Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Wahre Geschichten (Lukian)

2010-02-02T12:24:08Z

MathFacts: /* Science fiction */

{{Infobox Book
| name = True History or True Story
| translator =
| image =
| image_caption =
| author = [[Lucian of Samosata]]
| country = [[Roman Empire (Syria)]]
| language = [[Greek language|Greek]]
| genre = [[Science fiction]]
|publisher = Various
| release_date = [[2nd century]] AD
| isbn = n/a 
}}

'''''True History''''' or '''''True Story''''' ([[Greek language|Greek:]] {{ polytonic|Ἀληθῆ διηγήματα}}) is a fantastic travel tale by the [[Greek language|Greek-speaking]] [[Assyrian people|Syrian]] author [[Lucian]] of [[Samosata]], the earliest known fiction about travelling to [[outer space]], [[Fictional extraterrestrials|alien]] life-forms and interplanetary warfare. Written in the second century [[Anno Domini|AD]], the novel has been referred to as "the first known text that could be called [[science fiction]]".<ref name="Greg Grewell 30f."/><ref>Swanson, Roy Arthur: {{Quote|Lucian of Samosata, the Greco-Syrian satirist of the second century A.D., appears today as an exemplar of the science-fiction artist. There is little, if any, need to argue that his mythopoeic Milesian Tales and his literary fantastic voyages and utopistic hyperbole comport with the genre of science fiction; ...}}</ref><ref name="Fredericks, S.C."/><ref>Georgiadou, Aristoula & Larmour, David H.J in their introduction:{{Quote|"...Lucian's Verae Historiae ("True Histories"), a fantastic journey narrative considered the earliest surviving example of Science Fiction in the Western tradition."}}</ref><ref>Gunn, James E. denotes ''True History'' as "Proto-Science Fiction", p.249</ref> The work was intended by Lucian as a satire against contemporary and ancient sources, which quote fantastic and mythical events as truth.

== Plot ==
In ''True History'', Lucian and a company of adventuring heroes sailing westward through the [[Pillars of Hercules]] (the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]) are blown off course by a strong wind, and after 79 days come to an island. This island is home to a river of wine filled with fish, and bears a marker indicating that [[Heracles]] and [[Dionysos]] have traveled to this point.

Shortly after leaving the island, they are lifted up by a giant waterspout and deposited on the [[Moon]]. There they find themselves embroiled in a full-scale war between the king of the Moon and the king of the [[Sun]], involving armies which boast such exotica as stalk-and-mushroom men, acorn-dogs ("dog-faced men fighting on winged acorns"), and cloud-centaurs. Unusually, the Sun, Moon, stars and planets are portrayed as locales, each with its unique geographic details and inhabitants.

After returning to the Earth, the adventurers become trapped in a giant [[whale]]; inside the 200-mile-long animal, there live many groups of people whom they rout in war. They also reach a sea of milk, an island of cheese and the [[isle of the blessed]]. There, he meets the heroes of the [[Trojan War]], other mythical men and animals, and even [[Homer]]. They find [[Herodotus]] being eternally punished for the "lies" he published in his [[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]].

After leaving the Island of the Blessed, they deliver a letter to [[Calypso (mythology)|Calypso]] given to them by [[Odysseus]] explaining that he wishes he had stayed with her so he could have lived eternally. They then discover a chasm in the Ocean, but eventually sail around it, discover a far-off continent and decide to explore it. The book ends rather abruptly by Lucian saying that their adventure there will be the subject of following books.

== Literary genre ==
Lucian's ''True History'' eludes a clear-cut literary classification. Its multilayered character has given rise to interpretations as diverse as [[science fiction]], [[fantasy]], [[satire]] or [[parody]], depending on how much importance scholars attach to Lucian's explicit intention of telling a story of falsehoods. Generally speaking, authors concentrating on science fiction topoi are more willing to classify ''True History'' as part of the former genres, while those stressing Lucian's satirical motives are more inclined to view his work under the latter premises.

=== Satire ===
In the later view, Lucian intended his story to be a form of literary criticism, a satire against contemporary and ancient sources which quote fantastic and mythical events as truth. He mentions the tales of [[Ctesias]], Iambulus, and [[Homer]] and states that "what did surprise me was their supposition that nobody would notice they were lying." Many characters and events are exaggerated to ridiculous ends to mock the original tellings. As noted by classicist B.P. Reardon, "above all, it is a parody of literary 'liars' like Homer and [[Herodotus]]".<ref>B.P. Reardon: ''Collected Ancient Greek Novels'', p.619</ref> Consequently, Lucian goes on to state that the story recounted in ''True History'' is about "things I have neither seen nor experienced nor heard tell of from anybody else; things, what is more, that do not in fact exist and could not ever exist at all. So my readers must not believe a word I say."<ref>B.P. Reardon: ''Collected Ancient Greek Novels'', p.622</ref>

=== Science fiction ===
Contrary to classicists, modern SF critics do not necessarily view the satirical streak of the story to conflict with modern notions of science fiction. The defining element of science can rather be found in Lucian's specific, but effective approach to identify false values and misidentifications in contemporary philosophy, which was very much the general term of [[science]] then.<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur">Swanson, Roy Arthur: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/10/swanson10art.htm “The True, the False, and the Truly False: Lucian’s Philosophical Science Fiction”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 3 (Nov. 1976), pp. 227-239</ref> Additionally, they point out that ''True History'' was written in response to another work which also contained science fictional elements, that is [[Antonius Diogenes]]’ lost ''Of the Wonderful Things Beyond [[Thule]]'', whose protagonist also reached the [[moon]].<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur"/> The estrangening feel of the story as a defining SF element has also been noted:

<blockquote>
...True History may properly be regarded as SF because Lucian often achieves that sense of "cognitive estrangement" which [[Darko Suvin]] has defined as the generic distinction of SF, that is, the depiction of an alternate world, radically unlike our own, but relatable to it in terms of significant knowledge.<ref name="Fredericks, S.C."/>
</blockquote>

According to Grewell, whose definition of science fiction focuses on the struggle between supposedly superior and inferior life forms, "part of the tale that qualifies it as science fiction, rather than as fantasy or imaginative fiction, involves Lucian and his seamen in a battle for territorial and colonization rights:<ref name="Greg Grewell 30f.">Greg Grewell: “Colonizing the Universe: Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future”, ''Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature'', Vol. 55, No. 2 (2001), pp. 25-47 (30f.)</ref>

<blockquote>"The king of the inhabitants of the Sun, Phaethon," said Endymion king of the Moon, "has been at war with us for a long time now. Once upon a time I gathered together the poorest people in my kingdom and undertook to plant a colony on the Morning Star which was empty and uninhabited. Phaethon out of jealousy thwarted the colonization, meeting us halfway at the head of his dragoons. At that time we were beaten, for we were not a match for them in strength, and we retreated. Now, however, I desire to make war again and plant the colony."<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur"/></blockquote>

In sum, typical science fiction themes and topoi appearing in ''True History'' are:<ref name="Fredericks, S.C.">Fredericks, S.C.: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/8/fredericks8art.htm “Lucian's True History as SF”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 1 (March 1976), pp. 49-60</ref>
*travel to outer space
*encounter with alien life-forms, including the experience of a first encounter event
*interplanetary warfare and imperialism
*colonization of planets
*artificial atmosphere
*liquid air
*[[reflecting telescope]]
*motif of giganticism
*creatures as products of human technology (robot theme)
*worlds working by a set of alternate 'physical' laws
*explicit desire of the protagonist for exploration and adventure

A middle position seems to be taken up by the [[England|English]] [[critic]] [[Kingsley Amis]], who acknowledged the SF and satirical character of ''True History'' at the same time:

<blockquote>"I will merely remark that the sprightliness and sophistication of ''True History'' make it read like a joke at the expense of nearly all early-modern science fiction, that written between, say, 1910 and 1940."<ref>Kingsley, Amis: "New Maps of Hell: A Survey of Science Fiction", New York 1960, p.28</ref></blockquote>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== See also ==
{{Wikisourcelang|el|Αληθής Ιστορία|True History}}
*[[History of science fiction]]
*[[Moon in art and literature]]

== Further reading ==
*Fredericks, S.C.: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/8/fredericks8art.htm “Lucian's True History as SF”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 1 (March 1976), pp. 49-60
*Georgiadou, Aristoula & Larmour, David H.J.: [http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=75&pid=2774 “Lucian's Science Fiction Novel True Histories. Interpretation and Commentary“], ''Mnemosyne Supplement'' 179, Leiden 1998, ISBN 9004106677
*Grewell, Greg: “Colonizing the Universe: Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future”, ''Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature'', Vol. 55, No. 2 (2001), pp. 25-47
*Gunn, James E.: “The New Encyclopedia of Science Fiction”, Publisher: Viking 1988, ISBN 9780670810413, p.249
*Swanson, Roy Arthur: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/10/swanson10art.htm “The True, the False, and the Truly False: Lucian’s Philosophical Science Fiction”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 3 (Nov. 1976), pp. 227-239

== External links ==
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl2/wl211.htm The True History] at ''sacred-texts.com''
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/fowl/index.htm The Works of Lucian of Samosata] at ''sacred-texts.com''
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/lucian-3/ Loeb Classical Library, vol. 3/8 of Lucian's works], with facing Greek text, at ''ancientlibrary.com''
*[http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_intro.htm A.M. Harmon: Introduction to Lucian of Samosata] at ''tertullian.org''

[[Category:2nd-century novels]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek novels]]
[[Category:Works by Lucian]]
[[Category:Satire]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Moon in fiction]]

[[ca:Història vertadera]]
[[it:La storia vera]]
[[ja:本当の話]]

Wahre Geschichten (Lukian)

2010-02-02T12:17:05Z

MathFacts: /* Science fiction */

{{Infobox Book
| name = True History or True Story
| translator =
| image =
| image_caption =
| author = [[Lucian of Samosata]]
| country = [[Roman Empire (Syria)]]
| language = [[Greek language|Greek]]
| genre = [[Science fiction]]
|publisher = Various
| release_date = [[2nd century]] AD
| isbn = n/a 
}}

'''''True History''''' or '''''True Story''''' ([[Greek language|Greek:]] {{ polytonic|Ἀληθῆ διηγήματα}}) is a fantastic travel tale by the [[Greek language|Greek-speaking]] [[Assyrian people|Syrian]] author [[Lucian]] of [[Samosata]], the earliest known fiction about travelling to [[outer space]], [[Fictional extraterrestrials|alien]] life-forms and interplanetary warfare. Written in the second century [[Anno Domini|AD]], the novel has been referred to as "the first known text that could be called [[science fiction]]".<ref name="Greg Grewell 30f."/><ref>Swanson, Roy Arthur: {{Quote|Lucian of Samosata, the Greco-Syrian satirist of the second century A.D., appears today as an exemplar of the science-fiction artist. There is little, if any, need to argue that his mythopoeic Milesian Tales and his literary fantastic voyages and utopistic hyperbole comport with the genre of science fiction; ...}}</ref><ref name="Fredericks, S.C."/><ref>Georgiadou, Aristoula & Larmour, David H.J in their introduction:{{Quote|"...Lucian's Verae Historiae ("True Histories"), a fantastic journey narrative considered the earliest surviving example of Science Fiction in the Western tradition."}}</ref><ref>Gunn, James E. denotes ''True History'' as "Proto-Science Fiction", p.249</ref> The work was intended by Lucian as a satire against contemporary and ancient sources, which quote fantastic and mythical events as truth.

== Plot ==
In ''True History'', Lucian and a company of adventuring heroes sailing westward through the [[Pillars of Hercules]] (the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]) are blown off course by a strong wind, and after 79 days come to an island. This island is home to a river of wine filled with fish, and bears a marker indicating that [[Heracles]] and [[Dionysos]] have traveled to this point.

Shortly after leaving the island, they are lifted up by a giant waterspout and deposited on the [[Moon]]. There they find themselves embroiled in a full-scale war between the king of the Moon and the king of the [[Sun]], involving armies which boast such exotica as stalk-and-mushroom men, acorn-dogs ("dog-faced men fighting on winged acorns"), and cloud-centaurs. Unusually, the Sun, Moon, stars and planets are portrayed as locales, each with its unique geographic details and inhabitants.

After returning to the Earth, the adventurers become trapped in a giant [[whale]]; inside the 200-mile-long animal, there live many groups of people whom they rout in war. They also reach a sea of milk, an island of cheese and the [[isle of the blessed]]. There, he meets the heroes of the [[Trojan War]], other mythical men and animals, and even [[Homer]]. They find [[Herodotus]] being eternally punished for the "lies" he published in his [[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]].

After leaving the Island of the Blessed, they deliver a letter to [[Calypso (mythology)|Calypso]] given to them by [[Odysseus]] explaining that he wishes he had stayed with her so he could have lived eternally. They then discover a chasm in the Ocean, but eventually sail around it, discover a far-off continent and decide to explore it. The book ends rather abruptly by Lucian saying that their adventure there will be the subject of following books.

== Literary genre ==
Lucian's ''True History'' eludes a clear-cut literary classification. Its multilayered character has given rise to interpretations as diverse as [[science fiction]], [[fantasy]], [[satire]] or [[parody]], depending on how much importance scholars attach to Lucian's explicit intention of telling a story of falsehoods. Generally speaking, authors concentrating on science fiction topoi are more willing to classify ''True History'' as part of the former genres, while those stressing Lucian's satirical motives are more inclined to view his work under the latter premises.

=== Satire ===
In the later view, Lucian intended his story to be a form of literary criticism, a satire against contemporary and ancient sources which quote fantastic and mythical events as truth. He mentions the tales of [[Ctesias]], Iambulus, and [[Homer]] and states that "what did surprise me was their supposition that nobody would notice they were lying." Many characters and events are exaggerated to ridiculous ends to mock the original tellings. As noted by classicist B.P. Reardon, "above all, it is a parody of literary 'liars' like Homer and [[Herodotus]]".<ref>B.P. Reardon: ''Collected Ancient Greek Novels'', p.619</ref> Consequently, Lucian goes on to state that the story recounted in ''True History'' is about "things I have neither seen nor experienced nor heard tell of from anybody else; things, what is more, that do not in fact exist and could not ever exist at all. So my readers must not believe a word I say."<ref>B.P. Reardon: ''Collected Ancient Greek Novels'', p.622</ref>

=== Science fiction ===
Contrary to classicists, modern SF critics do not necessarily view the satirical streak of the story to conflict with modern notions of science fiction. The defining element of science can rather be found in Lucian's specific, but effective approach to identify false values and misidentifications in contemporary philosophy, which was very much the general term of [[science]] then.<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur">Swanson, Roy Arthur: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/10/swanson10art.htm “The True, the False, and the Truly False: Lucian’s Philosophical Science Fiction”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 3 (Nov. 1976), pp. 227-239</ref> Additionally, they point out that ''True History'' was written in response to another work which also contained science fictional elements, that is [[Antonius Diogenes]]’ lost ''Of the Wonderful Things Beyond [[Thule]]'', whose protagonist also reached the [[moon]].<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur"/> The estrangening feel of the story as a defining SF element has also been noted:

<blockquote>
...True History may properly be regarded as SF because Lucian often achieves that sense of "cognitive estrangement" which [[Darko Suvin]] has defined as the generic distinction of SF, that is, the depiction of an alternate world, radically unlike our own, but relatable to it in terms of significant knowledge.<ref name="Fredericks, S.C."/>
</blockquote>

According to Grewell, whose definition of science fiction focuses on the struggle between supposedly superior and inferior life forms, "part of the tale that qualifies it as science fiction, rather than as fantasy or imaginative fiction, involves Lucian and his seamen in a battle for territorial and colonization rights:<ref name="Greg Grewell 30f.">Greg Grewell: “Colonizing the Universe: Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future”, ''Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature'', Vol. 55, No. 2 (2001), pp. 25-47 (30f.)</ref>

<blockquote>"The king of the inhabitants of the Sun, Phaethon," said Endymion king of the Moon, "has been at war with us for a long time now. Once upon a time I gathered together the poorest people in my kingdom and undertook to plant a colony on the Morning Star which was empty and uninhabited. Phaethon out of jealousy thwarted the colonization, meeting us halfway at the head of his dragoons. At that time we were beaten, for we were not a match for them in strength, and we retreated. Now, however, I desire to make war again and plant the colony."<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur"/></blockquote>

In sum, typical science fiction themes and topoi appearing in ''True History'' are:<ref name="Fredericks, S.C.">Fredericks, S.C.: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/8/fredericks8art.htm “Lucian's True History as SF”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 1 (March 1976), pp. 49-60</ref>
*travel to outer space
*encounter with alien life-forms, including the experience of a first encounter event
*interplanetary warfare and imperialism
*colonization of planets
*artificial atmosphere
*liquid air
*telescope
*motif of giganticism
*creatures as products of human technology (robot theme)
*worlds working by a set of alternate 'physical' laws
*explicit desire of the protagonist for exploration and adventure

A middle position seems to be taken up by the [[England|English]] [[critic]] [[Kingsley Amis]], who acknowledged the SF and satirical character of ''True History'' at the same time:

<blockquote>"I will merely remark that the sprightliness and sophistication of ''True History'' make it read like a joke at the expense of nearly all early-modern science fiction, that written between, say, 1910 and 1940."<ref>Kingsley, Amis: "New Maps of Hell: A Survey of Science Fiction", New York 1960, p.28</ref></blockquote>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== See also ==
{{Wikisourcelang|el|Αληθής Ιστορία|True History}}
*[[History of science fiction]]
*[[Moon in art and literature]]

== Further reading ==
*Fredericks, S.C.: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/8/fredericks8art.htm “Lucian's True History as SF”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 1 (March 1976), pp. 49-60
*Georgiadou, Aristoula & Larmour, David H.J.: [http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=75&pid=2774 “Lucian's Science Fiction Novel True Histories. Interpretation and Commentary“], ''Mnemosyne Supplement'' 179, Leiden 1998, ISBN 9004106677
*Grewell, Greg: “Colonizing the Universe: Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future”, ''Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature'', Vol. 55, No. 2 (2001), pp. 25-47
*Gunn, James E.: “The New Encyclopedia of Science Fiction”, Publisher: Viking 1988, ISBN 9780670810413, p.249
*Swanson, Roy Arthur: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/10/swanson10art.htm “The True, the False, and the Truly False: Lucian’s Philosophical Science Fiction”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 3 (Nov. 1976), pp. 227-239

== External links ==
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl2/wl211.htm The True History] at ''sacred-texts.com''
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/fowl/index.htm The Works of Lucian of Samosata] at ''sacred-texts.com''
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/lucian-3/ Loeb Classical Library, vol. 3/8 of Lucian's works], with facing Greek text, at ''ancientlibrary.com''
*[http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_intro.htm A.M. Harmon: Introduction to Lucian of Samosata] at ''tertullian.org''

[[Category:2nd-century novels]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek novels]]
[[Category:Works by Lucian]]
[[Category:Satire]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Moon in fiction]]

[[ca:Història vertadera]]
[[it:La storia vera]]
[[ja:本当の話]]

Wahre Geschichten (Lukian)

2010-02-02T12:15:34Z

MathFacts: /* Science fiction */

{{Infobox Book
| name = True History or True Story
| translator =
| image =
| image_caption =
| author = [[Lucian of Samosata]]
| country = [[Roman Empire (Syria)]]
| language = [[Greek language|Greek]]
| genre = [[Science fiction]]
|publisher = Various
| release_date = [[2nd century]] AD
| isbn = n/a 
}}

'''''True History''''' or '''''True Story''''' ([[Greek language|Greek:]] {{ polytonic|Ἀληθῆ διηγήματα}}) is a fantastic travel tale by the [[Greek language|Greek-speaking]] [[Assyrian people|Syrian]] author [[Lucian]] of [[Samosata]], the earliest known fiction about travelling to [[outer space]], [[Fictional extraterrestrials|alien]] life-forms and interplanetary warfare. Written in the second century [[Anno Domini|AD]], the novel has been referred to as "the first known text that could be called [[science fiction]]".<ref name="Greg Grewell 30f."/><ref>Swanson, Roy Arthur: {{Quote|Lucian of Samosata, the Greco-Syrian satirist of the second century A.D., appears today as an exemplar of the science-fiction artist. There is little, if any, need to argue that his mythopoeic Milesian Tales and his literary fantastic voyages and utopistic hyperbole comport with the genre of science fiction; ...}}</ref><ref name="Fredericks, S.C."/><ref>Georgiadou, Aristoula & Larmour, David H.J in their introduction:{{Quote|"...Lucian's Verae Historiae ("True Histories"), a fantastic journey narrative considered the earliest surviving example of Science Fiction in the Western tradition."}}</ref><ref>Gunn, James E. denotes ''True History'' as "Proto-Science Fiction", p.249</ref> The work was intended by Lucian as a satire against contemporary and ancient sources, which quote fantastic and mythical events as truth.

== Plot ==
In ''True History'', Lucian and a company of adventuring heroes sailing westward through the [[Pillars of Hercules]] (the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]) are blown off course by a strong wind, and after 79 days come to an island. This island is home to a river of wine filled with fish, and bears a marker indicating that [[Heracles]] and [[Dionysos]] have traveled to this point.

Shortly after leaving the island, they are lifted up by a giant waterspout and deposited on the [[Moon]]. There they find themselves embroiled in a full-scale war between the king of the Moon and the king of the [[Sun]], involving armies which boast such exotica as stalk-and-mushroom men, acorn-dogs ("dog-faced men fighting on winged acorns"), and cloud-centaurs. Unusually, the Sun, Moon, stars and planets are portrayed as locales, each with its unique geographic details and inhabitants.

After returning to the Earth, the adventurers become trapped in a giant [[whale]]; inside the 200-mile-long animal, there live many groups of people whom they rout in war. They also reach a sea of milk, an island of cheese and the [[isle of the blessed]]. There, he meets the heroes of the [[Trojan War]], other mythical men and animals, and even [[Homer]]. They find [[Herodotus]] being eternally punished for the "lies" he published in his [[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]].

After leaving the Island of the Blessed, they deliver a letter to [[Calypso (mythology)|Calypso]] given to them by [[Odysseus]] explaining that he wishes he had stayed with her so he could have lived eternally. They then discover a chasm in the Ocean, but eventually sail around it, discover a far-off continent and decide to explore it. The book ends rather abruptly by Lucian saying that their adventure there will be the subject of following books.

== Literary genre ==
Lucian's ''True History'' eludes a clear-cut literary classification. Its multilayered character has given rise to interpretations as diverse as [[science fiction]], [[fantasy]], [[satire]] or [[parody]], depending on how much importance scholars attach to Lucian's explicit intention of telling a story of falsehoods. Generally speaking, authors concentrating on science fiction topoi are more willing to classify ''True History'' as part of the former genres, while those stressing Lucian's satirical motives are more inclined to view his work under the latter premises.

=== Satire ===
In the later view, Lucian intended his story to be a form of literary criticism, a satire against contemporary and ancient sources which quote fantastic and mythical events as truth. He mentions the tales of [[Ctesias]], Iambulus, and [[Homer]] and states that "what did surprise me was their supposition that nobody would notice they were lying." Many characters and events are exaggerated to ridiculous ends to mock the original tellings. As noted by classicist B.P. Reardon, "above all, it is a parody of literary 'liars' like Homer and [[Herodotus]]".<ref>B.P. Reardon: ''Collected Ancient Greek Novels'', p.619</ref> Consequently, Lucian goes on to state that the story recounted in ''True History'' is about "things I have neither seen nor experienced nor heard tell of from anybody else; things, what is more, that do not in fact exist and could not ever exist at all. So my readers must not believe a word I say."<ref>B.P. Reardon: ''Collected Ancient Greek Novels'', p.622</ref>

=== Science fiction ===
Contrary to classicists, modern SF critics do not necessarily view the satirical streak of the story to conflict with modern notions of science fiction. The defining element of science can rather be found in Lucian's specific, but effective approach to identify false values and misidentifications in contemporary philosophy, which was very much the general term of [[science]] then.<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur">Swanson, Roy Arthur: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/10/swanson10art.htm “The True, the False, and the Truly False: Lucian’s Philosophical Science Fiction”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 3 (Nov. 1976), pp. 227-239</ref> Additionally, they point out that ''True History'' was written in response to another work which also contained science fictional elements, that is [[Antonius Diogenes]]’ lost ''Of the Wonderful Things Beyond [[Thule]]'', whose protagonist also reached the [[moon]].<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur"/> The estrangening feel of the story as a defining SF element has also been noted:

<blockquote>
...True History may properly be regarded as SF because Lucian often achieves that sense of "cognitive estrangement" which [[Darko Suvin]] has defined as the generic distinction of SF, that is, the depiction of an alternate world, radically unlike our own, but relatable to it in terms of significant knowledge.<ref name="Fredericks, S.C."/>
</blockquote>

According to Grewell, whose definition of science fiction focuses on the struggle between supposedly superior and inferior life forms, "part of the tale that qualifies it as science fiction, rather than as fantasy or imaginative fiction, involves Lucian and his seamen in a battle for territorial and colonization rights:<ref name="Greg Grewell 30f.">Greg Grewell: “Colonizing the Universe: Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future”, ''Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature'', Vol. 55, No. 2 (2001), pp. 25-47 (30f.)</ref>

<blockquote>"The king of the inhabitants of the Sun, Phaethon," said Endymion king of the Moon, "has been at war with us for a long time now. Once upon a time I gathered together the poorest people in my kingdom and undertook to plant a colony on the Morning Star which was empty and uninhabited. Phaethon out of jealousy thwarted the colonization, meeting us halfway at the head of his dragoons. At that time we were beaten, for we were not a match for them in strength, and we retreated. Now, however, I desire to make war again and plant the colony."<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur"/></blockquote>

In sum, typical science fiction themes and topoi appearing in ''True History'' are:<ref name="Fredericks, S.C.">Fredericks, S.C.: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/8/fredericks8art.htm “Lucian's True History as SF”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 1 (March 1976), pp. 49-60</ref>
*travel to outer space
*encounter with alien life-forms, including the experience of a first encounter event
*interplanetary warfare and imperialism
*colonization of planets
*artificial atmosphere
*spacesuits
*liquid air
*telescope
*motif of giganticism
*creatures as products of human technology (robot theme)
*worlds working by a set of alternate 'physical' laws
*explicit desire of the protagonist for exploration and adventure

A middle position seems to be taken up by the [[England|English]] [[critic]] [[Kingsley Amis]], who acknowledged the SF and satirical character of ''True History'' at the same time:

<blockquote>"I will merely remark that the sprightliness and sophistication of ''True History'' make it read like a joke at the expense of nearly all early-modern science fiction, that written between, say, 1910 and 1940."<ref>Kingsley, Amis: "New Maps of Hell: A Survey of Science Fiction", New York 1960, p.28</ref></blockquote>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== See also ==
{{Wikisourcelang|el|Αληθής Ιστορία|True History}}
*[[History of science fiction]]
*[[Moon in art and literature]]

== Further reading ==
*Fredericks, S.C.: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/8/fredericks8art.htm “Lucian's True History as SF”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 1 (March 1976), pp. 49-60
*Georgiadou, Aristoula & Larmour, David H.J.: [http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=75&pid=2774 “Lucian's Science Fiction Novel True Histories. Interpretation and Commentary“], ''Mnemosyne Supplement'' 179, Leiden 1998, ISBN 9004106677
*Grewell, Greg: “Colonizing the Universe: Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future”, ''Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature'', Vol. 55, No. 2 (2001), pp. 25-47
*Gunn, James E.: “The New Encyclopedia of Science Fiction”, Publisher: Viking 1988, ISBN 9780670810413, p.249
*Swanson, Roy Arthur: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/10/swanson10art.htm “The True, the False, and the Truly False: Lucian’s Philosophical Science Fiction”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 3 (Nov. 1976), pp. 227-239

== External links ==
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl2/wl211.htm The True History] at ''sacred-texts.com''
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/fowl/index.htm The Works of Lucian of Samosata] at ''sacred-texts.com''
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/lucian-3/ Loeb Classical Library, vol. 3/8 of Lucian's works], with facing Greek text, at ''ancientlibrary.com''
*[http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_intro.htm A.M. Harmon: Introduction to Lucian of Samosata] at ''tertullian.org''

[[Category:2nd-century novels]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek novels]]
[[Category:Works by Lucian]]
[[Category:Satire]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Moon in fiction]]

[[ca:Història vertadera]]
[[it:La storia vera]]
[[ja:本当の話]]

Wahre Geschichten (Lukian)

2010-02-02T11:19:55Z

MathFacts: /* Science fiction */

{{Infobox Book
| name = True History or True Story
| translator =
| image =
| image_caption =
| author = [[Lucian of Samosata]]
| country = [[Roman Empire (Syria)]]
| language = [[Greek language|Greek]]
| genre = [[Science fiction]]
|publisher = Various
| release_date = [[2nd century]] AD
| isbn = n/a 
}}

'''''True History''''' or '''''True Story''''' ([[Greek language|Greek:]] {{ polytonic|Ἀληθῆ διηγήματα}}) is a fantastic travel tale by the [[Greek language|Greek-speaking]] [[Assyrian people|Syrian]] author [[Lucian]] of [[Samosata]], the earliest known fiction about travelling to [[outer space]], [[Fictional extraterrestrials|alien]] life-forms and interplanetary warfare. Written in the second century [[Anno Domini|AD]], the novel has been referred to as "the first known text that could be called [[science fiction]]".<ref name="Greg Grewell 30f."/><ref>Swanson, Roy Arthur: {{Quote|Lucian of Samosata, the Greco-Syrian satirist of the second century A.D., appears today as an exemplar of the science-fiction artist. There is little, if any, need to argue that his mythopoeic Milesian Tales and his literary fantastic voyages and utopistic hyperbole comport with the genre of science fiction; ...}}</ref><ref name="Fredericks, S.C."/><ref>Georgiadou, Aristoula & Larmour, David H.J in their introduction:{{Quote|"...Lucian's Verae Historiae ("True Histories"), a fantastic journey narrative considered the earliest surviving example of Science Fiction in the Western tradition."}}</ref><ref>Gunn, James E. denotes ''True History'' as "Proto-Science Fiction", p.249</ref> The work was intended by Lucian as a satire against contemporary and ancient sources, which quote fantastic and mythical events as truth.

== Plot ==
In ''True History'', Lucian and a company of adventuring heroes sailing westward through the [[Pillars of Hercules]] (the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]) are blown off course by a strong wind, and after 79 days come to an island. This island is home to a river of wine filled with fish, and bears a marker indicating that [[Heracles]] and [[Dionysos]] have traveled to this point.

Shortly after leaving the island, they are lifted up by a giant waterspout and deposited on the [[Moon]]. There they find themselves embroiled in a full-scale war between the king of the Moon and the king of the [[Sun]], involving armies which boast such exotica as stalk-and-mushroom men, acorn-dogs ("dog-faced men fighting on winged acorns"), and cloud-centaurs. Unusually, the Sun, Moon, stars and planets are portrayed as locales, each with its unique geographic details and inhabitants.

After returning to the Earth, the adventurers become trapped in a giant [[whale]]; inside the 200-mile-long animal, there live many groups of people whom they rout in war. They also reach a sea of milk, an island of cheese and the [[isle of the blessed]]. There, he meets the heroes of the [[Trojan War]], other mythical men and animals, and even [[Homer]]. They find [[Herodotus]] being eternally punished for the "lies" he published in his [[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]].

After leaving the Island of the Blessed, they deliver a letter to [[Calypso (mythology)|Calypso]] given to them by [[Odysseus]] explaining that he wishes he had stayed with her so he could have lived eternally. They then discover a chasm in the Ocean, but eventually sail around it, discover a far-off continent and decide to explore it. The book ends rather abruptly by Lucian saying that their adventure there will be the subject of following books.

== Literary genre ==
Lucian's ''True History'' eludes a clear-cut literary classification. Its multilayered character has given rise to interpretations as diverse as [[science fiction]], [[fantasy]], [[satire]] or [[parody]], depending on how much importance scholars attach to Lucian's explicit intention of telling a story of falsehoods. Generally speaking, authors concentrating on science fiction topoi are more willing to classify ''True History'' as part of the former genres, while those stressing Lucian's satirical motives are more inclined to view his work under the latter premises.

=== Satire ===
In the later view, Lucian intended his story to be a form of literary criticism, a satire against contemporary and ancient sources which quote fantastic and mythical events as truth. He mentions the tales of [[Ctesias]], Iambulus, and [[Homer]] and states that "what did surprise me was their supposition that nobody would notice they were lying." Many characters and events are exaggerated to ridiculous ends to mock the original tellings. As noted by classicist B.P. Reardon, "above all, it is a parody of literary 'liars' like Homer and [[Herodotus]]".<ref>B.P. Reardon: ''Collected Ancient Greek Novels'', p.619</ref> Consequently, Lucian goes on to state that the story recounted in ''True History'' is about "things I have neither seen nor experienced nor heard tell of from anybody else; things, what is more, that do not in fact exist and could not ever exist at all. So my readers must not believe a word I say."<ref>B.P. Reardon: ''Collected Ancient Greek Novels'', p.622</ref>

=== Science fiction ===
Contrary to classicists, modern SF critics do not necessarily view the satirical streak of the story to conflict with modern notions of science fiction. The defining element of science can rather be found in Lucian's specific, but effective approach to identify false values and misidentifications in contemporary philosophy, which was very much the general term of [[science]] then.<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur">Swanson, Roy Arthur: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/10/swanson10art.htm “The True, the False, and the Truly False: Lucian’s Philosophical Science Fiction”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 3 (Nov. 1976), pp. 227-239</ref> Additionally, they point out that ''True History'' was written in response to another work which also contained science fictional elements, that is [[Antonius Diogenes]]’ lost ''Of the Wonderful Things Beyond [[Thule]]'', whose protagonist also reached the [[moon]].<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur"/> The estrangening feel of the story as a defining SF element has also been noted:

<blockquote>
...True History may properly be regarded as SF because Lucian often achieves that sense of "cognitive estrangement" which [[Darko Suvin]] has defined as the generic distinction of SF, that is, the depiction of an alternate world, radically unlike our own, but relatable to it in terms of significant knowledge.<ref name="Fredericks, S.C."/>
</blockquote>

According to Grewell, whose definition of science fiction focuses on the struggle between supposedly superior and inferior life forms, "part of the tale that qualifies it as science fiction, rather than as fantasy or imaginative fiction, involves Lucian and his seamen in a battle for territorial and colonization rights:<ref name="Greg Grewell 30f.">Greg Grewell: “Colonizing the Universe: Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future”, ''Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature'', Vol. 55, No. 2 (2001), pp. 25-47 (30f.)</ref>

<blockquote>"The king of the inhabitants of the Sun, Phaethon," said Endymion king of the Moon, "has been at war with us for a long time now. Once upon a time I gathered together the poorest people in my kingdom and undertook to plant a colony on the Morning Star which was empty and uninhabited. Phaethon out of jealousy thwarted the colonization, meeting us halfway at the head of his dragoons. At that time we were beaten, for we were not a match for them in strength, and we retreated. Now, however, I desire to make war again and plant the colony."<ref name="Swanson, Roy Arthur"/></blockquote>

In sum, typical science fiction themes and topoi appearing in ''True History'' are:<ref name="Fredericks, S.C.">Fredericks, S.C.: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/8/fredericks8art.htm “Lucian's True History as SF”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 1 (March 1976), pp. 49-60</ref>
*travel to outer space
*encounter with alien life-forms, including the experience of a first encounter event
*interplanetary warfare and imperialism
*colonization of planets
*artificial atmosphere
*spacesuits
*liquid air
*motif of giganticism
*creatures as products of human technology (robot theme)
*worlds working by a set of alternate 'physical' laws
*explicit desire of the protagonist for exploration and adventure

A middle position seems to be taken up by the [[England|English]] [[critic]] [[Kingsley Amis]], who acknowledged the SF and satirical character of ''True History'' at the same time:

<blockquote>"I will merely remark that the sprightliness and sophistication of ''True History'' make it read like a joke at the expense of nearly all early-modern science fiction, that written between, say, 1910 and 1940."<ref>Kingsley, Amis: "New Maps of Hell: A Survey of Science Fiction", New York 1960, p.28</ref></blockquote>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== See also ==
{{Wikisourcelang|el|Αληθής Ιστορία|True History}}
*[[History of science fiction]]
*[[Moon in art and literature]]

== Further reading ==
*Fredericks, S.C.: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/8/fredericks8art.htm “Lucian's True History as SF”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 1 (March 1976), pp. 49-60
*Georgiadou, Aristoula & Larmour, David H.J.: [http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=75&pid=2774 “Lucian's Science Fiction Novel True Histories. Interpretation and Commentary“], ''Mnemosyne Supplement'' 179, Leiden 1998, ISBN 9004106677
*Grewell, Greg: “Colonizing the Universe: Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future”, ''Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature'', Vol. 55, No. 2 (2001), pp. 25-47
*Gunn, James E.: “The New Encyclopedia of Science Fiction”, Publisher: Viking 1988, ISBN 9780670810413, p.249
*Swanson, Roy Arthur: [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/10/swanson10art.htm “The True, the False, and the Truly False: Lucian’s Philosophical Science Fiction”], ''Science Fiction Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 3 (Nov. 1976), pp. 227-239

== External links ==
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl2/wl211.htm The True History] at ''sacred-texts.com''
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/fowl/index.htm The Works of Lucian of Samosata] at ''sacred-texts.com''
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/lucian-3/ Loeb Classical Library, vol. 3/8 of Lucian's works], with facing Greek text, at ''ancientlibrary.com''
*[http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_intro.htm A.M. Harmon: Introduction to Lucian of Samosata] at ''tertullian.org''

[[Category:2nd-century novels]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek novels]]
[[Category:Works by Lucian]]
[[Category:Satire]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Moon in fiction]]

[[ca:Història vertadera]]
[[it:La storia vera]]
[[ja:本当の話]]

Bell-Polynom

2009-09-16T12:20:04Z

MathFacts: /* Faà di Bruno's formula */

In [[combinatorics|combinatorial]] [[mathematics]], the '''Bell polynomials''', named in honor of [[Eric Temple Bell]], are given by

:<math>B_{n,k}(x_1,x_2,\dots,x_{n-k+1})</math>

:<math>=\sum{n! \over j_1!j_2!\cdots j_{n-k+1}!}
\left({x_1\over 1!}\right)^{j_1}\left({x_2\over 2!}\right)^{j_2}\cdots\left({x_{n-k+1} \over (n-k+1)!}\right)^{j_{n-k+1}},</math>

the sum extending over all sequences ''j''1, ''j''2, ''j''3, ..., ''j''''n''−''k''+1 of non-negative integers such that

:<math>j_1+j_2+\cdots = k\quad\mbox{and}\quad j_1+2j_2+3j_3+\cdots=n.</math>

==Convolution identity==

For sequences ''x''''n'', ''y''''n'', ''n'' = 1, 2, ..., define a sort of [[convolution]] by:

:<math>(x \diamondsuit y)_n = \sum_{j=1}^{n-1} {n \choose j} x_j y_{n-j}</math>

(the bounds of summation are 1 and ''n'' − 1, not 0 and ''n'').

Let <math>x_n^{k\diamondsuit}\,</math> be the ''n''th term of the sequence

:<math>\displaystyle\underbrace{x\diamondsuit\cdots\diamondsuit x}_{k\ \mathrm{factors}}.\,</math>

Then

:<math>B_{n,k}(x_1,\dots,x_{n-k+1}) = {x_{n}^{k\diamondsuit} \over k!}.\,</math>

==Complete Bell polynomials==

The sum

:<math>B_n(x_1,\dots,x_n)=\sum_{k=1}^n B_{n,k}(x_1,x_2,\dots,x_{n-k+1})</math>

is sometimes called the ''n''th '''complete Bell polynomial'''. In order to contrast them with complete Bell polynomials, the polynomials ''B''''n'', ''k'' defined above are sometimes called "partial" Bell polynomials. The complete Bell polynomials satisfy the following identity

:<math>B_n(x_1,\dots,x_n) = \det\begin{bmatrix}x_1 & {n-1 \choose 1} x_2 & {n-1 \choose 2}x_3 & {n-1 \choose 3} x_4 & {n-1 \choose 4} x_5 & \cdots & \cdots & x_n \\ \\
-1 & x_1 & {n-2 \choose 1} x_2 & {n-2 \choose 2} x_3 & {n-2 \choose 3} x_4 & \cdots & \cdots & x_{n-1} \\ \\
0 & -1 & x_1 & {n-3 \choose 1} x_2 & {n-3 \choose 2} x_3 & \cdots & \cdots & x_{n-2} \\ \\
0 & 0 & -1 & x_1 & {n-4 \choose 1} x_2 & \cdots & \cdots & x_{n-3} \\ \\
0 & 0 & 0 & -1 & x_1 & \cdots & \cdots & x_{n-4} \\ \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & -1 & \cdots & \cdots & x_{n-5} \\ \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \ddots & \vdots \\ \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & -1 & x_1 \end{bmatrix}.</math>

==Combinatorial meaning==

If the integer ''n'' is [[integer partition|partitioned]] into a sum in which "1" appears ''j''1 times, "2" appears ''j''2 times, and so on, then the number of [[partition of a set|partitions of a set]] of size ''n'' that collapse to that partition of the integer ''n'' when the members of the set become indistinguishable is the corresponding coefficient in the polynomial.

===Examples===

For example, we have

:<math>B_{6,2}(x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4,x_5)=6x_5x_1+15x_4x_2+10x_3^2</math>

because there are

:6 ways to partition of set of 6 as 5 + 1,
:15 ways to partition of set of 6 as 4 + 2, and
:10 ways to partition a set of 6 as 3 + 3.

Similarly,

:<math>B_{6,3}(x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4)=15x_4x_1^2+60x_3x_2x_1+15x_2^3</math>

because there are

:15 ways to partition a set of 6 as 4 + 1 + 1,
:60 ways to partition a set of 6 as 3 + 2 + 1, and
:15 ways to partition a set of 6 as 2 + 2 + 2.

===Stirling numbers and Bell numbers===

The value of the Bell polynomial ''B''''n'',''k''(''x''1,''x''2,...) when all ''x''s are equal to 1 is a [[Stirling number]] of the second kind:

:<math>B_{n,k}(1,1,\dots)=S(n,k)=\left\{\begin{matrix} n \\ k \end{matrix}\right\}.</math>

The sum

:<math>\sum_{k=1}^n B_{n,k}(1,1,1,\dots) = \sum_{k=1}^n\left\{\begin{matrix} n \\ k \end{matrix}\right\} </math>

is the ''n''th [[Bell number]], which is the number of partitions of a set of size ''n''.

==Applications of Bell polynomials==

===Faà di Bruno's formula===

[[Faà di Bruno's formula]] may be stated in terms of Bell polynomials as follows:

:<math>{d^n \over dx^n} f(g(x)) = \sum_{k=0}^n f^{(k)}(g(x)) B_{n,k}\left(g'(x),g''(x),\dots,g^{(n-k+1)}(x)\right).</math>

Similarly, a power-series version of Faà di Bruno's formula may be stated using Bell polynomials as follows. Suppose

:<math>f(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty {a_n \over n!} x^n \qquad
\mathrm{and} \qquad g(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty {b_n \over n!} x^n.</math>

Then

:<math>g(f(x)) = \sum_{n=1}^\infty
{\sum_{k=1}^{n} b_k B_{n,k}(a_1,\dots,a_{n-k+1}) \over n!} x^n.</math>

The ''complete'' Bell polynomials appear in the exponential of a [[formal power series]]:

:<math>\exp\left(\sum_{n=1}^\infty {a_n \over n!} x^n \right)
= \sum_{n=0}^\infty {B_n(a_1,\dots,a_n) \over n!} x^n.</math>

See also [[exponential formula]].

===Moments and cumulants===

The sum

:<math>B_n(\kappa_1,\dots,\kappa_n)=\sum_{k=1}^n B_{n,k}(\kappa_1,\dots,\kappa_{n-k+1})</math>

is the ''n''th [[moment (mathematics)|moment]] of a [[probability distribution]] whose first ''n'' [[cumulant]]s are κ1, ..., κ''n''. In other words, the ''n''th moment is the ''n''th complete Bell polynomial evaluated at the first ''n'' cumulants.

===Representation of polynomial sequences of binomial type===

For any sequence ''a''1, ''a''2, ''a''3, ... of scalars, let

:<math>p_n(x)=\sum_{k=1}^n B_{n,k}(a_1,\dots,a_{n-k+1}) x^k.</math>

Then this polynomial sequence is of [[binomial type]], i.e. it satisfies the binomial identity

:<math>p_n(x+y)=\sum_{k=0}^n {n \choose k} p_k(x) p_{n-k}(y)</math>

for ''n'' ≥ 0. In fact we have this result:

:'''Theorem:''' All polynomial sequences of binomial type are of this form.

If we let

:<math>h(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty {a_n \over n!} x^n</math>

taking this power series to be purely formal, then for all ''n'',

:<math>h^{-1}\left( {d \over dx}\right) p_n(x) = n p_{n-1}(x).</math>

==References==

* {{cite journal | author=[[Eric Temple Bell]] |title=Partition Polynomials |journal=[[Annals of Mathematics]] |volume=29 |issue=1/4 |year=1927–1928 |pages=38–46 |doi=10.2307/1967979 |id={{MR|id=1502817}} |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-486X%281927%2F1928%292%3A29%3A1%2F4%3C38%3APP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8}}
* [[Louis Comtet]] ''Advanced Combinatorics: The Art of Finite and Infinite Expansions'', Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht-Holland/Boston-U.S., 1974.
* [[Steven Roman]], ''The Umbral Calculus'', [[Dover Publications]].

==See also==

* [[Bell matrix]]

[[Category:Enumerative combinatorics]]
[[Category:Polynomials]]

Alexander Fjodorowitsch Akimow

2009-08-20T12:43:49Z

MathFacts:

'''Alexander Akimov''' (died May 1986) was the shift supervisor of the night crew that worked at the [[Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant]] on the night of the [[Chernobyl disaster|infamous accident]], [[April 26]], [[1986]]. He died three weeks after the accident due to [[radiation poisoning]]. The exact date of his death is unknown as, in order to cover up the accident, the Soviet government ordered his records to be destroyed{{cn}}.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Akimov, Alexander}}
[[Category:Ukrainian people]]
[[Category:1986 deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]

{{nuclear-stub}}
{{Ukraine-bio-stub}}

[[fr:Alexander Akimov]]

Sowjetischer Rubel

2009-08-10T23:42:44Z

MathFacts: /* Ruble in the Soviet Union */

{{Unreferenced|date=April 2009}}

{{Expand|date=April 2007}}
{{Infobox Currency
| currency_name_in_local = Советский рубль {{ru icon}}
| image_1 = Rouble-1961-Paper-1-Obverse.jpg
| image_title_1 = Obverse of 1 ruble (1961)
| image_2 = Rouble-1961-Paper-1-Reverse.jpg
| image_title_2 = Reverse of 1 ruble (1961)
| iso_code = SUR
| using_countries = {{USSR}}
| subunit_ratio_1 = 1/100
| subunit_name_1 = kopek (копейка)
| symbol = руб
| symbol_subunit_1 = к
| plural = ''rublya'' (nom. pl.), ''rubley'' (gen. pl.)
| plural_subunit_1 = ''kopeyki'' (nom. pl.), ''kopeyek'' (gen. pl.)
| used_coins = 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 50 kopeks, 1, 5, 10 rubles
| used_banknotes = 1, 3, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 rubles
| issuing_authority = State Bank of the Soviet Union
| printer = [[Goznak]]
| mint = [[Saint Petersburg Mint|Leningrad]] 1921-1991 (temporarily moved to Krasnokamsk 1941-1946), Moscow 1982-1991
| obsolete_notice = Y
}}

[[Image:Poltinnik.jpg|thumb|right|200px|1924 poltinnik (½ ruble).]]
The '''Soviet ruble''' or '''rouble''' ({{lang-ru|рубль}}; see below for other [[Languages of the Soviet Union|languages of the USSR]]) was the [[currency]] of the [[Soviet Union]]. One ruble is divided into 100 kopeks, (also [[transliteration|transliterated]] as kopecks or copecks {{lang-ru|копе́йка, pl. копе́йки}} - ''kopeyka'', ''kopeyki'').

The Soviet ruble was available in ''banknotes'' and ''foreign roubles'' form ({{lang-ru|инвалютный рубль}}); also, several forms of virtual roubles were used for inter-enterprise accounting and international settlement in the [[Comecon]] zone.<ref>{{et icon}} [[eestimajandus.ee]]: [http://www.eestimajandus.ee/moodul.php?moodul=CMS&Komponent=Lehed&id=47&sm_id=193 "NSV Liidu valuutasüsteem ja esimesed ühisettevõtted"]</ref>

==Etymology==
{{main|Ruble}}
The word "ruble" is derived from the [[Slavic language|Slavic]] verb ''рубить'', ''rubit<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', i.e., to chop. Historically, "ruble" was a piece of a certain weight chopped off a [[silver]] [[ingot]] ([[grivna]]), hence the name.

==Ruble in the Soviet Union==
The Soviet currency had its own name in all [[Languages of the Soviet Union|Soviet languages]], sometimes quite different from its Russian designation. All banknotes had the currency name and their nominal printed in the languages of every [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Republic]]. This naming is preserved in modern Russia; for example: [[Tatar language|Tatar]] for ''ruble'' and ''kopek'' are ''sum'' and ''tien''. The current names of several currencies of [[Central Asia]] are simply the local names of the ruble.

The name of the currency in the official languages of the 15 republics, in the order they appeared in the banknotes:

{|class="wikitable"
!rowspan=2| Language !!colspan=2| In local language !!colspan=2| Transliteration
|-
! ruble !! kopek !! ruble !! kopek
|-
| width=20% | [[Russian language|Russian]]
| width=20% | рубль
| width=20% | копейка
| width=20% | rubl’
| width=20% | kopeika
|-
| [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| карбованець
| копійка
| karbovanets’
| kopiyka
|-
| [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
| рубель
| капейка
| rub’el’
| kapeika
|-
| [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]
| сўм
| тийин
| so'm'
| tiyin
|-
| [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]
| сом
| тиын
| som
| tiyn
|-
| [[Georgian language|Georgian]]
| მანეთი
|
| manati
|
|-
| [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]
| манат
| гəпик
| manat
| qəpik
|-
| [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
| rublis
| kapeika
| —
| —
|-
| [[Moldavian language|Moldavian]]
| рублэ
| копейкэ
| rublă
| copeică
|-
| [[Latvian language|Latvian]]
| rublis
| kapeika
| —
| —
|-
| [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]
| сом
| тыйн
| som
| tyin
|-
| [[Tajik language|Tajik]]
| сўм
|
| sum
|
|-
| [[Armenian language|Armenian]]
| ռուբլի
| կոպեկ
| roubli
| kopek
|-
| [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]
| манат
|
| manat
|
|-
| [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
| rubla
| kopikas
| —
| —
|}

Note that the script for [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Moldavian language|Moldavian]], and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] have switched from [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] to [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] some time around the [[breakup of the Soviet Union]].

==Historical Soviet rubles==
===First Soviet ruble===
The first ruble issued for the Socialist government was a preliminary issue still based on the previous issue of the ruble prior to the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] of 1917. They are all in banknote form and started their issue in 1919. At this time other issues were made by the [[White movement|white Russian government]] and other governing bodies.
Denominations are as follows: 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15, 25, 50, 60, 100, 250, 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, 25,000, 50,000, 100,000. Short term treasury certificate were also issued to supplement banknote issue in 1 million, 5 million, 10 million rubles. These issue was printed in various fashions, as inflation crept up the security features were few and some were printed on one side, as was the case for the German inflationary notes.

===Second Soviet ruble, January 1, 1922 - December 31, 1922===
[[Image:1 rouble of 1922.jpg|thumb|200px||right|[[Silver]] [[rouble]] of 1922]]
In 1922, the first of several redenominations took place, at a rate of 1 "new" ruble for 10,000 "old" rubles. The [[Russian chervonets|chervonets]] (червонец) was also introduced in 1922.

===Third Soviet ruble, January 1, 1923 - March 6 ,1924===
A second redenomination took place in 1923, at a rate of 100 to 1. Again, only paper money was issued. During the lifetime of this currency, the first money of the [[Soviet Union]] was issued.

===Fourth (Gold) Soviet ruble, March 7, 1924 - 1947===

A third redenomination in 1924 introduced the "gold" ruble at a value of 50,000 rubles of the previous issue. This reform also saw the ruble linked to the [[chervonets]], at a value of 10 rubles. Coins began to be issued again in 1924, whilst paper money was issued in rubles for values below 10 rubles and in chervonets for higher denominations.

===Fifth Soviet ruble, 1947 - 1961===
Following [[World War II]], the Soviet government implemented a confiscatory redenomination of the currency to reduce the amount of money in circulation. This only affected the paper money. Old rubles were revalued at one tenth of their face value.

===Sixth Soviet ruble, 1961 - 1991===
[[Image:Soviet Union-1989-Coin-0.50.jpg|thumb|right|200px|50 kopek type issued 1961-1991.]]
The 1961 redenomination was a repeat of the 1947 reform, with the same terms applying. Newly designed notes were issued with artwork by the artist [[Victor Tsigal]] depicting scenes from Soviet life and Soviet industrial achievements. The Soviet ruble of 1961 was formally equal to 0.987412 gram of [[gold]], but the exchange for gold was never available to the general public. This ruble maintained parity with the [[Pound Sterling]] until the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 when the [[Russian ruble|ruble]] became the new currency of the [[Russia|Russian Federation]].

==Economic role==
The [[economy of the Soviet Union]] was a government-controlled [[planned economy]], where the government controlled prices and the exchange of currency. Thus, its role was unlike that of a currency in a market economy, because distribution of goods was controlled by other mechanisms than currency. Only a limited set of products could be freely bought, thus the ruble had a role similar to [[trading stamp]]s or [[food stamp]]s. The currency was not internationally exchangeable and its export was illegal. The sudden transformation from a Soviet "non-currency" into a market currency contributed to the economic hardship following the collapse of the Soviet planned economy.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}

The gold-pegged ruble could be considered a currency, but it was not exportable either.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}

==Replacement currencies in the former Soviet republics==

Shortly after the [[fall of the Soviet Union]] in [[1991]], local currencies were introduced in the newly independent states. Most of the new economies were weak and hence all of the currencies have undergone significant reforms since launch that included change of names and denominations.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}

In the very beginning of the post-Soviet economic transition, quite a lot of people{{Who|date=April 2009}} and institutions (including the [[International Monetary Fund]]) believed in the possibility to maintain the common [[currency]] working for all or at least for some of the former Soviet Union’s countries.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}

Political considerations were one reason for this advocacy. Certain politicians were hoping to rebuild the former Russian empire in some way, or at the very least, maintain "special relations" among former Soviet republics, or the "[[near abroad]]" as they came to be known in Russia. Another reason were the economical considerations for maintaining the ruble zone. The wish to preserve the strong trade relations between former Soviet republics was considered the most important goal.{{Who|date=April 2009}}

The break-up of the Soviet Union was not accompanied by any formal changes in monetary arrangements. The Central Bank of Russia was authorized to take over the State Bank of the USSR ([[Gosbank]]) on [[1 January]] [[1992]]. It continued to ship USSR ruble notes and coins to the central banks of the fourteen newly independent countries, which had formerly been the main branches of Gosbank in the republics. The political situation, however, was not favorable for maintaining a common currency.{{Fact|date=April 2009}} A strong political consensus in respect to monetary and fiscal targets, the common institution in charge of implementing these targets, and some minimum of common legislation (concerning the banking and foreign exchange regulations) are absolutely necessary conditions to have a common currency. Amidst the economical chaos, mistrust and adjustment to democracy and market economy these conditions were far from reality.

During the first half of 1992, a monetary union with 15 independent states all using the ruble existed. Since it was clear that the situation would not last, each of them was using its position as “free-riders” to issue huge amounts of money in the form of credit (since Russia held the monopoly on printing banknotes and coins). Ukraine was very active in this.{{Fact|date=April 2009}} As a result, some countries were issuing coupons in order to “protect” their markets from buyers from other states. The Russian central bank responded in July 1992 by setting up restrictions to the flow of credit between Russia and other states. The final collapse of the ruble zone began with the exchange of banknotes by the Central bank of Russia on Russian territory at the end of July 1993. As a result, other countries still in the ruble zone ([[Kazakhstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Moldova]], [[Armenia]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]) were ‘pushed out’.{{Fact|date=April 2009}} By November 1993 all newly independent states had introduced their own currencies, with the exception of war-torn [[Tajikistan]] (May 1995) and unrecognized [[Transnistria]] (1994).

Details on the introduction of new currencies in the newly independent states are discussed below.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Country
! New currency
! Conversion rate from ruble
! Date introduction new currency
! Date leaving ruble zone
! Remarks
|-
| {{ARM}}
| [[Armenian dram|Dram]]
| 200
| [[22 November]] [[1993]]
| ?
| -
|-
|{{AZE}}
| [[Azerbaijani manat|Manat]]
| 10
| [[15 August]] [[1992]]
| ?
|The Manat was revalued 5,000 to 1 on [[1 January]] [[2006]].
|-
| {{BLR}}
| [[Belarusian ruble|Ruble]]
| 10
| May, 1992
| ?
|The Belarusian ruble was redenominated 1,000 to 1 on [[1 January]] [[2000]].
|-
| {{Flag|Estonia}}
| [[Estonian kroon|Kroon]]
| 10
| [[20 June]] [[1992]]
| [[22 June]] [[1992]]
|Pegged to [[German Mark]] (1 DEM = 8EEK). The first ‘hardened’ currency in former SU. Estonia plans to introduce the [[Euro]] in 2011.
|-
| {{GEO}}
| [[Georgian lari|Kupon lari]]
| 1
| [[5 April]] [[1993]]
| ?
| The "first Lari" was a temporary currency. It was replaced [[2 October]] [[1995]] at a rate of 1,000,000 to 1 by the [[Georgian lari|Lari]].
|-
| {{KAZ}}
| [[Kazakhstani tenge|Tenge]]
| 500
| [[15 November]] [[1993]]
| ?
| -
|-
| {{KGZ}}
| [[Kyrgyzstani som|Som]]
| 200
| [[10 May]] [[1993]]
| [[15 May]] [[1993]]
| Until [[1 January]] [[2008]] only banknotes were issued.
|-
| {{flag|Latvia}}
| [[Latvian rublis|Rublis]]
| 1
| [[7 May]] [[1992]]
| [[20 July]] [[1992]]
|The Latvian ruble was a temporary currency, replaced by [[Lats]] at a rate of 200 to 1 in March 1993. Latvia plans to introduce the Euro in 2012.
|-
| {{flag|Lithuania}}
| [[Lithuanian talonas|Talonas]]
| 1
| [[1 May]] [[1992]]
| [[1 October]] [[1992]]
| The Talonas was a temporary currency, replaced by the [[Litas]] at a rate of 100 (Talonas) to 1 on [[25 June]] [[1993]]. The Litas is to be replaced by the [[Euro]] in 2010.
|-
| {{MDA}} , (excl. [[Transnistria]]).
| [[Moldovan cupon|Cupon]]
| 1
| 1992
| ?
| The Cupon was a temporary currency replaced by the [[Moldovan leu|Leu]] at a rate of 1,000 to 1 on [[29 November]] [[1993]].
|-
|{{RUS}}
| [[Russian ruble]]
| 1
| 1992
| July 1993
|The Russian ruble was redenominated 1,000 to 1 on [[1 January]] [[1998]]
|-
| {{flag|Transnistria}}
| [[Transnistrian ruble|Ruble]]
| 1
| 1994
| ?
| The Transistrian Ruble was redenominated 1,000,000 to 1 in 2000.
|-
| {{TJK}}
| [[Tajikistani ruble|Ruble]]
| 100
| [[10 May]] [[1995]]
| ?
| As a result of its civil war, Tajikistan was the last country to leave the ruble zone. The Tajikistani ruble was replaced by the [[Somoni]] at a rate of 1,000 to 1 on [[30 October]] [[2000]].
|-
| {{TKM}}
| [[Turkmenistani manat|Manat]]
| 500
| [[1 November]] [[1993]]
| ?
|It was redenominated in 2009 at a rate of 5,000 to 1.
|-
| {{UKR}}
| [[Ukrainian karbovanets|Karbovanets]]
| 1
| [[10 January]] [[1992]]
| ?
| The Karbovanets was replaced by the [[Hryvnia]] at a rate of 100,000 to 1 on [[2 September]] [[1996]].
|-
| {{UZB}}
| [[Uzbekistani som|Som]]
| 1
| [[15 November]] [[1993]]
| [[15 November]] [[1993]]
| The first Som was a transitional currency, redenominated 1,000 (old) to 1 (new) on [[1 July]] [[1994]].
|}

===Kyrgyzstan===
Kyrgyzstan decided to leave the ruble zone, because it considered the Russian monetary policy to be too inflationary; which was not good for stabilizing the economy. Kyrgyzstan introduced its own currency (the [[Som]]) on [[10 May]] [[1993]]. The first issue consisted of banknotes of 0.01; 0.10; 0.50; 1; 5 and 20 Som. After a period of dual circulation the Som became the only legal tender, on [[15 May]]. New series of banknotes were introduced in 1994 and 1997. Starting in January 2008 low denomination banknotes are being phased out and replaced by coins.

===Latvia===
Latvia was the first country to introduce its own currency: the [[Latvian ruble]], introduced May 7, 1992, on par with the Soviet ruble and circulated parallel with it; on July 20, it became the sole legal tender.<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica, ''Britannica book of the year: 1993'', p649</ref>. It was the second country to leave the ruble zone entirely. Latvia decided to leave the ruble zone, because it considered the Russian monetary policy to be too inflationary; which was not good for stabilizing the economy. {{Fact|date=April 2009}} Latvia declared independence on [[4 May]] [[1990]], this was, however, not formally recognized by the Soviet-Union until [[25 December]] [[1991]]. On [[3 September]] [[1991]] the Supreme Council of the Republic of Latvia passed a resolution to restore the status of the [[Bank of Latvia]] to that of a central bank, with the exclusive right to issue the national currency.

In the first four months of 1992 Latvia was adversely affected by the inflation of the ruble. In addition, the outgoing cash payments (with other ex-USSR states) surpassed the incoming money amounts by 122 million rubles (5.9%) in February and in April by 686 million rubles (29.2%), thus causing a very serious shortage of cash. Since money was issued by Russia, the Bank of Latvia was unable to improve the cash circulation in the country. The situation completely depended on the possibility of receiving or buying cash and credit resources from the Russian central bank. It was evident that a crisis could develop, in which the Bank of Latvia would not be able to execute even the most necessary payments.

Thus the Monetary Reform Committee of the Republic of Latvia was established, and on [[4 May]] [[1992]] it passed the resolution on introducing a new temporary currency: the Latvian ruble. Notes were issued on [[7 May]] in the following denominations: 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 200 and 500 rubles. They were exchanged at par with Soviet rubles. Until [[20 July]] both currencies circulated together, at that day the Soviet ruble ceased to be legal tender and Latvia left the ruble zone entirely.
The Latvian ruble was however intended as a temporary currency. It was gradually replaced by the new national currency (the Lats). This process started on [[5 March]] [[1993]] with the introduction of the 5 lats-banknote and would be completed on [[20 July]] [[1998]], with the 500 lats-banknote.

The successful reform ending in the introduction of the lats facilitated Latvia’s transition to a stable [[market economy]].

===Uzbekistan===
Uzbekistan was "pushed out" of the Ruble zone as a consequence of the July 1993 introduction of new banknotes in Russia.

Uzbekistan introduced a temporary national currency (the Som) on 15 November 1993. It replaced the ruble at a rate of 1:1. Between July and November 1993 old and new ruble notes circulated together.
On 1 July 1994 the temporary Som was replaced by a new, permanent, version of the Som. Old notes were exchanged at a rate of 1.000 to 1. At its introduction 7 Som were equal to 1 American Dollar.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|Money of the Soviet Union}}
* [[Leon Trotsky]]. [http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1936/revbet/ch04.htm ''The Revolution Betrayed.'' Chapter 4 - The Struggle for Productivity of Labor, associated with the issuence of the ruble], 1936
*[http://www.atsnotes.com/catalog/russia/russia.html A commercial site with some relevant historical information]
* [http://www.ucoin.net/catalog/?country=USSR Coins of the Soviet Union (catalog and gallery)]

{{portalpar|Numismatics|United_States_penny,_obverse,_2002.png}}

{{Currencies of post-Soviet states}}

[[Category:Economy of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Currencies of Europe]]
[[Category:Currencies of Asia]]
[[Category:Modern obsolete currencies]]

[[be-x-old:Савецкі рубель]]
[[ca:Ruble soviètic]]
[[cs:Sovětský rubl]]
[[es:Rublo soviético]]
[[fr:Rouble soviétique]]
[[it:Rublo sovietico]]
[[hu:Szovjet rubel]]
[[no:Sovjetisk rubel]]
[[ru:Рубль СССР]]
[[sk:Sovietsky rubeľ]]
[[uk:Радянський карбованець]]
[[zh:蘇聯盧布]]