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Benutzer:M.ottenbruch/Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

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{{short description|Wife of Edgar Allan Poe}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Virginia Poe
| image = VirginiaPoe.jpg
| caption = Virginia Poe, as painted after her death
| birth_name = Virginia Eliza Clemm
| birth_date = {{birth date|1822|8|15}}
| birth_place = [[Baltimore|Baltimore, Maryland]], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|1847|1|30|1822|8|15}}
| death_place = [[Bronx County, New York]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[Tuberculosis]]
| resting_place = [[Westminster Hall and Burying Ground]], Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.
| spouse = {{Marriage|[[Edgar Allan Poe]]|1836|}}
}}

'''Virginia Eliza Poe''' ([[née]] '''Clemm'''; August 15, 1822 – January 30, 1847) was the wife of American writer [[Edgar Allan Poe]]. The couple were [[cousin|first cousins]] and publicly married when Virginia Clemm was 13 and Poe was 27. Biographers disagree as to the nature of the couple's relationship. Though their marriage was loving, some biographers suggest they viewed one another more like a brother and sister. In January 1842, she contracted [[tuberculosis]], growing worse for five years until she died of the disease at the age of 24 in [[Edgar Allan Poe Cottage|the family's cottage]], at that time outside [[New York City]].

Along with other family members, Virginia Clemm and Edgar Allan Poe lived together off and on for several years before their marriage. The couple often moved to accommodate Poe's employment, living intermittently in [[Baltimore]], [[Philadelphia]], and [[New York City|New York]]. A few years after their wedding, Poe was involved in a substantial scandal involving [[Frances Sargent Osgood]] and [[Elizabeth F. Ellet]]. Rumors about amorous improprieties on her husband's part affected Virginia Poe so much that on her deathbed she claimed that Ellet had murdered her. After her death, her body was eventually placed under the same memorial marker as her husband's in [[Westminster Hall and Burying Ground]] in Baltimore, [[Maryland]]. Only one image of Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe has been authenticated: a watercolor portrait painted several hours after her death.

The disease and eventual death of his wife had a substantial effect on Edgar Allan Poe, who became despondent and turned to alcohol to cope. Her struggles with illness and death are believed to have affected his poetry and prose, where dying young women appear as a frequent motif, as in "[[Annabel Lee]]", "[[The Raven]]", and "[[Ligeia]]".

==Biography==

===Early life===
[[File:PoeFamilyTree.svg|thumb|400px|Poe family tree]]

Virginia Eliza Clemm was born in 1822<ref>Thomas, Dwight & David K. Jackson. ''The Poe Log: A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe, 1809–1849''. Boston: G. K. Hall & Co., 1987: 52. {{ISBN|0-7838-1401-1}}</ref> and named after an older sister who had died at age two<ref name=Silverman82>Silverman, 82</ref> only ten days earlier.<ref>Quinn, 17</ref> Her father William Clemm, Jr. was a hardware merchant in Baltimore.<ref name=Silverman81>Silverman 81</ref> He had married Maria Poe, Virginia's mother, on July 12, 1817,<ref>Quinn, 726</ref> after the death of his first wife, Maria's first cousin Harriet.<ref>Meyers, 59</ref> Clemm had five children from his previous marriage and went on to have three more with Maria.<ref name=Silverman81/> After his death in 1826, he left very little to the family<ref name=Meyers60>Meyers, 60</ref> and relatives offered no financial support because they had opposed the marriage.<ref name=Silverman81/> Maria supported the family by sewing and taking in boarders, aided with an annual $240 pension granted to her mother Elizabeth Cairnes, who was paralyzed and bedridden.<ref name=Meyers60/> Elizabeth received this pension on behalf of her late husband, "General" David Poe, a former [[quartermaster]] in Maryland who had loaned money to the state.<ref>Quinn, 256</ref>

Edgar Allan Poe first met his cousin Virginia in August 1829, four months after his discharge from the Army. She was seven at the time.<ref name=Sova52>Sova, 52</ref> In 1832, the family—made up of Elizabeth, Maria, Virginia, and Virginia's brother Henry<ref name=Sova52/>—was able to use Elizabeth's pension to rent a home at what was then [[Edgar Allan Poe House and Museum|3 North Amity Street]] in Baltimore.<ref>Haas, Irvin. ''Historic Homes of American Authors''. Washington, DC: The Preservation Press, 1991. {{ISBN|0-89133-180-8}}. p. 78</ref> Poe's older brother [[William Henry Leonard Poe]], who had been living with the family,<ref name=Sova52/> had recently died on August 1, 1831.<ref>Quinn, 187–188</ref> Poe joined the household in 1833<ref>Silverman, 96</ref> and was soon smitten by a neighbor named Mary Devereaux. The young Virginia served as a messenger between the two, at one point retrieving a lock of Devereaux's hair to give to Poe.<ref>Sova, 67</ref> Elizabeth Cairnes Poe died on July 7, 1835, effectively ending the family's income and making their financial situation even more difficult.<ref>Quinn, 218</ref> Henry died around this time, sometime before 1836, leaving Virginia as Maria Clemm's only surviving child.<ref name=Silverman323>Silverman, 323</ref>

In August 1835, Poe left the destitute family behind and moved to [[Richmond, Virginia]] to take a job at the ''[[Southern Literary Messenger]]''.<ref>Sova, 225</ref> While Poe was away from Baltimore, another cousin, Neilson Poe, the husband of Virginia's half-sister Josephine Clemm,<ref name=Quinn219/> heard that Edgar was considering marrying Virginia. Neilson offered to take her in and have her educated in an attempt to prevent the girl's marriage to Edgar at such a young age, though suggesting that the option could be reconsidered later.<ref>Silverman, 104</ref> Edgar called Neilson, the owner of a newspaper in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], his "bitterest enemy" and interpreted his cousin's actions as an attempt at breaking his connection with Virginia.<ref name=Meyers72>Meyers, 72</ref> On August 29, 1835,<ref name=Meyers72/> Edgar wrote an emotional letter to Maria, declaring that he was "blinded with tears while writing",<ref name=Quinn219>Quinn, 219</ref> and pleading that she allow Virginia to make her own decision.<ref>Silverman, 105</ref> Encouraged by his employment at the ''Southern Literary Messenger'', Poe offered to provide financially for Maria, Virginia, and Henry if they moved to Richmond.<ref>Meyers, 74</ref>

===Marriage===
[[File:PoeMarriage.JPG|thumb|right|Virginia and Edgar's [[marriage certificate]]]]

Marriage plans were confirmed and Poe returned to Baltimore to file for a [[marriage license]] on September 22, 1835. The couple might have been quietly married as well, though accounts are unclear.<ref name=Silverman107>Silverman, 107</ref> Their only public ceremony was in Richmond on May 16, 1836, when they were married by a Presbyterian minister named Rev. [[Amasa Converse]].<ref name=Meyers85>Meyers, 85</ref> Poe was 27 and Virginia was 13, though her age was listed as 21.<ref name=Meyers85/> This marriage bond was filed in Richmond and included an [[affidavit]] from Thomas W. Cleland confirming the bride's alleged age.<ref>Quinn, 252</ref> The ceremony was held in the evening at the home of a Mrs. James Yarrington,<ref name=Quinn254>Quinn, 254</ref> the owner of the [[boarding house]] in which Poe, Virginia, and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm were staying.<ref>Quinn, 230</ref> Yarrington helped Maria Clemm bake the wedding cake and prepared a wedding meal.<ref>Sova, 263</ref> The couple then had a short [[honeymoon]] in [[Petersburg, Virginia]].<ref name=Quinn254/>

Debate has raged regarding how unusual this pairing was based on the couple's age and blood relationship. Noted Poe biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn argues it was not particularly unusual, nor was Poe's nicknaming his wife "Sissy" or "Sis".<ref>Hoffman, 26</ref> Another Poe biographer, [[Kenneth Silverman]], contends that though their [[cousin marriage|first-cousin marriage]] was not unusual, her young age was.<ref name=Silverman107/> It has been suggested that Clemm and Poe had a relationship more like that between brother and sister than between husband and wife.<ref>Krutch, 52</ref> Biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn disagreed with this view, citing a fervent love letter to argue that Poe "loved his little cousin not only with the affection of a brother, but also with the passionate devotion of a lover and prospective husband."<ref>{{cite book | author = Quinn, Arthur Hobson | year = 1941 | title = Edgar Allan Poe: A Critical Biography | publisher = D. Appleton-Century Company | pages = 219–224 | url = http://www.eapoe.org/papers/misc1921/quinnc10.htm}}</ref> Some scholars, including [[Princess Marie Bonaparte|Marie Bonaparte]], have read many of Poe's works as autobiographical and have concluded that Virginia died a [[virginity|virgin]].<ref name=Hoffman27>Hoffman, 27</ref> It has been speculated that she and her husband never consummated their marriage, although no evidence is given.<ref>Richard, Claude and Jean-Marie Bonnet, "[http://www.eapoe.org/pstudies/PS1960/P1968108.HTM Raising the Wind; or, French Editions of the Works of Edgar Allan Poe]", ''Poe Newsletter'', vol. I, No. 1, April 1968, p. 12.</ref> This interpretation often assumes that Virginia is represented by the title character in the poem "[[Annabel Lee]]": a "maiden... by the name of Annabel Lee".<ref name=Hoffman27/> Poe biographer Joseph Wood Krutch suggests that Poe did not need women "in the way that normal men need them", but only as a source of inspiration and care,<ref>Krutch, 54</ref> and that Poe was never interested in women sexually.<ref>Krutch, 25</ref> Friends of Poe suggested that the couple did not share a bed for at least the first two years of their marriage but that, from the time she turned 16, they had a "normal" married life until the onset of her illness.<ref name=Sova53>Sova, 53</ref>

Virginia and Poe were by all accounts a happy and devoted couple. Poe's one-time employer [[George Rex Graham]] wrote of their relationship: "His love for his wife was a sort of rapturous worship of the spirit of beauty."<ref>Oberholtzer, 299</ref> Poe once wrote to a friend, "I see no one among the living as beautiful as my little wife."<ref>Phillips, 1184</ref> She, in turn, by many contemporary accounts, nearly idolized her husband.<ref>Hoffman, 318</ref> She often sat close to him while he wrote, kept his pens in order, and folded and addressed his manuscripts.<ref>Phillips, 1183</ref> She showed her love for Poe in an [[acrostic]] poem she composed when she was 23, dated February 14, 1846:

[[File:VirginiaValentine.jpg|thumb|right|Virginia's handwritten [[Valentine's Day|Valentine]] poem to her husband]]

{{quote|<poem>
Ever with thee I wish to roam —
Dearest my life is thine.
Give me a cottage for my home
And a rich old cypress vine,
Removed from the world with its sin and care
And the tattling of many tongues.
Love alone shall guide us when we are there —
Love shall heal my weakened lungs;
And Oh, the tranquil hours we'll spend,
Never wishing that others may see!
Perfect ease we'll enjoy, without thinking to lend
Ourselves to the world and its glee —
Ever peaceful and blissful we'll be.<ref>Quinn, 497</ref></poem>}}

===Osgood/Ellet scandal===
[[File:FannyOsgood.jpg|right|thumb|[[Frances Sargent Osgood]]]]

The "tattling of many tongues" in Virginia's Valentine poem was a reference to actual incidents.<ref>Moss, 214</ref> In 1845, Poe had begun a flirtation with [[Frances Sargent Osgood]], a married 34-year-old poet.<ref>Silverman, 280</ref> Virginia was aware of the friendship and might even have encouraged it.<ref name=Meyers190>Meyers, 190</ref> She often invited Osgood to visit them at home, believing that the older woman had a "restraining" effect on Poe, who had made a promise to "give up the use of stimulants" and was never drunk in Osgood's presence.<ref>Silverman, 287</ref>

At the same time, another poet, [[Elizabeth F. Ellet]], became enamored of Poe and jealous of Osgood.<ref name=Meyers190/> Though, in a letter to [[Sarah Helen Whitman]], Poe called her love for him "loathsome" and wrote that he "could do nothing but repel [it] with scorn", he printed many of her poems to him in the ''[[Broadway Journal]]'' while he was its editor.<ref>Moss, 212</ref> Ellet was known for being meddlesome and vindictive,<ref>Silverman, 288</ref> and, while visiting the Poe household in late January 1846, she saw one of Osgood's personal letters to Poe.<ref name=Meyers191>Meyers, 191</ref> According to Ellet, Virginia pointed out "fearful paragraphs" in Osgood's letter.<ref name=Moss213>Moss, 213</ref> Ellet contacted Osgood and suggested she should beware of her indiscretions and asked Poe to return her letters,<ref name=Meyers191/> motivated either by jealousy or by a desire to cause scandal.<ref name=Moss213/> Osgood then sent [[Margaret Fuller]] and [[Anne Lynch Botta]] to ask Poe on her behalf to return the letters. Angered by their interference, Poe called them "Busy-bodies" and said that Ellet had better "look after her ''own'' letters", suggesting indiscretion on her part.<ref name=Silverman290>Silverman, 290</ref> He then gathered up these letters from Ellet and left them at her house.<ref name=Meyers191/>

Though these letters had already been returned to her, Ellet asked her brother "to ''demand of me the letters''".<ref name=Silverman290/> Her brother, Colonel William Lummis, did not believe that Poe had already returned them and threatened to kill him. In order to defend himself, Poe requested a pistol from [[Thomas Dunn English]].<ref name=Meyers191/> English, Poe's friend and a minor writer who was also a trained doctor and lawyer, likewise did not believe that Poe had already returned the letters and even questioned their existence.<ref name=Silverman290/> The easiest way out of the predicament, he said, "was a retraction of unfounded charges".<ref>Moss, 220</ref> Angered at being called a liar, Poe pushed English into a fistfight. Poe later claimed he was triumphant in the fight, though English claimed otherwise, and Poe's face was badly cut by one of English's rings.<ref name=Meyers191/> In Poe's version, he said, "I gave E. a flogging which he will remember to the day of his death." Either way, the fight further sparked gossip over the Osgood affair.<ref>Silverman, 291</ref>

Osgood's husband stepped in and threatened to sue Ellet unless she formally apologized for her insinuations. She retracted her statements in a letter to Osgood saying, "The letter shown me by Mrs Poe ''must have been a forgery''" created by Poe himself.<ref>Moss, 215</ref> She put all the blame on Poe, suggesting the incident was because Poe was "intemperate and subject to acts of lunacy".<ref name=Silverman292>Silverman, 292</ref> Ellet spread the rumor of Poe's insanity, which was taken up by other enemies of Poe and reported in newspapers. The St. Louis ''Reveille'' reported: "A rumor is in circulation in New York, to the effect that Mr. Edgar A. Poe, the poet and author, has been deranged, and his friends are about to place him under the charge of [[Amariah Brigham|Dr. Brigham]] of the [[Utica Psychiatric Center|Insane Retreat]] at Utica."<ref>Meyers, 192</ref> The scandal eventually died down only when Osgood reunited with her husband.<ref name=Silverman292/> Virginia, however, had been very affected by the whole affair. She had received anonymous letters about her husband's alleged indiscretions as early as July 1845. It is presumed that Ellet was involved with these letters, and they so disturbed Virginia that she allegedly declared on her deathbed that "Mrs. E. had been [her] murderer."<ref>Moss, 213–214</ref>

===Illness===
By this time, Virginia had developed [[tuberculosis]], first seen sometime in the middle of January 1842. While singing and playing the piano, Virginia began to bleed from the mouth, though Poe said that she merely "ruptured a blood-vessel".<ref>Silverman, 179</ref> Her health declined and she became an invalid, which drove Poe into a deep depression, especially as she occasionally showed signs of improvement. In a letter to a friend, Poe described his resulting mental state: "Each time I felt all the agonies of her death—and at each accession of the disorder I loved her more dearly & clung to her life with more desperate pertinacity. But I am constitutionally sensitive—nervous in a very unusual degree. I became insane, with long intervals of horrible sanity."<ref>Meyers, 208</ref>

Virginia's condition might have been what prompted the Poe family to move, in the hopes of finding a healthier environment for her. They moved several times within [[Philadelphia]] in the early 1840s and their last home in that city is now preserved as the [[Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site]] in [[Spring Garden District, Pennsylvania|Spring Garden]].<ref name=Silverman183>Silverman, 183</ref> In this home, Virginia was well enough to tend the flower garden<ref>Quinn, 385</ref> and entertain visitors by playing the harp or the piano and singing.<ref>Oberholtzer, 287</ref> The family then moved to New York sometime in early April 1844, traveling by train and steamboat. Virginia waited onboard the ship while her husband secured space at a boarding house on Greenwich Street.<ref>Silverman, 219–220</ref> By early 1846, family friend [[Elizabeth Oakes Smith]] said that Virginia admitted, "I know I shall die soon; I know I can't get well; but I want to be as happy as possible, and make Edgar happy."<ref>Phillips, 1098</ref> She promised her husband that after her death she would be his guardian angel.<ref>Silverman, 301</ref>

===Move to Fordham===
[[File:Poe cottage - 1900.jpg|thumb|right|Virginia Poe endured the latter part of her illness at [[Edgar Allan Poe Cottage|this cottage]] in the [[Fordham, Bronx|Bronx]], [[New York (state)|New York]], shown here in 1900.]]
In May 1846, the family (Poe, Virginia, and her mother, Maria) moved to a small [[cottage]] in [[Fordham, Bronx|Fordham]], about fourteen miles outside the city,<ref>Meyers, 322</ref> a [[Edgar Allan Poe Cottage|home which is still standing today]]. In what is the only surviving letter from Poe to Virginia, dated June 12, 1846, he urged her to remain optimistic: "Keep up your heart in all hopelessness, and trust yet a little longer." Of his recent loss of the ''Broadway Journal'', the only magazine Poe ever owned, he said, "I should have lost my courage ''but for you''—my darling little wife you are my ''greatest'' and ''only'' stimulus now to battle with this uncongenial, unsatisfactory and ungrateful life."<ref name=Meyers203>Meyers, 203</ref> But by November of that year, Virginia's condition was hopeless.<ref name=Silverman323 /> Her symptoms included irregular appetite, flushed cheeks, unstable pulse, night sweats, high fever, sudden chills, shortness of breath, chest pains, coughing and spitting up blood.<ref name=Meyers203/>

[[Nathaniel Parker Willis]], a friend of Poe's and an influential editor, published an announcement on December 30, 1846, requesting help for the family, though his facts were not entirely correct:<ref name=Meyers202>Meyers, 202</ref>
{{quote|Illness of Edgar A. Poe. —We regret to learn that this gentleman and his wife are both dangerously ill with the consumption, and that the hand of misfortune lies heavily on their temporal affairs. We are sorry to mention the fact that they are so far reduced as to be barely able to obtain the necessaries of life. That is, indeed, a hard lot, and we do hope that the friends and admirers of Mr. Poe will come promptly to his assistance in his bitterest hour of need.<ref name=Silverman324/>}}
[[File:VirginiaPoeBedroom.jpg|thumb|right|Her bedroom at Poe Cottage.]]
Willis, who had not corresponded with Poe for two years and had since lost his own wife, was one of his greatest supporters in this period. He sent Poe and his wife an inspirational Christmas book, ''The Marriage Ring; or How to Make a Home Happy''.<ref name=Silverman324>Silverman, 324</ref>

The announcement was similar to one made for Poe's mother, [[Eliza Poe]], during her last stages of tuberculosis.<ref name=Meyers202/> Other newspapers picked up on the story: "Great God!", said one, "is it possible, that the literary people of the Union, will let poor Poe perish by starvation and lean faced beggary in New York? For so we are led to believe, from frequent notices in the papers, stating that Poe and his wife are both down upon a bed of misery, death, and disease, with not a ducat in the world."<ref name=Silverman324/> The ''[[Saturday Evening Post]]'' asserted that Virginia was in a hopeless condition and that Poe was bereft: "It is said that Edgar A. Poe is lying dangerously with brain fever, and that his wife is in the last stages of consumption—they are without money and without friends."<ref name="Meyers203"/> Even editor [[Hiram Fuller (journalist)|Hiram Fuller]], whom Poe had previously sued for [[defamation|libel]], attempted in the ''New York Mirror'' to garner support for Poe and his wife: "We, whom he has quarrelled with, will take the lead", he wrote.<ref name=Silverman324/>

Virginia was described as having dark hair and violet eyes, with skin so pale it was called "pure white",<ref>Krutch, 55–56</ref> causing a "bad complexion that spoiled her looks".<ref name=Silverman82/> One visitor to the Poe family noted that "the rose-tint upon her cheek was too bright", possibly a symptom of her illness.<ref>Silverman, 182</ref> Another visitor in Fordham wrote, "Mrs. Poe looked very young; she had large black eyes, and a pearly whiteness of complexion, which was a perfect pallor. Her pale face, her brilliant eyes, and her raven hair gave her an unearthly look."<ref>Meyers, 204</ref> That unearthly look was mentioned by others who suggested it made her look not quite human.<ref name=Krutch56>Krutch, 56</ref> [[William Gowans]], who once lodged with the family, described Virginia as a woman of "matchless beauty and loveliness, her eye could match that of any [[houri]], and her face defy the genius of a [[Antonio Canova|Canova]] to imitate".<ref>Meyers, 92–93</ref> She might have been a little plump.<ref name=Krutch56/> Many contemporary accounts as well as modern biographers remark on her childlike appearance even in the last years of her life.<ref name=Sova52/><ref name=Krutch56/><ref name=Meyers206/>

[[File:VirginiaPoeMonument.jpg|thumb|left|Memorial marker to Virginia Clemm, Maria Clemm, and Edgar Allan Poe in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]]]

While dying, Virginia asked her mother: "Darling... will you console and take care of my poor Eddy—you will ''never never'' leave him?"<ref>Silverman, 420</ref> Her mother stayed with Poe until his own death in 1849. As Virginia was dying, the family received many visitors, including an old friend named Mary Starr. At one point Virginia put Starr's hand in Poe's and asked her to "be a friend to Eddy, and don't forsake him".<ref name=Silverman326/> Virginia was tended to by 25-year-old Marie Louise Shew. Shew, who served as a nurse, knew medical care from her father and her husband, both doctors.<ref>Sova, 218</ref> She provided Virginia with a [[comforter]] as her only other cover was Poe's old military [[cloak]], as well as bottles of wine, which the invalid drank "smiling, even when difficult to get it down".<ref name=Silverman326>Silverman, 326</ref> Virginia also showed Poe a letter from Louisa Patterson, second wife of Poe's foster-father John Allan, which she had kept for years<ref>Quinn, 527</ref> and which suggested that Patterson had purposely caused the break between Allan and Poe.<ref name=Silverman326/>

===Death===
On January 29, 1847, Poe wrote to Marie Louise Shew: "My poor Virginia still lives, although failing fast and now suffering much pain."<ref name=Meyers206>Meyers, 206</ref>
Virginia died the following day, January 30,<ref>Krutch, 169</ref> after five years of illness. Shew helped in organizing her funeral, even purchasing the coffin.<ref name=Silverman327>Silverman, 327</ref> Death notices appeared in several newspapers. On February 1, The New York ''Daily Tribune'' and the ''Herald'' carried the simple obituary: "On Saturday, the 30th ult., of pulmonary consumption, in the 25th year of her age, VIRGINIA ELIZA, wife of EDGAR A. POE."<ref name=Silverman326/> The funeral was February 2, 1847.<ref name=Meyers206/> Attendees included Nathaniel Parker Willis, [[Ann S. Stephens]], and publisher [[George Pope Morris]]. Poe refused to look at his dead wife's face, saying he preferred to remember her living.<ref name="Phillips1203"/> Though now buried at [[Westminster Hall and Burying Ground]], Virginia was originally buried in a [[Burial vault (tomb)|vault]] owned by the Valentine family, from whom the Poes rented their Fordham cottage.<ref name=Silverman327/>

Only one image of Virginia is known to exist, for which the painter had to take her corpse as model.<ref name=Sova52/> A few hours after her death, Poe realized he had no image of Virginia and so commissioned a portrait in [[watercolor painting|watercolor]].<ref name=Meyers206/> She is shown wearing "beautiful linen" that Shew said she had dressed her in;<ref name=Phillips1203>Phillips, 1203</ref> Shew might have been the portrait's artist, though this is uncertain.<ref name=Silverman327/> The image depicts her with a slight double chin and with hazel eyes.<ref name=Meyers206/> The image was passed down to the family of Virginia's half-sister Josephine, wife of Neilson Poe.<ref name=Phillips1203/>

In 1875, the same year in which her husband's body was reburied, the cemetery in which she lay was destroyed and her remains were almost forgotten. An early Poe biographer, William Gill, gathered the bones and stored them in a box he hid under his bed.<ref>Meyers, 263</ref> Gill's story was reported in the ''[[Boston Herald]]'' twenty-seven years after the event: he says that he had visited the Fordham cemetery in 1883 at exactly the moment that the [[sexton (office)|sexton]] Dennis Valentine held Virginia's bones in his shovel, ready to throw them away as unclaimed. Poe himself had died in 1849, and so Gill took Virginia's remains and, after corresponding with Neilson Poe and John Prentiss Poe in Baltimore, arranged to bring the box down to be laid on Poe's left side in a small bronze casket.<ref name=Miller>Miller, John C. "[http://www.eapoe.org/pstudies/ps1970/p1974204.htm The Exhumations and Reburials of Edgar and Virginia Poe and Mrs. Clemm]", from ''Poe Studies'', vol. VII, no. 2, December 1974, p. 47</ref> Virginia's remains were finally buried with her husband's on January 19, 1885<ref>Phillips, 1205</ref>—the seventy-sixth anniversary of her husband's birth and nearly ten years after his current monument was erected. The same man who served as sexton during Poe's original burial and his exhumations and reburials was also present at the rites which brought his body to rest with Virginia and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm.<ref name=Miller/>

==Effect and influence on Poe==
Virginia's death had a significant effect on Poe. After her death, Poe was deeply saddened for several months. A friend said of him, "the loss of his wife was a sad blow to him. He did not seem to care, after she was gone, whether he lived an hour, a day, a week or a year; she was his all."<ref>Meyers, 207</ref> A year after her death, he wrote to a friend that he had experienced the greatest evil a man can suffer when, he said, "a wife, whom I loved as no man ever loved before", had fallen ill.<ref name=Sova53/> While Virginia was still struggling to recover, Poe turned to alcohol after abstaining for quite some time. How often and how much he drank is a controversial issue, debated in Poe's lifetime and also by modern biographers.<ref name=Silverman183/> Poe referred to his emotional response to his wife's sickness as his own illness, and that he found the cure to it "in the ''death'' of my wife. This I can & do endure as becomes a man—it was the horrible never-ending oscillation between hope & despair which I could ''not'' longer have endured without the total loss of reason".<ref>Moss, 233</ref>

Poe regularly visited Virginia's grave. As his friend Charles Chauncey Burr wrote, "Many times, after the death of his beloved wife, was he found at the dead hour of a winter night, sitting beside her tomb almost frozen in the snow".<ref>Phillips, 1206</ref> Shortly after Virginia's death, Poe courted several other women, including Nancy Richmond of [[Lowell, Massachusetts]], [[Sarah Helen Whitman]] of [[Providence, Rhode Island]], and childhood sweetheart [[Sarah Elmira Royster]] in Richmond. Even so, Frances Sargent Osgood, whom Poe also attempted to woo, believed "that [Virginia] was the only woman whom he ever loved".<ref>Krutch, 57</ref>

===References in literature===
Many of [[Bibliography of Edgar Allan Poe|Poe's works]] are interpreted autobiographically, with much of his work believed to reflect Virginia's long struggle with tuberculosis and her eventual death. The most discussed example is "[[Annabel Lee]]". This poem, which depicts a dead young bride and her mourning lover, is often assumed to have been inspired by Virginia, though other women in Poe's life are potential candidates including Frances Sargent Osgood<ref>Meyers, 244</ref> and Sarah Helen Whitman.<ref>Sova, 12</ref> A similar poem, "[[Ulalume]]", is also believed to be a memorial tribute to Virginia,<ref>Meyers, 211</ref> as is "[[Lenore (poem)|Lenore]]", whose title character is described as "the most lovely dead that ever died so young!"<ref>Silverman, 202</ref> After Poe's death, [[George Gilfillan]] of the London-based ''Critic'' said Poe was responsible for his wife's death, "hurrying her to a premature grave, that he might write 'Annabel Lee' and '[[The Raven]]'".<ref>Campbell, Killis. "The Poe-Griswold Controversy", ''The Mind of Poe and Other Studies''. New York: Russell & Russell, Inc., 1962: 79.</ref> However, "The Raven" was written and published two years before Virginia's death.

Virginia is also seen in Poe's prose. The [[short story]] "[[Eleonora (short story)|Eleonora]]" (1842)—which features a narrator preparing to marry his cousin, with whom he lives alongside her mother—may also refer to Virginia's illness. When Poe wrote it, his wife had just begun to show signs of her illness.<ref>Sova, 78</ref> It was shortly thereafter that the couple moved to New York City by boat and Poe published "[[The Oblong Box (short story)|The Oblong Box]]" (1844). This story, which shows a man mourning his young wife while transporting her corpse by boat, seems to suggest Poe's feelings about Virginia's impending death. As the ship sinks, the husband would rather die than be separated from his wife's corpse.<ref>Silverman, 228–229</ref> The short story "[[Ligeia]]", whose title character suffers a slow and lingering death, may also be inspired by Virginia.<ref>Hoffman, 255–256</ref> After his wife's death, Poe edited his first published story, "[[Metzengerstein]]", to remove the narrator's line, "I would wish all I love to perish of that gentle disease", a reference to tuberculosis.<ref name=Meyers206/>

===References in music===
In track 9 of their 2008 debut album ''[[Le Pop]]'', Norwegian band [[Katzenjammer (band)|Katzenjammer]] performed a song entitled "Virginia Clemm". Set to the tune of a musical clock, the song's lyrics refer to Virginia's early marriage at 13 years of age ("He was a child I was a child / Sentimental and wild"), to her husband's alleged affairs ("The other woman to explain / Her letters I deplore"), to her untimely death ("For twelve short years / We lived out of health"), to the band's perceived obsessions of Poe's subsequent obsession with his wife's death ("Heir of my illness / Writer of all the stories and the words / That I'm haunting / That I'm haunting") as well as alluding, in the last verse ("And I'll leave you nevermore"), to the poem "[[The Raven]]".

==Notes==
{{Reflist|15em}}

==References==
*Hoffman, Daniel. ''Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972. {{ISBN|0-8071-2321-8}}.
*Krutch, Joseph Wood. ''Edgar Allan Poe: A Study in Genius''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926.
*Moss, Sidney P. ''Poe's Literary Battles: The Critic in the Context of His Literary Milieu''. Southern Illinois University Press, 1969.
*[[Meyers, Jeffrey]]. ''Edgar Allan Poe: His Life and Legacy''. Cooper Square Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-684-19370-1}}.
*Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. ''The Literary History of Philadelphia''. Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs & Co., 1906. {{ISBN|1-932109-45-5}}.
*Phillips, Mary E. ''Edgar Allan Poe: The Man''. Chicago: The John C. Winston Company, 1926.
*Quinn, Arthur Hobson. ''Edgar Allan Poe: A Critical Biography''. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. {{ISBN|0-8018-5730-9}}
*Silverman, Kenneth. ''Edgar A. Poe: Mournful and Never-ending Remembrance''. New York: Harper Perennial, 1991. {{ISBN|0-06-092331-8}}.
*Sova, Dawn B. ''Edgar Allan Poe A to Z: The Essential Reference to His Life and Work''. New York: Checkmark Books, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-8160-4161-9}}.

==External links==
{{commons}}
*[http://www.eapoe.org/geninfo/poegnlgy.htm Poe Family Tree] at the Edgar Allan Poe Society online
*[https://www.nps.gov/people/poe-virginiapoe.htm Virginia Clemm Poe] from the [[Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site]] online, [[National Park Service]]

{{Edgar Allan Poe|state=collapsed}}

{{featured article}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Poe, Virginia}}
[[Category:1822 births]]
[[Category:1847 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century American women]]
[[Category:19th-century deaths from tuberculosis]]
[[Category:Burials at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground]]
[[Category:Poe family (United States)]]
[[Category:Tuberculosis deaths in New York (state)]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore]]
[[Category:Reputed virgins]]

Geschichte der Virologie

2019-04-27T02:07:03Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 41.232.189.86 (talk) to last revision by Trappist the monk (TW)

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2013}}
[[File:TobaccoMosaicVirus.jpg|thumb|right|[[Electron microscope|Electron micrograph]] of the rod-shaped particles of [[tobacco mosaic virus]] that are too small to be seen using a light microscope]]

The '''history of virology''' — the scientific study of viruses and the infections they cause – began in the closing years of the 19th century. Although [[Louis Pasteur]] and [[Edward Jenner]] developed the first [[vaccine]]s to protect against viral infections, they did not know that viruses existed. The first evidence of the existence of viruses came from experiments with filters that had pores small enough to retain bacteria. In 1892, [[Dmitry Ivanovsky]] used one of these filters to show that sap from a diseased [[tobacco plant]] remained infectious to healthy tobacco plants despite having been filtered. [[Martinus Beijerinck]] called the filtered, infectious substance a "virus" and this discovery is considered to be the beginning of [[virology]].

The subsequent discovery and partial characterization of [[bacteriophage]]s by [[Frederick Twort]] and [[Félix d'Herelle]] further catalyzed the field, and by the early 20th century many viruses had been discovered. In 1926, [[Thomas Milton Rivers]] defined viruses as obligate parasites. Viruses were demonstrated to be particles, rather than a fluid, by [[Wendell Meredith Stanley]], and the invention of the [[electron microscopy|electron microscope]] in 1931 allowed their complex structures to be visualised.

==Pioneers==
[[File:Adolf Mayer 1875.jpg|thumb|upright|180px|[[Adolf Mayer]] in 1875]]
[[File:Ivanovsky.jpg|thumb|upright|180px|[[Dmitri Ivanovsky]], ca. 1915]]
[[File:Mwb in lab.JPG|thumb|upright|180px|alt=An old, bespectacled man wearing a suit and sitting at a bench by a large window. The bench is covered with small bottles and test tubes. On the wall behind him is a large old-fashioned clock below frick u which are four small enclosed shelves on which sit many neatly labelled bottles.|[[Martinus Beijerinck]] in his laboratory in 1921.]]
Despite his other successes, [[Louis Pasteur]] (1822–1895) was unable to find a causative agent for [[rabies]] and speculated about a pathogen too small to be detected using a microscope.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bordenave G |title=Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) |journal=Microbes and Infection / Institut Pasteur |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=553–60 |date=May 2003 |pmid=12758285 |doi=10.1016/S1286-4579(03)00075-3}}</ref> In 1884, the French [[microbiologist]] [[Charles Chamberland]] (1851–1931) invented a filter – known today as the [[Chamberland filter]] – that had pores smaller than bacteria. Thus, he could pass a solution containing bacteria through the filter and completely remove them from the solution.<ref name ="Shors 76–77">{{harvnb|Shors|2008|pp=76–77}}</ref>

In 1876, [[Adolf Mayer]], who directed the Agricultural Experimental Station in [[Wageningen]] was the first to show that what he called "Tobacco Mosaic Disease" was infectious, he thought that it was caused by either a toxin or a very small bacterium. Later, in 1892, the Russian biologist [[Dmitry Ivanovsky]] (1864–1920) used a Chamberland filter to study what is now known as the [[tobacco mosaic virus]]. His experiments showed that crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remain infectious after filtration. Ivanovsky suggested the infection might be caused by a [[toxin]] produced by bacteria, but did not pursue the idea.<ref name="Collier 3">{{harvnb|Topley|Wilson|1998|p=3}}</ref>

In 1898, the Dutch microbiologist [[Martinus Beijerinck]] (1851–1931), a microbiology teacher at the Agricultural School in [[Wageningen]] repeated experiments by [[Adolf Mayer]] and became convinced that filtrate contained a new form of infectious agent.<ref name="Dimmock 4–5">{{cite book |author1=Leppard, Keith |author2=Nigel Dimmock |author3=Easton, Andrew |title=Introduction to Modern Virology |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited |location= |year=2007 |pages=4–5 |isbn=978-1-4051-3645-7 }}</ref> He observed that the agent multiplied only in cells that were dividing and he called it a ''[[contagium vivum fluidum]]'' (soluble living germ) and re-introduced the word ''virus''.<ref name="Collier 3"/> Beijerinck maintained that viruses were liquid in nature, a theory later discredited by the American biochemist and virologist [[Wendell Meredith Stanley]] (1904–1971), who proved that they were in fact, particles.<ref name="Collier 3"/> In the same year [[Friedrich Loeffler]] (1852–1915) and [[Paul Frosch]] (1860–1928) passed the first animal virus through a similar filter and discovered the cause of [[foot-and-mouth disease]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Fenner |first=F. |chapter=History of Virology: Vertebrate Viruses |editor-last=Mahy |editor-first=B.W.J. |editor2-last=Van Regenmortal |editor2-first=M.H.V. |title=Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology |publisher=Academic Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=2009 |page=15|isbn=978-0-12-375146-1 |ref={{harvid|Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology}}}}</ref>

In 1881, [[Carlos Finlay]] (1833–1915), a Cuban physician, first conducted and published research that indicated that mosquitoes were carrying the cause of yellow fever,<ref name="pmid2684378">{{cite journal |author=Chiong MA |title=Dr. Carlos Finlay and yellow fever |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |volume=141 |issue=11 |page=1126 |date=December 1989 |pmid=2684378 |pmc=1451274}}</ref> a theory proved in 1900 by commission headed by [[Walter Reed]] (1851–1902). During 1901 and 1902, [[William Crawford Gorgas]] (1854–1920) organised the destruction of the mosquitoes' breeding habitats in Cuba, which dramatically reduced the prevalence of the disease.<ref name="pmid11482006">{{cite journal |doi=10.1353/pbm.2001.0051 |author=Litsios S |title=William Crawford Gorgas (1854–1920) |journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=368–78 |year=2001 |pmid=11482006|pmc=1353777 }}</ref> Gorgas later organised the elimination of the mosquitoes from Panama, which allowed the [[Panama Canal]] to be opened in 1914.<ref name="pmid2673502">{{cite journal |author=Patterson R |title=Dr. William Gorgas and his war with the mosquito |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |volume=141 |issue=6 |pages=596–7, 599 |date=September 1989 |pmid=2673502 |pmc=1451363}}</ref> The virus was finally isolated by [[Max Theiler]] (1899–1972) in 1932 who went on to develop a successful vaccine.<ref name="pmid20589188">{{cite journal |author=Frierson JG |title=The yellow fever vaccine: a history |journal=Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=77–85 |date=June 2010 |pmid=20589188 |pmc=2892770}}</ref>

By 1928 enough was known about viruses to enable the publication of ''Filterable Viruses'', a collection of essays covering all known viruses edited by [[Thomas Milton Rivers]] (1888–1962). Rivers, a survivor of [[typhoid fever]] contracted at the age of twelve, went on to have a distinguished career in virology. In 1926, he was invited to speak at a meeting organised by the Society of American Bacteriology where he said for the first time, "Viruses appear to be obligate parasites in the sense that their reproduction is dependent on living cells."<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Horsfall FL |title=Thomas Milton Rivers, September 3, 1888–May 12, 1962 |journal=Biogr Mem Natl Acad Sci |volume=38 |pages=263–94 |date=1965 |pmid=11615452 |url=http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/trivers.pdf }}</ref>

From the 1950s to the 1960s, [[Chester M. Southam]], a prominent virologist, injected malignant [[HeLa]] cells into cancer patients, healthy individuals, and prison inmates from the [[Ohio Penitentiary]] in order to observe if cancer could be transmitted.<ref name="Broadway Paperbacks">{{cite book|last1=Skloot |first1=Rebecca|title=The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bz4aTiWLrYC&pg=PA128 |date=2010 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-1-74262-626-0 |pages=128–135}}</ref> He was also examining if one could become immune to cancer by developing an acquired immune response in hopes of creating a vaccine for cancer.<ref name="Broadway Paperbacks"/>

The notion that viruses were particles was not considered unnatural and fitted in nicely with the [[Germ theory of disease|germ theory]]. It is assumed that Dr. J. Buist of Edinburgh was the first person to see virus particles in 1886, when he reported seeing "micrococci" in vaccine lymph, though he had probably observed clumps of [[vaccinia]].<ref>*In 1887, Buist visualised one of the largest, Vaccinia virus, by optical microscopy after staining it. Vaccinia was not known to be a virus at that time. {{cite book |last=Buist |first=J.B. |year=1887 |title=Vaccinia and Variola: a study of their life history |publisher=Churchill |location=London}}</ref> In the years that followed, as optical microscopes were improved "inclusion bodies" were seen in many virus-infected cells, but these aggregates of virus particles were still too small to reveal any detailed structure. It was not until the invention of [[electron microscopy|the electron microscope]] in 1931 by the German engineers [[Ernst Ruska]] (1906–1988) and [[Max Knoll]] (1887–1969),<ref>From {{cite book |title=Nobel Lectures, Physics 1981–1990 |year=1993 |editor-first=Gösta |editor-last=Ekspång |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-9810207281}}</ref> that virus particles, especially [[bacteriophage]]s, were shown to have complex structures. The sizes of viruses determined using this new microscope fitted in well with those estimated by filtration experiments. Viruses were expected to be small, but the range of sizes came as a surprise. Some were only a little smaller than the smallest known bacteria, and the smaller viruses were of similar sizes to complex organic molecules.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Carr, N. G. |author2=Mahy, B. W. J. |author3=Pattison, J. R. |author4=Kelly, D. P. |title=The Microbe 1984: Thirty-sixth Symposium of the Society for General Microbiology, held at the University of Warwick, April 1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=Symposia of the Society for general microbiology |volume=36 |oclc=499302635 |year=1984 |page=4 |isbn=978-0-521-26056-5 |ref={{harvid|The Microbe 1984}}}}</ref>

In 1935, Wendell Stanley examined the tobacco mosaic virus and found it was mostly made of protein.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Stanley WM, Loring HS | year = 1936 | title = The isolation of crystalline tobacco mosaic virus protein from diseased tomato plants | url = | journal = Science | volume = 83 | issue = 2143| page = 85 | pmid = 17756690 | doi=10.1126/science.83.2143.85|bibcode = 1936Sci....83...85S }}</ref> In 1939, Stanley and [[Max Lauffer]] (1914) separated the virus into protein and [[nucleic acid]],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Stanley WM, Lauffer MA | year = 1939 | title = Disintegration of tobacco mosaic virus in urea solutions | url = | journal = Science | volume = 89 | issue = 2311| pages = 345–347 | pmid = 17788438 | doi=10.1126/science.89.2311.345|bibcode = 1939Sci....89..345S }}</ref> which was shown by Stanley's postdoctoral fellow Hubert S. Loring to be specifically [[RNA]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Loring HS | year = 1939 | title = Properties and hydrolytic products of nucleic acid from tobacco mosaic virus | url = http://www.jbc.org/content/130/1/251.short | journal = Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 130 | issue=1 | pages = 251–258 }}</ref> The discovery of RNA in the particles was important because in 1928, [[Fred Griffith]] (c.1879–1941) provided the first evidence that its "cousin", [[DNA]], formed [[genes]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Burton E. Tropp |title=Molecular Biology: Genes to Proteins. Burton E. Tropp |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers |location=Sudbury, Massachusetts |year=2007 |page=12 |isbn=978-0-7637-5963-6}}</ref>

In Pasteur's day, and for many years after his death, the word "virus" was used to describe any cause of infectious disease. Many [[bacteriologist]]s soon discovered the cause of numerous infections. However, some infections remained, many of them horrendous, for which no bacterial cause could be found. These agents were invisible and could only be grown in living animals. The discovery of viruses was the key that unlocked the door that withheld the secrets of the cause of these mysterious infections. And, although [[Koch's postulates]] could not be fulfilled for many of these infections, this did not stop the pioneer virologists from looking for viruses in infections for which no other cause could be found.<ref>{{harvnb|The Microbe 1984|page=3}}</ref>

==Bacteriophages==
{{Main|Bacteriophage}}
[[File:Phage S-PM2.png|thumb|left|Bacteriophage]]

===Discovery===
[[Bacteriophage]]s are the viruses that infect and replicate in bacteria. They were discovered in the early 20th century, by the English bacteriologist [[Frederick Twort]] (1877–1950).<ref name="Shors 589 ">{{cite book |first=Teri |last=Shors |title=Understanding Viruses |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers |location=Sudbury, Mass |year=2008 |page=589 |isbn=978-0-7637-2932-5 |ref=harv}}</ref> But before this time, in 1896, the bacteriologist [[Ernest Hanbury Hankin]] (1865–1939) reported that something in the waters of the [[River Ganges]] could kill ''[[Vibrio cholerae]]'' – the cause of [[cholera]]. The agent in the water could be passed through filters that remove bacteria but was destroyed by boiling.<ref name = "Ackerman p3">{{cite book |first=H-W |last=Ackermann |chapter=History of Virology: Bacteriophages |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ew1fR6ghsmgC&pg=PA3 |title={{harvnb|Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology}} |year=2009 |page=3}}</ref> Twort discovered the action of bacteriophages on [[staphylococcus|staphylococci]] bacteria. He noticed that when grown on nutrient agar some colonies of the bacteria became watery or "glassy". He collected some of these watery colonies and passed them through a Chamberland filter to remove the bacteria and discovered that when the filtrate was added to fresh cultures of bacteria, they in turn became watery.<ref name="Shors 589 "/> He proposed that the agent might be "an amoeba, an ultramicroscopic virus, a living protoplasm, or an enzyme with the power of growth".<ref name = "Ackerman p3"/>

[[Félix d'Herelle]] (1873–1949) was a mainly self-taught French-Canadian microbiologist. In 1917 he discovered that "an invisible antagonist", when added to bacteria on [[agar]], would produce areas of dead bacteria.<ref name="Shors 589 "/> The antagonist, now known to be a bacteriophage, could pass through a Chamberland filter. He accurately diluted a suspension of these viruses and discovered that the highest dilutions (lowest virus concentrations), rather than killing all the bacteria, formed discrete areas of dead organisms. Counting these areas and multiplying by the dilution factor allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the original suspension.<ref name="D'Herelle F 2007">{{cite journal | pmid = 17855060 | doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2007.07.005 | volume=158 | issue=7 |date=September 2007 | pages=553–4 | author=D'Herelle F | title = On an invisible microbe antagonistic toward dysenteric bacilli: brief note by Mr. F. D'Herelle, presented by Mr. Roux☆ | journal = Research in Microbiology}}</ref> He realised that he had discovered a new form of virus and later coined the term "bacteriophage".<ref name="Ackermann H-W 2009 4">{{cite book |first=H-W |last=Ackermann |chapter=History of Virology: Bacteriophages |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ew1fR6ghsmgC&pg=PA4 |title={{harvnb|Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology}} |year=2009 |page=4}}</ref><ref>"The antagonistic microbe can never be cultivated in media in the absence of the dysentery bacillus. It does not attack heat-killed dysentery bacilli, but is cultivated perfectly in a suspension of washed cells in physiological saline. This indicates that the anti dysentery microbe is an obligate bacteriophage".
Felix d'Herelle (1917) ''An invisible microbe that is antagonistic to the dysentery bacillus'' (1917) [http://202.114.65.51/fzjx/wsw/wswfzjs/pdf/1917p157.pdf Comptes rendus Acad. Sci. Paris Retrieved on 2 December 2010]</ref>
Between 1918 and 1921 d'Herelle discovered different types of bacteriophages that could infect several other species of bacteria including ''Vibrio cholerae''.<ref>{{cite book |first=H-W |last=Ackermann |chapter=History of Virology: Bacteriophages |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ew1fR6ghsmgC&pg=PA4 |title={{harvnb|Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology}} |year=2009 |page=4 Table 1 }}</ref> Bacteriophages were heralded as a potential treatment for diseases such as [[typhoid]] and [[cholera]], but their promise was forgotten with the development of [[penicillin]].<ref name="Ackermann H-W 2009 4"/> Since the early 1970s, bacteria have continued to develop resistance to [[antibiotic]]s such as [[penicillin]], and this has led to a renewed interest in the use of [[phage therapy|bacteriophages to treat serious infections]].<ref name="Shors 591 ">{{harvnb|Shors|2008|p=591}}</ref>

===Early research 1920–1940===
D'Herelle travelled widely to promote the use of bacteriophages in the treatment of bacterial infections. In 1928, he became professor of biology at [[Yale]] and founded several research institutes.<ref name="Shors 590 ">{{harvnb|Shors|2008|p=590}}</ref> He was convinced that bacteriophages were viruses despite opposition from established bacteriologists such as the Nobel Prize winner [[Jules Bordet]] (1870–1961). Bordet argued that bacteriophages were not viruses but just [[enzyme]]s released from [[lysogenic cycle|"lysogenic"]] bacteria. He said "the invisible world of d'Herelle does not exist".<ref>Quoted in: {{cite book |first=H-W |last=Ackermann |chapter=History of Virology: Bacteriophages |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ew1fR6ghsmgC&pg=PA4 |title={{harvnb|Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology}} |year=2009 |page=4}}</ref> But in the 1930s, the proof that bacteriophages were viruses was provided by [[Christopher Andrewes]] (1896–1988) and others. They showed that these viruses differed in size and in their chemical and [[serology|serological]] properties.
In 1940, the first [[electron microscope|electron micrograph]] of a bacteriophage was published and this silenced sceptics who had argued that bacteriophages were relatively simple enzymes and not viruses.<ref>{{cite book |first=H-W |last=Ackermann |chapter=History of Virology: Bacteriophages |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ew1fR6ghsmgC&pg=PA3 |title={{harvnb|Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology}} |year=2009 |pages=3–5 }}</ref>
Numerous other types of bacteriophages were quickly discovered and were shown to infect bacteria wherever they are found. Early research was interrupted by [[World War II]]. d'Herelle, despite his Canadian citizenship, was interned by the [[Vichy France|Vichy Government]] until the end of the war.<ref>{{cite book |first=H-W |last=Ackermann |chapter=History of Virology: Bacteriophages |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ew1fR6ghsmgC&pg=PA5 |title={{harvnb|Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology}} |year=2009 |page=5 }}</ref>

===Modern era===
Knowledge of bacteriophages increased in the 1940s following the formation of the [[Phage group|Phage Group]] by scientists throughout the US. Among the members were [[Max Delbrück]] (1906–1981) who founded a course on bacteriophages at [[Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory]].<ref name="Shors 591 "/> Other key members of the Phage Group included [[Salvador Luria]] (1912–1991) and [[Alfred Hershey]] (1908–1997). During the 1950s, [[Hershey–Chase experiment|Hershey and Chase]] made important discoveries on the replication of DNA during their studies on a bacteriophage called [[Enterobacteria phage T2|T2]]. Together with Delbruck they were jointly awarded the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses".<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/ Nobel Organisation]</ref> Since then, the study of bacteriophages has provided insights into the switching on and off of genes, and a useful mechanism for introducing foreign genes into bacteria and many other fundamental mechanisms of [[molecular biology]].<ref>{{cite book |first=H-W |last=Ackermann |chapter=History of Virology: Bacteriophages |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ew1fR6ghsmgC&pg=PA5 |title={{harvnb|Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology}} |year=2009 |pages=5–10 Table 1}}</ref>

==Plant viruses==
In 1882, [[Adolf Mayer]] (1843–1942) described a condition of tobacco plants, which he called "mosaic disease" ("mozaïkziekte"). The diseased plants had [[variegation|variegated]] leaves that were [[mottle]]d.<ref>Mayer A (1882) Over de moza¨ıkziekte van de tabak: voorloopige mededeeling. Tijdschr
Landbouwkunde Groningen 2: 359–364 (In German)</ref> He excluded the possibility of a fungal infection and could not detect any bacterium and speculated that a "soluble, enzyme-like infectious principle was involved".<ref name="pmid16732421">Quoted in: {{cite journal |vauthors=van der Want JP, Dijkstra J |title=A history of plant virology |journal=Archives of Virology|volume=151 |issue=8 |pages=1467–98 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16732421 |doi=10.1007/s00705-006-0782-3}}</ref> He did not pursue his idea any further, and it was the filtration experiments of Ivanovsky and Beijerinck that suggested the cause was a previously unrecognised infectious agent. After tobacco mosaic was recognized as a virus disease, virus infections of many other plants were discovered.<ref name="pmid16732421"/>

The importance of tobacco mosaic virus in the history of viruses cannot be overstated. It was the first virus to be discovered, and the first to be [[crystal]]lised and its structure shown in detail. The first [[X-ray diffraction]] pictures of the crystallised virus were obtained by Bernal and Fankuchen in 1941. On the basis of her pictures, [[Rosalind Franklin]] discovered the full structure of the virus in 1955.<ref name="pmid18702397">{{cite journal|vauthors=Creager AN, Morgan GJ |title=After the double helix: Rosalind Franklin's research on Tobacco mosaic virus|journal=Isis
|volume=99|issue=2|pages=239–72|date=June 2008|pmid=18702397|doi=10.1086/588626}}</ref> In the same year, [[Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat]] and [[Robley Williams]] showed that purified tobacco mosaic virus RNA and its [[capsid|coat protein]] can assemble by themselves to form functional viruses, suggesting that this simple mechanism was probably the means through which viruses were created within their host cells.<ref name="Dimmock 12 ">{{cite book |author1=Leppard, Keith |author2=Nigel Dimmock |author3=Easton, Andrew |title=Introduction to Modern Virology |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited |location= |year=2007 |page=12 |isbn=978-1-4051-3645-7 }}</ref>

By 1935 many plant diseases were thought to be caused by viruses. In 1922, [[John Kunkel Small]] (1869–1938) discovered that insects could act as [[vector (epidemiology)|vectors]] and transmit virus to plants. In the following decade many diseases of plants were shown to be caused by viruses that were carried by insects and in 1939, [[Francis Holmes (virologist)|Francis Holmes]], a pioneer in plant virology,<ref name="pmid11718380">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pennazio S, Roggero P, Conti M |title=A history of plant virology. Mendelian genetics and resistance of plants to viruses |journal=New Microbiology |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=409–24 |date=October 2001 |pmid=11718380 }}</ref> described 129 viruses that caused disease of plants.<ref name="Shors 563 ">{{harvnb|Shors|2008|p=563 }}</ref> Modern, intensive agriculture provides a rich environment for many plant viruses. In 1948, in Kansas, US, 7% of the wheat crop was destroyed by [[wheat streak mosaic virus]]. The virus was spread by mites called ''[[Aceria tulipae]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |first=D. |last=Hansing |first2=C.O. |last2=Johnston |first3=L.E. |last3=Melchers |first4=H. |last4=Fellows |date=1949 |title=Kansas Phytopathological Notes |journal=Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=363–369 |jstor=3625805 |doi=10.2307/3625805 }}</ref>

In 1970, the Russian plant virologist [[Joseph Atabekov]] discovered that many plant viruses only infect a single species of host plant.<ref name="pmid11718380"/> The [[International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]] now recognises over 900 plant viruses.<ref name="Shors 564 ">{{harvnb|Shors|2008|p=564}}</ref>

==20th century==
By the end of the 19th century, viruses were defined in terms of their [[infectivity]], their ability to be filtered, and their requirement for living hosts. Up until this time, viruses had only been grown in plants and animals, but in 1906, [[Ross Granville Harrison]] (1870–1959) invented a method for growing [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]] in [[lymph]],<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/rharrison.pdf |first=J.S. |last=Nicholas |title=Ross Granville Harrison 1870—1959 A Biographical Memoir |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |year=1961 }}</ref> and, in 1913, E Steinhardt, C Israeli, and RA Lambert used this method to grow [[vaccinia]] virus in fragments of guinea pig corneal tissue.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Steinhardt |first=E. |last2=Israeli |first2=C. |last3=Lambert |first3=R.A. |year=1913 |title=Studies on the cultivation of the virus of vaccinia |journal=J. Inf Dis. |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=294–300 |doi=10.1093/infdis/13.2.294}}</ref> In 1928, HB and MC Maitland grew vaccinia virus in suspensions of minced hens' kidneys.<ref name="pmid13475780">{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0022172400037268 |vauthors=Maitland HB, Magrath DI |title=The growth in vitro of vaccinia virus in chick embryo chorio-allantoic membrane, minced embryo and cell suspensions |journal=The Journal of Hygiene |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=347–60 |date=September 1957 |pmid=13475780 |pmc=2217967}}</ref> Their method was not widely adopted until the 1950s, when [[poliovirus]] was grown on a large scale for vaccine production.<ref name="Collier 4">{{cite book |last=Sussman |first=Max |last2=Topley |first2=W.W.C. |last3=Wilson |first3=Graham K. |last4=Collier |first4=L.H. |last5=Balows |first5=Albert |title=Topley & Wilson's microbiology and microbial infections |publisher=Arnold |location=London |year=1998 |page=4 |isbn=978-0-340-66316-5 |ref={{harvid|Topley|Wilson|1998}}}}</ref> In 1941–42, [[George Hirst (virologist)|George Hirst]] (1909–94) developed assays based on [[hemagglutination|haemagglutination]] to quantify a wide range of viruses as well as virus-specific antibodies in serum.<ref name=Joklik>{{cite journal |vauthors=Joklik WK |title=When two is better than one: thoughts on three decades of interaction between Virology and the Journal of Virology |journal=[[Journal of Virology|J. Virol.]] |volume=73 |issue=5 |pages=3520–3 |date=May 1999 |pmid=10196240 |pmc=104123 |url=http://jvi.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10196240}}</ref><ref name=Schlesinger>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schlesinger RW, Granoff A | year = 1994 | title = George K. Hirst (1909–1994) | url = | journal = [[Virology (journal)|Virology]] | volume = 200 | issue = 2| page = 327 | doi=10.1006/viro.1994.1196}}</ref>

===Influenza===
[[File:Influenza Pandemic Masked Typist.jpg|thumb|right|A woman working during the 1918–1919 influenza epidemic. The face mask probably afforded minimal protection.]]
{{Main|Influenza}}

Although the [[influenza virus]] that caused the [[1918 flu pandemic|1918–1919]] influenza pandemic was not discovered until the 1930s, the descriptions of the disease and subsequent research has proved it was to blame.<ref name="Shors 238-344 ">{{harvnb|Shors|2008|pp=238–344}}</ref>
The pandemic killed 40–50 million people in less than a year,<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael B. A. |last=Oldstone |title=Viruses, Plagues, and History: Past, Present and Future |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |page=306 |isbn=978-0-19-532731-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WUDRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306 |ref=harv}}</ref> but the proof that it was caused by a virus was not obtained until 1933.<ref name="pmid15081510">{{cite journal |author=Cunha BA |title=Influenza: historical aspects of epidemics and pandemics |journal=Infectious Disease Clinics of North America |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=141–55 |date=March 2004 |pmid=15081510 |doi=10.1016/S0891-5520(03)00095-3}}</ref> ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]'' is an opportunistic bacterium which commonly follows influenza infections; this led the eminent German bacteriologist [[Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer|Richard Pfeiffer]] (1858–1945) to incorrectly conclude that this bacterium was the cause of influenza.<ref>{{harvnb|Oldstone|2009|p=315}}</ref> A major breakthrough came in 1931, when the American pathologist [[Ernest William Goodpasture]] grew influenza and several other viruses in fertilised chickens' eggs.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodpasture EW, Woodruff AM, Buddingh GJ | year = 1931 | title = The cultivation of vaccine and other viruses in the chorioallantoic membrane of chick embryos | url = | journal = Science | volume = 74 | issue = 1919| pages = 371–2 | pmid = 17810781 | doi=10.1126/science.74.1919.371|bibcode = 1931Sci....74..371G }}</ref> Hirst identified an enzymic activity associated with the virus particle, later characterised as the [[viral neuraminidase|neuraminidase]], the first demonstration that viruses could contain enzymes. [[Frank Macfarlane Burnet]] showed in the early 1950s that the virus recombines at high frequencies, and Hirst later deduced that it has a segmented genome.<ref name=Kilbourne>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kilbourne ED |title=Presentation of the Academy Medal to George K. Hirst, M.D |journal=Bull N Y Acad Med |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=1133–6 |date=November 1975 |pmid=1104014 |pmc=1749565 }}</ref>

===Poliomyelitis===
{{Main|Poliomyelitis}}

In 1949, [[John F. Enders]] (1897–1985) [[Thomas Huckle Weller|Thomas Weller]] (1915–2008), and [[Frederick Robbins]] (1916–2003) grew polio virus for the first time in cultured human embryo cells, the first virus to be grown without using solid animal tissue or eggs. Infections by poliovirus most often cause the mildest of symptoms. This was not known until the virus was isolated in cultured cells and many people were shown to have had mild infections that did not lead to poliomyelitis. But, unlike other viral infections, the incidence of polio – the rarer severe form of the infection – increased in the 20th century and reached a peak around 1952. The invention of a [[cell culture]] system for growing the virus enabled [[Jonas Salk]] (1914–1995) to make an effective [[polio vaccine]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Rosen FS | year = 2004 | title = Isolation of poliovirus—John Enders and the Nobel Prize | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 351 | issue = 15| pages = 1481–83 | pmid = 15470207 | doi=10.1056/NEJMp048202}}</ref>

===Epstein–Barr virus===
[[Denis Parsons Burkitt]] (1911–1993) was born in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh, Ireland. He was the first to describe a type of cancer that now bears his name [[Burkitt's lymphoma]]. This type of cancer was endemic in equatorial Africa and was the commonest malignancy of children in the early 1960s.<ref name="pmid19620863">{{cite journal |author=Magrath I |title=Lessons from clinical trials in African Burkitt lymphoma |journal=Current Opinion in Oncology |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=462–8 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19620863 |doi=10.1097/CCO.0b013e32832f3dcd}}</ref> In an attempt to find a cause for the cancer, Burkitt sent cells from the tumour to [[Anthony Epstein]] (b. 1921) a British virologist, who along with [[Yvonne Barr]] and [[Bert Achong]] (1928–1996), and after many failures, discovered viruses that resembled herpes virus in the fluid that surrounded the cells. The virus was later shown to be a previously unrecognised herpes virus, which is now called [[Epstein–Barr virus]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Epstein |first= M. Anthony |authorlink= M. Anthony Epstein |editor1-last=Robertson |editor1-first=Earl S. |title= Epstein-Barr Virus |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=TRO-wXto8hcC |accessdate= 18 September 2010 |year= 2005 |publisher= Cromwell Press |location= Trowbridge |isbn= 978-1-904455-03-5 |pages=1–14 |chapter= 1. The origins of EBV research: discovery and characterization of the virus }}</ref> Surprisingly, Epstein–Barr virus is a very common but relatively mild infection of Europeans. Why it can cause such a devastating illness in Africans is not fully understood, but reduced immunity to virus caused by [[malaria]] might be to blame.<ref name="pmid19165855">{{cite journal |author=Bornkamm GW |title=Epstein-Barr virus and the pathogenesis of Burkitt's lymphoma: more questions than answers |journal=International Journal of Cancer |volume=124 |issue=8 |pages=1745–55 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19165855 |doi=10.1002/ijc.24223}}</ref> Epstein–Barr virus is important in the history of viruses for being the first virus shown to cause cancer in humans.<ref name="pmid16083776">{{cite journal |author=Thorley-Lawson DA |title=EBV the prototypical human tumor virus—just how bad is it? |journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology |volume=116 |issue=2 |pages=251–61; quiz 262 |date=August 2005 |pmid=16083776 |doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2005.05.038 }}</ref>

===Late 20th and early 21st century===
[[File:Rotavirus Reconstruction.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A [[rotavirus]] particle]]

The second half of the 20th century was the golden age of virus discovery and most of the 2,000 recognised species of animal, plant, and bacterial viruses were discovered during these years.<ref name="pmid18446425">{{cite journal |author=Norrby E |title=Nobel Prizes and the emerging virus concept |journal=Archives of Virology |volume=153 |issue=6 |pages=1109–23 |year=2008 |pmid=18446425 |doi=10.1007/s00705-008-0088-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Discoverers and Discoveries - ICTV Files and Discussions|url=http://talk.ictvonline.org/media/p/633.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091111003049/http://talk.ictvonline.org/media/p/633.aspx|dead-url=yes|archive-date=11 November 2009|accessdate=5 November 2017|date=11 November 2009}}</ref> In 1946, [[bovine virus diarrhea]] was discovered,<ref name="pmid20995890">{{cite journal |vauthors=Olafson P, MacCallum AD, Fox FH |title=An apparently new transmissible disease of cattle |journal=The Cornell Veterinarian |volume=36 |issue= |pages=205–13 |date=July 1946 |pmid=20995890}}</ref> which is still possibly the most common pathogen of cattle throughout the world<ref name="pmid20197026">{{cite journal |vauthors=Peterhans E, Bachofen C, Stalder H, Schweizer M |title=Cytopathic bovine viral diarrhea viruses (BVDV): emerging pestiviruses doomed to extinction |journal=Veterinary Research |volume=41 |issue=6 |page=44 |year=2010 |pmid=20197026 |pmc=2850149 |doi=10.1051/vetres/2010016}}</ref> and in 1957, [[Arterivirus|equine arterivirus]] was discovered.<ref name="pmid13397177">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bryans JT, Crowe ME, Doll ER, McCollum WH |title=Isolation of a filterable agent causing arteritis of horses and abortion by mares; its differentiation from the equine abortion (influenza) virus |journal=The Cornell Veterinarian |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=3–41 |date=January 1957 |pmid=13397177}}</ref> In the 1950s, improvements in virus isolation and detection methods resulted in the discovery of several important human viruses including [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid8545033">{{cite journal |author=Weller TH |title=Varicella-zoster virus: History, perspectives, and evolving concerns |journal=Neurology |volume=45 |issue=12 Suppl 8 |pages=S9–10 |date=December 1995 |pmid=8545033 |doi=10.1212/wnl.45.12_suppl_8.s9}}</ref> the [[paramyxovirus]]es,<ref name="pmid15522442">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schmidt AC, Johnson TR, Openshaw PJ, Braciale TJ, Falsey AR, Anderson LJ, Wertz GW, Groothuis JR, Prince GA, Melero JA, Graham BS |title=Respiratory syncytial virus and other pneumoviruses: a review of the international symposium—RSV 2003 |journal=Virus Research |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15522442 |doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2004.06.008}}</ref> – which include [[measles]] virus,<ref name="pmid19203111">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-70617-5_10 |vauthors=Griffin DE, Pan CH |title=Measles: old vaccines, new vaccines |volume=330 |issue= |pages=191–212 |year=2009 |pmid=19203111|series=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology |isbn=978-3-540-70616-8 }}</ref> and [[respiratory syncytial virus]]<ref name="pmid15522442"/> – and the [[rhinovirus]]es that cause the [[common cold]].<ref name="pmid3039038">{{cite journal |author=Tyrrell DA |title=The common cold—my favourite infection. The eighteenth Majority Stephenson memorial lecture |journal=The Journal of General Virology |volume=68 |issue= 8|pages=2053–61 |date=August 1987 |pmid=3039038 |doi=10.1099/0022-1317-68-8-2053}}</ref> In the 1960s more viruses were discovered. In 1963, the [[Hepatitis B|hepatitis B virus]] was discovered by [[Baruch Blumberg]] (b. 1925).<ref name="pmid18298788">{{cite journal |author=Zetterström R |title=Nobel Prize to Baruch Blumberg for the discovery of the aetiology of hepatitis B |journal=Acta Paediatrica |volume=97 |issue=3 |pages=384–7 |date=March 2008 |pmid=18298788 |doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00669.x }}</ref> [[Reverse transcriptase]], the key enzyme that retroviruses use to [[translation (biology)|translate]] their RNA into DNA, was first described in 1970, independently by Howard Temin and [[David Baltimore]] (b. 1938).<ref name="pmid4348509">{{cite book|vauthors=Temin HM, Baltimore D |title=RNA-directed DNA synthesis and RNA tumor viruses|volume=17|pages=129–86|year=1972|pmid=4348509
|doi=10.1016/S0065-3527(08)60749-6|series=Advances in Virus Research|isbn=9780120398171}}</ref> This was important to the development of [[antiviral drug]]s – a key turning-point in the history of viral infections.<ref name="pmid20018391">{{cite journal |author=Broder S |title=The development of antiretroviral therapy and its impact on the HIV-1/AIDS pandemic |journal=Antiviral Research |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |date=January 2010 |pmid=20018391 |pmc=2815149 |doi=10.1016/j.antiviral.2009.10.002}}</ref> In 1983, [[Luc Montagnier]] (b. 1932) and his team at the [[Pasteur Institute]] in France first isolated the retrovirus now called HIV.<ref name="pmid6189183">{{cite journal |vauthors=Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, Dauguet C, Axler-Blin C, Vézinet-Brun F, Rouzioux C, Rozenbaum W, Montagnier L |title=Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) |journal=Science |volume=220 |issue=4599 |pages=868–71 |date=May 1983 |pmid=6189183 |doi=10.1126/science.6189183 |bibcode=1983Sci...220..868B}}</ref> In 1989 [[Michael Houghton (virologist)|Michael Houghton]]'s team at [[Chiron Corporation]] discovered [[hepatitis C]].<ref name="pmid19781804">{{cite journal |author=Houghton M |title=The long and winding road leading to the identification of the hepatitis C virus |journal=Journal of Hepatology |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=939–48 |date=November 2009 |pmid=19781804 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2009.08.004 |url=http://www.journal-of-hepatology.eu/article/S0168-8278%2809%2900535-2/fulltext}}</ref>
New viruses and strains of viruses were discovered in every decade of the second half of the 20th century. These discoveries have continued in the 21st century as new viral diseases such as [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]]<ref name="pmid21116811">{{cite book |vauthors=Peiris JS, Poon LL |title=Detection of SARS Coronavirus |volume=665 |issue= |pages=369–82 |year=2011 |pmid=21116811 |doi=10.1007/978-1-60761-817-1_20|series=Methods in Molecular Biology |isbn=978-1-60761-816-4 }}</ref> and [[nipah virus]]<ref name="pmid11334748">{{cite journal |vauthors=Field H, Young P, Yob JM, Mills J, Hall L, Mackenzie J |title=The natural history of Hendra and Nipah viruses |journal=Microbes and Infection / Institut Pasteur |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=307–14 |date=April 2001 |pmid=11334748 |doi=10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01384-3}}</ref> have emerged. Despite scientists' achievements over the past one hundred years, viruses continue to pose new threats and challenges.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mahy |first=B.W.J. |title=Desk Encyclopedia of Human and Medical Virology |publisher=Academic Press |location=Boston |year=2009 |pages=583–7 |isbn=978-0-12-375147-8 |ref=harv}}</ref>

{| class ="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
|+ '''Some of the many viruses discovered in the 20th century'''
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Virus
! scope="col" | References
|-
! scope="row" | 1908
| [[poliovirus]]
|<ref name="pmid20683737">{{cite journal |author=Skern T |title=100 years poliovirus: from discovery to eradication. A meeting report |journal=Archives of Virology |volume=155 |issue=9 |pages=1371–81 |date=September 2010 |pmid=20683737 |doi=10.1007/s00705-010-0778-x}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1911
| [[Rous sarcoma virus]]
|<ref name="pmid20503720">{{cite journal |author=Becsei-Kilborn E |title=Scientific discovery and scientific reputation: the reception of Peyton Rous' discovery of the chicken sarcoma virus |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=111–57 |year=2010 |pmid=20503720 |doi= 10.1007/s10739-008-9171-y|url=}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1915
| bacteriophage of staphylococci
|<ref name="Shors 589 "/>
|-
! scope="row" | 1917
| bacteriophage of shigellae
|<ref name="Shors 589 "/>
|-
! scope="row" | 1918
| bacteriophage of salmonellae
|<ref name="D'Herelle F 2007"/>
|-
! scope="row" | 1927
| [[yellow fever]] virus
|<ref name="pmid20513550">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gardner CL, Ryman KD |title=Yellow fever: a reemerging threat |journal=Clinics in Laboratory Medicine |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=237–60 |date=March 2010 |pmid=20513550 |pmc=4349381 |doi=10.1016/j.cll.2010.01.001 |url=}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1930
| [[western equine encephalitis virus]]
|<ref name="pmid19775836">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zacks MA, Paessler S |title=Encephalitic alphaviruses |journal=Veterinary Microbiology |volume=140 |issue=3–4 |pages=281–6 |date=January 2010 |pmid=19775836 |pmc=2814892 |doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.08.023 |url=}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1933
| [[eastern equine encephalitis virus]]
|<ref name="pmid19775836"/>
|-
! scope="row" | 1934
| [[mumps virus]]
|<ref name="pmid19870227">{{cite journal |doi=10.1084/jem.59.1.1 |vauthors=Johnson CD, Goodpasture EW |title=An investigation of the etiology of mumps|journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |date=January 1934 |pmid=19870227 |pmc=2132344}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1935
| [[Japanese encephalitis]] virus
|<ref name="pmid20132860">{{cite journal |vauthors=Misra UK, Kalita J |title=Overview: Japanese encephalitis |journal=Progress in Neurobiology |volume=91 |issue=2 |pages=108–20 |date=June 2010 |pmid=20132860 |doi=10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.01.008 |url=}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1943
| [[Dengue]] virus
|<ref name="pmid20513545">{{cite journal |author=Ross TM |title=Dengue virus |journal=Clinics in Laboratory Medicine |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=149–60 |date=March 2010 |pmid=20513545 |doi=10.1016/j.cll.2009.10.007 |url=}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1949
| [[enterovirus]]es
|<ref name="pmid8024744">{{cite journal |author=Melnick JL |title=The discovery of the enteroviruses and the classification of poliovirus among them |journal=Biologicals |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=305–9 |date=December 1993 |pmid=8024744 |doi=10.1006/biol.1993.1088 |url=}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1952
| [[Varicella zoster virus]]
|<ref name="pmid8545033"/>
|-
! scope="row" | 1953
| [[adenovirus]]
|<ref name="isbn0-7817-6060-7">{{cite book |author1=Martin, Malcolm A. |author2=Knipe, David M. |author3=Fields, Bernard N. |author4=Howley, Peter M. |author5=Griffin, Diane |author6=Lamb, Robert |title=Fields' virology |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Philadelphia |year=2007 |page=2395 |isbn=978-0-7817-6060-7}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1954
| [[measles virus]]
|<ref name="pmid19203111"/>
|-
! scope="row" | 1956
| [[paramyxovirus]]es, [[rhinovirus]]
|<ref name="pmid15522442"/><ref name="pmid3039038"/>
|-
! scope="row" | 1958
| [[monkeypox]]
|<ref name="pmid1331540">{{cite journal |vauthors=Douglass N, Dumbell K |title=Independent evolution of monkeypox and variola viruses |journal=Journal of Virology |volume=66 |issue=12 |pages=7565–7 |date=December 1992 |pmid=1331540 |pmc=240470}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1962
| [[rubella virus]]
|<ref name="pmid3890105">{{cite journal |author=Cooper LZ |title=The history and medical consequences of rubella |journal=Reviews of Infectious Diseases |volume=7 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S2–10 |year=1985 |pmid=3890105 |doi=10.1093/clinids/7.supplement_1.s2}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1963
| [[hepatitis B virus]]
|<ref name="pmid16190102">{{cite journal |author=Yap SF |title=Hepatitis B: review of development from the discovery of the "Australia Antigen" to end of the twentieth Century |journal=The Malaysian Journal of Pathology |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |date=June 2004 |pmid=16190102}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1964
| [[Epstein–Barr virus]]
|<ref name="pmid4288580">{{cite journal |vauthors=Epstein MA, Achong BG, Barr YM, Zajac B, Henle G, Henle W |title=Morphological and virological investigations on cultured Burkitt tumor lymphoblasts (strain Raji) |journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=547–59 |date=October 1966 |pmid=4288580 |doi=10.1093/jnci/37.4.547}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1965
| [[retrovirus]]es
|<ref name="pmid15682876">{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S1464793104006505 |author=Karpas A |title=Human retroviruses in leukaemia and AIDS: reflections on their discovery, biology and epidemiology |journal=Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=911–33 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15682876}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1966
| [[Lassa fever]] virus
|<ref name="pmid16802617">{{cite book |author=Curtis N |title=Viral haemorrhagic fevers caused by Lassa, Ebola and Marburg viruses |volume=582 |issue= |pages=35–44 |year=2006 |pmid=16802617 |doi=10.1007/0-387-33026-7_4 |series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology |isbn=978-0-387-31783-0 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1967
| [[Marburg]] virus
|<ref name="pmid20513546">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hartman AL, Towner JS, Nichol ST |title=Ebola and marburg hemorrhagic fever |journal=Clinics in Laboratory Medicine |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=161–77 |date=March 2010 |pmid=20513546 |doi=10.1016/j.cll.2009.12.001}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1972
| [[norovirus]]
|<ref name="pmid10804141">{{cite journal |author=Kapikian AZ |title=The discovery of the 27-nm Norwalk virus: an historic perspective |journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases |volume=181 Suppl 2 |issue= |pages=S295–302 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10804141 |doi=10.1086/315584}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1973
| [[rotavirus]], [[hepatitis A virus]]
|<ref name="pmid186236">{{cite book |vauthors=Bishop RF, Cameron DJ, Barnes GL, Holmes IH, Ruck BJ|title=The aetiology of diarrhoea in newborn infants |journal=Ciba Foundation Symposium |volume= |issue=42 |pages=223–36 |year=1976 |pmid=186236 |doi=10.1002/9780470720240.ch13|series=Novartis Foundation Symposia |isbn=9780470720240 }}</ref><ref name="pmid6307916">{{cite journal |doi=10.1159/000149367 |vauthors=Gust ID, Coulepis AG, Feinstone SM, Locarnini SA, Moritsugu Y, Najera R, Siegl G |title=Taxonomic classification of hepatitis A virus |journal=Intervirology |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |year=1983 |pmid=6307916}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1975
| [[parvovirus B19]]
|<ref name="pmid6117755">{{cite journal |author=Cossart Y |title=Parvovirus B19 finds a disease |journal=Lancet |volume=2 |issue=8253 |pages=988–9 |date=October 1981 |pmid=6117755 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(81)91185-5}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1976
| [[Ebola]] virus
|<ref name="pmid21084112">{{cite journal |vauthors=Feldmann H, Geisbert TW |title=Ebola haemorrhagic fever |journal=Lancet |volume= 377|issue= 9768|pages= 849–862|date=November 2010 |pmid=21084112 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60667-8 |url= |pmc=3406178}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1980
| [[human T-lymphotropic virus 1]]
|<ref name="pmid16155599">{{cite journal |author=Gallo RC |title=History of the discoveries of the first human retroviruses: HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 |journal=Oncogene |volume=24 |issue=39 |pages=5926–30 |date=September 2005 |pmid=16155599 |doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1208980}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1982
| [[human T-lymphotropic virus 2]]
|<ref name="pmid16155599"/>
|-
! scope="row" | 1983
| [[HIV]]
|<ref name="pmid20152474">{{cite journal |author=Montagnier L |title=25 years after HIV discovery: prospects for cure and vaccine |journal=Virology |volume=397 |issue=2 |pages=248–54 |date=February 2010 |pmid=20152474 |doi=10.1016/j.virol.2009.10.045}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1986
| [[human herpesvirus 6]]
|<ref name="pmid15653828">{{cite journal |vauthors=De Bolle L, Naesens L, De Clercq E |title=Update on human herpesvirus 6 biology, clinical features, and therapy |journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=217–45 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15653828 |pmc=544175 |doi=10.1128/CMR.18.1.217-245.2005}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |1989
| [[hepatitis C virus]]
|<ref name="pmid2523562">{{cite journal |vauthors=Choo QL, Kuo G, Weiner AJ, Overby LR, Bradley DW, Houghton M |title=Isolation of a cDNA clone derived from a blood-borne non-A, non-B viral hepatitis genome |journal=Science |volume=244 |issue=4902 |pages=359–62 |date=April 1989 |pmid=2523562 |doi=10.1126/science.2523562|bibcode = 1989Sci...244..359C |citeseerx=10.1.1.469.3592 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1990
| [[hepatitis E virus]], [[Human herpesvirus 7]]
|<ref name="pmid20335188">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bihl F, Negro F |title=Hepatitis E virus: a zoonosis adapting to humans |journal=The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy |volume=65 |issue=5 |pages=817–21 |date=May 2010 |pmid=20335188 |doi=10.1093/jac/dkq085}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1994
| [[henipavirus]]
|<ref name="pmid18511217">{{cite journal |author=Wild TF |title=Henipaviruses: a new family of emerging Paramyxoviruses |journal=Pathologie-biologie |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=188–96 |date=March 2009 |pmid=18511217 |doi=10.1016/j.patbio.2008.04.006 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 1997
| ''[[Anelloviridae]]''
|<ref name="pmid19230554">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-70972-5_1 |author=Okamoto H |title=History of discoveries and pathogenicity of TT viruses |volume=331 |issue= |pages=1–20 |year=2009 |pmid=19230554|series=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology |isbn=978-3-540-70971-8 }}</ref>
|-
|}

==See also==
{{Portal bar|History of science|Medicine|Viruses}}
*[[List of viruses]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|title=The Virus: A History of the Concept|author=Hughes, Sally Smith|publisher=Heinemann|place=London|year=1977|isbn=978-0882021683}}

{{Virus topics}}
{{Baltimore (virus classification)}}
{{History of medicine}}

[[Category:Virology|*Virology, History of]]
[[Category:History of science and technology in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Martinus Beijerinck]]

Family Dollar

2019-04-25T02:39:30Z

LizardJr8: Reverted edits by 2601:8C:C102:421:251A:CF75:21CB:9E3D (talk) to last version by HurricaneGeek2002

{{Infobox company
| name = Family Dollar Stores Inc.
| logo = Family Dollar logo.svg
| logo_size = 250px
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| logo_padding =
| image = File:Family Dollar, Inner Perimeter Road, Valdosta.JPG
| image_size = 250px
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Family Dollar store in Valdosta, Georgia
| type = [[Subsidiary]]
| industry = [[Retail]], Variety, [[Discount stores|Discount]]
| founded = {{start date and age|1959}} [[Charlotte, North Carolina]], U.S.
| founder = [[Leon Levine]]
| area_served = United States
| key_people = Gary Philbin, President & [[Chief operating officer|CEO]] [[Howard R. Levine]], [[Board of Directors|Chairman]]
| products = Clothing, cleaning supplies, home decor, and grocery.
| brands =
| services =
| revenue = {{increase}}[[US$]] 10.489 billion (2014)
| profit = {{decrease}}US$ 284.5 million (2014)
| assets = {{increase}}US$ 3.857 billion (2014)
| num_employees = 60,000 (2015)
| parent = [[Dollar Tree]] (2015–present)
| website = {{URL|https://www.familydollar.com|FamilyDollar.com}}
}}

'''Family Dollar''' is an American [[variety store]] chain. With over 8,000 locations in all states except [[Alaska]], [[Hawaii]], [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (state)|Washington]], it is the second largest retailer of its type in the United States. Family Dollar was headquartered in [[Matthews, North Carolina|Matthews]], a [[suburb]] of [[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]], [[North Carolina]], until it was acquired by Dollar Tree and headquarters operations were moved to [[Chesapeake, Virginia]].
<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/dollar-tree-to-close-family-dollar-hq-offer-relocation-to-700-employees-2018-09-18|title=Dollar Tree to close Family Dollar HQ, offer relocation to 700 employees}}</ref>

In June 2014, [[Activist shareholder|activist investor]] and major shareholder<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/34408/000092846414000058/fdosch13d060614.htm|title=fdosch13d060614.htm|website=www.sec.gov|access-date=2018-07-18}}</ref> [[Carl Icahn]] demanded that Family Dollar be immediately put up for sale.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/34408/000092846414000063/fdosch13damd10619ex1.htm|title=fdosch13damd10619ex1.htm|website=www.sec.gov|access-date=2018-07-18}}</ref>

On July 28, 2014, [[Dollar Tree]] announced that it would buy Family Dollar for $8.5 billion.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/07/28/us-family-dollar-st-offer-idUSKBN0FX0SX20140728|title=Dollar Tree to buy Family Dollar to stave off competition|last=Kumar|first=Devika Krishna|work=U.S.|access-date=2018-07-18|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="cltob-buyout">{{cite news|url=http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2014/07/28/5071476/matthews-based-family-dollar-bought.html|title=Charlotte region loses corporate headquarters in Family Dollar buyout|work=[[The Charlotte Observer]]}}</ref> The sale delivered a windfall to the company's biggest shareholder Carl Icahn, who acquired his 9.4 percent stake in June 2014.<ref name="BidRebuffed"/> On January 22, 2015, Family Dollar shareholders approved the Dollar Tree bid.<ref name=approved>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2015/01/22/us-family-dollar-st-offer-meeting-idUSKBN0KV1PR20150122|title=Family Dollar shareholders approve Dollar Tree deal|first1=Sruthi|last1=Ramakrishnan|first2=Ken|last2=Otterbourg|work=[[Reuters]]|date=January 22, 2015|accessdate=January 22, 2015}}</ref>

On March 6, 2019, the retailer announced that it will close up to 400 stores nationwide due to heavy pressure from an activist investor.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wcpo.com/news/national/family-dollar-will-close-nearly-400-stores|title=Family Dollar will close nearly 400 stores}}</ref>

==History==
{{refimprove section|date=December 2012}}
Family Dollar was founded in 1959 by [[Leon Levine]], a 21-year-old entrepreneur.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://northcarolinahistory.org/encyclopedia/family-dollar-stores/|title=Family Dollar Stores - North Carolina History Project|last=http://mangowebdesign.com|first=Website design and web development by Mango Web Design|work=North Carolina History Project|access-date=2017-03-04|language=en-US}}</ref> In November of that year, the company's first store was opened, in [[Charlotte, North Carolina]]. In 1961, their first store in [[South Carolina]] opened, followed by stores in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Virginia]], which were opened in 1962 and 1965, respectively. During the 1960s, the store company was largely a southern United States operation. By 1969, there were fifty stores in Charlotte alone.

The 1970s were growing years for the store chain. In 1970, Family Dollar's stock went public for the first time, at $14.50 per share. In 1971, the chain's 100th store opened, followed by their 200th in 1974 and their 300th in 1978. Also in 1974, a distribution center was opened in [[Matthews, North Carolina]]. In 1979, Family Dollar stock began trading at the [[New York Stock Exchange]].

In 1981, the chain's 400th store was opened, followed by a 500th store in 1982 and a 700th in 1983. The 1980s saw expansion at a wider scale for the company, and by 1989, 1,500 stores were operating.

The 1990s saw the pace of expansion slow down compared to the 1980s, with 1,000 stores opened. The company opened distribution centers in [[West Memphis, Arkansas]]; [[Front Royal, Virginia]] and [[Duncan, Oklahoma]]. Since 2000, the pace of growth increased significantly, with the addition of about 3,500 new stores, and new distribution centers opening in [[Morehead, Kentucky]]; [[Maquoketa, Iowa]]; [[Odessa, Texas]]; [[Marianna, Florida]]; and [[Rome, New York]].

In 2001, Family Dollar joined the [[S&P 500]] [[stock market index]]. In 2002, the company joined the [[Fortune 500]] list of largest publicly held companies.

When Leon Levine retired in 2003, his son Howard R. Levine succeeded him as [[Chairman of the board|Chairman]] and [[CEO]], keeping this multibillion-dollar company in the family.

In March 2005, Family Dollar restated the company's fiscal 2000 to fiscal 2004 earnings per share downward by 2 cents to 3 cents a year, to correct lease-accounting issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-106637228.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105214446/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-106637228.html|dead-url=yes|archive-date=2013-11-05| title=Family Dollar's Quarterly Income Falls}}</ref>

As of August 2011, there were 7,000 stores in 44 states. According to their website, in 2005 Family Dollar opened 500 new stores, 350 more in 2006, and an additional 300 in 2007. According to the Company's 2013 Corporate Profile, in 2010 Family Dollar opened 200 new stores, 300 more in 2011, 475 in 2012, and an additional 500 in 2013. On October 3, 2012, Family Dollar said they will open 500 stores in 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://drugstorenews.com/article/family-dollar-accelerate-store-growth|title=Family Dollar to accelerate store growth|publisher=Drug Store News|date=October 3, 2012|accessdate=October 4, 2012}}</ref> The next day, Family Dollar partnered with Healthways.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailyfinance.com/2012/10/04/family-dollar-announces-partnership-with-healthway/|title=Family Dollar Announces Partnership with Healthways to Improve Team Members' Health and Well-Being|publisher=DailyFinance|accessdate=October 4, 2012}}</ref> Family Dollar operates 11 distribution centers - the latest of which opened in [[St. George, Utah]] on October 16, 2013.

==Selling pressure==
In March 2011, Family Dollar rejected a takeover offer by [[Nelson Peltz]]'s Trian Fund Management reportedly between $55 and $60 a share.<ref name=post>{{cite news |title=Family Dollar Rejects Buyout Offer From Peltz's Trian, Adopts Poison Pill |work=Bloomberg |date=March 3, 2011 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-03/family-dollar-rejects-buyout-offer-from-peltz-s-trian-adopts-poison-pill.html/ |first=Chris |last=Burritt}}</ref>

On June 6, 2014, activist investor Carl Icahn disclosed that his firm, [[Icahn Enterprises]], held a 9.4% stake in Family Dollar.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="icahn-fdo-purchase">{{cite web|url=http://investor.familydollar.com/investors-relations/news-releases/Press-Release-Details/2014/Family-Dollar-Comments-on-Icahn-Letter/default.aspx|title=Family Dollar - Family Dollar Comments on Icahn Letter|publisher=}}</ref> On June 19, 2014, Icahn demanded in an [[open letter]] that Family Dollar be put up for sale immediately.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> [[Goldman Sachs]] and other analysts had identified a number of potential buyers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.streetinsider.com/Analyst+Comments/Family+Dollar+(FDO)+Has+Large+Number+of+Potential+Suitors%2C+Says+Goldman+Sachs/9600512.html|title=Family Dollar (FDO) Has Large Number of Potential Suitors, Says Goldman Sachs|work=StreetInsider.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/icahn-sale-urgency-isn-t-143437862.html|title=Icahn’s Sale Urgency Isn’t Family Dollar’s First Rodeo|date=20 June 2014|work=Yahoo Finance}}</ref>

[[File:Family Dollar interior in Gillette, Wyoming.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Interior of a Family Dollar in [[Gillette, Wyoming]]]]

As of June 19, 2014, 22% of Family Dollar's shares were controlled by activist investors.<ref name=":0" />

===Acquisition===
On July 28, 2014, [[Dollar Tree]] announced that it would acquire Family Dollar for $74.50 per share, a deal valuing Family Dollar at $8.5 billion, and that Dollar Tree would also assume $1 billion in debt currently owed by Family Dollar, for a total of $9.5 billion.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="wsj-buyout">{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/dollar-tree-to-buy-family-dollar-for-74-50-a-share-1406542575|title=WSJ|publisher=}}</ref> Dollar Tree CEO [[Bob Sasser]] said that Family Dollar CEO Howard R. Levine will remain with the company following the merger and will be appointed to Dollar Tree's [[board of directors]].<ref name="cltob-buyout" /> [[Dollar General]] entered the bidding, shortly thereafter, surpassing Dollar Tree's offer on August 18, 2014,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Davidson|first1=Paul|last2=Shell|first2=Adam|title=Dollar General offers $9.7B for Family Dollar|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2014/08/18/dollar-general-family-dollar/14220237/|publisher=The USA Today|accessdate=18 August 2014}}</ref> $78.50 a share compared to Dollar Tree's offer of $74.50 a share. The enterprise value of the Dollar General bid was $9.7 billion compared to that of Dollar Tree of $9.2 billion, while the quantum return to shareholders was varying as the stock and cash deal valuation was subjected to fluctuations of price of the competing bidders stock. On August 20, 2014 Family Dollar rejected the Dollar General bid, saying it was not a matter of price, but concerns over antitrust issues that had convinced the company and its advisers that the deal could not be concluded on the terms proposed.<ref name="BidRebuffed"/> Days after, Dollar General CEO Rick Dreiling sent a letter to the Family Dollar board of directors claiming that Levine rejected merger requests to protect his job.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Banjo|first1=Shelly|title=Family Dollar CEO Said to Reject Merger Requests to Protect Job|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/family-dollar-ceo-said-to-reject-merger-requests-to-protect-job-1408600339|publisher=The Wall Street Journal|accessdate=22 August 2014}}</ref> Levine, in a statement, said the Family Dollar board had been analyzing potential antitrust issues that could arise from doing a deal with Dollar General since the start of the year, and that was the reason it was not accepting the Dollar General bid.<ref name="BidRebuffed">{{cite news|title=Family Dollar rejects $9.7 bn acquisition bid by Dollar General|url=http://www.charlottenews.net/index.php/sid/224972437|date=21 August 2014|accessdate=22 August 2014|publisher=''Charlotte News.Net''}}</ref>

On January 22, 2015, Family Dollar shareholders approved the Dollar Tree bid.<ref name=approved/>

Several stores were required to be sold as a condition of the sale. [[Sycamore Partners]] acquired the stores in 2014 under the corporate name Dollar Express. The stores continued to operate under the Family Dollar name. In 2017, [[Dollar General]] acquired Dollar Express and converted the stores.<ref>{{Cite web| title = Dollar Express Chain Sells Out To Competitor Dollar General After 1.5 Years| work = Consumerist| accessdate = 2017-12-23| date = 2017-04-04| url = https://consumerist.com/2017/04/04/dollar-express-chain-sells-out-to-competitor-dollar-general-after-1-5-years/}}</ref>

As a result of Family Dollar's sale to Dollar Tree, some Family Dollar stores have opened in the same plaza, and at times even next door, to Dollar Tree locations.<ref>https://www.reddit.com/r/mildlyinteresting/comments/4xl0o6/i_do_not_understand_why_a_dollar_tree_and_a/</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*{{official website|https://www.familydollar.com/}}

{{VarietyStores}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:Discount stores of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in Charlotte, North Carolina]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1959]]
[[Category:Retail companies disestablished in 2019]]
[[Category:Variety stores]]
[[Category:Companies based in North Carolina]]
[[Category:1959 establishments in North Carolina]]
[[Category:2019 disestablishments in North Carolina]]
[[Category:2015 mergers and acquisitions]]
[[Category:American companies established in 1959]]

Nestlé-Boykott

2018-11-22T15:26:25Z

LizardJr8: Reverted edits by 147.188.254.200 (talk) to last version by 191.102.222.158

{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2011}}
A [[boycott]] was launched in the United States on July 7, 1977, against the Swiss-based [[Nestlé]] corporation. The boycott expanded into Europe in the early 1980s and was prompted by concern about Nestlé's "aggressive marketing" of [[breast milk]] substitutes, particularly in [[Developing country|developing countries]], largely among the poor.{{Citation Needed|date=September 2018}} The boycott has been cancelled and renewed because of the business practices of Nestlé and other substitute manufacturers monitored by the [[International Baby Food Action Network]] (IBFAN).{{Citation Needed|date=September 2018}} Organizers of the boycott state that substitutes for [[breast milk]] are worse for infants' health. As of 2013, the Nestlé boycott was coordinated by the International Nestlé Boycott Committee, whose secretariat was the British group Baby Milk Action.{{Citation Needed|date=September 2018}}

==Baby milk controversy==
Groups such as the [[International Baby Food Action Network]] (IBFAN) and [[Save the Children]] argue that the promotion of infant formula over breastfeeding has led to health problems and deaths among infants in less economically developed countries.<ref>{{cite web | title = What is the Problem? | work = IBFAN | url = http://www.ibfan.org/site2005/Pages/article.php?art_id=23&iui=1| accessdate = June 6, 2007 }}</ref><ref name="savechildren">[http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/resources/online-library/a-generation-on-baby-milk-marketing-still-putting-childrens-lives-at-risk A Generation On: Baby milk marketing still putting children’s lives at risk] Save the Children report, May 2007 (pdf).</ref> There are three problems that can arise when poor mothers in developing countries switch to formula as well as one list of benefits of breast milk:

* Sanitation:
**Formula must be mixed with water, which is often [[Water pollution|impure or not potable]] in poor countries, leading to disease in vulnerable infants.<ref name="Moorhead_2007">[https://www.theguardian.com/medicine/story/0,,2079757,00.html Milking it] Joanna Moorhead, ''The Guardian'', May 15, 2007</ref> Because of the low literacy rates in developing nations, many mothers are not aware of the sanitation methods needed in the preparation of bottles. Even mothers able to read in their native language may be unable to read the language in which sterilization directions are written.
**Although some mothers can understand the sanitation standards required, they often do not have the means to perform them: fuel to boil water, electric (or other reliable) light to enable sterilisation at night. [[UNICEF]] estimates that a formula-fed child living in disease-ridden and unhygienic conditions is between 6 and 25 times more likely to die of [[diarrhea]] and four times more likely to die of [[pneumonia]] than a breastfed child.<ref name=unicef>{{cite web | title = Infant and Young Child Feeding and Care| work = UNICEF | url = http://www.unicef.org/nutrition/index_breastfeeding.html| accessdate = June 8, 2007 }}</ref>
* Nutritional value:
** Many poor mothers use less formula powder than is required, in order to make a container of formula last longer. As a result, some infants receive inadequate [[nutrition]] from weak solutions of formula.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928034941/http://www.worldconcern.org/NETCOMMUNITY/Page.aspx?&pid=1556&srcid=596|title=World Concern - Witness the Transformation|publisher=|accessdate=December 21, 2016}}</ref>
**Breast milk has many natural benefits lacking in formula. [[Nutrient]]s and [[Antibody|antibodies]] are passed to the baby while [[hormones]] are released into the mother's body.<ref name=CDC>{{cite web | title=Breastfeeding | work=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | url=https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/ | accessdate=January 23, 2007}}</ref> Breastfed babies are protected, in varying degrees, from a number of illnesses, including diarrhea, [[bacterial meningitis]], [[gastroenteritis]], [[Otitis media|ear infection]], and [[respiratory infection]].<ref name="Gartner_2005">{{cite journal | author=Gartner LM | title=Breastfeeding and the use of human milk | journal=Pediatrics | year=2005 | pages=496–506 | volume=115 | issue=2 | url=http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;115/2/496 | doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2491 | pmid=15687461 | name-list-format=vanc | display-authors=1 | last2=Morton | first2=J | last3=Lawrence | first3=RA | last4=Naylor | first4=AJ | last5=O'Hare | first5=D | last6=Schanler | first6=RJ | last7=Eidelman | first7=AI | author8=American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Breastfeeding | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822082857/http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;115/2/496 | archivedate=August 22, 2009 | df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name=HHS>{{cite web|title=Mothers and Children Benefit from Breastfeeding |url=http://www.4woman.gov/breastfeeding/index.cfm?page=227 |publisher=Womenshealth.gov |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316071541/http://www.4woman.gov/breastfeeding/index.cfm?page=227 |archivedate=March 16, 2009 |date=27 February 2009 |deadurl=unfit }}</ref><ref name="Merck">[http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec09/ch122/ch122a.html "Gastroenteritis"]. ''Merck Manuals Online Medical Library''. February 1, 2003. Retrieved November 21, 2006.</ref> Breast milk contains the right amount of the nutrients essential for [[neuronal]] (brain and nerve) development.<ref name="Atkinson_1989">{{cite book | author = Atkinson, S |author2=Bo Lönnerdal | title = Proteins and non-protein nitrogens in human milk | publisher = CRC Press | year = 1989 | pages = 131 | isbn = 0-8493-6795-6 }}</ref> The bond between baby and mother can be strengthened during breastfeeding.<ref name="HHS" /> Frequent and exclusive breastfeeding can also [[lactational amenorrhea|delay the return of fertility]], which can help women in developing countries to space their births.<ref>{{cite web | title = Comparison of Effectiveness | work = Planned Parenthood |date=April 2005 | url = http://www.PlannedParenthood.org/birth-control-pregnancy/birth-control/effectiveness.htm | accessdate = August 12, 2006 }}, which cites: :{{cite book | first=RA | last=Hatcher | year=2000 | title=Contraceptive Technology | edition=18th | publisher=Ardent Media | location=New York | isbn=0-9664902-6-6 |name-list-format=vanc| author2=Trussel J | author3=Stewart F | display-authors=2 }}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] recommends that, in the majority of cases, babies should be exclusively breast fed for the first six months, and then given complementary foods in addition to breastfeeding for up to two years or beyond.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080414131326/http://www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/EB109/eeb10912.pdf World Health Organization], "Global strategy for infant and young child feeding," section titled "EXERCISING OTHER FEEDING OPTIONS" November 24, 2001</ref>
*Preserving milk supply:
**The practice of relying on free formula in maternity wards frequently means the mother loses the ability to make her own milk and must buy formula (as stated in the following paragraph).

Advocacy groups and charities have accused Nestlé of unethical methods of promoting infant formula over breast milk to poor mothers in developing countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.InFactCanada.ca/nestle_boycott_product.htm|title=Nestle Products to Boycott|publisher=|accessdate=December 21, 2016}}</ref><ref name="history">[http://www.BabyMilkAction.org/pages/history.html History of the campaign] Baby Milk Action Group</ref> For example, IBFAN claim that Nestlé distributes free formula samples to hospitals and maternity wards; after leaving the hospital, the formula is no longer free, but because the supplementation has interfered with lactation, the family must continue to buy the formula. IBFAN also allege that Nestlé uses "humanitarian aid" to create markets, does not label its products in a language appropriate to the countries where they are sold, and offers gifts and sponsorship to influence health workers to promote its products.<ref>{{cite web|title=How breastfeeding is undermined |work=IBFAN |url=http://www.ibfan.org/english/issue/bfundermined01.html |accessdate=June 6, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415171525/http://www.ibfan.org/english/issue/bfUndermined01.html |archivedate=April 15, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> Nestlé denies these allegations.<ref name=Nestle_response>{{cite web|title=WHO Code Violation Allegations |work=Nestlé |url=http://www.babymilk.nestle.com/Who+Code+Issues/Allegations/ |accessdate=June 6, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070409144431/http://www.babymilk.nestle.com/Who%2BCode%2BIssues/Allegations/ |archivedate=April 9, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref>

==History==
Nestlé's marketing strategy was first written about in ''[[New Internationalist]]'' magazine in 1973 and in a booklet called ''[[The Baby Killer]]'', published by the British NGO [[War On Want]] in 1974. Nestlé attempted to sue the publisher of a German-language translation (Third World Action Group) entitled "Nestlé tötet Babies" for [[libel]]. After a two-year trial, the court found in favour of Nestlé because they could not be held responsible for the infant deaths 'in terms of criminal law'.<ref name="Sethi_1994">{{cite journal | author=Sethi, S. Prakash |title= Multinational Corporations and the Impact of Public Advocacy on Corporate Strategy: Nestlé and the Infant Formula Controversy| journal= Journal of International Business Studies| year=1994 | pages= 658–660 | volume= 25 | issue=3 | doi=10.1057/jibs.1994.41 | jstor=155364}}</ref>
Because the defendants were only fined 300 Swiss Francs (just over US$400, adjusted for inflation<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forecasts.org/data/data/EXSZUS.htm|title=Historical Data for Switzerland / U.S. Foreign Exchange Rate|publisher=|accessdate=December 21, 2016}}</ref>), and Judge Jürg Sollberger commented that Nestlé "must modify its publicity methods fundamentally", ''[[TIME]]'' magazine declared this a "moral victory" for the defendants.<ref name="TIME_1976">[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,914298,00.html The Formula Flap] TIME Magazine, Jul. 12, 1976</ref> This led to similar court challenges brought against other milk companies in the U.S. spearheaded by the Roman Catholic order Sisters of the Precious Blood in conjunction with the Interfaith Centre for Corporate Responsibility.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/nestle-baby-milk-scandal-food-industry-standards|title=Nestlé baby milk scandal has grown up but not gone away|first=Mike|last=Muller|date=February 13, 2013|publisher=|accessdate=December 21, 2016|via=The Guardian}}</ref>

The widespread publicity led to the launch of the boycott in [[Minneapolis]], USA, by the [[Corporate Accountability International#History|Infant Formula Action Coalition]] (INFACT) and this boycott soon spread to Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Europe. In May 1978, the US Senate held a public hearing into the promotion of breast milk substitutes in developing countries and joined calls for a Marketing Code. In 1979, WHO and UNICEF hosted an international meeting that called for the development of an international code of marketing, as well as action on other fronts to improve infant and early child feeding practices. The International Baby Food Action Network (IBFAN) was formed by six of the campaigning groups at this meeting.<ref name ="history"/>

In 1981, the 34th [[World Health Assembly]] (WHA) adopted Resolution WHA34.22 which includes the [[International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes]]. The Code covers infant formula and other milk products, foods and beverages, when marketed or otherwise represented to be suitable as a partial or total replacement of breast milk. It bans the promotion of breast milk substitutes and gives health workers the responsibility for advising parents. It limits manufacturing companies to the provision of scientific and factual information to health workers and sets forth labeling requirements.<ref>{{cite web | title = The International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes | work = WHO| year=1981|url = http://www.WHO.int/nutrition/publications/code_english.pdf | accessdate = June 6, 2007 |format=PDF}}</ref>

In 1984, boycott coordinators met with Nestlé, which agreed to implement the code, and the boycott was officially suspended. In 1988 IBFAN alleged that formula companies were flooding health facilities in the developing world with free and low-cost supplies, and the boycott was relaunched the following year.<ref name="Moorhead_2007"/>

In May 1999 a ruling against Nestlé was issued by the UK [[Advertising Standards Authority (United Kingdom)|Advertising Standards Authority]] (ASA). Nestlé claimed in an anti-boycott advertisement that it markets infant formula "ethically and responsibly". The ASA found that Nestlé could not support this nor other claims in the face of evidence provided by the campaigning group Baby Milk Action.<ref name="Ferriman_1999">{{cite journal | last = Ferriman| first = Annabel | title= Advertising Standards Authority finds against Nestlé | journal=BMJ| date = February 13, 1999| pages= 417| url= http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/318/7181/417/a | pmid= 9974443 | volume = 318 | issue = 7181 | pmc=1114895 | doi=10.1136/bmj.318.7181.417a}}</ref>

In November 2000 the [[European Parliament]] invited IBFAN, UNICEF, and Nestlé to present evidence to a Public Hearing before the Development and Cooperation Committee. Evidence was presented by the IBFAN group from [[Pakistan]] and UNICEF's legal officer commented on Nestlé's failure to bring its policies into line with the World Health Assembly Resolutions. Nestlé declined an invitation to attend, claiming scheduling conflicts, although it sent a representative of the auditing company it had commissioned to produce a report on its Pakistan operation.<ref>{{cite press release | title = European Parliament public hearing on Nestlé's baby food marketing | publisher = Breast Feeding Promotion Network of India | date = November 22, 2000 | url = http://www.bpni.org/Press_Releases/pr-nov.22,2000.pdf | accessdate = June 8, 2007 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release | title = MEPs shocked as Nestlé and Adidas snub Public Hearing on corporate responsibility | publisher = Baby Milk Action | date = November 23, 2000 | url = http://www.ibfan.org/english/news/press/press23nov00.html | accessdate = June 8, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=European Parliament Committee on Development |work=Nestlé |url=http://www.BabyMilk.nestle.com/News/All+Countries/Other/European+Parliament+Committee+on+Development.htm |accessdate=June 7, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927020154/http://www.babymilk.nestle.com/News/All%2BCountries/Other/European%2BParliament%2BCommittee%2Bon%2BDevelopment.htm |archivedate=September 27, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref>

==Current status==

{{As of|2013}}, the Nestlé boycott is coordinated by the ''International Nestlé Boycott Committee'', the secretariat for which is the UK group ''Baby Milk Action''.<ref>[http://www.BabyMilkAction.org/ Baby Milk Action]</ref> Company practices are monitored by the [[International Baby Food Action Network]] (IBFAN), which consists of more than 200 groups in over 100 countries.

Alongside the boycott, campaigners work for implementation of the Code and Resolutions in legislation, and claim that 60 countries have now introduced laws implementing most or all of the provisions.<ref>{{cite web | title = The role of regulations in protecting infant health| work = IBFAN | url = http://www.ibfan.org/site2005/Pages/article.php?art_id=310&iui=1| accessdate = June 7, 2007}}</ref>

Some universities, colleges, and schools have banned the sale of Nestlé products from their shops and vending machines in the period since the revelations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.universityobserver.ie/news/students-to-vote-on-coca-cola-boycott/|title=Students to vote on Coca-Cola boycott|publisher=|accessdate=December 21, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.leedsstudent.org/2011-10-21/article/no-to-nestle|title=leedsstudent.org - leedsstudent Resources and Information.|publisher=|accessdate=December 21, 2016}}</ref><ref>[http://dspace.sunyconnect.suny.edu/bitstream/handle/1951/42510/Statesman,%20V.%2025,%20n.%2042.pdf Nestle Products Are Banned by FSA]</ref> In the United Kingdom, 73 students' unions, 102 businesses, 30 faith groups, 20 health groups, 33 consumer groups, 18 local authorities, 12 trade unions, education groups, 31 MPs and many celebrities support the Nestlé boycott.{{when|date=September 2013}}<ref>{{cite web | title = UK groups endorsing the boycott| work = Baby Milk Action | url = http://www.BabyMilkAction.org/pages/endorsers.html#education |accessdate = November 7, 2009}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ousu.org/content/index.php?page=4113 An example of one such ban] Council of the Oxford University Student Union, June 9, 2006</ref>

Nestlé claims that it is in full compliance with the International Code.<ref>{{cite web|title=The "International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes" |work=Nestlé |url=http://www.BabyMilk.nestle.com/Who+Code+Issues/Nestle+Code+Compliance/Nestle+code+compliance.htm |accessdate=June 6, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516200307/http://www.babymilk.nestle.com/Who%2BCode%2BIssues/Nestle%2BCode%2BCompliance/Nestle%2Bcode%2Bcompliance.htm |archivedate=May 16, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> According to Nestlé [[CEO]] [[Peter Brabeck-Letmathe]], "we also carry out annual audits on WHO Code compliance with a sample of Nestlé companies, and we investigate any substantiated claims made by those who believe we have broken the Code.... If we find that the Code has been deliberately violated, we take disciplinary action."<ref>{{cite web
|title=Foreword by Peter Brabeck
|work=Nestlé
|url=http://www.BabyMilk.nestle.com/Developping+World/Foreword/
|accessdate=June 11, 2007
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070409050111/http://www.babymilk.nestle.com/Developping%2BWorld/Foreword/
|archivedate=April 9, 2007
|deadurl=yes
|df=
}}</ref> The company maintains that many of the allegations are unsubstantiated, out of date, or use IBFAN's own non-standard interpretation of the Code.<ref name=Nestle_response/>

In May 2011, the debate over Nestlé's unethical marketing of infant formula was relaunched in the Asia-Pacific region. Nineteen leading [[Laos]]-based international NGOs, including [[Save the Children]], [[Oxfam]], [[CARE International]], [[Plan International]] and [[World Vision]] have launched a boycott of Nestlé and written an open letter to the company.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Letter from NGOs to Nestlé
| url = http://info.babymilkaction.org/sites/info.babymilkaction.org/files/Aid%20Agencies%20in%20Laos%20refuse%20to%20apply%20for%20Nestle%20cash_30%20May%202011.pdf
| accessdate = 2014-09-05
}}</ref> Among other unethical practices, the NGOs criticised the lack of labelling in Laos and the provision of incentives to doctors and nurses to promote the use of infant formula.<ref>{{cite web
| title = The "LAOS: NGOs flay Nestlé's infant formula strategy
| url = http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportID=93040
| accessdate = {{date | 26 nov 2014}}
}}</ref> An independent audit of Nestlé's marketing practices in Laos was commissioned by Nestlé and carried out by Bureau Veritas in late 2011. The audit found that "the requirements of the WHO Code and Lao PDR Decree are well embedded throughout the business", but that "promotional materials in 4% of the retail outlets visited" violated either the Lao PDR Decree or the WHO Code.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bureau Veritas report |url=http://www.nestle.com/asset-library/Documents/R_and_D/Compliance/Independent_Assurance_Statement_by_Bureau_Veritas_Laos.pdf |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203234414/http://www.nestle.com/asset-library/documents/r_and_d/compliance/independent_assurance_statement_by_bureau_veritas_laos.pdf |archivedate=February 3, 2016 |df= }}</ref>

==In the media==
An episode of the TV show ''[[The Mark Thomas Comedy Product]]'' produced by the British [[Channel Four]] in 1999 investigated the boycott and Nestlé's practices concerning baby milk. [[Mark Thomas]] attempted to find evidence for claims against Nestlé and to speak to heads of the company. In one portion of the show he "received a tin of baby milk from [[Mozambique]]. All instructions are in English. 33 languages and dialects are recognised in Mozambique. Portuguese is the official language. However, only about 30% of the population can speak it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.MarkThomasInfo.com/info/series4.asp|title=Home - Mark Thomas Info|publisher=|accessdate=December 21, 2016}}</ref>

In 2001, comedian [[Robert Newman (comedian)|Robert Newman]] and actress [[Emma Thompson]] called for a boycott of the [[Perrier Comedy Award]], because [[Perrier]] is owned by Nestlé.<ref>{{cite news | last = Scott | first = Kirsty | title = Spoof horror writer wins £5,000 Perrier award: Fringe comedy contest soured by baby milk protests | publisher = ''The Guardian'' | date = August 27, 2001| url = https://www.theguardian.com/edinburghfestival2001/story/0,,543033,00.html| accessdate = June 11, 2007 }}</ref> An alternative competition called the Tap Water Awards was set up the following year.<ref>{{cite web | title = The Tap Water Awards| url = http://www.TapWaterAwards.org/| accessdate = June 11, 2007 }}</ref>

In 2002, authors [[Germaine Greer]] and [[Jim Crace]] withdrew from the [[Hay Festival]] in protest over Nestlé's sponsorship of the event.<ref>{{cite news | title = Writers boycott literary festival| publisher = BBC News| date = May 27, 2002| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2010324.stm| accessdate = June 7, 2007}}</ref>

A 2007 article in ''[[The Guardian]]'' highlighted aggressive marketing practices by Nestlé in [[Bangladesh]].<ref name="Moorhead_2007"/>

==2016 Canada boycott==
[[The Council of Canadians]], a social action organization, launched a boycott in September 2016 in response to the company outbidding a small town aiming to [[water security|secure]] a long-term water supply through a local well, stressing the need for [[bottled water industry reform]] as the country battles drought and depletion of ground water reserves.<ref>{{cite web|title=Petition calls on Canadians to boycott Nestlé over water grab|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2016/09/26/petition-calls-canadians-boycott-nestl-over-water-grab/91119300/|publisher=USA TODAY|accessdate=29 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Wynne wants new rules for bottled water industry after Nestle outbids town|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2016/09/23/wynne-wants-new-rules-for-bottled-water-industry-after-nestle-outbids-town.html|publisher=The Toronto Star|accessdate=29 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title='Everyone should care' about bottled water, teen says at rally against Nestlé permit|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/guelph-nestle-take-water-permit-rally-1.3779056|publisher=CBC News|accessdate=29 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=People are furious at Nestlé for taking over small town's water supply|url=http://www.businessinsider.de/nestl-takes-over-small-towns-water-supply-2016-9?r=US&IR=T|publisher=Business Insider Deutschland|accessdate=29 December 2016}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[H2NO]] – an upselling campaign by [[Coca-Cola]] to dissuade consumers from ordering tap water drinks at restaurants

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ibfan.org/ International Baby Food Action Network (IBFAN)]
* [http://www.babymilkaction.org/ Baby Milk Action]
* [http://www.ibfan.org/english/pdfs/btr04/btr04nestle.pdf Nestlé marketing profile], from Breaking the Rules Stretching the Rules, IBFAN, 2004
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050208092054/http://babymilk.8k.com/ Edinburgh University Néstle Boycott Campaign]
* [http://www.babymilk.nestle.com Nestlé's response to the baby milk issue]

{{Nestlé}}
{{Food industry criticism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nestle Boycott}}
[[Category:1977 events in the United States]]
[[Category:Boycotts of organizations]]
[[Category:Consumer boycotts]]
[[Category:Breastfeeding advocacy]]
[[Category:Nestlé|Boycott]]

Manchester Mummy

2017-10-28T20:23:39Z

LizardJr8: Reverted edits by 189.92.224.0 (talk) to last version by J3Mrs

[[File:Manchester Natural History Museum.jpg|thumb|300px|alt=Black and white drawing of a large three-storey building fronted by a four-column portico. A man on a light-coloured horse is riding down the wide empty street in front of the building.|The Museum of the Manchester Natural History Society c. 1850, in which Hannah Beswick's mummified body was displayed]]
'''Hannah Beswick''' (1688 – February 1758), of Birchin Bower, [[Hollinwood, Greater Manchester|Hollinwood]], [[Oldham]], [[Lancashire]], was a wealthy woman who had a pathological fear of [[premature burial]].{{sfn|Hough|Randles|1993|p=42|ps=}} Following her death in 1758 her body was [[embalming|embalmed]] and kept above ground, to be periodically checked for signs of life.

The method of embalming was not recorded, but it probably involved replacing the blood with a mixture of [[turpentine]] and [[vermilion]]. The body was then put in an old clock case and stored in the house of Beswick's family physician, [[Charles White (physician)|Dr Charles White]]. Beswick's apparently eccentric will made her a local celebrity, and visitors were allowed to view her at White's house.

Beswick's mummified body was eventually bequeathed to the [[Manchester Museum|Museum of the Manchester Natural History Society]], where she was put on display and acquired the soubriquet of the '''Manchester Mummy''', or the '''Mummy of Birchin Bower'''. The museum's collection was later transferred to [[Manchester University]], when it was decided, with the permission of the [[Bishop of Manchester]], that Beswick should finally be buried. The ceremony took place at [[Harpurhey]] Cemetery on 22 July 1868, more than 110 years after her death; the grave is unmarked.

==Background==
{{further|Premature burial}}
[[File:Wiertz burial.jpg|thumb|left|250px|alt=A wooden coffin in a stone vault being opened by a shrouded figure inside.|[[Antoine Wiertz|Antoine Wiertz's]] ''L'Inhumation précipitée'' (''The Premature Burial''), 1854]]
The mid-18th century saw an upsurge in the public's fear of being mistakenly buried alive,{{sfn|Bondeson|2001|p=77|ps=}} and much debate about the uncertainty of the signs of death. Various suggestions were made to test for signs of life before burial, ranging from pouring vinegar and pepper into the corpse's mouth to applying red hot pokers to the feet, or even into the [[rectum]].{{sfn|Bondeson|2001|pp=56, 71|ps=}} Writing in 1895, the physician J. C. Ouseley claimed that as many as 2,700 people were buried prematurely each year in England and Wales, although others estimated the figure to be closer to 800.{{sfn|Bondeson|2001|p=239|ps=}}

Hannah Beswick was born in 1688, the daughter of John and Patience Beswick, of Cheetwood Old Hall, Manchester, she inherited considerable wealth from her father who died in 1706.<ref>{{cite news|title=Manchester Times|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000504/18900822/046/0007|accessdate=2 February 2017|date=22 August 1890}}</ref> Some years before her own death, one of Hannah's brothers, John, had shown signs of life just as his coffin lid had been about to be closed. A mourner noticed that John's eyelids appeared to be flickering, and on examination the family physician, [[Charles White (surgeon)|Dr Charles White]], confirmed that he was still alive. John regained consciousness a few days later, and lived for many more years.{{sfn|Hyde|O'Rourke|Portland|2004|p=43|ps=}}

Jessie Dobson, Recorder of the Museum of the [[Royal College of Surgeons of England]], has said that there appear to be many "inaccuracies and contradictions" in accounts of the events following Beswick's death in 1758. Many suggest that she left £25,000 (equivalent to about £{{formatprice|{{Inflation|UK|25000|1758|r=-6}}|0}} as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}){{Inflation-fn|UK}} to White, a pioneer of [[obstetrics]] and one of the founders of the [[Manchester Royal Infirmary]],{{sfn|Cooper|2007|p = 87|ps = }} on the condition that her body was kept above ground, and that periodically she was to be checked for signs of life.{{sfn|Clendening|2005|p = 325|ps = }} Beswick's [[will (law)|will]] however, dated 25 July 1757 (less than a year before her death), states only that White was to receive £100 (£{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|100|1757|r=-3}}|0}} as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}),{{Inflation-fn|UK}} and that £400 (£{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|400|1757|r=-3}}|0}} as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}){{Inflation-fn|UK}} was to be allocated for funeral expenses. Some accounts have suggested that White was an [[executor]] of Beswick's will and that he received the £400 himself, from which he was permitted to keep any surplus after the funeral expenses had been paid. Having Beswick embalmed therefore allowed him to keep the whole amount. Alternatively it has been suggested that White was considerably in debt to Beswick, a debt that would have to be repaid after the funeral, which was avoided by her embalming, but Beswick's will names Mary Graeme and Esther Robinson as her executors, not White.{{sfn|Dobson|1953|p=432}} In 1866, more than 100 years after her death, the details of Beswick's will were still being disputed.{{sfn|Portland|2002|p=86|ps=}}

==Embalming==
[[File:White Charles physician.jpg|thumb|upright|Charles White]]
There is no mention in Beswick's 1757 will of her desire to be [[embalming|embalmed]]. It has been suggested that White had been asked to keep Beswick above ground only until it became obvious that she was actually dead, but that he was unable to resist the temptation to add a mummy to his collection of "wet and dry" exhibits, and so made the decision to embalm her.{{sfn|Portland|2002|p=86|ps=}} White had developed a particular interest in anatomy while studying medicine in London and was building up a collection of "curiosities", which by the time of his death included the skeleton of Thomas Higgins, a [[highwayman]] and sheep-stealer hanged for burglary, as well as Hannah Beswick's mummy.{{sfn|Dobson|1953|p=433|ps=}}

The method of embalming used by White is unrecorded, but in 1748 he had studied under the anatomist [[William Hunter (anatomist)|William Hunter]], who had developed an early system of arterial embalming, therefore it is likely that White used the same method.{{r|Zigarovich}} The [[veins]] and [[arteries]] would have been injected with a mixture of [[turpentine]] and [[vermilion]], after which the [[Viscus|organs]] would have been removed from the chest and abdomen and placed in water, to clean them and to reduce their bulk. As much blood as possible would then have been squeezed out of the corpse, and the whole body washed with alcohol. The next stage would have been to replace the organs and to repeat the injection of turpentine and vermilion. The body cavities would then have been filled with a mixture of [[camphor]], [[Niter|nitre]] and [[resin]], before the body was sewn up and all openings filled with camphor. After a final washing, the body would have been packed into a box containing [[plaster|plaster of Paris]], to absorb any moisture,{{sfn|Dobson|1953|pp=434–435|ps=}} and then probably coated with tar, to preserve it.{{r|Zigarovich}}

==Display==
Beswick's mummified body was initially kept at [[Ancoats Hall]], the home of another Beswick family member, but it was soon moved to a room in Dr White's home in [[Sale, Greater Manchester|Sale]], [[Cheshire]], where it was stored in an old clock case.
Beswick's apparently eccentric will made her a celebrity; the author [[Thomas de Quincey]] was one of those who went to view her at White's house.{{sfn|Bondeson|2001|p=87|ps=}} Following White's death in 1813, Beswick's body was bequeathed to a Dr Ollier, on whose death in 1828 it was donated to the [[Manchester Museum|Museum of the Manchester Natural History Society]],{{sfn|Portland|2002|p=85|ps=}} where she became known as the Manchester Mummy, or the Mummy of Birchin Bower.{{sfn|Cooper|2007|p=87|ps=}} She was displayed in the museum's entrance hall,{{sfn|Bondeson|1997|p=102|ps=}} next to a [[Chinchorro mummies|Peruvian]] and an Egyptian [[mummy]], and her relatives were allowed free access to visit her as they wished.{{sfn|Hyde|O'Rourke|Portland|2004|p=44|ps=}} She was described by a visitor in 1844 as "one of the most remarkable objects in the museum".{{sfn|Kohl|1844|p=130|ps=}} The "cold dark shadow of her mummy hung over Manchester in the middle of the eighteenth century", according to writer [[Edith Sitwell]].{{sfn|Sitwell|1933|p=22|ps=}}

There are no pictures of Hannah Beswick. One of the few contemporary accounts of her is provided by Philip Wentworth, a local historian:
{{quote|The body was well preserved but the face was shrivelled and black. The legs and trunks were tightly bound in a strong cloth such as is used for bed ticks [a stiff kind of mattress cover material] and the body, which was that of a little old woman, was in a glass coffin-shaped case.{{sfn|Portland|2002|p=87|ps=}}}}

Shortly after the museum's transfer to [[Manchester University]] in 1867 it was decided that as Beswick was "irrevocably and unmistakably dead", the time had come for her to be buried.{{sfn|Cooper|2007|p=88|ps=}} But since 1837 UK law had required that a medical examiner issue a [[death certificate|certificate of death]] before a burial could take place; as Beswick had died in 1758 an appeal had to be made to the Secretary of State, who issued an order for her burial.<ref name="LitPhil"/> With the permission of the [[Bishop of Manchester]], Hannah Beswick was interred in an unmarked grave in [[Harpurhey]] Cemetery on 22 July 1868, more than 110 years after her death.{{sfn|Portland|2002|pp=82–83|ps=}}

==Treasure and alleged apparitions==
[[Charles Edward Stuart|Bonnie Prince Charlie]] entered Manchester at the head of his invading army in 1745, causing Beswick some apprehension over the safety of her money, which she therefore decided to bury. Shortly before her death she promised to show her relatives where the treasure was hidden, but she did not survive long enough to do so. Her home, Birchin Bower, was converted into workers' tenements following her death. Several of those living there claimed to have seen a figure dressed in a black silk gown and a white cap, and described it as Hannah Beswick. After gliding across the house's parlour, the apparition would vanish at one particular flagstone. It is claimed that while digging to fit a new loom, a weaver living there discovered Beswick's hoard of gold, hidden underneath that same flagstone. Oliphant's, a Manchester gold dealer, paid the weaver £3 10[[Shilling|s]] for each gold piece, the equivalent of almost £{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|UK|3.5|1758|r=-1}}|0}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}.{{Inflation-fn|UK}}{{sfn|Hyde|O'Rourke|Portland|2004|pp=43–44|ps=}}

Birchin Bower was eventually demolished to make way for a [[Ferranti]] factory, but sightings of the apparition were still reported.{{sfn|Hough|Randles|1993|p=43|ps=}}

When Beswick's family home, Cheetwood Old Hall was demolished in 1890 to make way for a brickyard, contractors discovered a double coffin buried underneath the drawing room, the mystery of the burial was never solved but at the time it was thought to be connected to the Beswick family and Dr White who had resided at the hall after Hannah Beswick removed to Oldham.<ref>{{cite news|title=Dundee Courier|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000162/18900703/032/0003|accessdate=2 February 2017|date=3 March 1890}}</ref>

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name="LitPhil">
{{citation |publisher=Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society |title=Memoirs and Proceedings |year=1913 |volume=58 |url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsproceedin58manc |accessdate=27 March 2009}}
</ref>

<ref name="Zigarovich">
{{citation |last=Zigarovich |first=Jolene |title=Preserved Remains: Embalming Practices in Eighteenth-Century England |journal=Eighteenth-Century Life |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2009 |volume=33 |doi=10.1215/00982601-2009-004 |pages=65–104 |issue=3}}
</ref>

}}

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*{{citation |last=Hyde |first=Matthew |last2=O'Rourke |first2=Aidan |last3=Portland |first3=Peter |title=Around the M60: Manchester's Orbital Motorway |publisher=AMCD (Publishers) Limited |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-897762-30-1}}
*{{citation |last=Kohl |first=Johann Georg |title=England, Wales and Scotland |year=1844 |publisher=Chapman and Hall}}
*{{citation |last=Portland |first=Peter |title=Around Haunted Manchester |publisher=AMCD (Publishers) Limited |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-897762-25-7}}
*{{citation |last=Sitwell |first=Edith |title=The English Eccentrics |publisher=Faber & Faber |year=1933}}
{{refend}}

{{featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Manchester Mummy}}
[[Category:Mummies]]
[[Category:University of Manchester]]
[[Category:People from Oldham]]
[[Category:1688 births]]
[[Category:1758 deaths]]
[[Category:Folklore of Greater Manchester]]

Lauren Southern

2017-01-19T05:37:01Z

LizardJr8: Reverted edits by 2601:648:8000:DF49:9CC7:FF2C:5E07:85B3 (talk) to last version by TheTruthiness

{{multiple issues|
{{Disputed|date=November 2016}}
{{Unreliable sources|date=November 2016}}
{{cleanup AfD|date=November 2016}}
}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Lauren Southern
| image = Lauren Southern 2 (cropped).jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_name = Lauren Cherie Southern
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|mf=yes|1995|06|15}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/Lauren_Southern/status/743206574609555460 |title= It's my birthday. All I ask is that you include pictures of cute animals in any tweet you send me. That includes hate mail. |publisher=Twitter.com |date=2016-06-15 |accessdate=2016-07-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/Lauren_Southern/status/641069986899881984|title=Lauren Southern on Twitter: "@BASSFZz 20 :)"|website=Twitter.com|accessdate=2016-11-06|date=2015-09-07|author=Lauren Southern}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/Lauren_Southern/status/727368873469603841|title=Lauren Southern on Twitter: "@Maryf_j1 I'm 20 lol"|website=Twitter.com|accessdate=2016-11-06|date=2016-05-02|author=Lauren Southern}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Surrey, British Columbia]], [[Canada]]
| nationality = Canadian
| occupation = Commentator, media personality
| party = [[Libertarian Party of Canada|Libertarian]]
}}

'''Lauren Cherie Southern'''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mobile.twitter.com/Lauren_Southern/status/669425668371935232 |title=Twitter |publisher=Mobile.twitter.com |date=2015-11-25 |accessdate=2016-07-01}}</ref> (born June 15, 1995) is a Canadian [[libertarian]] activist, book author, political commentator and writer for ''[[The Rebel Media]]'', a Canadian online media company. Southern ran as a candidate for the [[Libertarian Party of Canada]] in the [[Canadian federal election, 2015|2015 Canadian federal election]].

== Education and life ==
Southern was born in [[Surrey, British Columbia]] and currently resides in [[Toronto]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.libertarian.ca/candidate/lauren-southern |title=Lauren Southern | Libertarian Party of Canada | Home |publisher=Libertarian.ca |date= |accessdate=2016-07-01}}</ref> She studied [[political science]] at the [[University of the Fraser Valley]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.langleyadvance.com/federalelection/323015761.html|title=Langley post-secondary student runs as Libertarian - News|last=Claxton|first=Matthew|newspaper=Langley Advance|access-date=2016-10-30}}</ref>

==Media and political career==

=== Political career ===
In 2015, Southern was a candidate in the [[Canadian Federal Election]] representing the [[Libertarian Party of Canada]] in the [[Electoral_district (Canada)|electoral district]] of [[Langley—Aldergrove]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.dailydot.com/lifestyle/lauren-southern-libertarian/|work=[[The Daily Dot]]|title=Meet the Canadian college student who's about to be the next enemy of the feminist movement|first=Marisa|last=Kabas|date=June 15, 2015}}</ref> Party officials suspended her campaign after her protest of a [[SlutWalk]] went viral, with party leader Tim Moen stating Southern’s actions had "broken message discipline".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2015/07/02/canadian-libertarians-in-revolt-after-party-leadership-suspends-anti-feminist-candidate-lauren-southern|work=[[Breitbart]]|title=Canadian Libertarians in Revolt After Party Leadership Suspends Anti-Feminist Candidate Lauren Southern|first=Allum|last=Bokhari|date=July 2, 2015}}/</ref> A public outcry and over ten Libertarian candidates resigning or threatening to resign followed and a week later she was reinstated as a candidate by her party.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lauren Southern, 'Anti-Feminist,' Reinstated as Libertarian Candidate|first=Allum|last=Bokhari|date=July 9, 2015|url=http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2015/07/09/lauren-southern-reinstated-as-candidate-following-breitbart-story/|publisher=[[Breitbart News Network]]}}</ref> The riding was eventually won by [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]] candidate [[Mark Warawa]].

=== Media activism ===
In June 2015, Southern's Rebel TV cameraman was shoved at the SlutWalk in [[Vancouver]] and Southern's protest sign "There Is No [[Rape Culture]] In The West" was torn up while reporting on the event.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themarysue.com/the-triggering-is-dumb/|last=Lachenal|first=Jessica|date=2016-03-09|website=TheMarySue|access-date=2016-09-03|title=Internet Jerks Pledge to Make Internet Even Worse in #TheTriggering}}</ref>

In March 2016, a protester in [[Vancouver]] poured a container of urine over Southern's head while she was speaking with other protesters at a rally in Vancouver.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/activist-pours-bottle-of-urine-on-rebel-reporter-during-anti-fascist-in-vancouver|title=Activist accused of pouring bottle of urine on Rebel reporter during ‘anti-fascist’ rally in Vancouver|last=Raptis|first=Mike|date=2016-03-07|website=[[National Post]]|access-date=2016-05-21}}</ref> The incident resulted from statements Southern made about there being "[[gender binary|only two genders]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://au.news.yahoo.com/a/31043202/protester-pours-urine-on-journalist-for-hateful-comments/|title=Protester pours urine on journalist for 'hateful' comments|last=Christian|first=Natasha|date=2016-03-08|website=Yahoo7|access-date=2016-05-21}}</ref> Southern's [[Facebook]] account was blocked after she criticized Facebook policies in 2016.<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3603345/Conservative-activist-Lauren-Southern-banned-Facebook-mentioning-censorship.html Trump supporter BLOCKED by Facebook for complaining about site's censorship of right-wing activists] By DAILYMAIL.COM REPORTER, PUBLISHED: 15:33, 22 May 2016</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsj.com/articles/the-troll-booth-1464026102|title=The Troll Booth|last=Taranto|first=James|date=2016-05-23|website=WSJ.com|access-date=2016-09-03}}</ref>

Southern initiated "The Triggering", whereby every March 9, the day after [[International Women's Day]], Twitter users post taboo content in defense of free speech. Southern has expressed sympathy for the [[alt-right]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The alt-right, explained in its own words|website=washingtonpost.com|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/08/29/the-alt-right-explained-in-its-own-words/}}</ref>

In October 2016, Southern had her gender legally changed to male as part of a video produced for ''Rebel Media'' to show the ease of the new gender ID laws.<ref name="Trans video">{{cite web | url=http://www.therebel.media/lauren_southern_becomes_a_man | title=Lauren Southern Becomes a Man! | work=[[The Rebel Media]] | date=October 3, 2016 | accessdate=October 28, 2016 | author=Southern, Lauren}}</ref>

== Publications ==
Lauren Southern wrote ''Barbarians: How Baby Boomers, Immigrants, and Islam Screwed My Generation'', which she self-published through [[CreateSpace]] in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Southern|first1=Lauren|title=Barbarians: How Baby Boomers, Immigrants, and Islam Screwed My Generation|url=https://www.amazon.com/dp/1541136942|website=Amazon.com|publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform|accessdate=22 December 2016|language=English|date=21 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="Southern-Barbarians">{{cite web|last1=Southern|first1=Lauren|title=Purchase your copy of Lauren Southern's first book "Barbarians" now!|url=http://www.therebel.media/barbarians-book-lauren-southern|website=The Rebel|accessdate=22 December 2016}}</ref> In January 2017, ''Barbarians'' was the number one bestselling book on [[Amazon.com|Amazon.ca]].<ref>http://archive.is/NZCxl</ref>

==Electoral record==

{{Canadian election result/top|CA|2015|Langley—Aldergrove|percent=yes|change=yes|expenditures=yes}}
{{CANelec|CA|Conservative|[[Mark Warawa]]|27,333|45.6|-20.22|–}}
{{CANelec|CA|Liberal|Leon Jensen|21,894|36.6|+27.62|–}}
{{CANelec|CA|NDP|Margot Sangster|7,490|12.5|-6.85|–}}
{{CANelec|CA|Green|Simmi Kaur Dhillon|2,644|4.4|-0.86|–}}
{{CANelec|CA|Libertarian|Lauren Southern|535|0.9|+0.41|–}}
{{Canadian election result/total|Total valid votes/Expense limit|59,896|100.0  | |$216,042.49}}
{{Canadian election result/total|Total rejected ballots|204|–|–}}
{{Canadian election result/total|Turnout|60,100|–|–}}
{{Canadian election result/total|Eligible voters|80,360}}
{{CANelec/hold|CA|Conservative|-23.92}}
{{CANelec/source|Source: [[Elections Canada]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.ca/Scripts/vis/candidates?L=e&ED=59016&EV=41&EV_TYPE=1&PC=&PROV=BC&PROVID=59&MAPID=&QID=8&PAGEID=17&TPAGEID=&PD=&STAT_CODE_ID=-1|title=Voter Information Service - Who are the candidates in my electoral district?|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.ca/content2.aspx?section=can&dir=cand/canlim&document=index&lang=e|title=Elections Canada On-line - Élection Canada en-ligne|publisher=}}</ref>}}{{dead link|date=October 2016}}
{{end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*{{Twitter}}
*{{Facebook|lauren.southern.589}}
*{{YouTube|c=UCla6APLHX6W3FeNLc8PYuvg}}
*[https://www.reddit.com/r/The_Donald/comments/4zlf89/lauren_southern_ama/ Lauren Southern] on [[Reddit]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Southern, Lauren}}
[[Category:1995 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Libertarian Party of Canada candidates for the Canadian House of Commons]]
[[Category:Canadian media personalities]]
[[Category:Canadian political writers]]
[[Category:Canadian social commentators]]
[[Category:Canadian women in federal politics]]
[[Category:Conservatism in Canada]]
[[Category:Libertarianism in Canada]]
[[Category:Canadian libertarians]]
[[Category:Female critics of feminism]]
[[Category:Critics of multiculturalism]]
[[Category:People from Surrey, British Columbia]]
[[Category:Alt-right writers]]
[[Category:Alt-right]]

Vantage

2016-11-25T04:12:57Z

LizardJr8: Reverted edits by 2600:100F:B023:EF11:349D:5136:96D6:108C (talk) to last version by 207.35.35.162

{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Vantage, Washington
|settlement_type = [[Census-designated place|CDP]]
|nickname =
|motto =


|image_skyline =
|imagesize =
|image_caption =
|image_flag =
|image_seal =


|image_map = Kittitas_County_Washington_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Vantage_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250px
|map_caption = Location of Vantage in Washington
|image_map1 =
|mapsize1 =
|map_caption1 =


|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[US state|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Washington (state)|Washington]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Washington|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Kittitas County, Washington|Kittitas]]


|government_footnotes =
|government_type =
|leader_title =
|leader_name =
|leader_title1 =
|leader_name1 =
|established_title =
|established_date =


|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes =
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 0.8
|area_land_km2 = 0.8
|area_water_km2 = 0.0
|area_total_sq_mi = 0.3
|area_land_sq_mi = 0.3
|area_water_sq_mi = 0.0


|population_as_of = [[2000 United States Census|2000]]
|population_footnotes =
|population_total = 70
|population_density_km2 = 84.8
|population_density_sq_mi = 219.7


|timezone = [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific (PST)]]
|utc_offset = -8
|timezone_DST = PDT
|utc_offset_DST = -7
|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m = 202
|elevation_ft = 663
|coordinates_display = inline,title
|coordinates_type = region:US_type:city
|latd = 46 |latm = 56 |lats = 48 |latNS = N
|longd = 119 |longm = 59 |longs = 30 |longEW = W


|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 98950
|area_code = [[Area code 509|509]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 53-74200<ref name="GR2">{{cite web|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=American FactFinder}}</ref>
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 1511390<ref name="GR3">{{cite gnis|id=1511390|name=Vantage}}</ref>
|website =
|footnotes =
}}

'''Vantage''' is a [[census-designated place]] (CDP) in [[Kittitas County, Washington|Kittitas County]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[United States]]. The population was 70 at the [[2000 United States Census|2000 census]].

==History==
The area around Vantage has been occupied by the [[Wanapum]] Native Americans since prehistory. A number of well-preserved [[Rock art|rock-paintings]] have been found on the cliff walls. They also used the abundant [[Petrifaction|petrified wood]] in the area for arrowheads and other tools. The site where these [[petroglyph]]s were found was inundated by the rising waters behind [[Wanapum Dam]] in the 1960s. About 60 of the more than 300 carvings were cut from the basalt cliff face and saved.<ref>http://historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=7396</ref> The nearby [[Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park|Ginkgo Petrified Forest]] site is one of the most unusual fossil forests in the world, and was designated a [[Ginkgo/Wanapum State Park|National Natural Landmark]] by the National Park Service in 1965.<ref name="historylink.org">http://historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=7484</ref>

In the early part of the 20th century, residents in nearby [[Ellensburg, Washington|Ellensburg]] needed a more direct route when traveling east. So in 1914, a car [[ferry]] was established to carry traffic across the [[Columbia River]] at Vantage. This ferry was really just a small barge with wooden ramps at either end, and could carry only two cars at a time across the river. After several cars (some with occupants still in them) were lost overboard from the tiny ferry, the State Highway Department decided to construct a bridge over the Columbia.<ref>http://historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=5373</ref>

In 1927, the 1640-foot bridge was opened at Vantage. This was an important link in the [[Primary State Highway 2 (Washington)|Sunset Highway]], the major east-west thoroughfare in Washington State at the time(now I-90). The construction of the bridge required workers to enter pressurized caissons 70 feet under the riverbed via [[airlock]]s. Some workers became seriously ill from the effects of the pressure. Once completed, the bridge had a 70-foot clearance on the center span, allowing for river traffic to pass under the bridge.

This cantilever bridge served until 1962, when it was replaced with the current bridge. The original bridge was dismantled, and moved to the [[Snake River Bridge|crossing at Lyons Ferry]], where it still stands today as the oldest extant steel cantilever bridge in Washington, and is listed in the [[National Register of Historic Places]].

With completion of the Wanapum Dam in the early 1960s, the townsite was relocated further up the hill above the rising water to the current location.<ref name="historylink.org"/>

== Geography ==
Vantage is located at {{coord|46|56|48|N|119|59|30|W|type:city}} (46.946710, -119.991758)<ref name="GR1">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/gazette.html|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2011-04-23|date=2011-02-12|title=US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990}}</ref> along the [[Columbia River]].

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the CDP has a total area of 0.3 square miles (0.8 km²), all of it land.

The original town of Vantage was flooded by the Columbia River when the Wanapum Dam was placed into operation.

{{Panorama|image=Image:Vantage,_WA,_Columbia_River_crossing,_I90.jpg |fullwidth=20836 |fullheight=3675 |caption=[[Interstate 90]]'s [[Vantage Bridge|Vantage crossing]] of the [[Columbia River]] is captured in this 270° panorama. Vantage is the grouping of buildings at the far end of the bridge.|height=300}}

==Climate==
{{Weather box |imperial first = Y
|collapsed =
|location = Vantage
|single line = Y
|Jan record high F=69
|Feb record high F=71
|Mar record high F=82
|Apr record high F=96
|May record high F=105
|Jun record high F=109
|Jul record high F=113
|Aug record high F=115
|Sep record high F=103
|Oct record high F=89
|Nov record high F=75
|Dec record high F=70
|year record high F=115
|Jan high F=40
|Feb high F=48
|Mar high F=59
|Apr high F=67
|May high F=76
|Jun high F=83
|Jul high F=92
|Aug high F=91
|Sep high F=81
|Oct high F=66
|Nov high F=50
|Dec high F=38
|year high F=
|Jan low F=26
|Feb low F=27
|Mar low F=32
|Apr low F=38
|May low F=46
|Jun low F=53
|Jul low F=58
|Aug low F=56
|Sep low F=47
|Oct low F=37
|Nov low F=30
|Dec low F=23
|year low F=
|Jan record low F=-28
|Feb record low F=-24
|Mar record low F=3
|Apr record low F=21
|May record low F=24
|Jun record low F=34
|Jul record low F=41
|Aug record low F=39
|Sep record low F=26
|Oct record low F=9
|Nov record low F=-19
|Dec record low F=-19
|year record low F=-28
|Jan precipitation inch=0.92
|Feb precipitation inch=0.65
|Mar precipitation inch=0.71
|Apr precipitation inch=0.57
|May precipitation inch=0.51
|Jun precipitation inch=0.59
|Jul precipitation inch=0.27
|Aug precipitation inch=0.18
|Sep precipitation inch=0.32
|Oct precipitation inch=0.60
|Nov precipitation inch=1.08
|Dec precipitation inch=1.18
|year precipitation inch=|date=October 2013}}

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]<ref name="GR2" /> of 2000, there were 70 people, 25 households, and 20 families residing in the CDP. The [[population density]] was 219.7 people per square mile (84.5/km²). There were 39 housing units at an average density of 122.4/sq mi (47.1/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 22.86% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.43% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.86% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 11.43% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 84.29% of the population. Besides these populations, approximately 2000 agricultural workers live in the Vantage area, and approximately 72.8% of are migratory.

There were 25 households out of which 28.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 4.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.0% were non-families. 20.0% of all households were made up of individuals and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.80 and the average family size was 3.25.

In the CDP the population was spread out with 24.3% under the age of 18, 15.7% from 18 to 24, 21.4% from 25 to 44, 32.9% from 45 to 64, and 5.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 105.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.8 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $26,250, and the median income for a family was $43,750. Males had a median income of $26,250 versus $0 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the CDP was $17,605.

==Business and recreation==
Business:
There are several gas stations, two restaurants, and a private RV park/campground in Vantage. The [[Wild Horse Wind Farm]], owned by [[Puget Sound Energy]], is located on ridge tops near Vantage.<ref>[http://www.horizonwind.com/projects/whatwevedone/wildhorse.aspx Wild Horse Wind Farm] from the website of [[Horizon Wind Energy]]</ref>

Recreation:
Vantage is known for [[Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park]] and its associated Wanapum Recreational Area, as a base camp for those attending nearby [[The Gorge Amphitheatre|Gorge Amphitheatre]], and its [[rock climbing]],<ref>[http://rockclimbing.com/routes/North_America/United_States/Washington/Central_Washington/Frenchman_Coulee_AKA_Vantage Entry for Frenchman Coulee] from http://rockclimbing.com/</ref>

Rock climbing is one of the area's more popular forms of outdoor recreation and mostly takes place in "Echo Basin" (often mistaken for "Frenchman Coulee" which is the basin just north of Echo, on the other side of the Old Vantage Highway) on the basalt columns typical to the desert rimrock in the area.

Climbers started visiting as early as the 1950s and 1960s but the area was not popularized and publicized until the 1980s. With this came a great increase in route development. Today the area holds over 400 established routes (both traditionally protected and bolted) ranging in difficulty from 5.0-5.13c, and sees visitors almost year round.<ref>Route references include "Rock Climbing Washington" by Jeff Smoot and "Frenchman Coulee" by Marlene Ford and Jim Yoder.</ref>

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.vantagewa.com/ A Visitor's Guide for Vantage, Washington and the surrounding area]

{{Kittitas County, Washington}}

[[Category:Census-designated places in Kittitas County, Washington]]
[[Category:Census-designated places in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Populated places on the Columbia River]]

Ezekiel Elliott

2015-11-28T19:50:41Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 97.91.31.131 (talk) to last revision by Bender235. (TW)

{{Infobox college football player
|name=Ezekiel Elliott
|school=Ohio State Buckeyes
|currentnumber=15
|currentposition=[[Running back]]
|class=[[Junior year|Junior]]
|major=
|birth_date={{birth date and age|1995|7|22}}
|birth_place=[[Alton, Illinois]]
|heightft=6
|heightin=0
|weight=235
|highlights=
* [[James E. Sullivan Award]] (2015)
* [[College Football Playoff National Championship|CFP National Champion]] ([[2015 College Football Playoff National Championship|2015]])
* CFP National Championship Offensive MVP ([[2015 College Football Playoff National Championship|2015]])
* [[Sugar Bowl|Sugar Bowl Champion]] ([[2015 Sugar Bowl|2015]])
* Sugar Bowl Offensive MVP ([[2015 Sugar Bowl|2015]])
* [[Big Ten Football Championship Game|Big Ten Champion]] ([[2014 Big Ten Football Championship Game|2014]])
|highschool=[[John Burroughs School|Ladue (MO) John Burroughs]]
|pastschools=
* [[Ohio State University]] (2013−2015)
|espn=549811
}}

'''Ezekiel Elliott''' (born July 22, 1995) is an [[American football]] [[running back]] for the [[Ohio State Buckeyes football|Ohio State Buckeyes]].

==High school career==
Elliott attended [[John Burroughs School]] in [[Ladue, Missouri]],<ref>[http://espn.go.com/college-sports/recruiting/football/story/_/id/8105304/ohio-state-rb-ezekiel-elliott-never-satisfied Ezekiel Elliott never satisfied]</ref> where he was a three-sport star in football, basketball and track. He played as a [[running back]] for the John Burroughs Bombers [[high school football|football]] team. As a junior in 2012, he was named the [[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]] offensive player of the year after rushing for 1,802 yards and 34 touchdowns and receiving 23 passes for 401 yards and six scores. In his senior year, he had 3,061 [[all-purpose yards]] and 50 total [[touchdowns]], including 2,155 rushing yards and 40 rushing touchdowns.<ref>[http://www.stltoday.com/sports/high-school/overall-male-athlete-of-the-year-ezekiel-elliott-john-burroughs/article_b76c5ee2-aeda-11e2-b83e-001a4bcf6878.html Overall Male Athlete of the Year: Ezekiel Elliott, John Burroughs]</ref>

Also a standout [[track & field]] athlete, Elliott was a state qualifier in sprinting and hurdling events. He capped his high school career by winning four state championships at the Missouri Class 3 state championships in {{frac|2|1|2}} hours (100-meter dash, 200, 110 high hurdles and 300 hurdles).<ref>http://www.ohiostatebuckeyes.com/sports/m-footbl/mtt/ezekiel_elliott_854123.html</ref> He recorded career-best times of 10.95 seconds in the [[100-meter dash]], 22.05 seconds in the [[200-meter dash]], 13.77 seconds in the [[110 metres hurdles|110m hurdles]] and 37.52 seconds in the [[hurdling|300m hurdles]].<ref>https://www.trackingfootball.com/players/ezekiel-elliot-1692/</ref> He was named the Gatorade Track Athlete of the Year in the state of [[Missouri]].

Considered a four-star recruit by [[Scout.com]], Elliott was listed as the No. 9 running back in the nation in 2013.<ref>[http://recruiting.scout.com/a.z?s=73&p=8&c=1&nid=5924620 Ezekiel Elliott Recruiting Profile]</ref>

==College career==
As a true freshman at [[Ohio State University]] in 2013, Elliott rushed for 262 yards on 30 carries with two touchdowns as a backup to starter [[Carlos Hyde]]. In 2014, Elliott took over as the starter.<ref>[http://www.ohio.com/sports/osu/ohio-state-football-ezekiel-elliott-emerges-as-elite-running-back-for-buckeyes-1.527355 Ohio State football: Ezekiel Elliott emerges as elite running back for Buckeyes]</ref><ref>[http://espn.go.com/blog/bigten/post/_/id/99219/buckeyes-elliott-seeks-to-fill-hydes-shoes Buckeyes' Elliott seeks to fill Hyde's shoes]</ref> During the season, Elliott was named Academic All-Big Ten Conference.<ref>[http://www.ohiostatebuckeyes.com/sports/m-footbl/spec-rel/121014aaa.html 12 named Academic All-Big Ten Conference]</ref> In the final 3 games of the 2014 season, against [[Indiana Hoosiers football|Indiana]], [[Michigan Wolverines football|Michigan]] and [[Wisconsin Badgers football|Wisconsin]], he ran for 107 yards, 121 yards and 220 yards, respectively. In the [[2015 Sugar Bowl]] against [[Alabama Crimson Tide football|#1 Alabama]], Elliott ran for 230 yards on only 20 carries in the first-ever college playoffs as Ohio State defeated Alabama in a hard-fought game, 42–35. He would win the Offensive Player of the Game in the same game. He then capped the Buckeyes' Championship season by rushing for 246 yards on 36 carries and scoring 4 touchdowns against the [[Oregon Ducks football|Oregon Ducks]].<ref>[http://scores.espn.go.com/ncf/gamecast?gameId=400610325&version=mobile]</ref> He won Offensive MVP of that game as well.

In a post-game interview following Ohio State's 14-17 loss to Michigan State, on Nov. 21, 2015, Elliott announced that he would forgo his Senior year at Ohio State and enter the [[2016 NFL Draft]].<ref>http://www.sbnation.com/nfl-mock-draft/2015/11/23/9779094/ohio-state-2016-nfl-draft-joey-bosa-ezekiel-elliott-michael-thomas</ref>

===Statistics===

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|-
|! colspan="12" style="background:gray; border:2px solid silver; color:white;"|<center>'''NCAA Collegiate Career statistics'''</center>
|-
|! colspan="12" style="background:#b00; border:2px solid #666; color:#fff;"|<center>'''Ohio State Buckeyes'''</center>
|-
! rowspan=2|Season
! colspan=4|Rushing
! colspan=4|Receiving
|-
! Att !! Yards !! Avg !! TD !! Rec !! Yards !! Avg !! TD
|-
| '''2013'''
| 30 || 262 || 8.7 || 2 || 3 || 23 || 7.7 || 1
|-
| '''2014'''
| 273 || 1,878 || 6.9 || 18 || 28 || 220 || 7.9 || 0
|-
| '''2015'''
| 220 || 1,425 || 6.5 || 16 || 24 || 169|| 7.0 || 0
|-
! NCAA Career Totals
! 523 !! 3,565 !! 6.82 !! 36 !! 55 !! 412 !! 7.49 !! 1
|}

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|-
|! colspan="12" style="background:gray; border:2px solid silver; color:white;"|<center>'''100+ Yard Games (20 Total)'''</center>
|-
! Date !! Opponent !! Yards !! TD
|-
| Sept. 21, 2013 || Florida A&M || 162 || 2
|-
| Sept. 27, 2014 || Cincinnati|| 182 || 1
|-
| Oct. 4, 2014 || Maryland|| 139 || 0
|-
| Oct. 25, 2014 || Penn State || 109 || 1
|-
| Nov. 8, 2014 || Michigan State || 154 || 2
|-
| Nov. 22, 2014 || Indiana || 107 || 1
|-
| Nov. 29, 2014 || Michigan || 121 || 2
|-
| Dec. 6, 2014 || Wisconsin || 220 || 2
|-
| Jan. 1, 2015 || Alabama || 230 || 2
|-
| Jan. 12, 2015 || Oregon || 246 || 4
|-
| Sept. 7, 2015 || Virginia Tech || 122 || 1
|-
| Sept. 12, 2015 || Hawaii || 101 || 3
|-
| Sept. 19, 2015 || Northern Illinois || 108 || 0
|-
| Sept. 26, 2015 || Western Michigan || 124 || 1
|-
| Oct. 3, 2015 || Indiana || 274 || 3
|-
| Oct. 10, 2015 || Maryland || 106 || 2
|-
| Oct. 17, 2015 || Penn State || 153 || 1
|-
| Oct. 24, 2015 || Rutgers || 142 || 2
|-
| Nov. 7, 2015 || Minnesota || 114 || 1
|-
| Nov. 14, 2015 || Illinois || 181 || 2
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ohiostatebuckeyes.com/sports/m-footbl/mtt/ezekiel_elliott_854123.html Ohio State profile]

{{2014 Ohio State Buckeyes football navbox}}
{{Archie Griffin Award}}
{{Sullivan Award winners}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Elliott, Ezekiel
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American football player
| DATE OF BIRTH = July 22, 1995
| PLACE OF BIRTH = St. Louis, Missouri
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Elliott, Ezekiel}}
[[Category:1995 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American football running backs]]
[[Category:Ohio State Buckeyes football players]]
[[Category:U.S. Army All-American Bowl football players]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from St. Louis, Missouri]]
[[Category:Players of American football from Missouri]]

Richard Sherman

2013-12-01T08:07:48Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 184.69.22.253 (talk) to last revision by TCMemoire. (TW)

{{Infobox NFL player
|name=Richard Sherman
|image=Richard Sherman (American football).JPG
|image_size=275px
|caption=Sherman in the 2012 preseason.
|currentteam=Seattle Seahawks
|currentposition=Cornerback
|currentnumber=25
|birth_date={{birth date and age|1988|3|30}}
|birth_place=[[Compton, California]]
|heightft=6
|heightin=4
|weight=195
|highschool=[[Dominguez High School|Compton (CA) Dominguez]]
|college=[[Stanford Cardinal football|Stanford]]
|draftyear=2011
|draftround=5
|draftpick=154
|debutyear=2011
|debutteam=Seattle Seahawks
|finalyear=
|finalteam=
|pastteams=<nowiki></nowiki>
* [[Seattle Seahawks]] ({{NFL Year|2011}}–present)
|status=Active
|highlights=<nowiki></nowiki>
* [[All-Pro]] ([[2012 All-Pro Team|2012]])
* [[NFL Top 100|Ranked #50 in the Top 100 Players of 2013]]
* 2× NFC Defensive Player of The Week (Week 10, 2012, Week 2, 2013)
*NFL Defensive Player of The Month (September 2013)
*First Seahawks Cornerback to be named NFL Defensive Player of The Month
*[[Pro Football Writers of America|PFWA]] All-Rookie Team (2011)
*[[#College awards and honors|College awards and honors]]
|statweek=10
|statseason=2013
|statlabel1=[[Tackle (football move)|Tackles]]
|statvalue1=150
|statlabel2=[[Interception]]s
|statvalue2=16
|statlabel3=[[Pass deflected|Passes defensed]]
|statvalue3=49
|statlabel4=[[Quarterback sack|Sacks]]
|statvalue4=1.0
|statlabel5=[[Fumble|Forced Fumbles]]
|statvalue5=4
|nflnew=richardsherman/2495507
}}
'''Richard Sherman''' (born March 30, 1988), is an [[American football]] [[cornerback]] with the [[Seattle Seahawks]] of the [[National Football League]]. He was selected by the Seahawks in the fifth round (154th overall) of the [[2011 NFL Draft]]. Sherman played college football at [[Stanford Cardinal football|Stanford]], playing both [[wide receiver]] and [[cornerback]] for the Cardinal.<ref name=Yahoo!>{{cite web|author=Gil Alcaraz IV|url=http://sports.yahoo.com/nfl/news?slug=ycn-7679270|title=An insider’s view with Stanford cornerback Richard Sherman|publisher=''Yahoo! Sports''|date=January 27, 2011|accessdate=December 27, 2012}}</ref>

==High school career==
He attended [[Dominguez High School]] in [[Compton, California]], where he starred in football and track and field. In 2006 he led his team to a Championship win over Sherman Oaks Notre Dame 41-14. In his senior season he had an average of 30 yards per catch on 28 catches with 14 touchdowns.

==College career==
Sherman began his career at Stanford as a [[wide receiver]] and led the Cardinal in receiving as a freshman in 2005 while being named a Freshman All-American. He caught 47 passes over the next two years before suffering a season-ending knee injury after playing in the first four games in 2008. He switched to cornerback after his injury due to team need and made 112 tackles over his final two years, which also included 6 interceptions. He was part of the [[2010 Stanford Cardinal football team]] which finished 12-1, a school record.<ref name=Yahoo!/> Sherman is a member of Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity.

Sherman graduated in 2010 from Stanford with a degree in Communication and returned for his final year of eligibility in order to begin a [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|Masters degree]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Eric Sondheimer|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/varsitytimesinsider/2010/06/football-richard-sherman-graduates-from-stanford.html|title=Football: Richard Sherman graduates from Stanford|publisher=''[[Los Angeles Times]]''|date=June 21, 2010|accessdate=December 27, 2012}}</ref>

===Track and field===
Sherman was also a track star at [[Stanford University]], where he specialized in [[long Jump]] and [[triple jump]], and also ran the [[110 meter hurdles]], posting a personal best of 13.99 seconds. He was also named a USA Today All-American in track and field after winning the California state title in the [[triple jump]], with a mark of 15.44 meters.

====Personal bests====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Event
!Time (seconds)
!Venue
!Date
|-
|[[60 meters]]
|7.06
|Nampa, Idaho
|January 20, 2007
|-
|[[100 meters]]
|10.77
|Palo Alto, California
|March 4, 2007
|-
|[[110 meter hurdles]]
|13.99
|Palo Alto, California
|March 4, 2007
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Event
!Mark (meters)
!Venue
!Date

|-
|[[Long Jump]]
|7.10
|Seattle, Washington
|January 27, 2007
|-
|[[Triple jump]]
|15.44
|Norwalk, Connecticut
|June 3, 2006
|}

==Professional career==
===2011 NFL Combine===
{{nfl predraft
| height ft = 6
| height in = 3
| weight = 195
| dash = 4.54
| ten split = 1.56
| twenty split = 2.56
| shuttle = 4.29
| cone drill = 6.72
| vertical = 40
| broad ft = 11
| broad in = 0
| bench = 16
| wonderlic =
| arm span =
| hand span =
| note = All values from [[NFL Combine]]
}}

===Seattle Seahawks===

====2011====
Sherman was selected in the 5th round by the [[Seattle Seahawks]] in the [[2011 NFL Draft]]. Sherman remembers watching the draft with his family at home and being "livid" about players who he perceived as inferior getting drafted before him.<ref>{{cite web|author=Michael Silver|url=http://sports.yahoo.com/news/nfl--seahawks--richard-sherman-wants-to--destroy--the-nfl-and-become-the-best-cb-all-time-170800233.html|title=Seahawks' Richard Sherman wants to 'destroy' the NFL and become the best CB of all time|publisher=''Yahoo!''|date=December 11, 2012|accessdate=March 8, 2013}}</ref>

Despite starting only 10 games in his rookie season, Sherman was selected to the 2011 PFW All-Rookie Team, shattering all expectations heading into the season.<ref name="Pro Football Weekly">{{cite web|url=http://www.profootballweekly.com/story/permalink/30603|title=All Rookie Team|publisher=''Pro Football Weekly''|date=January 18, 2012|accessdate=December 27, 2012}}</ref> He also led all rookies with 21 passes defended and 4 interceptions in addition to 55 tackles.

====2012====
On October 14, 2012, following [[2012 Seattle Seahawks season#Game summaries|a victory]] over the [[2012 New England Patriots season|New England Patriots]] in which he had an interception, Sherman [[Trash-talk|taunted]] the Patriots' [[quarterback]], [[Tom Brady]].<ref name=BradyUMad>{{cite web|author=Doug Farrar|url=http://sports.yahoo.com/blogs/nfl-shutdown-corner/richard-sherman-beats-tom-brady-taunts-pats-u-104646336--nfl.html|title=Richard Sherman beats Tom Brady; taunts the Pats with ‘U MAD BRO?’ after the game|publisher=''Yahoo! Sports''|work=Shutdown Corner|date=October 15, 2012|accessdate=December 27, 2012}}</ref>

Prior to week 8 vs [[Detroit Lions|Detroit]], Sherman nicknamed himself [[Optimus Prime]], an action intended to send out the message that he would shut down Detroit's [[wide receiver]], [[Calvin Johnson]], known by his nickname [[Megatron]]. (Optimus Prime and Megatron are opposing characters in the ''[[Transformers]]'' franchise.) Johnson was held to 3 catches for 46 yards against Sherman and the Seahawks,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/nfl/player/gamelog/_/id/10447/calvin-johnson|title=Calvin Johnson Game by Game Stats and Performance|publisher=''ESPN''|accessdate=January 9, 2013}}</ref>

On December 9, during Week 14 in a game against the [[Arizona Cardinals]], Sherman recorded 2 interceptions of [[John Skelton (American football)|John Skelton]]'s passes, one of which he returned 19 yards for a touchdown; Sherman also had 2 tackles and 1 assist and a fumble recovery, as the Seahawks took down the Cardinals 58-0 in the biggest shutout win in Seahawks history.<ref>http://www.nfl.com/gamecenter/2012120912/2012/REG14/cardinals@seahawks#menu=highlights&tab=recap</ref>

On December 23, in a Week 16 game against the [[San Francisco 49ers]], Richard Sherman had 5 tackles and recorded 1 interception against [[Colin Kaepernick]], and made a huge play on special teams when he recovered a blocked 49ers field goal and returned it 90 yards for a touchdown, which was blocked by [[Red Bryant]].<ref>http://www.nfl.com/gamecenter/2012122313/2012/REG16/49ers@seahawks#menu=highlights&tab=analyze</ref>

Heading into Week 17 of the [[2012 NFL season|2012 season]], Sherman posted 61 tackles, seven interceptions and three forced fumbles.<ref>{{cite web|author=Tyler Conway|url=http://bleacherreport.com/articles/1459721-pro-bowl-roster-2013-analyzing-why-richard-sherman-and-other-snubs-missed-team|title=Pro Bowl Roster 2013: Analyzing Why Richard Sherman and Other Snubs Missed Team|publisher=''Bleacher Report''|date=December 27, 2012|accessdate=December 27, 2012}}</ref> Due to his play and the fact that he was not selected to the [[2013 Pro Bowl]], Sherman was considered of one of the biggest 2013 Pro Bowl snubs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/12/27/2013-pro-bowl-snubs-richard-sherman-morris_n_2368003.html|title=2013 Pro Bowl Snubs: Richard Sherman, Alfred Morris Among Notable Omissions|publisher=''Huffington Post''|date=December 27, 2012|accessdate=December 27, 2012}}</ref> Sherman told [[Associated Press]] that "It don't mean nothing," prior to the announcement of the Pro Bowl rosters.<ref name=ProBowl>{{cite web|author=Kareem Copeland|url=http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap1000000117457/article/richard-sherman-pro-bowl-spots-dont-mean-nothing|title=Richard Sherman: Pro Bowl spots 'don't mean nothing'|publisher=''NFL.com''|work=Around the League|date=December 26, 2012|accessdate=December 27, 2012}}</ref> He was subsequently named Associated Press NFL All-Pro First Team.

In December 2012, Sherman won his appeal of a four-game suspension for violating the league's performance-enhancing drug policy.<ref>{{cite web|author=Lindsay H. Jones|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nfl/seahawks/2012/12/27/richard-sherman-seattle-seahawks-nfl-suspension/1794143/|title=Seahawks' Richard Sherman wins appeal of NFL suspension|publisher=''USA Today''|date=December 27, 2012|accessdate=December 27, 2012}}</ref> It was likely that Sherman would sue the NFL if he was suspended.<ref>{{cite web|author=Curtis Crabtree|url=http://profootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2012/12/26/richard-sherman-likely-to-sue-league-if-suspended/|title=Richard Sherman likely to sue league if suspended|publisher=''NBC Sports''|work=Pro Football Talk|date=December 26, 2012|accessdate=December 27, 2012}}</ref> Prior to the [[2012–13 NFL playoffs#Wild Card playoffs|wildcard matchup]] between the Seahawks and the [[Washington Redskins|Redskins]], [[Kedric Golston]], a Redskins [[linebacker]] called out Sherman by saying "He's a cheater," referring to Sherman's successful suspension appeal.<ref>{{cite web|author=Dan Hanzus|url=http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap1000000122132/article/redskins-player-on-richard-sherman-hes-a-cheater|title=Redskins player on Richard Sherman: 'He's a cheater'|publisher=''NFL.com''|work=Around the League|date=January 4, 2013|accessdate=January 5, 2012}}</ref>

===Controversies===
Sherman has been involved in several controversies during his short NFL career. One of these controversies is his ''Optimus Prime'' nickname, referring to [[Calvin Johnson]], who is nicknamed ''Megatron''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Nate Davis|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/gameon/2012/10/25/optimus-prime-richard-sherman-seahawks-calvin-johnson-megatron/1657505/|title=Megatron ready for Seahawks' Optimus Prime|publisher=''USA Today''|work=Game On!|date=October 25, 2012|accessdate=March 9, 2013}}</ref> Sherman repeatedly taunted [[Tom Brady]] and the Patriots during an October 2012 game. After the game, Sherman posted to his Twitter account a photo of himself yelling at Brady with "U mad bro?" superimposed on it. He later removed the post.<ref name=BradyUMad/> Sherman also stirred controversy with his response to not being selected to the [[2013 Pro Bowl]].<ref name=ProBowl/> In March 2013, Sherman went on to ''[[ESPN First Take]]'', where he argued with [[Skip Bayless]]. Sherman told Bayless "I'm intelligent enough and capable enough to understand that you are an ignorant, pompous, egotistical cretin. I am going to crush you on here because I am tired of hearing about it." He also claimed that he was "better at life" than the First Take analyst, which sparked a response from fellow ESPN analyst Bill Simmons that blasted the First Take program.<ref>{{cite web|author=Chris Chase|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/gameon/2013/03/07/richard-sherman-skip-bayless-first-take-fight/1971737/|title=Richard Sherman blasts Skip Bayless on 'First Take'|publisher=''USA Today''|work=Game On!|date=March 7, 2013|accessdate=March 8, 2013}}</ref> Sherman was also involved in a [[Twitter]] feud with fellow NFL cornerback, [[Darrelle Revis]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Gabe Zaldivar|url=http://bleacherreport.com/articles/1537402-seahawks-richard-sherman-slays-darrelle-revis-in-fascinating-twitter-feud|title=Seahawks' Richard Sherman Slays Jets' Darrelle Revis in Twitter Feud|publisher=''Bleacher Report''|work=B/R Swagger|date=February 20, 2013|accessdate=March 8, 2013}}</ref> to the point that [[Joe Haden]] also involved himself into the conversation, claiming that he was the No. 2 cornerback in the league, behind Revis and ahead of Sherman.<ref>[http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap1000000148995/article/joe-haden-darrelle-revis-is-no-1-cornerback-im-no-2 Joe Haden: Darrelle Revis is No. 1 cornerback; I'm No. 2]</ref> Sherman has also been involved in controversies with [[Trent Williams]]<ref>{{cite web|author=Marc Sessler|url=http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap1000000124388/article/trent-williams-told-richard-sherman-hed-punch-him|title=Trent Williams told Richard Sherman he'd punch him|publisher=''NFL.com''|work=Around the League|date=January 10, 2013|accessdate=March 9, 2013}}</ref> and [[Roddy White]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Ryan Wilson|url=http://www.cbssports.com/nfl/blog/eye-on-football/21721531/richard-sherman-calls-draft-a-sham-roddy-white-an-easy-matchup|title=Richard Sherman calls draft 'a sham,' Roddy White 'an easy matchup'|publisher=''CBS''|work=Eye on Football|date=February 17, 2013|accessdate=March 9, 2013}}</ref>

===Stats===
The following stats were retrieved from NFL.com.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nfl.com/player/richardsherman/2495507/profile|title=Richard Sherman|publisher=''NFL.com''|accessdate=December 27, 2012}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan="2"|Year !! rowspan="2"|Team !! rowspan="2"|G !! rowspan="2"|GS !! colspan="5" |Tackles !! colspan="6" |Interceptions !! colspan="4" |Fumbles
|-
! Comb !! Total !! Ast !! Sack !! Safeties !! PDef !! Int !! Yds !! Avg !! Lng !! TDs !! FF
|-
![[2011 NFL season|2011]] !! [[2011 Seattle Seahawks season|Seattle]]
| 16 || 10 || 55 || 47 || 8 || 0.0 || 0 || 17 || 4 || 45 || 11.2 || 33 || 0 || 1
|-
|-
![[2012 NFL season|2012]] !! [[2012 Seattle Seahawks season|Seattle]]
| 16 || 16 || 64 || 53 || 11 || 1.0 || 0 || 24 || 8 || 57 || 7.1 || 29 || 1 || 3
|-
!colspan="2"| Total !! 32 !! 26 !! 119 !! 100 !! 19 !! 1.0 !! 0 !! 41 !! 12 !! 102 !! -- !! 33 !! 1 !! 4
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.richardsherman25.com/ Richard Sherman Official Website]
*{{Twitter|RSherman_25|Richard Sherman}}
*[http://www.seahawks.com/team/roster/Richard-Sherman/b689109a-5471-4c08-bd56-e1568117081e Seattle Seahawks bio]

{{Seahawks2011DraftPicks}}
{{2012 All-Pro Team}}
{{Seattle Seahawks roster navbox}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Sherman, Richard
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Optimus Prime
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = [[American football]] player
| DATE OF BIRTH = March 30, 1988
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Compton, California
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sherman, Richard}}
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Seattle Seahawks players]]
[[Category:Stanford Cardinal football players]]
[[Category:American football cornerbacks]]
[[Category:American football wide receivers]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Compton, California]]
[[Category:Players of American football from California]]

Richard Sherman

2013-12-01T08:04:20Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 184.69.22.253 (talk) to last revision by Djwulliams57. (TW)

Gemeinsame Erklärung über die Macau-Frage

2011-03-10T13:13:18Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 2 edits by 122.100.222.153 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by Bruno Ishiai. (TW)

{{Chinese
|title=Joint declaration of the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of Portugal on the Question of Macau
|t=中葡聯合聲明
|s=中葡联合声明
|p=Zhōng-Pú Liánhé Shēngmíng
|j=Zung1-Pou4 Lyun4-hap9 Sing1-ming4
|t2=中華人民共和國政府和葡萄牙共和國政府關於澳門問題的聯合聲明<ref>{{cite web
|title=中華人民共和國政府和葡萄牙共和國政府關於澳門問題的聯合聲明
|url=http://www.imprensa.macau.gov.mo/bo/i/88/23/dc/cn/default.asp
|publisher=Government Printing Bureau, Macau Special Administrative Region
|accessdate=2007-12-11
|language= Traditional Chinese}}</ref>
|s2 = 中华人民共和国政府和葡萄牙共和国政府关于澳门问题的联合声明
|j2 = Zung1-waa4 Yan4-man4 Gung6-wo4-gwok8 zing3- fu2 wo4 Pou4-tou4-ngaa1 Gung6-wo4-gwok8 zing3- fu2 gwaan1- jyu1 Ou3-mun4 man6-tai4 dik7 Lyun4-hap9 Sing1-ming4
|p2 = Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó zhèngfŭ hé Pútáoyá Gònghéguó zhèngfŭ guānyú Àomén wèntí de Liánhé Shēngmíng
|por = Declaração Conjunta Do Governo Da República Portuguesa e Do Governo Da República Popular Da China Sobre a Questão De Macau<ref>{{cite web
|title=Declaração Conjunta Do Governo Da República Portuguesa e Do Governo Da República Popular Da China Sobre a Questão De Macau
|url=http://www.imprensa.macau.gov.mo/bo/i/88/23/dc/pt/default.asp
|publisher=Government Printing Bureau, Macau Special Administrative Region
|accessdate=2007-12-11
|language=Portuguese}}</ref>}}

The '''Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau''', or '''Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration''', was an important [[treaty]] between [[Portugal]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] over the status of [[Macau]]. The full name of the treaty is '''Joint Declaration of the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of Portugal on the question of Macao'''. Signed in March, 1987 the Declaration established the process and conditions of the transfer of the territory from Portuguese rule to the People's Republic of China.<ref name="P1">{{cite web
|title=Joint declaration of the Government of the People's Republic of China and The Government of the Republic of Portugal on the question of Macao
|url=http://bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/88/23/dc/en/
|publisher=Government Printing Bureau (Macao SAR)
|language=English
|date=1987
|accessdate=2010-04-26}}</ref> The process was similar to the transfer of [[Hong Kong]] to Chinese sovereignty by the [[United Kingdom]] in 1997.

==Background==
By the 17th century, Portugal had established colonial rule over Macau after gaining concessions from various Chinese governments. In 1887, Portugal and the [[Qing dynasty]] signed the '''Sino-Portuguese Draft Minutes''' and the '''Beijing Treaty''', in which China ceded to Portugal the right to "perpetual occupation and government of Macau"; conversely, Portugal pledged to seek China's approval before transferring Macau to another country. Colonial rule continued until 1974, when the [[Carnation revolution]] installed a democratic regime in Portugal that sought to end colonialism. Bilateral talks between China and Portugal led to the status of Macau being established as Chinese territory under Portuguese administration. The full framework of transfer of sovereignty was decided in 1987 with the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration.<ref name="P1"/>

==Provisions==
The Declaration provided for Portuguese administration to officially end on December 20, 1999. Although it would become a full part of the People's Republic of China, Macau would enjoy the status of a [[Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China|Special Administrative Region]] (SAR), with full autonomy and self-governance in domestic affairs, economic policy and internal security.<ref name="P1"/><ref name="P4">{{cite web
|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/ljzg/3566/t17778.htm
|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China
|title=What are the main contents of the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration on the Question of Macao?
|date=2000-11-15
|accessdate=2010-04-26}}</ref> The system of "[[One Country, Two Systems]]" would be established, exempting Macau from the [[Socialist]] system and several laws decreed by the central government in [[Beijing]].<ref name="P4"/> The [[capitalism| capitalist]], legal system and liberal society enjoyed by Macau would remain unchanged for a minimum of 50 years after the transfer. The Chinese government would not levy taxes on Macau nor make laws pertaining to Macau's governance. The Macau SAR would enjoy a great degree of autonomy in all but foreign affairs and defense, which would remain under Chinese control.<ref name="P1"/> Bearing the name of "Macau, China," Macau would enjoy the right to conclude agreements and arrangements with Portugal and international organizations for its own development. The Chinese [[National People's Congress]] would enact a "Basic Law" that would formalize the respecting of some basic principles of Chinese government in Macau, but leaving other areas untouched.<ref name="P4"/>

==See also==
*[[History of Macau]]
*[[One Country, Two Systems]]
*[[Sino-British Joint Declaration]], a similar treaty on the status of [[Hong Kong]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Cold War treaties]]
[[Category:History of Macau]]
[[Category:Politics of Macau]]
[[Category:Treaties of the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:1987 in Portugal]]
[[Category:1987 in China]]
[[Category:1987 in Macau]]
[[Category:Treaties involving territorial changes]]
[[Category:Treaties concluded in 1987]]
[[Category:Treaties entered into force in 1999]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Portuguese Third Republic]]

[[zh:中葡聯合聲明]]
[[fr:Déclaration commune sino-portugaise sur la question de Macao]]
[[ko:마카오 반환]]
[[pt:Declaração Conjunta Sino-Portuguesa sobre a Questão de Macau]]

Gefechte um Tulagi und Gavutu-Tanambogo

2011-01-15T12:15:31Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 81.168.94.244 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by Hugo999. (TW)

{{dablink|For the Japanese invasion of Tulagi see [[Invasion of Tulagi (May 1942)]]}}
{{FixBunching|beg}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu–Tanambogo
|partof=the [[Pacific War|Pacific Theater]] of [[World War II]]
|image=[[File:TulagiBeachBlue.jpg|300px]]
|caption=United States Marines wade ashore on Tulagi Island on August 7, 1942.
|date=August 7–9, 1942
|place=[[Tulagi]] and [[Gavutu]] in the [[Solomon Islands]]
|result=[[Allies of World War II|Allied]] victory
|combatant1='''[[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces including:''' {{flag|United States|1912}} {{flag|Australia}}
|combatant2={{flag|Empire of Japan}}
|commander1=[[Alexander Vandegrift]], [[William H. Rupertus]]
|commander2=[[Sadayoshi Yamada]], [[Shigetoshi Miyazaki]]<ref>Lundstrom, ''Guadalcanal Campaign'', p. 41–42. The Yokohama Air Group under Miyazaki reported to the 5th Air Attack Force, also called the [[25th Air Flotilla]], commanded by Yamada and headquartered at [[Rabaul]], [[New Britain]]. The 5th Air Attack Group reported to the Base Air Force, also called the 11th Air Fleet, commanded by [[Nishizo Tsukahara]] that, at this time, was headquartered on [[Tinian]].</ref>
|strength1=3,000<ref>Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 51.</ref>
|strength2=886<ref>Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 50.</ref>
|casualties1=122 killed, 200 wounded <ref>Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 79.</ref>
|casualties2=868 killed, 19 captured<ref>Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 78–79. 15 of those captured were Korean laborers, not Japanese military troops.</ref>
}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Guadalcanal}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Solomons}}
{{FixBunching|end}}

The '''Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu–Tanambogo''' was a land battle of the [[Pacific War|Pacific campaign]] of [[World War II]], between the forces of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] and [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] (mainly [[United States Marine Corps|United States (U.S.) Marine]]) ground forces. It took place August 7–9, 1942, on the [[Solomon Islands]], during the initial Allied landings in the [[Guadalcanal campaign]].

In the battle, U.S. Marines, under the overall command of U.S. [[Major General]] [[Alexander Vandegrift]], successfully landed and captured the islands of [[Tulagi]], [[Gavutu]], and [[Tanambogo]] among which the Japanese Navy had constructed a naval and seaplane base. The landings were fiercely resisted by the Japanese Navy troops who, outnumbered and outgunned by the Allied forces, fought and died almost to the last man.

At the same time that the landings on Tulagi and Gavutu–Tanambogo were taking place, Allied troops were also landing on nearby [[Guadalcanal]], with the objective of capturing an airfield under construction by Japanese forces. In contrast to the intense fighting on Tulagi and Gavutu, the landings on Guadalcanal were essentially unopposed. The landings on both Tulagi and Guadalcanal initiated the six-month long Guadalcanal campaign and a series of combined-arms battles between Allied and Japanese forces in the Solomon Islands area.

==Background==
On December 7, 1941, [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|the Japanese attacked]] the U.S. Pacific fleet at [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Hawaii]]. The attack crippled much of the U.S. battleship fleet and initiated a formally declared state of war between the two nations. The initial goals of Japanese leaders in the war were to neutralize the U.S. fleet, seize possessions rich in natural resources, and establish strategic military bases to defend Japan's empire in Asia and the Pacific. In support of these goals, Japanese forces attacked and took control of the [[Philippines]], [[Thailand]], [[British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Singapore]], the [[Dutch East Indies]], [[Wake Island]], [[Gilbert Islands]], [[New Britain]], and [[Guam]].<ref>Murray, ''War to be Won'', p. 169–195.</ref>

Two attempts by the Japanese to extend their defensive perimeter in the south and central Pacific were thwarted in the battles of [[Battle of the Coral Sea|Coral Sea]] (May 1942) and [[Battle of Midway|Midway]] (June 1942). These two strategic victories for the Allies provided them with an opportunity to take the initiative and launch an offensive against the Japanese somewhere in the Pacific.<ref>Murray, ''War to be Won'', p. 196.</ref> The Allies chose the Solomon Islands, specifically the southern Solomon Islands of Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and [[Nggela Islands|Florida]] as the location for their first offensive.<ref>Loxton, ''Shame of Savo'', p. 3.</ref>

As part of an [[Operation Mo|operation]] that resulted in the Coral Sea battle, the Japanese Navy sent troops to [[Japanese Tulagi landing (1942)|occupy Tulagi]] and nearby islands in the southern Solomons. These troops, mainly members of the 3d Kure [[Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces|Special Naval Landing Force]], occupied Tulagi on May 3, 1942, and constructed a seaplane, ship refueling, and communications base on Tulagi and the nearby islands of Gavutu, Tanambogo and Florida, all of which were soon operational. Aware of the Japanese efforts on Tulagi, the Allies' concern increased in early July 1942 when the Japanese Navy began constructing a large airfield near [[Lunga Point]] on nearby Guadalcanal. By August 1942, the Japanese had about 900 troops on Tulagi and nearby islands, and 2,800 personnel (many of whom were [[Korean people|Korean]] and Japanese construction specialists and laborers) on Guadalcanal.<ref>Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 23–31, 129, 628.</ref> The airfield, when complete, would protect Japan's major base at [[Rabaul]], threaten Allied supply and communication lines, and establish a staging area for possible future offensives against [[Fiji]], [[New Caledonia]], and [[Samoa]] ([[Operation FS]]).

[[File:TulagiJapanese1942.gif|thumb|left|Japanese officers and petty officers of the 3rd Kure Special Naval Landing Force who seized Tulagi in May, 1942 and were killed almost to the last man in the Allied attacks on August 7–9, 1942.]] The Allied plan to attack the southern Solomons was conceived by U.S. Admiral [[Ernest King]], Commander in Chief, [[United States Fleet]]. He proposed the offensive to deny the use of the southern Solomon Islands by the Japanese as [[Military base|bases]] to threaten the [[materiel|supply]] routes between the U.S. and [[Australia]], and to use them as starting points for a [[Military campaign|campaign]] with the objective of capturing or neutralizing the major Japanese base at [[Rabaul]] while also supporting the Allied [[New Guinea campaign]], with the eventual goal of opening the way for the U.S. to retake the Philippines.<ref>Morison, ''Struggle for Guadalcanal'', p. 12.</ref> U.S. Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]], Allied commander in chief for Pacific forces, created the [[South Pacific Area|South Pacific]] theater, with U.S. Vice Admiral [[Robert L. Ghormley]] in command, to direct the Allied offensive in the Solomons.<ref>Murray, ''War to be Won'', p. 199–200.</ref>

In preparation for the offensive, in May 1942, U.S. Major General [[Alexander Vandegrift]] was ordered to move his [[1st Marine Division (United States)|1st Marine Division]] from the U.S. to [[New Zealand]]. Other Allied land, naval, and air force units were sent to establish bases in Fiji, Samoa, and New Caledonia.<ref>Loxton, ''Shame of Savo'', p. 5.</ref> [[Espiritu Santo]] in the [[New Hebrides]] was selected as the headquarters and main base for the impending offensive, codenamed ''Operation Watchtower,'' with the commencement date set for August 7, 1942. At first, the Allied offensive was planned just for Tulagi and the [[Santa Cruz Islands]], omitting Guadalcanal. However, after Allied reconnaissance discovered the Japanese airfield construction efforts on Guadalcanal, capture of that airfield was added to the plan and the Santa Cruz operation was dropped.<ref>Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 35–37, 53. The 1st Marine Division was selected because none of the US Army units in the Pacific had amphibious training (Christ, p. 25).</ref>

The Allied ''Watchtower'' expeditionary force of 75 warships and transports, which included vessels from both the U.S. and Australia, assembled near [[Fiji]] on July 26, 1942, and engaged in one rehearsal landing prior to leaving for Guadalcanal on July 31.<ref>Morison, ''Struggle for Guadalcanal'', p. 15.</ref><ref>McGee, ''The Solomons Campaigns'', p. 20–21.</ref> Vandegrift was the overall commander of the 16,000 Allied (primarily U.S. Marine) ground forces involved in the landings and personally commanded the assault on Guadalcanal. In command of the 3,000 U.S. Marines set to land on Tulagi and the nearby islands of Florida, Gavutu, and Tanambogo was U.S. [[Brigadier General]] [[William H. Rupertus]] on the transport ship {{USS|Neville|APA-9}}.<ref>Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 57, 619–621, Jersey, ''Hell's Islands'', p. 129.</ref>

===Prelude to battle===
[[File:TulagiGavutuLandings.gif|thumb|right|Routes of Allied amphibious forces for landings on Florida, Tulagi, and Gavutu–Tanambogo, August 7, 1942.]]
Bad weather allowed the Allied expeditionary force to arrive in the vicinity of Guadalcanal unseen by the Japanese on the morning of August 7. The Japanese detected the radio traffic from the incoming Allied invasion force and prepared to send scout aircraft aloft at daybreak.<ref>Jersey, ''Hell's Islands'', p. 77, McGee, ''The Solomons Campaigns'', p. 21.</ref> The landing force ships split into two groups, with one group assigned for the assault on Guadalcanal and the other tasked with the assault on Tulagi, Florida, and Gavutu–Tanambogo.<ref>Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 60.</ref> Aircraft from the [[aircraft carrier]] {{USS|Wasp|CV-7|6}} dive-bombed Japanese installations on Tulagi, Gavutu, Tanambogo, and Florida and strafed and destroyed 15 Japanese seaplanes floating in the anchorages near the islands. Several of the seaplanes were warming their engines in preparation for takeoff and were lost with their aircrews and many of their support personnel.<ref>Hammel, ''Carrier Clash'', p. 46–47, Jersey, ''Hell's Islands'', p. 78, and Lundstrom, ''Guadalcanal Campaign'', p. 38.</ref>

The cruiser {{USS|San Juan|CL-54}} and destroyers {{USS|Monssen|DD-436}} and {{USS|Buchanan|DD-484}} bombarded planned landing sites on Tulagi and Florida Island. To cover the assaults on Tulagi, Gavutu, and Tanambogo, U.S. Marines from the [[1st Battalion 2nd Marines|1st Battalion]], [[2nd Marine Regiment (United States)|2nd Marine Regiment]] made an unopposed landing on Florida Island at 07:40. They were guided to their objective by several Australians, such as Lieutenant Frank Stackpool, who were familiar with the Tulagi-Florida area from having previously lived and worked in the area.<ref>Zimmerman, ''The Guadalcanal Campaign'', p. 26–27, Peatross, ''Bless 'em All'', p. 36, Jersey, ''Hell's Islands'', p. 96, 124–125. None of the Japanese troops on Tulagi were killed in the pre-landing bombings or warship bombardment. At 10:04, while bombarding Gavutu, a powder charge exploded on ''San Juan'', killing seven crewmen and wounding 11. Mangroves living between the sea and land in areas inundated by tides posed an obstacle for large amphibious landings. Chosen as the guide before the fleet left New Zealand for his knowledge of Tulagi’s land and surrounding reefs, Lieutenant Stackpool added value by nominating a place for amphibious landing craft to land on Tulagi that was mangrove-free.</ref>

==Battle of Tulagi==
At 08:00, two [[battalion]]s of U.S. Marines, including the [[Marine Raiders|1st Raider Battalion]] under [[Lieutenant Colonel]] [[Merritt A. Edson]] (Edson's Raiders), and the [[2nd Battalion 5th Marines|2nd Battalion, 5th Marines]] (2/5) made an unopposed landing on the western shore of Tulagi about halfway between the two ends of the oblong-shaped island.<ref>Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 72–73.</ref> Beds of coral near the shore kept the landing craft from reaching the shoreline. The Marines, however, were able to wade the remaining 100 meters without hindrance from the Japanese forces, who were apparently taken by surprise by the landings and had yet to begin any organized resistance. At this time, the Japanese forces on Tulagi and Gavutu, a detachment of the 3rd Kure Special Naval Landing Force (SNLF) plus members of the [[Yokohama Air Group]], commanded by Captain [[Shigetoshi Miyazaki]], signaled their commander at Rabaul, Captain [[Sadayoshi Yamada]], that they were under attack, were destroying their equipment and papers, and signed off with the message, "Enemy troop strength is overwhelming, We will defend to the last man." Masaaki Suzuki, commander of the SNLF unit, ordered his troops into pre-prepared defensive positions on Tulagi and Gavutu.<ref>Alexander, p. 51, 81–82, Jersey, ''Hell's Islands'', p. 80, 133–134, Zimmerman, ''The Guadalcanal Campaign'', p. 27–28, and Lundstrom, ''Guadalcanal Campaign'', p. 38. This detachment of the 3rd Kure Special Naval Landing Force reported to the [[IJN 8th Fleet|8th Fleet]] under Admiral [[Gunichi Mikawa]]. The 3rd Kure SNLF mainly consisted of recalled reservists and most were over 40 years old. Also on Tulagi were Japanese electricians and engineers from the 14th Construction Unit who, although not combat trained, assisted the 3rd Kure in the defense of the island.</ref>

[[File:TulagiBattle1942.gif|thumb|left|Map overlay on an aerial photo of Tulagi showing U.S. Marine advance on the southeastern end of the island and the center of Japanese resistance around Hill 281.]] Marines of 2/5 secured the northwest end of Tulagi without opposition and then joined Edson's Raiders in their advance towards the southeastern end of the island. The Marines advanced towards the southeast end of the island throughout the day while defeating a few isolated pockets of Japanese resistance. Around noon, Suzuki repositioned his main defenses into a line {{coord|9|6|26|S|160|8|56|E|type:landmark|name=Hill 281}} on a hill—called Hill 281 (Hill 280 in some sources) by U.S. forces based on its elevation—and a nearby ravine located at the southeast end of the island. The Japanese defenses included dozens of tunneled caves dug into the hill's limestone cliffs and machinegun pits protected by sandbags. The Marines reached these defenses near dusk, realized that they did not have enough daylight left for a full-scale attack, and dug in for the night.<ref>Peatross, ''Bless 'em All'', p. 37–41, Zimmerman, ''The Guadalcanal Campaign'', p. 28–31, Jersey, ''Hell's Islands'', p. 82, 131, 138–139, Alexander, p. 82. [[Kenneth D. Bailey]] the Raiders "C" Company commander, helped knock out a Japanese bunker before he was shot in the thigh and evacuated.</ref>

During the night, the Japanese attacked the Marine lines five times, beginning at 22:30.<ref>Shaw, ''First Offensive'', p. 8–9, Peatross, ''Bless 'em All'', p. 41, Jersey, ''Hell's Islands'', p. 140.</ref> The attacks consisted of frontal charges along with individual and small group infiltration efforts towards Edson's command post that at times resulted in [[hand to hand combat]] with the Marines. The Japanese temporarily broke through the Marine lines and captured a machine gun, but were thrown back soon after. After taking a few more casualties, the Marine lines held throughout the rest of the night. The Japanese suffered heavy losses in the attacks. During the night, one Marine, [[Edward H. Ahrens]] killed 13 Japanese who assaulted his position before he was killed.<ref>Alexander, p. 96–99, Hoffman, ''Marine Raiders'', Zimmerman, ''The Guadalcanal Campaign'', p. 33, Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 77–78, Jersey, ''Hell's Islands'', p. 140.</ref> Describing the Japanese attacks that took place during the night, eyewitness raider Marine Pete Sparacino said, {{Blockquote|"...full darkness set in. There was movement to the front...you could hear them jabbering. Then, the enemy found a gap and began running through the opening. The gap was (sealed) when another squad closed the gate. Some Japanese had crawled within 20 yards of (Frank) Guidone's squad. Frank began throwing grenades from a prone position. His grenades were going off 15 yards from our position (and) we had to duck as they exploded. The enemy was all around. It was brutal and deadly. We had to be careful not to kill our comrades. We were tired but had to stay awake or be dead."<ref>Jersey, ''Hell's Islands'', p. 135.</ref>}}

At daybreak on August 8, six Japanese infiltrators hiding under the porch of the former British colonial headquarters shot and killed three Marines. Within five minutes other Marines killed the six Japanese with grenades. Later that morning, the Marines, after landing reinforcements in the form of the [[2nd Battalion 2nd Marines|2nd Battalion, 2nd Marines]] (2/2), surrounded Hill 281 and the ravine, pounded both locations with mortar fire throughout the morning, and then assaulted the two positions, utilizing improvised explosive charges to kill the Japanese defenders taking cover in the many caves and fighting positions spread throughout the hill and ravine.<ref>Hoffman, ''Marine Raiders''.</ref> Employing the improvised explosives, the individual Japanese fighting positions were destroyed. Significant Japanese resistance ended by the afternoon, although a few stragglers were found and killed over the next several days.<ref>Zimmerman, ''The Guadalcanal Campaign'', p. 33.</ref> In the battle for Tulagi, 307 Japanese and 45 U.S. troops died. Three Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner.<ref>Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 77–78. Alexander (p. 84) reports that a Japanese woman and several children were also captured. Thirty-eight Raiders were killed and 55 wounded (Alexander p. 102).</ref>

==Battle of Gavutu–Tanambogo==
[[File:GavutuBattle1942.gif|thumb|right|Map overlay on an aerial photo showing the U.S. Marine assaults on Gavutu and Tanambogo.]]The nearby [[islet]]s of [[Gavutu]] and Tanambogo housed the Japanese seaplane base as well as 536 Japanese naval personnel from the Yokohama Air Group and 3rd Kure Special Naval Landing Force and Korean and Japanese civilian technicians and laborers from the 14th Construction Unit.<ref>Frank, p. 628, Jersey, p. 150. The 14th Construction Unit was divided into the Hashimoto and Hara Construction Forces.</ref> The two islets were basically mounds of coral, both about {{convert|42|m|ft}} high, and connected to each other by a {{convert|500|m|ft}}-long [[causeway]]. The hills on Gavutu and Tanambogo were called Hills 148 and 121 respectively by the Americans because of their height in feet.<ref>Christ, p. 46, Hough, p. 266–267.</ref> The Japanese on both islets were well entrenched in bunkers and caves constructed on and in the two hills.<ref>Christ, p. 55, Griffith, p. 61.</ref> Also, the two islets were mutually supportive since each was in machine gun range of the other. The US mistakenly believed that the islets were garrisoned by only 200 naval troops and construction workers.<ref>Zimmerman, p. 34, Christ, p. 33.</ref>

At 12:00 on August 7, Gavutu was assaulted by the [[Paramarines|U.S. Marine 1st Parachute Battalion]] consisting of 397 men. The assault was scheduled for noon because there were not enough aircraft to provide air cover for the Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Gavutu landings at the same time.<ref>Christ, p. 40–41.</ref> The preceding naval bombardment had damaged the seaplane ramp, forcing the naval landing craft to land the Marines in a more exposed location on a nearby small beach and dock at {{coord|9|6|53.30|S|160|11|19.20|E|name=Gavutu Landing|type:landmark}}. Japanese machine gun fire began inflicting heavy casualties, killing or wounding one in ten of the landing Marines as they scrambled inland in an attempt to get out of the crossfire coming from the two islets.<ref>Christ, p. 52–58, Frank, p. 75–76.</ref>

Surviving Marines were able to deploy two [[M1919 Browning machine gun]]s to provide suppressing fire on Gavutu's caves, allowing more Marines to push inland from the landing area. Seeking cover, the Marines became scattered and were quickly pinned down. Captain George Stallings, the battalion operations officer, directed Marines to begin suppressive fire with machine guns and mortars on the Japanese machine gun emplacements on Tanambogo. Shortly thereafter, American dive bombers dropped several bombs on Tanambogo, diminishing some of the volume of fire from that location.<ref>Christ, p. 59–69, 81. Stallings took command of the battalion after the commander, Major Robert Miller, collapsed from nervous stress and the executive officer, Major Robert Williams, was seriously wounded.</ref>

After about two hours, Marines reached and climbed Hill 148. Working from the top, the Marines began clearing the Japanese fighting positions on the hill, most of which still remained, with explosive charges, [[Hand grenade|grenade]]s, and hand-to-hand combat.<ref>Christ, p. 94, Griffith, p. 61–62, Jersey, p. 156.</ref> From the top of the hill, the Marines were also able to put increased suppressive fire on Tanambogo.<ref>Christ, p. 100.</ref> The Marine battalion commander on Gavutu radioed General Rupertus with a request for reinforcements before attempting to assault Tanambogo.<ref>Jersey, p. 144, Zimmerman, p. 35. The battalion commander, Robert Miller, had recovered from his nervous condition about 16:30 and made the request for reinforcements (Christ, p. 108).</ref>

Most of the 240 Japanese defenders on Tanambogo were aircrew and maintenance personnel from the Yokohama Air Group. Rupertus detached one [[Company (military unit)|company]] of Marines from the [[1st Battalion 2nd Marines|1st Battalion]], [[2nd Marine Regiment]] on Florida Island to assist in assaulting Tanambogo, in spite of advice from his staff that one company was not enough. Incorrectly believing that Tanambogo was only lightly defended, this company attempted an amphibious assault directly on Tanambogo shortly after dark on August 7. Illuminated by fires started during a U.S. naval bombardment of the islet, the five landing craft carrying the Marines were hit by heavy fire as they approached the shore, with many of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] boatcrews being killed or wounded, as well as heavily damaging three of the boats. Realizing the position was untenable the Marine company commander ordered the remaining boats to depart with the wounded marines, and he and a dozen men who had already landed sprinted across the causeway to cover on Gavutu. The Japanese on Tanambogo suffered 10 killed in the day's fighting.<ref>Christ, p. 112–113, Frank, p. 77, Jersey, p. 160–163. The Parachute Battalion had lost 84 men in the day's fighting, including 30 killed.</ref>

[[File:TulagiRupertus.jpg|thumb|left|U.S. Brigadier General Rupertus (center) supervises the assaults on Tulagi, Gavutu, and Tanambogo from his command ship on August 7 or August 8. In the background are landing craft and a U.S. destroyer.]] Throughout the night, as the Japanese staged isolated attacks on the marines on Gavutu under the concealment of heavy thunderstorms, Vandegrift prepared to send reinforcements to assist with the assault on Tanambogo. The [[3rd Battalion 2nd Marines]] (3/2), still embarked on ships off Guadalcanal, was notified to prepare to assault Tanambogo on August 8.<ref>Griffith, p. 62. 3/2 was under the command of Lieutenant Colonel [[Leroy P. Hunt]] (Christ, p. 131).</ref>

The 3rd Battalion began landing on Gavutu at 10:00 on August 8 and assisted in destroying the remaining Japanese defenses on that islet, which was completed by 12:00.<ref>Zimmerman, p. 36–38, Christ, p. 113.</ref> Then the 3rd Battalion prepared to assault Tanambogo. The Marines on Gavutu provided covering fire for the attack. In preparation for the assault, U.S. carrier [[dive bomber]]s and naval gunfire bombardment were requested. After the carrier aircraft twice accidentally dropped bombs on the U.S. Marines on Gavutu, killing four of them, further carrier aircraft support was canceled. The ''San Juan'', however, placed its shells on the correct island and shelled Tanambogo for 30 minutes. The Marine assault began at 16:15, both by landing craft and across the causeway, and, with assistance from two marine [[Stuart tank|Stuart]] light tanks, began making headway against the Japanese defenses. One of the tanks which became stuck on a stump and isolated from its infantry support was surrounded by a "frenzied mob" of about 50 Japanese airmen. The Japanese set fire to the tank, killing two of its crew and severely beat the other two crewmembers before most of them were killed by Marine rifle fire. The Marines later counted 42 Japanese bodies around the burned-out hulk of the tank, including the corpses of the Yokohama executive officer and several of the seaplane pilots. One of the Japanese survivors of the attack on the tank reported, "I recall seeing my officer Lieutenant Commander Saburo Katsuta on top of the tank. This was the last time I saw him".<ref>Christ, p. 134–135, Jersey, p. 178–179, 181, Frank, p. 78–79 and Lundstrom, p. 38, Gilbert, p. 38. Lieutenant E. J. Sweeney, the tank platoon commander, was killed during the tank assault as he stood in his tank's turret. Lundstrom states that Miyazaki was killed in the attack on the tank, but Jersey states that Miyazaki wasn't in the Guadalcanal area at the time and survived the war.</ref>

Throughout the day, the Marines methodically dynamited the caves, destroying most of them by 21:00.<ref>Frank, p. 78–79 and Lundstrom, p. 38.</ref> The few surviving Japanese conducted isolated attacks throughout the night, with [[hand to hand combat|hand to hand]] engagements occurring. By noon on August 9, all Japanese resistance on Tanambogo ended.<ref>Zimmerman, p. 38.</ref> In the battle for Gavutu and Tanambogo, 476 Japanese defenders and 70 U.S. Marines or naval personnel died. Of the 20 Japanese prisoners taken during the battle, most were not actually Japanese combatants but Korean laborers belonging to the Japanese construction unit.<ref>Frank, p. 79, Jersey, p. 181, Christ, p. 169. Four members of the Yokohama Air Group were captured.</ref>

==Landings on Guadalcanal==
[[File:TulagiMarineOfficers.jpg|thumb|right|The U.S. Marine officers commanding the units that assaulted Tulagi pose for a group photo shortly after the battle.]] In contrast to Tulagi, Gavutu, and Tanambogo, the landings on Guadalcanal encountered much less resistance. At 09:10 on August 7, General Vandegrift and 11,000 U.S. Marines came ashore on Guadalcanal between Koli Point and Lunga Point. Advancing towards Lunga Point, they encountered no resistance except for "tangled" rain forest, and halted for the night about 1,000 meters from the Lunga Point airfield. The next day, again against little resistance, the Marines advanced all the way to the [[Lunga River (Guadacanal)|Lunga River]] and secured the airfield by 16:00 on August 8. The Japanese naval construction units had abandoned the airfield area, leaving behind food, supplies, and intact construction equipment and vehicles.<ref>Morison, ''Struggle for Guadalcanal'', p. 15, and Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 61–62 & 81.</ref>

==Aftermath==
During the battle, about 80 Japanese escaped from Tulagi and Gavutu–Tanambogo by swimming to Florida Island. They were, however, all hunted-down and killed by Marine and [[British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force]] patrols over the next two months.<ref>Frank, ''Guadalcanal'', p. 79, and Lundstrom, ''Guadalcanal Campaign'', p. 38.</ref>

The Allies quickly turned the Tulagi anchorage, one of the finest natural harbors in the South Pacific, into a naval base and refueling station. During the Guadalcanal and Solomon Islands campaigns, Tulagi served as an important base for Allied naval operations. Since the Japanese exerted control over the nearby seas at night throughout the Guadalcanal campaign, any Allied ships in the Guadalcanal area that could not depart by nightfall usually took refuge in Tulagi's harbor. Allied ships damaged in the naval battles that occurred between August and December 1942 in the vicinity of Guadalcanal usually anchored in Tulagi's harbor for temporary repairs before heading to rear-area ports for permanent repairs.<ref>Jersey, ''Hell's Islands'', p. 3, Griffith, ''Battle for Guadalcanal'', p. 93.</ref>

Later in the campaign, Tulagi also became a base for U.S. [[PT boats]] that attempted to interdict "[[Tokyo Express]]" missions by the Japanese to resupply and reinforce their forces on Guadalcanal. Except for some troops left to build, garrison, operate, and defend the base at Tulagi, however, the majority of the U.S. Marines that had assaulted Tulagi and the nearby islets were soon relocated to Guadalcanal to help defend the airfield, later called [[Honiara International Airport|Henderson Field]] by Allied forces, located at Lunga Point, for it was to be on Guadalcanal where all of the future, crucial, land battles in the Guadalcanal campaign would be fought.<ref>Griffith, ''Battle for Guadalcanal'', p. 93.</ref>

==Namesake==
The U.S. Navy [[escort aircraft carrier]] {{USS|Tulagi|CVE-72}}, in [[Ship commissioning|commission]] from 1943 to 1946, was named for the fighting on Tulagi.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=25em}}

==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Alexander
| first = Joseph H.
| coauthors =
| year = 2000
| title = Edson's Raiders: The 1st Marine Raider Battalion in World War II
| publisher = Naval Institute Press
| location =
| isbn = 1-55750-020-7
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Christ
| first = James F.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Battalion of the Damned: The 1st Marine Paratroopers at Gavutu and Bloody Ridge, 1942
| publisher = Naval Institute Press
| location =
| isbn = 1591141141
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Frank
| first = Richard
| authorlink = Richard B. Frank
| year = 1990
| title = Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle
| publisher = Random House
| location = New York
| isbn = 0-394-58875-4
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Gilbert
| first = Oscar E.
| coauthors =
| year = 2001
| title = Marine Tank Battles in the Pacific
| publisher = Da Capo
| location =
| isbn = 1580970508
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Griffith
| first = Samuel B.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1963
| chapter =
| title = The Battle for Guadalcanal
| publisher = University of Illinois Press
| location = Champaign, Illinois, USA
| isbn = 0-252-06891-2
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Hammel
| first = Eric
| authorlink = Eric M. Hammel
| coauthors =
| year = 1999
| chapter =
| title = Carrier Clash: The Invasion of Guadalcanal & The Battle of the Eastern Solomons August 1942
| publisher = Zenith Press
| location = St. Paul, MN, USA
| isbn = 0760320527
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Jersey
| first = Stanley Coleman
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 2008
| chapter =
| title = Hell's Islands: The Untold Story of Guadalcanal
| publisher = Texas A&M University Press
| location = [[College Station]], [[Texas]]
| isbn = 1-58544-616-5
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Loxton
| first = Bruce
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Chris Coulthard-Clark
| year = 1997
| chapter =
| title = The Shame of Savo: Anatomy of a Naval Disaster
| publisher = Allen & Unwin Pty Ltd
| location = Australia
| isbn = 1-86448-286-9
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Lundstrom
| first = John B.
| coauthors =
| year = 2005 (New edition)
| chapter =
| title =The First Team And the Guadalcanal Campaign: Naval Fighter Combat from August to November 1942
| publisher = Naval Institute Press
| location =
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xtaTS-POl-UC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
| isbn = 1-59114-472-8
}}
*{{cite book
| last = McGee
| first = William L.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 2002
| chapter =
| title = The Solomons Campaigns, 1942–1943: From Guadalcanal to Bougainville--Pacific War Turning Point, Volume 2 (Amphibious Operations in the South Pacific in WWII)
| publisher = BMC Publications
| location =
| isbn = 0-9701678-7-3
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Morison
| first = Samuel Eliot
| authorlink = Samuel Eliot Morison
| coauthors =
| year = 1958
| chapter =
| title = The Struggle for Guadalcanal, August 1942 – February 1943'', vol. 5 of ''[[History of United States Naval Operations in World War II]]
| publisher = [[Little, Brown and Company]]
| location = Boston
| isbn = 0-316-58305-7
}} Online views of selections of the book:[http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0785813063]
* {{cite book
| last = Murray
| first = Williamson
| coauthors = Allan R. Millett
| year = 2001
| title = A War To Be Won: Fighting the Second World War
| publisher = Belknap Press
| location = United States of America
| isbn = 0-674-00680-1
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Peatross
| first = Oscar F.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = John P. McCarthy and John Clayborne (editors)
| year = 1995
| chapter =
| title = Bless 'em All: The Raider Marines of World War II
| publisher = Review
| location =
| isbn = 0965232506
}}

==External links==
{{FixBunching|beg}}
{{Commons|Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu-Tanambogo}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
{{portal|United States Marine Corps}}
{{FixBunching|end}}
*{{cite web
| last = Anderson
| first = Charles R.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| date =
| year = 1993
| month =
| url = http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/brochures/72-8/72-8.htm
| title = ''GUADALCANAL''
| format = brochure
| work =
| pages =
| publisher = U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
| language =
| accessdate = 2006-07-09
}}
*{{cite web
| last = Cagney
| first = James
| year = 2005
| url = http://www.historyanimated.com/GuadalcanalPage.html
| title = ''The Battle for Guadalcanal''
| format = javascript
| work = HistoryAnimated.com
| accessdate = 2006-05-17
}}- Interactive animation of the battle
*{{cite web
| last = Chen
| first = C. Peter
| year = 2004–2006
| url = http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=9
| title = Guadalcanal Campaign
| work = World War II Database
| accessdate = 2006-05-17
}}
*{{cite web
| last = Craven
| first = Wesley Frank
| authorlink =
| coauthors = James Lea Cate
| date =
| year =
| month =
| url = http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/IV/index.html
| title = Vol. IV, The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944
| work = The Army Air Forces in World War II
| pages =
| publisher = U.S. Office of Air Force History
| language =
| accessdate = October 20, 2006

}}
*{{cite web
| last = de Vos
| first = M.E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| date =
| year = 2003–2006
| month =
| url = http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/solomons/guadalcanal-map.html
| title = Map of Guadalcanal
| work =
| pages =
| publisher =
| language =
| accessdate = 2006-05-17
}}
*{{cite web
| last = Flahavin
| first = Peter
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| date =
| year = 2004
| month =
| url = http://www.guadalcanal.homestead.com/index.html
| title = ''Guadalcanal Battle Sites, 1942–2004''
| work =
| pages =
| publisher =
| language =
| accessdate = 2006-08-02
}}- Web site with many pictures of Guadalcanal battle sites from 1942 and how they look now.
*{{cite web
| last = Hoffman
| first = Jon T.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| date =
| year = 1995
| month =
| url = http://www.nps.gov/archive/wapa/indepth/extContent/usmc/pcn-190-003130-00/index.htm
| title = ''FROM MAKIN TO BOUGAINVILLE: Marine Raiders in the Pacific War''
| format = brochure
| work = WORLD WAR II COMMEMORATIVE SERIES
| pages =
| publisher = Marine Corps Historical Center
| language =
| accessdate = 2006-08-29
}}
*{{cite web
| last = Hoffman
| first = Jon T.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| date =
| year =
| month =
| url = http://www.nps.gov/archive/wapa/indepth/extContent/usmc/pcn-190-003147-00/sec4.htm
| title = ''SILK CHUTES AND HARD FIGHTING: US. Marine Corps Parachute Units in World War II'': Rendezvous at Gavutu
| work = Commemorative series
| pages = 1
| publisher = Marine Corps History and Museums Division
| accessdate = December 26, 2006

|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061229020144/http://www.nps.gov/archive/wapa/indepth/extContent/usmc/pcn-190-003147-00/sec4.htm |archivedate = December 29, 2006}}
*{{cite web
| last = Hough
| first = Frank O.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Ludwig, Verle E., and Shaw, Henry I., Jr.
| date =
| year =
| month =
| url = http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/I/index.html
| title = ''Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal''
| work = History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II
| pages =
| publisher =
| language =
| accessdate = 2006-05-16
}}
*{{cite web
| last = Miller
| first = John Jr.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| date =
| year = 1949
| month =
| url = http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/wwii/GuadC/GC-fm.htm
| title = ''GUADALCANAL: THE FIRST OFFENSIVE''
| work = UNITED STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II
| pages =
| publisher =
| language =
| accessdate = 2006-07-04
}}
*{{cite web
| last = Shaw
| first = Henry I.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| date =
| year = 1992
| month =
| url = http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-C-Guadalcanal/index.html
| title = ''First Offensive: The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal''
| work = Marines in World War II Commemorative Series
| pages =
| publisher =
| language =
| accessdate = 2006-07-25
}}
*{{cite web
| last = Zimmerman
| first = John L.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| date =
| year = 1949
| month =
| url = http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-M-Guadalcanal.html
| title = ''The Guadalcanal Campaign''
| work = Marines in World War II Historical Monograph
| pages =
| publisher =
| language =
| accessdate = 2006-07-04
}}

==Further information==
*{{cite book
| last = Smith
| first = George W.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 2003
| chapter =
| title = The Do-or-Die Men: The 1st Marine Raider Battalion at Guadalcanal
| publisher = Pocket
| location =
| isbn = 0743470052
}}

{{featured article}}
{{World War II}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Tulagi And Gavutu–Tanambogo}}
[[Category:1942 in Japan]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Japan|Tulagi]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving the United States|Tulagi]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Australia|Tulagi]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1942]]
[[Category:Military history of Japan during World War II]]
[[Category:Pacific Ocean theater of World War II|Tulagi]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps in World War II]]
[[Category:1942 in the Solomon Islands]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving the Solomon Islands]]

[[es:Batalla de Tulagi y Gavutu-Tanambogo]]
[[id:Pertempuran Tulagi dan Gavutu-Tanambogo]]
[[it:Battaglia di Tulagi]]
[[mn:Тулаги ба Гавуту-Танамбогогийн тулалдаан]]
[[ja:フロリダ諸島の戦い]]
[[pt:Batalha de Tulagi e Gavutu-Tanambogo]]
[[ru:Битва за Тулаги, Гавуту и Танамбого]]
[[sr:Битка за Тулаги, Гавуту и Танамбого]]
[[vi:Trận Tulagi và Gavutu–Tanambogo]]

Luftangriff auf Darwin

2010-05-16T00:16:13Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 124.186.121.12 identified as vandalism to last revision by Bidgee. (TW)

{{Split-apart|date=January 2009}}
{{FixBunching|beg}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Air raids on Darwin, February 1942
|image=[[Image:Darwin 42.jpg|300px]]
|caption= The explosion of an oil storage tank and clouds of smoke from other tanks, hit during the first Japanese air raid on Australia's mainland, at Darwin on 19 February 1942. In the foreground is [[HMAS Deloraine|HMAS ''Deloraine'']], which escaped damage.
|partof=[[World War II]], [[Pacific War]]
|date=19 February 1942
|place=[[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], Australia
|result=Japanese victory
|combatant1=[[Allies of World War II|Allied:]] {{flag|Australia}} {{flag|United States|1912}}
|combatant2={{flagicon|Japan}} [[Empire of Japan]]
|commander1={{nowrap|{{flagicon|Australia}} [[David Valentine Jardine Blake|David V. J. Blake]]}}
|commander2={{flagicon|Japan|naval}} [[Chuichi Nagumo]]
|strength1=30 [[aircraft]], 45 [[ship|ships]]
|strength2=242 aircraft
|casualties1=250-320 killed, 300-400 wounded, 23 aircraft destroyed, 10 ships sunk, 25 ships damaged
|casualties2=1 aircrew confirmed killed, several missing in action,
6 airmen taken prisoner; 6-10 aircraft destroyed <ref>http://www.vrb.gov.au/dvapublications/CLIK-darwin-42-45.pdf</ref>
|}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Battle for_Australia}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
{{Axis naval attacks on Australia}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox South West Pacific}}
{{FixBunching|end}}

The '''[[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] air raids on [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]]''' on 19 February 1942 were the largest attacks ever mounted by a foreign power against [[Australia]]. They were also a significant action in the [[Pacific War|Pacific campaign]] of [[World War II]] and represented a psychological blow to the Australian population, several weeks after hostilities with Japan had begun. The raids were the first of almost 100 [[Air raids on Australia, 1942–43|air raids against Australia during 1942–43]].

This event is often called the "[[attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] of Australia".<ref>{{cite book
| last =Lockwood
| first =Douglas
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title =Australia's Pearl Harbour. Darwin 1942.
| publisher = Penguin Books
| date = 1992 (reprint)
| location = Melbourne
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 10987654321
| page = xiii and 5 }}
</ref> Although it was a less significant military target, a greater number of bombs were dropped on Darwin than were used in the attack on Pearl Harbor.<ref>{{cite web | last = Frame | first = Tom | publisher = Quadrant Online | url = http://www.quadrant.org.au/magazine/issue/2009/5/the-bombing-of-darwin | title = The Bombing of Darwin | accessdate = 2009-06-03}}</ref> As was the case at Pearl Harbor, the Australian town was unprepared, and although it came under attack from the air another 58 times in 1942 and 1943, the raids on 19 February were massive and devastating by comparison.

Darwin had a population of about 2,000 at the time, the normal civilian population of about 5,000 having been reduced by evacuation. It was a strategically-placed naval port and airbase, and there were about 15,000 Allied soldiers in the area {{Fact|date=November 2009}}.

==The forces==
Most of the attacking planes came from the four [[aircraft carrier]]s of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'s Carrier Division 1 ([[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|''Akagi'']] and [[Japanese aircraft carrier Kaga|''Kaga'']]) and Carrier Division 2 ([[Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū|''Hiryū'']] and [[Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū|''Sōryū'']]). Land-based [[heavy bomber]]s were also involved. The Japanese launched two waves of planes, comprising 242 [[bomber]]s and [[Fighter aircraft|fighters]].{{Fact|date=February 2008}}

Darwin was poorly covered by [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft]] guns, there being only light automatic weapons and none of 20 mm or greater calibre.<ref>Tom Hall ''Darwin 1942 Australia's Darkest Hour'', pages 104–105, Methuen 1980.</ref> The only operational [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) fighter squadrons were in Europe, [[North Africa]] or the Middle East. The only modern fighters based in Darwin were 11 [[P-40]]s from the [[United States Army Air Forces|US Army Air Force]]'s 33rd Pursuit Squadron. There were a few lightly armed or obsolete training (five unserviceable [[CAC Wirraway|Wirraway]]s) and patrol (six [[Lockheed Hudson|Hudson]]) aircraft belonging to the RAAF. An experimental [[radar]] station was not yet operational.

==The attacks==
[[Image:Neptuna explosion 19 February 1942.jpg|thumb|left|The ''[[MV Neptuna]]'' explodes at Stokes Hill Wharf. In front of the explosion is ''[[HMAS Vigilant]]'' which is undertaking rescue work. In the centre background is the floating dry dock holding the corvette [[HMAS Katoomba|HMAS ''Katoomba'']]. In the foreground is the damaged [[SS Zealandia (1910)|SS ''Zealandia'']].]]
The first wave of 188 Japanese planes, led by naval Commander [[Mitsuo Fuchida]], took off at 8:45 AM. At about 9:15 a.m. the force was spotted by an Australian [[Coastwatcher]] on [[Melville Island, Northern Territory|Melville Island]] (disputed by Robert Rayner in the book ''Darwin Fortress''), and then also by Father John McGrath, a Catholic priest conducting missionary work on [[Bathurst Island (Northern Territory)|Bathurst Island]].<ref>Lockwood, p. 23.</ref> Father McGrath sent a message, "An unusually large air formation bearing down on us from the northwest". Darwin received both warnings at least twice by radio, no later than 9:37 a.m. 11 US P-40E [[Curtiss P-40|Kittyhawk]] fighters and an LB-30 [[B-24 Liberator|Liberator]] had just departed Darwin and the Australian duty officer assumed this was the same formation. The warnings were not acted upon, so as at Pearl Harbor two months earlier, Darwin's final chance to make last-minute preparations for the impending raid slipped away.

A USN [[PBY Catalina|Catalina aircraft]] near Bathurst Island was pounced upon by nine of the Zero fighters, and the plane caught fire although it defended itself. Its pilot, Lieutenant [[Thomas Moorer]], managed to crash land upon the sea and the crew were picked up by a passing freighter, the ''Florence D''. Lieutenant Moorer later became [[Chief of Naval Operations]] and [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]]. Although the ''Florence D'' was later attacked and sunk, Moorer and most of his crew survived to be later picked up on land. Another nearby ship, the ''Don Isidro'', was also sunk.

Fuchida later wrote of the raid:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.users.bigpond.com/battleforAustralia/battaust/DarwinAirraids.html |title=Japanese Air Raids on Darwin}} cites this to the book ''Midway: The Battle that Doomed Japan'', referenced below.</ref>
{{cquote| [''T'']''he job to be done seemed hardly worthy of the Nagumo Force. The harbour, it is true, was crowded with all kinds of ships, but a single pier and a few waterfront buildings appeared to be the only port installations. The airfield on the outskirts of the town, though fairly large, had no more than two or three small hangars, and in all there were only twenty-odd planes of various types scattered about the field. No planes were in the air. A few attempted to take off as we came over but were quickly shot down, and the rest were destroyed where they stood. Anti-aircraft fire was intense but largely ineffectual, and we quickly accomplished our objectives.'' }}
[[Image:Darwin raid (AWM 044603).jpg|thumb|left|An aerial photograph of vessels burning in Darwin Harbour taken by a Japanese airman during the first raid.]]

The Japanese, in fact, encountered five USAAF P-40s which had recently returned from an aborted mission over [[Timor]] and were still carrying [[drop tank]]s - with both numbers and surprise on their side the Japanese fighters shot down all of the US planes, except one piloted by Lt Robert Ostreicher.

A total of 81 [[Nakajima B5N]] "Kate" torpedo bombers then attacked shipping — at least 45 vessels—in the harbour, while 71 [[Aichi D3A]] "Val" dive-bombers, escorted by 36 [[Mitsubishi A6M]] Zero fighter planes attacked [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) bases, civil airfields, and a hospital. Ostreicher shot down two Vals and managed to survive the attack, but no Allied planes took off - all were destroyed or rendered unable to fly after the first attack. By about 10:40 a.m. the first wave of Japanese planes had left the area.

Just before midday there was a high altitude attack by land-based bombers, concentrated on the [[RAAF Base Darwin|Darwin RAAF Airfield]]: 27 [[Mitsubishi G3M]] "Nell" bombers flew from [[Ambon Island|Ambon]] and 27 [[Mitsubishi G4M]] "Betty" from [[Kendari]], [[Sulawesi]]. This second raid lasted for 20–25 minutes.

In spite of Fuchida's assessment of the anti-aircraft fire as "largely ineffectual", the lack of armour and [[self-sealing fuel tanks]] in many Japanese planes, as well as the prolonged low-level [[strafe|strafing]] runs carried out, made pilots and planes exceptionally vulnerable to ground fire.<ref>Lockwood, p. 84.</ref>Most Australian sources say that four Japanese planes were destroyed in Australian airspace.

==Casualties, damage and consequences==
[[Image:Darwin Harbour (AWM 027334).jpg|thumb|A sunken ship ([[MV Neptuna]]) and burnt-out wharf in Darwin Harbour following the attack (AWM 027334)]]

The number of people killed during the 19 February raids is disputed. The Lowe Commission, which investigated them in March 1942, identified 243 victims but assuming a few were unidentified concluded "the number is approximately 250".<ref> http://www.territorystories.nt.gov.au/bitstream/handle/10070/83913/Lowe_Report.pdf?sequence=1 Pg 9</ref> Some researchers and government officials, including John Bradford (author of ''In the Highest Traditions - RAN Heroism Darwin 19 February 1942''),<ref>http://home.st.net.au/~dunn/darwin02.htm</ref> Dr. Peter Stanley (the Australian War Memorial’s Principal Historian and author of several books about Australian military history),<ref> http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/darwin/transcript.asp , http://www.awm.gov.au/events/talks/oration2006.asp</ref> Tom Womack (author of ''The Dutch Naval Air Force against Japan''),<ref> http://www.netherlandsnavy.nl/Special_darwin.htm</ref> Paul Rosenzweig (author of ''Darwin 1942: a reassessment of the first raid casualties''),<ref>http://www.awm.gov.au/firstopac/bin/cgi-jsp.exe/shelf1.jsp?recno=100017388&userId=cat&catTable=</ref> and Rear Admiral [[Kevin Scarce]] (governor of South Australia)<ref> http://www.governor.sa.gov.au/index.php?m=selected-speeches&itemID=497 </ref> have said there were 250–262 fatalities.

However, a plaque unveiled in Darwin in 2001 gave the total as 292.<ref> Peter Grose, An awkward truth: the bombing of Darwin, February 1942, Crow’s Nest, NSW Allen & Unwin (2009) http://books.google.com/books?id=5DNwgDOh-eYC&lpg=PP1&ots=WCwT97lOXp&dq=an%20awkward%20truth&pg=PA192#v=onepage&q=&f=false </ref> The plaque indicated 10 sailors had been killed aboard the [[USS William B. Preston|USS ''William B. Preston'']] but the [[US Navy]] said there were 13 fatalities<ref>"...the ship took stock of her damage. Eleven men were killed, two missing, and three wounded by the bomb hit aft." http://web.archive.org/web/20050213162243/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/w8/william_b_preston.htm</ref> and Peter Grose, author of ''An Awkward Truth'', said fifteen - he wrote:

<blockquote>"With the William B. Preston total corrected to 15, a figure of 297 known dead is the best count anyone is likely to achieve…the full death toll is likely to be a little over 300, perhaps as many as 310 or 320."<ref>Grose, pg 193</ref></blockquote>

In 2000, Darwin historian Peter Forrest, who spoke to survivors and researched the attacks for an unpublished book, said (as paraphrased by a journalist), "the first Japanese air raids on Darwin probably killed more than double the official figure of 243"<ref> http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-38718802.html </ref> but two years later lowered his estimate to "anything up to double that 243".<ref> http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2002/s485505.htm </ref>

Other estimates put the toll far higher: one soldier who was there claimed to have seen barges filled with bodies towed out to sea, a member of one of the burial teams recounted seeing uncounted bodies “shoved in a large hole dug by a bulldozer” (paraphrase), according to some sources, Darwin mayor Jack Burton estimated 900 people were killed; Harry Macredie, who helped rescue survivors and recover bodies in the harbor said, "we definitely estimate over 1,000",<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2002/s485505.htm</ref> Rex Ruwoldt, one of the soldiers attacked that day, says that a few days after the raid he was told over the field telephone that Army Intelligence estimated 1,100 were killed.<ref>http://home.st.net.au/~dunn/darwin02.htm </ref> According to an AP article about the 50th anniversary of the attacks "some estimates say as many as 1,000 died".<ref> http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19920219&slug=1476547 </ref> Bradford<ref> http://home.st.net.au/~dunn/darwin02.htm </ref>and Forrest<ref> http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2002/s485505.htm </ref> said they spoke to survivors who estimated as many as 1,500 people died.

Stanley, Grose, Rosenzweig <ref>http://www.awm.gov.au/firstopac/bin/cgi-jsp.exe/shelf1.jsp?recno=100017388&userId=cat&catTable=</ref> and Tom Lewis <ref>Tom Lewis, A War at Home : A Comprehensive Guide to the First Japanese Attacks on Darwin, Darwin : Tall Stories, 1999 (appendix)http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46634368</ref> rejected such numbers. The former said "it was certainly not the 1,024 claimed recently in unsubstantiated reports" <ref>http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/darwin/transcript.asp </ref> and the Grose wrote "numbers such as 1,100 are fancifully high".<ref>Grose, http://books.google.com/books?id=5DNwgDOh-eYC&dq=an+awkward+truth&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=WCwT97lOXp&sig=TtTwnxGb_Z1pq0nq7D38f3JZgEQ&hl=en&ei=sx7KSvqvBaOltgfG8cS6Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=fancifully&f=false pg. 191</ref>

By contrast, there is less dispute over the number of injured during the attacks. The Lowe Commission estimated "between 300 and 400" people were wounded.<ref>http://www.territorystories.nt.gov.au/bitstream/handle/10070/83913/Lowe_Report.pdf?sequence=1 Pg 9 </ref> Lewis said the number was over 400, about 200 of which were seriously injured.<ref>Tom Lewis (2003). ''A War at Home: A comprehensive guide to the first Japanese attacks on Darwin''. Tall Stories, Darwin. pp. 63–71</ref> Womack wrote that 311 were wounded.<ref> http://www.netherlandsnavy.nl/Special_darwin.htm </ref> Australian military historian Chris Coulthard-Clark put the total between 250 and 320.<ref>Chris Coulthard-Clark, The Encyclopaedia of Australia's Battles, Pg. 205 Allen & Unwin 2001 http://books.google.com/books?id=DLz6LJBgYHcC&pg=PA205 </ref> Grose wrote:

<blockquote>...if 900 or 1100 died, why were the numbers of injured so low? The count of the injured is more accurate, because they were treated in hospital or shipped out aboard the Manunda [a hospital ship]. The hospitals and Manunda noted names and numbers of those they treated.<ref>Grose pg 191</ref></blockquote>

Eight ships were sunk in Darwin Harbour:
* {{USS|Peary|DD-226|6}}, a [[United States Navy]] [[destroyer]]
* {{USAT|Meigs}}, a large [[United States Army|US Army]] [[troop transport]] ship
*Two Australian passenger ships, being used as [[merchant ship|merchant]] troop transports:
**{{MV|Neptuna}}
**{{SS|Zealandia|1910|2}}
* {{HMAS|Mavie}}, a [[Royal Australian Navy]] [[patrol boat]]
* {{SS|Mauna Loa}}, a 5,436-ton US merchant freighter<ref>''Mauna Loa'' was formerly known as the ''West Conob'', a steel hulled, single propellor ship, built in 1919 at [[San Pedro, California]] and owned by the [[Matson Navigation Company|Matson Navigation Line]]. ([http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/w5/west_conob.htm Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, "West Conob"] Access date: 14 September 2007.)</ref>
*{{MV|British Motorist (1924)}}, a UK-registered merchant [[Petroleum tanker|refuelling oiler]]<ref>''British Motorist'' was 145 m (440 ft) in length. It was refueling the ''Peary'' at the time of the attack. ([http://www.darwindivecentre.com.au/wwii%20wrecks.html Darwin Dive Centre, 2007, "WWII Wrecks"] Access date: 14 September 2007.) </ref>
*''Kelat'', a 1,849-ton coal storage [[Hulk (ship)|hulk]]<ref>''Kelat'' was built in [[Stockton, England]] in 1881, as an iron-hulled [[sailing ship]]. Formerly the Norwegian merchant ship SV ''Hovding''. ([http://www.nt.gov.au/nreta/heritage/ntregister/declared/display.html?kelat NT Department of Natural Resources, Environment and the Arts, 2007, "Wreck of the Kelat"]. Access date: 14 September 2007. </ref>
Among the ships damaged but not destroyed was a [[hospital ship]], [[AHS Manunda|AHS ''Manunda'']].<ref>{{cite book | last = Smith | first = A.E. | title = Three Minutes of Time — the torpedoing of the Australian Hospital Ship Centaur | origyear = 1991 | edition = Second Printing | year = 1992 | month = May | publisher = Tasman Press | location = Miami | isbn = 0-646-07631-0 | page = 19 }}</ref> The USS ''William B. Preston'' which had already departed Darwin was attacked at sea and docked at [[Derby, Western Australia]]

The USAAF lost ten P-40s, one [[B-24]] bomber, and three [[Beechcraft Model 18|C-45]] transport planes. The US Navy lost three [[PBY Catalina]] flying boats and moorers outside the harbour. The RAAF lost six [[Lockheed Hudson]]s.

The air raids caused chaos in Darwin, with most essential services including water and electricity being badly damaged or destroyed.<ref>Lockwood, p. 143.</ref> Fears of an imminent invasion spread and there was a wave of refugees, as half of the town's civilian population fled. There were reports of looting, with [[Provost Marshal]]s being among the accused.<ref>Lockwood, p. 159.</ref> According to official figures, 278 [[RAAF]] servicemen were considered to have [[desertion|deserted]] as a result of the raids, although it has been argued that the 'desertions' were mostly the result of ambiguous orders given to RAAF ground staff after the attacks.<ref>Lockwood, pp. 143–146.</ref> Following the second Japanese air raid, the local RAAF [[Wing Commander (rank)|wing commander]] Sturt Griffith:
{{cquote| "... summoned his senior administrative officer, [[Squadron Leader]] Swan, and gave a verbal order that all airmen were to move half a mile down the main road and then half a mile inland. At this vague rendezvous point ... arrangements would be made to feed them. The order led to utter chaos. In being passed by word of mouth from one section to another, sometimes with officers present and sometimes not, it became garbled to the extent it was unrecognizable against the original. In its ultimate form it was interpreted, especially by those desiring such an interpretation, of an impending order for immediate and general evacuation of the area. Highly exaggerated rumours of an impending Japanese invasion had already reached the base from the town and spread quickly among those wanting to believe them. In the absence of restraint, men gathered their belongings" and abandoned their stations.<ref>Lockwood, pp. 143–44.</ref> }}

While the Northwest area staff could see what was happening and issued countermanding orders, "the damage was done and hundreds of men were already beyond recall".<ref>Lockwood, p. 144.</ref>

The Australian army faced difficulty controlling its own troops from looting private property including "furniture, refrigerators, stoves, pianos, clothes [and] even children's toys" due to the breakdown of law and order after the bombing and the ensuing chaos.<ref>Lockwood, p. 169.</ref> Many civilian refugees never returned, or did not return for many years, and in the post-war years some claimed that land they owned in Darwin had been expropriated by government bodies in their absence.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

==Further Japanese raids==
After the massive 19 February 1942 Japanese raid, the Northern Territory and parts of Western Australia's north were bombed 62 more times between 4 March 1942 and 12 November 1943.<ref>Lewis, op. cit.</ref> One of the heaviest attacks took place on 16 June 1942 when a large Japanese force set fire to the oil fuel tanks around the harbour and inflicted severe damage to the vacant banks, stores and railway yards. The [[Allied]] navies largely abandoned the naval base at Darwin after the initial 19 February attack, dispersing most of their forces to [[Brisbane]], [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] and other smaller ports. Conversely, Allied air commanders launched a major build-up in the Darwin area, building more airfields and deploying many squadrons.

The four IJN aircraft carriers (''Akagi'', ''Kaga'', ''Hiryū'' and ''Sōryū'') that participated in the Bombing of Darwin were sunk during the [[Battle of Midway]] in June 1942.

A memorial ceremony is held every year on 19 February at the Cenotaph in Darwin. It starts at 9:58am, the precise time of the first attack.{{Fact|date=February 2008}}

==In popular culture==

* The raid is portrayed in the film ''[[Australia (2008 film)|Australia]]'' as a major plot event.

==See also==
{{Commonscat-inline|Darwin bombings}}
* [[Battle for Australia]]
* [[Japanese air attacks on Australia, 1942-43]]
* [[Australia (2008 film)]]
* [[Christmas Island Invasion]]
* [[Planned invasion of Australia during World War II]]
* [[Axis naval activity in Australian waters]]
* [[Military history of Australia#Second World War 1939-1945|Military history of Australia during World War II]]
* [[Military history of Japan#Showa Period - World War II|Military history of Japan during World War II]]
* [[East Point Military museum]], Darwin

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Mitsuo Fuchida and [[Masatake Okumiya]], ''Midway: the Battle that doomed Japan'', Hutchinson, 1957.
*Peter Grose, An Awkward Truth: the Bombing of Darwin, February 1942, Crow’s Nest, NSW Allen & Unwin (2009)
* Timothy Hall, ''Darwin 1942, Australia Darkest Hour'', Methuen Australia, 1980.
* [[Tom Lewis (author)|Tom Lewis]] (2003) ''A War at Home: A comprehensive guide to the first Japanese attacks on Darwin''. Tall Stories, Darwin. ISBN 0-9577351-0-3
*{{cite book
| last =Lockwood
| first =Douglas
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title =Australia's Pearl Harbour. Darwin 1942.
| publisher = Penguin Books
| date = 1992 (reprint)
| location = Melbourne
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 10987654321 }}
*{{cite journal
| last = Powell
| first = Allen
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = The Darwin 'panic', 1942
| journal = Journal of the Australian War Memorial
| volume =
| issue = 3, October 1983
| pages = Pages 3–9
| publisher =
| date = 1983
| url =
| doi =
| id = ISBN 07296274
| accessdate = }}
*{{cite book|last=Powell|first=Alan|title=The Shadow's Edge. Australia's Northern War|publisher=Melbourne University Press|location=Melbourne|date=1988|isbn=0522843719}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ntl.nt.gov.au/online_resources/australias_northern_territory_wwii Northern Territory Library "Online exhibition of The bombing of Darwin"]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cd8C7-OJFVc Nazi Germany newsreel on the bombing of Darwin]
[[Image:Darwin locator-MJC.png|thumb|250|Location of Darwin on Australian continent]]
*[http://home.st.net.au/~dunn/darwin02.htm Peter Dunn's AUSTRALIA @ WAR, 2004, "Two Japanese Air Raids at Darwin, NT on 19 February 1942"]
*[http://www.netherlandsnavy.nl/Special_darwin.htm Tom Womack, 2005, "Australia's Pearl Harbor: the Japanese air raid on Darwin"]
*[http://www.naa.gov.au/about-us/publications/fact-sheets/fs195.aspx National Archives of Australia, 2000, "Fact Sheet 195 The bombing of Darwin"]
*[http://www.users.bigpond.com/battleforaustralia/battaust/CharlieUnmack.html "A Darwin Eyewitness Account – Stoker 2nd Class Charlie Unmack"]
*[http://www.users.bigpond.com/battleforaustralia/battaust/LACHawker.html "A Darwin Eyewitness Account – Leading Aircraftman Stanley Hawker, No 2 RAAF Squadron"]
*[http://www.schools.nt.edu.au/ths-wwII/index2.html Taminmin High School, "Defending the Darwin Fortress"]
*[http://www.darwindefenders.org Darwin Defenders 1942-45 Inc, an association for veterans, their families and friends]
*[http://www.bombsoverdarwin.com/ www.bombsoverdarwin.com]

{{WWII city bombing}}

{{coord missing|Australia}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1942]]
[[Category:Military attacks against Australia|D]]
[[Category:History of Darwin]]
[[Category:1942 in Australia|D]]
[[Category:Darwin, Northern Territory]]
[[Category:History of the Northern Territory]]
[[Category:History of Australia (1901-1945)]]
[[Category:South West Pacific theatre of World War II]]
[[Category:1942 in Japan]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Australia|Darwin]]

[[ca:Bombardeig de Darwin (Febrer de 1942)]]
[[cs:Nálet na Darwin]]
[[da:Bombningen af Darwin]]
[[fr:Bombardement de Darwin]]
[[ko:다윈 공습]]
[[id:Pengeboman Darwin]]
[[it:Bombardamento di Darwin]]
[[pl:Bombardowanie Darwin]]
[[pt:Ataques aéreos a Darwin]]
[[ru:Бомбардировка Дарвина]]
[[sv:Bombningen av Darwin]]
[[zh:达尔文空袭]]

Carter G. Woodson

2010-02-05T02:49:21Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 74.166.66.232 identified as vandalism to last revision by 204.38.160.208. (TW)

{{Infobox Person
|name = Carter Godwin Woodson
|image = Carter Woodson.jpg
|alt =
|caption = Carter G. Woodson
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1875|12|19}}
|birth_place = [[New Canton, Virginia]]
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1950|4|3|1875|12|9}}
|death_place = [[Washington, DC]]
|other_names =
|known_for = Founded the Association for the Study of African American Life and History, Established Negro History Week
|occupation = [[Historian]]
|nationality =
|education = B.Litt,[[Berea College]] (1903) M.A.,[[University of Chicago]] (1908) Ph.D., [[Harvard University]] (1912)

}}
'''Carter Godwin Woodson''' (December 19, 1875 - April 3, 1950)<ref> ''Current Biography 1944'', pp741-44; Herbert Aptheker, ed., ''The Correspondence of W. E. B. Du Bois'', (U. of Massachusetts Press, 1997) p182 </ref> was an [[African-American|African]]-[[United States|American]] [[historian]], [[author]], [[journalist]] and the founder of the [[Association for the Study of African American Life and History]]. He was one of the first scholars to value and study [[African American history|Black History]]. He recognized and acted upon the importance of a people having an awareness and knowledge of their contributions to humanity and left behind an impressive legacy. A founder of ''[[The Journal of Negro History|Journal of Negro History]]'', Dr. Woodson is known as the [[List of people known as the father or mother of something|Father of Black History]]. <ref>[http://www.buckinghamcountyva.org/history/historyofbuckingham.html "History of Buckingham County"], Buckingham County Website</ref>

== Early life ==
{{African American topics sidebar|right}}
Dr. Carter G. Woodson was born in 1875 in [[New Canton, Virginia]], the son of former slaves James and Elizae Riddle Woodson. His father helped [[Union]] soldiers during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], and he moved his family to [[West Virginia]] when he heard that [[Huntington, West Virginia|Huntington]] was building a high school for blacks. Coming from a large, poor family, Carter Woodson could not regularly attend school. Through self-instruction, Woodson mastered the fundamentals of common school subjects by age 17.

Wanting more education, Carter went to [[Fayette County, West Virginia|Fayette County]] to earn a living as a miner in the coal fields. He was able to devote only a few months each year to his schooling. In 1895, at age 20, Woodson entered Douglass High School where he received his diploma in less than two years. From 1897 to 1900, Woodson taught in Fayette County. In 1900 he was selected as the principal of Douglass High School. He earned his Bachelor of Literature degree from [[Berea College]] in [[Kentucky]].

From 1903 to 1907 Woodson was a school supervisor in the [[Philippines]]. Later, he attended the [[University of Chicago]], where he was awarded an M.A. in 1908.
He was a member of the first black fraternity [[Sigma Pi Phi]] and a member of [[Omega Psi Phi]].<ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1077/is_11_59/ai_n6158341 1904-2004: the Boule at 100: Sigma Pi Phi Fraternity holds centennial celebration | Ebony | Find Articles at BNET.com]</ref>. He completed his Ph.D. in history at [[Harvard University]] in 1912, where he was only the second African-American (after [[W.E.B. DuBois]]) to earn a doctorate.<ref>http://www.newsweek.com/id/232818</ref> His doctoral dissertation,''The Disruption of Virginia'', was based on research he did at the [[Library of Congress]] while teaching high school in Washington, D.C. After earning the doctoral degree, he continued teaching in the publish schools, later joining the faculty at [[Howard University]] as a professor and served as Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences.

Convinced that the role of his own people in American history and in the history of other cultures was either being ignored or misrepresented among scholars, Woodson realized the need for research into the neglected past of African Americans. Along with William Hartgrove, Cleveland Hall, Alexander L. Jackson, and James E. Stamps, he founded the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History September 9, 1915, in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]].<ref>[http://http://www.asalh.net/blackhistorymonthorigins.html]</ref> That was also the year Woodson published ''The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861''. His other books followed: ''A Century of Negro Migration]'' (1918) and ''The History of the Negro Church'' (1927). His work ''The Negro in Our History'' has been reprinted in numerous editions and was revised by [[Charles H. Wesley]] after Woodson's death in 1950.

In January 1916, Woodson began publication of the scholarly ''[[The Journal of Negro History|Journal of Negro History]]''. It has never missed an issue, despite the [[Great Depression]], loss of support from foundations and two World Wars. In 2002, it was renamed the ''Journal of African American History'' and continues to be published by the [[Association for the Study of African American Life and History]] (ASALH).

== The NAACP ==
Woodson became affiliated with the organized [[Washington, D.C.]] branch of the [[NAACP]], and its Chairman [[Archibald Grimké]]. On January 28, 1915, he wrote a letter to Grimké expressing his dissatisfaction with the way things were going. Woodson made two proposals:
#That the branch secure an office for a center to which persons may report whatever concerns the Negro race may have, and from which the Association may extend its operations into every part of the city; and
#That a canvasser be appointed to enlist members and obtain subscriptions for ''[[The Crisis]]'', the NAACP magazine edited by [[W. E. B. Du Bois]].

W. E. B. Du Bois added the daring proposal of "diverting patronage from business establishments which do not treat races alike." He wrote that he would cooperate as one of the twenty-five effective canvassers, adding that he would pay the office rent for one month. The NAACP did not welcome Dr. Woodson's ideas.

In a letter to Grimké on March 18, 1915, responding to comments about his proposals, Woodson wrote,
:"I am not afraid of being sued by white businessmen. In fact, I should welcome such a law suit. It would do the cause much good. Let us banish fear. We have been in this mental state for three centuries. I am a radical. I am ready to act, if I can find brave men to help me."{{Fact|Apr 2008|date=April 2008}}
This difference of opinion with Grimké contributed to Woodson's ending his affiliation with the NAACP.

[[Image:CGWoodson roadside marker.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Roadside historical marker biography of Woodson]]

== Black History Month ==
After leaving Howard University because of differences with its president, Dr. Woodson devoted the rest of his life to historical research. He worked to preserve the history of African Americans and accumulated a collection of thousands of artifacts and publications. He noted that African American contributions "were overlooked, ignored, and even suppressed by the writers of history textbooks and the teachers who use them." <ref>''Current Biography 1944'', p.742 </ref>. Race prejudice, he concluded, "is merely the logical result of tradition, the inevitable outcome of thorough instruction to the effect that the Negro has never contributed anything to the progress of mankind." <ref> Ibid.</ref>
In 1926, Woodson single-handedly pioneered the celebration of "Negro History Week", for the second week in February, to coincide with marking the birthdays of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and [[Frederick Douglass]].<ref> Delilah L. Beasley, "Activities Among Negroes, ''Oakland Tribune'', Feb. 14, 1926, pX-5 </ref>. The week was later extended to the full month of February and renamed [[Black History Month]].

== Colleagues ==
Woodson believed in self-reliance and racial respect, values he shared with [[Marcus Garvey]]. Woodson became a regular columnist for Garvey's weekly ''Negro World''.

Woodson's political activism placed him at the center of a circle of many black intellectuals and activists from the 1920s to the 1940s. He corresponded with [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], [[John Edward Bruce|John E. Bruce]], [[Arturo Alfonso Schomburg]], [[Hubert Harrison|Hubert H. Harrison]], and [[Timothy Thomas Fortune|T. Thomas Fortune]] among others. Even with the extended duties of the Association, Woodson made time to write academic works such as ''The History of the Negro Church'' (1922), ''[[The Mis-Education of the Negro]]'' (1933), and others which continue to have wide readership.

Woodson did not shy away from controversial subjects, and used the pages of ''Negro World'' to contribute to debates. One issue related to West Indian/African American relations. Woodson summarized that "the West Indian Negro is free." He observed that West Indian societies had been more successful at properly dedicating the necessary amounts of time and resources needed to educate and genuinely emancipate people. Woodson approved of efforts by West Indians to include materials related to Black history and culture into their school curricula.

Woodson was ostracized by some of his contemporaries because of his insistence on defining a category of history related to ethnic culture and race. At the time, these educators felt that it was wrong to teach or understand African-American history as separate from more general American history. According to these educators, "Negroes" were simply Americans, darker skinned, but with no history apart from that of any other. Thus Woodson's efforts to get Black culture and history into the curricula of institutions, even historically Black colleges, were often unsuccessful. Today the United States celebrates the Black History Month.

== Woodson's legacy ==
[[Image:CGWoodson statue.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Statue of Woodson in Huntington, West Virginia]]
That schools have set aside a time each year, to focus upon African American history, is Dr. Woodson's most visible legacy. His determination to further the recognition of the Negro in American and world history, however, inspired countless other scholars. Woodson remained focused on his work throughout his life. Many see him as a man of vision and understanding. Although Dr. Woodson was among the ranks of the educated few, he did not feel particularly sentimental about elite educational institutions.{{Fact|Apr 2008|date=April 2008}} The Association and journal which he started in 1915 continue, and both have earned intellectual respect.

Woodson's other far-reaching activities included the founding in 1920 of the Associated Publishers, the oldest African-American publishing company in the United States. This enabled publication of books concerning blacks which may not have been supported in the rest of the market. He founded Negro History Week in 1926 (now known as Black History Month). He created the ''Negro History Bulletin'', developed for teachers in elementary and high school grades, and published continuously since 1937. Woodson also influenced the Association's direction and subsidizing of research in African-American history. He wrote numerous articles, monographs and books on Blacks. ''The Negro in Our History'' reached its eleventh edition in 1966, when it had sold more than 90,000 copies.

[[Dorothy Porter Wesley]] stated that "Woodson would wrap up his publications, take them to the post office and have dinner at the YMCA." He would teasingly decline her dinner invitations saying, "No, you are trying to marry me off. I am married to my work". Dr. Woodson's most cherished ambition, a six-volume ''Encyclopedia Africana'', lay incomplete at his death on April 3, 1950 at the age of 74. He is buried at Lincoln Memorial Cemetery in [[Suitland-Silver Hill, Maryland]].

==Legacy and honors==
In 1992, the [[Library of Congress]] held an exhibition entitled "Moving Back Barriers: The Legacy of Carter G. Woodson". Woodson had donated his collection of 5,000 items from the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries to the Library.

His [[Washington, D.C.]] home has been preserved and designated the [[Carter G. Woodson Home National Historic Site]].

In [[2002]], scholar [[Molefi Kete Asante]] named Carter G. Woodson on his list of [[100 Greatest African Americans]].<ref>Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). ''100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia''. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8. </ref>

== Selected bibliography ==
[[Image:History of the Negro Church.jpg|right|thumb|Second edition of ''The History of the Negro Church'' (1921)]]
* ''The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861'' (1915)
* ''A Century of Negro Migration'' (1918)
* ''The History of the Negro Church'' (1921)
* ''The Negro in Our History'' (1922)
* ''Free Negro Owners of Slaves in the United States in 1830, Together With Absentee Ownership of Slaves in the United States in 1830'' (1924)
* ''Free Negro Heads of Families in the United States in 1830, Together With a Brief Treatment of the Free Negro'' (1925)
* ''Negro Orators and Their Orations'' (1925)
* ''The Mind of the Negro as Reflected in Letters Written During the Crisis, 1800-1860'' (1927)
* ''Negro Makers of History'' (1928)
* ''African Myths, Together With Proverbs'' (1928)
* ''The Rural Negro'' (1930)
* ''The Negro Wage Earner'' (1930)
* ''The Mis-Education of the Negro'' (1933)
* ''The Negro Professional Man and the Community, With Special Emphasis on the Physician and the Lawyer'' (1934)
* ''The Story of the Negro Retold'' (1935)
* ''The African Background Outlined: Or, Handbook for the Study of the Negro'' (1936)
* ''African Heroes and Heroines'' (1939)
* ''The Works of Francis J. Grimké'' (1942)
* ''Carter G. Woodson's Appeal: The Lost Manuscript Edition'' (2008)

== Places named after Woodson ==
[[Image:carter woodson.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Carter Woodson biographical cartoon by [[Charles Alston]], 1943]]

* The Carter G. Woodson Institute for African-American and African Studies at the [[University of Virginia]], [[Charlottesville, Virginia|Charlottesville]], [[Virginia|VA]] [http://artsandsciences.virginia.edu/woodson/]
* [[Woodson K-8 School]] in [[Houston]], [[Texas]]
* Woodson Regional Library in [[Chicago]] [http://www.chipublib.org/002branches/woodson/woodson.html]
* Carter G. Woodson Middle School in [[Chicago]]
* Carter G. Woodson Elementary, [[Crisfield, MD]] [http://www.somerset.k12.md.us/WES/]
* Dr. Carter G. Woodson Elementary, [[Baltimore, MD]] [http://www.bcps.k12.md.us/]
* Carter G. Woodson Elementary, [[Atlanta, GA]]
* Carter G. Woodson Middle School in [[New Orleans]]
* Carter G. Woodson Elementary School in [[Los Angeles]].
* Woodson Institute for Student Excellence [[Minneapolis]], [[Minnesota|MN]].
* Carter G. Woodson Middle School in [[Hopewell, Virginia|Hopewell]], [[Virginia|VA]]
* C.G. Woodson Road in his home town of [[New Canton, Virginia]]
* Friendship Collegiate Academy in [[Washington, DC]] is located on the Carter G. Woodson Campus
* Carter G. Woodson Park, in [[Oakland Park, Florida]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oaklandparkfl.org/index.asp?Type=B_EV&SEC={5BD110B8-7DD4-4AE1-A07C-043D46927297}&DE={4225AAD7-7EF2-4FD3-BF09-F068949400E4} |title=Dr. Carter G. Wilson Festival |publisher=The City of Oakland Park |accessdate=2008-12-15}}</ref>
* Carter G. Woodson Elementary School was a former school located in [[Oakland Park, Florida]]. It was closed in 1965 when the [[Broward County Public Schools]] system was desegregated.
* Dr. Carter G. Woodson African American Museum in [[St. Petersburg, Florida]] [http://www.woodsonmuseum.org]

== Citations ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.asalh.org The Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)]
* [http://www.themiseducationofthenegro.com The Audiobook version of "The Mis-Education of the Negro"]
* [http://www.lostmanuscript.com The homepage for Carter G. Woodson's Appeal]
* [http://www.asalh.net/blackhistorymonthorigins.html The History of Black History Month by Daryl Michael Scott on ASALH's website]
* [http://www.woodsonmuseum.org/ Dr. Carter G. Woodson African American History Museum]
=== Woodson's writings ===
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author|id=Carter+Godwin+Woodson |name=Carter G. Woodson}}
* {{cite book|title=The History of the Negro Church |isbn=0-87498-000-3}}
* {{cite book|title=Mis-Education of the Negro |isbn=0-9768111-0-3}}

=== Other information about Woodson ===
* [http://www.unia-acl.org/archive/Dr.htm Dr. Carter G. Woodson]
* [http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/woodson.html "Dr. Carter Godwin Woodson & the Observance of African History"]
* [http://www.loc.gov/today/pr/1993/93-083.html Library of Congress Initiates Traveling Exhibits Program]
* [http://www.loc.gov/today/pr/1993/93-123.html Library of Congress Traveling Exhibit re Dr. C.G. Woodson]
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?faid/faid:@field(DOCID+ms000014) The Carter G. Woodson Collection of Negro Papers and Related Documents]
* [http://www.ngbiwm.com/Exhibits/Carter%20GWoodson.htm Carter G. Woodson Wax Figure at the National Great Blacks in Wax Museum]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Woodson, Carter G.}}
[[Category:American historians]]
[[Category:American journalists]]
[[Category:African American history]]
[[Category:African American writers]]
[[Category:Negro World contributors]]
[[Category:People from Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:People from Huntington, West Virginia]]
[[Category:People from Fayette County, West Virginia]]
[[Category:People from Virginia]]
[[Category:Writers from Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:Writers from West Virginia]]
[[Category:1875 births]]
[[Category:1950 deaths]]

[[tl:Carter G. Woodson]]

Sequim

2010-01-06T03:09:25Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 71.230.102.239 identified as vandalism to last revision by SmackBot. (TW)

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|longd = 123 |longm = 6 |longs = 5 |longEW = W


|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 98382
|area_code = [[Area code 360|360]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 53-63385{{GR|2}}
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 1531505{{GR|3}}
|website = [http://www.ci.sequim.wa.us/ www.ci.sequim.wa.us]
|footnotes =



The Sequim School District is home of Sequim High School, Sequim Middle School, Sequim Community School, Helen Haller Elementary and Greywolf Elementary.

}}
'''Sequim''' ({{pron-en|ˈskwɪm|En-us-Sequim.ogg}}) is a city in [[Clallam County, Washington|Clallam County]], [[Washington]], [[United States]]. The population is estimated to be 5,951 as of 2007, not including the approximately 20,000 residents in the Dungeness Valley immediately surrounding the city limits. Sequim is located along the [[Dungeness River]] near the base of the [[Olympic Mountains]]. The city has been increasing in population dramatically in recent years due to the influx of retirees from the Puget Sound region and California. Recent approximations show a population growth of about 34% since the year 2000[http://www.city-data.com/city/Sequim-Washington.html].

Sequim lies within the [[rainshadow]] of the Olympic Mountains and receives an average of less than 15 inches of rain per year, nearly qualifying it as a desert. Fogs and cool breezes from the [[Juan de Fuca Strait]] make Sequim's environment more humid than would be expected from the low average annual precipitation. Some places have surprisingly luxuriant forests dominated by [[Douglas-fir]] and [[western red cedar]]. [[Black cottonwood]], [[red alder]], [[bigleaf maple]], [[Pacific madrone]], [[lodgepole pine]] and [[Garry oak]] can also be large. Historically, much of the area was an open oak-studded prairie supported by somewhat excessively drained gravelly sandy loam soil, though agriculture and development of the Dungeness valley have changed this ecosystem. Most soils under Sequim have been placed in a series which is named after the city.[http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/WebSoilSurvey.aspx] This "Sequim series" is one of the few [[Mollisol]]s in western Washington and its high [[base saturation]], a characteristic of the Mollisol order, is attributed to the minimal leaching of bases caused by low annual rainfall.[http://www2.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/osd/dat/S/SEQUIM.html]

The city and the surrounding area are particularly known for the commercial growth of [[lavender]], supported by the unique climate: it makes Sequim the "Lavender Capital of North America", rivaled only in [[France]]. The area is also known for its [[Dungeness crab]].

Sequim is pronounced as one syllable, with the ''e'' elided: "skwim".

==Media==
The local news publications consist of the community news paper ''Sequim Gazette'',<ref>{{cite web
| title=Sequim Online Gazette | publisher=Olympic View Publishing | url=http://www.sequimgazette.com
| accessdate=2009-03-20 }}</ref> the ''Peninsula Daily News''<ref>{{cite web
| title=Peninsula Daily News | publisher=Horvitz Newspapers
| url=http://www.peninsuladailynews.com
| accessdate=2009-03-20 }}</ref> and the weekly ''Sequim This Week'' by the Peninsula Daily News.<ref>{{cite news
| title=Sequim This Week
| url=http://www.sequimthisweek.com | accessdate=2009-03-20 }}</ref>

==Sister city==
Sequim's sister city is [[Shiso, Hyogo]], Japan. Sequim and Shiso have an [[exchange student]] program set up through [http://www.sequim.k12.wa.us/highschool/site/default.asp Sequim High School] and [http://www.sequim.k12.wa.us/middleschool/site/default.asp Sequim Middle School].

==History==
===Aboriginal inhabitants===
The [[Klallam|S'Klallam]] tribe had inhabited the region prior to the arrival of the first Europeans. The tribal name of the village at Washington Harbor, located just to the east of the present day city, later evolved into the name Sequim.<ref>{{cite book
| author=Olympic Peninsula Intertribal Cultural Advisory Committee | editor=Jacilee Wray | year=2003
| title=Native Peoples of the Olympic Peninsula: Who We Are
| page=35 | publisher=University of Oklahoma Press
| isbn=0806135522 }}</ref> Both [[Manuel Quimper]] and [[George Vancouver]] explored the region's coast in the 1790s.

===First European settlers===
The first European settlers arrived in the Dungeness Valley in the 1850s, settling nearby [[Dungeness, Washington]]. While the lands along the river became fertile farmlands, the remainder of the area remained arid prairie. Irrigation canals first brought water to the prairie in the 1890s, allowing the expansion of farmlands.

===Incorporation===
Sequim was officially incorporated on October 31, 1913. For many decades small farms, mostly dairy farms, dotted the area around the small town. Near the end of [[World War I]], Sequim became a stop for a railway which passed through from [[Port Angeles]] to [[Port Townsend]], built primarily to carry wood products from the forests of the western [[Olympic Peninsula]].

===Modern===
In recent decades, the family farms that once dotted the valley have been parceled off into home sites as the area's excellent climate has drawn many retired people. Recent years have seen a resurgence of organic farming in the area, with Nash Huber of [http://www.nashsorganicproduce.com/ Nash's Organic Produce] leading the way, and a weekly farmer's market is held downtown from May to October.

===Commemmoration===
Each May since 1895, Sequim holds the Irrigation Festival. {{As of|2008}}, it is the longest continuously running festival in the state.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

The [http://www.lavenderfestival.com/ Sequim Lavender Festival] has been held every July since 1996. It includes three days of lavender farm tours and a street fair.

==Tourist attractions==
[[Image:SimplifiedPealeMastodon.jpg|thumb|150px|Drawing of a mastodon skeleton by [[Rembrandt Peale]]]]
Sequim is home of a herd of [[Roosevelt elk]], one attraction to the area.
Sequim holds a Lavender Festival during the summer of every year, usually around July, which attracts tens of thousands of people.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

The [[Museum and Arts Center, Sequim, Washington|Museum and Arts Center]] features both natural and cultural exhibits including a mastodon mural mounted with the remaining [[mastodons]] bones, artifacts, and a video on the [[Excavation (archaeology)|excavation]]. The Olympic Game Farm allows visitors to get a close look at many large game animals.

The [[Dungeness National Wildlife Refuge]] is located just north of the city, near the mouth of the [[Dungeness River]]. It includes [[Dungeness Spit]] and a five mile hike to the New Dungeness Lighthouse<ref>{{cite book
| first=Christopher | last=Petrich | year=2005
| title=A Complete Guide To The Lighthouses on Puget Sound Including Admiralty Inlet
| page=72 | publisher=Lulu.com | isbn=1411641868 }}</ref> at the end of the spit.

To the east along Highway 101 is Sequim Bay, a 4 mile long inlet from the Straits of Juan de Fuca. Along the western stretch is the Sequim Bay State Park and the John Wayne Marina. The land for the latter was bequeathed by the movie actor [[John Wayne]]. The inlet is a popular bird watching area.<ref>{{cite book
| first=Natalie | last=McNair-Huff | year=2004
| title=Birding Washington | pages=48–51
| publisher=Globe Pequot | isbn=076272577X }}</ref>

==Geography==
Sequim is located at {{coord|48|4|41|N|123|6|5|W|city}} (48.078002, -123.101427).{{GR|1}}

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 5.3 square miles (13.7 km²), all of it land.

===Climate===
Sequim experiences an [[oceanic climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Cfb'').

{{Infobox Weather
|metric_first=
|single_line=Yes 
|location= Sequim
|Jan_Hi_°F = 45 | Jan_REC_Hi_°F =
|Feb_Hi_°F = 48 | Feb_REC_Hi_°F =
|Mar_Hi_°F = 52 | Mar_REC_Hi_°F =
|Apr_Hi_°F = 56 | Apr_REC_Hi_°F =
|May_Hi_°F = 61 | May_REC_Hi_°F =
|Jun_Hi_°F = 65 | Jun_REC_Hi_°F =
|Jul_Hi_°F = 69 | Jul_REC_Hi_°F =
|Aug_Hi_°F = 69 | Aug_REC_Hi_°F =
|Sep_Hi_°F = 65 | Sep_REC_Hi_°F =
|Oct_Hi_°F = 58 | Oct_REC_Hi_°F =
|Nov_Hi_°F = 50 | Nov_REC_Hi_°F =
|Dec_Hi_°F = 46 | Dec_REC_Hi_°F =
|Year_Hi_°F = 57 | Year_REC_Hi_°F =
|Jan_Lo_°F = 29 | Jan_REC_Lo_°F =
|Feb_Lo_°F = 31 | Feb_REC_Lo_°F =
|Mar_Lo_°F = 33 | Mar_REC_Lo_°F =
|Apr_Lo_°F = 36 | Apr_REC_Lo_°F =
|May_Lo_°F = 42 | May_REC_Lo_°F =
|Jun_Lo_°F = 46 | Jun_REC_Lo_°F =
|Jul_Lo_°F = 49 | Jul_REC_Lo_°F =
|Aug_Lo_°F = 49 | Aug_REC_Lo_°F =
|Sep_Lo_°F = 44 | Sep_REC_Lo_°F =
|Oct_Lo_°F = 37 | Oct_REC_Lo_°F =
|Nov_Lo_°F = 33 | Nov_REC_Lo_°F =
|Dec_Lo_°F = 30 | Dec_REC_Lo_°F =
|Year_Lo_°F = 38 | Year_REC_Lo_°F =
|Jan_Precip_inch = 1.89
|Feb_Precip_inch = 1.47
|Mar_Precip_inch = 1.24
|Apr_Precip_inch = .97
|May_Precip_inch = 1.18
|Jun_Precip_inch = 1.04
|Jul_Precip_inch = .67
|Aug_Precip_inch = .73
|Sep_Precip_inch = .84
|Oct_Precip_inch = 1.27
|Nov_Precip_inch = 2.55
|Dec_Precip_inch = 2.25
|Year_Precip_inch = 16.10
|source=<ref name= >{{cite web
|url=http://www.weather.com/outlook/health/achesandpains/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/USWA0401?from=36hr_bottomnav_aches |title=Average Weather for Sequim |accessdate=13 May 2008 |dateformat=mdy |publisher=Weather.com }}</ref>
|accessdate= 2009-05-13
}}

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 4,334 people, 2,163 households, and 1,111 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 820.6 people per square mile (316.9/km²). There were 2,424 housing units at an average density of 459.0/sq mi (177.3/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 93.91% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.30% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 1.15% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.75% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.09% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.92% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 1.87% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 2.86% of the population.

There were 2,163 households out of which 15.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.1% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 9.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 48.6% were non-families. 44.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 30.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.90 and the average family size was 2.55.

In the city the population was spread out with 15.3% under the age of 18, 5.4% from 18 to 24, 15.2% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 44.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 59 years. For every 100 females there were 73.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 68.9 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $27,880, and the median income for a family was $35,652. Males had a median income of $35,160 versus $20,347 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $19,253. About 9.8% of families and 13.9% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 19.9% of those under age 18 and 10.7% of those age 65 or over.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [http://myweather.sequim.com Sequim Weather Station]
* [http://pac.nols.org/ North Olympic Library System]
* [http://www.visitsun.com/index.html Official Tourism Web Site]
* [http://www.ci.sequim.wa.us/index.cfm City of Sequim]
* [http://www.sequimschools.wednet.edu/schools/shs/ Sequim High School homepage]
* [http://www.sequimschools.wednet.edu/schools/sms/ Sequim Middle School homepage]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|48.078002|-123.101427}}

{{Clallam County, Washington}}

[[Category:Clallam County, Washington]]
[[Category:Cities in Washington (U.S. state)]]

[[bg:Скуим]]
[[it:Sequim]]
[[ht:Sequim, Washington]]
[[nl:Sequim]]
[[ja:スクイム]]
[[pt:Sequim]]
[[vo:Sequim]]

Tea bag

2010-01-06T02:47:41Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 204.85.24.5 identified as vandalism to last revision by Cptnono. (TW)

'''Teabagging''' is a [[slang]] term for the act of a man placing his [[scrotum]] in the mouth<ref name="bedside">''The Bedside Orgasm Book: 365 Days of Sexual Ecstasy'', Cynthia W. Gentry, 2004. Page 293. ISBN 1-59233-101-7.</ref> or on or around the face (including the top of the head) of another person, often in a repeated in-and-out motion as in [[irrumatio]]. The practice resembles dipping a [[tea bag]] into a cup of [[tea]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sexdictionary.info/teabagging.html|title=SexDictionary.info: Tea bagging|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref><ref name="teen">{{cite web|url=http://www.teenwire.com/ask/2004/as-20040303p747-teabag.php|title=TeenWire: Ask the Experts - What is Teabagging?|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref>

== The practice ==
Teabagging is an activity used within the context of [[BDSM]] and [[male dominance]], with a [[Sexual domination|dominant]] man teabagging his [[submissive]] partner as one variation of [[facesitting]] and/or as a means of inflicting [[erotic humiliation]]. Teabagging is not always carried out with a solely "sexual" connotation.

Teabagging has been used during [[hazing]] or [[bullying]] incidents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legalreader.com/archives/003197.html|title=Legal Reader: Definition of Teabagging|accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Incidents have included reports of groups holding down victims while the perpetrator "shoves his testicles in [their] face"<ref name="Gay and Lesbian Times">{{cite news|url=http://www.gaylesbiantimes.com/?id=6927&issue=950|title=Is forcible ‘tea-bagging’ just hazing?|last=DeKoven|first=Robert|date=9 March 2006|work=[[Gay and Lesbian Times]]|accessdate=2009-11-02}}</ref> or puts their "crotch to his head."<ref name="Shacknews 2008-01-25">{{cite news|url=http://www.shacknews.com/onearticle.x/50966|title=Halo Inspires Schoolyard Bullies to Teabag Victims|last=Linde|first=Aaron|date=January 25, 2008|work=Shacknews.com (from Asbury Park Press)|accessdate=2009-10-12}}</ref>

Mimicking teabagging has become popular in [[online video game]]s. It is portrayed by the winning player positioning his character over the fallen character's face (while repeatedly crouching and standing) to imply domination or humiliation.<ref name="Shacknews 2008-01-25"/>

== Use as a political term ==
{{See|Tea Party protests}}
In 2009, groups known as [[Tea Party protests|Tea Parties]] were formed to protest against [[United States]] government tax and spending policies. Media outlets began to use the term 'Teabaggers' as a criticism of the entire Tea Party movement, making use of language and accoutrement employed by some of its members.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper="The Washington Independent"| name="Scenes from the New American Tea Party"|url=http://washingtonindependent.com/31868/scenes-from-the-new-american-tea-party |date=27 Feb 09}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |publisher=OregonLive.com |date="15 Apr 09" |url=http://www.oregonlive.com/politics/index.ssf/2009/04/two_thousand_crowd_capitol_tea.html}}</ref> Several critics of the protesters, including [[Rachel Maddow]], [[Keith Olbermann]], [[Chris Matthews]], and [[Anderson Cooper]], used the slang in their broadcasts.<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |title='The Rachel Maddow Show'for Monday, April 13 |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30210708/ |newspaper= |publisher=MSNBC |date=13 April 2009 |accessdate=21 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |title='The Rachel Maddow Show'for Tuesday, April 14 |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30226660/ |newspaper= |publisher=MSNBC |date=14 April 2009 |accessdate=21 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Transcripts: Anderson Cooper 360 Degrees |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0904/14/acd.02.html |date=April 14, 2009 |work= |publisher=CNN.com |accessdate=21 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title="It's Hard to Talk When You're Teabagging" |url=http://www.mediabistro.com/tvnewser/cnn/its_hard_to_talk_when_youre_teabagging_114121.asp |date=15 April 2009 |work=TV Newser |publisher=mediabistro.com |accessdate=21 September 2009}}</ref> Cooper later apologized, calling the term "silly" and stating that his use of it detracted from his serious reporting.<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=June 18, 2009|url=http://www.mediabistro.com/tvnewser/cnn/anderson_cooper_says_teabagging_comment_was_stupid_silly_116894.asp|title=Anderson Cooper Says "Teabagging" Comment Was "Stupid, Silly"|publisher=[[TV Newser]]|date=May 19, 2009}}</ref> The term's growth in the political arena earned attention by the [[Oxford American Dictionary]], and the word "teabagger" achieved finalist status for the OAD Word of the Year.<ref>{{cite web |title="'Teabagger' Finalist For Oxford's 'Word Of The Year'" |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/11/18/teabagger-added-to-oxford_n_362504.html |date=18 Nov 2009 |work=Huffington Post}}</ref>

==References==
{{Wiktionary|teabag|teabagging}}
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Oral eroticism]]
[[Category:Practical jokes]]
[[Category:Sexual fetishism]]
[[Category:Sexual slang]]
[[Category:Sexual acts]]

[[cs:Teabagging]]
[[da:Teabagging]]
[[pl:Teabagging]]
[[ru:Teabagging]]

9/11 Truth Movement

2010-01-04T00:30:28Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 80.2.15.1 identified as vandalism to last revision by Pharaoh of the Wizards. (TW)

[[Image:9-11 Truth 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Supporters of the 9/11 Truth movement at a Los Angeles demonstration, October 2007]]
'''9/11 Truth movement''' is the collective name of loosely affiliated organizations and individuals who question the mainstream account of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].<ref name="Feuer">{{cite news|last=Feuer|first=Alan|date=June 5, 2006|journal=The New York Times|title=500 Conspiracy Buffs Meet to Seek the Truth of 9/11|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/05/us/05conspiracy.html|accessdate=May 24, 2009|quote=the movement known as "9/11 Truth," a society of skeptics and scientists}}</ref><ref name="Rudin">{{cite web|last=Rudin|first=Mike|publisher=BBC|title=The evolution of a conspiracy theory|date=July 4, 2008|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/uk_news/magazine/7488159.stm|accessdate=May 23, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Barber">{{cite news|last=Barber|first=Peter|date=June 7, 2008|journal=Financial Times|title=The truth is out there|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/8d66e778-3128-11dd-ab22-000077b07658.html|accessdate=May 23, 2009|quote=an army of sceptics, collectively described as the 9/11 Truth movement}}</ref><ref name="Powell">{{cite news|last=Powell|first=Michael|journal=The Washington Post|date=September 8, 2006|title=The Disbelievers|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/07/AR2006090701669_pf.html|accessdate=May 30, 2009|quote=The loose agglomeration known as the ‘9/11 Truth Movement’}}</ref><ref name="Barry">{{cite news|last=Barry|first=Ellen|journal=Los Angeles Times|date=September 10, 2006|title=9/11 Conspiracy Theorists Gather in N.Y.|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2006/sep/10/nation/na-conspiracy10|accessdate=May 30, 2009|quote=a group known as the 9/11 Truth Movement}}</ref><ref name="Hunt">{{cite news|last=Hunt|first=H.E.|journal=The Daily Telegraph|date=November 19, 2008|title=The 30 greatest conspiracy theories - part 1|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/3483477/The-30-greatest-conspiracy-theories-part-1.html|accessdate=May 30, 2009|quote=A large group of people - collectively called the 9/11 Truth Movement}}</ref><ref name="Kay">{{cite news|last=Kay|first=Jonathan|journal=National Post|date=April 25, 2009|title=Richard Gage: 9/11 truther extraordinaire|url=http://www.nationalpost.com/story.html?id=1532386|accessdate=May 30, 2009|quote=The ‘9/11 Truth Movement,’ as it is now commonly called}}</ref> Adherents of the movement discuss different hypotheses about how the attacks happened and call for a new investigation into the attacks.<ref name="Morales">{{cite news | first=Frank | last=Morales | title=9/11 Truth comes home; Pols back new investigation | date=June 11, 2009 | publisher=The Villager | url =http://www.thevillager.com/villager_319/talkingpoint.html | accessdate = June 21, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="Olivier"/><ref>{{cite news | first=Eli | last=Lake | title=U.N. Official Calls for Study Of Neocons' Role in 9/11 | date=April 10, 2008 | work=The New York Sun | url =http://www.nysun.com/news/foreign/un-official-calls-study-neocons-role-911 | accessdate = June 21, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Citizens Petition New York Attorney General to Open 9-11 Inquiry | date=October 29, 2004 | publisher=Environment News Service | url =http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/oct2004/2004-10-29-06.asp | accessdate = June 21, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first=Jefferson | last=Siegel | title=‘Pentagon Papers senator’ calls for new 9/11 probe | date=June 18, 2008 | publisher=The Villager | url =http://www.thevillager.com/villager_268/pentagonpapers.html | accessdate = June 21, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="eastvalleytribune">{{cite news | title=Sen. Karen Johnson's floor speech about 9/11 | date=June 10, 2008 | work=East Valley Tribune | url =http://www.eastvalleytribune.com/story/118233 | accessdate = June 21, 2009 }}</ref>

Some of the organizations state that there is evidence that the [[United States government]] may have been either responsible for or knowingly complicit in the September 11 attacks. Motives given include the use of the attacks to initiate the launch of [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|wars in Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq War|Iraq]], and in creating the opportunities to curtail [[civil liberties]].<ref name="Rudin"/> Members of the movement are often referred to by opponents as "truthers,"<ref name="Bunch">{{cite news|last=Bunch|first=Sonny|journal=The Weekly Standard|date=September 24, 2007|title=The Truthers Are Out There|url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/014/113zubvo.asp}}</ref> "[[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theorists]],"<ref name="Feuer"/><ref name="Sullivan">{{cite news|last=Sullivan|first=Will|date=September 3, 2006|journal=U.S. News & World Report|title=Viewing 9/11 From a Grassy Knoll - You won't believe what the conspiracy theorists are claiming-or will you?|url=http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/060903/11conspiracy_2.htm|accessdate=May 24, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Burchell">{{cite news|last=Burchell|first=David|date=September 15, 2008|journal=The Australian|title=They're out there, plotting against us all|url=http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,24345179-7583,00.html|accessdate=May 24, 2009}}</ref> occasionally as "9/11 deniers,"<ref name="Manjoo"/><ref>{{Cite news | last = White | first = Roland | title = Rebel MI5 agent says 9/11 planes were holograms | work = The Sunday Times (London) | accessdate = June 5, 2009 | date = September 10, 2006 }}</ref> and by neutral and sympathetic writers as "9/11 skeptics."<ref>{{Cite news | last = Weinberg| first = Paul | title = POLITICS: 9/11 Sceptics Hold Inquiry | work = Inter Press Service News Agency | url=http://www.ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=23985| accessdate = June 10, 2009 | date = June 10, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | last = Silverman | first = Justin | title = 9/11 skeptics challenge WTC findings | work = amNewYork | url=http://www.amny.com/news/local/groundzero/am-loos0901,0,4383055.story | accessdate = June 10, 2009 | date = September 1, 2006 }}</ref> Members of the movement hold diverse views on other political issues.

== Characteristics ==
=== Name ===

“9/11 Truth movement” is the collective name of loosely affiliated<ref name="Bunch"/><ref name="Manjoo">{{cite news|last=Manjoo|first=Farhad|journal=Salon|date=June 27, 2006|title=The 9/11 deniers|url=http://www.salon.com/ent/feature/2006/06/27/911_conspiracies/}}</ref> organizations and individuals that question whether the United States government, agencies of the United States or individuals within such agencies were either responsible for or purposefully complicit in the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref name="Barber"/><ref name="Powell"/><ref name="Barry"/><ref name="Hunt"/><ref name="Kay"/><ref name="Kennedy">{{cite news|last=Kennedy|first=Gene|journal=KSL TV|date=September 8, 2006|title=BYU Professor on Paid Leave for 9-11 Theory|url=http://www.ksl.com/?nid=148&sid=476951|quote=Jones is a physics professor involved in what's called the "9-11 Truth Movement."}}</ref><ref name="Molé">{{cite journal|last=Molé|first=Phil|title=9/11 Conspiracy Theories: The 9/11 Truth Movement Perspective|journal=Skeptic|volume=12|number=4|year=2006|url=http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/06-09-11|accessdate=June 2, 2009|quote=a larger coalition known as the “9/11 Truth Movement,”}}</ref><ref name="Sales">{{cite news|last=Sales|first=Nancy Jo|journal=Vanity Fair|date=August 2006|title=Click Here for Conspiracy|url=http://www.vanityfair.com/ontheweb/features/2006/08/loosechange200608|accessdate=June 2, 2009|quote=a nationwide collection of doubters known as the “9/11 Truth” movement}}</ref> The term is also being used by the adherents of the movement.<ref name="Grossman">{{cite news|last=Grossman|first=Lev|journal=Time|date=September 3, 2006|title=Why the 9/11 Conspiracy Theories Won't Go Away|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1531304,00.html}}</ref><ref name="Harvey">{{cite news|last=Harvey|first=Adam|journal=Courier Mail|date=September 3, 2006|title=9/11 myths busted|url=http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,20341165-5007191,00.html}}</ref> Adherents also call themselves “9/11 Truthers,”<ref name="Gravois">{{cite news|last=Gravois|first=John|journal=The Chronicle of Higher Education|date=June 23, 2006|title=Professors of Paranoia?|url=http://chronicle.com/free/v52/i42/42a01001.htm}}</ref> “9/11 skeptics”<ref name="CBC-Speculation">{{cite news|publisher=CBC|date=October 29, 2003|title=Conspiracy theories: The Speculation|url=http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/conspiracytheories/speculation.html|accessdate=June 2, 2009}}</ref> or “truth activists,”<ref name="Curiel">{{cite news|last=Curiel|first=Jonathan|journal=San Francisco Chronicle|title=The Conspiracy to Rewrite 9/11|date=September 3, 2006|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/09/03/INGR0KRCBA1.DTL|accessdate=June 2, 2009}}</ref> while generally rejecting the term “conspiracy theorists”.<ref name="Bunch"/><ref name="Curiel"/>

=== Adherents ===

Adherents of the 9/11 Truth movement come from diverse social backgrounds.<ref name="Feuer">{{cite news|last=Feuer|first=Alan|journal=New York Times|date=June 5, 2006|title=500 Conspiracy Buffs Meet to Seek the Truth of 9/11|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/05/us/05conspiracy.html}}</ref><ref name="Harvey"/><ref name="Curiel"/> The movement draws adherents from both the left and the right. The Conservative supporters of the movement often come from a Libertarian background.<ref name="Barber"/><ref name="Molé"/><ref name="Curiel"/>

Prominent adherents of the movement include, among others, theologian [[David Ray Griffin]], physicist [[Steven E. Jones]], software engineer [[Jim Hoffman]], architect [[Architects & Engineers for 9/11 Truth|Richard Gage]], film producer [[Dylan Avery]], former member of the U.S. House of Representatives [[Cynthia McKinney]],<ref name=Roff>{{cite news|last=Roff|first=Peter|title=Charlie Sheen Joins the 'Truther' 9/11 Conspiracy Theory Fringe|date=September 9, 2009|url=http://www.usnews.com/blogs/peter-roff/2009/09/09/charlie-sheen-joins-the-truther-911-conspiracy-theory-fringe.html|accessdate=September 19, 2009}}</ref> actors [[Daniel Sunjata]], [[Ed Asner]], and [[Charlie Sheen]], political science professor Joseph Diaferia and journalists [[Thierry Meyssan]] and [[Robert Fisk]].<ref name="Powell"/><ref name="Manjoo"/><ref name="CBC-Speculation"/><ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/rn/bigidea/stories/s1597318.htm Robert Fisk at Sydney Ideas 2006]Robert Fisk, ABC News Australia, Sunday March 26, 2006</ref><ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-even-i-question-the-truth-about-911-462904.html Robert Fisk: Even I question the 'truth' about 9/11]Robert Fisk, The Independent, August 2007</ref>

According to Lev Grossman of ''TIME magazine'', support for the 9/11 Truth movement is not a “fringe phenomenon”, but “a mainstream political reality”.<ref name="Grossman"/> Mark Fenster, a [[University of Florida]] law professor and author of the book ''Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture'', says that “the amount of organisation” of the movement is significantly stronger than the organization of the movement related to doubts about the official account of the assassination of former United States President [[John F. Kennedy]]<ref name="Barber"/>, though this is likely the result of [[new media]] technologies, such as online [[social networks]], [[blogs]], etc.

=== Views ===

{{See also|9/11 conspiracy theories}}

Many adherents of the 9/11 Truth movement suspect that United States government insiders played a part in the attacks, or at the very least knew they were coming and let them occur anyway.<ref name="CBC-Speculation"/>

Those within the movement who argue that insiders within the United States government were directly responsible for the September 11 attacks, often allege that the attacks were planned and executed in order to provide the U.S. with a pretext for going to war in the Middle East and, by extension, as a means of consolidating and extending the power of the Bush Administration.<ref name="Grossman"/><ref name="Harvey"/> According to these allegations, this would have given the Bush administration the justification to clamp down on civil liberties and invade Afghanistan and Iraq to ensure future supplies of oil.<ref name="CBC-Speculation"/> In some cases, hawks in the [[White House]], especially former Vice President [[Dick Cheney]], and members of the ''[[Project for the New American Century]]'', a neoconservative think tank, have been accused of involvement in or awareness of the alleged plot.<ref name="Sullivan"/><ref name="Jacobson"/><ref name="Manjoo-Anthrax">{{cite news|last=Manjoo|first=Farhad|journal=Slate|date=August 7, 2008|title=The Anthrax Truth Movement|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2196986/}}</ref>

Many adherents of the 9/11 Truth movement allege that the buildings of the World Trade Center have been destroyed by [[World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories|controlled demolition]], a theory of major importance for the 9/11 Truth movement.<ref name="Feuer"/><ref name="Molé"/><ref name="Tobin">{{cite news|last=Tobin|first=Hugh|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|date=May 21, 2008|title=Conspiracy theory lunacy|url=http://www.abc.net.au/unleashed/stories/s2250663.htm}}</ref>

=== Communication ===

The Internet plays a large role both in the communication between adherents and between local groups of the 9/11 Truth movement and in the dissemination of the views of the movement to the public at large.<ref name="Rudin"/><ref name="Barber"/><ref name="Hunt"/><ref name="Grossman"/><ref name="Jacobson">{{cite news|last=Jacobson|first=Mark|journal=New York Magazine|title=The Ground Zero Grassy Knoll|date=March 20, 2006|url=http://nymag.com/news/features/16464|accessdate=June 2, 2009}}</ref>

==History==

Both before and after the [[9/11 Commission Report]], there were skeptics of the official account published. Among others, Michael Ruppert<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/Crossing-Rubicon-Decline-American-Empire/dp/0865715408/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1243754804&sr=1-2 Crossing the Rubicon: The Decline of the American Empire at the End of the Age of Oil]</ref> and Canadian journalist [[Barrie Zwicker]],<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/Towers-Deception-Media-Cover-up-11/dp/0865715734/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1243754864&sr=1-1 Towers of Deception: The Media Cover-up of 9/11]</ref> published criticisms or pointed out purported anomalies of the mainstream account of the attacks. [[French people|French]] author [[Jean-Charles Brisard]]<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/Forbidden-Truth-U-S-Taliban-Secret-Diplomacy/dp/B0029E9RAE/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1243755118&sr=1-1 Forbidden Truth: U.S.-Taliban Secret Oil Diplomacy Saudi Arabia And The Failed Search For Bin Laden]</ref> and [[German people|German]] authors [[Mathias Bröckers]]<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/Conspiracies-Conspiracy-Theories-Secrets-11/dp/0930852230/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1243754996&sr=1-1 Conspiracies, Conspiracy Theories, and the Secrets of 9/11]</ref> and [[Andreas von Bülow]]<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/September-Internationaler-Terror-Rolle-Geheimdienste/dp/3492045456/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1243755068&sr=1-1 Die CIA und der 11. September. Internationaler Terror und die Rolle der Geheimdienste]</ref> published books critical of media reporting and advancing the controlled demolition thesis of the destruction of the World Trade Center towers.

In September 2002, the first “Bush Did It!” rallies and marches were held in [[San Francisco]] and [[Oakland, California]] organized by The All People's Coalition.<ref>[http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2002/09/14/1486451.php? Bush Did It: Pictures From 9/11 Protest in Oakland], by Z, September 14, 2002, San Francisco Bay Area Indymedia website.</ref>

In October 2004, the organization ''9/11 Truth'' released a statement, signed by nearly 200 people, including many relatives of people who perished on September 11, 2001, that calls for an investigation into the attacks. It also asserted that unanswered questions would suggest that people within the administration of former President G. W. Bush may have deliberately allowed the attacks to happen. Actor [[Edward Asner]], former presidential candidate [[Ralph Nader]], former congresswoman [[Cynthia McKinney]], former assistant secretary of housing [[Catherine Austin Fitts]], author [[Richard Heinberg]], [[Enver Masud]], founder of [[The Wisdom Fund]], professors [[Richard Falk]] of the University of California, [[Mark Crispin Miller]] of New York University, [[Douglas Sturm]] of Bucknell University, [[Burns H. Weston]] of the Iowa Law School and others signed the statement. In 2009, [[Van Jones]], a former advisor to President Obama, said he hadn't fully reviewed the statement before he signed and that the petition did not reflect his views "now or ever."<ref name="salon-petition">{{cite journal|last=Rossmeier|first=Vincent|journal=Salon|title=Would you still sign the 9/11 Truth petition?|date=September 11, 2009|url=http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2009/09/11/truth_petition/|accessdate=September 11, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Keating|first1=Joshua|last2=Downie|first2=James|title=The World's Most Persistent Conspiracy Theories|journal=Foreign Policy|date=September 10, 2009|url=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/09/10/the_worlds_most_popular_conspiracy_theories|accessdate=September 13, 2009}}</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2009/09/08/08greenwire-embattled-van-jones-quits-but-czar-debates-rage-9373.html</ref>

In 2006, Steven E. Jones, who became a leading academic voice of the demolition theory,<ref name="Rudin"/> published the paper “Why Indeed Did the WTC Buildings Completely Collapse?”.<ref name="NYTCountersTheories">{{cite news|journal=New York Times|author=Jim Dwyer|title=2 U.S. Reports Seek to Counter Conspiracy Theories About 9/11|date=September 2, 2006|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/02/nyregion/02conspiracy.html|accessdate=April 30, 2009}}</ref> He was placed on paid leave by [[Brigham Young University]] following what they described as Jones's “increasingly speculative and accusatory” statements in September, 2006, pending a review of his statements and research. Six weeks later, Jones retired from the university.<ref name=Jones>{{cite news|last=Walch|first=Tad|date=September 8, 2006|journal=Deseret Morning News|url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,645199800,00.html|title=BYU places ‘9/11 truth’ professor on paid leave|accessdate=January 4, 2009}} {{cite news |first = Will |last = Sullivan|title = BYU takes on a 9/11 conspiracy professor|url = http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/060911/11conspiracy.htm|work = U.S. News & World Report |publisher = www.usnews.com|date=September 11, 2006|accessdate=April 26, 2009}} {{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,223318,00.html|title=BYU Professor Who Believes WTC Brought Down by Explosives Resigns|publisher=Fox News|date=October 21, 2006|accessdate=May 15, 2009}} {{cite news|last=Walch|first=Tad|date=October 22, 2006|journal=Deseret Morning News|url=http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,650200587,00.html|title=BYU professor in dispute over 9/11 will retire|accessdate=May 15, 2009}} {{cite web|title=Steven E. Jones. Retired Professor|publisher=Brigham Young University |url=http://www.physics.byu.edu/research/energy/|accessdate=May 6, 2009}}</ref>

In the same year, 61 legislators in the U.S. State of Wisconsin signed a petition calling for the dismissal of a [[University of Wisconsin]] assistant professor [[Kevin Barrett]], after he joined the group ''[[Scholars for 9/11 Truth]]''. Citing [[academic freedom]], the university [[Provost (education)|provost]] declined to take action against Barrett.<ref>{{cite news|last=Ruethling|first=Gretchen|date=August 1, 2006|title=A Skeptic on 9/11 Prompts Questions on Academic Freedom|work=New York Times|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/01/education/01madison.html|accessdate=May 17, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=CNN|date=November 20, 2006|title=Wisconsin academic: 9/11 report a fraud|url=http://edition.cnn.com/CNN/Programs/anderson.cooper.360/blog/2006/11/wisconsin-academic-911-report-fraud.html|accessdate=May 7, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Guardian-Asquith-2006">{{cite news|last=Asquith|first=Christina|journal=The Guardian|title=Who really blew up the twin towers?|date=September 5, 2006|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2006/sep/05/internationaleducationnews.highereducation|accessdate=May 6, 2009}}</ref>

Several organizations of family members of people who have died in the attacks are calling for an independent investigation into the attacks.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Diffalah|first=Sarah|journal=Nouvel Observateur|date=July 23, 2009|title=11/09 : le crash du Pentagone toujours contesté|accessdate=August 15, 2009}}</ref> In 2009, a group of people, including 9/11 Truth movement activist [[Lorie Van Auken]] and others who have lost friends or relatives in the attack, appealed to the City of New York to investigate the disaster. The organization ''New York City Coalition for Accountability Now'' is collecting signatures to require the New York City Council to place the creation of an investigating commission on the November 2009 election ballot.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=United Press International|title=Group calls for renewed Sept. 11 probe|date=August 10, 2009|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/2009/08/10/Group-calls-for-renewed-Sept-11-probe/UPI-81561249924847/|accessdate=Aug. 12, 2009}}</ref>

===9/11 Commission Report reaction===

To the consternation of the families and adherents of the 9/11 Truth movement, many of the questions that the [[9/11 Family Steering Committee]] put to the [[9/11 Commission]], chaired by former [[New Jersey]] Governor [[Thomas Kean]], were not asked in either the hearings or in the Commission Report.<ref>{{cite news | first=Lloyd | last=de Vries | title=9/11 Report: The Open Question | date=July 20, 2004 | publisher=CBS News | url =http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/07/21/iraq/main630797.shtml | accessdate = June 1, 2009 }}</ref> [[Lorie Van Auken]], one of the [[Jersey Girls]], estimates that only 30% of their questions were answered in the final 9/11 Commission Report, published July 22, 2004. The story of the Families Movement and their monitoring of the commission is documented in the film ''[[9/11: Press for Truth]]'' (2006).{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

The [[9/11 Family Steering Committee]] produced a website summarizing the questions they had raised to the Commission, indicating which they believe had been answered satisfactorily, which they believe had been addressed but not answered satisfactorily, and which they believe had been generally ignored in or omitted from the Report.<ref>[http://www.911independentcommission.org/ The Family Steering Committee]</ref>

In addition, the 339-page book ''The 9/11 Commission Report: Omissions and Distortions'' by [[David Ray Griffin]], claimed that the report had either omitted information or distorted the truth, providing 115 alleged examples.<ref>{{cite news|last=Harmanci|first=Reyhan|journal=San Francisco Chronicle|title=An inside job?|date=March 30, 2006|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/03/30/NSGB3HTBQ61.DTL|accessdate=September 17, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Abrams|first=Joseph|publisher=Fox News|title=Critics Demand Resignation of U.N. Official Who Wants Probe of 9/11 'Inside Job' Theories|date=July 15, 2008|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,369122,00.html|accessdate=September 17, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Bhaerman|first=Steve|title=Unquestioned Answers|journal=Bohemian|date=June 14-20, 2006|url=http://www.bohemian.com/bohemian/06.14.06/david-ray-griffin-0624.html|accessdate=September 17, 2009}}</ref> He has characterized the 9/11 Commission Report as "a 571-page lie".<ref>{{cite news|last=Solomon|first=Evan|title=9/11: Truth, Lies and Conspiracy|date=August 25, 2006|url=http://www.cbc.ca/sunday/911griffin.html|accessdate=September 17, 2009}}</ref>

On May 26, 2008 college professor Blair Gadsby began a protest and a hunger strike outside the offices of [[Senator]] and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] Nominee for President [[John McCain]]'s office demanding to see McCain. Arizona Republican State Senator Karen Johnson joined the protest in support. On June 10 Johnson with Gadsby as her guest and other 9/11 Truth movement members in the audience spoke before the [[Arizona State Senate]] espousing the [[Controlled demolition hypothesis for the collapse of the World Trade Center|controlled demolition theory]] and supporting a reopening of the 9/11 investigation.<ref name="eastvalleytribune"/><ref name="Benson">[http://www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/local/articles/0604johnson0604.html Lawmaker asks McCain to talk with 9/11 theorists Arizona Republic June 3, 2008]</ref> In response to a question, McCain, who wrote the foreword to a book published by the magazine ''[[Popular Mechanics]]'', that aims at debunking the theories, said he did not meet Gadsby, adding: “Because I don't take well to threats.”<ref>[http://rawstory.com/news/2008/McCain_doesnt_want_to_impeach_Bush_0626.html McCain doesn't want to impeach Bush The Raw Story June 26, 2008]</ref>

===NIST Report reaction===
{{Image|World Trade Center 9-11 Iron-rich sphere.jpg|240px|thumb|right|Iron-rich sphere, found in the dust of the World Trade Center, as documented by the United States Geological Survey. According to Steven Jones, NIST did not look for evidence of explosive residue.<ref>{{cite news | first=Jennifer | last=Abel | title=Theories of 9/11 | date=January 29, 2008 | work=Hartford Advocate | url =http://www.hartfordadvocate.com/article.cfm?aid=5546 | accessdate = June 13, 2009 | language = }}</ref>}}

Following the initial government investigation, the [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]] (FEMA) Report (May 2002)[http://wtc.nist.gov/reports_october05.htm NIST Report], numerous responses were written by members of the 9/11 Truth movement. Many of these responses claimed that it ignored key evidence suggesting an explosive demolition, "distorted reality" by using deceptive language and diagrams, and attacked [[straw man]] arguments, such as the 2005 article by [[Jim Hoffman]] entitled, ''Building a better mirage: NIST's 3-year $20,000,000 Cover Up of the Crime of the Century''.<ref>[http://www.kpfa.org/archive/id/17162 KPFA 94.1, Guns and Butter - September 28, 2005]</ref>

In the fall of 2005, Steven Jones, a professor at [[Brigham Young University]] at the time, announced a paper criticizing the NIST Report and describing his hypothesis that the WTC towers had been intentionally demolished by explosives. This paper garnered some mainstream media attention, including an appearance by Jones on [[MSNBC]]. This was the first such programming on a major cable news station. As of September 2009, Jones had not published his research in peer-reviewed mainstream journals. Jones was criticized by his university for making his claims public before vetting them through the approved peer review process. He was placed on paid leave and has since retired.<ref name=Jones/><ref name=DMorning_pleave>{{cite news |first = Tad |last = Walch|title = BYU places "9/11 truth" professor on paid leave|url = http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,645199800,00.html |work = |publisher = Deseret Morning News|date = September 8, 2006}}</ref><ref name=USNW_BYUtakes>{{cite news |first = Will |last = Sullivan|title = BYU takes on a 9/11 conspiracy professor|url = http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/060911/11conspiracy.htm |publisher = US News & World Report |date = September 11, 2006}}</ref> He continues to remain a focus of public interest for his 9/11 research.

Accordingly, in April 2007, some 9/11 victims' family members and some members of the new [http://stj911.org/press_releases/NIST.html Scholars for 9/11 Truth and Justice] submitted an additional request for correction to NIST, containing their own views on the defects in the report.<ref>[http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=36&url=http%3A%2F%2Focio.os.doc.gov%2FITPolicyandPrograms%2FInformation_Quality%2FssLINK%2FPROD01_004108&ei=lTciSobwDYe-tAOVoPmhBA&rct=j&q=nist+%22request+for+correction%22+jones&usg=AFQjCNEz3_El52eLsUZWHisKVt689pVRxA Request for Correction]</ref> NIST responded to this request in September 2007 supporting their original conclusions;<ref>[http://www.ocio.os.doc.gov/s/groups/public/@doc/@os/@ocio/@oitpp/documents/content/prod01_004622.pdf Communication re Information Quality Request #07-06]</ref> the originators of the request wrote back to them in October 2007, asking them to reconsider their response.

===Criticism===
{{Expand section|(see the [[Talk:9/11 Truth movement#Criticism|discussion]] at the talk page)|date=November 2009}}
In 2006, a book critic with [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] magazine noted that a major problem with films such as ''[[Loose Change (film)|Loose Change]]'' and most 9/11 conspiracy theories in general is that the more one thinks about them, the more one realizes how much they depend on circumstantial evidence, facts without analysis, quotes taken out of context, and the scattered testimony of traumatized eyewitnesses.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1531304,00.html |work=Time Magazine |date=September 3, 2006 |title=Why the 9/11 Conspiracy Theories Won't Go Away |author=Lev Grossman}}</ref>
[[Matt Taibbi]] of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' assessed that the movement "gives supporters of [[George W. Bush|Bush]] an excuse to dismiss critics of this administration" and expressed concerns about the number of people who believe in 9/11 conspiracy theories.<ref>{{cite web| last = Taibbi| first = Matt| authorlink = Matt Taibbi| year = 2006| url = http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/11818067/the_low_post_the_hopeless_stupidity_of_911_conspiracies/1 |title = The Low Post: I, Left Gatekeeper| work = Politics| publisher = Rolling Stone| accessdate = September 29, 2006}}</ref> [[Noam Chomsky]] has stated that while the American government stood to benefit from the incident, "every authoritarian system in the world gained from September 11th." He argues that the enormous risk of an information [[leak]] and subsequent consequences for the Republican party would have made such a conspiracy foolish to attempt. He adds, "if you look at the evidence, anybody who knows anything about the sciences would instantly discount that evidence," arguing that even when a scientific experiment is carried out repeatedly in a controlled environment, phenomena and coincidences remain that are unexplained.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TwZ-vIaW6Bc</ref>{{Verify credibility|YouTube videos are '''not''' reliable sources unless credited to a reliable source.|date=November 2009}}

[[MIT]] engineering professor Thomas W. Eagar was at first unwilling to acknowledge the concerns of the movement, saying "if (the argument) gets too mainstream, I'll engage in the debate." In response to Steven E. Jones publishing a hypothesis that the World Trade Center was destroyed by controlled demolition, Eager said that adherents of the 9/11 Truth movement would use the [[reverse scientific method]] to arrive at their conclusions, as they "determine what happened, throw out all the data that doesn't fit their conclusion, and then hail their findings as the only possible conclusion.<ref>{{cite web|last = Walch|first = Tad|year = 2006|url = http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,645200098,00.html|title = Controversy dogs Y.'s Jones|work = Utah news|publisher = Deseret News Publishing Company|accessdate = September 9, 2006}}</ref>

==Organizations==

Since the publication of the official reports, a number of interconnected 9/11 Truth movement organizations have been formed to research the events of the day, to promote the 9/11 Truth movement and [[9/11 conspiracy theories]] to the general public, and to try and force a new investigation.

===Architects & Engineers for 9/11 Truth===

{{Image|Architects & Engineers for 9-11 Truth Banner.jpg|240px|thumb|right|Two people holding a banner of ''Architects & Engineers for 9/11 Truth''.}}
{{See also|Architects & Engineers for 9/11 Truth}}

'''Architects & Engineers for 9/11 Truth''' is an organization of architectural and engineering professionals<ref name="Beam-Slate"/> who advocate [[September 11 conspiracy theories]] and are calling for a new investigation into the cause of the destruction of the Twin Towers and 7 WTC.<ref name="Olivier">{{cite news | first=Clint | last=Olivier | title=Controversial Group Re–Examines 9/11 In Clovis | date=May 26, 2009 | publisher=KMPH Fox News | url =http://www.kmph.com/Global/story.asp?S=10427820&nav=menu612_2_2 | accessdate = May 28, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Sutcliffe|first=Thomas|title=Yet more tall stories with no foundation|journal=Independent Extra|date=July 7, 2008|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/reviews/the-weekends-tv-the-conspiracy-files-911-ndash-the-third-tower-sun-bbc2br-george-gently-sun-bbc2-861141.html|accessdate=May 24, 2009}}</ref> The group is collecting signatures for a petition to the [[United States Congress]] that demands "a truly independent investigation with subpoena power" of the [[September 11 attacks]], and in particular "a full inquiry into the possible use of explosives that might have been the actual cause of the destruction" of the World Trade Center buildings.<ref name="AE911Truth">{{cite web|publisher=Architects & Engineers for 9/11 Truth|title=Welcome to Architects & Engineers for 9/11 Truth!|url=http://www.ae911truth.org|accessdate=May 24, 2009}}</ref><ref name="telecinco">{{cite web|publisher=Telecinco|title=Un arquitecto estadounidense presenta en Madrid su versión alternativa al 11-S|date=November 8, 2008|url=http://www.telecinco.es/informativos/internacional/noticia/51928/Un+arquitecto+estadounidense+presenta+su+version+alternativa+al+11S+en+Madrid|accessdate=May 23, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Mounir|first=Roderic|title=Les attentats du 11-Septembre: «une démolition contrôlée!»|journal=Le Courrier|date=November 13, 2008|url=http://www.lecourrier.ch/index.php?name=NewsPaper&file=article&sid=440823|accessdate=May 23, 2009}}</ref> Richard Gage, a [[San Francisco Bay area]] based architect,<ref name="Moskowitz">{{cite news|last=Moskowitz|first=Eric|journal=The Boston Globe|title=Airing of 9/11 film ignites debate|date=November 29, 2007|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/11/29/airing_of_911_film_ignites_debate|accessdate=May 23, 2009}}</ref> founded ''Architects & Engineers for 9/11 Truth'' in 2006.<ref name="Rudin"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Barber|first=Peter|date=June 7, 2008|journal=Financial Times|title=The truth is out there|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/8d66e778-3128-11dd-ab22-000077b07658.html|accessdate=May 23, 2009}}</ref>

Investigations by the [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]] and the [[National Institute for Standards and Technology]] (NIST) have concluded that the buildings collapsed as a result of the impacts of the planes and of the fires that resulted from them.<ref name="NYTCountersTheories"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Glanz|first=James|journal=New York Times|title=Towers Fell as Intense Fire Beat Defenses, Report Says|date=March 29, 2002|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2002/03/29/nyregion/nation-challenged-trade-center-towers-fell-intense-fire-beat-defenses-report.html?pagewanted=all|accessdate=May 23, 2009}}</ref> Gage criticized the government agency NIST for not having investigated the complete sequence of the [[collapse of the World Trade Center]] towers<ref name="Potocki">{{cite news|last=Potocki|first=P. Joseph|journal=Bohemian|title=Down the 9-11 Rabbit Hole|date=August 27, 2008|url=http://www.bohemian.com/bohemian/08.27.08/cover-911.truth-0835.html|accessdate=May 25, 2009}}</ref> and claims that "the official explanation of the total destruction of the World Trade Center skyscrapers has explicitly failed to address the massive evidence for [[World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories|explosive demolition]]."<ref>{{cite news|last=Beam|first=Alex|title=The truth is out there . . . Isn't it?|date=Jan. 14, 2008|journal=The Boston Globe|url=http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/articles/2008/01/14/the_truth_is_out_there____isnt_it|accessdate=May 23, 2009}}</ref> To support its position, the group ''Architects & Engineers for 9/11 Truth'' points to the "free fall" pace of the collapse of the buildings, the "lateral ejection of steel", and to the "mid-air pulverization of concrete".<ref name="Beam-Slate">{{cite news|last=Beam|first=Christopher|date=April 8, 2009|title=Heated Controversy|journal=Slate|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2215703|accessdate=May 23, 2009}}</ref>

===9/11 Truth===

This organization was launched in June 2004 and has become the central portal for all the 9/11 Truth movement organizations. It is run by Janice Matthews (Executive Director),<ref name="washingtonpost">{{cite news|url=http://blog.washingtonpost.com/earlywarning/2006/05/911_truth_i_dont_think_so.html |date=May 26, 2006 |work=The Washington Post |title=9/11 Truth? I Don't Think So |author=William M. Arkin}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Hargrove|first=Thomas|publisher=Scripps Howard News Service|title=Third of Americans suspect 9-11 government conspiracy|date=August 1, 2006|url=http://www.scrippsnews.com/911poll|accessdate=December 18, 2009}}</ref> David Kubiak (International Campaign Advisor)<ref name="ID=855">{{cite web|url=http://www.zogby.com/news/ReadNews.dbm?ID=855 |title=Half of New Yorkers Believe US Leaders Had Foreknowledge of Impending 9-11 Attacks and "Consciously Failed" To Act... |publisher=Zogby International |date=August 30, 2004}}</ref> and Mike Berger (Media Coordinator),<ref name="CNN">{{cite news|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0603/22/sbt.01.html |publisher=CNN |title=Charlie Sheen Questions Official 9/11 Explanations; "Young and Restless" Star Weighs in on Political Topics |date=March 22, 2006}}</ref> among others, and its advisory board includes [[Steven E. Jones]], [[Barrie Zwicker]] and Faiz Khan.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web| url=http://www.911truth.org/article.php?story=20061014120445472#about| title=911truth.org "About Us"}}</ref>

The organization co-sponsored opinion polls conducted by the U.S. market research and opinion polling firm [[Zogby International]] that have shown substatial numbers of people believing the government did not tell the full truth about the September 11 attacks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://zogby.com/features/features.dbm?ID=231 |publisher=Zogby International |title=American Thinking Toward The 9/11 Terrorist Attacks |date=May 24, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.zogby.com/features/features.dbm?ID=231| title= Zogby Poll (May 2006)}}</ref>

===Scholars for 9/11 Truth===

The original ''Scholars for 9/11 Truth'', founded by [[James H. Fetzer]] and [[Steven E. Jones|Steven Jones]] on December 15, 2005, was a group of individuals of varying backgrounds and expertise who rejected the mainstream media and government account of the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref name="Barber"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Pope|first=Justin|title=9/11 Conspiracy Theories Persist, Thrive|journal=Washington Post|date=August 6, 2006|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/08/06/AR2006080600393.html|accessdate=September 17, 2009}}</ref>

Initially the group invited many ideas and hypotheses to be considered, however, leading members soon came to feel that the inclusion of some theories advocated by Fetzer—such as the use of directed energy weapons or small nuclear bombs to destroy the Twin Towers—were insufficiently supported by evidence and were exposing the group to ridicule. By December 2006, Jones and several others set up a new scholars group titled [[9/11 truth movement#Scholars for 9/11 Truth and Justice|Scholars for 9/11 Truth and Justice]], whose focus was in the use of the scientific method in analysis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stj911.org/index.html |title=Scholars for 9/11 Truth and Justice |publisher=Scholars for 9/11 Truth and Justice}}</ref> The original members took a vote on which group to join and the majority voted to move to the new group.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stj911.org/faq.html#quest7| title=Scholars for 9/11 Truth and Justice}}</ref> By 2007, James Fetzer had been openly rejected by the 9/11 Truth Movement, banned from and criticized on popular forums<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.911blogger.com/node/6497 |date=February 27, 2007 |author=hsgsj |title=Dr. James Fetzer and his "Lying Eyes" |publisher=911blogger.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.911blogger.com/node/6531 |date=February 28, 2007 |author=Arabesque |title=9/11 Truth and Disinformation: Definitions and Examples |publisher=911blogger.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://truthaction.org/forum/viewtopic.php?t=3205&highlight=fetzer |date=March 15, 2008 |author=Dem Bruce Lee Stylez! |title=ALERT: FETZER SPEAKING AT RON PAUL MARCH!! Von Kleist to MC |publisher=TruthAction.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://911research.wtc7.net/essays/patriots_question/index.html#fetzer |date=August 13, 2007 |author=Victoria Ashley |title=Discrediting By Association: Undermining the Case for Patriots Who Question 9/11, James Fetzer |publisher=911Research.com}}</ref> and no longer invited to public 9/11 events.

===Scholars for 9/11 Truth & Justice===

[http://www.stj911.org Scholars for 9/11 Truth & Justice] (STJ) formed in January 2007 and is "a group of scholars and supporters endeavoring to address the unanswered questions of the September 11, 2001 attack" with a focus on scientific research. The group is composed of more than 700 members,<ref>[http://stj911.org/members/index.html STH911 Members]</ref> including [[Richard Gage (architect)|Richard Gage]], [[Steven E. Jones]], [[Jim Hoffman]], [[David Ray Griffin]], [[Peter Phillips (activist)|Peter Phillips]], former Congressman [[Daniel Hamburg]], and Kevin Ryan. Most members support the theory that the World Trade Center Towers were destroyed through [[Controlled demolition hypothesis for the collapse of the World Trade Center|explosive demolition]].

In 2008 and 2009, several Scholars for 9/11 Truth & Justice members published essays in science and engineering journals. In April 2008, a letter by members [[Steven E. Jones]], Frank Legge, Kevin Ryan, Anthony Szamboti and James Gourley, was published in ''The Open Civil Engineering Journal''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bentham-open.org/pages/content.php?TOCIEJ/2008/00000002/00000001/35TOCIEJ.SGM |title=Fourteen Points of Agreement with Official Government Reports on the World Trade Center Destruction |author=Steven E. Jones, Frank M. Legge, Kevin R. Ryan, Anthony F. Szamboti, James R. Gourley |year=2008 |publisher=Bentham Science Publishers}}</ref> In July 2008, an article by Ryan, Gourley and Jones was published in ''the Environmentalist.''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/f67q6272583h86n4/ |title= Environmental anomalies at the World Trade Center: evidence for energetic materials " |author=Kevin R. Ryan, James R. Gourley, Steven E. Jones |year=2008 |publisher= Springer Netherlands, The Environmentalist, Online First}}</ref> In October 2008, an essay describing what the author considers fundamental errors in a Bažant and Verdure paper was published in ''the Journal of Engineering Mechanics'' by member James R. Gourley.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ascelibrary.aip.org/dbt/dbt.jsp?KEY=JENMDT&Volume=134&Issue=10#DISCUSSIONS%20AND%20CLOSURES |title= Discussion of "Mechanics of Progressive Collapse: Learning from World Trade Center and Building Demolitions" by Zdenek P. Bažant and Mathieu Verdure |author=James R. Gourley |year=2008 |publisher= ASCE Publications, Reston, VA}}</ref> And in April 2009, as reported by major Danish newspapers,<ref>[[Politiken]]: [http://politiken.dk/indland/article684567.ece Konspirationsteorier om 9/11 får nyt liv], [[Jyllands Posten]]: [http://jp.dk/nyviden/article1654301.ece Forskere: Sprængstof i støvet fra WTC], [[Ekstra Bladet]]: [http://ekstrabladet.dk/nationen/article1151442.ece Mystik om WTC: Nano-termit i tårne], Kristeligt Dagblad: [http://www.kristeligt-dagblad.dk/artikel/319661:Danmark--Dansker-genopliver-konspirationsteori-om-11--september Dansker genopliver konspirationsteori om 11. september], Videnskab: [http://www.videnskab.dk/content/dk/teknologi/dansk_forsker_eksplosivt_nanomateriale_fundet_i_stovet_fra_world_trade_center Dansk forsker: Eksplosivt nanomateriale fundet i støvet fra World Trade Center]. The journal Videnskab is sponsored by the Danish Ministry for Science and Technology.</ref> Danish chemist and STJ member Niels H. Harrit, of the University of Copenhagen, and eight other authors, some also STJ members, published a paper in ''The Open Chemical Physics Journal'', titled, 'Active Thermitic Material Discovered in Dust from the 9/11 World Trade Center Catastrophe'.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bentham-open.org/pages/content.php?TOCPJ/2009/00000002/00000001/7TOCPJ.SGM |title=Active Thermitic Material Discovered in Dust from the 9/11 World Trade Center Catastrophe |accessdate=April 3, 2009 |last=Harrit |first=Niels H}}</ref> The paper concludes that chips consisting of unreacted and partially reacted [[Metastable intermolecular composite|super-thermite]] are present in the samples of the dust.

===9/11 CitizensWatch===
{{Main|9/11 Citizens Watch}}

The group was formed in 2002 by John Judge and Kyle Hence and, along with the [[9/11 Family Steering Committee|Family Steering Committee]], played an active role in calling for the establishment of the 9/11 Commission, and monitoring the commission closely.<ref name="csmonitor">[http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0325/p03s01-usgn.htm The Christian Science Monitor - A key force behind the 9/11 commission]</ref>

[[Image:William-rodriguez-american-scholars-symposium.jpg|thumb|180px|William Rodriguez at American Scholars Symposium: 9/11 and the [[NeoCon]] Agenda in Los Angeles, California, June 24/5, 2006.]]
===Hispanic Victims Group===
{{Main|William Rodriguez}}
The Hispanic Victims Group is a group created after the 9/11 attacks, founded by [[William Rodriguez]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Senior|first=Jennifer|title=«The Memorial Warriors»|work=New York magazine|url=http://nymag.com/news/articles/wtc/1year/families.htm|accessdate=Aug. 14, 2009}}</ref> an adherent of the 9/11 Truth movement. The group was one of the key forces behind the creation of the 9/11 Commission.<ref name="csmonitor"/> William Rodriguez, as founder of the group, was a member of the Families Advisory Council for the [[Lower Manhattan Development Corporation]].<ref name="renewnyc">{{cite web|url=http://www.renewnyc.com/displaynews.aspx?newsid=5a791121-7404-4553-92ec-19c9b64237ad |publisher=Lower Manhattan Development Corporation |date=January 31, 2002 |title=Chairman Whitehead Announces LMDC Advisory Councils}}</ref>

==Conferences==

Members of the 9/11 truth organizations, such as the [[Scholars for 9/11 Truth]] and Scholars for 9/11 Truth and Justice, regularly hold meetings and conferences to discuss alternative theories about 9/11 and to strategize about how best to achieve their goals. Many of these conferences are organized by 911truth.org, and some have been covered by the international media.<ref name="nationalpost1">[http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=2bcf9f07-6407-4b2c-9f4e-7d4a15afcb98&k=46273 Canada National Post: A theory that just won't die]</ref>

===Internal critique===

While there is general agreement within the movement that individuals within the United States government (but not necessarily the government as a whole) are responsible for the attacks, alternative theories differ about what may have happened.<ref name="Barber"/> There have been a number of articles and responses written by members critiquing the methods and theories of other members, often in a scholarly format, as in the Journal of 9/11 Studies.<ref>[http://journalof911studies.com/letters.html Journal of 9/11 Studies: Letters]</ref>{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

While [[9/11 Truth movement#Scholars for 9/11 Truth & Justice|Scholars for 9/11 Truth and Justice]] states that they advocate the use of the scientific method and civil research activities over public debate,<ref>[http://stj911.org/about.html Scholars for 9/11 Truth & Justice: About]</ref> Jim Fetzer's group, [[9/11 Truth movement#Scholars for 9/11 Truth|Scholars for 9/11 Truth]], has said that the scientific method is unnecessary and that any imaginable theory is worthy of advocating to the public. For example, reporting on a conference involving Fetzer's group, a ''Madison Times'' article stated: "By Sunday the conference had covered weather control, weapons from space, and the idea that the planes that struck the towers never existed at all."<ref>[http://www.madison.com/tct/news/stories/204531 9/11 doubters doubt each other, too]{{Dead link|date=October 2009}} by Ben Popper, Madison Times</ref>

==Major media==
===Books===
A prominent author of the 9/11 Truth movement literature is theologian [[David Ray Griffin]]. His two books, ''[[The New Pearl Harbor]]: Disturbing Questions about the Bush Administration and 9/11'' (March 2004), which seeks to outline a methodical, deductive framework for researching 9/11, and ''The 9/11 Commission Report: Omissions and Distortions'' (October 2004), became best-sellers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Reid|first=Sue|title=An explosion of disbelief - fresh doubts over 9/11|journal=Daily Mail|date=February 9, 2007|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-435265/An-explosion-disbelief--fresh-doubts-9-11.html|accessdate=September 17, 2009}}</ref> His ''Debunking 9/11 Debunking'' (May 2007) looks at the way magazines such as ''Popular Mechanics'' have sought to debunk the alternative 9/11 theories.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} His most recent work, ''The New Pearl Harbor Revisited: 9/11, the cover-up, and the exposé'' (2008), was written to update his original book, ''The New Pearl Harbor'', reflecting information and insights from five major developments that have occurred since his original publication.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

In September 2004, the interactive "[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/project.jsp?project=911_project Complete 9/11 Timeline]" website by Paul Thompson, which is a collection of mainstream media reports presented chronologically, was made into the book ''[[The Terror Timeline]]''.<ref name="Knight">{{cite journal|last=Knight|first=Peter|title=Outrageous Conspiracy Theories: Popular and Official Responses to 9/11 in Germany and the United States|journal=New German Critique|number=103|volume=35|issue=1|year=2008|url=http://ngc.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/35/1_103/165.pdf|accessdate=June 9, 2009}}</ref>

Michael Ruppert's ''Crossing the Rubicon: The Decline of the American Empire at the End of the Age of Oil'' (October 2004) identified potential key insider suspects in the 9/11 attacks and provide an examination of their context: [[petroleum]], [[geopolitics]], [[illegal drug trade|narco-traffic]], [[intelligence]] and [[militarism]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} [[Webster Tarpley]]'s ''Synthetic Terror: Made in USA'' (2005) described a link between 9/11 and previous accusations of [[false flag]] [[state-sponsored terrorism]] such as [[Gladio]] or the [[Red Brigades]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

===Films===
Films made by the 9/11 Truth movement include:
''[[Loose Change (2007 film)|Loose Change:Final Cut]]'' (2007) by [[Korey Rowe]], ''Martial Law 9/11: Rise of the Police State'' (2005) by [[Alex Jones (radio)|Alex Jones]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}
''911 Mysteries: Demolitions'' (2006),{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}
''The Great Conspiracy: The 9/11 News Special You Never Saw'' (2004) by [[Barrie Zwicker]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} and ''9/11: Blueprint for Truth'' (2007) and updated ''2008 Edition'' (2008) by Richard Gage.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

These documentaries present a range of alternate theories about how the attacks might have been carried out.

''[[9/11 Press for Truth]]'' (2006) documents the struggle by the [[Jersey Widows]] to open a full investigation of the events, and their frustration while monitoring the 9/11 Commission as part of the [[9/11 Family Steering Committee|Family Steering Committee]].

[[Alex Jones (radio host)|Alex Jones]], 9/11 and [[New World Order (conspiracy theory)|New World Order]] conspiracy theorists are the subject of a documentary ''New World Order'' directed by [[Luke Meyer]] and [[Andrew Neel]] that debuted on the [[Independent Film Channel]] on May 26, 2009. The documentary, while not endorsing the movement, is described as giving the movement "more sympathetic, or less critical, airing than they've yet had (except among the converted)".<ref>[http://www.villagevoice.com/2009-05-20/film/doc-hangs-with-conspiracy-theorists-in-new-world-order/ Doc Hangs with Conspiracy Theorists in New World Order Village Voice May 19, 2009]</ref><ref>[http://movies.nytimes.com/2009/05/22/movies/22orde.html?ref=movies Movie Review New World Order (2009) ''[[The New York Times]]'' May 26, 2009]</ref>

==See also==
{{Commons category|9/11 Truth Movement}}
* [[2001 anthrax attacks#Amateur investigators|Amateur investigators researching the 2001 anthrax attacks]]
* [[Casualties of the September 11, 2001 attacks]]
* [[Collapse of the World Trade Center]]
* [[Criticisms of the 9/11 Commission Report]]
* [[Health effects arising from the September 11, 2001 attacks]]
* [[Project for a New American Century]]
* [[USA PATRIOT Act]]
* [[War games in progress on September 11, 2001]]
* [[World Trade Center bombing]] (1993)
* [[World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.911truth.org 911truth.org]
===Media coverage===
*{{cite news|url=http://newyorkmetro.com/nymetro/news/sept11/features/n_7691/index1.html |author=Jennifer Senior |title=The Memorial Warriors |date=September 15, 2006 |work=New York Magazine}}
*{{cite news|url=http://www.vanityfair.com/ontheweb/features/2006/08/loosechange200608 |author=Nancy Jo Sales |title=Click Here for Conpiracy |date=August, 2006 |work=Vanity Fair}}
*{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/09/03/INGR0KRCBA1.DTL |work=San Francisco Chronicle |author=Jonathan Curiel |title=The Conspiracy To Rewrite 9/11 |date=September 3, 2006}}
*{{cite news|url=http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/worldwide/story/0,,1864657,00.html |date=September 5, 2006 |title=Who really blew up the twin towers? |work=The Guardian}}
*{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=403757&in_page_id=1770 |author=Jaya Narain |title=Fury as academics claim 9/11 was "inside job" |work=Daily Mail |date=September 6, 2006}}
*[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/a3e2879e-342c-11dd-869b-0000779fd2ac,Authorised=false.html?_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2Fa3e2879e-342c-11dd-869b-0000779fd2ac.html&_i_referer=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ft.com%2Fsearch%3FqueryText%3D9%252F11%2Btruth%26x%3D0%26y%3D0%26aje%3Dtrue%26dse%3D%26dsz%3D The Truth Is Out There - Part I Financial Times Magazine June 7, 2008]
*[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/e46f11d8-342c-11dd-869b-0000779fd2ac,Authorised=false.html?_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2Fe46f11d8-342c-11dd-869b-0000779fd2ac.html&_i_referer=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ft.com%2Fsearch%3FqueryText%3D9%252F11%2Btruth%26x%3D0%26y%3D0%26aje%3Dtrue%26dse%3D%26dsz%3D The Truth Is Out There - Part II Financial Times Magazine June 7, 2008]
*[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/8a580372-342b-11dd-869b-0000779fd2ac.html The Truth Is Out There - Part III Financial Times Magazine June 7, 2008]

{{911ct}}
{{Sept11}}

{{use mdy dates}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:9/11 Truth Movement}}
[[Category:Alternative theories of the September 11 attacks|Truth movement]]
[[Category:Activism]]
[[Category:Groups challenging the official account of the September 11 attacks|Truth movement]]
[[Category:September 11 attacks|Truth movement]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[Category:Aftermath of the September 11 attacks|Truth movement]]

[[bg:Движение за истината за 11 септември]]
[[da:Truth movement]]
[[es:Movimiento por la verdad del 11-S]]
[[fr:9/11 Truth Movement]]
[[pt:9/11 Truth Movement]]
[[sv:Sanningsrörelsen]]

Tonizität

2009-12-09T01:25:36Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 72.67.13.78. (TW)

[[Image:Osmotic pressure on blood cells diagram.svg|thumb|250px|right|Effect of different solutions on blood cells]]
[[Image:Turgor pressure on plant cells diagram.svg|thumb|251px|right|Plant cell under different environments]]

'''Tonicity''' is a measure of the [[osmotic pressure]] (as defined by the water potential of the two solutions) of two [[solution]]s separated by a [[semipermeable membrane]]. It is commonly used when describing the response of [[cell (biology)|cells]] immersed in an external solution. Like osmotic pressure, tonicity is influenced only by [[solute]]s that cannot cross the membrane, as only these exert an osmotic pressure. Solutes able to freely cross the membrane do not affect tonicity because they will always be in equal concentrations on both sides of the membrane.

Osmotic pressure is the pressure that must be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a semipermeable membrane'''

==Classification==
There are three classifications of tonicity that one solution can have relative to another. The three are ''hypertonic'', ''hypotonic'', and ''isotonic''.
===Hypertonicity===
{{wiktionary|hypertonic}}
A hypertonic solution contains a greater concentration of impermeable solutes than the solution on the other side of the membrane.<ref name=nl_osmosis>{{cite web|title=Osmosis|url = http://www2.nl.edu/jste/osmosis.htm|accessdate=July 25, 2009}}</ref>

===Hypotonicity===
A hypotonic solution contains a lesser concentration of impermeable solutes than the solution on the other side of the membrane.<ref name=nl_osmosis>{{cite web|title=Osmosis|url = http://www2.nl.edu/jste/osmosis.htm|accessdate=November 12, 2009}}</ref>

===Isotonicity===
Isotonicity is the term used when there is an equal concentration of solutes being distributed throughout the cell.

==Effect on cells==
{{Unreferenced|section|date=January 2008}}

In [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] animal cells, a hypertonic environment forces water to leave the cell so that the shape of the cell becomes distorted and wrinkled, a state known as [[crenation]]. In [[plant cell]]s, the effect is more dramatic. The flexible [[cell membrane]] pulls away from the rigid [[cell wall]], but remains joined to the cell wall at points called [[plasmodesmata]]. The cell takes on the appearance of a [[pincushion]], and the plasmodesmata almost cease to function because they become constricted — a condition known as [[plasmolysis]]. In plant cells the terms isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic cannot strictly be used accurately because the pressure exerted by the cell wall significantly affects the osmotic equilibrium point.

Some organisms have evolved intricate methods of circumventing hypertonicity. For example, [[Seawater|saltwater]] is hypertonic to the [[fish]] that live in it. They need a large surface area in their [[gill]]s in contact with seawater for [[gas exchange]], thus they lose water osmotically to the sea from gill cells. They respond to the loss by drinking large amounts of saltwater, and actively [[excretion|excreting]] the excess salt. This process is called [[osmoregulation]].

In a hypotonic environment, animal cells will swell until they burst, a process known as [[cytolysis]]. Fresh water fish urinate constantly to prevent cytolysis. Plant cells tend to resist bursting, due to the reinforcement of their cell wall, which provides effective osmolarity or osmolality.

In some cases of suspensions intended for [[intramuscular injection]], a slightly hypertonic solution is preferred in order to increase the dissolution and absorption of the drug by absorbing water from the surrounding tissues.

==See also==
*[[Osmosis]]
*[[Osmole (unit)]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Cell biology]]

[[cs:Tonicita]]
[[de:Hyperton]]
[[es:Hipertónico]]
[[fr:Hypertonique]]
[[ka:ჰიპერტონიული ხსნარი]]
[[nl:Hypertoniciteit]]
[[pl:Roztwór hipertoniczny]]
[[pt:Meio hipertónico]]
[[simple:Hypertonic]]
[[sv:Hyperton]]
[[vi:Ưu trương]]
[[zh:高张]]

*[[Osmosis]]
*[[Osmole (unit)]]

Williamstown Castle

2009-10-16T23:48:44Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 1 edit by 86.42.179.131. (TW)

{{For|the rugby union club|Blackrock College RFC}}
{{Infobox Irish school |
name = Blackrock College |
irish_name = Coláiste na Carraige Duibhe|
image = Image:Blackrock crest.png |
motto = ''Fides et Robur'' [[Latin]] for 'trustworthiness and steadfastness' (faith and strength) |
established = [[1860]] |
location = [[Blackrock, Dublin|Blackrock]], [[County Dublin]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] |
students = 1100 |
keyprole = President Principal |
keypname = Fr Cormac Ó Brolcháin, [[Holy Ghost Fathers|CSSp]] Mr Alan MacGinty |
free_label = Staff Religious order |
free = 75 full time, 25 part time [[Holy Ghost Fathers]] |
homepage = http://www.blackrockcollege.ie |
{{coord|53|19|N|6|11|W|display=title}}
}}
[[File:BlackrockCollege.JPG|thumb|350px|Blackrock College]]
'''Blackrock College''' ({{lang-ga|Coláiste na Carraige Duibhe}}) is a private [[Catholicism|Catholic]] [[Voluntary secondary school|voluntary]] fee-paying [[secondary school]] for boys, located in Williamstown, [[Blackrock, Dublin|Blackrock]], [[County Dublin]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]. The College, set in 63 acres (250,000 m2) of grounds, lies 6 kilometres from the city centre of [[Dublin]], just in from the sea. It accommodates approximately 1000 day and boarding students (with a majority of day students)<ref> http://www.blackrockcollege.ie/files/admin/uploads/W47_F_1279_6639.doc </ref>

==History==

{{Expand-section|date=May 2009}}

The college was founded by the [[Holy Ghost Fathers|Congregation of the Holy Ghost]] in [[1860]], the first of the Order's five schools in Ireland. The founder is listed as Fr Pere Jules Leman, a french missionary with the Holy Ghost Order. It was originally known as the ''French College''. A successful [[civil service]] training and university department were run for over forty years, until [[University College, Dublin]] grew, and the school focused more on the second level curriculum.

===Heraldry===

The proper logo or crest of the College, being the third and last creation, dating back to 1936 and explained in the 1937 College Annual as being: The Heraldic Crest Of The College. ARGENT: - On a Cross Azure, the Dove of the Holy Ghost, Proper, with seven Rays descendant, Or. In the first quarter a Lion rampant of the second. A coloured portrayal of this description would be:
Save The Crest

On 30 April, 1926 Fr. Leen at a sports day speech encapsulated the words "Fides Et Robur" which hence forth became the Rock motto and in 1928 a new College Crest, bearing four emblems around a blue cross was hurriedly officiated, primarily to show off the Fides Et Robur motto over the College's especially built new front gates. Not everyone was happy with this design and possible variations of a new design may have been experimented with; evidence exists that both in crest and in uniform, by reason of fault or debate, and most likely between 1928 - 1936, a distinctive crest had been "with nine rays descendant, Or". In 1936 Dr. McQuaid instigated a new and distinctive crest that to this day is in continual use (and callous and unchecked variations and wayward deviations are contracted in to stores by stationery and uniform suppliers). It was adapted into blazers that year and a Heraldic Description of the Arms of the College was published (though not officially registered) in the 1937 Blackrock College Annual: It was commissioned into Stained Glass in 1938, presumably in its true and intended likeness and survives today at the end of one of the House corridors, though it's conformity to the true heraldic interpretations are not accurate; "a Lion Rampant of the second" would correctly reveal only a blue silhouette of a rampant lion, that is, minus any fine caricature details so apparent in the existing variations (Farragher, S. and Wyer, A. Blackrock College 1860-1995 ISBN 0-946639-19-1)

==Status and operation==
Blackrock is now run by the Congregation of the Holy Ghost in close co-operation with a dedicated group of lay personnel <ref>[http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/education/2000/0523/00052300211.html ireland.com - The Irish Times - Tue, May 23, 2000 - The Blackrock College Story]</ref>. The annual fees for first year students in 2005 were €4,550 for day boys, €12,250 for boarders and €13,450 for overseas borders less than schools such as The Kings Hospital and St Columba's College.<ref name=fees>{{cite news |title=Full listing of Ireland's fee-paying schools|url=http://archives.tcm.ie/businesspost/2005/05/29/story5177.asp|publisher=[[The Sunday Business Post]]|date=2005-05-29|accessdate=2007-06-15}}</ref>

The College and its sister schools in Ireland are today held in trust by the [[Des Places Educational Association]] <ref>[http://www.irishspiritans.ie/dea.html Des Places Educational Association]</ref>, which, as the College's Patron, aims to maintain the Spiritan ethos in all five schools – Blackrock, [[Rockwell College|Rockwell]], [[St. Mary's College, Dublin|St. Mary's]], [[St. Michael's College, Dublin|St. Michael's]] and [[Templeogue College|Templeogue]] – conducted by the Congregation of the Holy Spirit in Ireland.

==Academics==
The curriculum offered is broad, covering all common subjects in the State Examinations including Latin, German, Art, Materials Technology, Chemistry and Economics. Leaving Cert scores tend to be high, with 20% of students scoring 500 points or more. Inspections by the Department of Education found exemplary standards of teaching and learning <ref> http://www.education.ie/servlet/blobservlet/report1_60030V.htm?language=EN </ref>. The [[Irish Times]] placed the College in the "Top Ten" schools in the state, based on the proportion of students who accept a place in Higher or Further Education <ref> http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/frontpage/2008/1204/1228337399139.html </ref>. There are dedicated facilities for Home Economics and Materials Technology.

== Boarding ==
Blackrock is one of the few schools in Ireland that still has boarding. Boarders stay in Williamstown Castle. Ist years stay in one dormitory, while 2nd to 5th years stay in rooms of varying numbers. 6th years stay in rooms of 2. The boarders get to use the wide range of facicilties in their extra time.

== Extra Curricular Activities ==
=== Rugby ===

Sport is viewed as an integral part of a boy's education and each pupil is expected to participate in some activity. The principal sport in the college is rugby, with Blackrock having held the [[Leinster Schools Senior Cup]] 66 times. It has also won the [[Leinster Schools Junior Cup]] 45 times. Blackrock won the inaugural Cup competition held in 1887 and have been consistently the most successful team winning the Cup at least 3 times in every decade since. Blackrock are known throughout the country and internationally as one of the best rugby schools in the country and in Europe. Blackrock are the current holders of the Senior Cup, defeating [[C.B.C. Monkstown]], [[St Michaels College]], holders [[Belvedere College]] and [[Terenure College]]. The captain of the SCT was Jordi Murphy. Blackrock have provided a number of schools provincial and international players over the years and 2009 was no different with a number gaining various honours.

Former Rock rugby players include [[Fergus Slattery]], [[Shane Byrne]] and [[Victor Costello]]. Current professional players include former [[British and Irish Lions]] and [[Leinster rugby|Leinster]] captain, Ireland's Grand Slam winning captain, [[Brian O'Driscoll]]. Others include Leinster and Ireland's [[Luke Fitzgerald]], Leinster's [[Heineken Cup]] winning captain [[Leo Cullen]] and [[London Irish]] captain [[Bob Casey]].

[[File:Rockleinster.jpg|thumb|250px|Blackrock v St Micaaels 2006 [[Leinster Schools Senior Cup]] final at [[Lansdowne Road]]]]

=== GAA ===

Gaelic is played in 4th year in the college with the college fielding a successful under-16 team. Past pupil [[Mark Vaughan]] is a forward on the [[Dublin GAA|Dublin]] [[Gaelic football]] team. The school also has a hurling team for 2nd and 3rd years.

=== Soccer ===

The college has a successful soccer team for its senior pupils in 4th, 5th and 6th year. Many of the [[soccer]] teams players play for Joeys,one of Dublins most successful soccer clubs.

=== Table Tennis ===

[[Table tennis]] is another one of the colleges sports with many of its students participating in it. The majority of players come from 2nd year with the other years fielding less numbers. The table tennis team competes in many competitions and plays in many games against other schools

=== Water Sports ===

The college has a good [[Swimming (sport)|swimming]] team. The junior school [[Willow Park]] also has a successful swimming team. The college itself has a swimming pool. The college also has teams in other watersports such as [[water polo]] and 4ths years also participate in rowing.

=== Basketball ===

The college has its own [[basketball]] team. It has small numbers and is not very successful. The college has 3 outdoor basketball courts and 2 indoor basketball courts on the grounds. One indoor basketball court is in Willow Park gym and the other is Jubilee Hall.

=== Tennis ===

The school has a [[tennis]] team divided between minors, juniors and seniors. They practice and play their home matches on the colleges four tennis courts. 1st years in Willow Park also play on the colleges tennis teams

=== Squash ===

The college has a very successful [[Squash (sport)|squash]] team which has one the college the most trophies out of any activity including rugby in the colleges history. Though in recent years squash numbers have being dwindling in the college due to more activities being started.

=== Cycling ===
Blackrock College and Willow Park share a [[cycling]] club called the Willow Whellers run by Mr. Christy McDaid. The club has an annual trip to France every year at Easter with this years trip in Cap D'Agde. It also has to hostel trips to Clare and Donegal at the end of the school year. The club has an annual 160 kilometer (100 miles) cycle for charity which has raised around 90,000 euro in the past few years.

=== Athletics ===
The college has a very successful [[track and field athletics|athletics]] team. It participates regularly in the East Leinster, Leinster and Ireland athletic championships at under 14s to under 18s annually. It has one all these competitions on many occasions.

=== Other Sports ===

The college also has teams in other sports such as [[cricket]], [[Judo]] and [[golf]]. Cricket has being played since the foundation of the school in 1860 and still produces teams today. Golf is also played by a small number.

=== Debating ===

[[Debating]] is an old tradition in Blackrock College dating back to the schools founding in the 1860s. Each year have a debating club. The college's debaters participate in many competitions including the L&H debates in UCD.

=== Music ===

The college has two main choirs: the Leman and the Libermann [[choirs]]. The Leman choir has members from 2nd, 4th, 5th and 6th year and the best of the senior members of the Leman choir are accepted into the Libermann choir. The College has a choir for boarders and another for parents. The College has a successful [[orchestra]]. Each year, all the choirs and the orchestra host the annual Leman Concert in the [[National Concert Hall]].

==Culture==

Each year an opera production is staged in conjunction with [[Mount Anville Secondary School|Mount Anville]] and [[Loreto College, Foxrock]], nearby girls' schools.

A transition year program to set up and maintain a [[radio]] station, broadcasting to the surrounding south Dublin area, is undertaken annually. All of the administrative work, promotion and content-creation is the labour of transition year students. The station also allows programming submissions from other schools to be broadcast. It's the only second level radio project that broadcasts 12 hours a day, five days a week.<ref>[http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/features/2007/1114/1194550268980.html ireland.com - The Irish Times - Wed, Nov 14, 2007 - Get an earful of this]</ref><ref>[http://www.rockty.com/BCR.html Blackrock College Transition Year | BCR (Blackrock College Radio) 2006]</ref><ref>[http://www.bci.ie/licensing/radio/temporary_services_apps.html BCI: Licensing: Radio: Successful applicants for Temporary services]</ref>

Each year a ''Seachtain na Gaeilge'' (literally, "Week of Irish") is organised to promote the Irish language in the school. This co-curricular activity was particularly commended in a Department of Education inspection, which also recommended its further development <ref> http://www.education.ie/servlet/blobservlet/report2t_60030V.htm?language=EN </ref>.

==Social work==
The spiritual and missionary aspect of the school has been maintained, despite the worldwide decline of new clerics in the Catholic Church. Many charitable causes are supported by the students; most notably the Transition year organises the annual [[St. Patrick's Day]] Badge appeal which raises large sums of money throughout Ireland for the Irish charities [[GOAL (charity)|GOAL]] and [[Aidlink]]. The St. Patrick's Day project is estimated to have raised over € 5,000,000 for charity, raising over € 220,000 in 2005 alone.

The school also has a longstanding relationship with The [[Society of St. Vincent de Paul]], contributing large sums of money raised through various projects. For example, the proceeds of the annual sale of [[Christmas Trees]] in the college are donated. In 2007, the Christmas Tree project raised € 93,000 and the total amount raised for the Society in that year is estimated to be in excess of € 150,000.

The College supports humanitarian projects in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], mainly through the college's cycling club, the [http://www.willowwheelers.ie/ Willow Wheelers]. In 2006, their annual sponsored 160 km (100 mi) cycle raised in excess of € 60,000. The club also annually sends a group of self-funded volunteers to help with humanitarian projects in Africa, most commonly: establishing clean water supplies for villages and constructing schoolhouses/infirmaries or similar institutions.

[[Bob Geldof]], initiator of the [[Band Aid (band)|Band Aid]] and [[Live Aid]] movements for famine relief in the 1980s, was a student at the college (however, he was bitterly critical of it and in fact left without any qualifications). [[Frank Duff]], the founder of the [[Legion of Mary]], the Catholic [[Laity|lay]] movement, is also a past pupil. In his memoirs, ''Straight Left: A Journey in Politics'' [[Ruairi Quinn]] cites the ethos and "sense of solidarity" with the Third World that was imparted to students, including Bob Geldof, as a formative force. The Holy Ghost Fathers were (and remain) an active missionary order in Africa <ref> Quinn, Ruairi, Straight Left: A Journey in Politics, 2005, Dublin, Hodder Headline Ireland </ref>. He wrote:
<blockquote>
 The poverty of distant Africa was brought into our classrooms by our returned missionary teachers. 

—[[Ruairi Quinn]], ''Straight Left'', pg. 36
</blockquote>

==Facilities==
There are extensive sporting and teaching facilities. The campus is {{convert|63|acre|m2}} and contains eleven rugby pitches, a cricket lawn, an athletics track, an indoor swimming pool, a gym and indoor halls. Apart from classrooms and study halls, there are nine science laboratories, a woodwork room, a multimedia LCVP room and a home economics kitchen too. The college contains a refectory, chapel, lecture halls and stage which hosts student run dramatic productions. The college is undergoing an extensive modernisation programme.

==Associated primary schools==
[[Willow Park School]], a private [[primary school]] that acts as the College's principal feeder, is also run by the Order and is situated on the same campus. Until the early 1970s, [[St. Michael's College, Dublin|St. Michael's College]] in [[Ballsbridge]] was also a feeder school for Blackrock College, but St Michael's now has classes up to the [[Leaving Certificate]].

==Alumni==
The Blackrock college past pupls union repersents former students of the college

===Notable alumni===
====Literary====
*[[Flann O'Brien]]<ref name=flannobrien>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=3369|title=Flann O'Brien|accessdate=2007-03-16|last=Taaffe|first=Carol|date=2002-09-20|encyclopedia=[[The Literary Encyclopedia]]|editor=Robert Clark|publisher=The Literary Dictionary Company}}</ref>
*[[Pádraic Ó Conaire]]<ref name=padraicoconaire>{{cite news|title=O'Conaire seventy-five years dead on Monday|url=http://www.galwayadvertiser.ie/dws/story.tpl?inc=2003/10/02/news/37575.html|work=[[Galway Advertiser]]|publisher=[[Advertiser Group Newspapers|Advertiser Group]]|date=2003-10-02|accessdate=2007-03-16}}</ref>
*[[Liam O'Flaherty]]<ref name=liamoflaherty>{{cite news|title=Man of Aran|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,867003-1,00.html|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|publisher=[[Time Warner|Time]]|date=1956-06-04|accessdate=2007-03-16}}</ref>
*[[Tim Pat Coogan]]<ref name=timpatcoogan>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Pat_Coogan|title=editor of the Irish Press newspaper from 1968 to 1987}}</ref>
*[[Joseph O'Connor]]

====Journalism====
*[[Paddy Murray]] Journalist, Editor, [[Sunday Tribune]] 2002-2005
*[[Rory Carroll]] Journalist, kidnap victim, [[The Guardian]]

====Business====
*[[David J. O'Reilly]] Chairman and CEO of [[Chevron Corporation]].
*[[Lochlann Quinn]], Former Chairman of AIB, Co-Founder of [[Glendimplex Group]]
*[[Michael O'Rourke]] Founder of Setanta Television
*[[Leonard Ryan]] Founder of [[Setanta Sports|Setanta Television]]
*Dr. [[Eddie O'Conner]] Founder and CEO of [[Airtricity]]
*[[Ronan Dunne]] CEO of [[O2 UK]]

====Politics and government====
*[[Éamon de Valera]]<ref name=collegestory>{{cite news |first=Anne|last=Byrne|title=The Blackrock College story|url=http://www.ireland.com/education/el/newsline/2000/0523/story8.htm|work=[[The Irish Times]] - Education & Living|publisher=[[Irish Times Trust]]|date=2000-05-23|accessdate=2007-03-16}}</ref> (3rd President of Ireland, 1st Taoiseach of Ireland)
*[[Ruairí Quinn]] TD, former Minister for Finance, 1994-1997, former leader of the Labour Party.
*[[Barry Andrews]]<ref name=barryandrews>{{cite news |first=Pat|last=Leahy|title=Life experience is the best qualification|url=http://archives.tcm.ie/businesspost/2002/08/18/story213731628.asp|work=[[The Sunday Business Post]]|publisher=[[Thomas Crosbie Holdings]]|date=2002-08-18|accessdate=2007-03-15}}</ref> TD Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown
*[[Rory O'Hanlon]]<ref name=roryohanlon>{{cite web |url=http://ceanncomhairle.oireachtas.ie/cv.asp|title=An Ceann Comhairle - CV|accessdate=2007-03-15|publisher=[[Government of Ireland]]}}</ref> TD for Cavan Monaghan, and a former Ceann Comhairle
*[[Niall O'Brolchain]]<ref name=niallobrolchain>{{cite web |url=http://niallobrolchain.ie/about_niall.html| title=Councillor and former mayor for Galway West ward. Politician - CV|accessdate=2007-08-05|publisher=[[Niall O'Brolchain]]}}</ref> Councillor and former mayor for Galway South Ward.
*[[Art O'Connor]] Secretary for Agriculture 1921-1922

====Legal====
*The Honourable Mr. Justice [[Ronan Keane]], former Chief Justice
*[[Dermot Gleeson]] Former Attorney General, Current Chairman of AIB
*The Honourable Mr. Justice [[Michael Moriarty]], judge of the High Court
*The Honourable Mr. Justice Paul Gilligan, judge of the High Court
*The Honourable Mr. Justice John Quirke, judge of the High Court and former Irish international rugby player
*The Honourable Mr. Justice Éamon de Valera, judge of the High Court

====Humanitarian====
*[[Bob Geldof]]
*[[Frank Duff (religious worker)|Frank Duff]]<ref name=collegestory />
*[[Niall O'Brien (Columban missionary priest)|Niall O'Brien]]<ref name=niallobrien>{{cite news |first=Fiona|last=Looney|title=Fr. Niall O'Brien|url=http://www.preda.org/archives/2004/r04050202.html|format=reprint|work=[[Sunday Tribune]]|publisher=[[Tribune Newspapers]]|date=2003-05-02|accessdate=2007-03-16}}</ref>

====Academic====
*[[James Macmahon]]<ref>Obituary, ''[[The Times]]'', [[3 May]] [[1954]]</ref>
*[[David McWilliams]]<ref name=davidmcwilliams>{{cite news |first=Paul|last=Nolan|title=David McWilliams: the interview|url=http://www.hotpress.com/music/news/2707979.html|work=[[Hot Press (magazine)|Hot Press]]|date=2004-02-02|accessdate=2007-03-15}}</ref>
* [[Bryan Patrick Beirne]] <ref> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan_Patrick_Beirne </ref>

====Arts====
*[[Paul Costelloe]]
*[[Ronan Murray]]
*[[Pauric Sweeney]] Fashion Designer<ref>{{cite web |first=Penny|last=Gray|title=irish edge|year=2002|url=http://www.ivenus.com/fashion/features/DC-feature-Pauic_Sweeney-wk109.asp|accessdate=2007-09-27}}</ref>
*[[Michael McGlynn]]

====Clergy====
*[[John D'Alton|John Cardinal D'Alton]]<ref name=johndalton>{{cite journal|last=Craig|first=Millicent V.|title=John Cardinal D'Alton, The 100th Successor to St. Patrick|journal=Daltons in History|volume=9|issue=3|pages=|publisher=The Dalton Genealogical Society|month=March | year=2006|url
=http://members.aol.com/daltongene/dgsmar06.htm#John%20Cardinal%20DAlton,%20The%20100th%20Successor%20to%20St.%20Patrick
|accessdate = 2007-01-07 }}</ref>
*[[John Charles McQuaid]]<ref name=collegestory />
*[[Bishop Donal Murray of Limerick]]

====Sport====
*[[Brian O'Driscoll]]
*[[Niall Killcullen]]
*[[Nicolas Roche]]
*[[Leo Cullen (rugby player)|Leo Cullen]]<ref name=leocullen>{{cite news |title=Dream Team with budding superstar on subs' bench|url=http://www.unison.ie/irish_independent/stories.php3?ca=97&si=908334&issue_id=8671|work=[[Irish Independent]]|publisher=[[Independent News and Media]]|date=2003-01-29 |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref>
*[[Shane Byrne (rugby player)|Shane Byrne]]<ref name=shanebyrne>{{cite news |title=Shane Byrne|url=http://www.unison.ie/irish_independent/stories.php3?ca=9&si=944636&issue_id=8967|work=[[Irish Independent]]|publisher=[[Independent News and Media]]|date=2003-03-29 |accessdate=2007-03-15 }}</ref>
*[[Victor Costello]]<ref name=victorcostello>{{cite news |title=Victor Costello|url=http://www.unison.ie/irish_independent/stories.php3?ca=9&si=944722&issue_id=8967|work=[[Irish Independent]]|publisher=[[Independent News and Media]]|date=2003-03-29 |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref>
*[[Hugo MacNeill (rugby player)|Hugo MacNeill]]<ref name=moretorock />
*[[Fergus Slattery]]<ref name=moretorock />
*[[Neil Francis (rugby player)|Neil Francis]] <ref name=moretorock>{{cite news|first=Declan|last=McCormack|title=There's more to the Rock than rugby|url=http://www.unison.ie/irish_independent/stories.php3?ca=37&si=746282&issue_id=7352&printer=1|work=[[Sunday Independent]]|publisher=[[Independent News and Media]]|date=2002-05-05|accessdate=2007-03-15}}</ref>
*[[Alain Rolland]]<ref name=alainrolland>{{cite news |title=Celtic League can lead to new rugby frontiers|url=http://www.unison.ie/irish_independent/stories.php3?ca=37&si=278292&issue_id=3011|work=[[Irish Independent]]|publisher=[[Independent News and Media]]|date=2000-09-19 |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref>
*[[Luke Fitzgerald]] <ref name=lukefitzgerald>{{cite news |first=Nigel|last=Melville|title=O'Sullivan builds a side to last as old ground awaits the wrecking ball|url=http://blogs.guardian.co.uk/sport/2006/11/24/osullivan_builds_a_side_to_las.html|work=[[Guardian Unlimited]]|publisher=[[Guardian Media Group]]|date=2006-11-24|accessdate=2007-03-15}}</ref>
*[[Alan McKenna]]
*[[Mark Vaughan]]
*[[Bob Casey (rugby player)|Bob Casey]]
*[[Cillian Willis]]
*[[Michael Cusack]], founder of the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]], taught at Blackrock College

====Entertainment====
*[[Ryan Tubridy]]
*[[Des Bishop]]<ref name=desbishop>{{cite news |first=Katherine|last=Blake|title=Did you hear the one about Des Bishop?|url=http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/1999/10/05/opinion_289.htm|work=[[Irish Examiner]]|publisher=[[Thomas Crosbie Holdings]]|date=1999-10-05|accessdate=2007-03-15}}</ref>
*[[Ardal O'Hanlon]]
*[[Dave Fanning]]
*[[Craig Doyle]]
*[[David McSavage]]*
*[[John Coughlan]]*
*[[Matthew Bennett]]
*[[Frank Kelly]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.blackrockcollege.ie/ Blackrock College] - official website
*[http://www.willowparkschool.ie/ Willow Park School] - official website
*[http://www.education.ie/servlet/blobservlet/report1_60030V.htm?language=EN Deptartment of Education, Subject Inspection of Science]
*[http://www.education.ie/servlet/blobservlet/report2t_60030V.htm?language=EN Department of Education, Subject Inspection of Gaeilge]
*[http://www.rockunion.ie/ Past Pupil's Union]
*[http://www.goal-aidlink.ie/ GOAL-Aidlink Badge Project]

{{Spiritan secondary schools in Ireland}}

{{coord|53|18|17|N|6|11|30|W|region:IE_type:edu|display=title}}

[[Category:Boys' schools in Ireland]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1860]]
[[Category:Secondary schools in County Dublin]]
[[Category:Catholic boarding schools]]
[[Category:Blackrock]]

[[de:Blackrock College]]
[[ga:Coláiste na Carraige Duibhe]]

Benutzer:Parzi/Importe/Aus dem Zusammenhang gerissenes Zitat

2009-09-28T14:19:44Z

LizardJr8: Reverted 3 edits by 216.48.130.251 identified as vandalism to last revision by Hrafn. (TW)

The practice of '''quoting out of context''', sometimes referred to as "'''contextomy'''" or "'''quote mining'''", is a logical [[fallacy]] and type of [[false attribution]] in which a passage is removed from its surrounding matter in such a way as to distort its intended meaning.<ref> Engel, Morris S., ''With Good Reason: An Introduction to Informal Fallacies'' (1994), pp. 106-107 ISBN 0-312-15758-4</ref>

Arguments based on this fallacy typically take two forms. As a [[straw man]] argument, which is frequently found in politics, it involves quoting an opponent out of context in order to misrepresent their position (typically to make it seem more simplistic or extreme) in order to make it easier to refute. As an [[appeal to authority]], it involves quoting an authority on the subject out of context, in order to misrepresent that authority as supporting some position.<ref>[http://www.fallacyfiles.org/quotcont.html Quoting Out of Context], Fallacy Files</ref>

== Contextomy ==
Contextomy refers to the selective excerpting of words from their original linguistic context in a way that distorts the source’s intended meaning, a practice commonly referred to as "quoting out of context". The problem here is not the removal of a quote from its original context (as all quotes are) ''per se'', but to the quoter's decision to exclude from the excerpt certain nearby phrases or sentences (which become "context" by virtue of the exclusion) that serve to clarify the intentions behind the selected words. Comparing this practice to surgical excision, historian [[Milton Mayer]] coined the term "contextomy" to describe its use by [[Julius Streicher]], editor of the infamous [[Nazi]] broadsheet ''[[Der Stürmer]]'' in [[Weimar]]-era Germany. To arouse anti-semitic sentiments among the weekly’s working class Christian readership, Streicher regularly published truncated quotations from Talmudic texts that, in their shortened form, appear to advocate greed, slavery, and ritualistic murder.<ref>Mayer, M. (1966). [http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/511928.html ''They thought they were free: The Germans, 1933–45.''] Chicago, IL: U. of Chicago Press.</ref> Although rarely employed to this malicious extreme, contextomy is a common method of misrepresentation in contemporary mass media, and studies have demonstrated that the effects of this misrepresentation can linger even after the audience is exposed to the original, in context, quote.<ref>[http://mcs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/27/4/511 Contextomy: The art of quoting out of context], McGlone, Matthew S. (2005), Media, Culture, & Society, 27, 511-522</ref><ref>McGlone, M.S. (2005a). [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/toc/jcom/55/2 Quoted out of context: Contextomy and its consequences.] ''Journal of Communication, 55,'' 330–346.</ref><ref>McGlone, M.S. (2005b). [http://mcs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/27/4/511 Contextomy: The art of quoting out of context.] ''Media, Culture, & Society, 27,'' 511–522.</ref>

=== Contextomy in advertising ===

One of the most familiar examples of contextomy is the ubiquitous “review [[blurb]]” in advertising. The lure of media exposure associated with being “blurbed” by a major studio undoubtedly encourages some critics to write positive reviews of mediocre movies. However, even when a review is negative overall, studios have few reservations about excerpting it in a way that misrepresents the critic’s opinion. For example, the ad copy for New Line Cinema’s 1995 thriller ''[[Se7en]]'' attributed to Owen Gleiberman, a critic for ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'', the comment “a small masterpiece.” Gleiberman actually gave ''Se7en'' a B− overall and only praised the opening credits so grandiosely: “The credit sequence, with its jumpy frames and near-subliminal flashes of psychoparaphernalia, is a small masterpiece of dementia.” Similarly, [[United Artists]] contextomized critic [[Kenneth Turan]]’s review of their flop ''Hoodlum'', including just one word from it — “irresistible” — in the film’s ad copy: “Even [[Laurence Fishburne]]’s incendiary performance can’t ignite Hoodlum, a would-be gangster epic that generates less heat than a nickel cigar. Fishburne’s ‘Bumpy’ is fierce, magnetic, irresistible even… But even this actor can only do so much.” As a result of these abuses, some critics now deliberately avoid colorful language in their reviews.<ref>Reiner, L. (1996). Why movie blurbs avoid newspapers. ''Editor & Publisher: The Fourth Estate, 129,'' 123, citing:
*Gleiberman, O. (1995, September 22). “[[Se7en]]” (film review). ''[[Entertainment Weekly]],'' p. 45.
*[[Kenneth Turan|Turan, K.]], (1997, August 27). Hoodlum: A fight for control of Harlem. ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', p.8.
</ref>

The [[European Union]]'s [[Unfair Commercial Practices Directive]] prohibits contextomy, and targets companies who "falsely claim accreditation" for their products in ways that are "not being true to the terms of the [original] endorsement". It will be enforced in the [[United Kingdom]] by the [[Office of Fair Trading]], and carries a maximum penalty there of a £5,000 fine or two years imprisonment.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/jun/07/philippullman Age banding], Philip Pullman, [[The Guardian]], 7 June 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/theatre-dance/news/excellent-theatres-forced-to-withdraw-misleading-reviews-835860.html Excellent! Theatres forced to withdraw misleading reviews], Amol Rajan, [[The Independent]], 29 May 2008</ref>

==Quote mining==
Scientists and their supporters used the term ''quote mining'' as early as the mid-1990s in newsgroup posts to describe quoting practices of certain [[creationists]].<ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/quotes/mine/project.html The Quote Mine Project], John Pieret (ed), [[TalkOrigins Archive]]</ref><ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/ce/3/part5.html The Revised Quote Book], E.T. Babinski (ed), [[TalkOrigins Archive]]</ref><ref name=qmproject>According to the [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/quotes/mine/project.html Quote Mine Project] at [[TalkOrigins Archive]], the first record of the term in [[talk.origins]] was a posting by Lenny Flank on March 30, 1997, with a February 2, 1996 reference in another [[Usenet]] group, rec.arts.comics.misc</ref> It is used by members of the [[scientific community]] to describe a method employed by creationists to support their arguments,<ref name="forrest">{{cite book | last = Forrest | first = Barbara | authorlink = Barbara Forrest | coauthors = [[Paul R. Gross]] | title = Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design | url = http://www.creationismstrojanhorse.com/ | accessdate = 2007-03-09 | year = 2004 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = Oxford | page = 7| isbn = 0195157427 | quote =In the face of the extraordinary and often highly practical twentieth-century progress of the life sciences under the unifying concepts of evolution, [creationist] "science" consists of quote-mining — minute searching of the biological literature — including outdated literature — for minor slips and inconsistencies and for polemically promising examples of internal arguments. These internal disagreements, fundamental to the working of all natural science, are then presented dramatically to lay audiences as evidence of the fraudulence and impending collapse of "Darwinism." }}</ref><ref name=counter>"The Counter-creationism Handbook",
Mark Isaak, ISBN 0520249267 p 14</ref><ref>[http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/rncse_content/vol22/2089_quotemining_comes_to_ohio_12_30_1899.asp Quote-Mining Comes to Ohio], [[Glenn Branch]]</ref> though it can be and often is used outside of the [[creation-evolution controversy]]. Complaints about the practice predate known use of the term: [[Theodosius Dobzhansky]] wrote in his famous 1973 essay "[[Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution]]" that {{quotation|Their [Creationists'] favorite sport is stringing together quotations, carefully and sometimes expertly taken out of context, to show that nothing is really established or agreed upon among evolutionists. Some of my colleagues and myself have been amused and amazed to read ourselves quoted in a way showing that we are really antievolutionists under the skin.}}

The [[Institute for Creation Research]] (ICR) described the use of "[a]n evolutionist's quote mistakenly used out of context" to "negate the entirety of [an] article and creationist claims regarding the lack of transitional forms" as "a smoke screen".<ref>[http://www.icr.org/article/1202/ Does Convincing Evidence For Evolution Exist?]</ref> [[Answers in Genesis]] (AiG) states of the [[#.22Absurd_in_the_highest_degree.22|Darwin on the eye quote mine]] and a number of unrelated anti-evolution arguments:<ref name="ArgumentsToNotUse">[http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/dont_use.asp#darwin_eye Arguments we think creationists should NOT use]</ref>{{Off-topic-inline}}
{{quotation|Persistently using discredited arguments is both ineffectual and, more importantly, immoral—it’s the truth that sets us free (John 8:32), not error, and Christ is “the truth” (John 14:6)! Since there is so much good evidence for creation, there is no need to use any of the “doubtful” arguments.}}

Both AiG and [[Henry M. Morris]] (founder of ICR) have been accused of producing books of mined quotes. [[TalkOrigins Archive]] (TOA) states that "entire books of these quotes have been published" and lists prominent creationist [[Henry M. Morris]]' ''That Their Words May Be Used Against Them'' and ''The Revised Quote Book'' (published by Creation Science Foundation, now AiG, and available from the AiG website<ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/TheWord/downloads/aig_resources.asp The Word Downloads], [[Answers in Genesis]]</ref>) as examples, in addition to a number of online creationist lists of quote-mines.<ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/quotes/mine/project.html The Quote Mine Project], John Pieret (ed), [[TalkOrigins Archive]]</ref> Both AiG and ICR quote mine [[Stephen Jay Gould]] on intermediate forms.<ref name=gouldmine/>

==Examples==
===Stephen Jay Gould on intermediate forms===
{{quotation|The fossil record with its abrupt transitions offers no support for gradual change. All paleontologists know that the fossil record contains precious little in the way of intermediate forms; transitions between major groups are characteristically abrupt|[[Stephen Jay Gould]]<ref name=quote42>[[Stephen Jay Gould]], The Panda's Thumb, 1980, p. 189, cited as [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/quotes/mine/part1-3.html#quote41 Quote 41], ''The Quote Mine Project'', [[TalkOrigins Archive]]</ref><ref name=gouldmine>[[Stephen Jay Gould]], The Panda's Thumb, 1980, p. 189 — quoted in:
*[http://www.evolutionnews.org/2005/10/backer_of_theory_never_contradicted_self.html Backer of Theory Never Contradicted Self, Truth Shows], [[Casey Luskin]], ''Evolution News & View'', [[Discovery Institute]]
*[http://www.evolutionnews.org/2006/06/new_england_journal_of_medicin_1.html New England Journal of Medicine Traipses Into the ''Kitzmiller'' Decision (Part III)], [[Casey Luskin]], ''Evolution News & View'', [[Discovery Institute]]
*[http://www.genesispark.com/genpark/gaps/gaps.htm Large Gaps in Creation], Genesis Park
*''The Creation Hypothesis'', [[James Porter Moreland]], p 278
*[http://ankerberg.com/Articles/_PDFArchives/science/SC3W0100.pdf False Assumption 4—Part One], John Ankerberg and John Weldon, p2
*[http://www.icr.org/article/216/ Creating the Missing Link: A Tale About a Whale], [[Duane Gish]], [[Institute for Creation Research]]
*[http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/cfol/ch3-vertebrates.asp Vertebrates: animals with backbones], Gary Parker, [[Answers in Genesis]]
*[http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/2094 Creationists Fight Back! A Review of ''U.S. News & World Report''], Brad Harrub and Bert Thompson, Apologetics Press</ref>}}

The context that immediately follows demonstrates that this view is articulated only in order to reject it:
{{quote|Although I reject this argument (for reasons discussed in ["The Episodic Nature of Evolutionary Change"]), let us grant the traditional escape and ask a different question.<ref name=quote42/>}}

Gould was scathing on such misleading quotations:
{{quote|Since we proposed punctuated equilibria to explain trends, it is infuriating to be quoted again and again by creationists -- whether through design or stupidity, I do not know -- as admitting that the fossil record includes no transitional forms. The punctuations occur at the level of species; directional trends (on the staircase model) are rife at the higher level of transitions within major groups.<ref>''Evolution as Fact and Theory Science and Creationism'', [[Stephen Jay Gould]], (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 124.</ref>}}

==="Absurd in the highest degree"===
Since the mid-1990s, scientists and their supporters have used the term ''quote mining'' to describe versions of this practice as used by certain [[creationists]] in the [[creation-evolution controversy]].<ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/quotes/mine/project.html The Quote Mine Project], John Pieret (ed), [[TalkOrigins Archive]]</ref> An example found in debates over [[evolution]] is an out-of-context quotation of [[Charles Darwin]] in his [[Origin of Species]]:

{{quote|To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree.}}

This sentence, sometimes truncated to the phrase "absurd in the highest degree", is often presented as part of an assertion that Darwin himself perceived his own theory of evolution as absurd.
However, Darwin went on to explain that the apparent absurdity of the evolution of an eye is no bar to its occurrence.

The quote in context is

{{quote|To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree.

Yet reason tells me, that if numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple, each grade being useful to its possessor, can be shown to exist; if further, the eye does vary ever so slightly, and the variations be inherited, which is certainly the case; and if any variation or modification in the organ be ever useful to an animal under changing conditions of life, then the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural selection, though insuperable by our imagination, can hardly be considered real.|[[Charles Darwin]]|[[Origin of Species]]}}

===Other abuses===
Besides the creation-evolution controversy, the fallacy of quoting out of context is also used in other areas. In some instances commentators have used the term ''quote mining'', comparing the practice of others with creationist quote mining.<ref name="urlQuote Mining, Near and Far. The Loom: A blog about life, past and future">{{cite web |url=http://www.corante.com/loom/archives/2005/12/01/quote_mining_near_and_far.php |title=Quote Mining, Near and Far. The Loom: A blog about life, past and future |author=Zimmer, Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |coauthors= |date= December 01 2005 |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= |accessdate=2009-02-01}}</ref><ref name="urlDeltoid: Tim Ball, Down in the Quote Mine">{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/deltoid/2006/05/tim_ball_down_in_the_quote_min.php |title=Deltoid: Tim Ball, Down in the Quote Mine |author=Lambert, Tim |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= May 2, 2006 |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= |accessdate=2009-02-01}}</ref>
*'''Entertainment:''' with ''[[The Times]]'' reporting its frequent abuse by promoters with, for example, "I couldn’t help feeling that, for all the energy, razzmatazz and technical wizardry, the audience had been shortchanged" being pared down to "having 'energy, razzmatazz and technical wizardry'".<ref>[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/article691716.ece A helluva show. Really. It was hell], Jack Malvern, [[The Times]], July 24, 2006</ref> The [[European Union]] has since banned misleading quotations from theatre critics.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/leading_article/article1711882.ece Mr Puff Tells Porky Pies], [[The Times]], April 27, 2007</ref>
*'''Politics:''' in the [[Republican Party (United States) presidential primaries, 2000|2000 United States Republican primary campaign]], [[George W. Bush]]'s campaign screened advertising including a 'warning' from [[John McCain]]'s "conservative hometown paper" that "It's time the rest of the nation learns about the McCain we know." The paper (''[[The Arizona Republic]]''), however went on to say "There is much there to admire. After all, we have supported McCain in his past runs for office."<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9804E5DF1F3EF931A25751C0A9669C8B63 THE 2000 CAMPAIGN: THE AD CAMPAIGN; A Matter of Promises], John M. Broder, [[The New York Times]], February 12, 2000</ref>
*'''Pseudohistory:''' A book review in ''[[The New York Times]]'' recounts Lerone Bennett Jr.'s "distortion by omission" in citing a letter from [[Abraham Lincoln]] as evidence that he "did not openly oppose the anti-immigrant Know-Nothing Party" because, as Lincoln explained, "they are mostly my old political and personal friends", while omitting to mention that the remainder of the letter describes Lincoln's break with these former [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] associates of his, and his anticipation of "painful necessity of my taking an open stand against them."<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/books/00/08/27/reviews/000827.27mcphert.html?_r=1 Lincoln the Devil], James M. MacPherson, [[The New York Times]], August 27, 2000</ref>

== See also ==
*[[FactCheck.org]]
*[[Misquotation]]
*[[Prooftext]]
*[[Recontextualization]]
*[[Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed#Charles Darwin quotation issue|Darwin quotation issue in Expelled]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*''Quotemanship: The Use and Abuse of Quotations for Polemical and Other Purposes'', Paul F. Boller Jr., Southern Methodist University Press (1967), ISBN 9781161409185

==External links==
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/stage/theatreblog/2007/nov/08/noisesoffbloggersfightagainstcontextomy Noises off: Bloggers fight against 'contextomy'], [[The Guardian]] Theatre Blog

{{Informal Fallacy}}

[[Category:Logical fallacies]]
[[Category:Marketing terminology]]
[[Category:Mass media]]

[[fi:Quote mining]]
[[sv:Quote mining]]

Ars Technica

2009-09-02T02:10:55Z

LizardJr8: Reverted to revision 307580755 by King of Hearts; Vandalism. (TW)

{{Infobox Website
| name = Ars Technica
| logo = [[File:Ars Technica logo.png|100px]]
| screenshot =
| caption = Ars Technica main page as of [[January 28]], [[2009]].
| url = http://arstechnica.com/
| commercial = Yes
| type = Technology news & information
| registration =
| owner = [[Condé Nast Publications]]
| author = Ken "Caesar" Fisher
| launch date = 1998
| current status =
| revenue = [[Ars Technica#Revenue|See below]]
}}
'''Ars Technica''' ({{pronEng|ˌɑrz ˈtɛknɨkə}}), [[Latin]] for "Art of Technology"<ref name=latin>{{cite web|url=http://arstechnica.com/site/about.ars|title=About Ars Technica|author=|publisher=Ars Technica|date=|accessdate=2008-03-16}}</ref> is a [[technology]]-related [[website]] that caters to [[personal computer|computer]] enthusiasts, covering technology, [[science]], and [[video game|gaming]] news along with editorial comment and analysis. Started in 1998 by Ken "Caesar" Fisher, Ars Technica is headquartered in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arstechnica.com/business/news/2009/01/welcome-to-ars-technica-v50.ars/2|title=
Welcome to Ars Technica v5.0!|publisher=Ars Technica}}</ref> The site was independently owned until it was acquired by [[Condé Nast Publications]] in May 2008.<ref>{{cite web|title=Geeks Crash a House of Fashion|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/19/business/media/19carr.html|date=2008-05-19|accessdate=2008-05-20|publisher=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> The main content is a [[blog]]-style presentation of news stories and commentary, interspersed with advertising. Featured articles are less frequent but go into more depth.

== Ars Front Page ==
The Ars Technica Front Page has two main sections: ''From The News Desk'' and ''Features''. ''The News Desk'' typically consists of short articles featuring analysis of technology and science-related news, with occasional forays into sci-tech related political commentary. ''The News Desk'' came under scrutiny in March 2006, when IPDemocracy.com blogger Cynthia Brumfield accused Ars Technica of using material from her site without attribution <ref>[http://www.ipdemocracy.com/archives/001363dubious_blogosphere_web_journalism_ethics.php IP Democracy]</ref>. Similar charges surfaced again in July 2007<ref>[http://www.duncanriley.com/2007/07/17/does-ars-technica-rip-every-story-without-credit/ duncanriley.com » Does Ars Technica rip every story without credit?]</ref>, and May 2008<ref>[http://www.parislemon.com/2008/05/another-classic-rip-off-job-by-ars.html ParisLemon: Another Classic Rip-Off Job By Ars Technica]</ref>.

The ''Features'' section is sub-divided into two subsections:

*''From the journals'' contains a selection of recent posts from ''Journals.Ars''.

*Below the journals posts are a selection of recent featured articles such as in-depth features on science and technology issues, regular columns (such as those relating to [[Linux]] and [[Mac OS X]]), hardware and software reviews, and the ''Ars System Guide'' - a regular feature that advises readers on which components to pick when building their own PCs, whatever their budget.

Links at the top of the front page provide access to deeper areas of the site, including regularly updated pages relating to subjects such as ''Technology and Culture'', ''CPU Theory & Praxis'', ''Hardware'', etc. The content of articles often overlap the various categories, with non-column articles tending to be more technical in nature.

==Journals.Ars==

''Journals.Ars'' is a section of the site where Ars staff writers post shorter, less formal articles discussing sci-tech news and rumors, often with more light-hearted commentary. The journals are categorized into six distinct topics: ''Infinite Loop'' ([[Apple Inc.|Apple]]-centric), ''One Microsoft Way'' ([[Microsoft]]-centric), ''Open Ended'' ([[open source software]]-centric), ''Kit'' (Hardware-centric), ''Nobel Intent'' (science-centric), and ''Opposable Thumbs'' (video game and technology gadget-centric).

Readers are able to add their own comments to ''Journals.Ars'' articles.

== Ars OpenForum ==
Ars Technica also maintains the ''OpenForum'', an [[internet forum]] dedicated primarily to discussion of technology-related topics. The forum is divided into many sub-forums covering a range of subjects, from specific operating system and networking discussion areas to more general forums dealing with business, socio-political issues and recreational pursuits. In common with the main site, the OpenForum contains many references to [[ancient Rome]], both in the titles of the sub-forums and the ranks assigned to each user.

Forum Members hold a number of "Arsmeets" every year so that members and readers alike can get together and meet one another in person.

OpenForum has over ten million posts and 100,000 registered users.

== Revenue ==
Ars Technica's operating revenue derives from the following sources:
*Affiliate sales commissions (including "Sale" notices posted under the news section)<ref>[http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20050412-4805.html Insane Dell Inspiron coupon deal (US$750 off US$1499), take two]</ref>
*[[Advertising]] on Ars Technica (through [[Federated Media]], approx. US$20 [[cost per mille|CPM]])<ref>[http://www.federatedmedia.net/authors/arstechnica Ars Technica - Federated Media Publishing]</ref>
*User subscription fees
*Sale of Ars Technica-[[brand]]ed merchandise
*On [[May 19]] [[2008]] it was announced that the site had been acquired from Ars Technica, LLC (the holding company formed of its founders)<ref>{{cite web | url = http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20080519-ars-technica-acquired-by-conde-nast-the-low-down.html | title = Ars Technica acquired by Condé Nast: the low-down | publisher = Ars Technica | date = 2008-05-19 | accessdate = 2008-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Breaking: Condé Nast/Wired Acquires Ars Technica|url=http://www.techcrunch.com/2008/05/16/breaking-conde-nastwired-acquires-ars-technica/|date=2008-05-16|accessdate=2008-05-16|publisher=[[TechCrunch]]}}</ref> by [[Condé Nast Publications]].
*On April 2nd 2009, it became public via a Gawker link, that a number of Ars Technica staff were let go as part of the Conde Nast layoffs which also impacted Wired. <ref>{{cite web | url =http://gawker.com/5194974/ars-technica-slammed-in-conde-nast-digital-layoffs | title = Ars Technica Slammed in Condé Nast Digital Layoffs | publisher = Gawker | date = 2009-04-02 | accessdate = 09-04-02}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[TechCrunch]]
* [[Mashable]]
* [[ReadWriteWeb]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.arstechnica.com Official website]
*[http://episteme.arstechnica.com/eve/forums Ars OpenForum]

{{Condé Nast Publications}}
{{Advance Publications}}

[[Category:Technology websites]]
[[Category:News websites]]

[[fr:Ars Technica]]
[[it:Ars Technica]]
[[no:Ars Technica]]
[[sv:Ars Technica]]

Microsoft Office 2010

2009-08-14T02:36:25Z

LizardJr8: Undid revision 307862092 by 71.169.55.153 (talk)Not likely

{{future software}}

{{Infobox Software
|name = Microsoft Office 2010
|logo = [[File:MS Office 2010logo.svg|200px]]
|screenshot = [[File:Office 2010.jpg|200px]]
|caption = Screenshot of Microsoft Word 2010
|collapsible =
|author =
|developer = [[Microsoft]]
|released = 
|discontinued =
|latest release version =
|latest release date = 
|latest preview version = 14.0.4006.1110
|latest preview date = {{Start date and age|2009|07|13}}
|frequently updated =
|programming language =
|operating system = [[Windows XP]] SP3 or later
|platform = [[Microsoft Windows]]
|size =
|language = [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[German language|German]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Mandarin Chinese]], [[Czech language|Czech]]
|status = [[Technical preview]]
|genre = [[Office suite]]
|license = [[Proprietary software|Proprietary]] [[EULA]] [[Commercial software|(Commercial)]]
|website = [http://www.microsoft.com/office/2010 http://www.microsoft.com/office/2010]
}}

'''Microsoft Office 2010''', codenamed '''Office 14''', is the successor of [[Microsoft Office]] [[Microsoft Office 2007|2007]], a [[productivity suite]] for [[Microsoft Windows]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Next Office and Exchange named 2010|url=http://bink.nu/news/next-office-and-exchange-named-2010.aspx|first=Steven|last=Bink|date=2009-04-10|accessdate=2009-04-10}}</ref> Extended file compatibility<ref name="docx" />, [[user interface]] updates<ref name="ribbon" />, and a refined user experience<ref name="infoworld" /> are planned for Office 2010. With the introduction of Office 2010 a [[64-bit]] version of Office will be available for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|title=Confirmed: Office 2010 will come in 32-bit, 64-bit flavors|url=http://arstechnica.com/microsoft/news/2009/04/confirmed-office-2010-will-come-in-32-bit-and-64-bit.ars|first=Emil|last=Protalinski|date=2009-04-14}}</ref> It will be available for [[Windows XP|Windows XP SP3]], [[Windows Vista]] and [[Windows 7]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Office 2010, Hello World|url=http://blogs.technet.com/office2010/archive/2009/05/11/office-2010-hello-world.aspx|first=Reed|last=Shaffner|date=2009-11-05|accessdate=2009-06-15}}</ref> Furthermore, Office 2010 will mark the debut of free online versions of Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and OneNote, which will work in the three most popular web browsers ([[Windows Internet Explorer]], [[Mozilla Firefox]], and [[Apple Safari]]). Microsoft plans to release Office 2010 in the first half of 2010.

==History==

Development started in 2006 while [[Microsoft]] was finishing work on ''Office 12'', released as [[Microsoft Office 2007]]. The version number 13 was skipped due to the [[triskaidekaphobia|aversion to the number 13]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Office 2010 FAQ | url=http://www.winsupersite.com/office/office2010_faq.asp | work=Paul Thurrott | publisher=Penton Media, Inc. | date=May 14 2009 | accessdate=2009-05-25}}</ref> It was previously thought that Office 2010 (then called Office 14) would ship in the first half of [[2009]],<ref name="foley">{{cite web | title=Office 14: Think first half of 2009 | url=http://blogs.zdnet.com/microsoft/?p=259 | work=Mary Jo Foley | publisher=CBS Interactive Inc. | date=February 14 2007 | accessdate=2009-05-25}}</ref> however [[Steve Ballmer]] has officially announced that Office 2010 will ship in 2010 with a more specific countdown (days) provided at [http://www.office2010themovie.com office2010themovie.com].<ref>http://blogs.zdnet.com/microsoft/?p=2116</ref>.

On January 10, 2009, screenshots of an Office 2010 [[Software release life cycle#Alpha|alpha]] build were leaked by a tester.<ref name="leak">Protalinski, Emil. "Leaked: First Office 14 screenshots."<cite>One Microsoft Way</cite>, 15 January 2009. Accessed at http://arstechnica.com/journals/microsoft.ars/2009/01/15/leaked-first-office-14-screenshots on January 15, 2009.</ref>

On April 15, 2009, Microsoft confirmed that Office 2010 will be officially released in the first quarter of 2010. They announced on May 12, 2009 at a Tech Ed event <ref>[http://news.cnet.com/8301-13860_3-10236813-56.html Office 2010 Technical Preview]</ref>, that Office 2010 will begin technical testing during July and was publicly released to those who signed up to test on 07/08/09. It will also be the first version of Office to ship in both [[32-bit]] and [[64-bit]] versions. <ref>{{cite web|title=Confirmed: Office 2010 will come in 32-bit, 64-bit flavors|url=http://arstechnica.com/microsoft/news/2009/04/confirmed-office-2010-will-come-in-32-bit-and-64-bit.ars|first=Emil|last=Protalinski|date=2009-04-14|accessdate=2009-04-14|publisher=Ars Technica}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Microsoft Details Dates, Versions of Office 2010|url=http://hothardware.com/News/Microsoft-Details-Dates-Versions-of-Office-2010|first=Jennifer|last=Johnson|date=2009-04-15|accessdate=2009-04-15|publisher=HotHardware}}</ref>

==Features==
According to an article published in <cite>[[InfoWorld]]</cite> in April 2006, Office 2010 will be more "role-based" than previous versions.<ref name="infoworld">Krill, Paul. "Microsoft eyes 'people-ready' software."<cite>InfoWorld</cite>, 5 April 2006. Accessed at http://www.infoworld.com/article/06/04/05/77167_HNwittssoftware2006_1.html on February 14, 2007.</ref> The article cites Simon Witts, corporate vice president for Microsoft's Enterprise and Partner Group, as claiming that there would be features tailored to employees in "roles such as research and development professionals, sales persons, and human resources." Borrowing from ideas termed "[[Web 2.0]]" when implemented on the [[Internet]], it is likely that Microsoft will incorporate features of [[SharePoint Server]] in Office 2010.<ref name="foley2">Foley, Mary Jo. "Microsoft’s Office 2007 team wants in on Web 2.0."<cite>All about Microsoft</cite>, 10 January 2007. Accessed at http://blogs.zdnet.com/microsoft/?p=194 on February 14, 2007.</ref>

Office 2010 will implement the ISO compliant version of [[Office Open XML]] which was standardized as ISO 29500 in March 2008.<ref name="docx">[http://www.microsoft.com/Presspass/press/2008/may08/05-21ExpandedFormatsPR.mspx Microsoft Expands List of Formats Supported in Microsoft Office]</ref>

New features are also said to include a built-in screen capture tool, a background removal tool, a protected document mode, new SmartArt templates and author permissions. The 2007 "Office Button" will be replaced with a menu button that leads to a full-window file menu, known as Backstage View, giving easy access to task-centered functions such as printing and sharing. A refined [[ribbon (computing)|Ribbon]] interface will be present in all Office applications, including Office [[Microsoft Office Outlook|Outlook]], [[Microsoft Office Visio|Visio]], [[Microsoft Office OneNote|OneNote]], [[Microsoft Office Project|Project]] and [[Microsoft Office Publisher|Publisher]]. Office applications will also have functional jumplists in [[Windows 7|Windows 7]]<ref>[http://www.beingmanan.com/wp/2009/05/office-2010-new-features/ Office 2010: New Features]</ref><ref name="ribbon">[http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/features/2008/feb08/02-05visio.mspx Microsoft Visio Conference Previews Upcoming New Features for Visio Users]</ref><ref>[http://www.microsoft.com/Presspass/exec/steve/2007/10-30OPConferenceBallmer.mspx Microsoft Office Project Conference 2007]</ref>

==Technical Preview==
[[File:Excel 2010.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Screenshot of Excel 2010]]
[[File:PowerPoint 2010.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Screenshot of PowerPoint 2010]]

On May 15, 2009, the first Technical Preview was leaked to torrent websites.<ref>{{cite news |title=Office 2010 Technical Preview Leaks |first=Sumeeth |last=Evans |date=2009-05-15 |accessdate=2009-05-16 |url=http://bink.nu/news/office-2010-technical-preview-leaks.aspx}}</ref> An internal post-Beta build was leaked on July 12, 2009, newer than the official preview build and including a "Limestone" internal test application<ref name="ctpleak">{{cite news |title=Office 2010 Build 14.0.4302.1000 Leaked |date=2009-07-14 |accessdate=2009-07-14 |url=http://news.softpedia.com/news/Office-2010-Build-14-0-4302-1000-Leaked-116694.shtml | notes=The EULA indicates Beta 2}}</ref>.

On July 14, 2009, Microsoft started to send out invitations on [[Microsoft Connect|Connect]] to test an official preview build of Office 2010 <ref name="tpconnect">{{cite news |title=Microsoft kicks off Office 2010 Technical Preview |date=2009-07-14 |accessdate=2009-07-14 |url=http://www.neowin.net/news/main/09/07/14/microsoft-kicks-off-office-2010-technical-preview}}</ref>.

==Office Web Applications==
Microsoft plans to offer a free web-based version of its Office productivity suite, known as Office Web Applications, that will debut with the release of Office 2010.<ref>[http://www.informationweek.com/news/software/hosted/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=211800059 Microsoft Office 14 To Include Web Apps]</ref> Office Web will include online versions of [[Microsoft Word|Word]], [[Microsoft Excel|Excel]], [[Microsoft PowerPoint|PowerPoint]] and [[Microsoft OneNote|OneNote]]. The web applications will allow sharing and collaboration of documents and files. The web applications will also feature user interfaces similar to their desktop counterparts.

==Contents==
* [[Microsoft Access]] 2010
* [[Microsoft Excel]] 2010
* [[Microsoft InfoPath Designer]] 2010
* [[Microsoft InfoPath Filler]] 2010
* [[Microsoft OneNote]] 2010
* [[Microsoft Outlook]] 2010
* [[Microsoft PowerPoint]] 2010
* [[Microsoft Publisher]] 2010
* [[Microsoft Groove|Microsoft SharePoint Workspace]] 2010
* [[Microsoft Word]] 2010
* [[Microsoft Visio]] 2010

==Edition comparison==
{{expand}}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%" align="center" text-valign="center"
|+<big>Table of Editions</big><ref name="Beyond Binary">{{cite web|url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-13860_3-10284280-56.html |title=Microsoft releases Office 2010 details, test code |publisher=CNET News |author=Ina Fried |date=2009-07-13 |accessdate=2009-07-13}}</ref>
|-
! align="center" width=20% | Programs and Features !! align="center" width=16% | Home and Student !! align="center" width=16% | Home and Business !! align="center" width=16% | Standard !! align="center" width=16% | Professional !! align="center" width=16% | Professional Plus
|-
| Licensing || Retail || Retail || Volume || Retail || Volume
|-
|Price of Full Version (in USD) || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}}
|-
|Price of Upgrade Version (in USD) || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}}
|-
| Excel || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}}
|-
| OneNote || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}}
|-
| PowerPoint || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}}
|-
| Word || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}}
|-
| Outlook || {{No|No}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}}
|-
| Publisher || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}}
|-
| Access || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{Yes|Yes}} || {{Yes|Yes}}
|-
| Communicator || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{Yes|Yes}}
|-
| InfoPath || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{Yes|Yes}}
|-
| SharePoint Workspace || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{No|No}} || {{Yes|Yes}}
|}

==See also==
* [[Comparison of office suites]]
* [[List of Microsoft Office Programs]]
* [[Office Open XML software]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==

*[http://www.uxpassion.com/2009/07/office-2010-screenshots/ Microsoft Office 2010 screenshots]
*[http://infuture.ru/article/2225 Infuture.ru - Microsoft Office 2010 Technical Preview (64-bit) Screenshots and comparision with Office 2007]
*[http://www.uxpassion.com/2009/07/office-2010-overview-videos-with-office-cloud-web-applications/ Microsoft Office 2010 videos and overview]

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{{Microsoft Office}}
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[[Category:Windows software]]

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The Ellen DeGeneres Show

2009-07-19T21:28:33Z

LizardJr8: /* Latin America */ Grammar

{{For|the television sitcoms|Ellen (TV series)|The Ellen Show}}
{{infobox television |
| show_name = The Ellen DeGeneres Show
| image = [[Image:Ellen.svg|200px]]
| caption =
| format = [[Talk show]]
| rating = {{TV-PG}}
| location = [[NBC Studios]] in Burbank, CA (2003–2008) [[Warner Bros.|Warner Bros. Studios]] (2008–) ([[Burbank, California]])
| runtime = 1 hour (including commercials)
| creator = [[Ellen DeGeneres]]
| presenter = [[Ellen DeGeneres]]
| country = {{USA}}
| num_episodes = 1,018 (as of June 5, 2009)
| network = [[Broadcast syndication|Syndication]]
| first_aired = September 8, 2003
| last_aired = present
| website = http://ellen.warnerbros.com/
|}}

'''''The Ellen DeGeneres Show''''' (often shortened to '''''Ellen''''') is an [[Broadcast syndication|syndicated]] [[television]] [[talk show]] hosted by comedienne [[Ellen DeGeneres]] and distributed by [[Warner Bros. Television]]. The show features interviews with [[celebrity|celebrities]] and members of the public, comedic [[monologue]]s by the host and music performances. It premiered on September 8, 2003.

The show was nominated for 11 [[Daytime Emmy Award]]s its first season, winning four, including Best Talk Show. It gained 12 nominations in its second season and won 6 Emmys, including Best Talk Show and Talk Show Host. ''The Ellen DeGeneres Show'' has been renewed through the 2010–2011 season.<ref>[http://www.prweb.com/releases/2008/05/prweb926424.htm "The Ellen Degeneres Show" to be Broadcast in High Definition After Moving to New State-Of-The-Art Production Complex in Warner Bros. Studios Lot]</ref> Since the beginning of its run, the show has been taped in Studio 11 at [[NBC Studios#The Burbank Studios|NBC Studios]] in [[Burbank, California|Burbank]], California. The show began taping in [[high-definition television|high definition]] on September 8, 2008, the sixth season premiere. This coincided with a move to Stage 1 at [[Warner Bros.|Warner Bros. Studios]] in [[Burbank, California]] after NBC sold the property where the show was previously taped.<ref>[http://ellen.warnerbros.com/2008/05/ellens_movin_on_up.php Ellen's Movin' on Up! - The Ellen DeGeneres Show]</ref>

== Concept ==
The premise of ''Ellen'' is similar to other [[daytime television]] talk shows, such as ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]''. The program combines [[comedy]], celebrity and musical guests and human-interest stories. The [[Television program|program]] is not characterized as a [[tabloid talk show]], nor does it involve experts giving advice in regards to personal [[Interpersonal relationship|relationships]].<ref>Catlin, Roger. "Daytime Hosts Take a Fresh, Gentler Path". ''[[The Hartford Courant]]'', September 17, 2003.</ref>

A popular staff member, aspiring stunt man Houston Rose (pronounced "How-Ston"), frequently featured during the first broadcast year. In a segment called "Have Houston Do It For You," he was sent to people's homes to help with tasks like putting up [[Christmas]] decorations or remodeling a bathroom. Other staff members included Jeff Cosgrave, who was set up on a variety of blind dates; Mary Connelly and Andy Lassner, her executive [[Television producer|producers]] on the floor; Robert, her crooning prop master; Kevin the game show host; Jim, her PA; and Andy, the prize guy.

As in ''The Rosie O'Donnell Show'', DeGeneres often has [[audience]] participation games where prizes are [[awarded]]. During her Twelve Days of Giveaways [[promotion (marketing)|promotion]], she gives about $1,000 worth of [[prizes]] to each member of the studio audience (and a handful of home viewers as well) for 12 days in a row leading up to Christmas. Because the show has become so popular, not all who arrive hoping to see a taping can fit into the studio, so an off-shoot space referred to as "The Riff Raff Room" was created. Persons seated here are often referenced and shown briefly on camera but watch the taping from off-stage.
[[Image:Ellenshow.JPG||thumb|right|300px| [[Ashley Tisdale]] with [[Ellen DeGeneres]] in her show.]]
Ellen has also helped many non-famous people attain their [[15 minutes of fame]] by having them as guests on the show. Guests in this role have included intelligent children, the owner of a small shop called "Mostly Moose and More", a flea market owner who raps in his [[commercials]], and a male audience member who refused to dance, named Carl by Ellen based on the way he looks, while his real name is Jim. Most recently there has been Lisa Barnum, who attempted to step on Ellen's coffee table aggravating her back injury; in several later episodes Ellen jokingly blames Lisa for her back injury.

In the show's third season, Ellen began surprising fans by introducing them to their favorite celebrities.

On May 18, 2006, the show celebrated its 500th [[episode]].{{Fact|date=December 2007}}

In October 2007, Ellen tearfully pleaded on-air with a private pet adoption agency. The agency took Ellen's dog back from her when it learned Ellen's girlfriend [[Portia de Rossi]] had violated a written agreement not to give ownership of the dog to a third party. The agency received threats from fans, according to their lawyer, which Ellen regretted.<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,302527,00.html Death Threats Won't Sway Rescue Group to Return Dog Ellen DeGeneres Gave Away]</ref> A distraught Ellen canceled two days of taping her show to compose herself.<ref>[http://www.tmz.com/2007/10/18/ellen-cancels-tapings/ Ellen Cancels Taping]</ref>

On November 19, 2007, the show celebrated its 700th episode, even though the actual 700th show was over a month earlier.<ref>[http://ellen.4thdimension.info/forum/showthread.php?p=126748 700 shows?? - Page 2 - Ellen-DeGeneres.com Forums]</ref>

The show moved to Warner Bros. studios for its sixth season due to the [[NBC]] lot being sold. The episode aired on May 27, 2008, featuring Evan Handler and Dr. Wayne Dyer, was the last show taped on the NBC lot. The show was taped on May 23, 2008.

On May 1, 2009, Ellen celebrated her 1,000th episode.

===2007 Writers Guild strike===
DeGeneres, a member of the [[Writers Guild of America]], supported the [[2007 Writers Guild of America strike|2007 writers' strike]].<ref name="Television: Tears, strike"/> However, on November 9, 2007, DeGeneres crossed the picket line to tape more episodes of her TV show stating: {{cquote|It was explained to me that no other daytime shows have shut down. I've got 135 employees that rely on me for a paycheck. But it's been the hardest thing in the world driving onto this lot.<ref name="Television: Tears, strike">{{cite web
| last =Justin
| first =Neal
| title=Television: Tears, strike aside, Ellen shows go on
| publisher= Minneapolis St. Paul Star Tribune
| date=November 16, 2007
| url =http://www.startribune.com/entertainment/tv/11828236.html
| accessdate=2007-12-16}}</ref>}}

DeGeneres decided to abstain from doing a monologue on her show (which is typically written by WGA writers) during the strike.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://defamer.com/hollywood/hollywood-strikewatch/ellen-degeneres-speaks-only-in-exotic-birdcalls-as-a-gesture-of-writer-solidarity-321145.php |title=Ellen DeGeneres Speaks Only In Exotic Birdcalls As A Gesture Of Writer Solidarity |accessdate=2007-12-02 |publisher=[[Gawker Media|Defamer]] |date=November 9, 2007 }}</ref> Her show continued production as normal with the exception of her monologue being omitted. The WGAE issued a statement condemning DeGeneres, stating she was "not welcome in NY."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deadlinehollywooddaily.com/wga-east-says-ellen-not-welcome-in-ny/ |title=WGAE States Ellen "Not Welcome In NY" |accessdate=2007-12-02 |publisher=Deadline Hollywood Daily |first=Nikki |last=Finke |date=November 9, 2007 |authorlink=Nikki Finke}}</ref> DeGeneres' representatives asserted that she did not violate the WGA's agreement, arguing that she is competing with other first-run syndicated shows like ''[[Dr. Phil (TV series)|Dr. Phil]]'' and ''[[Live with Regis and Kelly]]'' during the competitive November [[sweeps period]], and that DeGeneres must fulfill her duties as host and producer, lest her show lose its time slot or be held in breach of contract. In addition, a statement defending DeGeneres was subsequently issued by [[AFTRA]], pointing out that DeGeneres also works under the AFTRA TV Code, which bars her from striking. The [[WGAE]] then issued a response pointing out that DeGeneres is also a Writers Guild member, and that any writing work she did on her show during the strike constituted [[struck work]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.deadlinehollywooddaily.com/advisory-i-have-ellens-response/ |title=URGENT! AFTRA Defends Ellen; Rep Says She "Has Done Nothing" To Violate WGA |accessdate=2007-12-02 |publisher=Deadline Hollywood Daily |first=Nikki |last=Finke |date=November 9, 2007 |authorlink=Nikki Finke}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deadlinehollywooddaily.com/wgae-replies-to-aftra-about-ellen-degeneres/ |title=WGAE Replies To AFTRA About Ellen Mess |accessdate=2007-12-02 |publisher=Deadline Hollywood Daily |first=Nikki |last=Finke |date=November 10, 2007 |authorlink=Nikki Finke}}</ref>

=== Dancing ===
Since the show's debut, DeGeneres has [[segue]]d from her opening monologue by doing a dance. The dancing proved to be extremely popular with viewers, and has since progressed to a segment where DeGeneres dances into the audience, sometimes borrowing a coat or purse from someone's chair, and taking it with her. She has also featured a segment in which people teach her new dance moves. During the early 2006 season, Ellen shortened her dance routine and did not go through the audience, making more time for segments. Upset fans sent thousands of e-mails to Ellen as a result of this, and the dancing resumed as usual a few days later. One of her most famous dance moves is dancing over the table, and although she does not do it every day, it is a recurring theme. As an [[April Fools' Day]] prank in [[2009]], the show's staff placed a wider table top over her normal table. During the show when Ellen attempted to dance over it, she barely made it across, being forced on her tip-toes and using the table as leverage.

=== DJ ===
Unlike most talk shows, the show uses a [[disc jockey]] to supply music rather than a band. Originally, the role was filled by Los Angeles-based DJ Scott K, who lasted only a few weeks. He was later replaced by [[Tony Okungbowa]], who DJed through season 3. Due to his growing acting career, Okungbowa left the show in Season 4, and was replaced by actor/DJ [[Jon Abrahams]] for the fourth season premiere.<ref>http://ellen.warnerbros.com/newsletter/library.html</ref> Abrahams stayed on the show for one season, and also left as his acting career grew. [[Stryker (disc jockey)|Ted Stryker]] of [[KROQ-FM|KROQ]], who is also co-host of [[Loveline]] with [[Drew Pinsky|Dr. Drew]], was the DJ for the fifth season. Stryker stayed for one season when Okungbowa returned.

==Crew==
The [[Executive Producers]] are [[Ellen DeGeneres]], Mary Connelly, Ed Glavin, Andy Lassner and Jim Paratore. The writing staff has included [[Karen Kilgariff]] ([[Head Writer]]), Karen Anderson, [[Margaret Smith (comedian)|Margaret Smith]] and [[Ellen DeGeneres]]. Margaret Smith recently left the show to work on her own projects, including her first book, ''What Was I Thinking? How Being a Stand Up Did Nothing to Prepare Me to Become a Single Mother'' (Crossroad Publishing, 2008).

== Recurring elements ==
''Ellen'' is known for its use of recurring elements, sarcastic jokes and gags, some of which have eventually petered out.
*'''"Emmy Nominated."''' - Ellen says this when she makes a bad joke, saying that even though she makes all these bad jokes, the show still got nominated for an Emmy.
*'''"Whuut?"''' - Ellen uses this word as a joke, usually when she is talking about somebody being surprised, either by her or somebody else. In the episodes filmed in February, she often mentions it being "Whuut? the February!".
*'''"KAAA!"''' - Ellen frequently uses this made-up word as an enthusiastic response to the audience's applause. Often she will say the word in a high-pitched voice and drag it out for several seconds, or add unique hand gestures. This is often accompanied by the appreciative phrase, "Back at ya!" On one of the first episodes she was imitating a bird that flew over her head, and it stuck.
*'''"I appreciate it"''' - Ellen often uses the phrase "I appreciate it" in response to the audience's applause. Also, Ellen frequently thanks the audience by telling them to "take it (the applause) and..."; filling in the end with a phrase such as "mix it up in a Margarita."
*'''Mama chair''' - DeGeneres's mother Betty DeGeneres regularly attends the show and was frequently featured on camera, but she stopped appearing regularly early in 2006 because she moved. Her chair was designated the Mama chair and special privileges are given to the audience member who sits in it.
*'''Shaking of the head''' - During the opening monologue, Ellen will frequently make sarcastic comments about her or other people but then shake her head and smile at the audience, making it clear she meant it as a joke.
*'''Breaking news''' - Sometimes Ellen will be interrupted by "breaking news," which is always reported from in front of one of the rear projection screens. The gag is, however, that the reporter and Ellen seem to be in different locations at the beginning, but are then shown to be only feet from each other in the studio. The reporter also always holds her ear piece and experiences a delay in hearing Ellen. Usually Ellen will end up walking over to the reporter and attempt to talk to her face-to-face, while the reporter ignores her and carries on the charade of a satellite interview. The role of the reporter is played by [[Karen Kilgariff]], the show's head writer.
*'''Fireplace''' - During the third season, Ellen featured a small electric fireplace on the table between her and the guest.
*'''Telephone''' - Ellen uses an old-fashioned, beige telephone to conduct interviews. Sometimes the phone seems to be dialed without Ellen pressing numbers or Ellen will put the phone down and walk around the studio while still talking to the person on the line.
*'''Gladys Hardy''' - Ellen has called Gladys Hardy, a grandmother from Texas, who originally left Ellen a voicemail message. Gladys offers amusing advice and observations that often send Ellen into a fit of laughter. Gladys became so popular that the show now offers a Gladys T-shirt and Gladys has often replaced the show's professional announcers who introduce Ellen at the start of each episode. However, some have begun to question the authenticity of Gladys, leading some to believe she is a prank. <ref>[http://www.austin360.com/blogs/content/shared-gen/blogs/austin/tvblog/entries/2007/01/23/has_ellen_been_duped_by_austin_woman.html austin360.com]</ref>
**'''"Keep On Keepin' On!"''' - Gladys says this when speaking to Ellen.
*'''Drawings''' - Despite her lack of drawing skills, Ellen will sometimes draw a person or other image on the set using a large easel. At the end of the show, each audience member received a large copy of the drawing.
*'''Am I right, ladies?''' - Ellen usually says this when talking about men but has also said it on other occasions.
*'''"Kitty"''' - "Kitty" is an elderly woman who attended an episode taping of ''Ellen''. Before the crew begins to tape, Ellen's DJ will play music for the audience, and they are free to dance. Ellen, on a later episode, displayed video footage of "Kitty" dancing, showing her face changing abruptly and covering her ears when the DJ changed songs. Ellen nicknamed the woman "Kitty" and the clip became a fan favorite. The woman was later identified as Charlotte Pope of [[Riverside, California]] and was invited back on the show as a guest.
*'''Days of Our Lauren''' - Lauren is a writer from the show who was nominated for an Emmy in 2008 for her previous work on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''. She promised Ellen that she would run on stage with whoever won, but did not. Ellen said she was a liar and punished her by making her stand behind Ellen through the whole show on September 23, 2008. A man wrote in and said the Lauren was pretty, and Ellen read the letter on the show. Then, a lady wrote in saying that she was the man's girlfriend. Ellen brought the man on the show on October 15, 2008. Ellen dubbed the issue "Days of Our Lauren", and played the ''[[Days of our Lives]]'' theme song.
*'''"Aww Snap!"''' - Anytime Ellen says "Aww snap," a sound effect of a whip cracking is played. Normally this happens when Ellen mentions her game of the same name, but sometimes the sound effect is played if Ellen mentions the phrase in general conversation. In November 2008, after guest Taylor Swift revealed that Jonas Brothers member Joe Jonas broke up with her in 27 seconds over the phone, Ellen said "Aww snap," followed a few seconds later by the sound effect of a whip cracking.
*'''Ellen Underwear''' - Ellen gives each of her guests underwear that say Ellen on the waistband. Sometimes the guests show them off on the show, or Ellen will show pictures of guests wearing them in other places.

== Set ==
''Ellen'' premiered its fourth season on September 4, 2006 with a new set and on-screen graphics. The new set features two large [[rear projection]] screens that initially displayed a cityscape of Los Angeles. As the season progressed, producers replaced the screens with seasonal photographs contributed by viewers and DeGeneres. The screens are also designed to display video clips to the studio audience. In addition, the screens are also used during some of the show's gags, such as "breaking news" segments.

In front of the screens is the main area of the set, situated on a raised platform. Normally, this area features two red arm chairs with a [[plasma screen]] between them. Ellen typically sits in the chair on the right, while guests take the left side. On occasions when more than one guest is interviewed at one time, an additional chair is added to the left side or a large matching [[Couch|sofa]] replaces the chair. Throughout the show, the plasma screen is used to display graphics relating to the current segment, guest or other content.

To the left of the main area is a large wall with unique lighted segments that slides open for DeGeneres' entrance at the beginning of each show. The entrance is also used for crew members to wheel out audience gifts. The lighted segments often change colors to match the episode's theme and are also sometimes used as a game board for audience games. The area in front of this wall is often used for games as well as demonstration segments such as cooking or exercise features. The area behind the lighted wall is most frequently used for live music performances. Often this area is decorated with special scenery and lighting to match the mood of the singer and the song. The audience area of the set is decorated in similar tones as the main area. Audience members sit on folding chairs set up in rows on risers. One of these rows, near the center of the audience area, is slightly wider, and is almost always the one Ellen dances through at the beginning of the show.

Season 5 saw some minor tweaks to the set, including new textured glass covering in the audience area "windows" and a new monologue location in front of the lighted wall. The new season also saw the introduction of new on-screen graphics and a shorter opening clip. In addition, the show has reverted to using a professional announcer.

Season 6 is also seeing some changes to Ellen's set, mainly due to the fact that the show moved to the Warner Brothers Lot. The stage itself is the same, but what Ellen sees is different. There are more seats in the audience, with a whole new Riff-Raff Room, and new seats. The new seats are blue and feature cup holders. Behind the audience is different as well, featuring colored blocks on the walls that flash different colors. The aisles where Ellen dances are now made of wood.

== In popular culture ==
The show was featured in an episode on the NBC sitcom ''[[Joey (TV series)|Joey]]'', with the main character ([[Joey Tribbiani]]) as a guest. It was also featured on an episode of the series ''[[Six Feet Under (TV series)|Six Feet Under]]'' and ''[[The Bernie Mac Show]]'', with [[Bernie Mac]] appearing as a guest. Still later, it was featured on an episode of the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] show ''[[Extreme Makeover: Home Edition]]''; while the Holmes family of [[Altamonte Springs, Florida]] was receiving a new home, they were in the audience during an episode of the show, and saw the unveiling of a secondary project of [[Ty Pennington]]'s team, a turtle habitat, while there. Also, on [[The CW]] show ''[[Reaper]]'', the Devil, played by [[Ray Wise]], asked Sam Oliver, played by [[Bret Harrison]], "What time does Ellen come on?" The clip of the show was later featured on ''Ellen''. In a second season episode of ''[[Veronica Mars]]'', Logan Echolls, played by [[Jason Dohring]], after spending two days in jail, remarked that he had accumulated "Two days of ''Ellen'' on my [[TiVo]]." In the fifth season episode of [[Gilmore Girls]], Luke tells Sookie, who is on bedrest, to "Sit back, relax and watch Ellen dance around a little."

== Ratings ==
The show averages about three million viewers per episode, according to daytime television ratings, which makes it one of the highest-viewed daytime shows.<ref>[http://rachaelrayblog.blogspot.com/2007/02/rachael-rays-talk-show-ratings-update.html]</ref>

==Starring==
*[[Ellen DeGeneres]] — host
*Scotty K — show DJ (September 8–September 29, 2003)
*[[Tony Okungbowa]] — show DJ (2003–2006; 2007 substitute; 2008-present)
*[[Jon Abrahams]] (Jonny) — show DJ (2006–2007)
*[[Stryker (disc jockey)|Stryker]] — show DJ & announcer (2007–2008)

==Segments==
Ellen's show features a wide variety of regular segments. Some of these segments appear very frequently, while others are less popular. Most segments have a theme song, usually taken from popular music, that is played along with a full-screen graphic with the segment's title. After the segment is introduced, Ellen will usually clap or dance to the music before abruptly cutting it off.
*'''Audience Dancing''' - Ellen displays video clips of some of her audience members dancing comically before the taping of the show, and during commercial breaks.
*'''Bad Paid For Photos''' - Viewers send in 'Bad' paid for photos of somebody, or themselves, and Ellen features them on her show.
*'''Best Photos Ever''' - Ellen shows the best viewer photos, sometimes with a theme based on the episode or season. Sometimes, Ellen's favorite is used as the set's background.
*'''Call Me''' - Ellen plays messages left on her answering machine for her toll-free number (866-ELK-DOUG). The show originally advertised a standard number to the staff offices, but calls overloaded the phone system, forcing the toll free number to be introduced. It is not clear what the status of the number is, however, because in some repeat episodes the number is not displayed on-screen and Ellen reading the number out loud is edited out.
*'''Celebrity Look-a-Like''' - Ellen shows photos of viewers who think they look like celebrities. This is also modified to dogs and babies. There is also a different but similar segment where dancing audience members are shown to look like celebrities.
*'''Clip From The Future''' - Ellen shows us possible future happenings in this segment.
*'''Clip From The Past''' - Ellen shows us the past happenings in this segment.
*'''Ellen Is That You?''' - Ellen shows viewer-contributed photos of people they believe resemble her.
*'''Ellen's Big Stimulus Package''' - Ellen sends one of her reporters to a person's house. The person then gets into a booth with a giant fan in the bottom. The fan is turned on, and the money flies around while the person catches as much money as he/she can in 30 seconds.
*'''If You New York Like I Know York''' - Ellen quizzes audience members with "New York" related questions. Occasionally there are different versions of the game, such as '''If You Knew Cinco De Mayo Like I Know Cinco De Mayo.'''
*'''Look At You!''' - Ellen invites a few audience members on stage to display their talents.
*'''Look What I Found at the Drug Store''' - Ellen shares items that she has found at a [[drug store]]. These include unusual beauty products, household items and toys. During Ellen's "Show on a Plane," the segment became "Look What I Found in the [[SkyMall]]," where Ellen shared amusing items from the SkyMall catalog.
*'''My Crazy Dreams''' - Ellen makes viewers' requests and dreams come true in this segment. In previous years, this segment was called '''Oh, Yes You Can.'''
*'''Mystery Word''' - Ellen has a word that she has to make one of her guests say; if they say it, the audience wins a prize. The guest is not made aware that a game is being played; however, Ellen usually succeeds in making the guests say the specified word. Ellen says: "The hardest word that I've ever gotten anybody to say, was 'mushroom'." This word was said by [[Drew Barrymore]] and Ellen had to try several times before succeeding.
*'''Picture Juxtaposition''' - Used in "Ellen: The Musical!" where random pictures are superimposed atop one another, timed to music.
*'''Real or No Real''' - Ellen invites the audience to guess whether a person's item or a quality is real or not real. This segment is a pun on the game show [[Deal or No Deal]].
*'''Spanish with Señora Peña''' - Ellen learns Spanish with a Spanish teacher from a local school.
*'''The Men of Ellen/Telemundo/Heroes''' - Occurring from the end of Season 5 and onward, Ellen introduces a single man from her show's staff during this segment, usually a man who someone has written to her about and Ellen has read during '''Write On/Express Yourself.''' This segment has even featured a [[gay]] member of the staff with the words "Ladies Need Not Apply" flashing on the screen.
*'''Viewer Art''' - Ellen shares artistic works that viewers have sent in to the show. These often include depictions of Ellen in a variety of media.
*'''Wednesday's Wunnerful World of Web Videos''' - Ellen shows a selection of funny [[Viral video|videos]] from the [[Internet]], usually on Wednesday. However, Ellen frequently runs the segment on other days and uses this fact as a joke.
*'''What Are You Doing While You're Watching''' - Throughout the first two seasons, viewers sent in photos on what they were doing while watching the program, such as knitting or exercising.
*'''Whatcha' Sellin', Ellen?''' - Ellen sells some of her clothes and other items on eBay and gives the money to a charity.
*'''What the Heck Are Those Kids Talking About?''' - Ellen explains common slang words, such as [[grill (jewelry)|grillz]]
*'''Write On/Express Yourself''' - Ellen reads and responds to viewer [[e-mail]]. In Season 5, the name is changed to "Express Yourself". Currently, this segment is called "Signed, Sealed, Delivered"

===Games===
The show frequently features audience games. These games can be played with Ellen, guests or between members of the audience. Most games involved a prize for all participants, with a larger one being given to the winner.
*'''Audience [[Charades]]''' - The production crew randomly chooses two or three members of the audience to take part in this segment.
*'''Audience [[Cranium (board game)#Overview|Humdinger]]''' - Audience members hum a song that Ellen or a guest has to guess; this is done two or three times.
*'''Aw Snap'''- Audience members are tied back to back and have to pull each other to reach apples on their end. There is also a St. Patrick's Day version.
*'''Blindfolded Musical Chairs''' - 5 audience members are blindfolded and have to search for 4 stools which are normally brown or tan. Each time one chair is eliminated, like in regular musical chairs. Ellen will move the chairs from time to time, making it harder for the players. This is Ellen's favorite game.
*'''Celebrity''' - Ellen and/or a guest holds up names of celebrities that another guest has to correctly guess the name of, with clues from the other participant.
*'''Does your Hose Hang Low?'''- Two audience members hook on [[stockings]] that have a tennis ball in them. They must dangle the tennis balls to hit another ball into a little platform, and the 1st person with three, wins.
*'''Doughnuts for Dough'''- Two audience members put on large doughnut-styled padded rings from head to foot, and fight to take a bite out of a real doughnut on a string hanging from a pole held by Ellen. Ellen has described this as the "stupidest game I've ever seen in my life." A one time variation changed the way the contestants got the doughnuts; instead of Ellen hanging a doughnut off a pole, she put many doughnuts on two wires and the players had to get as many doughnuts as they could in 30 seconds, and the player with the most won.<ref>[http://ellen.warnerbros.com/2008/10/ellens_new_game_doughnuts_for.php Ellen's New Game "Doughnuts for Dough" -- Web Exclusive!]</ref>
*'''Gold-Digger'''- One audience member or at-home contestant has to get into the gold-digger case, and money will fly around as the person inside tries to catch it. Usually, Ellen will give them all of the money in there or more, even if they do not catch all of it.
*'''If You Had To Choose''' - After the audience is questioned on various topics before the show, Ellen asks an audience member what she thinks the most popular option was.
*'''I Scream, You Scream, I Can’t See My Ice Cream!'''- There are two teams with two people each. Both teammates are blindfolded, and they stand with one person behind the other, in front of a table which has a bowl of ice-cream on it. One teammate then attempts to feed the other, and the team that has eaten the most ice cream by the end wins.
*'''[[Musical chairs|Musical Chairs]]''' - Selected audience members play for a prize. A one-time variation on this substituted [[Bean bag#Furniture|bean bag chairs]] and [[Hawaii Chairs]] (on an episode where Ellen displayed various infomercial products) for regular chairs. Once the show got attractive men to sit on the chairs, and female audience members had to sit on them.
*'''Newly-Wed Game''' - There are two teams of two Newly-wed audience members each. Before they play, each team member on both teams answers questions about their spouse. During the game, one team goes at a time with the questions and both teammates hold up their answers. If their answers match, the team earns one point. Ellen and Portia (Ellen's wife [[Portia de Rossi]]) won this game when Portia was on the show.
*'''Obstacle Course, Of Course!''' - On set is an obstacle course that two people must go against each other on. Usually its different, but at the end every time they have to put on a hat with a pin on the hat, and pop a balloon that is hanging up.
*'''Pictionary''' - Ellen and one of her guests or an audience member play pictionary on a dry-erase easel.
*'''Stranded on a Topical Island''' - A short game show with pop culture questions.
*'''SuMove It Move It''' - This is a game where there are two people picked from the audience that have to wear blown-up sumo costume and answer questions that Ellen will ask. If the contestant knows the question, he or she would have to run to the object (usually a Nerf Football) and the first person to obtain this object gets to answer the question first.
*'''The Marshmallow Game''' - Contestants try to eat marshmallows suspended on strings while tied to boards with rubber bands.
*'''Thru The Wall or Take A Fall''' - Audience members watch a video clip and decide whether they will fit through a piece of foam, or take fall into a pit of balls. Other times, the audience plays the game instead of watching the video clips. Similar to the [[Brain Wall]] game in [[Japan]].
*'''Web Videos''' - Ellen picks funny videos from the web and shows them.
*'''Which Came First''' - Throughout the second season, audience members guessed which people, places, objects, etc., existed first from two choices. (Ex. When given [[Britney Spears]] and [[Christina Aguilera]], Aguilera (born in 1980) comes before Spears (born in 1981).
*'''Whistle While You Work It''' - The game begins with two audience members that are blindfolded that stand behind a glass window-like structure. On the window, there are 3 fake crackers and 5 real ones. The first person to eat all the real crackers, and whistle a tune wins a prize.
*'''Your Face Rings A Bell''' - Three audience members must put together a puzzle of Ellen, and then ring a bell to win a prize.

== Special episodes ==
*"'''Backwards Show'''" - Events and segments unfold in reverse. The "end" of the show now takes place at the beginning and the "beginning" of the show takes place at the end. DeGeneres performs her opening monologue and dance at the end of the actual hour.

*"'''Two Shows In One'''" - DeGeneres gives us "two" shows in one episode. She wears two different outfits, gives two different monologues, and dances twice.

*"'''Ellen: The Musical'''" - Similar to a Broadway musical, DeGeneres conducts her usual interviews but the guests eventually break out into song. Guests included [[Jack Black]], teenaged singer-actress [[Olivia Olson]], and [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] star [[Kristin Chenoweth]]. At the end of the hour, Ellen and company sing "Breathe From Your Hoo-Hoo" as their finale.

*"'''Ellen Thanksgiving Special'''" - From [[Ed Sullivan Theater]] in New York.

*"'''I Like It!'''" - A show (originated in 2007) where, as the title suggests, Ellen has things she likes on the show. On this episode, Ellen first was shown with her back injury.

*"'''Ellen's Show on a Plane'''" - This show was taped in a Los Angeles airport terminal and on a plane from Los Angeles to New York City. According to Ellen, this is the first time a show has been filmed on an airplane.

*"'''Ellen's After Oscar Special'''" - Ellen did the show live the day after she hosted the 2007 Academy Awards. Throughout the hour, she presented footage of the event and what happened backstage, during rehearsal, etc. and interviewed the winners via telephone.

*"'''Ellen's 1,000th Episode'''" - Ellen celebrated her 1,000th show on May 1. As part of the celebration, starting back on April 24 and running all through May, she gave $1,000 to one member of the audience per day, using a process-of-elimination strategy. As part of the show, she provided the audience with airline tickets, a trip to [[Disneyland]] and new luggage.

==International broadcasts==
''Ellen'' can be seen on television internationally in [[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[India]], [[Ireland]], [[Israel]], [[Kenya]], [[Malaysia]], [[Mexico]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[South Africa]], [[Sweden]], [[Taiwan]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Turkey]], [[Venezuela]], [[Uruguay]] and the whole [[Southeast Asia]].

===Australia===

In [[Australia]], the show airs on the [[Nine Network]] and affiliates weekdays at 12.00pm and again at 11.30pm. It also airs on cable channel [[Arena (TV network)|Arena]] at 8.00am and again at 11.00pm. Australia airs same-day episodes, just hours after they are originally aired in the U.S. It previously aired on [[Network Ten]] for a short time.

===Canada===

In [[Canada]], the rights to the show are currently owned by [[CTVglobemedia]]. Depending on the region, the program may air on [[CTV Television Network|CTV]], [[A (TV system)|A]], or both, with morning and afternoon airings in some markets. The show is also repeated on the [[Star!]] cable channel.

===New Zealand===

In [[New Zealand]], the show airs on [[TVNZ]] (TV One), 3pm every weekday. The show airs one week behind the American schedule. Recently, three fans calling themselves Team Ellen from [[Christchurch]] in [[New Zealand]] got a call from [[Ellen Degeneres]] live on her show, and Ellen gave them tickets to come and watch her show live in the studio. The popularity of the show in [[New Zealand]] has grown over the past year.

===Latin America===

In June 23, 2008, ''[[Warner Channel]]'' premiered the show in Latin America at 5.00pm. Later the daily airing changed to 7.00am (airing of the last episode) and 11.00am (airing of the new episode). However, the episodes run at least two weeks after they are released due to the time needed to translate it into Spanish and Portuguese.

===India===

In India, the show is now currently shown on Star World at 2:00 p.m. Monday to Friday. However, the episodes run at least a month after they are released.

===Southeast Asia===

Like India, the show is also being aired on [[STAR World]] at 1:00 (GMT+7: [[Hongkong|HK]]/[[Thailand|Thai]]/[[Hanoi|HN]]), at 2:00 (GMT+8:[[Malaysia|Mal]]/[[Singapore|Sin]]/[[the Philippines|Phil]]) as well [[Korea]]. It is encore telecast at 9:00 am next day.

This show is chosen to replace [[The Oprah Winfrey Show]].

===United Kingdom===

In the [[United Kingdom]], the show was originally aired on [[Fiver (TV channel)|Fiver]] at 1.00p.m weekdays, but the channel later moved the show to 6.00am. As of 5 January 2009, the show is now airing on [[Diva TV]] (3pm weekdays), as well as [[Fiver (TV channel)|Fiver]]. The show airs approximately 5 weeks behind the American schedule on [[Diva TV]]. [[Fiver (TV channel)|Fiver]], on the other hand, tends to show repeat episodes from previous seasons.

===Republic of Ireland===

In the [[Republic of Ireland]], the show is aired on the TV3 network. It airs on average one month behind the original filming in Los Angeles, not usually in order, but has been a big daytime hit on TV3. It runs directly after [[The Oprah Winfrey Show]] and has benefited from its ratings. There have been several online petitions made to get Ellen to host a show from Dublin, the country's capital.

=== Aruba ===

The Ellen DeGeneres Show airs in [[Aruba]] at 3:00pm on NBC.

=== South Africa ===
Airs on M-Net Series (channel 110 on [[DSTV]]) weekdays at 6:00pm - repeats in the mornings. About 8 months behind the American schedule.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.ellentv.com/ The Ellen DeGeneres Show] Official site
*{{imdb title|0379623}}
*{{Tv.com show|id=17071}}
*[http://www.ellen-degeneres.com Ellen DeGeneres Forums and guides] at Ellen-DeGeneres.com
*[http://talkshows.about.com/od/ellendegeneres/Ellen.htm The Ellen DeGeneres Show at About.com]

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[[Category:2003 television series debuts]]
[[Category:2000s American television series]]
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[[Category:First-run syndicated television programs in the United States]]

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