that took Howe into the provincial parliament, and he eventually became a provincial premiere. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Henry David Winton (1793-1855)====<br />
Winton arrived in Newfoundland on August 28, 1818. In 1820, he founded the ''Public Ledger and Newfoundland General Advisor'', the fourth newspaper in St. John's. Winton used the paper to publish his own political ideas staunchly in support of '''responsible government'''. Because of his strong political sentiments he eventually became the enemy of Catholics as well as those in favor of reform - to the extent that some people wished him harm. On May 19, 1835, Winton was attacked by a group of unknown assailants and his ears were cut off. Despite this and further similar threats, Winton continued to write in opposition of the reform government until his death. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Wilkie====<br />
Wilkie lived in Halifax and in 1820 was charged by the crown with criminal libel for having published a pamphlet entitled "A letter to the people of Halifax, containing strictures on the conduct of the magistrates" which heavily criticized the appointed civic authorities of Halifax at the time. He was found guilty and sentenced to two years of hard labor. Throughout this, public sentiment remained in favor of Wilkie. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====John Ryan (1761-1847) and William Lewis====<br />
Ryan was an American expatriate who, in 1807 and with the help of William Lewis, published the first issue of the ''Royal St. John's Gazette'', the earliest newspaper in Newfoundland. Ryan soon began exposing government favoritism and unfairness in the Gazette, much to the chagrin of officials. In March of 1784, both men were indicted for libel. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Joseph Willcocks (1773-1814)====<br />
{{main|Joseph Willcocks}} <br />
In 1806, Willcocks moved to Niagra where he began publishing the ''Upper Canada Guardian; or Freeman's Journal'' which he used as a vehicle for his political opinions and criticisms. That same year, he was jailed for contempt of the house. <br />
in 1808, he rejoined politics officially and became Canada's first true leader of the Opposition against those aligned with the colonial government. He stopped printing his journal in 1812. <br />
In July of 1813, he offered his services to the Americans while holding a seat in the Legislative Assembly and was formally charged with treason in 1814. He died a traitor. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Pierre Bédard, Francois Blancet, and Étienne Parent====<br />
All three of these men were imprisoned in Quebec for publishing - or attempting to publish - writings that opposed the colonial administration. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
== Nation Building/Myth Making Period (1850-1900) ==<br />
By this period, newspaper editors were free from direct governmental control. However, the government continued to influence them in other underhanded ways, such as privately persuading editorial content and putting paid advertising only into assenting newspapers. <ref name=Raible /> For the most part, the radical newspapers of the Public Sphere Period had served their purposes and the papers of this period were somewhat more unbiased. More than ever, technology and progress were of great importance. <br />
The papers of this time took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. In publications of this period, there was a celebration of conformity and orthodoxy. Unlike the incendiary publications of the past, there was no justification seen for the rejection of order. <ref name=Fetherline /> In many ways, this Canadian identity still prevails.<br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
During this period, largely free from the government restrictions of the past, that the printers and publishers took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. As before, many of them were personally involved in politics as well and continued to use their papers to exert their political sentiments and to push for progress and change. <br />
<br />
====George Brown (1818-1880)====<br />
In 1844, Brown founded [[The Globe and Mail]], a paper with strong political ambitions. Brown bought out many competitors and increased circulation using advanced technology. By 1860 it was Canada's largest newspaper. <br />
In the 1850's, Brown entered politics and became the Reform Party leader and eventually reached an agreement that led to the Confederation and the founding of the Dominion of Canada. Afterwards, he resigned from Parliament, but continued to write about his politics in the "Globe". <br />
Throughout his publishing career, he struggled with his employees and the unions. In 1880 he was shot by a disgruntled employee and died. <br />
<ref name=Fetherline /> <ref name=Dictionary /> <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Modeste Demers (1809-1871)====<br />
In Victoria in 1856, Bishop Modeste Demers imported a hand press intending to publish religious materials. It remained unused until 1858, when the American printer Frederick Marriott used the "Demers press" to publish four different British Columbia newspapers, the most influential of which was the ''British Colonist''. The Demers press continued to be used for printing until 1908. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Amor De Cosmos (1825-1897)====<br />
{{main|Amor De Cosmos}}<br />
<br />
Amor De Cosmos was the founder of the "British Colonist". He was well known for using it's pages to express his political opinions. <br />
De Cosmos also eventually entered politics, assumed leadership, urged political reform and pushed for "responsible government''. He was elected to represent Victoria in the House of Commons while at the same time serving as the provincial premiere of British Columbia. <br />
He was outspoken and eccentric, and made quite a few enemies throughout his life. He was accused of a scandal with the unions which eventually forced him to leave politics. When he died he had fallen into a complete breakdown. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==See Also==<br />
{{portal box|Journalism|Canada}}<br />
*[[The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]]<br />
*[[Mass media in Canada]]<br />
*[[List of early Canadian newspapers]] - (historical)<br />
*[[List of defunct newspapers of Quebec]] - (historical)<br />
*[[List of newspapers in Canada]] - (modern)<br />
*[[List of newspapers in Canada by circulation]] - (modern)<br />
*[[First Nations Periodicals]] <br />
*[[Freedom of the press]]<br />
*[[History of free speech in Canada]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist<br />
|refs=<br />
<ref name=Fetherline>{{cite book|last=Fetherling|first=Douglas|title=The Rise of the Canadian Newspaper|year=1949|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Raible>{{cite book|last=Raible|first=Chris|title=The Power of the Press: The Story of Early Canadian Printers and Publishers|year=2007|publisher=James Lorimer & Company LTD|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Dictionary>{{cite web|last=English|first=John|title=Dictionary of Canadian Biography|url=http://www.biographi.ca/index-e.html}}</ref><br />
<ref name=Habermas>{{cite book|last=Jürgen|first=Habermas|title=The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeoise Society|year=German(1962) English Translation 1989|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=0-262-58108-6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=e799caakIWoC&pg=PA30|pages=30|editor=Thomas Burger}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Colonial Advocate">{{cite news|last=Mackenzie|first=William Lyon|newspaper=The Colonial Advocate|date=January 26, 1832}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading ==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
*{{Cite book<br />
| publisher = Available from Canadian Govt. Pub. Centre Supply and Services Canada<br />
| isbn = 9780660109541<br />
| last = Canada.<br />
| title = Royal Commission on Newspapers.<br />
| location = Hull Que.<br />
| date = 1981<br />
| url = http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/200/301/pco-bcp/commissions-ef/kent1981-eng/kent1981-eng.htm<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Rutherford|first=Paul|title=A Victorian Authority: the daily press in late nineteenth-century Canada|year=1944|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Craick|first=W.A.|title=A History of Canadian Journalism|year=1959|publisher=The Ontario Publishing Company, Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Desbarats|first=Peter|title=Guide to Canadian News Media|year=1996|publisher=Harcourt Brace & Company, Ltd.|location=1996}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Kesterton|first=W.H.|title=A History of Journalism in Canada|year=1967|publisher=McClelland and Stewart Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|first=Marjory |last=Louise Lang|title=Women who made the news: female journalists in Canada, 1880-1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cAt4MQ-da1AC&pg=PP1|date=26 August 1999|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-1838-4}}<br />
*{{cite book|author= Russell, Nick|title=Morals and the media: ethics in Canadian journalism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V3RqfJkN-8oC&pg=PP1|year=2006|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1089-0}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links ==<br />
{{commons cat|Newspapers of Canada}}<br />
*[http://library.uvic.ca/micro/newsmicroguide.pdf An Annotated Guide to Historical Canadian Newspapers on Microfilm (PDF)] - University of Victoria<br />
*[http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/intro_e.shtml Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War] - Canadian War Museum<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:History of mass media]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian journalism]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geschichte_der_kanadischen_Zeitungen&diff=159301701Geschichte der kanadischen Zeitungen2011-12-16T06:36:19Z<p>Moxy: /* See Also */ ce</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Culture of Canada sidebar}}<br />
In Canada, the emergence of the '''free press''' was a difficult process that took many years to come to realization after a beginning rife with censorship and government control. "Compared to Europe, or even what became the United States, newspapering came to Canada rather late in the day, in the second half of the eighteenth century".<ref name=Fetherline /> Newspapers existed in the British colonies before the [[French and Indian War]], but they had been transplanted from America. Presses were forbidden in Quebec until the Conquest; after the Conquest, they too were brought in from the U.S. "It remains an unassailable irony, however, that printing became a part of Canadian society only with the establishment of British rule and, moreover, that nearly all the earliest printers were Americans."<ref name=Fetherline /><br />
<br />
The press in Canada was born as a tool of the government, subsidized and controlled by the overseas British rulers of the colonies and their colonial governors. Eventually, the government powers came to realize that the press held the potential for a great amount of power. "The discovery of such unrealized potential frightened the powers that be, who commenced a centuries-long period of harassment and intimidation in order to check what today is called the power of the press". <ref name=Fetherline /> In fact, it was due to persecution that the earliest newspaper editors of the America's fled from England and immigrated to the American colonies, where they then moved the craft north, to the Canadian colonies. However, being a colonial society, the editors and printers were perhaps even more censored and persecuted for printing anything that could be construed as being an anti-government sentiment, especially after the explosive [[American Revolution]] in 1763.<ref name=Fetherline /> New France (after the Conquest known as Lower Canada or Quebec) experienced the heaviest censorship; printing presses were banned by the French government in an effort to foster a sense of loyalty to and dependence upon the motherland. The French colonial authorities kept the colonial inhabitants illiterate and didn't let them communicate with each other. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
Eventually, the Canadian printers began the process of printing more than just government news and proclamations. However, due to such strict censorship, they were heavily persecuted for what was perceived as disloyalty and a threat to the power of the government. Many of the early editors and printers were large personalities who used their newspapers as instruments of their own political beliefs and suffered great hardships at the hands of the government because of it. <ref name=Raible /> It was their suffering that made the way for the press to become it's own liberated entity.<br />
<br />
There were three important periods in the history of Canadian newspapers responsible for the eventual development of the newspaper in the [[public sphere]]. These are the Transplant Period from 1750-1800, when printing and newspapers initially came to Canada as publications of Government news and proclamations; followed by the Public Sphere Partisan Period from 1800-1850, when individual printers and editors began 'freeing' the press and moving away from the "Sphere of Public Authority"<ref name=Habermas /> and into the [[public sphere]]; and finally the Nation Building Period from 1850-1900, when Canadian editors began the work of establishing a common nationalistic view of Canadian society.<br />
<br />
== The Gazette/Transplant Period (1750-1800) ==<br />
This was the period that introduced print culture to British North America and began fostering a reading public. All newspapers but ''The Upper Canada Gazette'' were started by Americans. This is partly because the British-American colonies settled earlier than British-Canadian colonies. In 1763 50,000 British loyalists moved north after the American Revolution, bringing printing presses with them. All of the first newspapers started life as official government organs. They were all dependent on government patronage and printed solely information condoned by the government. In every province, there was a weekly [[Gazette]] (named after the [[London Gazette]], the English governmental organ since 1665) that carried the many notices colonial administrators wanted to circulate. <ref name=Raible /> <br />
<br />
At this time, there was no '''political sphere''', as all political news was controlled by the elite. <ref name=Raible /> In the early decades of British North America, the primary purpose of the press was to propagate official propaganda - freedom of the press was an alien idea. <ref name=Raible /> Prior to the approximate turn of the 18th into the 19th century, there was no [[public sphere]] in Canada and therefore no press in the public sphere. <br />
<br />
===The First Printers and Publishers===<br />
It was the first printers and publishers working during the turn of the century who began the slow and difficult work of creating a true, liberated press in Canada. These men faced many obstacles, including beatings, jailing, and the very serious and oft-carried out threat of being charged with criminal or seditious libel. As the early printing press was an essential tool of colonial administration, anyone who attempted to publish anything other than the government notices experienced hardships. There was a prohibition on publishing legislature proceedings which kept the writers out of the courts. These were colonial laws used by British authorities to manufacture loyalty, and the punishments were severe. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Fetherline /> As a result, many of these brave early printers and publishers lived in fear, massive debt, and constant persecution.<br />
<br />
==== John Bushell (1715-1761) ====<br />
See also [[John Bushell]]. <br />
<br />
Bushell partnered with [[Bartholomew Green]] (1690-1751), who died before their plans were realized. Bushell relocated from Boston to Halifax and opened up a printing office, and on March 23, 1752, Bushell published the first edition of the [[Halifax Gazette]] and became the colony's first "Kings Printer".<ref name=Raible /> He was an independent entrepreneur, given no government salary <ref name=Fetherline />, and what government administrators thought their subjects needed and what Bushell's subscribers and advertisers wanted were not necessarily the same. He was stuck in between. The government did not trust his loyalty and so made the Provincial Secretary the editor of his paper. <ref name=Raible /> Bushell, faced with these obstacles, struggled with debt and alcoholism which eventually led to his death.<ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Anton Heinrich (1734-1800)====<br />
See also [[Henry B. Anthony]].<br />
<br />
Heinrich learned his trade in Germany but came to America as a fifer in the British Army before relocating to Halifax and anglicizing his name to the more appropriate Henry Anthony. <ref name=Raible /> Henry acquired Bushell's enterprise, including the ''Gazette''. In October of 1765 he printed an editorial in the ''Gazette'' that suggested that Nova Scotians were opposed to the [[Stamp Act]] which resulted in doubts about his loyalty, and he fled back to Massachusetts and the ''Gazette'' was shut down. Eventually, he made his way back into the government's good graces and was recommissioned to print the ''Royal Gazette''. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==== William Brown (1737-1789) and Thomas Gilmore (1741-1773) ====<br />
Originally from Philadelphia <ref name=Dictionary />, in 1764 the two men launched the government sponsored [[Quebec Gazette]]. The paper was bilingual and was heavily censured and scrutinized by the government.<ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Fleury Mesplet (1734-1794)====<br />
See also [[Fleury Mesplet]].<br />
Immigrated to Montreal from France with the intent of being a printer. However, he was jailed out of suspicion before printing anything due to his status as an American sympathizer and relationship with Benjamin Franklin.<ref name=Dictionary /> In 1778 he printed Canada's first entirely French newspaper, [[The Gazette (Montreal)]]. His editor, Valentin Jautard, chose articles with a radical tone and both men were imprisoned. In 1782, Mesplet was released and allowed to go back to work for the government because he was the only capable printer, though he technically remained imprisoned. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Louis Roy (1771-1799)====<br />
On April 18, 1793, Roy launched the "Upper Canada Gazette", which continued until 1845. In 1797, Roy left the paper due to political persecution after printing some incendiary opinions and fled to New York. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==The Public Sphere Partisan Period (1800-1850) ==<br />
See also: [[Public Sphere]]<br />
<br />
This is the period in which the printers and publishers began to see success in their efforts to free the press from it's government control. The discussion and debate surrounding the '''public sphere''' in the North Atlantic was actively undertaken in Upper Canada and partisan newspapers of the 1800's became "pure" inhabitants of the public sphere. <ref name=Fetherline /> Big steps were taken towards the democratization of the press, and in 1891, the right to report on political proceedings was finally won. <ref name=Fetherline /> The papers of this period were non-deferrential, and demanded democratization of information. They undermined finally began to undermine the traditional hierarchical societal structure. <br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
The development of the public sphere in Canada was closely linked with the development of a free press and there are many parallels. Most of the early publishers were - or became - very active politicians up to the mid-1800s.<br />
At this time, there was a growing market for political debate, and the independent printers of this period began using their columns for opinions, to challenge policies, expose government errors, and even promote certain candidates. These men were large personalities, unafraid to strongly voice unpopular opinions. As a result, the newspapers often became a forum for debate between the disagreeing printers. <br />
The political issue most often debated was that of [[Responsible government]]. In responsible government the executive branch is responsible to the elected legislature and no laws can be passed without the approval of said legislature. However, in Upper Canada, the appointed executive remained responsible only to the colonial governor who had to answer to Britain until 1855. Many of the publisher and printer-cum-politicians of this time were debating this key issue.<br />
During this period the printers were still working under very difficult conditions. Like the printers before them, many of the printers and publishers were still plagued by debt and had to work tirelessly to earn enough to support their political careers and keep the newspapers running. These men continued the difficult work of liberating the Canadian press and it is in the stories of these men that we start to see some success along with the difficulty.<br />
<br />
====Gideon and Sylvester Tiffany====<br />
These brothers started as official government printers in the 1790's, but refused to print only government sanctioned news and instead printed news from America. When they refused to heed warnings from the government, they were more formally persecuted. In April of 1797, Gideon was charged with blasphemy, fired, fined, and jailed. Sylvester was then also charged with "treasonable and seditious conduct". In his defense he declared that "As the people's printer, it is my duty to devote my head, heart and hands to their service...The interests of the King and people are inseparable". <ref name=Raible /> Eventually the brothers were forced to give up printing, through Sylvester attempted a number of other papers before moving to New York. <br />
<br />
====Titus Geer Simons====<br />
Simmons was appointed as the new King's printer following the legal persecution of the Tiffany brothers, though he was not officially trained in printing. The Tiffany brothers remained on, and continued to determine much of the paper's content until 1799. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Lyon Mackenzie====<br />
See also [[William Lyon Mackenzie]]. <br />
<br />
Mackenzie was a great influence for political development in [[Upper Canada]] and a fierce advocate for '''responsible government'''. In 1824, he founded the ''Colonial Advocate'', which was the first independent paper in the province to have significant political impact.<ref name="Colonial Advocate"/> <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie viewed the colonial administration as incompetent, ineffective, and expensive, and he used the Advocate to state these opinions. Though the paper became the most widely circulated paper, it was not profitable for Mackenzie and he struggled with debt for many years. In 1826 his printing office was broken into and destroyed by a mob. When MacKenzie sued the assailants, he won his case and collected enough in damages to repair the press and pay off his debts, as well as gain public sympathy. <ref name=Dictionary /> <br />
Two years after the incident he was elected to the general house of assembly where he became a vigorous advocate of reform and critic of government waste and excess until in 1834 he became the first mayor of Toronto. By 1837, he was out of office and still remained politically frustrated. He planned a rebellion against the government, and when it failed he fled to the U.S. <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie is a prime example of an editor who used his printing as a tool to take on the troubled politics of the time and open the door for the newspaper to enter the public sphere.<br />
<br />
====Joseph Howe====<br />
See also: [[Joseph Howe]]<br />
<br />
In 1828, Joseph Howe took over Halifax's ''Weekly Chronicle'', renaming it the ''Acadian''. He then also purchased the ''[[Novascotian]]''; these papers were both very loyal to the British government. It was over the next few years that he became increasingly loyal to his Nova Scotia and frustrated with the British administration. Howe, like MacKenzie, was in favor of '''responsible government'''.<br />
In 1835, Howe was prosecuted for criminal libel for one of his articles. He spoke in argument for a free press at his trial and though he was technically guilty according to the law, the jury was quick to acquit. His success during his trial made him a local hero in Nova Scotia. It was this success that took Howe into the provincial parliament, and he eventually became a provincial premiere. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Henry David Winton (1793-1855)====<br />
Winton arrived in Newfoundland on August 28, 1818. In 1820, he founded the ''Public Ledger and Newfoundland General Advisor'', the fourth newspaper in St. John's. Winton used the paper to publish his own political ideas staunchly in support of '''responsible government'''. Because of his strong political sentiments he eventually became the enemy of Catholics as well as those in favor of reform - to the extent that some people wished him harm. On May 19, 1835, Winton was attacked by a group of unknown assailants and his ears were cut off. Despite this and further similar threats, Winton continued to write in opposition of the reform government until his death. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Wilkie====<br />
Wilkie lived in Halifax and in 1820 was charged by the crown with criminal libel for having published a pamphlet entitled "A letter to the people of Halifax, containing strictures on the conduct of the magistrates" which heavily criticized the appointed civic authorities of Halifax at the time. He was found guilty and sentenced to two years of hard labor. Throughout this, public sentiment remained in favor of Wilkie. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====John Ryan (1761-1847) and William Lewis====<br />
Ryan was an American expatriate who, in 1807 and with the help of William Lewis, published the first issue of the ''Royal St. John's Gazette'', the earliest newspaper in Newfoundland. Ryan soon began exposing government favoritism and unfairness in the Gazette, much to the chagrin of officials. In March of 1784, both men were indicted for libel. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Joseph Willcocks (1773-1814)====<br />
See also [[Joseph Willcocks]]. <br />
In 1806, Willcocks moved to Niagra where he began publishing the ''Upper Canada Guardian; or Freeman's Journal'' which he used as a vehicle for his political opinions and criticisms. That same year, he was jailed for contempt of the house. <br />
in 1808, he rejoined politics officially and became Canada's first true leader of the Opposition against those aligned with the colonial government. He stopped printing his journal in 1812. <br />
In July of 1813, he offered his services to the Americans while holding a seat in the Legislative Assembly and was formally charged with treason in 1814. He died a traitor. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Pierre Bédard, Francois Blancet, and Étienne Parent====<br />
All three of these men were imprisoned in Quebec for publishing - or attempting to publish - writings that opposed the colonial administration. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
== Nation Building/Myth Making Period (1850-1900) ==<br />
By this period, newspaper editors were free from direct governmental control. However, the government continued to influence them in other underhanded ways, such as privately persuading editorial content and putting paid advertising only into assenting newspapers. <ref name=Raible /> For the most part, the radical newspapers of the Public Sphere Period had served their purposes and the papers of this period were somewhat more unbiased. More than ever, technology and progress were of great importance. <br />
The papers of this time took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. In publications of this period, there was a celebration of conformity and orthodoxy. Unlike the incendiary publications of the past, there was no justification seen for the rejection of order. <ref name=Fetherline /> In many ways, this Canadian identity still prevails.<br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
During this period, largely free from the government restrictions of the past, that the printers and publishers took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. As before, many of them were personally involved in politics as well and continued to use their papers to exert their political sentiments and to push for progress and change. <br />
<br />
====George Brown (1818-1880)====<br />
In 1844, Brown founded [[The Globe and Mail]], a paper with strong political ambitions. Brown bought out many competitors and increased circulation using advanced technology. By 1860 it was Canada's largest newspaper. <br />
In the 1850's, Brown entered politics and became the Reform Party leader and eventually reached an agreement that led to the Confederation and the founding of the Dominion of Canada. Afterwards, he resigned from Parliament, but continued to write about his politics in the "Globe". <br />
Throughout his publishing career, he struggled with his employees and the unions. In 1880 he was shot by a disgruntled employee and died. <br />
<ref name=Fetherline /> <ref name=Dictionary /> <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Modeste Demers (1809-1871)====<br />
In Victoria in 1856, Bishop Modeste Demers imported a hand press intending to publish religious materials. It remained unused until 1858, when the American printer Frederick Marriott used the "Demers press" to publish four different British Columbia newspapers, the most influential of which was the ''British Colonist''. The Demers press continued to be used for printing until 1908. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Amor De Cosmos (1825-1897)====<br />
See also: [[Amor De Cosmos]]<br />
<br />
Amor De Cosmos was the founder of the "British Colonist". He was well known for using it's pages to express his political opinions. <br />
De Cosmos also eventually entered politics, assumed leadership, urged political reform and pushed for "responsible government''. He was elected to represent Victoria in the House of Commons while at the same time serving as the provincial premiere of British Columbia. <br />
He was outspoken and eccentric, and made quite a few enemies throughout his life. He was accused of a scandal with the unions which eventually forced him to leave politics. When he died he had fallen into a complete breakdown. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==See Also==<br />
{{portal box|Journalism|Canada}}<br />
*[[The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]]<br />
*[[Mass media in Canada]]<br />
*[[List of early Canadian newspapers]] - (historical)<br />
*[[List of defunct newspapers of Quebec]] - (historical)<br />
*[[List of newspapers in Canada]] - (modern)<br />
*[[List of newspapers in Canada by circulation]] - (modern)<br />
*[[First Nations Periodicals]] <br />
*[[Freedom of the press]]<br />
*[[History of free speech in Canada]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist<br />
|refs=<br />
<ref name=Fetherline>{{cite book|last=Fetherling|first=Douglas|title=The Rise of the Canadian Newspaper|year=1949|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Raible>{{cite book|last=Raible|first=Chris|title=The Power of the Press: The Story of Early Canadian Printers and Publishers|year=2007|publisher=James Lorimer & Company LTD|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Dictionary>{{cite web|last=English|first=John|title=Dictionary of Canadian Biography|url=http://www.biographi.ca/index-e.html}}</ref><br />
<ref name=Habermas>{{cite book|last=Jürgen|first=Habermas|title=The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeoise Society|year=German(1962) English Translation 1989|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=0-262-58108-6|pages=30|editor=Thomas Burger}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Colonial Advocate">{{cite news|last=Mackenzie|first=William Lyon|newspaper=The Colonial Advocate|date=January 26, 1832}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading ==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
*{{Cite book<br />
| publisher = Available from Canadian Govt. Pub. Centre Supply and Services Canada<br />
| isbn = 9780660109541<br />
| last = Canada.<br />
| title = Royal Commission on Newspapers.<br />
| location = Hull Que.<br />
| date = 1981<br />
| url = http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/200/301/pco-bcp/commissions-ef/kent1981-eng/kent1981-eng.htm<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Rutherford|first=Paul|title=A Victorian Authority: the daily press in late nineteenth-century Canada|year=1944|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Craick|first=W.A.|title=A History of Canadian Journalism|year=1959|publisher=The Ontario Publishing Company, Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Desbarats|first=Peter|title=Guide to Canadian News Media|year=1996|publisher=Harcourt Brace & Company, Ltd.|location=1996}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Kesterton|first=W.H.|title=A History of Journalism in Canada|year=1967|publisher=McClelland and Stewart Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|first=Marjory |last=Louise Lang|title=Women who made the news: female journalists in Canada, 1880-1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cAt4MQ-da1AC&pg=PP1|date=26 August 1999|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-1838-4}}<br />
*{{cite book|author= Russell, Nick|title=Morals and the media: ethics in Canadian journalism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V3RqfJkN-8oC&pg=PP1|year=2006|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1089-0}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links ==<br />
{{commons cat|Newspapers of Canada}}<br />
*[http://library.uvic.ca/micro/newsmicroguide.pdf An Annotated Guide to Historical Canadian Newspapers on Microfilm (PDF)] - University of Victoria<br />
*[http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/intro_e.shtml Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War] - Canadian War Museum<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:History of mass media]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian journalism]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geschichte_der_kanadischen_Zeitungen&diff=159301700Geschichte der kanadischen Zeitungen2011-12-16T06:32:20Z<p>Moxy: /* See Also */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Culture of Canada sidebar}}<br />
In Canada, the emergence of the '''free press''' was a difficult process that took many years to come to realization after a beginning rife with censorship and government control. "Compared to Europe, or even what became the United States, newspapering came to Canada rather late in the day, in the second half of the eighteenth century".<ref name=Fetherline /> Newspapers existed in the British colonies before the [[French and Indian War]], but they had been transplanted from America. Presses were forbidden in Quebec until the Conquest; after the Conquest, they too were brought in from the U.S. "It remains an unassailable irony, however, that printing became a part of Canadian society only with the establishment of British rule and, moreover, that nearly all the earliest printers were Americans."<ref name=Fetherline /><br />
<br />
The press in Canada was born as a tool of the government, subsidized and controlled by the overseas British rulers of the colonies and their colonial governors. Eventually, the government powers came to realize that the press held the potential for a great amount of power. "The discovery of such unrealized potential frightened the powers that be, who commenced a centuries-long period of harassment and intimidation in order to check what today is called the power of the press". <ref name=Fetherline /> In fact, it was due to persecution that the earliest newspaper editors of the America's fled from England and immigrated to the American colonies, where they then moved the craft north, to the Canadian colonies. However, being a colonial society, the editors and printers were perhaps even more censored and persecuted for printing anything that could be construed as being an anti-government sentiment, especially after the explosive [[American Revolution]] in 1763.<ref name=Fetherline /> New France (after the Conquest known as Lower Canada or Quebec) experienced the heaviest censorship; printing presses were banned by the French government in an effort to foster a sense of loyalty to and dependence upon the motherland. The French colonial authorities kept the colonial inhabitants illiterate and didn't let them communicate with each other. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
Eventually, the Canadian printers began the process of printing more than just government news and proclamations. However, due to such strict censorship, they were heavily persecuted for what was perceived as disloyalty and a threat to the power of the government. Many of the early editors and printers were large personalities who used their newspapers as instruments of their own political beliefs and suffered great hardships at the hands of the government because of it. <ref name=Raible /> It was their suffering that made the way for the press to become it's own liberated entity.<br />
<br />
There were three important periods in the history of Canadian newspapers responsible for the eventual development of the newspaper in the [[public sphere]]. These are the Transplant Period from 1750-1800, when printing and newspapers initially came to Canada as publications of Government news and proclamations; followed by the Public Sphere Partisan Period from 1800-1850, when individual printers and editors began 'freeing' the press and moving away from the "Sphere of Public Authority"<ref name=Habermas /> and into the [[public sphere]]; and finally the Nation Building Period from 1850-1900, when Canadian editors began the work of establishing a common nationalistic view of Canadian society.<br />
<br />
== The Gazette/Transplant Period (1750-1800) ==<br />
This was the period that introduced print culture to British North America and began fostering a reading public. All newspapers but ''The Upper Canada Gazette'' were started by Americans. This is partly because the British-American colonies settled earlier than British-Canadian colonies. In 1763 50,000 British loyalists moved north after the American Revolution, bringing printing presses with them. All of the first newspapers started life as official government organs. They were all dependent on government patronage and printed solely information condoned by the government. In every province, there was a weekly [[Gazette]] (named after the [[London Gazette]], the English governmental organ since 1665) that carried the many notices colonial administrators wanted to circulate. <ref name=Raible /> <br />
<br />
At this time, there was no '''political sphere''', as all political news was controlled by the elite. <ref name=Raible /> In the early decades of British North America, the primary purpose of the press was to propagate official propaganda - freedom of the press was an alien idea. <ref name=Raible /> Prior to the approximate turn of the 18th into the 19th century, there was no [[public sphere]] in Canada and therefore no press in the public sphere. <br />
<br />
===The First Printers and Publishers===<br />
It was the first printers and publishers working during the turn of the century who began the slow and difficult work of creating a true, liberated press in Canada. These men faced many obstacles, including beatings, jailing, and the very serious and oft-carried out threat of being charged with criminal or seditious libel. As the early printing press was an essential tool of colonial administration, anyone who attempted to publish anything other than the government notices experienced hardships. There was a prohibition on publishing legislature proceedings which kept the writers out of the courts. These were colonial laws used by British authorities to manufacture loyalty, and the punishments were severe. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Fetherline /> As a result, many of these brave early printers and publishers lived in fear, massive debt, and constant persecution.<br />
<br />
==== John Bushell (1715-1761) ====<br />
See also [[John Bushell]]. <br />
<br />
Bushell partnered with [[Bartholomew Green]] (1690-1751), who died before their plans were realized. Bushell relocated from Boston to Halifax and opened up a printing office, and on March 23, 1752, Bushell published the first edition of the [[Halifax Gazette]] and became the colony's first "Kings Printer".<ref name=Raible /> He was an independent entrepreneur, given no government salary <ref name=Fetherline />, and what government administrators thought their subjects needed and what Bushell's subscribers and advertisers wanted were not necessarily the same. He was stuck in between. The government did not trust his loyalty and so made the Provincial Secretary the editor of his paper. <ref name=Raible /> Bushell, faced with these obstacles, struggled with debt and alcoholism which eventually led to his death.<ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Anton Heinrich (1734-1800)====<br />
See also [[Henry B. Anthony]].<br />
<br />
Heinrich learned his trade in Germany but came to America as a fifer in the British Army before relocating to Halifax and anglicizing his name to the more appropriate Henry Anthony. <ref name=Raible /> Henry acquired Bushell's enterprise, including the ''Gazette''. In October of 1765 he printed an editorial in the ''Gazette'' that suggested that Nova Scotians were opposed to the [[Stamp Act]] which resulted in doubts about his loyalty, and he fled back to Massachusetts and the ''Gazette'' was shut down. Eventually, he made his way back into the government's good graces and was recommissioned to print the ''Royal Gazette''. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==== William Brown (1737-1789) and Thomas Gilmore (1741-1773) ====<br />
Originally from Philadelphia <ref name=Dictionary />, in 1764 the two men launched the government sponsored [[Quebec Gazette]]. The paper was bilingual and was heavily censured and scrutinized by the government.<ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Fleury Mesplet (1734-1794)====<br />
See also [[Fleury Mesplet]].<br />
Immigrated to Montreal from France with the intent of being a printer. However, he was jailed out of suspicion before printing anything due to his status as an American sympathizer and relationship with Benjamin Franklin.<ref name=Dictionary /> In 1778 he printed Canada's first entirely French newspaper, [[The Gazette (Montreal)]]. His editor, Valentin Jautard, chose articles with a radical tone and both men were imprisoned. In 1782, Mesplet was released and allowed to go back to work for the government because he was the only capable printer, though he technically remained imprisoned. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Louis Roy (1771-1799)====<br />
On April 18, 1793, Roy launched the "Upper Canada Gazette", which continued until 1845. In 1797, Roy left the paper due to political persecution after printing some incendiary opinions and fled to New York. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==The Public Sphere Partisan Period (1800-1850) ==<br />
See also: [[Public Sphere]]<br />
<br />
This is the period in which the printers and publishers began to see success in their efforts to free the press from it's government control. The discussion and debate surrounding the '''public sphere''' in the North Atlantic was actively undertaken in Upper Canada and partisan newspapers of the 1800's became "pure" inhabitants of the public sphere. <ref name=Fetherline /> Big steps were taken towards the democratization of the press, and in 1891, the right to report on political proceedings was finally won. <ref name=Fetherline /> The papers of this period were non-deferrential, and demanded democratization of information. They undermined finally began to undermine the traditional hierarchical societal structure. <br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
The development of the public sphere in Canada was closely linked with the development of a free press and there are many parallels. Most of the early publishers were - or became - very active politicians up to the mid-1800s.<br />
At this time, there was a growing market for political debate, and the independent printers of this period began using their columns for opinions, to challenge policies, expose government errors, and even promote certain candidates. These men were large personalities, unafraid to strongly voice unpopular opinions. As a result, the newspapers often became a forum for debate between the disagreeing printers. <br />
The political issue most often debated was that of [[Responsible government]]. In responsible government the executive branch is responsible to the elected legislature and no laws can be passed without the approval of said legislature. However, in Upper Canada, the appointed executive remained responsible only to the colonial governor who had to answer to Britain until 1855. Many of the publisher and printer-cum-politicians of this time were debating this key issue.<br />
During this period the printers were still working under very difficult conditions. Like the printers before them, many of the printers and publishers were still plagued by debt and had to work tirelessly to earn enough to support their political careers and keep the newspapers running. These men continued the difficult work of liberating the Canadian press and it is in the stories of these men that we start to see some success along with the difficulty.<br />
<br />
====Gideon and Sylvester Tiffany====<br />
These brothers started as official government printers in the 1790's, but refused to print only government sanctioned news and instead printed news from America. When they refused to heed warnings from the government, they were more formally persecuted. In April of 1797, Gideon was charged with blasphemy, fired, fined, and jailed. Sylvester was then also charged with "treasonable and seditious conduct". In his defense he declared that "As the people's printer, it is my duty to devote my head, heart and hands to their service...The interests of the King and people are inseparable". <ref name=Raible /> Eventually the brothers were forced to give up printing, through Sylvester attempted a number of other papers before moving to New York. <br />
<br />
====Titus Geer Simons====<br />
Simmons was appointed as the new King's printer following the legal persecution of the Tiffany brothers, though he was not officially trained in printing. The Tiffany brothers remained on, and continued to determine much of the paper's content until 1799. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Lyon Mackenzie====<br />
See also [[William Lyon Mackenzie]]. <br />
<br />
Mackenzie was a great influence for political development in [[Upper Canada]] and a fierce advocate for '''responsible government'''. In 1824, he founded the ''Colonial Advocate'', which was the first independent paper in the province to have significant political impact.<ref name="Colonial Advocate"/> <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie viewed the colonial administration as incompetent, ineffective, and expensive, and he used the Advocate to state these opinions. Though the paper became the most widely circulated paper, it was not profitable for Mackenzie and he struggled with debt for many years. In 1826 his printing office was broken into and destroyed by a mob. When MacKenzie sued the assailants, he won his case and collected enough in damages to repair the press and pay off his debts, as well as gain public sympathy. <ref name=Dictionary /> <br />
Two years after the incident he was elected to the general house of assembly where he became a vigorous advocate of reform and critic of government waste and excess until in 1834 he became the first mayor of Toronto. By 1837, he was out of office and still remained politically frustrated. He planned a rebellion against the government, and when it failed he fled to the U.S. <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie is a prime example of an editor who used his printing as a tool to take on the troubled politics of the time and open the door for the newspaper to enter the public sphere.<br />
<br />
====Joseph Howe====<br />
See also: [[Joseph Howe]]<br />
<br />
In 1828, Joseph Howe took over Halifax's ''Weekly Chronicle'', renaming it the ''Acadian''. He then also purchased the ''[[Novascotian]]''; these papers were both very loyal to the British government. It was over the next few years that he became increasingly loyal to his Nova Scotia and frustrated with the British administration. Howe, like MacKenzie, was in favor of '''responsible government'''.<br />
In 1835, Howe was prosecuted for criminal libel for one of his articles. He spoke in argument for a free press at his trial and though he was technically guilty according to the law, the jury was quick to acquit. His success during his trial made him a local hero in Nova Scotia. It was this success that took Howe into the provincial parliament, and he eventually became a provincial premiere. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Henry David Winton (1793-1855)====<br />
Winton arrived in Newfoundland on August 28, 1818. In 1820, he founded the ''Public Ledger and Newfoundland General Advisor'', the fourth newspaper in St. John's. Winton used the paper to publish his own political ideas staunchly in support of '''responsible government'''. Because of his strong political sentiments he eventually became the enemy of Catholics as well as those in favor of reform - to the extent that some people wished him harm. On May 19, 1835, Winton was attacked by a group of unknown assailants and his ears were cut off. Despite this and further similar threats, Winton continued to write in opposition of the reform government until his death. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Wilkie====<br />
Wilkie lived in Halifax and in 1820 was charged by the crown with criminal libel for having published a pamphlet entitled "A letter to the people of Halifax, containing strictures on the conduct of the magistrates" which heavily criticized the appointed civic authorities of Halifax at the time. He was found guilty and sentenced to two years of hard labor. Throughout this, public sentiment remained in favor of Wilkie. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====John Ryan (1761-1847) and William Lewis====<br />
Ryan was an American expatriate who, in 1807 and with the help of William Lewis, published the first issue of the ''Royal St. John's Gazette'', the earliest newspaper in Newfoundland. Ryan soon began exposing government favoritism and unfairness in the Gazette, much to the chagrin of officials. In March of 1784, both men were indicted for libel. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Joseph Willcocks (1773-1814)====<br />
See also [[Joseph Willcocks]]. <br />
In 1806, Willcocks moved to Niagra where he began publishing the ''Upper Canada Guardian; or Freeman's Journal'' which he used as a vehicle for his political opinions and criticisms. That same year, he was jailed for contempt of the house. <br />
in 1808, he rejoined politics officially and became Canada's first true leader of the Opposition against those aligned with the colonial government. He stopped printing his journal in 1812. <br />
In July of 1813, he offered his services to the Americans while holding a seat in the Legislative Assembly and was formally charged with treason in 1814. He died a traitor. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Pierre Bédard, Francois Blancet, and Étienne Parent====<br />
All three of these men were imprisoned in Quebec for publishing - or attempting to publish - writings that opposed the colonial administration. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
== Nation Building/Myth Making Period (1850-1900) ==<br />
By this period, newspaper editors were free from direct governmental control. However, the government continued to influence them in other underhanded ways, such as privately persuading editorial content and putting paid advertising only into assenting newspapers. <ref name=Raible /> For the most part, the radical newspapers of the Public Sphere Period had served their purposes and the papers of this period were somewhat more unbiased. More than ever, technology and progress were of great importance. <br />
The papers of this time took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. In publications of this period, there was a celebration of conformity and orthodoxy. Unlike the incendiary publications of the past, there was no justification seen for the rejection of order. <ref name=Fetherline /> In many ways, this Canadian identity still prevails.<br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
During this period, largely free from the government restrictions of the past, that the printers and publishers took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. As before, many of them were personally involved in politics as well and continued to use their papers to exert their political sentiments and to push for progress and change. <br />
<br />
====George Brown (1818-1880)====<br />
In 1844, Brown founded [[The Globe and Mail]], a paper with strong political ambitions. Brown bought out many competitors and increased circulation using advanced technology. By 1860 it was Canada's largest newspaper. <br />
In the 1850's, Brown entered politics and became the Reform Party leader and eventually reached an agreement that led to the Confederation and the founding of the Dominion of Canada. Afterwards, he resigned from Parliament, but continued to write about his politics in the "Globe". <br />
Throughout his publishing career, he struggled with his employees and the unions. In 1880 he was shot by a disgruntled employee and died. <br />
<ref name=Fetherline /> <ref name=Dictionary /> <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Modeste Demers (1809-1871)====<br />
In Victoria in 1856, Bishop Modeste Demers imported a hand press intending to publish religious materials. It remained unused until 1858, when the American printer Frederick Marriott used the "Demers press" to publish four different British Columbia newspapers, the most influential of which was the ''British Colonist''. The Demers press continued to be used for printing until 1908. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Amor De Cosmos (1825-1897)====<br />
See also: [[Amor De Cosmos]]<br />
<br />
Amor De Cosmos was the founder of the "British Colonist". He was well known for using it's pages to express his political opinions. <br />
De Cosmos also eventually entered politics, assumed leadership, urged political reform and pushed for "responsible government''. He was elected to represent Victoria in the House of Commons while at the same time serving as the provincial premiere of British Columbia. <br />
He was outspoken and eccentric, and made quite a few enemies throughout his life. He was accused of a scandal with the unions which eventually forced him to leave politics. When he died he had fallen into a complete breakdown. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==See Also==<br />
{{portal box|Journalism|Canada}}<br />
*[[The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]]<br />
*[[Mass media in Canada]]<br />
*[[List of early Canadian newspapers]] (historical)<br />
*[[List of newspapers in Canada]] (modern)<br />
*[[List of newspapers in Canada by circulation]] (modern)<br />
*[[Freedom of the press]]<br />
*[[History of free speech in Canada]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist<br />
|refs=<br />
<ref name=Fetherline>{{cite book|last=Fetherling|first=Douglas|title=The Rise of the Canadian Newspaper|year=1949|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Raible>{{cite book|last=Raible|first=Chris|title=The Power of the Press: The Story of Early Canadian Printers and Publishers|year=2007|publisher=James Lorimer & Company LTD|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Dictionary>{{cite web|last=English|first=John|title=Dictionary of Canadian Biography|url=http://www.biographi.ca/index-e.html}}</ref><br />
<ref name=Habermas>{{cite book|last=Jürgen|first=Habermas|title=The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeoise Society|year=German(1962) English Translation 1989|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=0-262-58108-6|pages=30|editor=Thomas Burger}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Colonial Advocate">{{cite news|last=Mackenzie|first=William Lyon|newspaper=The Colonial Advocate|date=January 26, 1832}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading ==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
*{{Cite book<br />
| publisher = Available from Canadian Govt. Pub. Centre Supply and Services Canada<br />
| isbn = 9780660109541<br />
| last = Canada.<br />
| title = Royal Commission on Newspapers.<br />
| location = Hull Que.<br />
| date = 1981<br />
| url = http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/200/301/pco-bcp/commissions-ef/kent1981-eng/kent1981-eng.htm<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Rutherford|first=Paul|title=A Victorian Authority: the daily press in late nineteenth-century Canada|year=1944|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Craick|first=W.A.|title=A History of Canadian Journalism|year=1959|publisher=The Ontario Publishing Company, Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Desbarats|first=Peter|title=Guide to Canadian News Media|year=1996|publisher=Harcourt Brace & Company, Ltd.|location=1996}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Kesterton|first=W.H.|title=A History of Journalism in Canada|year=1967|publisher=McClelland and Stewart Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|first=Marjory |last=Louise Lang|title=Women who made the news: female journalists in Canada, 1880-1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cAt4MQ-da1AC&pg=PP1|date=26 August 1999|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-1838-4}}<br />
*{{cite book|author= Russell, Nick|title=Morals and the media: ethics in Canadian journalism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V3RqfJkN-8oC&pg=PP1|year=2006|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1089-0}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links ==<br />
{{commons cat|Newspapers of Canada}}<br />
*[http://library.uvic.ca/micro/newsmicroguide.pdf An Annotated Guide to Historical Canadian Newspapers on Microfilm (PDF)] - University of Victoria<br />
*[http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/intro_e.shtml Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War] - Canadian War Museum<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:History of mass media]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian journalism]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geschichte_der_kanadischen_Zeitungen&diff=159301699Geschichte der kanadischen Zeitungen2011-12-16T06:14:48Z<p>Moxy: /* See Also */ *History of free speech in Canada</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Culture of Canada sidebar}}<br />
In Canada, the emergence of the '''free press''' was a difficult process that took many years to come to realization after a beginning rife with censorship and government control. "Compared to Europe, or even what became the United States, newspapering came to Canada rather late in the day, in the second half of the eighteenth century".<ref name=Fetherline /> Newspapers existed in the British colonies before the [[French and Indian War]], but they had been transplanted from America. Presses were forbidden in Quebec until the Conquest; after the Conquest, they too were brought in from the U.S. "It remains an unassailable irony, however, that printing became a part of Canadian society only with the establishment of British rule and, moreover, that nearly all the earliest printers were Americans."<ref name=Fetherline /><br />
<br />
The press in Canada was born as a tool of the government, subsidized and controlled by the overseas British rulers of the colonies and their colonial governors. Eventually, the government powers came to realize that the press held the potential for a great amount of power. "The discovery of such unrealized potential frightened the powers that be, who commenced a centuries-long period of harassment and intimidation in order to check what today is called the power of the press". <ref name=Fetherline /> In fact, it was due to persecution that the earliest newspaper editors of the America's fled from England and immigrated to the American colonies, where they then moved the craft north, to the Canadian colonies. However, being a colonial society, the editors and printers were perhaps even more censored and persecuted for printing anything that could be construed as being an anti-government sentiment, especially after the explosive [[American Revolution]] in 1763.<ref name=Fetherline /> New France (after the Conquest known as Lower Canada or Quebec) experienced the heaviest censorship; printing presses were banned by the French government in an effort to foster a sense of loyalty to and dependence upon the motherland. The French colonial authorities kept the colonial inhabitants illiterate and didn't let them communicate with each other. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
Eventually, the Canadian printers began the process of printing more than just government news and proclamations. However, due to such strict censorship, they were heavily persecuted for what was perceived as disloyalty and a threat to the power of the government. Many of the early editors and printers were large personalities who used their newspapers as instruments of their own political beliefs and suffered great hardships at the hands of the government because of it. <ref name=Raible /> It was their suffering that made the way for the press to become it's own liberated entity.<br />
<br />
There were three important periods in the history of Canadian newspapers responsible for the eventual development of the newspaper in the [[public sphere]]. These are the Transplant Period from 1750-1800, when printing and newspapers initially came to Canada as publications of Government news and proclamations; followed by the Public Sphere Partisan Period from 1800-1850, when individual printers and editors began 'freeing' the press and moving away from the "Sphere of Public Authority"<ref name=Habermas /> and into the [[public sphere]]; and finally the Nation Building Period from 1850-1900, when Canadian editors began the work of establishing a common nationalistic view of Canadian society.<br />
<br />
== The Gazette/Transplant Period (1750-1800) ==<br />
This was the period that introduced print culture to British North America and began fostering a reading public. All newspapers but ''The Upper Canada Gazette'' were started by Americans. This is partly because the British-American colonies settled earlier than British-Canadian colonies. In 1763 50,000 British loyalists moved north after the American Revolution, bringing printing presses with them. All of the first newspapers started life as official government organs. They were all dependent on government patronage and printed solely information condoned by the government. In every province, there was a weekly [[Gazette]] (named after the [[London Gazette]], the English governmental organ since 1665) that carried the many notices colonial administrators wanted to circulate. <ref name=Raible /> <br />
<br />
At this time, there was no '''political sphere''', as all political news was controlled by the elite. <ref name=Raible /> In the early decades of British North America, the primary purpose of the press was to propagate official propaganda - freedom of the press was an alien idea. <ref name=Raible /> Prior to the approximate turn of the 18th into the 19th century, there was no [[public sphere]] in Canada and therefore no press in the public sphere. <br />
<br />
===The First Printers and Publishers===<br />
It was the first printers and publishers working during the turn of the century who began the slow and difficult work of creating a true, liberated press in Canada. These men faced many obstacles, including beatings, jailing, and the very serious and oft-carried out threat of being charged with criminal or seditious libel. As the early printing press was an essential tool of colonial administration, anyone who attempted to publish anything other than the government notices experienced hardships. There was a prohibition on publishing legislature proceedings which kept the writers out of the courts. These were colonial laws used by British authorities to manufacture loyalty, and the punishments were severe. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Fetherline /> As a result, many of these brave early printers and publishers lived in fear, massive debt, and constant persecution.<br />
<br />
==== John Bushell (1715-1761) ====<br />
See also [[John Bushell]]. <br />
<br />
Bushell partnered with [[Bartholomew Green]] (1690-1751), who died before their plans were realized. Bushell relocated from Boston to Halifax and opened up a printing office, and on March 23, 1752, Bushell published the first edition of the [[Halifax Gazette]] and became the colony's first "Kings Printer".<ref name=Raible /> He was an independent entrepreneur, given no government salary <ref name=Fetherline />, and what government administrators thought their subjects needed and what Bushell's subscribers and advertisers wanted were not necessarily the same. He was stuck in between. The government did not trust his loyalty and so made the Provincial Secretary the editor of his paper. <ref name=Raible /> Bushell, faced with these obstacles, struggled with debt and alcoholism which eventually led to his death.<ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Anton Heinrich (1734-1800)====<br />
See also [[Henry B. Anthony]].<br />
<br />
Heinrich learned his trade in Germany but came to America as a fifer in the British Army before relocating to Halifax and anglicizing his name to the more appropriate Henry Anthony. <ref name=Raible /> Henry acquired Bushell's enterprise, including the ''Gazette''. In October of 1765 he printed an editorial in the ''Gazette'' that suggested that Nova Scotians were opposed to the [[Stamp Act]] which resulted in doubts about his loyalty, and he fled back to Massachusetts and the ''Gazette'' was shut down. Eventually, he made his way back into the government's good graces and was recommissioned to print the ''Royal Gazette''. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==== William Brown (1737-1789) and Thomas Gilmore (1741-1773) ====<br />
Originally from Philadelphia <ref name=Dictionary />, in 1764 the two men launched the government sponsored [[Quebec Gazette]]. The paper was bilingual and was heavily censured and scrutinized by the government.<ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Fleury Mesplet (1734-1794)====<br />
See also [[Fleury Mesplet]].<br />
Immigrated to Montreal from France with the intent of being a printer. However, he was jailed out of suspicion before printing anything due to his status as an American sympathizer and relationship with Benjamin Franklin.<ref name=Dictionary /> In 1778 he printed Canada's first entirely French newspaper, [[The Gazette (Montreal)]]. His editor, Valentin Jautard, chose articles with a radical tone and both men were imprisoned. In 1782, Mesplet was released and allowed to go back to work for the government because he was the only capable printer, though he technically remained imprisoned. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Louis Roy (1771-1799)====<br />
On April 18, 1793, Roy launched the "Upper Canada Gazette", which continued until 1845. In 1797, Roy left the paper due to political persecution after printing some incendiary opinions and fled to New York. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==The Public Sphere Partisan Period (1800-1850) ==<br />
See also: [[Public Sphere]]<br />
<br />
This is the period in which the printers and publishers began to see success in their efforts to free the press from it's government control. The discussion and debate surrounding the '''public sphere''' in the North Atlantic was actively undertaken in Upper Canada and partisan newspapers of the 1800's became "pure" inhabitants of the public sphere. <ref name=Fetherline /> Big steps were taken towards the democratization of the press, and in 1891, the right to report on political proceedings was finally won. <ref name=Fetherline /> The papers of this period were non-deferrential, and demanded democratization of information. They undermined finally began to undermine the traditional hierarchical societal structure. <br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
The development of the public sphere in Canada was closely linked with the development of a free press and there are many parallels. Most of the early publishers were - or became - very active politicians up to the mid-1800s.<br />
At this time, there was a growing market for political debate, and the independent printers of this period began using their columns for opinions, to challenge policies, expose government errors, and even promote certain candidates. These men were large personalities, unafraid to strongly voice unpopular opinions. As a result, the newspapers often became a forum for debate between the disagreeing printers. <br />
The political issue most often debated was that of [[Responsible government]]. In responsible government the executive branch is responsible to the elected legislature and no laws can be passed without the approval of said legislature. However, in Upper Canada, the appointed executive remained responsible only to the colonial governor who had to answer to Britain until 1855. Many of the publisher and printer-cum-politicians of this time were debating this key issue.<br />
During this period the printers were still working under very difficult conditions. Like the printers before them, many of the printers and publishers were still plagued by debt and had to work tirelessly to earn enough to support their political careers and keep the newspapers running. These men continued the difficult work of liberating the Canadian press and it is in the stories of these men that we start to see some success along with the difficulty.<br />
<br />
====Gideon and Sylvester Tiffany====<br />
These brothers started as official government printers in the 1790's, but refused to print only government sanctioned news and instead printed news from America. When they refused to heed warnings from the government, they were more formally persecuted. In April of 1797, Gideon was charged with blasphemy, fired, fined, and jailed. Sylvester was then also charged with "treasonable and seditious conduct". In his defense he declared that "As the people's printer, it is my duty to devote my head, heart and hands to their service...The interests of the King and people are inseparable". <ref name=Raible /> Eventually the brothers were forced to give up printing, through Sylvester attempted a number of other papers before moving to New York. <br />
<br />
====Titus Geer Simons====<br />
Simmons was appointed as the new King's printer following the legal persecution of the Tiffany brothers, though he was not officially trained in printing. The Tiffany brothers remained on, and continued to determine much of the paper's content until 1799. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Lyon Mackenzie====<br />
See also [[William Lyon Mackenzie]]. <br />
<br />
Mackenzie was a great influence for political development in [[Upper Canada]] and a fierce advocate for '''responsible government'''. In 1824, he founded the ''Colonial Advocate'', which was the first independent paper in the province to have significant political impact.<ref name="Colonial Advocate"/> <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie viewed the colonial administration as incompetent, ineffective, and expensive, and he used the Advocate to state these opinions. Though the paper became the most widely circulated paper, it was not profitable for Mackenzie and he struggled with debt for many years. In 1826 his printing office was broken into and destroyed by a mob. When MacKenzie sued the assailants, he won his case and collected enough in damages to repair the press and pay off his debts, as well as gain public sympathy. <ref name=Dictionary /> <br />
Two years after the incident he was elected to the general house of assembly where he became a vigorous advocate of reform and critic of government waste and excess until in 1834 he became the first mayor of Toronto. By 1837, he was out of office and still remained politically frustrated. He planned a rebellion against the government, and when it failed he fled to the U.S. <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie is a prime example of an editor who used his printing as a tool to take on the troubled politics of the time and open the door for the newspaper to enter the public sphere.<br />
<br />
====Joseph Howe====<br />
See also: [[Joseph Howe]]<br />
<br />
In 1828, Joseph Howe took over Halifax's ''Weekly Chronicle'', renaming it the ''Acadian''. He then also purchased the ''[[Novascotian]]''; these papers were both very loyal to the British government. It was over the next few years that he became increasingly loyal to his Nova Scotia and frustrated with the British administration. Howe, like MacKenzie, was in favor of '''responsible government'''.<br />
In 1835, Howe was prosecuted for criminal libel for one of his articles. He spoke in argument for a free press at his trial and though he was technically guilty according to the law, the jury was quick to acquit. His success during his trial made him a local hero in Nova Scotia. It was this success that took Howe into the provincial parliament, and he eventually became a provincial premiere. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Henry David Winton (1793-1855)====<br />
Winton arrived in Newfoundland on August 28, 1818. In 1820, he founded the ''Public Ledger and Newfoundland General Advisor'', the fourth newspaper in St. John's. Winton used the paper to publish his own political ideas staunchly in support of '''responsible government'''. Because of his strong political sentiments he eventually became the enemy of Catholics as well as those in favor of reform - to the extent that some people wished him harm. On May 19, 1835, Winton was attacked by a group of unknown assailants and his ears were cut off. Despite this and further similar threats, Winton continued to write in opposition of the reform government until his death. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Wilkie====<br />
Wilkie lived in Halifax and in 1820 was charged by the crown with criminal libel for having published a pamphlet entitled "A letter to the people of Halifax, containing strictures on the conduct of the magistrates" which heavily criticized the appointed civic authorities of Halifax at the time. He was found guilty and sentenced to two years of hard labor. Throughout this, public sentiment remained in favor of Wilkie. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====John Ryan (1761-1847) and William Lewis====<br />
Ryan was an American expatriate who, in 1807 and with the help of William Lewis, published the first issue of the ''Royal St. John's Gazette'', the earliest newspaper in Newfoundland. Ryan soon began exposing government favoritism and unfairness in the Gazette, much to the chagrin of officials. In March of 1784, both men were indicted for libel. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Joseph Willcocks (1773-1814)====<br />
See also [[Joseph Willcocks]]. <br />
In 1806, Willcocks moved to Niagra where he began publishing the ''Upper Canada Guardian; or Freeman's Journal'' which he used as a vehicle for his political opinions and criticisms. That same year, he was jailed for contempt of the house. <br />
in 1808, he rejoined politics officially and became Canada's first true leader of the Opposition against those aligned with the colonial government. He stopped printing his journal in 1812. <br />
In July of 1813, he offered his services to the Americans while holding a seat in the Legislative Assembly and was formally charged with treason in 1814. He died a traitor. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Pierre Bédard, Francois Blancet, and Étienne Parent====<br />
All three of these men were imprisoned in Quebec for publishing - or attempting to publish - writings that opposed the colonial administration. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
== Nation Building/Myth Making Period (1850-1900) ==<br />
By this period, newspaper editors were free from direct governmental control. However, the government continued to influence them in other underhanded ways, such as privately persuading editorial content and putting paid advertising only into assenting newspapers. <ref name=Raible /> For the most part, the radical newspapers of the Public Sphere Period had served their purposes and the papers of this period were somewhat more unbiased. More than ever, technology and progress were of great importance. <br />
The papers of this time took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. In publications of this period, there was a celebration of conformity and orthodoxy. Unlike the incendiary publications of the past, there was no justification seen for the rejection of order. <ref name=Fetherline /> In many ways, this Canadian identity still prevails.<br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
During this period, largely free from the government restrictions of the past, that the printers and publishers took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. As before, many of them were personally involved in politics as well and continued to use their papers to exert their political sentiments and to push for progress and change. <br />
<br />
====George Brown (1818-1880)====<br />
In 1844, Brown founded [[The Globe and Mail]], a paper with strong political ambitions. Brown bought out many competitors and increased circulation using advanced technology. By 1860 it was Canada's largest newspaper. <br />
In the 1850's, Brown entered politics and became the Reform Party leader and eventually reached an agreement that led to the Confederation and the founding of the Dominion of Canada. Afterwards, he resigned from Parliament, but continued to write about his politics in the "Globe". <br />
Throughout his publishing career, he struggled with his employees and the unions. In 1880 he was shot by a disgruntled employee and died. <br />
<ref name=Fetherline /> <ref name=Dictionary /> <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Modeste Demers (1809-1871)====<br />
In Victoria in 1856, Bishop Modeste Demers imported a hand press intending to publish religious materials. It remained unused until 1858, when the American printer Frederick Marriott used the "Demers press" to publish four different British Columbia newspapers, the most influential of which was the ''British Colonist''. The Demers press continued to be used for printing until 1908. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Amor De Cosmos (1825-1897)====<br />
See also: [[Amor De Cosmos]]<br />
<br />
Amor De Cosmos was the founder of the "British Colonist". He was well known for using it's pages to express his political opinions. <br />
De Cosmos also eventually entered politics, assumed leadership, urged political reform and pushed for "responsible government''. He was elected to represent Victoria in the House of Commons while at the same time serving as the provincial premiere of British Columbia. <br />
He was outspoken and eccentric, and made quite a few enemies throughout his life. He was accused of a scandal with the unions which eventually forced him to leave politics. When he died he had fallen into a complete breakdown. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==See Also==<br />
{{portal box|Journalism|Canada}}<br />
*[[The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]]<br />
*[[Mass media in Canada]]<br />
*[[List of early Canadian newspapers]]<br />
*[[Freedom of the press]]<br />
*[[History of free speech in Canada]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist<br />
|refs=<br />
<ref name=Fetherline>{{cite book|last=Fetherling|first=Douglas|title=The Rise of the Canadian Newspaper|year=1949|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Raible>{{cite book|last=Raible|first=Chris|title=The Power of the Press: The Story of Early Canadian Printers and Publishers|year=2007|publisher=James Lorimer & Company LTD|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Dictionary>{{cite web|last=English|first=John|title=Dictionary of Canadian Biography|url=http://www.biographi.ca/index-e.html}}</ref><br />
<ref name=Habermas>{{cite book|last=Jürgen|first=Habermas|title=The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeoise Society|year=German(1962) English Translation 1989|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=0-262-58108-6|pages=30|editor=Thomas Burger}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Colonial Advocate">{{cite news|last=Mackenzie|first=William Lyon|newspaper=The Colonial Advocate|date=January 26, 1832}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading ==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
*{{Cite book<br />
| publisher = Available from Canadian Govt. Pub. Centre Supply and Services Canada<br />
| isbn = 9780660109541<br />
| last = Canada.<br />
| title = Royal Commission on Newspapers.<br />
| location = Hull Que.<br />
| date = 1981<br />
| url = http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/200/301/pco-bcp/commissions-ef/kent1981-eng/kent1981-eng.htm<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Rutherford|first=Paul|title=A Victorian Authority: the daily press in late nineteenth-century Canada|year=1944|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Craick|first=W.A.|title=A History of Canadian Journalism|year=1959|publisher=The Ontario Publishing Company, Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Desbarats|first=Peter|title=Guide to Canadian News Media|year=1996|publisher=Harcourt Brace & Company, Ltd.|location=1996}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Kesterton|first=W.H.|title=A History of Journalism in Canada|year=1967|publisher=McClelland and Stewart Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|first=Marjory |last=Louise Lang|title=Women who made the news: female journalists in Canada, 1880-1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cAt4MQ-da1AC&pg=PP1|date=26 August 1999|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-1838-4}}<br />
*{{cite book|author= Russell, Nick|title=Morals and the media: ethics in Canadian journalism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V3RqfJkN-8oC&pg=PP1|year=2006|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1089-0}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links ==<br />
{{commons cat|Newspapers of Canada}}<br />
*[http://library.uvic.ca/micro/newsmicroguide.pdf An Annotated Guide to Historical Canadian Newspapers on Microfilm (PDF)] - University of Victoria<br />
*[http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/intro_e.shtml Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War] - Canadian War Museum<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:History of mass media]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian journalism]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geschichte_der_kanadischen_Zeitungen&diff=159301697Geschichte der kanadischen Zeitungen2011-12-16T06:13:23Z<p>Moxy: /* See Also */ ce</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Culture of Canada sidebar}}<br />
In Canada, the emergence of the '''free press''' was a difficult process that took many years to come to realization after a beginning rife with censorship and government control. "Compared to Europe, or even what became the United States, newspapering came to Canada rather late in the day, in the second half of the eighteenth century".<ref name=Fetherline /> Newspapers existed in the British colonies before the [[French and Indian War]], but they had been transplanted from America. Presses were forbidden in Quebec until the Conquest; after the Conquest, they too were brought in from the U.S. "It remains an unassailable irony, however, that printing became a part of Canadian society only with the establishment of British rule and, moreover, that nearly all the earliest printers were Americans."<ref name=Fetherline /><br />
<br />
The press in Canada was born as a tool of the government, subsidized and controlled by the overseas British rulers of the colonies and their colonial governors. Eventually, the government powers came to realize that the press held the potential for a great amount of power. "The discovery of such unrealized potential frightened the powers that be, who commenced a centuries-long period of harassment and intimidation in order to check what today is called the power of the press". <ref name=Fetherline /> In fact, it was due to persecution that the earliest newspaper editors of the America's fled from England and immigrated to the American colonies, where they then moved the craft north, to the Canadian colonies. However, being a colonial society, the editors and printers were perhaps even more censored and persecuted for printing anything that could be construed as being an anti-government sentiment, especially after the explosive [[American Revolution]] in 1763.<ref name=Fetherline /> New France (after the Conquest known as Lower Canada or Quebec) experienced the heaviest censorship; printing presses were banned by the French government in an effort to foster a sense of loyalty to and dependence upon the motherland. The French colonial authorities kept the colonial inhabitants illiterate and didn't let them communicate with each other. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
Eventually, the Canadian printers began the process of printing more than just government news and proclamations. However, due to such strict censorship, they were heavily persecuted for what was perceived as disloyalty and a threat to the power of the government. Many of the early editors and printers were large personalities who used their newspapers as instruments of their own political beliefs and suffered great hardships at the hands of the government because of it. <ref name=Raible /> It was their suffering that made the way for the press to become it's own liberated entity.<br />
<br />
There were three important periods in the history of Canadian newspapers responsible for the eventual development of the newspaper in the [[public sphere]]. These are the Transplant Period from 1750-1800, when printing and newspapers initially came to Canada as publications of Government news and proclamations; followed by the Public Sphere Partisan Period from 1800-1850, when individual printers and editors began 'freeing' the press and moving away from the "Sphere of Public Authority"<ref name=Habermas /> and into the [[public sphere]]; and finally the Nation Building Period from 1850-1900, when Canadian editors began the work of establishing a common nationalistic view of Canadian society.<br />
<br />
== The Gazette/Transplant Period (1750-1800) ==<br />
This was the period that introduced print culture to British North America and began fostering a reading public. All newspapers but ''The Upper Canada Gazette'' were started by Americans. This is partly because the British-American colonies settled earlier than British-Canadian colonies. In 1763 50,000 British loyalists moved north after the American Revolution, bringing printing presses with them. All of the first newspapers started life as official government organs. They were all dependent on government patronage and printed solely information condoned by the government. In every province, there was a weekly [[Gazette]] (named after the [[London Gazette]], the English governmental organ since 1665) that carried the many notices colonial administrators wanted to circulate. <ref name=Raible /> <br />
<br />
At this time, there was no '''political sphere''', as all political news was controlled by the elite. <ref name=Raible /> In the early decades of British North America, the primary purpose of the press was to propagate official propaganda - freedom of the press was an alien idea. <ref name=Raible /> Prior to the approximate turn of the 18th into the 19th century, there was no [[public sphere]] in Canada and therefore no press in the public sphere. <br />
<br />
===The First Printers and Publishers===<br />
It was the first printers and publishers working during the turn of the century who began the slow and difficult work of creating a true, liberated press in Canada. These men faced many obstacles, including beatings, jailing, and the very serious and oft-carried out threat of being charged with criminal or seditious libel. As the early printing press was an essential tool of colonial administration, anyone who attempted to publish anything other than the government notices experienced hardships. There was a prohibition on publishing legislature proceedings which kept the writers out of the courts. These were colonial laws used by British authorities to manufacture loyalty, and the punishments were severe. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Fetherline /> As a result, many of these brave early printers and publishers lived in fear, massive debt, and constant persecution.<br />
<br />
==== John Bushell (1715-1761) ====<br />
See also [[John Bushell]]. <br />
<br />
Bushell partnered with [[Bartholomew Green]] (1690-1751), who died before their plans were realized. Bushell relocated from Boston to Halifax and opened up a printing office, and on March 23, 1752, Bushell published the first edition of the [[Halifax Gazette]] and became the colony's first "Kings Printer".<ref name=Raible /> He was an independent entrepreneur, given no government salary <ref name=Fetherline />, and what government administrators thought their subjects needed and what Bushell's subscribers and advertisers wanted were not necessarily the same. He was stuck in between. The government did not trust his loyalty and so made the Provincial Secretary the editor of his paper. <ref name=Raible /> Bushell, faced with these obstacles, struggled with debt and alcoholism which eventually led to his death.<ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Anton Heinrich (1734-1800)====<br />
See also [[Henry B. Anthony]].<br />
<br />
Heinrich learned his trade in Germany but came to America as a fifer in the British Army before relocating to Halifax and anglicizing his name to the more appropriate Henry Anthony. <ref name=Raible /> Henry acquired Bushell's enterprise, including the ''Gazette''. In October of 1765 he printed an editorial in the ''Gazette'' that suggested that Nova Scotians were opposed to the [[Stamp Act]] which resulted in doubts about his loyalty, and he fled back to Massachusetts and the ''Gazette'' was shut down. Eventually, he made his way back into the government's good graces and was recommissioned to print the ''Royal Gazette''. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==== William Brown (1737-1789) and Thomas Gilmore (1741-1773) ====<br />
Originally from Philadelphia <ref name=Dictionary />, in 1764 the two men launched the government sponsored [[Quebec Gazette]]. The paper was bilingual and was heavily censured and scrutinized by the government.<ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Fleury Mesplet (1734-1794)====<br />
See also [[Fleury Mesplet]].<br />
Immigrated to Montreal from France with the intent of being a printer. However, he was jailed out of suspicion before printing anything due to his status as an American sympathizer and relationship with Benjamin Franklin.<ref name=Dictionary /> In 1778 he printed Canada's first entirely French newspaper, [[The Gazette (Montreal)]]. His editor, Valentin Jautard, chose articles with a radical tone and both men were imprisoned. In 1782, Mesplet was released and allowed to go back to work for the government because he was the only capable printer, though he technically remained imprisoned. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Louis Roy (1771-1799)====<br />
On April 18, 1793, Roy launched the "Upper Canada Gazette", which continued until 1845. In 1797, Roy left the paper due to political persecution after printing some incendiary opinions and fled to New York. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==The Public Sphere Partisan Period (1800-1850) ==<br />
See also: [[Public Sphere]]<br />
<br />
This is the period in which the printers and publishers began to see success in their efforts to free the press from it's government control. The discussion and debate surrounding the '''public sphere''' in the North Atlantic was actively undertaken in Upper Canada and partisan newspapers of the 1800's became "pure" inhabitants of the public sphere. <ref name=Fetherline /> Big steps were taken towards the democratization of the press, and in 1891, the right to report on political proceedings was finally won. <ref name=Fetherline /> The papers of this period were non-deferrential, and demanded democratization of information. They undermined finally began to undermine the traditional hierarchical societal structure. <br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
The development of the public sphere in Canada was closely linked with the development of a free press and there are many parallels. Most of the early publishers were - or became - very active politicians up to the mid-1800s.<br />
At this time, there was a growing market for political debate, and the independent printers of this period began using their columns for opinions, to challenge policies, expose government errors, and even promote certain candidates. These men were large personalities, unafraid to strongly voice unpopular opinions. As a result, the newspapers often became a forum for debate between the disagreeing printers. <br />
The political issue most often debated was that of [[Responsible government]]. In responsible government the executive branch is responsible to the elected legislature and no laws can be passed without the approval of said legislature. However, in Upper Canada, the appointed executive remained responsible only to the colonial governor who had to answer to Britain until 1855. Many of the publisher and printer-cum-politicians of this time were debating this key issue.<br />
During this period the printers were still working under very difficult conditions. Like the printers before them, many of the printers and publishers were still plagued by debt and had to work tirelessly to earn enough to support their political careers and keep the newspapers running. These men continued the difficult work of liberating the Canadian press and it is in the stories of these men that we start to see some success along with the difficulty.<br />
<br />
====Gideon and Sylvester Tiffany====<br />
These brothers started as official government printers in the 1790's, but refused to print only government sanctioned news and instead printed news from America. When they refused to heed warnings from the government, they were more formally persecuted. In April of 1797, Gideon was charged with blasphemy, fired, fined, and jailed. Sylvester was then also charged with "treasonable and seditious conduct". In his defense he declared that "As the people's printer, it is my duty to devote my head, heart and hands to their service...The interests of the King and people are inseparable". <ref name=Raible /> Eventually the brothers were forced to give up printing, through Sylvester attempted a number of other papers before moving to New York. <br />
<br />
====Titus Geer Simons====<br />
Simmons was appointed as the new King's printer following the legal persecution of the Tiffany brothers, though he was not officially trained in printing. The Tiffany brothers remained on, and continued to determine much of the paper's content until 1799. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Lyon Mackenzie====<br />
See also [[William Lyon Mackenzie]]. <br />
<br />
Mackenzie was a great influence for political development in [[Upper Canada]] and a fierce advocate for '''responsible government'''. In 1824, he founded the ''Colonial Advocate'', which was the first independent paper in the province to have significant political impact.<ref name="Colonial Advocate"/> <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie viewed the colonial administration as incompetent, ineffective, and expensive, and he used the Advocate to state these opinions. Though the paper became the most widely circulated paper, it was not profitable for Mackenzie and he struggled with debt for many years. In 1826 his printing office was broken into and destroyed by a mob. When MacKenzie sued the assailants, he won his case and collected enough in damages to repair the press and pay off his debts, as well as gain public sympathy. <ref name=Dictionary /> <br />
Two years after the incident he was elected to the general house of assembly where he became a vigorous advocate of reform and critic of government waste and excess until in 1834 he became the first mayor of Toronto. By 1837, he was out of office and still remained politically frustrated. He planned a rebellion against the government, and when it failed he fled to the U.S. <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie is a prime example of an editor who used his printing as a tool to take on the troubled politics of the time and open the door for the newspaper to enter the public sphere.<br />
<br />
====Joseph Howe====<br />
See also: [[Joseph Howe]]<br />
<br />
In 1828, Joseph Howe took over Halifax's ''Weekly Chronicle'', renaming it the ''Acadian''. He then also purchased the ''[[Novascotian]]''; these papers were both very loyal to the British government. It was over the next few years that he became increasingly loyal to his Nova Scotia and frustrated with the British administration. Howe, like MacKenzie, was in favor of '''responsible government'''.<br />
In 1835, Howe was prosecuted for criminal libel for one of his articles. He spoke in argument for a free press at his trial and though he was technically guilty according to the law, the jury was quick to acquit. His success during his trial made him a local hero in Nova Scotia. It was this success that took Howe into the provincial parliament, and he eventually became a provincial premiere. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Henry David Winton (1793-1855)====<br />
Winton arrived in Newfoundland on August 28, 1818. In 1820, he founded the ''Public Ledger and Newfoundland General Advisor'', the fourth newspaper in St. John's. Winton used the paper to publish his own political ideas staunchly in support of '''responsible government'''. Because of his strong political sentiments he eventually became the enemy of Catholics as well as those in favor of reform - to the extent that some people wished him harm. On May 19, 1835, Winton was attacked by a group of unknown assailants and his ears were cut off. Despite this and further similar threats, Winton continued to write in opposition of the reform government until his death. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Wilkie====<br />
Wilkie lived in Halifax and in 1820 was charged by the crown with criminal libel for having published a pamphlet entitled "A letter to the people of Halifax, containing strictures on the conduct of the magistrates" which heavily criticized the appointed civic authorities of Halifax at the time. He was found guilty and sentenced to two years of hard labor. Throughout this, public sentiment remained in favor of Wilkie. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====John Ryan (1761-1847) and William Lewis====<br />
Ryan was an American expatriate who, in 1807 and with the help of William Lewis, published the first issue of the ''Royal St. John's Gazette'', the earliest newspaper in Newfoundland. Ryan soon began exposing government favoritism and unfairness in the Gazette, much to the chagrin of officials. In March of 1784, both men were indicted for libel. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Joseph Willcocks (1773-1814)====<br />
See also [[Joseph Willcocks]]. <br />
In 1806, Willcocks moved to Niagra where he began publishing the ''Upper Canada Guardian; or Freeman's Journal'' which he used as a vehicle for his political opinions and criticisms. That same year, he was jailed for contempt of the house. <br />
in 1808, he rejoined politics officially and became Canada's first true leader of the Opposition against those aligned with the colonial government. He stopped printing his journal in 1812. <br />
In July of 1813, he offered his services to the Americans while holding a seat in the Legislative Assembly and was formally charged with treason in 1814. He died a traitor. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Pierre Bédard, Francois Blancet, and Étienne Parent====<br />
All three of these men were imprisoned in Quebec for publishing - or attempting to publish - writings that opposed the colonial administration. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
== Nation Building/Myth Making Period (1850-1900) ==<br />
By this period, newspaper editors were free from direct governmental control. However, the government continued to influence them in other underhanded ways, such as privately persuading editorial content and putting paid advertising only into assenting newspapers. <ref name=Raible /> For the most part, the radical newspapers of the Public Sphere Period had served their purposes and the papers of this period were somewhat more unbiased. More than ever, technology and progress were of great importance. <br />
The papers of this time took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. In publications of this period, there was a celebration of conformity and orthodoxy. Unlike the incendiary publications of the past, there was no justification seen for the rejection of order. <ref name=Fetherline /> In many ways, this Canadian identity still prevails.<br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
During this period, largely free from the government restrictions of the past, that the printers and publishers took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. As before, many of them were personally involved in politics as well and continued to use their papers to exert their political sentiments and to push for progress and change. <br />
<br />
====George Brown (1818-1880)====<br />
In 1844, Brown founded [[The Globe and Mail]], a paper with strong political ambitions. Brown bought out many competitors and increased circulation using advanced technology. By 1860 it was Canada's largest newspaper. <br />
In the 1850's, Brown entered politics and became the Reform Party leader and eventually reached an agreement that led to the Confederation and the founding of the Dominion of Canada. Afterwards, he resigned from Parliament, but continued to write about his politics in the "Globe". <br />
Throughout his publishing career, he struggled with his employees and the unions. In 1880 he was shot by a disgruntled employee and died. <br />
<ref name=Fetherline /> <ref name=Dictionary /> <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Modeste Demers (1809-1871)====<br />
In Victoria in 1856, Bishop Modeste Demers imported a hand press intending to publish religious materials. It remained unused until 1858, when the American printer Frederick Marriott used the "Demers press" to publish four different British Columbia newspapers, the most influential of which was the ''British Colonist''. The Demers press continued to be used for printing until 1908. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Amor De Cosmos (1825-1897)====<br />
See also: [[Amor De Cosmos]]<br />
<br />
Amor De Cosmos was the founder of the "British Colonist". He was well known for using it's pages to express his political opinions. <br />
De Cosmos also eventually entered politics, assumed leadership, urged political reform and pushed for "responsible government''. He was elected to represent Victoria in the House of Commons while at the same time serving as the provincial premiere of British Columbia. <br />
He was outspoken and eccentric, and made quite a few enemies throughout his life. He was accused of a scandal with the unions which eventually forced him to leave politics. When he died he had fallen into a complete breakdown. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==See Also==<br />
{{portal box|Journalism|Canada}}<br />
*[[The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]]<br />
*[[Mass media in Canada]]<br />
*[[List of early Canadian newspapers]]<br />
*[[Freedom of the press]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist<br />
|refs=<br />
<ref name=Fetherline>{{cite book|last=Fetherling|first=Douglas|title=The Rise of the Canadian Newspaper|year=1949|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Raible>{{cite book|last=Raible|first=Chris|title=The Power of the Press: The Story of Early Canadian Printers and Publishers|year=2007|publisher=James Lorimer & Company LTD|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Dictionary>{{cite web|last=English|first=John|title=Dictionary of Canadian Biography|url=http://www.biographi.ca/index-e.html}}</ref><br />
<ref name=Habermas>{{cite book|last=Jürgen|first=Habermas|title=The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeoise Society|year=German(1962) English Translation 1989|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=0-262-58108-6|pages=30|editor=Thomas Burger}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Colonial Advocate">{{cite news|last=Mackenzie|first=William Lyon|newspaper=The Colonial Advocate|date=January 26, 1832}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading ==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
*{{Cite book<br />
| publisher = Available from Canadian Govt. Pub. Centre Supply and Services Canada<br />
| isbn = 9780660109541<br />
| last = Canada.<br />
| title = Royal Commission on Newspapers.<br />
| location = Hull Que.<br />
| date = 1981<br />
| url = http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/200/301/pco-bcp/commissions-ef/kent1981-eng/kent1981-eng.htm<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Rutherford|first=Paul|title=A Victorian Authority: the daily press in late nineteenth-century Canada|year=1944|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Craick|first=W.A.|title=A History of Canadian Journalism|year=1959|publisher=The Ontario Publishing Company, Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Desbarats|first=Peter|title=Guide to Canadian News Media|year=1996|publisher=Harcourt Brace & Company, Ltd.|location=1996}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Kesterton|first=W.H.|title=A History of Journalism in Canada|year=1967|publisher=McClelland and Stewart Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|first=Marjory |last=Louise Lang|title=Women who made the news: female journalists in Canada, 1880-1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cAt4MQ-da1AC&pg=PP1|date=26 August 1999|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-1838-4}}<br />
*{{cite book|author= Russell, Nick|title=Morals and the media: ethics in Canadian journalism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V3RqfJkN-8oC&pg=PP1|year=2006|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1089-0}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links ==<br />
{{commons cat|Newspapers of Canada}}<br />
*[http://library.uvic.ca/micro/newsmicroguide.pdf An Annotated Guide to Historical Canadian Newspapers on Microfilm (PDF)] - University of Victoria<br />
*[http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/intro_e.shtml Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War] - Canadian War Museum<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:History of mass media]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian journalism]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geschichte_der_kanadischen_Zeitungen&diff=159301696Geschichte der kanadischen Zeitungen2011-12-16T06:11:57Z<p>Moxy: {{commons cat|Newspapers of Canada}}</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Culture of Canada sidebar}}<br />
In Canada, the emergence of the '''free press''' was a difficult process that took many years to come to realization after a beginning rife with censorship and government control. "Compared to Europe, or even what became the United States, newspapering came to Canada rather late in the day, in the second half of the eighteenth century".<ref name=Fetherline /> Newspapers existed in the British colonies before the [[French and Indian War]], but they had been transplanted from America. Presses were forbidden in Quebec until the Conquest; after the Conquest, they too were brought in from the U.S. "It remains an unassailable irony, however, that printing became a part of Canadian society only with the establishment of British rule and, moreover, that nearly all the earliest printers were Americans."<ref name=Fetherline /><br />
<br />
The press in Canada was born as a tool of the government, subsidized and controlled by the overseas British rulers of the colonies and their colonial governors. Eventually, the government powers came to realize that the press held the potential for a great amount of power. "The discovery of such unrealized potential frightened the powers that be, who commenced a centuries-long period of harassment and intimidation in order to check what today is called the power of the press". <ref name=Fetherline /> In fact, it was due to persecution that the earliest newspaper editors of the America's fled from England and immigrated to the American colonies, where they then moved the craft north, to the Canadian colonies. However, being a colonial society, the editors and printers were perhaps even more censored and persecuted for printing anything that could be construed as being an anti-government sentiment, especially after the explosive [[American Revolution]] in 1763.<ref name=Fetherline /> New France (after the Conquest known as Lower Canada or Quebec) experienced the heaviest censorship; printing presses were banned by the French government in an effort to foster a sense of loyalty to and dependence upon the motherland. The French colonial authorities kept the colonial inhabitants illiterate and didn't let them communicate with each other. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
Eventually, the Canadian printers began the process of printing more than just government news and proclamations. However, due to such strict censorship, they were heavily persecuted for what was perceived as disloyalty and a threat to the power of the government. Many of the early editors and printers were large personalities who used their newspapers as instruments of their own political beliefs and suffered great hardships at the hands of the government because of it. <ref name=Raible /> It was their suffering that made the way for the press to become it's own liberated entity.<br />
<br />
There were three important periods in the history of Canadian newspapers responsible for the eventual development of the newspaper in the [[public sphere]]. These are the Transplant Period from 1750-1800, when printing and newspapers initially came to Canada as publications of Government news and proclamations; followed by the Public Sphere Partisan Period from 1800-1850, when individual printers and editors began 'freeing' the press and moving away from the "Sphere of Public Authority"<ref name=Habermas /> and into the [[public sphere]]; and finally the Nation Building Period from 1850-1900, when Canadian editors began the work of establishing a common nationalistic view of Canadian society.<br />
<br />
== The Gazette/Transplant Period (1750-1800) ==<br />
This was the period that introduced print culture to British North America and began fostering a reading public. All newspapers but ''The Upper Canada Gazette'' were started by Americans. This is partly because the British-American colonies settled earlier than British-Canadian colonies. In 1763 50,000 British loyalists moved north after the American Revolution, bringing printing presses with them. All of the first newspapers started life as official government organs. They were all dependent on government patronage and printed solely information condoned by the government. In every province, there was a weekly [[Gazette]] (named after the [[London Gazette]], the English governmental organ since 1665) that carried the many notices colonial administrators wanted to circulate. <ref name=Raible /> <br />
<br />
At this time, there was no '''political sphere''', as all political news was controlled by the elite. <ref name=Raible /> In the early decades of British North America, the primary purpose of the press was to propagate official propaganda - freedom of the press was an alien idea. <ref name=Raible /> Prior to the approximate turn of the 18th into the 19th century, there was no [[public sphere]] in Canada and therefore no press in the public sphere. <br />
<br />
===The First Printers and Publishers===<br />
It was the first printers and publishers working during the turn of the century who began the slow and difficult work of creating a true, liberated press in Canada. These men faced many obstacles, including beatings, jailing, and the very serious and oft-carried out threat of being charged with criminal or seditious libel. As the early printing press was an essential tool of colonial administration, anyone who attempted to publish anything other than the government notices experienced hardships. There was a prohibition on publishing legislature proceedings which kept the writers out of the courts. These were colonial laws used by British authorities to manufacture loyalty, and the punishments were severe. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Fetherline /> As a result, many of these brave early printers and publishers lived in fear, massive debt, and constant persecution.<br />
<br />
==== John Bushell (1715-1761) ====<br />
See also [[John Bushell]]. <br />
<br />
Bushell partnered with [[Bartholomew Green]] (1690-1751), who died before their plans were realized. Bushell relocated from Boston to Halifax and opened up a printing office, and on March 23, 1752, Bushell published the first edition of the [[Halifax Gazette]] and became the colony's first "Kings Printer".<ref name=Raible /> He was an independent entrepreneur, given no government salary <ref name=Fetherline />, and what government administrators thought their subjects needed and what Bushell's subscribers and advertisers wanted were not necessarily the same. He was stuck in between. The government did not trust his loyalty and so made the Provincial Secretary the editor of his paper. <ref name=Raible /> Bushell, faced with these obstacles, struggled with debt and alcoholism which eventually led to his death.<ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Anton Heinrich (1734-1800)====<br />
See also [[Henry B. Anthony]].<br />
<br />
Heinrich learned his trade in Germany but came to America as a fifer in the British Army before relocating to Halifax and anglicizing his name to the more appropriate Henry Anthony. <ref name=Raible /> Henry acquired Bushell's enterprise, including the ''Gazette''. In October of 1765 he printed an editorial in the ''Gazette'' that suggested that Nova Scotians were opposed to the [[Stamp Act]] which resulted in doubts about his loyalty, and he fled back to Massachusetts and the ''Gazette'' was shut down. Eventually, he made his way back into the government's good graces and was recommissioned to print the ''Royal Gazette''. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==== William Brown (1737-1789) and Thomas Gilmore (1741-1773) ====<br />
Originally from Philadelphia <ref name=Dictionary />, in 1764 the two men launched the government sponsored [[Quebec Gazette]]. The paper was bilingual and was heavily censured and scrutinized by the government.<ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Fleury Mesplet (1734-1794)====<br />
See also [[Fleury Mesplet]].<br />
Immigrated to Montreal from France with the intent of being a printer. However, he was jailed out of suspicion before printing anything due to his status as an American sympathizer and relationship with Benjamin Franklin.<ref name=Dictionary /> In 1778 he printed Canada's first entirely French newspaper, [[The Gazette (Montreal)]]. His editor, Valentin Jautard, chose articles with a radical tone and both men were imprisoned. In 1782, Mesplet was released and allowed to go back to work for the government because he was the only capable printer, though he technically remained imprisoned. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Louis Roy (1771-1799)====<br />
On April 18, 1793, Roy launched the "Upper Canada Gazette", which continued until 1845. In 1797, Roy left the paper due to political persecution after printing some incendiary opinions and fled to New York. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==The Public Sphere Partisan Period (1800-1850) ==<br />
See also: [[Public Sphere]]<br />
<br />
This is the period in which the printers and publishers began to see success in their efforts to free the press from it's government control. The discussion and debate surrounding the '''public sphere''' in the North Atlantic was actively undertaken in Upper Canada and partisan newspapers of the 1800's became "pure" inhabitants of the public sphere. <ref name=Fetherline /> Big steps were taken towards the democratization of the press, and in 1891, the right to report on political proceedings was finally won. <ref name=Fetherline /> The papers of this period were non-deferrential, and demanded democratization of information. They undermined finally began to undermine the traditional hierarchical societal structure. <br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
The development of the public sphere in Canada was closely linked with the development of a free press and there are many parallels. Most of the early publishers were - or became - very active politicians up to the mid-1800s.<br />
At this time, there was a growing market for political debate, and the independent printers of this period began using their columns for opinions, to challenge policies, expose government errors, and even promote certain candidates. These men were large personalities, unafraid to strongly voice unpopular opinions. As a result, the newspapers often became a forum for debate between the disagreeing printers. <br />
The political issue most often debated was that of [[Responsible government]]. In responsible government the executive branch is responsible to the elected legislature and no laws can be passed without the approval of said legislature. However, in Upper Canada, the appointed executive remained responsible only to the colonial governor who had to answer to Britain until 1855. Many of the publisher and printer-cum-politicians of this time were debating this key issue.<br />
During this period the printers were still working under very difficult conditions. Like the printers before them, many of the printers and publishers were still plagued by debt and had to work tirelessly to earn enough to support their political careers and keep the newspapers running. These men continued the difficult work of liberating the Canadian press and it is in the stories of these men that we start to see some success along with the difficulty.<br />
<br />
====Gideon and Sylvester Tiffany====<br />
These brothers started as official government printers in the 1790's, but refused to print only government sanctioned news and instead printed news from America. When they refused to heed warnings from the government, they were more formally persecuted. In April of 1797, Gideon was charged with blasphemy, fired, fined, and jailed. Sylvester was then also charged with "treasonable and seditious conduct". In his defense he declared that "As the people's printer, it is my duty to devote my head, heart and hands to their service...The interests of the King and people are inseparable". <ref name=Raible /> Eventually the brothers were forced to give up printing, through Sylvester attempted a number of other papers before moving to New York. <br />
<br />
====Titus Geer Simons====<br />
Simmons was appointed as the new King's printer following the legal persecution of the Tiffany brothers, though he was not officially trained in printing. The Tiffany brothers remained on, and continued to determine much of the paper's content until 1799. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Lyon Mackenzie====<br />
See also [[William Lyon Mackenzie]]. <br />
<br />
Mackenzie was a great influence for political development in [[Upper Canada]] and a fierce advocate for '''responsible government'''. In 1824, he founded the ''Colonial Advocate'', which was the first independent paper in the province to have significant political impact.<ref name="Colonial Advocate"/> <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie viewed the colonial administration as incompetent, ineffective, and expensive, and he used the Advocate to state these opinions. Though the paper became the most widely circulated paper, it was not profitable for Mackenzie and he struggled with debt for many years. In 1826 his printing office was broken into and destroyed by a mob. When MacKenzie sued the assailants, he won his case and collected enough in damages to repair the press and pay off his debts, as well as gain public sympathy. <ref name=Dictionary /> <br />
Two years after the incident he was elected to the general house of assembly where he became a vigorous advocate of reform and critic of government waste and excess until in 1834 he became the first mayor of Toronto. By 1837, he was out of office and still remained politically frustrated. He planned a rebellion against the government, and when it failed he fled to the U.S. <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie is a prime example of an editor who used his printing as a tool to take on the troubled politics of the time and open the door for the newspaper to enter the public sphere.<br />
<br />
====Joseph Howe====<br />
See also: [[Joseph Howe]]<br />
<br />
In 1828, Joseph Howe took over Halifax's ''Weekly Chronicle'', renaming it the ''Acadian''. He then also purchased the ''[[Novascotian]]''; these papers were both very loyal to the British government. It was over the next few years that he became increasingly loyal to his Nova Scotia and frustrated with the British administration. Howe, like MacKenzie, was in favor of '''responsible government'''.<br />
In 1835, Howe was prosecuted for criminal libel for one of his articles. He spoke in argument for a free press at his trial and though he was technically guilty according to the law, the jury was quick to acquit. His success during his trial made him a local hero in Nova Scotia. It was this success that took Howe into the provincial parliament, and he eventually became a provincial premiere. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Henry David Winton (1793-1855)====<br />
Winton arrived in Newfoundland on August 28, 1818. In 1820, he founded the ''Public Ledger and Newfoundland General Advisor'', the fourth newspaper in St. John's. Winton used the paper to publish his own political ideas staunchly in support of '''responsible government'''. Because of his strong political sentiments he eventually became the enemy of Catholics as well as those in favor of reform - to the extent that some people wished him harm. On May 19, 1835, Winton was attacked by a group of unknown assailants and his ears were cut off. Despite this and further similar threats, Winton continued to write in opposition of the reform government until his death. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Wilkie====<br />
Wilkie lived in Halifax and in 1820 was charged by the crown with criminal libel for having published a pamphlet entitled "A letter to the people of Halifax, containing strictures on the conduct of the magistrates" which heavily criticized the appointed civic authorities of Halifax at the time. He was found guilty and sentenced to two years of hard labor. Throughout this, public sentiment remained in favor of Wilkie. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====John Ryan (1761-1847) and William Lewis====<br />
Ryan was an American expatriate who, in 1807 and with the help of William Lewis, published the first issue of the ''Royal St. John's Gazette'', the earliest newspaper in Newfoundland. Ryan soon began exposing government favoritism and unfairness in the Gazette, much to the chagrin of officials. In March of 1784, both men were indicted for libel. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Joseph Willcocks (1773-1814)====<br />
See also [[Joseph Willcocks]]. <br />
In 1806, Willcocks moved to Niagra where he began publishing the ''Upper Canada Guardian; or Freeman's Journal'' which he used as a vehicle for his political opinions and criticisms. That same year, he was jailed for contempt of the house. <br />
in 1808, he rejoined politics officially and became Canada's first true leader of the Opposition against those aligned with the colonial government. He stopped printing his journal in 1812. <br />
In July of 1813, he offered his services to the Americans while holding a seat in the Legislative Assembly and was formally charged with treason in 1814. He died a traitor. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Pierre Bédard, Francois Blancet, and Étienne Parent====<br />
All three of these men were imprisoned in Quebec for publishing - or attempting to publish - writings that opposed the colonial administration. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
== Nation Building/Myth Making Period (1850-1900) ==<br />
By this period, newspaper editors were free from direct governmental control. However, the government continued to influence them in other underhanded ways, such as privately persuading editorial content and putting paid advertising only into assenting newspapers. <ref name=Raible /> For the most part, the radical newspapers of the Public Sphere Period had served their purposes and the papers of this period were somewhat more unbiased. More than ever, technology and progress were of great importance. <br />
The papers of this time took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. In publications of this period, there was a celebration of conformity and orthodoxy. Unlike the incendiary publications of the past, there was no justification seen for the rejection of order. <ref name=Fetherline /> In many ways, this Canadian identity still prevails.<br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
During this period, largely free from the government restrictions of the past, that the printers and publishers took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. As before, many of them were personally involved in politics as well and continued to use their papers to exert their political sentiments and to push for progress and change. <br />
<br />
====George Brown (1818-1880)====<br />
In 1844, Brown founded [[The Globe and Mail]], a paper with strong political ambitions. Brown bought out many competitors and increased circulation using advanced technology. By 1860 it was Canada's largest newspaper. <br />
In the 1850's, Brown entered politics and became the Reform Party leader and eventually reached an agreement that led to the Confederation and the founding of the Dominion of Canada. Afterwards, he resigned from Parliament, but continued to write about his politics in the "Globe". <br />
Throughout his publishing career, he struggled with his employees and the unions. In 1880 he was shot by a disgruntled employee and died. <br />
<ref name=Fetherline /> <ref name=Dictionary /> <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Modeste Demers (1809-1871)====<br />
In Victoria in 1856, Bishop Modeste Demers imported a hand press intending to publish religious materials. It remained unused until 1858, when the American printer Frederick Marriott used the "Demers press" to publish four different British Columbia newspapers, the most influential of which was the ''British Colonist''. The Demers press continued to be used for printing until 1908. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Amor De Cosmos (1825-1897)====<br />
See also: [[Amor De Cosmos]]<br />
<br />
Amor De Cosmos was the founder of the "British Colonist". He was well known for using it's pages to express his political opinions. <br />
De Cosmos also eventually entered politics, assumed leadership, urged political reform and pushed for "responsible government''. He was elected to represent Victoria in the House of Commons while at the same time serving as the provincial premiere of British Columbia. <br />
He was outspoken and eccentric, and made quite a few enemies throughout his life. He was accused of a scandal with the unions which eventually forced him to leave politics. When he died he had fallen into a complete breakdown. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==See Also==<br />
{{portal box|Journalism|Canada}}<br />
*[[Public Sphere]]<br />
*[[The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]]<br />
*[[Newspaper]]<br />
*[[Mass media in Canada]]<br />
*[[List of early Canadian newspapers]]<br />
*[[Freedom of the press]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist<br />
|refs=<br />
<ref name=Fetherline>{{cite book|last=Fetherling|first=Douglas|title=The Rise of the Canadian Newspaper|year=1949|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Raible>{{cite book|last=Raible|first=Chris|title=The Power of the Press: The Story of Early Canadian Printers and Publishers|year=2007|publisher=James Lorimer & Company LTD|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Dictionary>{{cite web|last=English|first=John|title=Dictionary of Canadian Biography|url=http://www.biographi.ca/index-e.html}}</ref><br />
<ref name=Habermas>{{cite book|last=Jürgen|first=Habermas|title=The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeoise Society|year=German(1962) English Translation 1989|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=0-262-58108-6|pages=30|editor=Thomas Burger}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Colonial Advocate">{{cite news|last=Mackenzie|first=William Lyon|newspaper=The Colonial Advocate|date=January 26, 1832}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading ==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
*{{Cite book<br />
| publisher = Available from Canadian Govt. Pub. Centre Supply and Services Canada<br />
| isbn = 9780660109541<br />
| last = Canada.<br />
| title = Royal Commission on Newspapers.<br />
| location = Hull Que.<br />
| date = 1981<br />
| url = http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/200/301/pco-bcp/commissions-ef/kent1981-eng/kent1981-eng.htm<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Rutherford|first=Paul|title=A Victorian Authority: the daily press in late nineteenth-century Canada|year=1944|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Craick|first=W.A.|title=A History of Canadian Journalism|year=1959|publisher=The Ontario Publishing Company, Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Desbarats|first=Peter|title=Guide to Canadian News Media|year=1996|publisher=Harcourt Brace & Company, Ltd.|location=1996}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Kesterton|first=W.H.|title=A History of Journalism in Canada|year=1967|publisher=McClelland and Stewart Limited|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|first=Marjory |last=Louise Lang|title=Women who made the news: female journalists in Canada, 1880-1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cAt4MQ-da1AC&pg=PP1|date=26 August 1999|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-1838-4}}<br />
*{{cite book|author= Russell, Nick|title=Morals and the media: ethics in Canadian journalism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V3RqfJkN-8oC&pg=PP1|year=2006|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1089-0}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links ==<br />
{{commons cat|Newspapers of Canada}}<br />
*[http://library.uvic.ca/micro/newsmicroguide.pdf An Annotated Guide to Historical Canadian Newspapers on Microfilm (PDF)] - University of Victoria<br />
*[http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/intro_e.shtml Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War] - Canadian War Museum<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:History of mass media]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian journalism]]</div>Moxyhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geschichte_der_kanadischen_Zeitungen&diff=159301695Geschichte der kanadischen Zeitungen2011-12-16T05:53:01Z<p>Moxy: {{Culture of Canada sidebar}}</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Culture of Canada sidebar}}<br />
In Canada, the emergence of the '''free press''' was a difficult process that took many years to come to realization after a beginning rife with censorship and government control. "Compared to Europe, or even what became the United States, newspapering came to Canada rather late in the day, in the second half of the eighteenth century".<ref name=Fetherline /> Newspapers existed in the British colonies before the [[French and Indian War]], but they had been transplanted from America. Presses were forbidden in Quebec until the Conquest; after the Conquest, they too were brought in from the U.S. "It remains an unassailable irony, however, that printing became a part of Canadian society only with the establishment of British rule and, moreover, that nearly all the earliest printers were Americans."<ref name=Fetherline /><br />
<br />
The press in Canada was born as a tool of the government, subsidized and controlled by the overseas British rulers of the colonies and their colonial governors. Eventually, the government powers came to realize that the press held the potential for a great amount of power. "The discovery of such unrealized potential frightened the powers that be, who commenced a centuries-long period of harassment and intimidation in order to check what today is called the power of the press". <ref name=Fetherline /> In fact, it was due to persecution that the earliest newspaper editors of the America's fled from England and immigrated to the American colonies, where they then moved the craft north, to the Canadian colonies. However, being a colonial society, the editors and printers were perhaps even more censored and persecuted for printing anything that could be construed as being an anti-government sentiment, especially after the explosive [[American Revolution]] in 1763.<ref name=Fetherline /> New France (after the Conquest known as Lower Canada or Quebec) experienced the heaviest censorship; printing presses were banned by the French government in an effort to foster a sense of loyalty to and dependence upon the motherland. The French colonial authorities kept the colonial inhabitants illiterate and didn't let them communicate with each other. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
Eventually, the Canadian printers began the process of printing more than just government news and proclamations. However, due to such strict censorship, they were heavily persecuted for what was perceived as disloyalty and a threat to the power of the government. Many of the early editors and printers were large personalities who used their newspapers as instruments of their own political beliefs and suffered great hardships at the hands of the government because of it. <ref name=Raible /> It was their suffering that made the way for the press to become it's own liberated entity.<br />
<br />
There were three important periods in the history of Canadian newspapers responsible for the eventual development of the newspaper in the [[public sphere]]. These are the Transplant Period from 1750-1800, when printing and newspapers initially came to Canada as publications of Government news and proclamations; followed by the Public Sphere Partisan Period from 1800-1850, when individual printers and editors began 'freeing' the press and moving away from the "Sphere of Public Authority"<ref name=Habermas /> and into the [[public sphere]]; and finally the Nation Building Period from 1850-1900, when Canadian editors began the work of establishing a common nationalistic view of Canadian society.<br />
<br />
== The Gazette/Transplant Period (1750-1800) ==<br />
This was the period that introduced print culture to British North America and began fostering a reading public. All newspapers but ''The Upper Canada Gazette'' were started by Americans. This is partly because the British-American colonies settled earlier than British-Canadian colonies. In 1763 50,000 British loyalists moved north after the American Revolution, bringing printing presses with them. All of the first newspapers started life as official government organs. They were all dependent on government patronage and printed solely information condoned by the government. In every province, there was a weekly [[Gazette]] (named after the [[London Gazette]], the English governmental organ since 1665) that carried the many notices colonial administrators wanted to circulate. <ref name=Raible /> <br />
<br />
At this time, there was no '''political sphere''', as all political news was controlled by the elite. <ref name=Raible /> In the early decades of British North America, the primary purpose of the press was to propagate official propaganda - freedom of the press was an alien idea. <ref name=Raible /> Prior to the approximate turn of the 18th into the 19th century, there was no [[public sphere]] in Canada and therefore no press in the public sphere. <br />
<br />
===The First Printers and Publishers===<br />
It was the first printers and publishers working during the turn of the century who began the slow and difficult work of creating a true, liberated press in Canada. These men faced many obstacles, including beatings, jailing, and the very serious and oft-carried out threat of being charged with criminal or seditious libel. As the early printing press was an essential tool of colonial administration, anyone who attempted to publish anything other than the government notices experienced hardships. There was a prohibition on publishing legislature proceedings which kept the writers out of the courts. These were colonial laws used by British authorities to manufacture loyalty, and the punishments were severe. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Fetherline /> As a result, many of these brave early printers and publishers lived in fear, massive debt, and constant persecution.<br />
<br />
==== John Bushell (1715-1761) ====<br />
See also [[John Bushell]]. <br />
<br />
Bushell partnered with [[Bartholomew Green]] (1690-1751), who died before their plans were realized. Bushell relocated from Boston to Halifax and opened up a printing office, and on March 23, 1752, Bushell published the first edition of the [[Halifax Gazette]] and became the colony's first "Kings Printer".<ref name=Raible /> He was an independent entrepreneur, given no government salary <ref name=Fetherline />, and what government administrators thought their subjects needed and what Bushell's subscribers and advertisers wanted were not necessarily the same. He was stuck in between. The government did not trust his loyalty and so made the Provincial Secretary the editor of his paper. <ref name=Raible /> Bushell, faced with these obstacles, struggled with debt and alcoholism which eventually led to his death.<ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Anton Heinrich (1734-1800)====<br />
See also [[Henry B. Anthony]].<br />
<br />
Heinrich learned his trade in Germany but came to America as a fifer in the British Army before relocating to Halifax and anglicizing his name to the more appropriate Henry Anthony. <ref name=Raible /> Henry acquired Bushell's enterprise, including the ''Gazette''. In October of 1765 he printed an editorial in the ''Gazette'' that suggested that Nova Scotians were opposed to the [[Stamp Act]] which resulted in doubts about his loyalty, and he fled back to Massachusetts and the ''Gazette'' was shut down. Eventually, he made his way back into the government's good graces and was recommissioned to print the ''Royal Gazette''. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==== William Brown (1737-1789) and Thomas Gilmore (1741-1773) ====<br />
Originally from Philadelphia <ref name=Dictionary />, in 1764 the two men launched the government sponsored [[Quebec Gazette]]. The paper was bilingual and was heavily censured and scrutinized by the government.<ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Fleury Mesplet (1734-1794)====<br />
See also [[Fleury Mesplet]].<br />
Immigrated to Montreal from France with the intent of being a printer. However, he was jailed out of suspicion before printing anything due to his status as an American sympathizer and relationship with Benjamin Franklin.<ref name=Dictionary /> In 1778 he printed Canada's first entirely French newspaper, [[The Gazette (Montreal)]]. His editor, Valentin Jautard, chose articles with a radical tone and both men were imprisoned. In 1782, Mesplet was released and allowed to go back to work for the government because he was the only capable printer, though he technically remained imprisoned. <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Louis Roy (1771-1799)====<br />
On April 18, 1793, Roy launched the "Upper Canada Gazette", which continued until 1845. In 1797, Roy left the paper due to political persecution after printing some incendiary opinions and fled to New York. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==The Public Sphere Partisan Period (1800-1850) ==<br />
See also: [[Public Sphere]]<br />
<br />
This is the period in which the printers and publishers began to see success in their efforts to free the press from it's government control. The discussion and debate surrounding the '''public sphere''' in the North Atlantic was actively undertaken in Upper Canada and partisan newspapers of the 1800's became "pure" inhabitants of the public sphere. <ref name=Fetherline /> Big steps were taken towards the democratization of the press, and in 1891, the right to report on political proceedings was finally won. <ref name=Fetherline /> The papers of this period were non-deferrential, and demanded democratization of information. They undermined finally began to undermine the traditional hierarchical societal structure. <br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
The development of the public sphere in Canada was closely linked with the development of a free press and there are many parallels. Most of the early publishers were - or became - very active politicians up to the mid-1800s.<br />
At this time, there was a growing market for political debate, and the independent printers of this period began using their columns for opinions, to challenge policies, expose government errors, and even promote certain candidates. These men were large personalities, unafraid to strongly voice unpopular opinions. As a result, the newspapers often became a forum for debate between the disagreeing printers. <br />
The political issue most often debated was that of [[Responsible government]]. In responsible government the executive branch is responsible to the elected legislature and no laws can be passed without the approval of said legislature. However, in Upper Canada, the appointed executive remained responsible only to the colonial governor who had to answer to Britain until 1855. Many of the publisher and printer-cum-politicians of this time were debating this key issue.<br />
During this period the printers were still working under very difficult conditions. Like the printers before them, many of the printers and publishers were still plagued by debt and had to work tirelessly to earn enough to support their political careers and keep the newspapers running. These men continued the difficult work of liberating the Canadian press and it is in the stories of these men that we start to see some success along with the difficulty.<br />
<br />
====Gideon and Sylvester Tiffany====<br />
These brothers started as official government printers in the 1790's, but refused to print only government sanctioned news and instead printed news from America. When they refused to heed warnings from the government, they were more formally persecuted. In April of 1797, Gideon was charged with blasphemy, fired, fined, and jailed. Sylvester was then also charged with "treasonable and seditious conduct". In his defense he declared that "As the people's printer, it is my duty to devote my head, heart and hands to their service...The interests of the King and people are inseparable". <ref name=Raible /> Eventually the brothers were forced to give up printing, through Sylvester attempted a number of other papers before moving to New York. <br />
<br />
====Titus Geer Simons====<br />
Simmons was appointed as the new King's printer following the legal persecution of the Tiffany brothers, though he was not officially trained in printing. The Tiffany brothers remained on, and continued to determine much of the paper's content until 1799. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Lyon Mackenzie====<br />
See also [[William Lyon Mackenzie]]. <br />
<br />
Mackenzie was a great influence for political development in [[Upper Canada]] and a fierce advocate for '''responsible government'''. In 1824, he founded the ''Colonial Advocate'', which was the first independent paper in the province to have significant political impact. <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie viewed the colonial administration as incompetent, ineffective, and expensive, and he used the Advocate to state these opinions. Though the paper became the most widely circulated paper, it was not profitable for Mackenzie and he struggled with debt for many years. In 1826 his printing office was broken into and destroyed by a mob. When MacKenzie sued the assailants, he won his case and collected enough in damages to repair the press and pay off his debts, as well as gain public sympathy. <ref name=Dictionary /> <br />
Two years after the incident he was elected to the general house of assembly where he became a vigorous advocate of reform and critic of government waste and excess until in 1834 he became the first mayor of Toronto. By 1837, he was out of office and still remained politically frustrated. He planned a rebellion against the government, and when it failed he fled to the U.S. <ref name=Raible /> Mackenzie is a prime example of an editor who used his printing as a tool to take on the troubled politics of the time and open the door for the newspaper to enter the public sphere.<br />
<br />
====Joseph Howe====<br />
See also: [[Joseph Howe]]<br />
<br />
In 1828, Joseph Howe took over Halifax's ''Weekly Chronicle'', renaming it the ''Acadian''. He then also purchased the ''[[Novascotian]]''; these papers were both very loyal to the British government. It was over the next few years that he became increasingly loyal to his Nova Scotia and frustrated with the British administration. Howe, like MacKenzie, was in favor of '''responsible government'''.<br />
In 1835, Howe was prosecuted for criminal libel for one of his articles. He spoke in argument for a free press at his trial and though he was technically guilty according to the law, the jury was quick to acquit. His success during his trial made him a local hero in Nova Scotia. It was this success that took Howe into the provincial parliament, and he eventually became a provincial premiere. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Henry David Winton (1793-1855)====<br />
Winton arrived in Newfoundland on August 28, 1818. In 1820, he founded the ''Public Ledger and Newfoundland General Advisor'', the fourth newspaper in St. John's. Winton used the paper to publish his own political ideas staunchly in support of '''responsible government'''. Because of his strong political sentiments he eventually became the enemy of Catholics as well as those in favor of reform - to the extent that some people wished him harm. On May 19, 1835, Winton was attacked by a group of unknown assailants and his ears were cut off. Despite this and further similar threats, Winton continued to write in opposition of the reform government until his death. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====William Wilkie====<br />
Wilkie lived in Halifax and in 1820 was charged by the crown with criminal libel for having published a pamphlet entitled "A letter to the people of Halifax, containing strictures on the conduct of the magistrates" which heavily criticized the appointed civic authorities of Halifax at the time. He was found guilty and sentenced to two years of hard labor. Throughout this, public sentiment remained in favor of Wilkie. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====John Ryan (1761-1847) and William Lewis====<br />
Ryan was an American expatriate who, in 1807 and with the help of William Lewis, published the first issue of the ''Royal St. John's Gazette'', the earliest newspaper in Newfoundland. Ryan soon began exposing government favoritism and unfairness in the Gazette, much to the chagrin of officials. In March of 1784, both men were indicted for libel. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Joseph Willcocks (1773-1814)====<br />
See also [[Joseph Willcocks]]. <br />
In 1806, Willcocks moved to Niagra where he began publishing the ''Upper Canada Guardian; or Freeman's Journal'' which he used as a vehicle for his political opinions and criticisms. That same year, he was jailed for contempt of the house. <br />
in 1808, he rejoined politics officially and became Canada's first true leader of the Opposition against those aligned with the colonial government. He stopped printing his journal in 1812. <br />
In July of 1813, he offered his services to the Americans while holding a seat in the Legislative Assembly and was formally charged with treason in 1814. He died a traitor. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Pierre Bédard, Francois Blancet, and Étienne Parent====<br />
All three of these men were imprisoned in Quebec for publishing - or attempting to publish - writings that opposed the colonial administration. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
== Nation Building/Myth Making Period (1850-1900) ==<br />
By this period, newspaper editors were free from direct governmental control. However, the government continued to influence them in other underhanded ways, such as privately persuading editorial content and putting paid advertising only into assenting newspapers. <ref name=Raible /> For the most part, the radical newspapers of the Public Sphere Period had served their purposes and the papers of this period were somewhat more unbiased. More than ever, technology and progress were of great importance. <br />
The papers of this time took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. In publications of this period, there was a celebration of conformity and orthodoxy. Unlike the incendiary publications of the past, there was no justification seen for the rejection of order. <ref name=Fetherline /> In many ways, this Canadian identity still prevails.<br />
<br />
===The Printers and Publishers===<br />
During this period, largely free from the government restrictions of the past, that the printers and publishers took on the role of establishing the Canadian identity. As before, many of them were personally involved in politics as well and continued to use their papers to exert their political sentiments and to push for progress and change. <br />
<br />
====George Brown (1818-1880)====<br />
In 1844, Brown founded [[The Globe and Mail]], a paper with strong political ambitions. Brown bought out many competitors and increased circulation using advanced technology. By 1860 it was Canada's largest newspaper. <br />
In the 1850's, Brown entered politics and became the Reform Party leader and eventually reached an agreement that led to the Confederation and the founding of the Dominion of Canada. Afterwards, he resigned from Parliament, but continued to write about his politics in the "Globe". <br />
Throughout his publishing career, he struggled with his employees and the unions. In 1880 he was shot by a disgruntled employee and died. <br />
<ref name=Fetherline /> <ref name=Dictionary /> <ref name=Raible /><br />
<br />
====Modeste Demers (1809-1871)====<br />
In Victoria in 1856, Bishop Modeste Demers imported a hand press intending to publish religious materials. It remained unused until 1858, when the American printer Frederick Marriott used the "Demers press" to publish four different British Columbia newspapers, the most influential of which was the ''British Colonist''. The Demers press continued to be used for printing until 1908. <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
====Amor De Cosmos (1825-1897)====<br />
See also: [[Amor De Cosmos]]<br />
<br />
Amor De Cosmos was the founder of the "British Colonist". He was well known for using it's pages to express his political opinions. <br />
De Cosmos also eventually entered politics, assumed leadership, urged political reform and pushed for "responsible government''. He was elected to represent Victoria in the House of Commons while at the same time serving as the provincial premiere of British Columbia. <br />
He was outspoken and eccentric, and made quite a few enemies throughout his life. He was accused of a scandal with the unions which eventually forced him to leave politics. When he died he had fallen into a complete breakdown. <ref name=Raible /> <ref name=Dictionary /><br />
<br />
==See Also==<br />
*[[Public Sphere]]<br />
*[[The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]]<br />
*[[Newspaper]]<br />
*[[List of early Canadian newspapers]]<br />
*[[Freedom of the press]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist<br />
|refs=<br />
<ref name=Fetherline>{{cite book|last=Fetherling|first=Douglas|title=The Rise of the Canadian Newspaper|year=1949|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Raible>{{cite book|last=Raible|first=Chris|title=The Power of the Press: The Story of Early Canadian Printers and Publishers|year=2007|publisher=James Lorimer & Company LTD|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
<ref name=Dictionary>{{cite web|last=English|first=John|title=Dictionary of Canadian Biography|url=http://www.biographi.ca/index-e.html}}</ref><br />
<ref name=Habermas>{{cite book|last=Jürgen|first=Habermas|title=The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeoise Society|year=German(1962) English Translation 1989|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=0-262-58108-6|pages=30|editor=Thomas Burger}}</ref><br />
<ref name="Colonial Advocate">{{cite news|last=Mackenzie|first=William Lyon|newspaper=The Colonial Advocate|date=January 26, 1832}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Minister of Supply and Services Canada|title=Royal Commission on Newspapers|year=1981|publisher=Canadian Government Publishing Centre|location=Hull}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Rutherford|first=Paul|title=A Victorian Authority: the daily press in late nineteenth-century Canada|year=1944|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Craick|first=W.A.|title=A History of Canadian Journalism|year=1959|publisher=The Ontario Publishing Company, Limited|location=Toronto}}</ref> <br />
*{{cite book|last=Desbarats|first=Peter|title=Guide to Canadian News Media|year=1996|publisher=Harcourt Brace & Company, Ltd.|location=1996}}</ref><br />
*{{cite book|last=Kesterton|first=W.H.|title=A History of Journalism in Canada|year=1967|publisher=McClelland and Stewart Limited|location=Toronto}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Category:History of mass media]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian journalism]]</div>Moxy