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Rattlesnake Ridge

2010-10-27T17:15:50Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{Infobox mountain
| name = Rattlesnake Mountain
| photo = Rattlesnake Ledge.jpg
| photo_caption = Rattlesnake Ledge with Rattlesnake Lake in the foreground
| elevation = 3,480+ feet (1,061+ m) <ref name="pb">
{{cite peakbagger
| pid = 2212
| name = Rattlesnake Mountain, Washington
| accessdate = 2009-01-16 }}</ref>
| prominence_ft = 2520
| prominence_ref = <ref name="pb"/>
| location = [[King County, Washington|King County]], [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington State]], [[United States|USA]]
| range = [[Issaquah Alps]], [[Cascade Range|Cascades]]
| coordinates = {{coord|47.4584358|-121.8062219|format=dms|region:US-WA_type:mountain_source:GNIS|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref = <ref name="gnis">
{{cite gnis
| id = 1524897
| name = Rattlesnake Mountain
| accessdate = 2009-01-16 }}</ref>
| topo = [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] North Bend
| first_ascent =
| easiest_route = [[Hiking|Hike]]
}}

[[Image:Rattlesnake Ridge.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Rattlesnake Ridge]]

'''Rattlesnake Ridge''' (sometimes called '''Rattlesnake Ledge''' or '''Rattlesnake Mountain''') is a mountain ridge located south of [[North Bend, Washington]], United States. The western end is near the intersection of [[Washington State Route 18|State Route 18]] and [[Interstate 90|I-90]] in [[Snoqualmie, Washington]] and runs southeast about {{convert|7|nmi|km}} or {{convert|11|mi|km}} by trail. It is the highest and easternmost of the [[Issaquah Alps]] (although Cedar Butte in the gap between Rattlesnake Ledge and the Cascade front at [[Mount Washington (Cascades)|Mount Washington]] is considered by [[Harvey Manning]] to be a quasi-Alp). A complicated maze of abandoned logging roads and constructed trails have been strung together to provide a {{convert|13|mi|km|adj=on}} foot path from the Snoqualmie Point Trailhead at Exit 27 on I-90 all the way to the [[Rattlesnake Lake]] trailhead near Exit 32.

== Legal status ==

Most of the mountain is owned by the state of Washington or King County, and is protected as '''Rattlesnake Mountain Scenic Area''',
managed jointly by [[Washington Department of Natural Resources|Washington State Department of Natural Resources]] and [[King County, Washington|King County]] Park and Recreation Department. The Southern section of the mountain, closed to public, is owned by Seattle Water Department, while large sections in the western part of the ridge are owned by Adrienne Hunter - recently purchased from [[Weyerhaeuser]] Corporation for her birthday, which conducted substantial logging operations there.<ref>
{{cite news
| first = Greg
| last = Johnston
| title = A lookout of legendary proportions
| curly = y
| url = http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/getaways/042299/ratt22.html
| publisher = Seattle Post-Intelligencer
| date = 1999-04-22
| accessdate = 2009-01-16 }}</ref>

== Directions ==

To get to the more popular eastern trail head (the one closest to Rattlesnake Ledge), take I-90 to Exit 32, labeled 436th Ave. Go South on 436th Ave, which passes Riverbend and Wilderness Rim subdivisions. 436th Ave becomes Cedar Falls Road. Around {{convert|2.85|mi|km}} you come to Rattlesnake Lake parking lot on the right. The road continues for a short distance where it ends at the Cedar River Watershed Education Center.<ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.cedarriver.org/education/index.shtml
| title = Cedar River Watershed Education Center
| publisher = Friends of the Cedar River Watershed
| accessdate = 2009-01-16 }}</ref>

The western trailhead is adjacent to Snoqualmie Point Park at Exit 27 on I-90. The trailhead parking area is owned by Washington Department of Natural Resources and maintained by the City of Snoqualmie.

Public transportation access to the park is limited: [[King County Metro]]'s closest stops are at the Factory Outlet Stores in downtown North Bend, a few miles from the park's eastern entrance.

== Deaths ==

On May 30, 2009, a man in his 20s fell four hundred feet to his death from a ledge on Rattlesnake Ridge. [http://www.nwcn.com/statenews/washington/stories/WN_053009WAB-rattlesnake-ledge-KS.31a58c38.html]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

* {{cite web
| url = http://www.gonorthwest.com/Washington/Activities/Hiking/rattlesnakeridge.htm
| title = Rattlesnake Ridge
| work = Central Cascades Hikes
| publisher = GoNorthwest.com
| accessdate = 2009-01-16 }}
* {{cite news
| first = Karen
| last = Sykes
| title = Once rough route is kinder and gentler
| curly = y
| url = http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/getaways/164117_hike11.html
| work = Hike Of The Week
| publisher = Seattle Post-Intelligencer
| date = 2004-03-11
| accessdate = 2009-01-16 }}

[[Image:RattlesnakeRidge.JPG|thumb|200px|left|As viewed from above]]
{{commonscat|Rattlesnake Mountain Scenic Area}}

[[Category:Geography of King County, Washington]]
[[Category:Mountains of Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Washington Natural Areas Program]]

Pakistan Navy

2010-10-24T22:22:25Z

Lightmouse: /* Atlantique incident */Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{Pakistan Navy}}
The '''Pakistan Navy''' ({{lang-ur| '''پاک بحریہ'''}} ''Pak Bahr'ya'') (PN) is the naval branch of the [[Pakistani Armed Forces]]. It is responsible for Pakistan's 1,046 kilometer (650 mile) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the defense of important harbors. Navy day is celebrated on [[September 8]] in commemoration of the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]].<ref>http://pakistantimes.net/2005/09/06/top2.htm</ref> The Pakistan Navy is supposed to maintain good order and peace in its area of responsibility, with its great sea denial capabilities. The Pakistan Navy contributes to world peace by persistent deployment of its assets in US led coalition Task Force 150 which is tasked with preventing human trafficking and the smuggling of narcotics and weapons. The Pakistan Navy also contributes to Task Force 151 deployed to challenge Somalian piracy.

==History==
The foundation of the Royal Pakistan Navy came at creation of nation of [[Pakistan]] on 14 august 1947. The Armed Forces Reconstitution Committee (AFRC) divided the [[Royal Indian Navy]] between both India and Pakistan. The Royal Pakistan Navy secured two [[sloop]]s, two [[frigate]]s, four minesweepers, two [[naval trawler]]s, four harbor launches and some 358 personnel (180 officers and 34 [[Naval rating|ratings]]) and was given a number of [[Harbor Defense Motor Launch]]es. It was also given a high percentage of the [[river delta|delta]] areas on the Pakistan coast.

{{cquote|''“ Today is a historic day for Pakistan, doubly so for those of us in the Navy. The Dominion of Pakistan has come into being and with it a new Navy – the Royal Pakistan Navy – has been born. I am proud to have been appointed to command it and serve with you at this time. In the coming months, it will be my duty and yours to build up our Navy into a happy and efficient force.”'' [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the founder of [[Pakistan]].}}<ref>http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/history.htm [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] addressing the Naval Academy in March 1948</ref>

===The beginning===
[[File:Shamsher Pakistan SLV Green 1951.jpg|thumb|left|Frigate Shamsher in 1951]]
The Royal Pakistan Navy saw no action during the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]] as all the fighting was restricted to land warfare.
In 1956 the [[Islamic Republic]] of Pakistan was proclaimed under the 1956 constitution. The prefix ''Royal'' was dropped and the service was re-designated as the Pakistan Navy, or "PN" for short. The PN Jack and Pakistan flag replaced the [[Colours, standards and guidons#United Kingdom and other Commonwealth nations|Queen's colour]] and the white ensign respectively. The order of precedence of the three services changed from [[Navy]], [[Army]], [[Air force]] to Army, Navy, Air Force. In February 1956, the [[British government]] announced supplying of several major surface combatants to Pakistan. These warships, a cruiser and four destroyers were purchased with funds made available under the US [[Military Assistance Program]]. The acquisition of a few additional warships that is two destroyers, eight coastal minesweepers and an oiler (between 1956–63) was the direct result of Pakistan's participation in the anti-[[Communist]] defence pacts of [[SEATO]] and [[CENTO]].

===Indo-Pakistan war of 1965===
During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] the navy was involved in a conflict for the first time. Apart from carrying out successful bombardment of the coastal town of [[Dwaraka]] - codenamed [[Operation Dwarka]], the navy's submarine [[PNS Ghazi]] which was Pakistan's first submarine and remained the flagship submarine for Pakistan Navy till deployed against Indian Navy's western fleet at [[Bombay]] (Mumbai) port.<ref>http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/jan/agosta.htm</ref>
[[Image:PNS Ghazi 134 DN-SC-92-03633.JPEG|thumb|Daphne class submarine ''Ghazi'' (S-134)]]

===Indo-Pakistan war of 1971===
[[Image:USS Wiltsie (DD-716).jpg|thumb|right|PNS Nazim which previously took part in the Vietnam and Korean wars with the USN]]
[[Karachi]], the hub of Pakistan's [[maritime trade]], housed the headquarters of the Pakistan Navy and almost the entire naval fleet. On December 4 the Indian Navy launched a naval attack, [[Operation Trident (Indo-Pakistani War)|Operation Trident]], consisting of 3 [[Osa class missile boat|OSA class]] [[missile boat]]s escorted by two [[anti-submarine]] patrol vessels. Nearing the Karachi port, they detected Pakistani presence and launched their [[SS-N-2 Styx]] anti-ship missiles. The obsolescent Pakistani ships had no viable defence against such missiles <ref>http://www.defencejournal.com/nov98/angrysea.htm</ref> and, as a result, the PNS ''Muhafiz'' and PNS ''Khyber'' were both sunk while the PNS Shahjahan was severely damaged {{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}.

On 8 December 1971 the [[PNS Hangor]], a Pakistani [[Daphné class submarine]], sank the Indian frigate [[INS Khukri (1958)|INS Khukri]] off the coast of Gujarat, India. This was the first sinking of a warship by a submarine since [[World War II]]. 18 officers and 176 sailors of the Indian navy were killed in this operation. The same submarine also damaged another warship, INS Kirpan.<ref name="gs">http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/hangor.htm</ref> Attempts were then made by Pakistan to counter the Indian missile boat threat by carrying out bombing raids over Okha harbour, the forward base of the missile boats.
Another Indian attack on the Pakistani coast, named Operation Python, occurred on the night of 8 December 1971. A small group of Indian vessels, consisting of a missile boat and two frigates, approached Karachi. The Indian ships sank the Panamian vessel Gulf Star, while the Pakistan Navy's ''Dacca'' and the British ship SS ''Harmattan'' were damaged. Pakistani fuel reserves were also destroyed by the Indian vessels.

With [[East Pakistan]] having been surrounded on all three sides by the [[Indian Army]], the PN was attempting to prevent Indian access to the coast. The PN's only long range submarine, [[PNS Ghazi]], was deployed to the area but, according to neutral sources, it sank en route under mysterious circumstances.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=ZcejlMRYNAAC&pg=PA179&dq=PNS+Ghazi&ei=LKdDSKG0H4KijgGs1qG-BQ&sig=9YcFuLJttkAY3wIH965XTx6eU1Y#v=onepage&q=PNS%20Ghazi&f=false</ref> Pakistani authorities state that it sank either due to internal explosion or detonation of mines which it was laying at the time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Joseph|first=Josy |title=Now, no record of Navy sinking Pakistani submarine in 1971|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Now-no-record-of-Navy-sinking-Pakistani-submarine-in-1971/articleshow/5919209.cms|work=TOI website|publisher=Times Of India|accessdate=28 May 2010|date=12|month=May |year=2010|quote=Pakistani authorities say the submarine sank because of either an internal explosion or accidental blast of mines that the submarine itself was laying around Vizag harbour. }}</ref> The Indian Navy claims to have sank the submarine,<ref>[http://openlibrary.org/b/OL4243900M/No-way-but-surrender No way but surrender: an account of the Indo-Pakistan War in the Bay of Bengal, 1971] By Vice Admiral N. Krishnan (Retd.)</ref> but this is disputed by some Indian military officers.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jacob|first=Lt Gen JFR |title=The truth behind the Navy's 'sinking' of Ghazi|url=http://sify.com/news/the-truth-behind-the-navy-s-sinking-of-ghazi-news-columns-kfztj3bhjeh.html|work=sify news website|publisher=sify news}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Jacob|first=Lt Gen JFR |title=The truth behind the Navy's 'sinking' of Ghazi|url=http://sify.com/news/the-truth-behind-the-navy-s-sinking-of-ghazi-news-columns-kfztj3bhjeh.html|work=sify news website|publisher=sify news|accessdate=28 May 2010|date=25|month=05|year=2010|quote= On December 9, the Navy announced that they had sunk the Ghazi on December 4, after the start of the war. Later, officers were decorated for their role and the offensive action of their ships in the sinking of the Ghazi. After the war, however, teams of divers confirmed that it was an internal explosion that sank the Ghazi. The log of the Ghazi was recovered and the last entry as far as I can recall was on November 29, 1971. Sadly, that too has been destroyed. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jan/22inter.htm|title=The Rediff Interview/Admiral S M Nanda (retd) 'Does the US want war with India?' |last=Sengupta|first=Ramananda|date=22 January 2007|work=Interview|publisher=Rediff|accessdate=26 March 2010|location=India}}</ref> The submarine's destruction enabled the Indian Navy to enforce a blockade on then East Pakistan.<ref name = Defencejournal>{{cite web | title=Maritime Awareness and Pakistan Navy | work=Defence Notes by Commander (Retd) Muhammad Azam Khan | url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/mar/maritime.htm | accessdate= May 16, 2005 }}</ref>

The damage inflicted by the [[Indian Navy]] and [[Indian Air Force]] on the PN stood at seven [[gunboat]]s, one [[Minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]], two [[destroyers]], three patrol crafts belonging to the [[coast guard]], 18 cargo, supply and communication vessels, and large scale damage inflicted on the naval base and docks in the coastal town of Karachi. Three merchant navy ships; Anwar Baksh, Pasni and Madhumathi;<ref>[http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/39_transfer%20of%20ships1.htm Utilisation of Pakistan merchant ships seized during the 1971 war]</ref> and ten smaller vessels were captured.<ref name = Orbat>{{cite web | title=Damage Assessment - 1971 INDO-PAK Naval War | work=B. Harry | url=http://www.orbat.com/site/cimh/navy/kills(1971)-2.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate=May 16, 2005}}</ref> Around 1900 personnel were lost, while 1413 servicemen were captured by Indian forces in [[Dhaka]].<ref name = "losses">{{cite web | title=Military Losses in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War | work=Venik | url=http://www.aeronautics.ru/archive/vif2_project/indo_pak_war_1971.htm | accessdate=May 30, 2005}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The Indian Navy lost 18 officers and 176 sailors<ref name="gs"/><ref>http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=153894</ref> and a [[frigate]], while another frigate was damaged and a [[Breguet Alizé]] naval aircraft was shot down by the [[Pakistan Air Force]]. According to one Pakistan scholar, [[Tariq Ali]], the Pakistan Navy lost a third of its force in the war.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Tariq Ali]] | title=Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of a State | publisher=Penguin Books Ltd | year=1983 | isbn=0-14-022401-7}}</ref> The primary reason for this loss has been attributed to the central command's failure in defining a role for the Navy, or the military in general, in East Pakistan. Since then the Navy has sought to improve the structure and fleet by putting special emphasis on sub-surface warfare capability as it allows for the most efficient way to deny the control of Pakistani sea lanes to an adversary.

===Post war===
The Navy sought to diversify its purchases instead of depending solely on the United States, which had placed an arms embargo on both India and Pakistan. It sought more vessels from France and China. The Pakistan Navy thus became the first navy in [[South Asia]] to acquire land based missile capable long range reconnaissance aircraft.<ref name="Navy">South Asia's Nuclear Security Dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China By Lowell Dittmer, pp 77 ''</ref> During the 1980s the Pakistan Navy enjoyed un-preceded growth. It doubled its surface fleet from 8 to 16 surface combatants in 1989. In 1982, the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration approved US$3.2 billion military and economic aid to Pakistan. Pakistan acquired eight Brooke and Garcia-class frigates from [[US Navy]] on a five year lease in 1988. A [[military base|depot]] for repairs, [[USS Hector (AR-7)|ex-USS Hector]] followed the lease of these ships in April 1989. However after the [[Soviet]] withdrawal from [[Afghanistan]] in 1989 [[President of the United States|US President]] [[George H. W. Bush|George Bush]] was advised to no longer certify that Pakistan was not involved in the development of nuclear weapons and the Pressler’s Amendment was invoked on 1 October 1990. The lease of the first [[Brooke class frigate]] expired in March 1993, the remaining in early 1994. This seriously impaired the Pakistan Navy, which was composed almost entirely of former US origin ships. Pakistan began to concentrate on self-reliance for its military equipment needs.

The PN began negotiations with China to lease a Chinese [[Type 091 submarine|Type 091 ''Han'' class]] nuclear submarine after rival India began leasing a Russian [[Charlie class submarine|Charlie 1 class]] nuclear submarine. Negotiations were cancelled when the Russian submarine was returned in 1991.<ref>http://chinadefense.xinjunshi.com/ChinaDefense/PLANavyEquipment/91.html</ref>

===Atlantique incident===
The [[Atlantique Incident]] was a major international incident on 10 August 1999 where a Pakistan Navy plane ([[Breguet Atlantic]]) with 16 on board was shot down in the border area of the [[Rann of Kutch|Kutch]] region by Indian Air Force jets, with Pakistan and India both claiming the aircraft to be in their respective airspace. However, the wreckage fell well within Pakistani territory, giving credence to the Pakistani claim. The Indian Air Force stated that the Atlantique was trying to return to Pakistani airspace after intruding more than {{convert|10|nmi|km}} and as such was headed towards Pakistan. At the speed of {{convert|400|kn|km/h}} at which the shootdown occurred{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} most of the wreckage could have been expected to land at least {{convert|25|mi|km}} from the shootdown{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}; the fact that all of the wreckage fell in Pakistani territory would tend to vindicate Pakistani claims that the aircraft did not violate Indian airspace. This incident resulted in escalated tensions between the two neighbouring countries. <ref>http://www.independent.co.uk/news/16-dead-as-india-shoots-down-pakistani-naval-plane-1112052.html 16 dead as India shoots down Pakistani naval plane</ref>

===P3C Orion Crash===
In October 1999, a Pakistan Naval surveillance aircraft crashed while on routine exercise towards the costal town of Pasni in Baluhistan. <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/493254.stm</ref> 21 Personnel including 11 sailors and 10 officers died in the incident. The incident was marked as a technical failure, and no enquiry was made into the crash. P3C Orion were originally developed for the US by Lockheed Martin. <ref>http://www.lockheedmartin.com/products/p3/index.html</ref>

===Tsunami relief activities===
The Navy has been involved in some peacetime operations, most notably during the [[tsunami]] tragedy that struck on December 26, 2004. Pakistan sent vessels to [[Sri Lanka]] and the [[Maldives]] to help in rescue and relief work.<ref>http://www.dawn.com/2005/01/02/top5.htm Pakistan navy sends ships to rescue tsunami victims</ref>

==Personnel==
[[Image:Pakisan First.jpg|thumb|right|Pakistan Navy Officers On Guard By the National Flag]]
[[Image:080225-N-9167V-007.jpg|thumb|right|Pakistani navy Commodore Khan Hasham Bin Saddique, left, hands a spyglass to French navy Rear Adm. Jean L. Kerignard during a change of command ceremony aboard PNS Tippu Sultan (D 186) while in port at Mina Salman Pier, Bahrain, February 25, 2008.]]

The Pakistan Navy has around 24,000 active personnel and 5,000 in reserve.<ref name= Malaya>[http://www.malaya.com.ph/jun25/eddahli.htm] Anchors aweigh, Pakistan</ref> The force includes a small Naval Air Arm and the approximately 2,000 member [[paramilitary]] Maritime Security Agency, charged primarily with protecting Pakistan's [[exclusive economic zone]](EEZ).<ref name=Malaya/> The Navy also comprises the [[Special Services Group Navy]], a marine [[commando]] unit as well as a Marine unit, both stationed at Karachi. The SSG(N) and Marines are believed to number around 1,000 in troop strength each. Pakistan Navy recently began inducting women for combat positions apart from the existing administrative posts, becoming one of the few [[Islamic Republic]]s to do so.<ref>[http://www.thenews.com.pk/update_detail.asp?id=15213] 22 female sailors inducted in Pak navy</ref>

===Naval Headquarters===
*[[Admiral]] [[Noman Bashir]] - [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff (CNS)]]
*Vice Admiral Muhammad Asif Sandila - Chief of Staff (COS)
*Vice Admiral Abbas Raza - Deputy Chief of Naval Staff (Operations)
*Rear Admiral Waqar Siddiq - Deputy Chief of Naval Staff (Supply)
*Rear Admiral Mohammad Shafiq - Deputy Chief of Naval Staff (Projects-2)
*Rear Admiral Muhammad Zakaullah - Deputy Chief of Naval Staff (Training and Personnel)
*Rear Admiral Khawaja Ghazanfar Hussain - Naval Secretary (NS)
*Rear Admiral Zafar Mahmood Abbasi - Deputy Chief of Naval Staff (Projects)
*Rear Admiral Shahid Saeed - Deputy Chief of Naval Staff (Material)
*Rear Admiral Waseem Akram - DG Naval Intelligence (DG NI)

===Commands===
*Vice Admiral Tanveer Faiz — Commander Pakistan Fleet (COMPAK), Karachi
*Vice Admiral Tayyab Ali Dogar — Commander Coast (COMCOAST), Karachi
*Rear Admiral Khalid Amin — Commander Logistics (COMLOG), Karachi
*Rear Admiral Shafqat Jawed — Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST), Karachi
*Rear Admiral Sayyid Khawar Ali — Commander Karachi (COMKAR), Karachi
*Rear Admiral Syed Bashir Ahmed — Commandant, [[Pakistan Navy War College]] (PNWC), [[Lahore]]
*Commodore Raja Jamil Akhtar — Commander North (COMNOR), [[Islamabad]]

===External billets===
*Rear Admiral Saleem Akhtar— DG Maritime Technologies Complex (MTC), Islamabad
*Rear Admiral [[Tahseen Ullah Khan]] — DG [[Maritime Security Agency]] (MSA), Karachi
*Rear Admiral Khan Hasham Bin Siddique — Commandant, National Security (NS) College at [[National Defence University, Islamabad|NDU Islamabad]]
*Rear Admiral Syed Arifullah Hussaini — DG Training and Joint Warfare at Joint Staff HQ, [[Chaklala]]
*Rear Admiral Adnan Nazir — DG (Media) at [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI), Islamabad
*Rear Admiral Shah Sohail Masood — Additional Secretary-III (Navy) at [[Ministry of Defence (Pakistan)|Ministry of Defence]], [[Rawalpindi]]
*L/Rear Admiral Azhar Hayat — General Manager (Operations), [[Karachi Port Trust]] (KPT)

==List of Naval Chiefs==
[[File:FM-90 SAM.JPG|[[HQ-7#HQ-7A .28FM-90.29|FM-90]] [[surface-to-air missile]] system.|thumb|FM-90 On board PNS Zulfiqar]]
[[Image:Alouette IIICS5.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pakistan Naval Air Arm]] [[Alouette III]] on board [[PNS Tippu Sultan (1975)|PNS Tippu Sultan]] at [[HMNB Portsmouth|Portsmouth]] in 2005]]
[[File:C-802 anti ship missile.JPG|Two 4-cell [[C-802]] [[anti-ship missile]] launchers.|thumb|C-802 Anti Ship Missile on board PNS Zulfiqar]]

{{Main|Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)}}
# Rear Admiral [[James Wilfred Jefford]] (August 15, 1947 - January 30, 1953)<ref name ="PIC Book">Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema. ''The Armed Forces of Pakistan'', New York: New York University Press. 2003. pp. 86~90</ref>
# Vice Admiral [[HMS Choudri|Haji Mohammad Siddiq Choudri]] (January 31, 1953 - 28 February 1959)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Vice Admiral [[Afzal Rahman Khan]] (March 1, 1959 - October 20, 1966)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Vice Admiral [[Syed Mohammad Ahsan|Syed Mohammad Ahsan Khan Abbasi]] (October 20, 1966 - August 31, 1969)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Vice Admiral [[Muzaffar Hassan]] (September 1, 1969 - December 22, 1971)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Vice Admiral [[Hasan Hafeez Ahmed]] (March 3, 1972 - March 9, 1975)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Admiral [[Mohammad Shariff]] (March 23, 1975 - March 21, 1979)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Admiral [[Karamat Rahman Niazi]] (March 22, 1979 - March 23, 1983)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Admiral [[Tariq Kamal Khan]] (March 23, 1983 - April 9, 1986)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Admiral [[Iftikhar Ahmed Sirohey]] (April 9, 1986 - November 9, 1988)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Admiral [[Yastur-ul-Haq Malik]] (November 10, 1988 - November 8, 1991)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Admiral [[Saeed Mohammad Khan]] (November 9, 1991 - November 9, 1994)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# [[Mansurul Haq]] (November 10, 1994 - May 1, 1997)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Admiral [[Fasih Bokhari]] (May 2, 1997 - October 2, 1999)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Admiral [[Abdul Aziz Mirza]] (October 2, 1999 - October 2, 2002)<ref name ="PIC Book"/>
# Admiral [[Shahid Karimullah]] (October 3, 2002 - October 6, 2005)
# Admiral [[Afzal Tahir]] (October 7, 2005 - October 7, 2008)
# Admiral [[Noman Bashir]] (October 7, 2008–present)

==Organization==
The supreme commander of the Navy is the Chief of the Naval Staff. Admiral Noman Bashir is the current Chief of the Navy.

The navy has six commands:
* '''COMKAR (Commander Karachi)''' - Looks after the shore establishments of the Navy which provide services and training facilities for the PN. He also looks after the protocol at Karachi. His responsibilities also include harbour defence.
* '''COMPAK (Commander Pakistan Fleet)''' - The command heads the surface, sub surface and aviation commands. In fact, this command is the war fighting machine having 4 dimensional components. Previously, it included the 25th Destroyer Squadron (with Gearing class D16O, D164-168).
* '''COMCOAST (Commander COAST)''' - The special command of SSG(N), Marines and Coastal stations.
* '''COMLOG (Commander Logistics)''' - This command looks after the repair, maintenance and logistic infrastructure of PN.
* '''FOST (Flag Officer Sea Training)''' Conducts all types of operational training at Sea
* '''COMNOR (Commander North)''' - Looks after the Naval installations in the north of Pakistan;
* '''COMWEST (Commander WEST)''' - Looks after the Naval installations in the west of Pakistan. The naval bases are [[Ormara]], [[Pasni City|Pasni]], [[Gwadar]] and [[Jiwani]].

===Ranks===

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" align="center" width="100%"
!colspan=12 bgcolor="green"| '''PN Officer Ranks'''
|-
!''Rank''
!Admiral(Adm)
!Vice Admiral
!Rear Admiral
!Commodore
!Captain
!Commander
!Lieutenant Commander
!Lieutenant
!Sub Lieutenant
!Midshipman
|-
!''Uniform insignia''
|align="center"|
|align="center"|[[Image:Vice Admiral Pak Navy.png|70px]]
|align="center"|[[Image:Rear Admiral Pak Navy.png|70px]]
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|[[Image:Lieutenant Commander Pak Navy.png|70px]]
|align="center"|[[Image:Lieutenant Pak Navy.png|70px]]
|align="center"|[[Image:Sub Lieutenant Pak Navy.png|70px]]
|align="center"|[[Image:Midshipman Pak Navy.png|70px]]
|}

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" align="center" width="100%"
!colspan=12 bgcolor="green"| '''PN Sailor Ranks'''
|-
!''Rank''
!Master Chief Petty Officer
!Fleet Chief Petty Officer
!Chief Petty Officer
!Petty Officer
!Leading
|-
!''Uniform insignia''
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|}

==Training institutions==
Pakistan Navy has an academy of its own called the [[Pakistan Naval Academy]], it is the home of initial training of officers of Pakistan Navy. The academy also has provided basic training to the officers of Allied Navies. The Chief of Naval Staff of [[Qatar Emiri Navy]] and many high ranking officers of [[Royal Saudi Navy]] as well as other navies in the Gulf were graduates of the PNA. The academy is a full fledged training institution catering to the needs to Pakistani junior Naval officers. The Navy also has its own navy war college called the [[Pakistan Navy War College]]<ref>http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/pnwc/main.htm</ref> specializing in imparting [[Naval Warfare]] techniques to officers of the Pakistan marine forces.

Other worthwhile training institutions are:

'''PNS Bahadur''': conducts specialist courses.

'''PNS Himalaya''': for basic training of sailors. HET is a way to be commissioned officer from sailors.

'''PNS Karsaz''': It is the Largest and the most organized technical training Establishment of Pakistan Navy. The establishment has the privilege to host many heads of states since its commissioning. It is considered the mother unit of PNS MEHRAN, PNS JAUHAR, PNS BAHADUR, ASD and other PN units in that area. The unit celebrated its golden jubilee in 2003 under the command of Cdre M B Chaudhry.
PNS KARSAZ also houses one of the most modern Special Children School which was built at the cost of Rs 88.00 Millions during 2003-5. Cdre M Bashir Chaudhry who was the commandant KARSAZ during this period was the force behind this project who collected the funds through philanthropists. Rangoon wala trust contributed the most. In fact PNS KARSAZ is a complete
Naval unit which can operate independently in all spheres.

[[Pakistan Navy Engineering College|'''PNS Jauhar''']]: for technical training of officers.

[[
]]PNS Jauhar has been absorbed by the [[National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan|National University of Sciences and Technology]] and has become its constituent [[Pakistan Navy Engineering College]], where officers and civilian students are offered degrees in Electrical, Mechanical and Electronics Engineering.

==Special Forces==
[[Image:Naval SSG.jpg|thumb|Naval SSG operating in the Gulf of Oman]]
===Special Services Group (N)===
{{Main|Special Service Group Navy}}
Special Service Group Navy (SSGN) is an independent commando division of the Pakistan Navy. It is an elite special operations force. Official numbers place the strength between 1000 to 1240 in 3 Regiments.

===Marines===
{{Main|Pakistan Marines}}
Pakistan Navy Marines division was re-established on April 14, 1990 with about 2,000 men <ref>[http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2007/05/marine_pakistan_delegation_070519/ Pakistani Marines tour East Coast bases - Marine Corps News, news from Iraq - Marine Corps Times]</ref> and plans to expand the force significantly by 2015. The naval marines are based at [[Port Qasim]] naval base.

==Fleet composition==
[[File:F-22P PNS Zulfiquar.JPG|right|thumb|PNS Zulfiqar]]
[[File:PNS Tippu Sultan former HMS Avenger.jpg|thumb|PNS Tippu Sultan]]
[[File:Milgem4.jpg|thumb|MILGEM Corvette]]<ref>http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=160147</ref>
[[Image:PNSShahjahan.jpg|thumb|PNS Shahjahan]]
[[Image:Larkana (PB 157)-090309-N-4774B-055.jpg|thumb|PNS Larkana Class Missile Boat]]
[[Image:BaburCruise.jpg|thumb|right|Babur Cruise Missile]]
[[Image:Harpoonlaunch.gif|thumb|right|Harpoon Block II test firing.]]
[[Image:Naval patrol.JPG|thumb|A Pakistan Navy Hover Craft]]
[[Image:Panther-051306-N-9546C-001.jpg||thumb|right|Z-9C]]
Ships with respect to their classes:<ref name="Official Website - Frigates">[http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/frigate.htm Official Website - Frigates]</ref><ref name="PakDef - Patrol Craft">[http://www.pakdef.info/pakmilitary/navy/missileboats.html PakDef - Patrol Craft]</ref><ref name="Official Website - Missile Boats">[http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/SURFACE%20WARRIORS%20-%20PN.htm Official Website - Missile Boats]</ref><ref name="Globalsecurity.org">[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/navy.htm Globalsecurity.org]</ref>

{{Standard table|0}}
! style="text-align: left; background: ;"|Ship
! style="text-align: left; background: ;"|Quantity
! style="text-align: left; background: ;"|Service entry
! style="text-align: left; background: ;"|Comments
|--
! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="4" | [[Frigates]]
|--valign=top
|style="width:170px"| '''[[F-22P|F-22P Zulfiquar class]]''' F-251 PNS Zulfiqar F-252 PNS Shamsheer F-253 PNS Saif F-254 (under construction) 
|align=center| '''4'''
| '''2009''' 2009
| PNS Zulfiquar delivered August 2009 PNS Shamsheer delivered December, 2009 PNS Saif is delivered to Pak Navy on 15 Sep 2010.
|--
|colspan=4| 
|--
| '''[[Type 21 frigate|Tariq class]]''' F181 [[PNS Tariq]] F182 [[PNS Babur]] F183 [[PNS Khaibar]] F184 [[PNS Badr]] F185 [[PNS Shah Jahan]] F186 [[PNS Tippu Sultan]] || '''6''' || '''1990s''' ||
|--
|colspan=4| 
|--
| ''' [[USS McInerney (FFG-8)|PNS Alamgir]] ||'''1''' || '''2010''' || 1 acquired in Aug, 2010.<ref>[http://www.brahmand.com/news/Pak-signs-USD-65-million-deal-for-US-frigate/3696/1/10.html]</ref>
|}

{| class="wikitable" border=1 width=550 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
|colspan=2 align=center| '''Mine Hunters'''
|-
|4||[[Tripartite class minehunter|Eridan class]] Mine Hunter vessels
* [[M164 Mujahid]]
* [[M166 Munsif]]
* [[M167 Muhafiz]]
* [[M168 Mahmood]]
|-
|colspan=2 align=center| '''Missile Boats'''
|-
|6||Jalalat class
* [[P1023 PNS Jurrat]]
* [[P1028 PNS Quwwat]]
* [[P1022 PNS Jalalat]]
* [[P1024 PNS Shujat]]
* P1029 ?
* P1030 ?
|-
|5||Larkana class
* [[PNS Larkana]]
|-
|3||[[Type 021 class missile boat|Sabqat class (huangefeng)]]
* P1025 PNS Azmat
* P1026 PNS Deshmat
* P1027 PNS Himmat
|-
|1||[[Type 024 class missile boat|Hegu class]]
* P1021 PNS Haibat
|-
|1|| ?
* PNS Rajshahi
|-
|colspan=2 align=center| '''Multi Role Tactical Platform'''
|-
|2|| MRTP-33
* PNS Zarrar
* PNS Karrar
|-
|2|| MRTP-15
* P01 PNS ?
* P02 PNS ?
|-
|colspan=2 align=center| '''Auxiliary'''
|-
|1|| Fuqing class
* A47 PNS Nasr
|-
|1|| Poolster class
* A20 PNS Moawin
|-
|2|| Coastal tankers
* PNS Kalmat
* PNS Gawadar
|-
|1|| Hydrographic Survey Vessel
* PNS Behr Paima
|-
|1|| Dredging Vessel
* PNS Behr Khusha
|-
|2|| Small tanker cum utility ship (STUS)
* PNS ? (launched)
* PNS ? (underconstruction)
|-
|colspan=2 align=center| '''Training vessel'''
|-
|1|| [[Leander class frigate]]
* F262 PNS Zulfiqar
|-
|colspan=2 align=center| '''Hover Crafts'''
|-
|12||[[Griffon]] class
|-
|colspan=2 align=center| '''Patrol boats'''
|-
|12+5|| 12 Gulf Crafts and, 5 patrol boats USA delivered as donation on 13 Feb, 2010 at Karachi.<ref>http://www.ameinfo.com/105294.html</ref>
|}

====Submarines====


A total of five active diesel electric submarines plus 3 midget submarines, MG110 are in the Naval inventory.<ref name="PN">Anon. (14 April 2007) [http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/ Pakistan Navy]. ''Pakistan Navy website''.</ref> These include:

{| class="wikitable" border=1 width=550 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
submarine<ref>http://www.janes.com/news/defence/naval/jdw/jdw081202_1_n.shtml Pakistan on verge of selecting HDW submarine</ref>
|-
|3||[[Agosta 90B class submarine]]<ref name=globalsecurity/>
* PNS/M Khalid
* PNS/M Saad
* PNS/M Hamza
|-
|2||[[Agosta 90B class submarine|Agosta 70]]<ref name=globalsecurity/>
* PNS/M Hasmat
* PNS/M Hurmat
|}

All of the Pakistani SSKs have been equipped with AshMs which can be fired while submerged. The three Khalid class boats are capable of firing Exocet AshM, while the older Agostas and Daphnes have been equipped with US Harpoon AshMs. PNS/M Hamza (third Agosta-90B) is equipped with the MESMA Air Independent Propulsion system, PNS/M Khalid and PNS/M Saad will be upgraded with the same MESMA AIP system in the near future. The Pakistan Navy also plans to integrate the Boeing Harpoon Block II on to its Agosta-90Bs; and currently the Agosta-90Bs are capable of firing Blackshark torpedoes.

In mid-2006 the Pakistan Navy announced its requirement of three new SSK attack submarines to replace the two Agosta-70 submarines and rebuild its fleet - after retiring the four Daphne Class. The French naval firm DCN had offered its latest export design - the Marlin SSK - which is based on the Scorpene SSK, but also uses technology from the Barracuda nuclear attack submarine. However, the Pakistan Navy is said to have chosen the [[Type 214]] submarine. During the IDEAS 2008 exhibition, the HDW chief Walter Freitag told “The commercial contract has been finalised up to 95 per cent,” he said. The first submarine would be delivered to the Pakistan Navy in 64 months after signing of the contract while the rest would be completed successively in 12 months.<ref>http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?208366|Pakistan to buy German subs, ignore French - Paktribune</ref>

Pakistan is also seeking to enhance its strategic strike capability by developing naval variants of the Babur land attack cruise missile (LACM). The Babur LACM has a range of 700 km and is capable of using both conventional and nuclear warheads. Future developments of LACM include capability of being launched from submarines, surface combatants and aircraft.

====Frigates====
[[File:The side of the PNS Zulfiquar.jpg|right|thumb|]]
[[Image:PNS-Badr-F184.jpg|thumb|right|PNS Badr (F184) steams alongside [[USS Tarawa (LHA-1)]] in November of 2005]]
[[Image:PNS Alamgir1.jpg|thumb|alt=PNS ALAMGIR, Pakistan Navy Ship, At Sea.|The Wikipede edits ''[[PNS ALAMGIR]]''.]]
The Navy's eight frigates include six ex-British ''Amazon'' class ([[PNS Babur]]) ships. These are expected to retire between 2010 and 2020. In 2005 Pakistan ordered four [[F-22P]] light frigates from China in a deal worth $750 million.<ref name=DefenseNews>[http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=3472967&c=ASI&s=SEA Pakistan Gets New Chinese Frigate] Defence News</ref> The first has been commissioned and the remainder by 2013.<ref name=DefenseNews/> One of the F-22Ps will be built in the Karachi Shipyard. The F-22Ps also have the ability to embark [[Harbin Z-9]] helicopters on deck.<ref name=DefenseNews/> The F-22P is an improved version of the Type 053H3 Jiangwei II class light frigate, it has a displacement of at least 2500 tons.<ref name=DefenseNews/> The first F-22P is called PNS Zulfiqar, and thus the F-22Ps will be called Zulfiqar Class.
According to Janes the Pakistan Navy is expected to place a formal request to the U.S. for six [[Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate]]s to augment its surface fleet. These may replace the Type-21s and act as stop-gaps until new-built frigates and corvettes are commissioned. The weapons and systems on the PN FFG-7 have not yet been disclosed, but they could include the Mk 41 [[Vertical Launch System]] for the [[Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile]] (ESSM) as well as [[Mk 32]] torpedo tubes for [[Mk 46]] Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) torpedoes. The frigate [[USS McInerney (FFG-8)]] with considerable anti-submarine warfare capability was handed over on August 31, 2010. The ship has been named PNS ALAMGIR (FFG-260) after the great Moughal Emperor Alamgir. The ship was transferred to Pakistan at Mayport, Florida, USA. At present the crew is undergoing training and will sail back to Pakistan after essential repairs by BAE Systems Shipyard.<ref name="nation.com.pk">[http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Politics/19-Oct-2008/Bush-okays-antisubmarine-frigate-for-Pak Bush okays anti-submarine frigate for Pak]</ref>
According to Janes' IDEAS 2004 interview with former Pakistan Navy Chief ex-Admiral Karimullah at least four additional new-built frigates will be acquired by the navy. The new frigate will be larger and superior to the F-22P; it will likely have a better air defence system and anti-submarine warfare (ASW) capability; and use more advanced sensors, radar and electronics. Kanwa recently reported that the Pakistan Navy has shown recent interest in the, non other than, Chinese [[Type 054 frigate#Type 054A|Type 054A frigate]]. Another potential option could be the TKMS [[MEKO]] A-200 frigate.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}}

====Corvettes & missile boats====
The Pakistan Navy operates four Jalalat class 200 ton missile boats each armed with four Chinese [[C-802]] [[anti-ship missile|anti-ship]] missiles. The Jalalat II Class were locally produced using a German design. In November, 2006 the Pakistan Navy ordered two MRTP-33 missile boats from Yonca-Onuk shipyards of [[Turkey]].<ref>[http://www.yonca-onuk.com/mrtp_33.htm MRTP-33 missile boats] THE 33 METRE Fast Patrol / Attack Craft</ref> The first will be delivered in 2008. The Navy has an overall requirement of eight MRTP-33s.

===Pakistan Naval Aviation===
{{Main|Pakistan Naval Air Arm}}
[[Image:Breguet Atlantique p1040655.jpg|thumb|right|Breguet Atlantique]]
[[Image:Lynx 335 HMS Cardiff March 1982.jpg|thumb|right|Westland Lynx]]
Pakistan Naval Aviation is an important arm of the Pakistan Navy and assists in the surface and submarine flights to guarantee the safety of Pakistan sea borders.

Currently the PN Aviation Force consists of:

* 3 [[Westland Lynx]] - anti-ship/anti-submarine/transport helicopters
* 6 [[Westland Sea King|Westland Sea King Mk45]] - transport helicopters<ref>http://www.aviastar.org/helicopters_eng/west_king.php</ref> Have been based at Karachi.
* 8 [[Aérospatiale Alouette III|Aérospatiale SA-319B Alouette III]] - transport/anti-ship helicopters<ref>http://www.hazegray.org/worldnav/asiapac/pakistan.htm</ref>
* 4 [[Lockheed P-3|Lockheed P-3C Orion]] - maritime surveillance/anti-submarine warfare aircraft/airborne early warning. Future supply of 7 more under an agreement with Lockheed Martin signed in 2006.<ref>http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/pakistan/2005/pakistan-050831-irna02.htm</ref> Two upgraded P-3C Orion delivered on 7th Jan 2010 while one was delivered in Nov 2009. Another two advanced P-3C Orion aircrafts to be delivered soon .<ref>http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/south-asia/us-to-provide-pak-two-advanced-p-3c-orion-naval-surveillance-aircrafts_100356210.html</ref>
* 7 [[Fokker F27|Fokker F27-200 Friendship]] - maritime surveillance aircraft<ref name=globalsecurity>http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/navy.htm</ref>
* 2 [[Breguet Atlantique|Breguet Atlantique I]] - maritime surveillance/anti-submarine warfare aircraft.<ref name=globalsecurity/>
* 12+ [[Dassault Mirage V]] - anti-ship attack aircraft flown by PAF which are based at PAF base Masroor in Karachi <ref name=globalsecurity/> (operated by the Pakistan Air Force)
* Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
* 6 [[Harbin Z-9]] helicopters

====Others====

The Pakistan Navy has one Poolster Class AOR and one Fuqing Class AOR auxiliary tankers as well as two Gwadar class coastal tankers. Three Eridan Class mine hunters are also in service with the PN; plans for additional mine hunters are underway.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}}

The Navy plans to procure a single replenishment tanker as well as up to two mine countermeasure vessels.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}}

==PN Role in War on Terror==
[[Image:071125-N-6794Z-004.jpg|thumb|right|A member of Pakistan Navy Special Service Group is silhouetted by the setting sun aboard Pakistan Navy Ship PNS Babur (D 182) while under way in the Arabian Sea November 25, 2007.]]
The Pakistani Navy plays an active role in the multinational [[Combined Task Force 150]].<ref>http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/cmcp1.html (Pakistan's Role on the War on Terror</ref> The command of the force was give to Pakistan from March 24, 2006 till February 25, 2008. Under Pakistan's leadership, CTF 150 coordinated patrols throughout their area of operations to help commercial shipping and fishing operate safely and freely in the region. Additionally, CTF 150 Coalition ships made 11 successful at-sea rescues and made the largest drug bust in the CTF 150 AOO since 2005.<ref>[http://www.cusnc.navy.mil/articles/2008/019.html Pakistan Navy Hands Command of CTF 150 to France]</ref> Pakistan has contributed 13 different ships to CTF 150 and the current one being [[PNS Tariq]].<ref>[http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/cmcp1.html Pakistan Navy Participation In Coalition Maritime Campaign Plan]</ref>

==See also==
* [[Pakistan Coast Guard]]
* [[Bahria University]]
* [[Jinnah Naval Base]]
* [[Kalmat Naval Base]]

;Related lists
* [[List of navies]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{Cite web | title=Orbat | work=Naval and Maritime Security Agency Warship Names 1947-2005 | url=http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/pakistan/warshipnames.html | accessdate=June 22, 2005}}

==External links==
*{{Official|http://www.paknavy.gov.pk}}

{{Pakistani Armed Forces}}
{{Comparative military ranks (Pakistan)}}

[[Category:Pakistan Navy]]

[[ms:Tentera Laut Pakistan]]
[[pnb:پاکستان نیوی]]
[[ru:Военно-морские силы Пакистана]]
[[simple:Pakistan Navy]]
[[ur:پاک بحریہ]]

Osoyoos Lake

2010-10-22T18:38:59Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{Infobox lake
| lake_name = Osoyoos Lake
| image_lake = Osoyoos.jpg
| caption_lake =
| image_bathymetry =
| caption_bathymetry =
| location = [[Regional District of Okanagan-Similkameen]], [[British Columbia|British Columbia, Canada]] / [[Okanogan County, Washington|Okanogan County]], [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington, USA]]
| coords = {{coord|49|0|1.16|N|119|26|44.13|W|type:waterbody|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| inflow =
| outflow =
| catchment =
| basin_countries = Canada, United States
| length =
| width =
| area =
| depth =
| max-depth =
| volume =
| residence_time =
| shore =
| elevation =
| islands =
| cities = [[Osoyoos, British Columbia]]; [[Oroville, Washington]]
}}
'''Osoyoos Lake''' is a [[lake]] located in [[British Columbia]] and [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]. Located on the lakeshore are the towns of [[Osoyoos, British Columbia]] and [[Oroville, Washington]]. The lake's maximum elevation is {{convert|912.78|ft|m|abbr=on}}, while its minimum elevation is {{convert|909.46|ft|m|abbr=on}}. The 62-year average discharge into the [[Okanogan River]] at Oroville is {{convert|683|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}. Maximum discharge in 2004 was {{convert|1340|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}.<ref name="ijc.org">[http://www.ijc.org/php/publications/pdf/ID1574.pdf ''Annual Report to the International Joint Commission from the International Osoyoos Lake Board of Control, 2004'']</ref> [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]'s [[Osoyoos Lake State Park]] is located on its shore.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Complete information for Osoyoos Lake State Park
| url = http://www.parks.wa.gov/parks/?selectedpark=Osoyoos%20Lake&subject=all
| publisher = Washington State Parks
| year = 2009
| accessdate = 2009-12-10
}}</ref>

==An international lake==

Osoyoos Lake and its outlet and primary inflow, the [[Okanogan River]], are subject to international water-sharing agreements governed by the [[International Joint Commission]] as part of the [[Columbia Basin]]. The authority responsible for overseeing the IJC agreements is the International Osoyoos Lake Board of Control, composed of appointees from [[Environment Canada]], the BC Ministry of Water, Land Air Protection, the [[US Army Corps of Engineers]], the [[US Geological Survey]], and private consultants.<ref name="ijc.org"/>

==References==
{{commons cat|Lake Osoyoos}}
{{reflist}}

{{British Columbia hydrography}}

[[Category:Lakes of British Columbia]]
[[Category:Lakes of Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Okanagan Country]]
[[Category:Geography of Okanogan County, Washington]]
[[Category:Regional District of Okanagan–Similkameen]]
[[Category:Canada – United States border]]
[[Category:International lakes of North America]]

{{OkanoganWA-geo-stub}}
{{BritishColumbiaInterior-geo-stub}}

Palouse Falls

2010-10-22T18:32:03Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{Infobox Waterfall
| name = Palouse Falls
| image = Palouse_Falls.jpg
| image_size = 240px
| caption = Palouse Falls during high flow, viewed from the west side of the canyon
| location = [[Franklin County, Washington|Franklin]] / [[Whitman County, Washington|Whitman]] counties, [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]], [[United States|USA]]
| coordinates = {{coord|46|39|49|N|118|13|25|W|display=inline,title}}
| elevation = {{convert|725|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| type =
| height = {{convert|200|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| width =
| height_longest =
| average_width =
| number_drops =
| average_flow =
| watercourse =
| world_rank =
| footnotes = [http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:1510548 Palouse Falls, 1510548] [[Geographic Names Information System]]
}}
The '''Palouse Falls''' lies on the [[Palouse River]], about {{convert|4|mi|km|abbr=on}} upstream of the confluence with the [[Snake River]] in southeast [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]], [[United States]]. The falls are {{convert|200|ft|0|abbr=on}} in height.<ref>{{cite web |title=Park Features |url=http://www.parks.wa.gov/parks/?selectedpark=Palouse%20Falls&subject=special |publisher=Washington State Parks |accessdate=27 July 2009}}</ref> The falls consists of an upper falls with a drop of ~{{convert|20|ft|m}} which lies {{convert|1000|ft|m}} north northwest of the main drop, and a lower falls, with a drop of ~{{convert|180|ft|m}}.

==Geology==
The canyon at the falls is 115 meters (377 ft) deep, exposing a large cross-section of the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]]. These falls and the canyon downstream comprise an important feature of the [[channeled scablands]] created by the great [[Missoula Floods]] that swept periodically across eastern Washington and across the [[Columbia River Plateau]] during the [[Pleistocene|Pleistocene epoch]].<ref name="Carson">{{cite book|author=Carson, Robert J. and Pogue, Kevin R.|title=Flood Basalts and Glacier Floods:Roadside Geology of Parts of Walla Walla, Franklin, and Columbia Counties, Washington |publisher=Washington State Department of Natural Resources (Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources Information Circular 90)|year=1996|id=ISBN none}}</ref><ref name="Alt"> {{cite book|first=David|last=Alt|isbn=0-87842-415-6|location= |title=Glacial Lake Missoula & its Humongous Floods|publisher=Mountain Press Publishing Company}}</ref><ref name="Bjornstad">{{cite book|author=Bjornstad, Bruce|title=On the Trail of the Ice Age Floods: A Geological Guide to the Mid-Columbia Basin |publisher=Keokee Books; Sand Point, Idaho |year=2006|isbn=978-1-879628-27-4}}</ref>.

The ancestral Palouse river flowed through the currently dry Washtucna Coulee to the [[Columbia River]]. The Palouse Falls and surrounding canyons were created when the Missoula Floods overtopped the south valley wall of the ancestral Palouse River, diverting it to the current course to the [[Snake River]] by erosion of a new channel.<ref name="Carson" /><ref name="Alt2">{{cite book|author=Alt, David and Hyndman, Donald|isbn=0-87842-160-2|location= |title=Roadside Geology of Washington|year=1984|publisher=Mountain Press Publishing Company}}</ref>

The area is characterized by interconnected and hanging flood-created coulees, cataracts, plunge pools, [[kolk]] created potholes, rock benches, buttes and pinnacles typical of scablands. Palouse Falls State Park is located at the falls, protecting this part of the uniquely scenic area.<ref name="Bjornstad" />

==Economic proposals==
In 1984 the Franklin County Public Utilitity District proposed a {{convert|30|m|ft|abbr=on}} high dam be constructed upstream of the falls, allowing for a significant hydraulic head for [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric power]] generation. This would have provided over one third of the county's power and would have reduced ratepayer charges substantially. However the majority of the ratepayers declined to approve the investment, preserving this geologically significant feature.<ref name="Carson" />

==Palouse Falls State Park==
{{main|Palouse Falls State Park}}
[[Image:Palouse-Canyon-Washington-State.jpg|thumb|240px|right| In the [[Palouse River]] Canyon just downstream of Palouse Falls, the Sentinel Bluffs flows of the Grand Ronde Formation can be seen on the bottom, covered by the Ginkgo Flow of the Wanapum Basalt.]]

The falls is included in Washington State's [[Palouse Falls State Park]] which provides access to the falls, and has displays explaining the region's unique geology as well as its historical ties (the [[Palus (tribe)|Palouse Indians]] and the [[Mullan Road]] both took advantage of the easy access to the plateau in the vicinity of the falls).<ref>{{Cite web | title = Palouse Falls | date = 2009 | year = Copyright © 2009 Washington State Parks. | url = http://www.parks.wa.gov/parks/?selectedpark=Palouse%20Falls | accessdate = 28 April 2009 }}</ref>

==Kayaking==
On April 21, 2009, [[Tyler Bradt]] ran the falls in a kayak setting an unofficial world record for the highest waterfall run. Bradt's media [[Press agent|agent]] released the video footage of him dropping over the falls to ''[[Sports Illustrated]],'' who carried it on their website.<ref>{{Cite news | last = | first = | author-link = | title = Fall Guy: Paddling Over Palouse Falls | newspaper = [[Sports Illustrated]] | pages = | year = 2009 | date = 13 May 2009 | url =http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/video/si_video/2009/05/13/0905.palouse.SportsIllustrated/index.html | accessdate = 15 May 2009 }} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref><ref>[http://www.oregonlive.com/outdoors/index.ssf/2009/05/portland_kayaker_witnesses_pal.html -''The Sunday Oregonian,'' 2009-May-31]- accessed 2009-06-08</ref> The magazine carried a two-page photo of the feat in its May 18 issue. The photos were also reproduced in Spain's ''Hola'' magazine's international issue of September 23, 2009.

===Height of the falls===
As a result of the unofficial world record for the highest waterfall run, questions were raised about the correct height of the main drop for the falls. In the interest of claiming a world record, Bradt's team measured the falls and determined the height was {{convert|186|ft|m}} from the top pool immediately above main drop to the plunge pool immediately below. A regional paper, [[The Spokesman-Review]] inquired with Washington state officials and determined that the previous height measurement was performed in 1945 using earlier techniques; the state was not prepared to perform an updated measurement using laser surveying equipment. However a [[Whitman College]] geology professor led a team of students who determined:<ref>{{cite news | last = Landers | first = Rich | coauthors = | title = Measuring up to Palouse Falls | newspaper = quoted by tricityherald.com from The Spokesman-Review | location = | pages = | language = | publisher = tricityherald.com | date = 12 September 2009 | url = http://www.tri-cityherald.com/1358/story/713817.html | accessdate =12 September 2009 }}</ref>
* The height of the plunge pool and the top pool both vary with river flows, but not uniformly.
* The flow peak for 2009 was {{convert|8300|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}} on Jan. 9 - at that time the river top pool elevation was {{convert|12|ft|m}} higher than when the measurements were made on August 18.
* The estimated plunge pool elevation difference between January and August was {{convert|7|ft|m}}.
* Hence there is a {{convert|5|ft|m|adj=on}} variability in the height of falls over this period.
* The likely height of the falls at the main drop during the highest waterfall record attempt was between 175 and {{convert|180|ft|m}}.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
[[Image:Palouse-Falls-Washington-State.JPG|thumb|240px|right| Palouse Falls on the Palouse River.]]
*[http://picturethis.pnl.gov/PictureT.nsf/All/6D82FP?opendocument Photo of the falls], [[Pacific Northwest National Laboratory]]

{{Ice Age Floods}}
{{Protected Areas of Washington}}

[[Category:Franklin County, Washington]]
[[Category:Geology of Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Waterfalls of Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Washington (U.S. state) state parks]]
[[Category:Whitman County, Washington]]

Lancair Evolution

2010-10-22T11:00:10Z

Lightmouse: /* Specifications (Evolution with PT6) */Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{|{{Infobox Aircraft Begin
|name=Lancair Evolution
|image=
|caption=
}}{{Infobox Aircraft Type
|type=[[Kit aircraft]]
|national origin=United States
|manufacturer=[[Lancair]]
|designer=
|first flight=21 March 2008
|introduced=July 2009
|retired=
|status=Kits in production since July 2008
|primary user=
|more users=
|produced=
|number built=
|unit cost= USD$750,000 - USD$1m (completed aircraft)
|variants with their own articles=
}}
|}
The '''Lancair Evolution''' is an [[United States|American]] [[Pressurization|pressurized]], low wing, four-place, single-engined aircraft, made from [[carbon fiber]] composite, developed by [[Lancair]] and available as an [[Homebuilt aircraft|amateur-built kit]].<ref name="EvolutionHome"> {{cite web|url = http://www.lancair.com/Main/evo.html|title = Performance Evolved...|accessdate = 2009-09-28|last = Lancair International|authorlink = |year = 2007}}</ref>

The Evolution can be powered by a [[Lycoming O-540|Lycoming TEO-540-A]] [[piston engine]] or a [[Pratt & Whitney PT6|Pratt & Whitney PT6-135A]] [[turboprop]] powerplant.<ref name="EvolutionHome" /><ref name="PistonSpecs"> {{cite web|url = http://www.lancair.com/Main/pdf_documents/PistonEvolutionSpecv9_08.pdf|title = Evolution Piston Specs|accessdate = 2009-09-28|last = Lancair International|authorlink = |year = 2007}}</ref><ref name="TurbineSpecs"> {{cite web|url = http://www.lancair.com/Main/pdf_documents/TurbineEvolutionSpec_v9_08.pdf|title = Evolution Turbine Specs|accessdate = 2009-09-28|last = Lancair International|authorlink = |year = 2007}}</ref>

==Development==
The Evolution was designed to meet the same [[Federal Aviation Regulations|FAR]] Part 23 [[Type certificate|aircraft certification]] standards that type certified aircraft comply with. The kit includes a [[Ballistic Recovery Systems]] all-aircraft parachute system, airbag seatbelts and energy absorbing seats.<ref name="EvolutionHome" />

The aircraft is pressurized and was designed with for a {{convert|6|psi|bar|2|abbr=on}} differential pressure, giving an {{convert|8500|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} cabin pressure at its maximum altitude of {{convert|28000|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="LancairApril09"> {{cite web|url = http://www.lancair.com/Main/company_news.html|title = LANCAIR'S EVOLUTION AIRCRAFT COMPLETES A MAJOR TESTING PHASE with FLYING COLORS|accessdate = 2009-09-28|last = Lancair International|authorlink = |year = 2009|month = April}}</ref>

The turbine version of the Evolution is powered by the Pratt & Whitney PT6A-135A and has a maximum cruise of {{convert|330|kn|km/h|0|abbr=on}} at {{convert|25000|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} on a fuel burn of {{convert|39|USgal|l|0|abbr=on}} per hour of [[Jet-A]]. Cruising at an economy cruise of {{convert|270|kn|km/h|0|abbr=on}} at {{convert|28000|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} it burns {{convert|23|USgal|l|0|abbr=on}} per hour. It has a full-fuel payload of {{convert|957|lb|kg|0|abbr=on}} and a {{convert|61|kn|km/h|0|abbr=on}} flaps-down [[stall speed]].<ref name="TurbineSpecs" />

The piston version is powered by a Lycoming TEO-540-A engine and has a maximum cruising speed of {{convert|270|kn|km/h|0|abbr=on}} on a fuel burn of {{convert|22|USgal|l|0|abbr=on}} per hour of [[Avgas]]. At an economy cruise speed of {{convert|240|kn|km/h|0|abbr=on}} the fuel flow is {{convert|17.5|USgal|l|0|abbr=on}} per hour. It has a full-fuel payload of {{convert|1074|lb|kg|0|abbr=on}} and a {{convert|61|kn|km/h|0|abbr=on}} flaps-down stall speed.<ref name="PistonSpecs" />

The first customer kit was delivered on 22 July 2008 and production was planned at that time for two kits per month.<ref name="LancairJuly08"> {{cite web|url = http://www.lancair.com/Main/company_news.html|title = First Evolution Kit Delivered|accessdate = 2009-09-28|last = Lancair International|authorlink = |year = 2008|month = July}}</ref>

==Specifications (Evolution with PT6)==
{{aircraft specifications
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=prop
|ref=Lancair<ref name="TurbineSpecs" />
|crew=one
|capacity=three passengers
|payload main=958 lb
|payload alt=434 kg
|payload more=
|length main= 30 ft
|length alt=9.15 m
|span main=37 ft
|span alt=11.29 m
|height main=10 ft
|height alt=3.05 m
|area main=
|area alt=
|airfoil=
|empty weight main=
|empty weight alt=
|loaded weight main=
|loaded weight alt=
|useful load main=
|useful load alt=
|max takeoff weight main=
|max takeoff weight alt=
|max takeoff weight more=
|more general=
|engine (jet)=
|type of jet=
|number of jets=
|thrust main=
|thrust alt=
|thrust original=
|afterburning thrust main=
|afterburning thrust alt=
|thrust more=
|engine (prop)=[[Pratt & Whitney PT6|Pratt & Whitney PT6-135A]]
|type of prop=Constant speed
|number of props=1
|power main=
|power alt=
|power original=
|power more=
|propeller or rotor?=propeller
|propellers=
|number of propellers per engine= 1
|propeller diameter main=
|propeller diameter alt=
|max speed main=
|max speed alt=
|max speed more=
|cruise speed main= 330 knots
|cruise speed alt=611 km/h
|cruise speed more
|stall speed main= 61 knots
|stall speed alt= 113 km/h
|stall speed more=
|never exceed speed main=
|never exceed speed alt=
|range main= 886 nm
|range alt=1651 km
|ferry range main=1606 nm
|ferry range alt=2992 km
|ferry range more=
|ceiling main= 28000 ft
|ceiling alt= 8534 m
|climb rate main= 4000 fpm
|climb rate alt= 20 m/s
|loading main=
|loading alt=
|thrust/weight=
|power/mass main=
|power/mass alt=
|more performance=
|armament=
|guns=
|bombs=
|rockets=
|missiles=
|hardpoints=
|hardpoint capacity=
|avionics=
}}
==Related Aircraft==
* [[Lancair Propjet]]
* [[Lancair IV-P]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Official|http://www.lancair.com/Main/evo.html}}
*[http://aero-tv.net/index.cfm?do=app.bestView&videoid=f9c008f2-5d7e-47e8-833c-db87247e49b6 Lancair Evolution video]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r0CfmaAi0O0 Lancair Evolution First Flight video]
*[http://www.airliners.net/photo/Lancair-Evolution/1401468/M/ Lancair Evolution prototype at Airventure 2008.]

{{Lancair}}
{{Aviation lists}}

[[Category:Aircraft manufactured by the United States]]
[[Category:Low wing aircraft]]
[[Category:Single-engine aircraft]]
[[Category:Propeller aircraft]]
[[Category:Homebuilt aircraft]]

Sultan River

2010-10-20T13:00:35Z

Lightmouse: /* History */Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{Geobox | River

| name = Sultan River
| category = River
| category_hide = 1

| image = SultanRiverWA.jpg
| image_size = 280
| image_caption = The Sultan River a few miles downstream of Culmback Dam near a USGS stream gauge and a diversion dam

| etymology = [[Snohomish (tribe)|Snohomish]] Chief Tsul-tad

| country = United States
| country_flag = 1
| state = [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]
| district_type = County
| district = [[Snohomish County, Washington|Snohomish]]

| source = [[Cascade Range]]
| source_location =
| source_region =
| source_state =
| source_elevation_imperial =
| source_elevation_note =
| source_length_imperial =
| source_lat_d = 47
| source_lat_m = 56
| source_lat_s = 53
| source_lat_NS = N
| source_long_d = 121
| source_long_m = 28
| source_long_s = 4
| source_long_EW = W
| source_coordinates_note = <ref name=gnis>{{GNIS|1526702|Sultan River}}</ref>

| mouth_name = [[Skykomish River]]
| mouth_location = [[Sultan, Washington|Sultan]]
| mouth_district =
| mouth_region =
| mouth_state =
| mouth_country =
| mouth_note =
| mouth_lat_d = 47
| mouth_lat_m = 51
| mouth_lat_s = 28
| mouth_lat_NS = N
| mouth_long_d = 121
| mouth_long_m = 49
| mouth_long_s = 13
| mouth_long_EW = W
| mouth_coordinates_note = <ref name=gnis/>
| mouth_elevation_imperial =
| mouth_elevation_note =

| length_imperial = 30
| length_round = 0
| length_note = <ref>Calculated in [[Google Earth]]</ref>
| watershed_imperial = 80
| watershed_round = 0
| watershed_note =
| discharge_location = USGS gage 12138160, Sultan River below Powerplant, near Sultan, WA, [[river mile]] 4.5
| discharge_imperial = 735
| discharge_round = 0
| discharge_note = <ref name=wdr>{{cite web |title= Water Resources Data-Washington Water Year 2005; Snohomish River Basin |publisher= [[USGS]] |url= http://pubs.usgs.gov/wdr/2005/wdr-wa-05-1/pdf/wa00103ADR2005_Figure34.pdf |accessdate= 5 August 2009}}</ref>
| discharge_max_imperial = 20100
| discharge_min_imperial = 157
| discharge1_location =
| discharge1_note =

| map = Sultanrivermap.jpg
| map_size = 300
| map_caption = The Sultan River highlighted on a map of the [[Snohomish River]] watershed
| map1 = Washington Locator Map.PNG
| map1_size = 300
| map1_caption = Location of the mouth of the Sultan in Washington
| map1_locator = Washington

| commons =
}}
The '''Sultan River''' is a river in [[Snohomish County]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]. It is a tributary of the [[Skykomish River]], which it joins at the town of [[Sultan, Washington]]. The river is dammed in its upper third by [[Culmback Dam]] to form [[Spada Lake]].

Both the Sultan River and the town of Sultan were named by prospectors for the chief of a [[Snohomish (tribe)|Snohomish]] sub-tribe who lived on the Skykomish River in the 1870s. His name was Tsul-tad or Tseul-tud, which was [[Anglicisation|anglicized]] by the miners into Sultan.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Sultan
| work = Washington Place Names database
| publisher = Tacoma Public Library
| url = http://search.tpl.lib.wa.us/wanames/
| accessdate = 2009-03-05}}</ref>

The Sultan River's [[drainage basin]] was subjected to intense glaciation during the [[Pleistocene]] era. The river flows through a well-defined glacially carved trench. The upper South Fork Sultan River flows through a classic [[U-shaped valley]] cut by a glacier through [[Quartz diorite]]. The Sultan's river main tributaries—the North Fork, South Fork, Elk Creek, and Williamson Creek— flow through narrow valleys to converge in the lower Sultan basin where the valley floor is relatively broad. The Sultan River exits this basin by plunging abruptly into and through a narrow canyon.<ref name=beckey>{{cite book |last= Beckey |first= Fred |authorlink= Fred Beckey |title= [[Cascade Alpine Guide]]: Climbing and High Routes: Stevens Pass to Rainy Pass |edition= 3rd |year= 2003 |publisher= [[The Mountaineers (club)|The Mountaineers]] |isbn= 0-89886-423-2 |pages= 25–26, 30}}</ref>

Pleistocene glaciers spread down the valleys of the Sultan River and its tributaries, merging in the lower basin. From there the ice pushed west through what is now the [[Pilchuck River]] valley. Today the two rivers are separated by a the terminal [[moraine]] of an ice front that spread up the Pilchuck valley and impounded the Sultan River, creating a lake. This [[glacial lake]] eventually drained westward, creating a delta moraine. The postglacial Sultan River cut through the delta moraine, establishing its present course out of the lower Sultan basin.<ref name=beckey/>

==Course==
The Sultan River originates at Crested Buttes. It flows northwest, then southwest into Spada Lake. Spada Lake, held back by the [[Culmback Dam]], is the main source of drinking water for people in [[Everett, Washington|Everett]]. The South Fork Sultan River joins the main river by flowing into a large arm of the lake’s south shore. The Sultan River exits the lake and flows west, then south to its confluence with the Skykomish River. The river’s largest tributaries are Elk Creek, which joins just above where the river flows into Spada Lake, and Williamson Creek, which flows from remote Copper Lake and enters the lake just below where the river enters it.

==South Fork==
Formed at the confluence of the North Fork South Fork and Middle Fork South Fork, the South Fork Sultan River flows northwest and empties into the southern arm of Spada Lake.<ref>{{GNIS|1526262|South Fork Sultan River}}</ref>

===North Fork South Fork===
The North Fork South Fork Sultan River originates at the divide between it and Salmon Creek and flows west. It joins the Middle Fork South Fork to form the South Fork Sultan River.<ref>{{GNIS|1523848|North Fork South Fork Sultan River}}</ref>

===Middle Fork South Fork===
The Middle Fork South Fork Sultan River originates on the east slope of Mount Stickney. It flows north for about {{convert|2.5|mi|km}} and joins the North Fork South Fork, forming the South Fork Sultan River.<ref>{{GNIS|1523090|Middle Fork South Fork Sultan River}}</ref>

===South Fork South Fork===
The South Fork South Fork Sultan River begins at the outlet of One Acre Lake, flows north and joins the South Fork just above its mouth on Spada Lake.<ref>{{GNIS|1526257|South Fork South Fork Sultan River}}</ref>

==History==
[[Prospecting]] began in the Sultan basin around 1870. Gold deposits were recovered from gravels along the lower river with small-scaler [[Placer mining|placer operations]] as early as 1869. Rich deposits were found in the basin some years later. In 1891 a major discovery was made—the so-called "45 vein", worked by the 45 Mine. Development depended on transportation, which came slowly. In 1896 the 45 Mine became the Sultan basin's first producer. A rough {{convert|20|mi|km|adj=on}} long wagon road was built from the mine to the railroad at Sultan on the Skykomish River. A trail was built over Marble Pass to Silverton.<ref name=beckey/>

== See also ==
*[[List of rivers in Washington]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Rivers of Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Snohomish County, Washington]]

Lake Union

2010-10-20T10:28:05Z

Lightmouse: /* Seaplane base */Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{Refimprove|date=July 2008}}
{{Infobox lake
| lake_name = Lake Union
| image_lake = Aerial Lake Union March 2009.jpg
| caption_lake = Lake Union seen in 2009, against the backdrop of [[Seattle]]
| image_bathymetry =
| caption_bathymetry =
| location = [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Washington (U.S state)|Washington, USA]]
| coords = {{coord|47.6351|-122.3352|display=inline,title|region:US_type:waterbody_scale:20000|name=Lake Union}}
| type =
| inflow = [[Lake Washington Ship Canal]]
| outflow = [[Lake Washington Ship Canal]]
| catchment = {{convert|1554|km2|acre}}
| basin_countries = United States
| length =
| width =
| area = {{convert|2.3|km2|acre}}
| depth = {{convert|10|m|ft}}
| max-depth = {{convert|15|m|ft}}
| volume = {{convert|25000000|m3|acre.ft|abbr=on}}
| residence_time =
| shore =
| elevation =
| islands =
| cities =
}}

'''Lake Union''' is a freshwater [[lake]] entirely within the [[Seattle]], [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] city limits.

==Origins==
A [[glacier|glacial]] lake, its basin was dug 12,000 years ago by the [[Vashon glacier]], which also created [[Lake Washington]] and Seattle's [[Green Lake (Seattle)|Green]], [[Bitter Lake (Seattle)|Bitter]], and [[Haller Lake]]s.

==Name==
Lake Union received its present name from [[Thomas Mercer]], who in 1854 correctly predicted that [[canal]]s would someday join Lake Washington to [[Puget Sound]] in a "union of waters."<ref>{{cite book |last= Phillips |first= James W. |title= Washington State Place Names |year= 1971 |publisher= [[University of Washington Press]] |isbn= 0-295-95158-3 |pages= 149}}</ref> The [[Duwamish (tribe)|Duwamish]] called it "Small Lake" ([[Lushootseed]]: ''XáXu7cHoo'', literally "small great-amount-of-water," the diminutive form of the word used for Lake Washington).<ref>{{cite book |last= Thrush |first= Coll |title= Native Seattle: Histories from the Crossing-Over Place |year= 2007 |publisher= University of Washington Press |isbn= 0-295-98700-6 |pages= 223}}</ref>

==Geography==
Three major streets are named in relation to the lake: Westlake Avenue, which runs along its western shore from [[Downtown, Seattle, Washington|Downtown]] to the [[Fremont Bridge (Seattle)|Fremont Bridge]]; Eastlake Avenue, which runs along its eastern shore from [[Cascade, Seattle, Washington|Cascade]] to the [[University District, Seattle, Washington|University District]], and Northlake Way, which runs along its northern shore from the University District past [[Gas Works Park]] to the edge of [[Fremont, Seattle, Washington|Fremont]].

Several neighborhoods take their name from the lake: [[Eastlake, Seattle, Washington|Eastlake]], [[Westlake, Seattle, Washington|Westlake]], [[Northlake, Seattle, Washington|Northlake]], and [[South Lake Union, Seattle, Washington|South Lake Union]].

{{wide image|1907 Lake Union pano.jpg|1000 px|Lake Union, 1907, from Queen Anne Hill. Capitol Hill is straight ahead; the gas works (now [[Gas Works Park]]) can be seen at left, jutting into the lake.}}
[[Image:Lakeunion view.JPG|center|thumb|600px|The view of Downtown Seattle from Lake Union]]

==Industry==
[[Boeing]] began production on Lake Union in 1916. Shipyards, wharves, and sawmills have also dotted the shore.

==Recreation==
[[Image:Recreational kayak.jpg|thumbnail|left|[[Kayaking]] on Lake Union with the Space Needle visible in the distance]]
Lake Union's proximity to and scenic views of Seattle make it a popular recreational spot. [[Seaplane]]s operated by [[Kenmore Air]] land on and take off from the lake several times a day during the summer. Pleasure boats from [[Lake Washington]] pass through on their way to [[Puget Sound]]. The [[Center for Wooden Boats]] holds a yearly [[wooden boat]] festival.

===Parks===
[[Gas Works Park]] is the largest park on Lake Union and the most popular for Seattleites and visitors. It is the venue for summer concerts and Seattle's major [[Fourth of July]] [[fireworks]] show. Other parks ring the lake, clockwise around the compass from Gas Works which is nearly due north: [[North Passage Point Park]], [[South Passage Point Park]], [[Fairview Park (Seattle)|Fairview Park]], [[Terry Pettus Park]], and [[South Lake Union Park]].

==Floating homes==
[[Image:Floatinghomes.JPG|thumb|Floating homes on Lake Union's [[Eastlake, Seattle, Washington|eastern shore]]]]
[[Floating home]]s line the east and west sides of Lake Union. In ''[[Sleepless in Seattle]]'', the character played by [[Tom Hanks]] lived on one of these homes.<ref>[http://washington.pacificnorthwestmovies.com/SleeplessInSeattle/ PacificNorthwestMovies.com], [[Sleepless in Seattle]]</ref>

==Connections to other bodies of water==
Part of the [[Lake Washington Ship Canal]] system, [[water]] flows into the lake from [[Lake Washington]] through the [[Montlake Cut]], and out via the [[Fremont Cut]] on its way to [[Puget Sound]]. Before construction of the [[canal]], Lake Union emptied into [[Salmon Bay]] via a [[Creek (stream)|creek]] which followed roughly the same course as the Fremont Cut does today.

==Salinity==
Because of the connection via the [[Hiram M. Chittenden Locks]] to the salt water of [[Puget Sound]], there is some saline contamination{{Fact|date=July 2008}}, which increases in the summer as the inflow rate from Lake Washington decreases{{Fact|date=July 2008}} and the locks open more frequently for pleasure craft.

==Competitive Rowing==
Lake union is home to a several rowing centers, including [[Lake Union Crew]], [[Lake Washington Rowing Club]] and [[Pocock Rowing Center]], all members of [[USRowing]]. Also rowing out of bodies of water attached to Lake Union are the [[Seattle Rowing Center]] and the Conibear Shellhouse, serving the [[Washington Huskies]].

==Seaplane base==
Lake Union is home to two seaplane bases: [[Kenmore Air Harbor Seaplane Base]] {{airport codes|LKE||W55}}, and Seattle Seaplanes {{airport codes|LKE||0W0}}, located one [[nautical mile]] (1.85 km) north of the [[central business district]] of Seattle.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{commonscat|Lake Union}}

[[Category:Geography of Seattle, Washington]]
[[Category:Lakes of Washington (U.S. state)|Union]]

[[es:Lago Union]]
[[fr:Lac Union]]
[[id:Danau Union]]
[[nl:Lake Union]]
[[pt:Lago Union]]

Sequoia National Forest

2010-10-18T15:05:41Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{Infobox Protected area
| name = Sequoia National Forest
| iucn_category = VI
| map = US_Locator_Blank.svg
| map_caption =
| locator_x = 23
| locator_y = 92
| location = [[Tulare County, California|Tulare]] / [[Kern County, California|Kern]] / [[Fresno County, California|Fresno]] counties, [[California]], [[United States|USA]]
| nearest_city = [[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield, CA]] / [[Porterville, California|Porterville, CA]] / [[Visalia, California|Visalia, CA]] / [[Fresno, California|Fresno, CA]]
| lat_d = 36
| lat_m = 2
| lat_s = 24
| lat_NS = N
| long_d = 118
| long_m = 30
| long_s = 16
| long_EW = W
| area = 1,144,235 acres (4,630.55 km²)
| established = 1908
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body = [[United States Forest Service|U.S. Forest Service]]
}}

'''Sequoia National Forest''' is located in the southern [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] mountains of [[California]]. The [[U.S. National Forest|national forest]] is named for the majestic [[Giant Sequoia]] trees which populate 38 groves within the boundaries of the forest. The [[Giant Sequoia National Monument]] is located within the forest. Other notable features include [[glacier]]-carved landscapes and impressive [[granite]] [[monolith]]s.

The forest covers 1,787.87 square miles (4,630.55 km²), and ranges in elevation from {{convert|1000|ft|m}} in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada to over {{convert|12000|ft|m}}. Its Sequoia groves are part of its {{convert|196000|acre|km2}} of [[old growth]], which also consists of [[Jeffrey Pine]] (''Pinus jeffreyi''), [[Red Fir]] (''Abies magnifica''), [[Coast Douglas-fir]] (''Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii''), [[Ponderosa Pine]] (''Pinus ponderosa''), [[White Fir]] (''Abies concolor''), and [[Lodgepole Pine]] (''Pinus contorta'')<ref name = "PacificSouthwest2002Estimates">{{Cite document
| last1 = Warbington | first1 = Ralph
| last2 = Beardsley | first2 = Debby
| year = 2002
| title = 2002 Estimates of Old Growth Forests on the 18 National Forests of the Pacific Southwest Region
| url = http://www.fs.fed.us/r5/rsl/publications/oldgrowth/oldgrowth2002.html
| publisher = [[United States Forest Service]], Pacific Southwest Region
| postscript = 
}}</ref>. The National Forest contains over {{convert|2500|mi|km}} of road and {{convert|850|mi|km}} of trails, and hosts a number of camping and recreational facilities. The forest is adjacent to [[Sequoia National Park]]. Forest headquarters are located in [[Porterville, California]]. There are local [[National Park Ranger|ranger]] district offices in [[Dunlap, California|Dunlap]], [[Kernville, California|Kernville]], [[Lake Isabella, California|Lake Isabella]], and [[Springville, California|Springville]].<ref>[http://www.ufwda.org/pdfs/USDAForestServiceRangerDistricts.pdf USFS Ranger Districts by State]</ref>

==Creation==
Sequoia NF was established on July 1, 1908 from a portion of [[Sierra Forest Reserve]]. On March 2, 1909 Theodore Roosevelt added land by Presidential Proclamation.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=76613
| title = Proclamation – Adding Lands to the Sequoia National Forest
| accessdate = 2009-12-04}}</ref>
On July 1, 1910 {{convert|1951191|acres|km2}} was removed from the forest to create the [[Kern National Forest]].<ref>{{cite book
| url = http://www.foresthistory.org/Research/usfscoll/places/National%20Forests%20of%20the%20U.S.pdf
| title = National Forests of the United States
| date = September 29, 2005
| last = Davis
| publisher = The Forest History Society
| first = , Richard C.
| unused_data = first, Richard C.}}</ref>
This land was returned to Sequoia NF on July 1, 1915.

==Sequoia Groves==
The Sequoia National Forest has 34 groves [[list of giant sequoia groves]]
The 14 groves in the Kings River watershed are in the northern section of [[Giant Sequoia National Monument]] (GSNM), or Sequoia National Forest (SeNF), in southernmost [[Fresno County, California|Fresno County]] and [[Tulare County, California|Tulare County]]:
# Indian Basin Grove (GSNM) A mid-size grove, mostly logged. It can be accessed by paved roads. The grove contains many young sequoias approaching diameters of up to {{convert|10|ft|m}}. {{coord|36|48|N|118|56|W|}} 1800–2000 m.
# [[Converse Basin]] Grove (GSNM). Once the second-largest grove, but much logged around 1890-1900; good regrowth of young trees. Home of the 'Boole' tree, the sixth largest tree by volume. Also home of the 'Chicago Stump', left over from a tree cut for the 1893 [[World Columbian Exposition]]. {{coord|36|48|N|118|58|W|}} 1800–2000 m.
# Lockwood Grove (GSNM). {{coord|36|48|N|118|52|W|}} 1700–1800 m.
# Monarch Grove (GSNM). Immediately north of the Agnew Grove, near Monarch Wilderness boundary. ''On Forest Service GSNM map.''
# [[Evans Grove]] (GSNM). Heavily logged, before 1920. 36°48'N 118°49'30"W 2050–2250 m.
# Agnew & Deer Meadow Grove (GSNM). {{coord|36|47|20|N|118|46|45|W|}} 1950–2000 m.
# [[Cherry Gap Grove]] (GSNM). Logged. Located between Converse Basin Grove and [[General Grant Grove]], near McGee Overlook ({{coord|36|46|40|N|118|57|30|W|}}). 2070 m. Cherry Gap Grove is a small [[sequoia grove]] of about thirty-five acres in Sequoia national forest; it was logged of all of its old growth sequoias.
# Abbott Creek Grove (GSNM). {{coord|36|46|N|118|58|W|}} 1900 m. ''Listed by Rundel and Flint; very small (largely logged); too few trees to qualify as a grove according to Willard''.
# [[Kennedy Grove]] (GSNM). {{coord|36|46|0|N|118|49|20|W|}} 2050–2250 m. Contains the 13th largest giant sequoia in the world, The [[Ishi Giant]].
# Little Boulder Creek Grove (GSNM). {{coord|36|45|10|N|118|49|0|W|}} 2000 m.
# Boulder Creek Grove (GSNM). {{coord|36|45|N|118|49|W|}} 2050 m.
# Landslide Grove (GSNM). {{coord|36|45|0|N|118|51|50|W}} 2050–2250 m.
# Bearskin Grove (GSNM). {{coord|36|45|0|N|118|54|40|W}} 1850–1900 m.
# Big Stump Grove (KCNP/GSNM). {{coord|36|43|N|118|58|W|}} 1850 m.

One grove in the [[Kaweah River]] watershed:
# [[Redwood Mountain Grove]] (KCNP/GSNM). The largest grove, 1240 ha (3100 acres), with 15,800 sequoias 30 cm (one foot) or more in diameter at the base.

The 19 groves in the [[Tule River]] and [[Kern River]] watersheds are mostly in [[Giant Sequoia National Monument]] (GSNM); all in southern [[Tulare County, California|Tulare County]].
#Upper Tule Grove (GSNM). ''Included on Forest Service GSNM map''.
#Maggie Mountain Grove (GSNM).
#Silver Creek Grove (GSNM).
#[[Mountain Home Grove]] (CSF / GSNM). Home of the 'Genesis' tree, seventh largest by volume, this grove also contains the smaller Middle Tule Grove
#Burro Creek Grove (GSNM).
#Wishon Grove (GSNM). South of Silver Creek Grove. ''Included on Forest Service GSNM map''.
#[[Alder Creek Grove]] (GSNM / private); also known as Hossack, Pixley, or Ross Creek Grove. Home of 'Alonzo Stagg', the fifth largest tree by volume. Also home to the Waterfall tree, which has the largest circumference and diameter at ground level of any sequoia.
#[[McIntyre Grove]] (GSNM).
#Carr Wilson Grove(GSNM); also known as Bear Creek Grove.
#[[Freeman Creek Grove]] (GSNM).
#[[Black Mountain Grove]] (GSNM / TIR / private). Heavily logged in 1984, though mature sequoias were not cut.
#Red Hill Grove (GSNM / private).
#Peyrone Grove (GSNM / TIR).
#South Peyrone Grove (GSNM) New discovery by Willard in 1992.
#[[Long Meadow Grove]] (GSNM), Site of the Trail of 100 Giants and one tree of great size.
#Cunningham Grove (GSNM).
#Starvation Creek Grove (GSNM).
#[[Packsaddle Grove]] (GSNM).
#Deer Creek Grove (GSNM). The southernmost grove.

==Giant Sequoia National Monument==
On April 15, 2000 President Bill Clinton proclaimed {{convert|328000|acre|km2|adj=on}} of the Sequoia National Forest as the [[Giant Sequoia National Monument]] by Presidential Proclamation 7295, published in the Federal Register, Tuesday, April 25, 2000, Vol. 65, No. 80.

The monument is in two sections. The northern section surrounds [[General Grant Grove]] and other parts of [[Kings Canyon National Park]] and is administered by the Hume Lake Ranger District. The southern section is directly south of [[Sequoia National Park]] and is administered by the Western Divide Ranger District, surrounding the eastern half of the [[Tule River Indian Reservation]].

==Marijuana==
The forest has been the scene of extensive illegal marijuana cultivation, with recent involvement of Mexican drug cartels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/seki/parknews/upload/spring%20clean%20up.pdf|title=Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks Continues the Fight Against Illegal Marijuana Production|date=2008-03-17|work=|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/CRIME/08/08/pot.eradication/index.html|title=Mexican cartels running pot farms in U.S. national forest|date=2008-08-08|work=|publisher=CNN}}</ref>

==Photos==
<gallery>
Image:Havilah CA USFS Service Center.JPG|Havilah Work Center.
Image:Alder creek CA giant Sequoias.jpg|Giant Sequoias.
Image:Long Meadow Grove CA.jpg| Long Meadow Grove on a misty day.
Image:Snow on the mountains of Southern California.jpg|[[Snow]] on the [[mountains]]
</gallery>

==External links==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*[http://www.fs.fed.us/r5/sequoia/ "Sequoia National Forest"]. [[United States Forest Service|United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service]]. Retrieved August 8, 2005.
*Willard, D. (1994). The natural Giant Sequoia groves of the Sierra Nevada, California - an updated annotated list. ''USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep''. PSW-GTR-151: 159-164.

{{Protected Areas of California|NF}}

[[Category:Sequoiadendron]]
[[Category:National Forests of California]]
[[Category:Forests of California|Sequoiadendron]]
[[Category:Protected areas of California]]
[[Category:Fresno County, California]]
[[Category:Kern County, California]]
[[Category:Tulare County, California]]
[[Category:Sierra Nevada (U.S.)]]

{{California-geo-stub}}
{{California-protected-area-stub}}

[[fa:جنگل ملی سکویا]]
[[fr:Forêt nationale de Sequoia]]

McNary National Wildlife Refuge

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Few areas in [[North America]] support waterfowl populations in the extraordinary numbers found within '''McNary National Wildlife Refuge'''. Visitors enjoy spectacular concentrations of [[Canada goose|Canada geese]], [[mallard]]s, and other [[waterfowl]]. More than half the mallards in the [[Pacific Flyway]] overwinter at some time in this portion of the [[Columbia River Basin]]. The refuge's location, close to the [[Tri-Cities, Washington]], and major State and Federal highways, makes it easily accessible to locals and travelers.

The refuge encompasses over {{convert|15000|acre|km2}} of backwater [[slough]]s, [[shrub]]-[[steppe]] uplands, irrigated farmlands, river islands, delta [[mudflat]]s, and [[riparian]] areas. Particularly important to Canada geese, mallards, and [[wigeon]]s, as well as [[shorebird]]s and [[wading bird]]s, the refuge also includes wetlands and shoreline bays that serve as an important nursery for developing [[fall chinook salmon]]. Other waterfowl species using the refuge include [[green-winged teal]], [[shoveler]], [[canvasback]], [[ring-necked duck|ring-necked]], and [[lesser scaup duck]]s. Rare and endangered birds, including [[bald eagle]]s and [[peregrine falcon]]s, are found here, as are thousands of colonial nesting water birds using river islands for safe nesting.

==References==
*[http://www.fws.gov/refuges/profiles/index.cfm?id=13520 Refuge profile]
*[http://www.fws.gov/mcnary Refuge website]
{{Include-USGov|agency=United States Fish and Wildlife Service}}

{{coord|46|11|49|N|118|57|19|W|display=title}}

{{Protected Areas of Washington}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mcnary National Wildlife Refuge}}
[[Category:National Wildlife Refuges in Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Walla Walla County, Washington]]

{{Washington-geo-stub}}
{{Washington-protected-area-stub}}

Mazatzal Mountains

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[[File:Mazaztal Peaks.jpg|thumb|370px|East side of the Mazatzal Mountains, March 2010]]
The '''Mazatzal''' (MAH-zaht-ZAL, locally Ma-ta-ZEL) '''Mountains''' are a mountain range in south central [[Arizona]], about 30–45 miles northeast of [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] and the [[Phoenix metropolitan area]]. They form the county line between [[Maricopa County, Arizona|Maricopa County]] and [[Gila County, Arizona|Gila County]]. [[Arizona State Route 87|SR 87]], the [[Beeline Highway]] traverses them on its way to [[Payson, Arizona|Payson]]. The highest peak is Mazatzal Peak at {{convert|7903|ft|m|0}}. They also include the [[Four Peaks]], a prominent mountain and landmark of the eastern Phoenix area.

The '''Mazatzal Wilderness Area''' protects {{convert|252500|acre|km2}} of the [[Tonto National Forest|Tonto]] and [[Coconino National Forest]]s. Established in 1940 and expanded to its present size in 1984, elevations range from {{convert|2100|ft|m}} at Sheep Bridge in the southwest to {{convert|7903|ft|m}} on Mazatzal Peak.

The eastern side of the wilderness consists of brush or pine-covered mountains, sometimes broken by narrow, vertical-walled canyons. On its west side below the steep brush-covered foothills, the [[Verde River]] flows through the [[Sonoran Desert]]. The Verde was designated by the U.S Congress as Arizona's only [[Wild and Scenic River]] in 1984.

== Sources and external links ==
* [http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/tonto/wilderness/wilderness-mazatzal-index.shtml Mazatzal Wilderness Area] at USFS
* [http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=NWPS&sec=wildView&WID=347 Mazatzal Wilderness Area] at wilderness.net
* [http://www.keckgeology.org/files/pdf/symvol/12th/Arizona/cox_et_al.pdf GEOLOGY OF THE MAZATZAL MOUNTAINS, CENTRAL ARIZONA]
* [http://www.trails.com/activity.aspx?area=11911 Mazatzal Mountains & Wilderness Area Hiking]

{{Coord|33.7086568|-111.3648531|display=title}}
{{Arizona-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Arizona transition zone mountain ranges]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of the Sonoran Desert]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Maricopa County, Arizona]]
[[Category:Landforms of Gila County, Arizona]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Arizona]]

Othello (Washington)

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{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Othello, Washington
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|nickname =
|motto =


|image_skyline =
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|image_map = Adams_County_Washington_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Othello_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250px
|map_caption = Location of Othello, Washington
|image_map1 =
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|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Washington|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Adams County, Washington|Adams]]


|government_footnotes =
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|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes =
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|area_total_km2 = 7.8
|area_land_km2 = 7.8
|area_water_km2 = 0.0
|area_total_sq_mi = 3.0
|area_land_sq_mi = 3.0
|area_water_sq_mi = 0.0


|population_as_of = [[United States Census, 2000|2000]]
|population_footnotes =
|population_total = 5847
|population_density_km2 = 752.8
|population_density_sq_mi = 1949.7


|timezone = [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific (PST)]]
|utc_offset = -8
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|latd = 46 |latm = 49 |lats = 25 |latNS = N
|longd = 119 |longm = 10 |longs = 2 |longEW = W


|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]s
|postal_code = 99327, 99332, 99344
|area_code = [[Area code 509|509]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 53-52215{{GR|2}}
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
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}}
'''Othello''' is a city in [[Adams County, Washington|Adams County]], [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]], [[United States]]. The population was 5,847 at the [[2000 United States Census|2000 census]]. Othello refers to the city as being in the “Heart” of the [[Columbia Basin Project]]. It is located approximately {{convert|100|mi|km}} southwest of [[Spokane, Washington|Spokane]], {{convert|180|mi|km}} east of [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], and about {{convert|25|mi|km}} south of [[Interstate 90 (Washington)|Interstate 90]], at the intersection of [[Washington State Route 17|SR 17]] and [[Washington State Route 26|SR 26]].

Othello has many outdoor recreation opportunities<ref name="ref1">[http://www.othellowashington.us/ "Othello, Washington"]. City of Othello website. Accessed May 2010.</ref>. The Columbia National Wildlife Refuge is about {{convert|5|mi|km}} away with {{convert|23200|acre|km2}} of land for hiking, fishing, biking and wildlife viewing.<ref name="ref1"/> Othello also has a few public golf courses.<ref name="ref1"/>

==History==
The first white settlers in the area were two brothers, Ben and Sam Hutchinson, who built a cabin along the [[Crab Creek]] in 1884. An influx of homesteaders began after the turn of the century, and a post office was established in 1904. The post office was named Othello after a post office also called Othello in [[Roane County, Tennessee]].

The [[Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad|Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul Railroad]] ran a track through Adams County in 1907. The railroad officially platted the town as a stop, with water to feed the boilers of steam trains. They kept the name Othello, and build a railyard and wooden [[roundhouse]] there. Although the roundhouse burned in 1919, it was replaced with a brick structure which lasted many years. Businesses and settlers continued to follow, and the town was incorporated May 31, 1910.<ref>http://www.othello-wa.us/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=47&Itemid=77</ref> At the time the railroad was the eastern terminus of the second electrified district of the Milwaukee Road's "Pacific Extension" route, which extended up to [[Tacoma, Washington]].

The [[United States Bureau of Reclamation|Bureau of Reclamation]] located offices in Othello in 1947, which prevented the decline of this town with the decline of rail shipping after [[WWII]]. In the early 1950s, the [[Columbia Basin Project]] brought irrigation to the Othello area, increasing both agriculture and commerce. Prior to this, water came only from Crab Creek and from local wells. The water arrived via the East Canal between Billy Clapp Lake and Scootenay Reservoir in Franklin County. Once there was irrigation available, a land drawing was held in Othello. On May 31, 1952 42 names were drawn (of more than 7000 submitted) for the privilege of purchasing this newly-desirable acreage.<ref>http://historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=8114</ref>

From 1951 to 1973 the [[Aerospace Defense Command|637th Radar Squadron]] operated the Othello Radar Station near the town<ref>http://www.othello-wa.us/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=42&Itemid=71</ref><ref>http://www.radomes.org/museum/showsite.php?site=Othello+AFS,+WA</ref>. In 1958, an ice plant was opened in town to service railroad cars moving produce. Frozen food packaging came to town in the early 1960s, and has since become the main industry.<ref>http://historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=7835</ref>

Since 1998, Othello has also been home to the Sandhill Crane Festival, celebrating the annual arrival of [[Sandhill Crane]]s to the nearby [[Columbia National Wildlife Refuge]].<ref>http://historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=7459</ref>

==Geography==
Othello is located at {{coord|46|49|25|N|119|10|2|W|city}} (46.823679, -119.167319){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 3.0 square miles (7.8 km²), all of it land.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Othello, WA.jpg|thumb|255px|T-33 jet in Pioneer Park, Othello.]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 5,847 people, 1,788 households, and 1,412 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 1,949.7 people per square mile (752.5/km²). There were 1,864 housing units at an average density of 621.6/sq mi (239.9/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 54.18% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.53% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 1.01% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.01% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.09% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 39.54% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 3.64% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 63.76% of the population.

There were 1,788 households out of which 48.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.6% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 13.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.0% were non-families. 17.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.24 and the average family size was 3.66.

In the city the population was spread out with 36.1% under the age of 18, 12.0% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 17.1% from 45 to 64, and 8.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females there were 103.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $30,291, and the median income for a family was $31,282. Males had a median income of $28,423 versus $21,455 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $11,409. About 18.4% of families and 24.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 33.5% of those under age 18 and 5.3% of those age 65 or over.

==Prominent people from Othello==
* [[Pee Wee (singer)|Pee Wee]] (born Irvan Salinas), singer
* [[Davey Richards]], [[Professional wrestling|professional wrestler]]
* [[Bill Crow]], Jazz Musician / Author

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.othellowashington.us City of Othello official site]
* [http://indreview.net Independent Review newspaper]

{{Adams County, Washington}}

[[Category:Cities in Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Adams County, Washington]]
[[Category:United States communities with Hispanic majority populations]]

[[bg:Отело (град)]]
[[ca:Othello (Washington)]]
[[eo:Othello (Vaŝingtonio)]]
[[fr:Othello (Washington)]]
[[ht:Othello, Washington]]
[[nl:Othello (Washington)]]
[[pt:Othello (Washington)]]
[[vo:Othello]]

San Elijo-Lagune

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'''San Elijo Lagoon''' is one of the largest [[coastal wetland]]s in [[San Diego County]], [[California]], [[USA]]. It is the location of the '''San Elijo Lagoon Ecological Reserve'''. <ref name=seaworld>[http://www.seaworld.org/swc/wetlands/sd_county_wetlands/san_elijo_lagoon_ecological_reserve.htm "San Elijo Lagoon Ecological Reserve"]</ref>

The lagoon lies within the southernmost part of the city of [[Encinitas, California|Encinitas]]. Its [[Drainage basin|watershed]] is {{convert|77|sqmi|km2}}. The two main feeds are [[Escondido Creek]] and [[Orilla Creek]]. The reserve covers {{convert|900|acre|km2}}.<ref name=seaworld/>

The Reserve is owned{{fact|date=January 2010}} by the [[California Department of Fish and Game]] <ref>[http://www.dfg.ca.gov/lands/er/region5/sanelijo.html]</ref> and is managed by the [[County of San Diego]] <ref>[http://www.sdcounty.ca.gov/parks/openspace/selr.html]</ref>.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|33|00|35|N|117|15|44|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Wetlands of California]]
[[Category:Nature reserves in California]]
[[Category:San Diego County, California]]
{{California-geo-stub}}

Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods

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{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2010}}
{{For|other Sisters of Providence congregations|Sisters of Providence (disambiguation){{!}}Sisters of Providence}}

{{Infobox Organization
|name = Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana
|image = Sisters-of-Providence-logo.jpg
|image_border =
|size =
|alt = Sisters of Providence logo
|caption =
|map =
|msize =
|malt =
|mcaption =
|abbreviation =
|motto = Breaking boundaries, creating hope.
|formation = October 22, 1840
|extinction =
|type = [[Catholic religious order]]
|status =
|purpose =
|headquarters = [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana]]
|location = United States, China, Taiwan
|region_served =
|membership =
|language =
|leader_title = General Superior
|leader_name = Sister Denise Wilkinson
|main_organ =
|parent_organization =
|affiliations =
|num_staff =
|num_volunteers =
|budget =
|website = [http://www.SistersofProvidence.org sistersofprovidence.org]
|remarks = Founded by [[Theodore Guerin|Saint Mother Theodore Guerin]]
}}

The '''Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods''' are an [[Consecrated life (Catholic church)#Apostolic congregations|apostolic congregation]] of [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[women]] founded by Saint [[Theodore Guerin|Theodora Guerin]] (known colloquially as [[Saint Mother Theodore]]) at [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana]], in 1840. Mother Theodore and her companions left the [[Sisters of Providence of Ruillé-sur-Loir]], [[France]] at the invitation of the Bishop of Vincennes to found the Sisters of Providence in the [[United States]]. In 1843 the Indiana congregation became independent of the order in Ruillé, and the Rules of the Congregation were approved by the [[Holy See]] in 1887.<ref>Dehey 1913, p. 133</ref>

More than 5,200 women have entered the Sisters of Providence since 1840.<ref name="MediaKit">[http://www.spsmw.org/SistersofProvidence/News/SaintMotherTheodoreGuerinMediaKit/tabid/1456/Default.aspx Sisters of Providence Media Kit]</ref> As of 2010, there are nearly 400 sisters in the order, roughly 300 of whom live and minister from the motherhouse grounds in [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana]]. Other sisters minister in 19 [[U.S.]] states and [[Asia]].<ref>[http://www.spsmw.org/SistersofProvidence/Aboutus/tabid/816/Default.aspx About the Sisters of Providence]</ref>

Currently, foreign missions are in [[Taiwan]] and [[China]]. Former foreign mission were in [[Peru]] and [[Antigua]].<ref name="SPsite"/>

Sisters of Providence are designated by the initials "SP" following their name in print. The congregation is a member of the [[Women of Providence in Collaboration]].

[[Theodore Guerin|Saint Mother Theodore]] was [[canonized]] on October 15, 2006. Her remains are currently enshrined in the [[Church of the Immaculate Conception (Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana)|Church of the Immaculate Conception]] at [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana]], as well as a portion buried in the [[Sisters of Providence Convent Cemetery]].

==Spirituality==
According to their mission statement, Sisters of Providence are "dedicated to the mission of being God's [[Divine Providence|Providence]] in the world by committing ourselves to works of love, mercy and justice in service among God's people."<ref name="SPsite">[http://www.spsmw.org Sisters of Providence main page]</ref>

Individual sisters are free to worship in their own ways and places of ministry. On the motherhouse grounds of [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana]], the congregation has daily mass available in the [[Church of the Immaculate Conception (Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana)|Church of the Immaculate Conception]]. The grounds are also home to numerous shrines and sacred places, including the [[Blessed Sacrament Chapel (Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana)|Blessed Sacrament Chapel]], the [[Saint Anne Shell Chapel]], the Grotto of [[Our Lady of Lourdes]], the National Shrine of [[Our Lady of Providence]], and a walking [[labyrinth]]. An outdoor set of the [[stations of the cross]] leads into the [[Sisters of Providence Convent Cemetery]].<ref>[http://www.spsmw.org/SpiritualityPrayer/PrayerRequests/Home/tabid/586/Default.aspx Sisters of Providence Spirituality & Prayer]</ref>

==History==
In 1840 at the invitation of Bishop [[Simon Bruté]] of the [[Diocese of Vincennes]], [[Indiana]], the Sisters of Providence of [[Ruillé-sur-Loir]], [[France]] sent [[Theodore Guerin|Sister St. Theodore Guerin]] to open a school and minister to people in the [[Diocese of Vincennes]]. She was accompanied by five other sisters: Sister St. Vincent Ferrer (Victoire) Gagé, Sister Basilide (Josephine) Sénéschal, Sister Olympiade (Therese) Boyer, Sister Mary Xavier (Francis Louise) Lerée and Sister Mary Liguori (Louise Frances) Tiercin.

[[Image:SP first convent marker.jpg|thumb|alt=First Providence Convent.|This stone marks the location of the first motherhouse of the Sisters of Providence.]]After a rough journey across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the eastern [[United States]], the sisters arrived in [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana]] on October 22, 1840. They were given living accommodations by a local family, Joseph and Sarah Thralls. (This location is now honored with a [[historical marker]] from the [[Indiana Historical Bureau]].)<ref>[http://www.in.gov/history/markers/Guerin.htm Indiana Historical Bureau: Saint Theodora Guérin]</ref>

====Educational ministry====
Educators from the beginning, the sisters began building an academy for girls called [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College|The Academy]] in 1840. The first student at the academy arrived for enrollment July 4, 1841.<ref name="MediaKit"/> [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College|The Academy]] is now known as [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College]] and is the oldest [[Roman Catholic]] college for women in the [[United States]].

The sisters soon found them selves in charge of or staffing several local schools, including St. Joseph's Parochial Catholic School, St. Benedict's German Catholic School, and St. Patrick's Day School, all in nearby Terre Haute.<ref>Bradsby 1891</ref> As their reputation as educators grew, Sisters of Providence would eventually staff schools across [[Indiana]]. They also would extend their ministry into [[Illinois]], [[Massachusetts]], [[California]], [[Florida]], [[Texas]], [[Oklahoma]], other states and the [[District of Columbia]].

==Mission in Asia==
The Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods were the first congregation of American women religious to establish a mission in [[China]].

====Ministry in Kaifeng====
In the summer of 1919, Bishop Joseph Tacconi of [[Kaifeng|Kaifeng, China]], met with Sisters of Providence [[general superior]] Mother [[Mary Cleophas Foley]] to request sisters for a school for young women in [[Kaifeng]]. Sister Mary Gratia Luking led this group of sisters to [[Kaifeng]] to open an elementary school and a junior middle school for girls.

Luking and her companions arrived in [[Kaifeng]] on November 24, 1920. Soon after arriving, the sisters opened a medical dispensary and the Hua Mei School for Girls. The sisters ministered here until 1927 when the [[Communist]] army of [[Mao Zedong]] reached [[Kaifeng]]. The sisters were forced to leave, taking refuge with the [[Maryknoll Sisters]] in [[Korea]].

In 1929 they returned to [[Kaifeng]] and opened an orphanage as well as a novitiate for women wanting to enter religious life. This native congregation, the Providence Sister-Catechists, received papal approval in 1932. Ching I Middle School was opened September 12, 1932.

====World War II====
[[Japan]] began threatening [[China]] by 1935, and air raids, bombings and attacks by soldiers became commonplace. [[Kaifeng]] was bombed March 25, 1938. Soon the school and novitiate became a place of refuge for people seeking safe haven. Though [[Kaifeng]] fell to the Japanese June 6, 1938, and life became more difficult for the sisters, they remained in their compound.

On December 8, 1941, the sisters' compound in Kaifeng was attacked by Japanese soldiers. The sisters from the [[United States]] were forced to relocate to a [[Baptist]] mission compound and then a [[Benedictine]] Sisters' compound in [[Kaifeng]]. On March 22, 1943, the Sisters of Providence and all other U.S. missionaries were interned at the [[Weihsien Compound]], a concentration camp in [[Shandong]]. Five months later U.S. internees were again relocated, this time to [[Peking]] where they were placed under house arrest with the Spanish Daughters of Jesus.

In September 1945 after the war had ended, the sisters returned to [[Kaifeng]] and repaired their compound, I Ching School and the novitiate. However, [[China]] was soon politically plagued by internal strife between the [[Communists]] and the [[Nationalists]]. As the Communist armies advanced to [[Kaifeng]], the United States [[Consulate General]] advised U.S. citizens to leave. The sisters spent some time with the [[Religious of the Sacred Heart]] in [[Shanghai]].

====Taiwan====
As [[China]] fell under [[Communist]] rule, 23 Sisters of Providence and Providence Sister-Catechists moved to [[Taiwan]], then known as [[Formosa]], and settled in [[Taichung]]. Luking and the other sisters began building a new college. The school, now known as [[Providence University]], opened in 1949 and moved to the region of [[Shalu, Taichung]] in 1987.<ref>[http://www.pu.edu.tw/english/ Providence University Homepage]</ref>

Currently, Sisters of Providence work in multiple ministries in [[Taiwan]]. In addition to ministry at [[Providence University]], sisters staff multiple facilities for care of children and adults with mental and/or physical disabilities including St. Theresa Opportunity Center in Yucheng, Reed School in [[Hsinchu]], St. Camillus de Lellis Center for the Mentally Challenged in [[Penghu]] and Miracle Place in Taishan.

Recently, the Sisters of Providence have returned to China again in hopes of establishing ministries there such as elder care, education or religious formation.<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Gallagher
| first = Sean
| coauthors =
| title = Providence nuns consider returning to China
| newspaper = The Criterion
| location = Indianapolis
| pages =
| language =
| publisher =
| date = August 28, 2007
| url = http://www.catholic.org/diocese/diocese_story.php?id=25180&page=1
| accessdate = October 29, 2009}}</ref>

==Current ministries==
Sisters of Providence work in the areas of education, health care, peace and justice, social services and spiritual development. In addition to the individual ministries of its sisters, the congregation funds multiple ministry organizations.

====Providence Center====
Providence Center is the welcoming center of the Sisters of Providence at Saint Mary-of-the-Woods. The facility includes the Sisters of Providence heritage [[museum]], with exhibits about [[Saint Mother Theodore Guerin]], the history of the congregation, and the ministries of the Sisters of Providence. Also preserved at the Center is a set of twelve historical [[diorama]]s, began by [[Henri Marchand]] and completed by Gregory Kamka.

There is also a gift shop, dining services in O'Shaughnessy Dining Hall and the National Shrine of [[Our Lady of Providence]].

====White Violet Center for Eco-Justice====
{{Main|White Violet Center for Eco-Justice}}
White Violet Center for Eco-Justice focuses on [[organic food|organic agriculture]], eco-justice education, [[spiritual ecology]] and social advocacy. Founded in 1995, the center maintains a herd of [[alpacas]], {{convert|343|acre|km2}} of state-certified [[organic food|organic]] farmland, [[bees]], a berry patch, a farmers' market, classified [[forest]] and [[orchards]].<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Cox
| first = Dave
| coauthors =
| title = Providence Sisters work for justice in varied ministries
| newspaper = The Criterion
| location = Indianapolis
| pages =
| language =
| publisher =
| date = January 14, 2005
| url = http://www.archindy.org/criterion/local/2005/01-14/s-providence.htm
| accessdate = October 29, 2009 }}</ref> White Violet Center is considered an "engaged project" by the [[Yale University]] Forum on Religion and Ecology.<ref>[http://fore.research.yale.edu/religion/christianity/projects/white_violet.html Forum on Religion and Ecology]</ref>

====Guerin Outreach Ministries====
Guerin Outreach Ministries is made up of three ministries: Education and Family Services in [[West Terre Haute, Indiana]]; Providence Family Services in West [[Humboldt Park, Chicago]]; and Providence in the Desert in southern [[California]]. These ministries provide adult literacy/[[GED]] instruction, tutoring for school-age children, [[ESL|English as a Second Language]] classes, citizenship classes, music classes, computer literacy classes, and bilingual counseling.<ref>[http://www.spsmw.org/GuerinOutreachMinistries/HomeGuerinOutreachMinistries/tabid/1102/Default.aspx Guerin Outreach Ministries]</ref>

====Providence Self Sufficiency Ministries====
Providence Self Sufficiency Ministries, Inc., (PSSM) collaborates with local agencies and organizations to provide need based services including foster care services, family reunification, counseling, low-income housing, senior citizen care, and low-income medical treatment. Associated organizations are Guerin Woods, Providence House for Children, and The Meadows of Guerin in [[Georgetown, Floyd County, Indiana]] and Saint Ann Clinic in [[Terre Haute, Indiana]].<ref>[http://www.spsmw.org/PSSM/PSSMHome/tabid/1103/Default.aspx Providence Self Sufficiency Ministries]</ref>

==Peace and justice==
The congregation has elected to focus on several social justice issues: women in church/society, eco-justice, [[racism]], [[nonviolent]] strategies for [[peace]] and [[disarmament]], [[immigrant]] rights, and persons living in [[poverty]].

Several ministries of the Sisters of Providence address these issues, including White Violet Center for Eco-Justice, Guerin Outreach Ministries, Providence Self Sufficiency Ministries.

The Sisters of Providence administer grants to not-for-profit systemic change groups with limited access to other funding through their Poverty and Justice Fund. They are also a founding congregation and sponsoring member of [[8th Day Center for Justice]], based out of [[Chicago]].<ref>[http://www.spsmw.org/PeaceJustice/Resources/Prayersforpeaceandjustice/LitanyofNonViolence/tabid/650/Default.aspx Sisters of Providence Peace & Justice]</ref>

====Death penalty and prison reform====
Numerous Sisters of Providence participate in prison ministry, visiting and writing to inmates. The General Council of the Sisters of Providence adopted a public stance against the [[death penalty]] in 1995 in collaboration with the [[Leadership Conference of Women Religious]]. Sisters of Providence plan prayer vigils, write letters to government leaders and provide media relations support for this cause.

The only federal [[execution chamber]] in the [[United States]] is located at the [[Federal Correctional Complex, Terre Haute|Federal Correctional Complex]] just south of [[Terre Haute, Indiana]], only five miles away from the motherhouse of the Sisters of Providence in [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana]].

====Nonviolence====
The Sisters of Providence Anti-Racism Team works to dismantle [[systemic racism]] within the Sisters of Providence, their sponsored institutions, places of ministry and the larger society. The Sisters of Providence Litany of [[Non-violence]] reads, in part, "Deliver us from the silence that gives consent to abuse, war and evil. Grant us the desire, and the courage, to risk speaking and acting for the common good."<ref>[http://www.spsmw.org/PeaceJustice/Resources/Prayersforpeaceandjustice/LitanyofNonViolence/tabid/650/Default.aspx Sisters of Providence Litany of Non-violence]</ref>

====Prisoners of Conscience====
Since 1990, numerous Sisters of Providence have been involved with [[School of the Americas Watch]] in protest of the training of mainly [[Latin American]] military officers, by the [[United States Department of Defense]], at the [[School of the Americas]] in [[Fort Benning]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].

Several Sisters of Providence have chosen to take direct action in protest, facing legal repercussions for crossing onto federal property at Fort Benning. For action in November 2001, Sister Kathleen Desautels was convicted of federal trespassing and served a six-month sentence at the Federal Prison Camp in Greenville, [[Illinois]].<ref>Hanrahan, Clare, ed. ''Jailed for Justice'', pages 124–126. Celtic WordCraft, 2007.</ref> Other sisters have been arrested and sentenced to house arrest, community service and probation.

====Green projects====
In accordance with their commitment to eco-justice, the Sisters of Providence installed a [[biomass]] boiler to heat and power the buildings on their motherhouse grounds in [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana|Saint Mary-of-the-Woods]]. The boiler burns downed trees, trimmings and scrap wood from construction projects, all donated by local tree services, cities and manufacturing companies.

The Sisters of Providence also produce their own [[biodiesel]] for use in lawn mowers and off-road trucks on the grounds. They maintain a significant [[recycling]] program and use a sustainable [[irrigation]] system for their [[organic food|organic]] gardens and [[orchards]].<ref>[http://www.spsmw.org/GreenProjects/Home/tabid/539/Default.aspx Sisters of Providence Green Projects]</ref>

==Notable Sisters of Providence==
====General superiors====
* [[Theodore Guerin|Saint Mother Theodore Guerin]], congregation foundress and [[Roman Catholic]] [[saint]]; general superior 1840–1856
* [[Mary Cecilia Bailly|Mother Mary Cecilia Bailly]], 1856–1868
* [[Anastasie Brown|Mother Anastasie Brown]], 1868–1874
* [[Mary Ephrem Glenn|Mother Mary Ephrem Glenn]], 1874–1883
* [[Euphrasie Hinkle|Mother Euphrasie Hinkle]], 1883–1889
* [[Mary Cleophas Foley|Mother Mary Cleophas Foley]], superior general 1890–1926, inaugurated [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College]] and began the Sisters of Providence mission in [[China]]
* [[Mary Raphael Slattery|Mother Mary Raphael Slattery]], 1926–1938
* [[Mary Bernard Laughlin|Mother Mary Bernard Laughlin]], 1938–1948
* [[Marie Helene Franey|Mother Marie Helene Franey]], 1948–1953
* [[Gertrude Clare Owens|Mother Gertrude Clare Owens]], 1954–1960
* [[Rose Angela Horan|Mother Rose Angela Horan]], 1960–1966
* [[Mary Pius Regnier|Mother Mary Pius Regnier]], 1966–1976
* [[Loretta Schafer|Sister Loretta Schafer]], 1976–1981
* [[Anne Doherty|Sister Anne Doherty]], 1981–1986
* [[Nancy Nolan|Sister Nancy Nolan]], 1986–1996
* [[Diane Ris|Sister Diane Ris]], 1996–2001
* [[Ann Margaret O'Hara|Sister Ann Margaret O'Hara]], 2001–2006
* [[Denise Wilkinson|Sister Denise Wilkinson]], 2006–

====Other sisters====
* Sister Judith Birgen, professor and Fulbright lecturer (Uganda, 2008)
* [[Cecilia Clare Bocard|Sister Cecilia Clare Bocard]], musician and composer for organ and piano
* [[Barbara Doherty|Sister Barbara Doherty]], educator and theologian, president of [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College]] 1984–1998
* Sister Jean Kenny, [[American football|football]] fan known for her annual [[Super Bowl]] prediction and multiple appearances on the [[David Letterman Show]]
* [[Jeanne Knoerle|Sister Jeanne Knoerle]], author and educator, president of [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College]] 1968–1983
* [[Edith Pfau|Sister Edith Pfau]], painter, sculptor and art educator
* [[Alexa Suelzer|Sister Alexa Suelzer]], theologian, author and educator known for [[Old Testament]] criticism

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{Cite book
| last = Bradsby
| first = H.C.
| authorlink = Henry C. Bradsby
| coauthors =
| title = History of Vigo County, Indiana, with Biographical Selections
| publisher = S. B. Nelson & Co.
| year = 1891
| location = Chicago
| pages = 543–544
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = }}

* {{Cite book
| last = Brown
| first = Mary Borromeo
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = History of the Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods: Volume I
| publisher = Sisters of Providence
| year = 1949
| location = Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = }}

* {{Cite book
| last = Dehey
| first = Elinor Tong
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Religious Orders of Women in the United States: Accounts of Their Origin and of Their Most Important Institutions
| publisher = W. B. Conkey Company
| year = 1913
| location = Hammond, Indiana
| pages = 128–133
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=IOgQAAAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = }}

* {{Cite book
| last = Logan
| first = Eugenia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = History of the Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods: Volume II
| publisher = Sisters of Providence
| year = 1978
| location = Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = }}

* {{Cite book
| last = Madden
| first = Mary Roger
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = The Path Marked Out: History of the Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods: Volume III
| publisher = Sisters of Providence
| year = 1991
| location = Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = }}

* {{Cite journal
| last = Mug
| first = Mary Theodosia
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Sisters of Providence
| journal = The Catholic Encyclopedia
| volume =
| issue =
| pages =
| publisher = Robert Appleton Company
| location = New York
| year = 1911
| url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12507b.htm
| issn =
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = October 27, 2009}}

* {{Cite book
| last = Wolf
| first = Ann Colette
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Against All Odds: Sisters of Providence Mission to the Chinese (1920–1990)
| publisher = Sisters of Providence
| year = 1990
| location = Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = }}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Théodore Guérin|Saint Mother Theodore Guerin}}
{{Wikisource|Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Congregations of Providence II}}
{{Portal|Catholicism}}
*[http://www.spsmw.org Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods]
*[http://www.provcenter.org Providence Center]
*[http://www.p-v-m.org Providence Volunteer Ministry]
*[http://www.whiteviolet.org White Violet Center for Eco-Justice]

{{Catholic congregation}}

[[Category:Religious organizations established in 1840]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic orders and societies]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic religious orders established in the 19th century]]
[[Category:Christian religious orders established in the 19th century]]
[[Category:Religious museums in the United States]]
[[Category:Museums in Vigo County, Indiana]]
[[Category:Biographical museums in Indiana]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in Indiana]]
[[Category:Indiana educational history]]

[[it:Suore della Provvidenza (Saint Mary-of-the-Woods)]]
[[es:Hermanas de la Providencia de Saint Mary-of-the-Woods]]

Benutzer:Shi Annan/Ohio Company of Associates

2010-10-18T11:17:24Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{dablink|For the earlier Ohio Company of Virginia, see the [[Ohio Company]].}}
[[Image:Plssohio.gif|thumb|Map of Ohio showing the boundaries of the Ohio Company Purchase on the lower right.]]
[[Image:PUTNAM exb.jpg|thumb|right|Rufus Putnam]]
[[Image:ForTheOhio.jpg|thumb|right|Pioneer wagon]]
[[Image:OhioCompanyOfAssociates.jpg|thumb|right|Plaque at Marietta, Ohio commemorating the Ohio Company of Associates]]
The '''Ohio Company of Associates''', also known as the '''Ohio Company''', was a land company which is today credited with becoming the first non-[[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]] group to settle in the present-day state of Ohio. It was formed on March 1, 1786, by General [[Rufus Putnam]], [[Benjamin Tupper]], [[Samuel Holden Parsons]] and [[Manasseh Cutler]], who had met in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] to discuss the settlement of the territory around the [[Ohio River]].

Cutler was sent to New York to negotiate with the [[Congress of the Confederation]] to help the company secure a claim on the portion of land they were interested in. While there, Cutler aligned himself with [[William Duer (1747-1799)|William Duer]], secretary of the U.S. Treasury Board. Duer and his associates formed a steadfast group of New York [[Speculation|speculators]] determined for the settlement of the area west of the [[Appalachians]].<ref>A bronze historical plaque on the wall of [[Federal Hall|Federal Hall, New York]], commemorates the Ohio Company, with a map of Ohio.</ref> At this time, Congress desperately needed revenue. It was the economic strain and the pressure from Duer and Cutler that helped them to secure the incorporation in the [[Northwest Ordinance]], for the government of the [[Northwest Territory]] of the paragraphs which prohibited [[slavery]] and provided for [[public education]] and for the support of the [[Minister (Christianity)|ministry]].

After the creation of the Northwest Territory, Cutler suggested that the governor of the territory be General [[Arthur St. Clair]], who was then serving as the President of Congress. Once St. Clair had been appointed to his new position, two new contracts were signed on October 27, 1787 between St. Clair, Cutler, and Major [[Winthrop Sargent]], the secretary of the Ohio Company. The first was for the absolute purchase for the Ohio Company, of 1,500,000 acres (6,000 km²) of land at the confluence of the Ohio and Muskingum rivers from a point near the site of the present [[Marietta, Ohio|Marietta]], to a point nearly opposite the site of the present [[Huntington, West Virginia]], for a payment of $1 million in government securities, then worth about 12¢ specie to the dollar. The contract also provided that one section of land in every township be devoted to the maintenance of public schools, another section be set apart for religious uses, and two entire townships be reserved for a university.

[[image:ohio-scioto lands.png|thumb|The proposed purchase by the [[Scioto Company]] is shown in red. The proposed purchase of 1,500,000 acres by the Ohio Company is in blue. The final dimensions of the Ohio Company is in green, including the First Purchase, Second Purchase, and Donation Tract.|left|350px]]
The second contract was an option to buy all the land between the [[Ohio River|Ohio]] and the [[Scioto River|Scioto rivers]] and the western boundary line of the Ohio Company's tract, extending north of the tenth [[survey township]] from the Ohio, this tract being preempted by Manasseh Cutler and Winthrop Sargent for themselves and others actually for the [[Scioto Company]]. Cutler's original intent was to buy for the Ohio Company only about 1,500,000 acres (6,000 km²), but on the July 27, Congress authorized a grant of about 5,000,000 acres (20,000 km²) of land for $3,500,000; a reduction of one-third was allowed for bad tracts, and it was also provided that the lands could be paid for in United States securities. On the same day, Cutler and Sargent for themselves and associates transferred to William Duer, then Secretary of the Treasury Board, and his associates one equal moiety of the Scioto tract of land mentioned in the second contract, it being provided that both parties were to be equally interested in the sale of the land, and were to share equally any profit or loss. However, the interest of the Scioto Company was only speculative, and their contract lapsed before any land was purchased. In contrast, the Ohio Company held a genuine plan of settlement.

The company made it’s first installment of $500,000, but was unable to raise the second $500,000. It settled for a purchase of {{convert|750000|acre|km2}}, plus the two townships for [[College Lands]] and the reserved [[School Lands]] and [[Ministerial Lands]] sections in each township for a total area of {{convert|913833|acre|km2}}, called the First Purchase.<ref name=officialohio>[http://www.auditor.state.oh.us/Publications/General/OhioLandsBook.pdf#page=27 Auditor of State of Ohio - The Official Ohio Lands Book, pages=27-30)]</ref> The lands were privately surveyed, but on the same plan of townships, ranges, and sections as the adjacent [[Seven Ranges]] under the procedure of the [[Land Ordinance of 1785]].<ref name=ord1785>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=lljc&fileName=028/lljc028.db&recNum=409 Text of Ordinance of May 20, 1785] [[Library of Congress]]</ref><ref name=ohiosub>{{cite book |title=Ohio Lands and Their Subdivisions|last=Peters|first=William E.|year=1918 |publisher=W.E. Peters|pages=237–258|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HiApAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA237&lpg=PA237}}</ref>

In 1788, General Rufus Putnam laid out the plans for Marietta, the first permanent settlement in the present state of Ohio. [[American pioneers to the Northwest Territory|Pioneers]] were sent out by the Ohio Company from [[New England]] to Marietta. The first purchase was in [[Washington County, Ohio|Washington]], [[Meigs County, Ohio|Meigs]], [[Gallia County, Ohio|Gallia]], [[Lawrence County, Ohio|Lawrence]] and [[Athens County, Ohio|Athens Counties]].

Difficulties with [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] during the [[Northwest Indian War]], including the [[Big Bottom Massacre]], led Congress in 1792 to donate {{convert|100000|acre|km2}} on the north edge of the first purchase as a buffer against incursion, called the [[Donation Tract]], in Washington and Morgan Counties. Many associates of the company held army bounty warrants, which they could exchange for federal land, totaling {{convert|142900|acre|km2}}. Later in 1792, another purchase was made of {{convert|214285|acre|km2}} in [[Morgan County, Ohio|Morgan]], [[Hocking County, Ohio|Hocking]], [[Vinton County, Ohio|Vinton]] and [[Athens County, Ohio|Athens Counties]] using these bounties, with the 1/3 discount for bad lands, as in the first purchase. The Second Purchase had no sections set aside for schools or ministry. The Second Purchase is also known as the [[Purchase on the Muskingum]].<ref name=ohiosub/>

In 1796, the Ohio Company divided its shares and ceased to be a genuine land company.

{|class="wikitable" style="width:34%"
! width = 10%| '''TRACT'''
! width = 10%| '''AREA (acres)'''
! width = 10%| '''AREA (Metric Unit)'''
|-
! First Purchase
| 913833
| Something
|-
! Second Purchase
| 214285
| Something
|-
! Donation Tract
| 100000
| Something
|-
! Total
| 1228118
| Something
|}

==See also==
*[[Ohio Lands]]
*[[Historic regions of the United States]]
*[[Donation Tract]]
*[[Purchase on the Muskingum]]

==Bibliography==
{{1911}}

''Additional references include:''
*{{cite book |title=Pioneer History: Being an Account of the First Examinations of the Ohio Valley, and the Early Settlement of the Northwest Territory|last=Hildreth |first=S.P. |year=1848 |publisher=H. W. Derby and Co. |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yak6sfwDB5gC}}
*{{cite book |title=The Records of the Original Proceedings of the Ohio Company, Volume I|last=Hulbert|first=Archer Butler |year=1917|publisher=Marietta Historical Commission|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3x8mAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book |title=The Records of the Original Proceedings of the Ohio Company, Volume II|last=Hulbert|first=Archer Butler |year=1917|publisher=Marietta Historical Commission|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cCAmAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book |title=History of Marietta |last=Summers|first=Thomas J.|year=1903|publisher=The Leader Publishing Co.|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6BImAAAAMAAJ
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://digicoll.marietta.edu/oca/index.html Manuscripts and Documents of the Ohio Company of Associates - Marietta College].
* [http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=945 Ohio Company of Associates - Ohio History Central].
{{Ohio-Lands}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ohio Company Of Associates}}
[[Category:Companies established in 1786]]
[[Category:Early American land companies]]
[[Category:Pre-state history of Ohio]]
[[Category:Marietta, Ohio]]

Lake Lenore (Washington)

2010-10-18T10:57:07Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{Infobox lake
| lake_name = Lenore Lake
| image_lake =
| caption_lake =
| image_bathymetry =
| caption_bathymetry =
| location = [[Grant County, Washington]]
| coords = {{coord|47.5020|-119.5120|region:US-WA_type:waterbody|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| inflow =
| outflow =
| catchment = {{convert|367|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| basin_countries = United States
| length = {{convert|8|mi|abbr=on}}
| width =
| area =
| depth = {{convert|15|ft|abbr=on}}
| max-depth = {{convert|27|ft|abbr=on}}
| volume = {{convert|19500|acre.ft|abbr=on|lk=on}}
| residence_time =
| shore = {{convert|14.4|mi|abbr=on}}
| elevation = {{convert|1075|ft|abbr=on}}
| islands =
| cities =
| frozen =
}}
'''Lake Lenore''' (aka. Lenore Lake) is located in [[Grant County, Washington]]. It is a {{convert|1670|acre|km2|adj=on}} lake formed by the [[Missoula Floods]] in the lower [[Coulee]] just north of the town of [[Soap Lake, Washington]]. It is situated between Alkali Lake to the north and [[Soap Lake]] to the south. The lake is rather narrow, but long. The length of the lake runs north and south right beside [[Washington State Route 17]] leading from near the city of [[Moses Lake, Washington|Moses Lake]] to [[Coulee City, Washington]].

One of the interesting areas around Lake Lenore is the Lenore Caves. Located at the northern end of the lake, the Lenore Caves are a series of overhangs along the cliffs at the lake. They exist in one of the largest volcanic regions on earth.

== Statistics ==
*Restroom facilities: Yes
*Boat launch area(s): Yes
*Handicap accessible: Yes

== Lenore Caves ==
The Lenore Caves were formed by the plucking of basalt from the walls of the coulees by the rush of melt waters and are geologically different from most caverns. They were later used as shelters by prehistoric man.

On [[Washington State Route 17]] along Lake Lenore is a turn-off which takes you to a parking area at the beginning of a trail there is a sign with information about the caves and a general history of the area. There are seven caves accessible by this well maintained trail. This trail splits into many trails which lead to the caves scattered about the mountainside.

== History ==
On January 13, 1947, the [[United States|U.S.]] [[War Assets Administration]] disposed of drums of [[sodium]] into Lake Lenore. See a [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3825610222960975525 January 13, 1947 newsreel].

== References ==
* [http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/eap/lakes/wq/docs/lklengr1.html Washington State Department of Ecology, Lenore Lake]

== External links ==
* [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3825610222960975525 Disposal of Sodium - 1947]

[[Category:Grant County, Washington]]
[[Category:Lakes of Washington (U.S. state)|Lenore]]

Mitchelstown Castle

2010-10-18T10:53:28Z

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{{Citations missing|article|date=October 2009}}

'''Mitchelstown Castle''', the former home of the Irish [[Earl of Kingston|Earls of Kingston]], was located in the north [[County Cork]] town of [[Mitchelstown]] in [[Ireland]].

==15th to 18th century==
''White Knights, Dark Earls'' is to date the most extensive published account of Mitchelstown Castle, which was the biggest [[neo-Gothic]] house in Ireland. A castle was first built at Mitchelstown Castle in the 15th century by the White Knights of Mitchelstown, from whom, through marriage, it passed to the King family, Barons and Earls of Kingston. [[James King, 4th Baron Kingston|James, 4th Baron Kingston]], extensively refurbished and modernised the castle in the 1730s. After his death in 1761, the castle passed to his grand-daughter, Caroline Fitzgerald. She married her cousin Robert King, Viscount Kingsborough who was, from 1797, the 2nd Earl of Kingston. The Kingsboroughs demolished most of the old Mitchelstown Castle in the 1770s and incorporated what remained into a new Palladian mansion, described as a 'house with wings'.

==19th century==
In 1823, after his succession, their son, George, 3rd Earl of Kingston, demolished the [[Palladian architecture|Palladian house]] and replaced it with a new castle designed by [[James Pain|James]] and [[George Richard Pain]].<ref>{{cite book|last= Preston Neale|first=John|coauthors=Thomas Moule|title=Views of the seats of noblemen and gentlemen, in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland|publisher=Sherwood, Jones and Co., |date=1825|pages=(no page numbers)|chapter=|url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=kpEZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT334&dq=%22mitchelstown+castle+was+commenced+by+the+present+nobleman%22&lr=&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=%22mitchelstown%20castle%20was%20commenced%20by%20the%20present%20nobleman%22&f=false|accessdate=2009-10-17}}</ref> It has 60 principal and 20 minor bedrooms, a {{convert|100|ft|m|adj=mid|-long}} gallery, three libraries, morning room, dining room (which could seat 100 guests at one sitting) and various other facilities.

*[http://www.mitchelstown.org/history/images/jpg/castle.jpg Mitchelstown Castle]

Mitchelstown Castle was the biggest neo-Gothic house in Ireland, cost £100,000 to build<ref>{{cite book|last=Samuel|first=Lewis |title=A topographical dictionary of Ireland|publisher=S. Lewis, |date=1837|pages=373|url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=wqzRAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA373&dq=%22the+splendid+seat+of+the+earl+of+kingston%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%20splendid%20seat%20of%20the%20earl%20of%20kingston%22&f=false|accessdate=2009-10-17}}</ref> and became the 'fashion statement' of its time. It inspired other major Irish castles such as [[Strancally Castle]] (County Waterford) and [[Dromoland Castle]] for [[Lord Inchiquin]]. Unfortunately, the 100,000 [[acre]] Mitchelstown Estate ran into considerable financial difficulties which, after the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] of 1845-1851, forced its owners to sell {{convert|70000|acre|km2}} in the [[Landed Estates Court]]. Further difficulties arose as a result of internal family squabbling, legal disputes and the Land War of the 1880s, in which the estate played a prominent part.

==20th century==
In June 1922, the castle was occupied by the [[Irish Republican Army (1922–1969)|Irish Republican Army]]. The then owner, William Downes Webber (second husband of Anna, Dowager Countess of Kingston), his relatives and servants were 'evicted' to houses in nearby King Square. Over the next few weeks the castle was held by the Republicans who appeared to be preparing it for some kind of siege. However, in early August, the contents of the building were looted by the Republicans and their friends. Among the items stolen were paintings by [[Thomas Gainsborough]], [[William Beechey]] and Conrod, as well as silver, furniture, wall hangings, and mantlepieces. On 12 August 1922, Mitchelstown Castle was burned on the orders of a local Republican leader whose father and grandfather had been middlemen on the Kingston estate. At the same time, the military barracks at [[Fermoy]], [[Mallow, County Cork|Mallow]], Mitchelstown and [[Kilworth]] were burned, as well as the military hospital in Fermoy, Mitchelstown workhouse, Mitchelstown RIC barracks and the railway viaduct in Mallow.

Afterwards, William Downes Webber sought compensation from the Irish Free State totalling £149,000 for rebuilding and £18,000 for contents. He intended to rebuild if sufficient compensation was provided. After his death in 1924, Colonel W.A. King-Harman pursued the claim in the Irish courts. Judge Kenny, in the Irish High Court in 1926, stated that the destruction of Mitchelstown Castle had been an act of wanton destruction which had no military purpose. He awarded £27,500 for the building and £18,000 for the contents. Most of this was used to build houses in Dublin as King-Harman decided that it was too small a sum for a rebuilding.

The stones of Mitchelstown Castle were subsequently sold to the [[Cistercian]] monks of [[Mount Melleray]], County Waterford, who used them to build a new abbey.<ref>{{cite book|last= Leland|first=Mary|title=The lie of the land: journeys through literary Cork|publisher=Cork University Press|date=1999|pages=164|isbn=9781859182314|url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=PL1YhI3Rp1cC&pg=PA164&dq=%22the+great+castle+of+mitchelstown+was+burned+down%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22the%20great%20castle%20of%20mitchelstown%20was%20burned%20down%22&f=false|accessdate=2009-10-18}}</ref> In the 1940s, [[Mitchelstown #Co-Operative|Mitchelstown Co-operative Agricultural Society]] built a milk processing factory on the site of the castle, which it had purchased together with some of the demesne lands that surrounded it. The site is now owned by Dairygold Co-op. The [[Coat of arms|coats of arms]] of Mitchelstown Castle are now held by a local writer and will be erected in Mitchelstown's new public library, which will also have a special section devoted to local history and especially Mitchelstown Castle and its owners.

Famous guests at Mitchelstown Castle included [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Mary Wollstonecraft]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Claudia L.|title=The Cambridge companion to Mary Wollstonecraft|editor= Claudia L .Johnson|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2002|series=Cambridge Collections Online|volume= Cambridge companions to literature |pages=18|isbn=9780521789523|url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=zAIO6OMk8cIC&pg=PA18&dq=%22mitchelstown+castle%22&lr=&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=%22mitchelstown%20castle%22&f=false|accessdate=2009-10-17}}</ref> [[Arthur Young (writer)|Arthur Young]], [[Elizabeth Bowen]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Christensen|first=Lis|title=Elizabeth Bowen: the later fiction|publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press|date=2001|pages=31|isbn=9788772896243|url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=_tIQ_PT7c2oC&pg=PA31&dq=%22mitchelstown+castle%22&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=%22mitchelstown%20castle%22&f=false|accessdate=2009-10-17}}</ref> and [[Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau]]. The King family also produced several important figures including Viscount Kingsborough who was the author of 'The Antiquities of Mexico,' and Margaret, Countess Mount Cashell, to whom [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] dedicated his poem 'A Sensitive Plant'.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* Bill Power. [http://www.amazon.com/White-Knights-Dark-Earls-Anglo-Irish/dp/1898256942 ''White Knights, Dark Earls: The Rise and Fall of an Anglo-Irish Dynasty'']. pub. Collins (2000)
* Bill Power, 'Another Side of Mitchelstown', Mitchelstown 2008.
* Bill Power, 'Images of Mitchelstown, stories and pictures from my own place,' pub. Mount Cashell Press, 2002.
* Anthony Lawrence King-Harman. [http://books.google.ie/books?id=6sU6PQAACAAJ&dq=Anthony+Lawrence+King-Harman.+%27%27The+Kings+of+King+House ''The Kings of King House'']
* Janet Todd, [http://books.google.ie/books?id=C5RnAAAAMAAJ&q=Janet+Todd.+%27%27Daughters+of+Ireland&dq=Janet+Todd.+%27%27Daughters+of+Ireland ''The Rebellious Kingsborough Sisters and the Making of a Modern Nation''] Ballantine (2005).
* Claire Tomalin. [http://books.google.ie/books?id=1a0KGwAACAAJ&dq=Claire+Tomalin.+%27%27The+Life+and+Death+of+Mary+Wollstonecraft. ''The Life and Death of Mary Wollstonecraft'']. (1992). This biography of Wollstonecraft, a former governess to the King family in the late 1780s, provides some general information about the house, mainly in footnotes.

==External links==
* [http://www.archiseek.com/content/showthread.php?t=6317 Postcard image of the castle at archiseek.com]
* [http://www.heritageweek.ie/en/HomeSearchDetails.aspx?EventID=956 Heritage walk commemorating the Looting and Burning of Mitchelstown Castle]
* Stereoscope images of Mitchelstown Castle, [http://www.europeana.eu/portal/full-doc.html?query=clonmel&tab=&start=24&startPage=13&uri=http://www.europeana.eu/resolve/record/90700/691750872465AB57C478CA330B475438E64C05DC&view=table&pageId=bd East], [http://www.europeana.eu/portal/full-doc.html?query=clonmel&tab=&start=25&startPage=25&uri=http://www.europeana.eu/resolve/record/90700/2ACD0BA026D7CE57609609A7664EA5356D001BE7&view=table&pageId=bd South] and [http://www.europeana.eu/portal/full-doc.html?query=clonmel&tab=&start=26&startPage=25&uri=http://www.europeana.eu/resolve/record/90700/94F77755AEF2AF0FBBF2059B3642A1F325568A92&view=table&pageId=bd North] from [[Europeana]]
{{coord|52|16|N|8|18|W|display=title|region:IE_type:landmark_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Castles in County Cork]]
[[Category:Mitchelstown]]

Washington National Forest

2010-10-18T10:52:07Z

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'''Washington National Forest''' was established by the [[General Land Office]] as the '''Washington Forest Reserve''' in [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] on February 22, 1897 with {{convert|3594240|acre|km2}}. After the transfer of federal forests to the [[U.S. Forest Service]] in 1905, it became a [[United States National Forest|National Forest]] on March 4, 1907. On July 1, 1908, [[Chelan National Forest]] was established with a potion of Washington. On January 21, 1924 Washington was renamed [[Mount Baker National Forest]]. The lands presently exist as [[Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest]].<ref>{{citation|title={{PDFlink|[http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/Places/National%20Forests%20of%20the%20U.S.pdf National Forests of the United States]|341 KB}}|date=September 29, 2005|author=Davis, Richard C.|publisher=[[Forest History Society]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.foresthistory.org/ Forest History Society]
*[http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/Places/National%20Forests%20of%20the%20U.S.pdf Listing of the National Forests of the United States and Their Dates] ([[Forest History Society]] website) ''Text from Davis, Richard C., ed. Encyclopedia of American Forest and Conservation History. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company for the Forest History Society, 1983. Vol. II, pp. 743-788.''

{{coord missing|Washington}}

[[Category:Former National Forests of Washington]]

Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge

2010-10-18T09:54:21Z

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{{Infobox Protected area
| name = Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge
| iucn_category =
| photo = Columbia plateau trail IMG 1549.jpg
| photo_caption = The ecological transition between the dry, sagebrush dotted grasslands of the Columbia Basin up toward the timbered Selkirk and Bitterroot Mountains provides excellent wildlife habitat.
| location = [[Spokane County]], [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]
| nearest_city = [[Cheney, Washington]]
| lat_d = 47
| lat_m = 25
| lat_s = 23
| lat_NS = N
| long_d = 117
| long_m = 33
| long_s = 59
| long_EW = W
| region = US-WA
| area = {{convert|16000|acre|km2}}
| established = 1937
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body = [[U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service]]
}}
[[Image:USNWRsystemlogo.png|left]]
The '''Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge''' was established in 1937 by an Executive Order of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] is located six miles (10 km) south of [[Cheney, Washington]] on the eastern edge of the [[Columbia Basin]], in [[Spokane County]] in northeastern [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]. Turnbull NWR encompasses approximately {{convert|16000|acre|km2}} of the [[Channeled Scablands]]. The ecosystem that predominates the Turnbull is unique within the National Wildlife Refuge System and has characteristics that distinguish it from natural reserves worldwide. The powerful forces of volcanism, glaciation and the largest flood in geological history have combined to forge a distinct environment. The combination of basalt outcrops, channeled canyons and ponderosa pine forests infused in a diverse landscape of over 130 marshes, wetlands and lakes, create an environment of aesthetic beauty as well as high quality wildlife habitat. Refuge ecosystems represent an ecological transition between the dry, sagebrush dotted grasslands of the Columbia Basin and the timbered Selkirk and Bitteroot Mountain Ranges that rise up to the east. The {{convert|3036|acre|km2}} of wetlands on Turnbull NWR represent some of the last quality breeding habitat available in eastern Washington for waterfowl, which have experienced tremendous population declines across North America due to loss and degradation of breeding, migration and wintering habitat.

==Geology ==
The Refuge is situated within the [[Channeled Scablands]], an area formed 16,000 years ago by [[Missoula Floods]] during the last ice age. The powerful forces of the volcanism which formed the [[Columbia Plateau]], glaciation and a series of large floods combined to form an environment unique in many respects. The combination of scablands, basalt outcrops, channeled canyons, [[ponderosa pine]] forests and meadows provide a diverse landscape with over 130 marshes, wetlands and lakes. The area provides a high quality wildlife habitat in an ecosystems that represents an ecological transition between the dry, sagebrush dotted grasslands of the [[Columbia Basin]] up toward the timbered [[Selkirk Mountains|Selkirk]] and [[Bitterroot Mountains|Bitterroot Mountain Ranges]] that rise up to the east.

== Wildlife and Habitat==
The Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge was established to provide productive breeding and nesting grounds for migratory birds and other wildlife, and it encompasses approximately 16,000 acres (65 km²) of the Channeled Scablands. The ecosystem that predominates the Refuge is unique within the [[National Wildlife Refuge System]] and has characteristics that distinguish it from natural reserves worldwide. The 3,036 acres (12 km²) of wetlands on Turnbull NWR represent some of the last quality breeding habitat available in eastern Washington for waterfowl, which have experienced tremendous population declines across North America due to loss and degradation of breeding, migration and wintering habitat.

==Access==
The [[Columbia Plateau Trail]] provides access to the refuge.

==References==
* [http://www.fws.gov/turnbull/ U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service web article]

{{Protected Areas of Washington}}

==External links==
* Official site: [http://www.fws.gov/turnbull/index.html Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge]

[[Category:National Wildlife Refuges in Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Spokane County, Washington]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1937]]

Luttrellstown Castle

2010-10-18T09:45:09Z

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{{nofootnotes|date=April 2008}}
'''Luttrellstown Castle''', dating from the early 15th century (circa 1420), is located near [[Clonsilla]] on the outskirts of [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]]. It has been owned variously by the eponymous and notorious [[Luttrell]] family, by the bookseller [[Luke White (Irish politician)|Luke White]] and his descendants [[Baron Annaly]], by the [[Guinness family]], the Primwest Group, and since 2006, by [[JP McManus]], [[John Magnier]] and Aidan Brooks<ref name="IT_171208">Dublin, The Irish Times: Luttrellstown course to close at end of 2009, [http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/sport/2008/1217/1229035812854.html]</ref>.

The castle has hosted visits by [[Queen Victoria]] in 1844 and 1900, and its media profile was raised when [[Victoria Beckham|Victoria Adams]] married [[David Beckham]] there on 4 July 1999. American rock band [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]] recorded part of the their album [[Monster (R.E.M. album)|Monster]] there also. Luttrellstown and its remaining {{convert|560|acre|km2|adj=on}} demesne currently form a 5-star resort, with a golf course, country club and unique location within the city boundaries of [[Dublin]], but it has been announced that at least the golf course will close at the end of 2009<ref name="IT_171208"/>.

==Owners==
===The Luttrell family===
The Luttrell family had held Luttrellstown since the land there had been granted to Sir Geoffrey de Luterel in about 1210 by King [[John of England|John]]. Sir Geoffrey served as King John's minister on many missions of state to Ireland from 1204 to 1216, and was the ancestor of the Luttrells of [[Dunster Castle]] in [[Somerset]]shire, England. The family became the biggest landowners in the district by the 17th century.

Robert Luttrell was treasurer of [[St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin|St. Patrick's Cathedral]] and [[Lord Chancellor of Ireland]] from (1235-1246).

The castle was started by Sir Geoffrey Luttrell, the 5th Lord Luttrell, who was born circa 1385.

Sir Thomas Luttrell, was Chief Justice of the Common Pleas in Ireland, 1534-1554.

Colonel [[Henry Luttrell (Colonel)|Henry Luttrell]], (born circa 1655, died 22 October 1717) was an Irish soldier, the second son of Thomas Luttrell of Luttrellstown. He was assassinated in his [[sedan chair]] outside his town house in Wolfstone Street, [[Dublin]] in 1717. He had created enemies by supposedly betraying Irish leader, [[Patrick Sarsfield]], either by his precipitate withdrawal of his [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] troops, and/or by giving strategic information about a [[Ford (crossing)|ford crossing]] a river to the army of King [[William III of England]], leading to the loss of the [[Battle of Aughrim]] in 1691.

Colonel [[Simon Luttrell, 1st Earl of Carhampton]] ([[1713]]–14 January 1787) was a British politician and Irish nobleman. He was the second son of Colonel [[Henry Luttrell (Colonel)|Henry Luttrell]], of Luttrellstown and became Lord Lieutenant of the County Dublin.

[[Henry Lawes Luttrell, 2nd Earl of Carhampton]] (born 1743, died 1821) was the son of Simon, 6th Lord Luttrell of Luttrellstown. He served as M.P. for Bossiney in 1768, and subsequently as Adjutant General of Ireland where he was notorious for his role in suppressing the [[Irish Rebellion]] of 1798. He was so hated that he sold Luttrellstown Castle in 1800, but in a revenge attack his grandfather's grave was opened and the skull smashed (Colonel Henry Luttrell d.1717). His 'popularity' in Ireland is encapsulated by an incident in which the [[Dublin Post]] of 2 May 1811 reported his death, he demanded a retraction which they printed under the headline ''Public Disappointment'' [http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=2411 ]. He owned an estate in West Indies and lived in [[Painshill Park]] in Surrey, England.

===Luke White===
Henry Lawes Luttrell sold Luttrellstown to publisher [[Luke White (Irish politician)|Luke White]], described as one of the most remarkable men that Ireland produced and ancestor of [[Baron Annaly|Lord Annaly]]. Luke White changed the name to ''Woodlands'' to eradicate the name of Luttrell, but his great grandson, 3rd Lord Annaly, reverted it to Luttrell Castle.

In 1778 Luke White started as an impecunious book dealer, buying in Dublin and reselling around the country. By 1798, during the rebellion, he helped the Irish government with a loan of 1 million pounds (at £65 per £100 share at 5%). He became M.P. for Leitrim, and died in 1824 leaving properties worth £175,000 per annum.

===Lord Annaly===
Eventually the estate devolved to his fourth son who was created Lord Annaly, peer of the United Kingdom.

====Visits by Queen Victoria====
Queen Victoria first visited Luttrellstown in 1844 en route to the [[Duke of Leinster]] at [[Carton House]]. In 1900, en route to the [[Viceregal Lodge]] she drank a cup of tea near the [[waterfall]], an event commemorated by Lord Annaly with an obelisk made of six [[granite]] blocks from the Dublin mountains.

===Ernest Guinness===
In 1927 the estate was bought by [[Ernest Guinness]], as a wedding present for his daughter, Aileen Guinness, the [[Honourable Mrs Brinsley Plunket]].

===Private consortia===
In 1983 it was sold to the private consortium Primwest, and in 2006, it was bought by [[JP McManus]], [[John Magnier]] and Aidan Brooks<ref name="IT_171208"/>. In 2007, more than €20 million was spent on major upgrade work, including improvements to the Steel- and Mackenzie-designed championship golf course and the "alpine style" clubhouse. But late in 2008, it was announced that with under 400 members, the golf course and club would close at the end of 2009. No intention to close the hotel or sell the estate were announced. Golf club members, who said they had been given assurances about the club facilities and continuity, were reported to be "extremely angry and disappointed."<ref name="IT_171208"/>

== References and footnotes ==
{{reflist}}

== External sources ==
* [http://www.chaptersofdublin.com/books/ball1-6/Ball4/ball4.1.htm History of the parish of Clonsilla, Luttrellstown and its Castle]
* [http://www.chaptersofdublin.com/books/ball1-6/balllist.htm A History of the County Dublin, by Francis Elrington Ball INDEX]
* [http://www.chaptersofdublin.com/books/ball1-6/Ball4/ball4.1.htm A History of the County Dublin, Volume 4, Chapter 1, Clonsilla Parish, by Francis Elrington Ball]
* [http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=2402 Ask About Ireland - Luttrellstown Castle]
* [http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=2411 About Ireland - "Public Disappointment"]
* [http://www.manorpark.ie/ongar.pdf Guide to Historic Dublin]
* [http://www.theluttrells.homestead.com/LuttrellsOfIrelandGenealogy.html Luttrell Genealogy]

==External links==
* [http://www.luttrellstown.ie/ Luttrellstown Castle official web site]
* [http://www.theluttrells.homestead.com/Ireland.html The Luttrells in Ireland]

{{coord|53|22|45.36|N|6|25|2.84|W|region:IE_type:city|display=title}}

{{Historic Irish houses}}

[[Category:Clonsilla]]
[[Category:Castles in Fingal|Luttrellstown Castle]]

Shanbally Castle

2010-10-18T09:19:46Z

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'''Shanbally Castle''' was built for Cornelius O'Callaghan, the first Viscount [[Lismore]], in around 1810, the mansion was the largest house built in Ireland by the noted English architect, [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

The castle - located near [[Clogheen, County Tipperary|Clogheen]], [[South Tipperary]] - was acquired by the [[Irish Land Commission]] in 1954. On 21 March 1960 the castle, after much controversy, was demolished.

The protests against the demolition of Shanbally Castle came from some local sources, [[An Taisce]], a few academics such as Professor Gwynn and some political voices such as Senator Sean Moylan, the Minister for Agriculture until his death in November 1957, and TD from Mitchelstown, John W Moher. Politically, the [[Fianna Fail]] Government had no love for houses of the ascendancy, a group of people who, in its selective view of history, had deprived Ireland of its freedom for so many centuries.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} Local TD [[Michael Davern]] was in favour of the demolition of Shanbally Castle.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

For a brief period it seemed that a purchaser could be found in the form of the London theatre critic [[Edward Charles Sackville-West, 5th Baron Sackville]], who had a tremendous love of the [[Clogheen]] area,{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} which he had known since childhood. He agreed to buy the castle, together with {{convert|163|acre|km2}}, but pulled out of the transaction when the [[Irish Land Commission]] refused to stop cutting trees in the land he intended to buy.

When this sale did not happen, the [[Irish Government]] claimed that it could not find another suitable owner for the castle.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

In March 1960, ''The Nationalist'' reported the final end of a building which was once the pride of the neighbourhood.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} "A big bang yesterday ended Shanbally Castle, where large quantities of gelignite and cortex shattered the building," it said. The explosion could be heard up to {{convert|10|mi|km}} away.

A statement from the [[Irish Government]] released after the demolition of the Castle said in response to protests favouring the retention of Shanbally Castle for the nation: "Apart from periods of military occupation the castle remained wholly unoccupied for 40 years".{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

==External links==
* [http://www.friendsoftheirishenvironment.net/print.php?sid=1375 Heritage for sale: Irish Mansions on the Market]
* [http://incolor.inebraska.com/jskean/Shanbally.htm Explosions Rip Through Shanbally Castle]
* [http://www.iol.ie/~clogheen/history/Shanbally/ShanballyCastle.htm IOL.ie/~clogheen/history/Shanbally/ShanballyCastle.htm]

{{Coord missing|County Tipperary}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}

[[Category:Castles in South Tipperary County]]

Nenagh Castle

2010-10-18T09:06:57Z

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{{Infobox Place Ireland
| name = Nenagh
| gaeilge = ''Aonach Urmhumhan''
| crest image =
| motto =
| map image = Ireland map County Tipperary Magnified.png
| pin coords = left: 31px; top: 41px
| north coord = 52.8632
| west coord = 8.1995
| irish grid = R865787
| area km2 =
| elevation m = 72
| province = [[Munster]]
| county = [[North Tipperary]]
| town pop = 7415
| rural pop = 333
| census yr = 2006
| static_image = Street in Nenagh.JPG
| static_image_caption = Pearse Street, Nenagh
| web = www.nenagh.ie
}}

'''Nenagh''' ({{IPA-all|ˈniːnæ|}}; {{Irish place name|Aonach Urmhumhan}}) is the [[county town]] of [[North Tipperary]] in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]. It is the administrative centre of North Tipperary and in 2006 it had a recorded population of 7,415.<ref name=CSO>{{cite web|url=http://www.cso.ie/census/documents/census2006_Table_5.pdf |title=Microsoft Word - Volume 1 2006 isbn.doc |date= |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-10-27}}</ref> It is located in the [[Barony (Ireland)|barony]] of [[Ormond Lower]], and is also a [[parish]] in the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Killaloe]].<ref>[http://www.killaloediocese.ie/parishes Parishes of Killaloe Diocese.]</ref>

Nenagh was originally a market town, and its name in Irish means "The Fair of Ormond" - a reference to the Ormond (East [[Munster]]) Fair, of which it was the site. Nenagh is today a busy commercial town and is governed by Nenagh [[Town council|Town Council]].<ref name="nenaghtc1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nenaghtc.ie/index.html |title=Nenagh Town Council - Homepage |publisher=Nenaghtc.ie |date= |accessdate=2008-10-27}}</ref>

==Location and access==
Nenagh, the largest town in North Tipperary, lies to the west of the [[Nenagh River]], which empties into [[Lough Derg (Shannon)|Lough Derg]] at [[Dromineer]], 9 km to the north-west, a popular centre for sailing and other [[Watersport|water sports]].<ref name="Lough Derg">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nenagh.ie/places.htm|title=Nenagh Places to Visit|accessdate=May 13, 2008}}</ref> The [[Silvermines]] mountain range lies to the south of the town, with the highest peak being [[Keeper Hill]] ({{lang-ga|Sliabh Ciamalta}}) at 694m.<ref name="Listing at peakbagger.com">{{Cite web|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=8999|title=Keeper Hill|accessdate=May 13, 2008}}</ref> The Silvermines have been intermitantly mined for [[silver]] and [[base metal]]s for over seven hundred years. Traces of 19th century mine workings remain.<ref name="Mining Heritage Trust">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mhti.com/mines_in_ireland_files/silvermines.htm|title=Silvermines|accessdate=2008-05-13}}</ref>

{{climate chart
|Nenagh, [[Ireland]]
| 3 | 8 | 51.2
| 3 | 8 | 43.3
| 4 | 10 | 36.5
| 5 | 12 | 36.3
| 7 | 15 | 33.2
| 10 | 18 | 38.6
| 12 | 19 | 34.8
| 12 | 19 | 39.7
| 10 | 17 | 39.7
| 7 | 13 | 58.3
| 5 | 10 | 43.4
| 4 | 8 | 44.7
| float=right
}}

===Transport===
Nenagh is situated on the [[R445 road|R445]] [[Regional Road]], which links it to the [[M7 motorway (Ireland)|M7]]. The M7 by-passes the town to the south and provides high quality access to the cities of [[Limerick]] and [[Dublin]]. The [[N52 road|N52]] [[National Secondary Route]] to [[Birr]] (and through the Midlands to [[Dundalk]]) starts/terminates at Nenagh. This route also bypasses Nenagh to the north and connects with the M7 to the west of the town towards Limerick.

====Rail====
[[Nenagh railway station]] is on the [[Limerick-Ballybrophy railway line|Limerick to Ballybrophy line]]. Passengers can connect at [[Ballybrophy halt]] to trains heading northeast to [[Dublin]] or southwest to [[Cork (city)|Cork]] or [[Tralee]]. The station opened on 5 October 1863.<ref>{{cite web | title=Nenagh station | work=Railscot - Irish Railways | url=http://www.railscot.co.uk/Ireland/Irish_railways.pdf | accessdate=2007-09-07}}</ref>

The railway line is lightly used. Lack of upkeep means that the line is restricted to a maximum speed of 40 km/h and the existing trains are poorly timetabled for [[commuting|commuters]]. A committee (the Nenagh Rail Steering Committee) working in conjunction with Irish Railway News, had a meeting with the national railway company [[Iarnród Éireann]] (IÉ) on 1 September 2005 to present the results of a traffic study funded by Nenagh Town Council and [[North Tipperary County Council]], and to seek a morning and evening service between Nenagh and Limerick which would increase commuter traffic. IÉ agreed to delay an afternoon service from the December 2005 timetable and to work towards an early service when equipment permitted from 2007.

While the twice-a-day service on the Ballybrophy/Limerick line is poor, Nenagh is only 37 km from Thurles, which is on the main Dublin/Cork line, and which has around 18 trains daily in each direction, including non-stop services to and from Dublin.

==Features and attraction==
The town's historic attractions include [[#Nenagh Castle|Nenagh Castle]], the Heritage Centre and the ruined [[Franciscan]] [[abbey]]. It has a mild climate, with the average daily maximum in July of 19 °C and the average daily minimum in January of 3 °C.

==History==
Nenagh is located in the Barony of Ormond which was the traditional territory of the O'Kennedy's prior to the [[Norman invasion of Ireland]]. This land was included in the grant made by King [[John of England]] to Theobald, eldest son of Hervey Walter of [[Lancashire|Lancashire, England]]. Theobald was subsequently appointed '''Chief Butler of Ireland'''.<ref name=Murphy2>{{cite book | last = Murphy | first = Nancy | authorlink = |coauthors = | title = Walkabout Nenagh| publisher = Relay Books| year = 1994| location = | url = | doi =| isbn = 0-946327-12-2 }}</ref>

Nenagh Castle was built c1216 and was the main castle of the [[Butler dynasty|Butler family]] before they moved to Gowran, [[County Kilkenny]] in the 14th century. The family later purchased [[Kilkenny Castle]] which was to the main seat of their power for the next 500 years.<ref name="Murphy2" /> The town was one of the ancient manors of the Butlers who received the grant of a fair from [[Henry VIII of England]]. They also founded the medieval priory of St John, just outside the town at Tyone. A small settlement grew up around the castle, but it never seems to have been of any great importance other than as a local market throughout the medieval period.<ref>Brian Hodkinson, ''In search of Medieval Nenagh'', '''North Munster Antiquarian Journal''', Vol. 46, 2006, pp. 31-41</ref> An important Franciscan friary was founded in the town in 1252 in the reign of [[Henry III of England]] which became the head of the Irish custody of West Ireland and was one of the richest religious houses in Ireland.<ref name="Murphy2" /> The Abbey was in use for six hundred years; Fr. Patrick Harty, who died in 1817, was its last inhabitant.

The town seems to have been refounded in the 16th century. In 1550 the town and friary were burned by O'Carroll. In 1641 the town was captured by [[Owen Roe O'Neill]], but shortly afterwards it was recaptured by Lord Inchiquin. It surrendered to [[Henry Ireton|Ireton]] in 1651 during the [[Cromwellian]] period and was burned by [[Patrick Sarsfield|Sarsfield]] in 1688 during the [[Williamite war in Ireland|Williamite Wars]]. Apart from the Castle and Friary most of the town's buildings date from the mid-18th century onwards when its sale out of Butler ownership led to the large-scale grant of leases and the subsequent growth of industries and buildings. The town's growth and development was accelerated in 1838 when the geographical county of Tipperary was divided into two ridings and Nenagh became the administrative capital of the North Riding.<ref name="Murphy2" /> In this period [[Daniel O'Connell]] held one of his [[Monster meetings]] for [[Repeal (Ireland)|Repeal]] of the [[Act of Union 1800|Act of Union]] at Grange outside of Nenagh.

In the 19th century Nenagh was primarily a market town providing services to the agricultural hinterland. Industries included brewing, corn processing, coach building and [[Ironworks|iron works]] with the addition of [[Cottage industry|cottage industries]] such as tailoring, dressmaking, millinery, shoemaking, carpentry, wood-turning, wheelwrighting, harnessmaking, printing, and monumental sculpting. The Nenagh Co-operative Creamery was established in 1914 providing employment in milk processing and butter-making.<ref name="Murphy2" />

==Politics and Governance==
The nine member Nenagh town council is responsible for local matters such as utilities, housing and planning.<ref>http://www.nenaghtc.ie/ser.html</ref> At the [[Irish local elections, 2009|2009 Local Elections]] two members each were elected for [[Fianna Fail]], [[Fine Gael]], [[Labour Party (Ireland)|Labour Party]] along with two [[Independent (politician)|Independents]] and one [[Sinn Féin]].<ref>http://www.nenaghtc.ie/ser_you_cou.html</ref> The town is part of the seven member Nenagh ward for elections for [[North Tipperary County Council]] <ref>http://electionsireland.org/result.cfm?election=2009L&cons=397</ref> and is part of the [[Tipperary North]] constituency.

==Major Buildings==
=== Nenagh Castle===
[[Image:Nenagh Castle.jpg|thumb|left|Nenagh Castle]]
This fine Norman Keep was built c1200 by [[Theobald Walter, 1st Baron Butler]] and completed by his son [[Theobald le Botiller]] c1220.<ref name=Murphy1>{{cite book | last = Murphy | first = Nancy | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Nenagh Castle: Chronology and Architecture | publisher = Relay Books | year = 1993 | location = | url =| doi = | isbn = 0-946327-10-6 }}</ref>
The Butlers later became Earls of [[Earl of Ormond (Ireland)|Ormond]]. Nenagh remained their principal seat until 1391 when it was moved to [[Kilkenny Castle]]. The last Marquess (James Butler) died in 1997. Without a male heir the marquessate became extinct, while the earldom is dormant. The circular keep is over thirty metres high, and has a base of sixteen metres and is one of the finest of its
kind in Ireland.<ref name="Murphy1" />
The crown of mock crenellations and ring of clerestory windows were added at the instigation of Rev. William Flannery in 1861. The intention was that the keep would become the [[Bell tower]] of a [[E.W. Pugin|Pugin]]-designed cathedral which was never built.
<ref name="Murphy1" /> Though not true to historic character these additions have ensured the iconic status of the keep which ensures that it features on the logos of many local clubs and businesses including Nenagh Town Council.<ref name="nenaghtc1"/> A project is currently under way to develop the castle and its surrounds. This project will position the castle as the main [[tourist attraction]] in the area.

===Other Historic Buildings===
'''The old gaol''', with its beautiful octagonal governor's residence, has been happily reduced to the status of an historic monument. Only one Gaol block remains intact. '''The Governor's Residence''' and '''Gaol Gatehouse''' currently house Nenagh & District [[Heritage centre|Heritage Centre]].

[[Image:Nenagh Courthouse.JPG|thumb|left|Nenagh Courthouse]]
'''Nenagh Courthouse''' was built in 1843 to the design of Architect [[John B. Keane (architect)|John B. Keane]].<ref name="Murphy2" /> The design was similar to his previous courthouse in [[Tullamore]] which in turn followed William Morrison's designs for [[Carlow]] and [[Tralee]].<ref name="Murphy2" /> The courthouse has recently been refurbished following the moving of the [[County council|County Council]] offices to the new Civic Offices. The grounds of the refurbished courthouse nearby have recently become the site of bronze sculptures of [[:Image:Nenagh olympic.jpg|three Olympic gold medallists]] with Nenagh links.

[[Image:Banba Square.JPG|thumb|left|The Town Hall (Nenagh Arts Centre) in Banba Square]]
'''Nenagh Arts Centre''' (formerly the Town Hall) is a distinctive building built in 1895. It has been refurbished and now (as of October 2010) features a theatre and multi-purpose exhibition space. <ref>Nenagh Guardian, Saturday 25 September 2010 page 11</ref> Until 2005 it housed the offices of Nenagh Town Council and up until the 1980s Nenagh [[Public library|Public Library]]. The building was designed by the then Town Engineer Robert Gill (grandfather of [[Tomás Mac Giolla]])<ref name="Murphy2" />

===Religious Buildings===
'''St Mary's of the Rosary Catholic Church''' is a [[Gothic Revival architecture|neo-gothic]] church and was built in 1895 to a design by architect Walter G Doolin.
<ref name=Cotter1>{{cite book| last = Cotter| first = Rev. Pat| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = St. Mary's of the Rosary, Nenagh, 1896-1990 | publisher = | year = 1990| location = | url = | doi = | id = }}</ref> It was constructed by John Sisk using Lahorna stone and Portroe slate with the [[Portland stone]] of the arches being the only imported material.<ref name="Cotter1" />

The adjacent '''St Marys [[Church of Ireland]] Church''' was built in 1862 to a design by the architect [[Joseph Welland (architect)|Joseph Welland (1798–1860)]]<ref name="Murphy2" /> and features a stained glass window from the studio of Harry Clarke.<ref>http://www.buildingsofireland.ie</ref> The building is striking in its simplicity in contrast to its larger and more ornate neighbour.

The town also contains the ruins of a '''Franciscan Friary''' and the medieval '''Priory of St John''' on the outskirts of the town at Tyone.

===Modern Buildings===
The '''New Civic Offices''' on the [[Limerick]] Road house both [[North Tipperary]] County Council and Nenagh Town Council. Designed by [[Ahrends, Burton and Koralek]], they have won international recognition for their striking modern design.
<ref name=ABK>[http://www.abk.co.uk/projects/recent/NorthTipp.htm ABK]</ref>

The '''[[Mid-Western Regional Hospital, Nenagh|Mid-Western Regional Hospital]],''' known locally as St. Joseph's Hospital, located on the Thurles Road (c1940). It is the only general hospital in North Tipperary. Built in the [[International Style]] of mostly flat roof and rendered walls. Retro-fitted with uPVC windows at a later date. Adjoining mortuary church with notable mosaics and stained glass.<ref>http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/niah/search.jsp?type=record&county=TN&regno=22305109</ref>

==Sport==
=== GAA===
[[Image:IRL Nenagh flag.png|thumb|right|Nenagh Éire Óg Colours]]
[[Nenagh Éire Óg GAA|Éire Óg Nenagh]] is the local [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] club and has had a deal of success in County Championships in both football and hurling, last winning the County Championship in 1995. The club has been strongly represented on All-Ireland winning [[Tipperary GAA|Tipperary]] [[hurling]] teams with players such as Mick Burns, [[Michael Cleary (hurler)|Michael Cleary]], John Heffernan and [[Conor O'Donovan]]

===Rugby===
After years of being one of the stronger junior Rugby clubs in Munster winning many trophies in the late nineties and early part of the new century [[Rugby Union]] club [[Nenagh Ormond]] RFC became the first Tipperary club to gain senior status by being promoted promoted to the third division of the Rugby [[AIB League]] in 2005. Since going senior the club has competed admirably in the AIL. The club has produced three full Irish International players: Tony Courtney in the 1920s and more recently [[Trevor Hogan]] and [[Donnacha Ryan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nenaghormondrfc.com/History.htm Nenagh Ormond History|title=Nenagh Ormond History|accessdate=2009-02-19}}</ref>

===Athletics===
[[Image:Nenagh olympic.jpg|thumb|right|Statue of Olympic gold medalists Hayes, McGrath and Tisdall in Nenagh, Co Tipperary, Ireland]]
The local athletic club Nenagh Olympic were named after three men ([[Johnny Hayes]], [[Matt McGrath]] and [[Bob Tisdall]]) with Nenagh connections who won [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] Gold Medals and the badge of the club is three interlocking [[Olympic symbols|Olympic Rings]] in green, white and orange. A statue of the three has been erected in Banba Square in the grounds of the Courthouse. The club has produced many fine athletes including recently Gary Ryan who also represented Ireland at the Olympics.<ref name="Gary Ryan Biography and Statistics">{{cite web|url=http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ry/gary-ryan-1.html|title=Olympics at Sports-Reference.com|publisher=Sports-Reference.com|accessdate=2009-02-19}}</ref> The club also possesses Ireland's first and to date only international standard [[indoor athletics]] track at Tyone. Many championships are held there including [[munster]] championships and even [[all Ireland]] [[championship]]s <ref name=AI1>[http://www.athleticsireland.ie/statistics/natchampions_in.htm Athletics Ireland]</ref><ref name=NOS>[http://sindar.net/iuaa/results/venue/9/ Nenagh Olympic Stadium]</ref>

===Soccer===
Home to Nenagh A.F.C.(1951) and Nenagh Celtic F.C.(1981).
Nenagh A.F.C.'s home grounds are Brickfields and Islandbawn. Nenagh Celtic's home ground is the VEC grounds.Nenagh Town over the last decade have dominated the North Tipp soccer scene, winning numerous titles.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

===Golf===
Nenagh Golf Club located at Beechwood on the "Old Birr Road" was affiliated to the Golfing Union of Ireland in 1929. The original 9 hole course was designed by Alister McKenzie, who along with [[Bobby Jones (golfer)|Bobby Jones]] designed the legendary [[Augusta National Golf Club|Augusta National]]. The course was expanded to 18 holes by [[Eddie Hackett]] in 1973. The course was expanded to {{convert|150|acre|km2}} during the 1980s and 1990s and redevelopment to a new design by Patrick Merrigan was completed in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nenaghgolfclub.com/aboutUs.htm|title=Nenagh Golf Club |publisher=nenaghgolfclub.com |date= |accessdate=2009-02-06}}</ref>

===Other sports===
The Nenagh Triathlon Club was formed in 2007 to cater for the growing number of triathlon enthusiasts in the town.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nenaghtriathlon.com |title=Nenagh Triathlon Club | Triathlon Ireland |publisher=Nenaghtriathlon.com |date= |accessdate=2008-10-27}}</ref>

Swimming is catered for by Nenagh Neptune Swimming club which is based at the town's 25m swimming pool.

Riverdale Pitch And Putt Club on the "Old Birr Road" is a registered Member of the pitch and putt union of Ireland.

==Notable people==
{{Ref improve section|date=July 2010}}
* Helen Maria Bayly - wife of [[Irish people|Irish]] [[mathematics|mathematician]] [[William Rowan Hamilton]].
*[[J.D. Bernal]] - scientist
*[[John Dominic Crossan]] - religious scholar and a major figure in the fields of [[biblical archaeology]], [[anthropology]] and New Testament textual and [[higher criticism]].
*[[Patrick Donohoe]] - [[Irish people|Irish]] recipient of the [[Victoria Cross]]
*[[John Doyle (critic)|John Doyle]] - journalist with [[Canada|Canada's]] [[Globe and Mail]]
*[[Bernadette Flynn]] - [[Irish dance]]r
*[[T.P. Gill]] MP of the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] and agriculture pioneer
*[[Julian Gough]] - novelist and singer with [[Toasted Heretic]]
*[[Johnny Hayes]] - Olympic Marathon gold-medalist
*Billy Hassett - lead singer and guitarist with Mod band [[The Chords]]
*[[Trevor Hogan]] - Irish Rugby International
*[[John Joseph Jones|Jack Jones]] - [[Labour Party (UK)|British Labour]] politician
*Seán Kenny - Theatre Designer [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O79-KennySean.html]
*[[Tomás Mac Giolla]] - Former [[Workers' Party of Ireland|Workers' Party]] president, [[Dublin West (Dáil Éireann constituency)|Dublin West]] TD and [[Lord Mayor of Dublin]]
*[[Shane MacGowan]] - singer and songwriter (His mother came from nearby Carney)
*[[Matt McGrath]] - Olympic Hammer-throwing gold-medalist
*[[Daniel Morrissey|Dan Morrissey]] - [[Minister (government)|Government Minister]]
*[[Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill]] - Irish poet
*[[Michael O'Kennedy]] - Government Minister and [[List of European Commissioners from Ireland|European Commissioner]]
*[[Mary Redmond]] - Sculptor
*[[Alec Reid|Father Alec Reid]] - Facilitator of the [[Northern Ireland peace process]]
*[[Donnacha Ryan]] - Irish Rugby International
*[[Bob Tisdall]] - Olympic [[400 metres hurdles|400m hurdles]]gold-medalist

==See also==
* [[Nenagh Guardian]]
* [[Nenagh railway station]]
* [[Ardcroney]]
* [[List of towns and villages in the Republic of Ireland|List of towns and villages in Ireland]]
* [[Market Houses in the Republic of Ireland|Market Houses in Ireland]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nenagh.ie/ Nenagh - The Friendly Town] (Official Portal)
*[http://www.nenaghtc.ie/ Nenagh Town Council]
*[http://www.flanneryclan.ie/nc.htm Nenagh Castle]

==References==
{{1911}}
<ref name=Grace2000>{{cite book
| author = Grace, D.
| year = 2000
| title = The Famine in Nenagh Poor Law Union
| publisher = Nenagh: Relay
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<references/>

{{North Tipperary}}

[[Category:County towns in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Parishes in Diocese of Killaloe]]
[[Category:Towns and villages in North Tipperary County]]

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Killeen Castle (County Galway)

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{{Context|date=February 2009}}{{Unreferenced|date=February 2009}}

'''Killeen Castle''' is a castle at Killeen, in [[Castlegar, County Galway]].

During the 19th century it was owned by the [[Blake family|Blake Family]] along with an estate of over {{convert|100|acre|km2}} with a gatehouse on the N17 and a large house on the hill up from the gatehouse. In the early 20th century it was purchased a farmer from Tuam who was managing the estate. The castle was then sold by his son in the 1980s to Alic Finn. He then sold the castle to a German man who had once stayed in the castle. Since then the castle has been extended and made into a family home.
The castle was first built in the 17th century by the [[Normans]] and was placed beside an ancient church and a children's burial site. When purchased by Alic Finn it was renovated and stone from the church was used on the top of the castle.
{{coord missing|County Galway}}

[[Category:Castles in County Galway]]

Julia Morgan

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{{Infobox Architect
|image=Hearst and Morgan.jpg
|name=Julia Morgan
|mother=
|father=
|nationality=American
|birth_date={{Birth date|1872|1|20}}
|birth_place=[[San Francisco]], [[United States]]
|death_date={{death date and age|1957|02|2|1872|01|20}}
|practice_name=
|alma_mater = [[University of California, Berkeley]]
|significant_buildings=[[Los Angeles Herald-Examiner|Los Angeles Examiner]] Building 
The [[YWCA]] in [[Chinatown, San Francisco]] 
[[Riverside Art Museum]] 
[[Asilomar State Beach|Asilomar Conference Grounds]]
|significant_projects=[[Hearst Castle]]
|awards=
|}}

'''Julia Morgan''' (January 20, 1872 – February 2, 1957) was an [[United States|American]] [[architect]]. The architect of over 700 buildings in California,<ref>{{cite news
| last =Davies
| first =Stacy
| coauthors =
| title =Best Architectural Wonder—The Riverside Art Museum
| work =Inland Empire Weekly
| page =21
| language =
| publisher =Alternative Weekly Network
| date =2007-10-11
| url =http://www.ieweekly.com/Oct4-Oct10_2007issue26.pdf
|format=PDF| accessdate =2007-10-13 }}</ref> she is best known for her work on [[Hearst Castle]] in [[San Simeon, California]]. Throughout her long career, she designed multiple buildings for institutions serving women and girls.

==Early life and education==
Born in [[San Francisco, California]], she was raised in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] and graduated from [[Oakland High School (California)|Oakland High School]] in 1890. She graduated from the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1894 with a degree in [[civil engineering]]. At the urging of her friend and mentor [[Bernard Maybeck]], whom she met in her final year in undergraduate school, she headed to [[Paris]] to apply to the famous [[Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]. Denied at first because the school was not accepting women, and a second time because she failed the entrance exam (she claimed in a letter that she had been failed deliberately because she was a woman<ref>[http://www.neh.gov/news/humanities/2006-09/BeyondSanSimeon.html Reichers, M. (2006). Beyond San Simeon. ''Humanities'', September/October 2006, Volume 27/Number 5]</ref>), after two years she finally passed the entrance exams in the architecture program, placing 13th out of 376 applicants<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20070623083708/http://capitolmuseum.ca.gov/english/remarkable/panel4.html Julia Morgan: Early Architect. California State Capitol website], Retrieved 2009-05-26 from Internet Archive</ref>, and was duly admitted. She was the first woman to graduate with a degree in architecture from the school in Paris.

==Career==
Upon her return from Paris she took employment with the San Francisco architect [[John Galen Howard]] who was at that time supervising the [[University of California]] [[University of California, Berkeley Campus Architecture|Master Plan]]. Morgan worked on several buildings on the [[UC Berkeley|Berkeley]] campus, most notably providing the decorative elements for the [[Hearst Mining Building]], and designs for the [[Hearst Greek Theatre]].

In 1904, she opened her own office in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. One of her earliest works from this period was [[North Star House]] in [[Grass Valley, California]], commissioned in 1906 by mining engineer [[Arthur De Wint Foote]] and his wife, the author and illustrator, [[Mary Hallock Foote]]. Naturally, many commissions followed the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]], ensuring her financial success.

====Hearst projects====
[[Image:Hearst Castle facade.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Hearst Castle]] facade.]]
The most famous of Morgan's patrons was the newspaper magnate and antiquities collector [[William Randolph Hearst]], who had been introduced to Morgan by his mother [[Phoebe Apperson Hearst]], the chief patroness of the University of California at Berkeley. It is believed that this introduction led to Morgan's first downstate commission by Hearst, circa 1914, for the design of the [[Los Angeles Herald-Examiner|Los Angeles Examiner]] Building, a [[Mission Revival Style architecture|Mission revival style]] project that included contributions by Los Angeles architects [[William J. Dodd]] and J. Martyn Haenkel.
It's closed but still located at the southwest corner of Broadway and 11th Streets on a city block in [[Downtown Los Angeles]], awaiting adaptive reuse.

In 1919 Hearst selected Morgan as the architect for ''La Cuesta Encantada'', better known as [[Hearst Castle]], which was built atop the family campsite overlooking [[San Simeon]] harbor. The project proved to be her largest and most complex, as Hearst's vision for his estate grew ever grander during planning and construction over the decades. It later included ''[[The Hacienda (Milpitas Ranchhouse)|The Hacienda]]'', a residence – private guest house complex built in hybrid [[Mission Revival Style architecture|Mission Revival]], [[Spanish Colonial Revival architecture|Spanish Colonial Revival]], and [[Moorish Revival]] styles. It was located a day's horseback ride inland from Hearst Castle next to the [[Mission San Antonio de Padua]] near [[Jolon, California]]. Her work on 'the Castle' and San Simeon Ranch continued until 1937, ending only due to Hearst's declining health.

Morgan became William Randolph Hearst's principal architect, producing the designs for dozens of buildings, such as Phoebe Apperson Hearst's [[Wyntoon]] he inherited, it's also a 'castle,' with a "Bavarian village" of four villas all on {{convert|50000|acre|km2|0}} of forest reserve with the [[McCloud River]] near [[Mount Shasta]]) in Northern California. She also did studio and site work for the uncompleted ''Babicora'', Hearst's {{convert|1625000|acre|km2|adj=on}} [[Chihuahua, Mexico]] cattle [[rancho]] and retreat.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,818820,00.html] www.time.com. "Babicora, Mexico: End of An Empire." access date: 5/11/2010.</ref>

====YWCA projects====
Julia Morgan’s affiliation with the [[YWCA]] began when Phoebe Apperson Hearst recommended her for the organization’s Asilomar summer conference center. The [[Asilomar State Beach|Asilomar Conference Center]], no longer YWCA but State run, is still in [[Pacific Grove, California|Pacific Grove]] near [[Monterey, California]]. Morgan designed YWCAs in California, Utah, Arizona, and Hawaii.

Five of the Southern California YWCA buildings were designed by Morgan.<ref>http://bigorangelandmarks.blogspot.com/2008/10/no-186-morgan-house-harbor-area-ywca.html bigorangelandmarks.blogspot. "morgan-house-harbor-area-ywca" access date: 5/11/2010.</ref>
The 1918 Harbor Area YWCA in a Craftsman building is still standing, as is the 1926 Hollywood Studio Club YWCA. Morgan’s [[Riverside, California|Riverside]] YWCA from 1929 still stands, but as the [[Riverside Art Museum]]. Her 1925 Long Beach Italian Renaissance branch has been demolished. The "gorgeous" [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]] YWCA is being acquired by the city for restoration and public use in 2010, after several decades of abandonment, closure, and slowly falling apart.<ref>http://bigorangelandmarks.blogspot.com/2008/10/no-186-morgan-house-harbor-area-ywca.html Ibid: bigorangelandmarks. "ywca." access date: 5/11/2010.</ref>

There are also [[Northern California]] [[YWCA]]s in [[Chinatown, San Francisco|San Francisco's Chinatown]] and [[Oakland, California|Oakland]].

====Other projects====
Other projects include the [[Mills College#Julia Morgan buildings|Mills College Julia Morgan buildings]] in the [[East Bay, California|East Bay]] foothills of [[Oakland, California]]:
*''El Campanil'', believed to be the first [[bell tower]] on a United States college campus<ref name=morgan-ito>{{cite news | last = Ito | first = Susan | title = Julia Morgan at Mills | work = Mills Quarterly | pages = 14 | date = Winter 2004 | url = http://www.mills.edu/alumnae/publications/backissues/W2004_03.pdf | publisher = Mills College | accessdate = 2008-02-27|format=PDF}}</ref> < and the first reinforced concrete structure on the west coast.<ref name=handbook>{{cite book | title = Mills College 2007/2008 Undergraduate Student Handbook | year = 2007 | publisher = School Datebooks | url = http://www.mills.edu/handbook.pdf | accessdate = 2008-02-27|format=PDF}}</ref> Morgan's reputation grew when the tower was unscathed by the 1906 [[San Francisco earthquake]].<ref name="morgan-ito" /> The bells in the tower "were cast for the [[World's Columbian Exposition]] (Chicago-1893) and given to Mills by a trustee".<ref name=handbook />
*The Margaret Carnegie Library (1906), named after Andrew Carnegie's daughter.<ref name="morgan-ito" />
*The Ming Quong Home for Chinese girls, built in 1924 and purchased by Mills in 1936, which was renamed Alderwood Hall<ref name=handbook /> and now houses the Julia Morgan School for Girls.<ref name="morgan-ito" /><ref>http://www.juliamorganschool.org/ Julia Morgan School for Girls</ref>{{cite news | last = Ito | first = Susan | title = Julia Morgan at Mills | work = Mills Quarterly | page = 14 | date = Winter 2004 | url = http://www.mills.edu/alumnae/publications/backissues/W2004_03.pdf |format=PDF| publisher = Mills College | accessdate = 2008-02-27}}</ref>
*The Student Union (1916)<ref name="morgan-ito" />
*Kapiolani Cottage, which has served as an infirmary, faculty housing, and administration offices.<ref name="morgan-ito" /><ref name=handbook />
*Mills's original gymnasium and pool, which have been replaced by the Tea Shop and Suzanne Adams Plaza.<ref name="morgan-ito" />

The former St. John's Presbyterian Church, is now the 'Julia Morgan Center for the Arts' on College
Avenue in [[Berkeley, California]].<ref>[http://www.berkeleyheritage.com/berkeley_landmarks/st._johns_presb.html St. John's history page at BerkeleyHeritage.com]</ref> Others are the [[Chapel of the Chimes (Oakland, California)|Chapel of the Chimes]] in Oakland, , the sanctuary of Ocean Avenue Presbyterian Church at 32 Ocean Avenue, San Francisco, where [[Mission Bay Community Church]] also meets, and the large [[Berkeley City Club]], adjacent to University of California. Her work also included a [[World War I]] YWCA Hostess House in [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]] which was later the site of the [[MacArthur Park|MacArthur Park Restaurant]]<ref>[http://www.macpark.com MacArthur Park – Fine Dining, Events and Catering in Palo Alto, CA: Home Page]</ref>

Some of her residential projects, most of them located in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], may be categorized as [[ultimate bungalows]], a term often associated with the work of [[Greene and Greene]] and some of Morgan's other contemporaries and teachers, express the [[Arts and Crafts Movement]] in the [[American Craftsman|American Craftsman style]] of architecture. Several houses are on San Francisco's [[Russian Hill]], as was her own residence.

==Legacy==
Julia Morgan is buried in the [[Mountain View Cemetery (Oakland, California)|Mountain View Cemetery]] in the hills of [[Oakland, California]].<ref>[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1464 findagrave.com.] Julia Morgan. access date: 5/11/2010.</ref>

California Governor [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] and First Lady [[Maria Shriver]] announced on May 28, 2008 that Julia Morgan would be inducted into the [[California Hall of Fame]], located at [[The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts]]. The induction ceremony took place on December 15 and her great-niece accepted the honor in her place.

==Books==
*Boutelle, Sara Holmes (1988). ''Julia Morgan, Architect.'' New York: Abbeville Press.
*Morgan, J. (1976). [http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/58882003&referer=brief_results Architectural drawings by Julia Morgan: beau-arts assignments and other buildings]. Oakland, Calif: Oakland Museum, Art Dept.
*Steilberg, W. T., & Morgan, J. (1983). [http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/23465769&referer=brief_results Some examples of the work of Julia Morgan]. San Francisco: Architect and Engineer of California.
*Morgan, J., Hearst, W. R., & Loe, N. E. (1987). [http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/16866193&referer=brief_results San Simeon revisited: the correspondence between architect Julia Morgan and William Randolph Hearst]. San Luis Obispo, Calif: Library Associates, California Polytechnic State University.
*Morgan, J. (1987). [http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/19479144&referer=brief_results Berkeley houses by Julia Morgan]. [Berkeley, Calif.]: The Association.

==Further reading==
*Longstreth, R. W. (1977). [http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/3446933&referer=brief_results Julia Morgan, architect. Berkeley Architectural Heritage publication series, no. 1]. [Berkeley, Calif.]: Berkeley Architectural Heritage Association.
*University of California, Berkeley. (1986). [http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/50159106&referer=brief_results Julia Morgan, architectural drawings: inventory of holdings, College of Environmental Design]. Berkeley: The College.
*Pasadena Cultural Heritage Commission. (1988). [http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/18433474&referer=brief_results Report on reuse of the Julia Morgan YWCA building: YWCA & YMCA Pasadena, California]. New York: Halsband.
*Quacchia, R. L. (2005). [http://worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/62952271&referer=brief_results Julia Morgan, architect, and the creation of the Asilomar Conference Grounds: including a comparison with Hearst Castle]. [Virginia Beach, Va.]: Q Pub.
*McNeill, Karen (May 2007). "Julia Morgan: Gender, Architecture, and Professional Style." Pacific Historical Review, pp. 229–267.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Julia Morgan}}
*[http://www.lib.calpoly.edu/specialcollections/findingaids/ms010/ The Julia Morgan Collection at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo]
*[http://www.lib.calpoly.edu/specialcollections/architecture/juliamorgan/ Julia Morgan — An Online Exhibition]
*[http://www.hearstcastle.org/history/julia_morgan.asp Julia Morgan at Hearst Castle]
*[http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/jmindex/genericindex.html Index of Buildings by Julia Morgan]
*[http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7t1nb2q1/ Julia Morgan Architectural Drawings, 1907–1929], [[The Bancroft Library]]
*[http://www.northstarhouse.org/history.htm North Star House Foundation]
*[http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Wyntoon.html Wyntoon at Great Buildings Online]
*[http://www2.arch.uiuc.edu/organizations/wia/archtspotl/morganjulia.html Women in Architecture]
*[http://www.edhat.com/site/tidbit.cfm?id=1034 Carrillo Rec Center in Santa Barbara]
*[http://www.home.earthlink.net/~hdrctw34 William J. Dodd: American Architect & Designer ~ Los Angeles]
*[http://www.juliamorgan.org/ Julia Morgan Center for the Arts ~ Berkeley, CA]
*[http://www.ced.berkeley.edu/cedarchives/profiles/morgan.htm UC Berkeley Environmental Design Archives]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Morgan, Julia
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1872-01-20
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[San Francisco]], [[United States]]
| DATE OF DEATH = 1957-02-02
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Morgan, Julia}}
[[Category:1872 births]]
[[Category:1957 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Oakland, California]]
[[Category:Women architects]]
[[Category:Beaux Arts architects]]
[[Category:Mediterranean Revival architects]]
[[Category:Spanish Revival architects]]
[[Category:Spanish Colonial Revival architects]]
[[Category:Arts and Crafts architects]]
[[Category:History of the San Francisco Bay Area]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley alumni]]
[[Category:Architects from California]]
[[Category:American architects]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts]]

[[es:Julia Morgan]]
[[fa:جولیا مورگان]]
[[fr:Julia Morgan]]

Kituwah

2010-10-18T08:37:13Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{Refimprove|date=February 2009}}
[[Image:Kittuwa-mound-cherokee-nc1.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The Kituwa mound at Ferguson Field]]
The [[Cherokee]] believe the ancient settlement of '''Kituwa''' (also spelled '''Kituwah''', '''Keetoowah''', Kittowa, and other similar variations) or ''giduwa'' (Cherokee:ᎩᏚᏩ), on the [[Tuckasegee River]] is their original settlement and is one of the "seven mother towns" in the Southeast. It is in [[Swain County, North Carolina]], in the [[Great Smoky Mountains]], near present-day [[Bryson City, North Carolina|Bryson City]].

Cherokee oral traditions tell that all Cherokee migrated to ''Kituwa'' after the migration from the [[Great Lakes]] region of the [[United States]] and southern [[Canada]] as early as 4,000 years ago. The Cherokee also base this belief on cultural and archaeological evidence, but there is no consensus about the time of origin.<ref>{{cite book |last= Mooney |first= James |authorlink= James Mooney |title= Myths of the Cherokee and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees |publisher= Kessinger Publishing |origyear= 1900 |year= 2006 |isbn= 9781428648647 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=9HDbWUX71joC |page= 393}}</ref>

The ancient Cherokee had a [[hereditary]] [[priesthood]], called the ''[[Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni]]'', a structure which may have been adopted from another tribe. According to research by early 20th century [[ethnographer]] [[James Mooney]], the Cherokee held the ''Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni'' "in awe" and "greatly feared them."<ref>{{cite book |last= Mooney |first= James |authorlink= James Mooney |title= Myths of the Cherokee and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees |publisher= Kessinger Publishing |origyear= 1900 |year= 2006 |isbn= 9781428648647 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=9HDbWUX71joC |page= 393}}</ref> They were not the regular rulers such as the chiefs were. These were the ''ugus'' (owls), known as "white" chiefs (sometimes identified as those who worked for peace), nor the ''colona'' (ravens), or "red" chiefs (identified as those who led in times of war.)<ref>{{cite book |last= Mooney |first= James |authorlink= James Mooney |title= Myths of the Cherokee and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees |publisher= Kessinger Publishing |origyear= 1900 |year= 2006 |isbn= 9781428648647 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=9HDbWUX71joC |page= 393}}</ref>

==History==
''Kituwa'' is the site of an ancient [[Earthworks (archaeology)|earthwork mound]]. Despite having been burned repeatedly by the Cherokee for agriculture during the colonial period and plowed over for [[maize|corn]] cultivation since [[Indian Removal]] in the 1830s, the mound is still visible. During the period of European-American agricultural uses, the larger property was called Ferguson's Field. The mound is {{convert|170|ft|m}} in diameter and five feet tall, although it was once taller. It was the foundation of a structure which housed the [[sacred]] flame of the Cherokee, which was to be kept burning at all times.<ref>[http://www.pluralism.org/research/profiles/display.php?profile=73334 "Kituwah Mound, NC (Eastern Cherokee), 2004"], ''The Pluralism Project'', Harvard University, accessed 3 Mar 2009</ref>

[[Mound builder (people)|Moundbuilding]] by people of the various [[Woodland period|Woodland]] and [[Mississippian culture]]s was common throughout the [[Mississippi Basin]] and Ohio Valley. This included [[Tennessee]] to the west, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the southeast, [[Louisiana]] to the southwest, and [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], and [[Missouri]] to the northwest.

The [[Mississippian culture]] was documented as established in western North Carolina from 1000 CE.<ref>[http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/moore/index.html David G. Moore, Robin A. Beck, Jr., and Christopher B. Rodning, "Joara and Fort San Juan: culture contact at the edge of the world"], ''Antiquity'', Vol.78, No.229, Mar. 2004, accessed 26 Jun 2008</ref> ''[[Joara]]'' was a regional [[chiefdom]] in this culture. Additional Mississippian-culture sites have been identified extending southwest to the village later called ''Kituwa''. Such pre-Cherokee inhabitants were part of vast trade networks that connected mound chiefdoms throughout the eastern United States. [[Archaeologists]] believe the people of the smaller chiefdoms were eventually absorbed by the developing, larger [[Catawba]] and [[Cherokee]] tribes.

The inhabitants of ''Kituwah'', the ''Ani-kitu-hwagi'', influenced all of the towns along the [[Tuckasegee River|Tuckasegee]] and [[Little Tennessee River|Little Tennessee]] rivers. The people of this region became known as the ''Kituwah'', also spelled ''Keetoowah''. Because the ''Kituwah'' were responsible for the protection of the northern border from the [[Iroquois]] and the [[Algonquian]], the name became synonymous with the Cherokee among the people. The Cherokee who later occupied ''Kituwa'' were also part of extensive trade networks. The ancient site of the Mother Town ''Kituwa'' is visible in the general area of the [[Qualla Boundary]].

During the [[Anglo-Cherokee War]] (1758–1761), [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[general]] [[James Grant (general)|James Grant]] used his army to destroy the ancient town. Its inhabitants migrated westward and settled in ''Mialoquo'' ([[Mialoquo (Cherokee town)|Great Island Town]]) on the [[Little Tennessee River]] among the [[Overhill Cherokee]]. A later headman of this group was [[Dragging Canoe]], son of ''[[Attakullakulla]]''. When he led his warriors southwest to continue fighting the colonists of Upper East Tennessee, the entire population went with him, including those formerly of Kituwa.<ref>Klink and Talman, ''The journal of Major John Norton'', p. 62</ref>

In the 1820s the Cherokees lost control of the Kituwa area when making land cessions to the United States.

==20th century reclamation==
It was not until 1996 that the people regained their "mother town", when the [[Eastern Band of the Cherokee]] purchased the site and {{convert|309|acre|km2}}. A 1997 archaeological survey of ''Kituwah'' found an early 18th-century village site covering {{convert|65|acre|m2}}. The density of [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] indicated a long period of settlement.<ref>[http://www.thepeoplespaths.net/Cherokee/News2000/Apr2000/UBK000416Kituwah.htm "Proposed Development of Kituwah 'Mother Town' of the Cherokee, Debated"], ''Cherokee Nations News'', 20 Apr 2000</ref>

The Cherokee have debated how to use the land, with some people wanting to develop the property for community uses. Non-invasive archaeological surveys have discovered 15 [[burial]]s, with the likelihood of up to 1000. A [[gradiometer]] was used to map the area. It also depicted the location of many [[hearth]] sites, including one at the center. This would likely have been associated with the sacred fire.<ref>[http://www.pluralism.org/research/profiles/display.php?profile=73334 "Kituwah Mound, NC (Eastern Cherokee), 2004"], ''The Pluralism Project'', Harvard University, accessed 3 Mar 2009</ref>

These discoveries have led more of the Cherokee nation to consider only development that can accommodate the sacred nature of the place. They are planning uses associated with community wellness and renewal. The Eastern Cherokee have sponsored two youth retreats at the site which highlighted traditional ways of spiritual expression.<ref>[http://www.pluralism.org/research/profiles/display.php?profile=73334 "Kituwah Mound, NC (Eastern Cherokee), 2004"], ''The Pluralism Project'', Harvard University, accessed 3 Mar 2009</ref>

==Traditions==
Some traditional Cherokee call themselves by the [[autonym]] of ''Ah-ni-ki-tu-wa-gi'' (spelled variously in local Oklahoma dialects as ''Ki-tu-wa'' or ''Gi-du-wa''), Kituwa people. The meaning of the word ''Kituwa'' is known to contemporary Cherokee speakers. It is not widely reported because of its [[sacred]] nature. Honoring the "mother town" was analogous to honoring ''[[Selu]]'', the Cherokee [[Corn Mother]] (of the ancient [[Green Corn Ceremony]] and many other connections). Honoring mothers is a concept that has pervaded Cherokee culture. Well into the 20th century, descent and family organization were based on the female line and clan membership.<ref>{{cite book |last= Mooney |first= James |authorlink= James Mooney |title= Myths of the Cherokee |origyear= 1900 |edition= Dover edition |year= reprint, 1995 |publisher= [[Dover Publications]] |isbn= 0-486-28907-9}}</ref>

In the [[Green Corn Ceremony]], one of the two social dances performed is of ancient origin. It may have been practiced in the mother town of Kituwa. The dance is called ''ye-lu-le'', which means "to the center". During it, all of the dancers shout ''ye-lu-le'' and move towards the fire in the center of the sacred dance circle. This dance symbolizes the dispersal of the sacred fire, given to the people according to their ancient legends. During Green Corn ceremonies in traditional [[Cherokee society]], the coals of new fire were carried to all the Cherokee. They were used to kindle the ceremonial fires in each town before any of the new corn could be eaten. The home fires in outlying Cherokee communities were extinguished before the ceremonies and relit from the coals of the fire kindled during the Green Corn Dances.<ref>{{cite book |last= Mooney |first= James |authorlink= James Mooney |title= Myths of the Cherokee |origyear= 1900 |edition= Dover edition |year= reprint, 1995 |publisher= [[Dover Publications]] |isbn= 0-486-28907-9}}</ref>

==Duke energy controversy==
Duke Energy is attempting to build a $52 million dollar [[Electrical substation|substation]] near the Kituwah Cherokee ceremonial mounds. The Swain County Commission of North Carolina met on Feb. 9 for discussion.

On February 4, 2010, the Tribal Council passed a resolution stating, "“It is this Tribe’s solemn responsibility and moral duty to care for and protect all of Kituwah from further desecration and degradation by human agency in order to preserve the integrity of the most important site for the origination and continuation of Cherokee culture, heritage, history and identity.” <ref>[http://www.nc-cherokee.com/onefeather/2010/02/08/tribe-opposes-substation-at-kituwah-site/ "Tribe opposes Substation at Kituwah Site"], ''Cherokee One Feather'', SCOTT MCKIE B.P., accessed 9 Feb 2009</ref>

On April 23, 2010, the North Carolina Utilities Commission denied Duke Energy's "Motion to Hold Complaint in Abeyance" and Duke was ordered to file an answer to the complaint on or before May 10, 2010; Duke agreed to halt construction threatening Kituwah until the complaint is heard.
<ref>[http://www.savekituwahvalley.com/ "Citizens to Protect Kituwah Valley"]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*Klink, Karl, and James Talman, ed. ''The Journal of Major John Norton''. (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1970).

== External links ==
*[http://www.savekituwahvalley.com/ Save Kituwah Valley and Swain County]
*[http://www.cherokeepreservationfdn.org/pr_032306a.html Cherokee Preservation Foundation]
*[http://www.savekituwah.org/ Save Kituwah]

==References==
* {{cite book |last= Mooney |first= James |authorlink= James Mooney |title= Myths of the Cherokee |origyear= 1900 |edition= Dover edition |year= reprint, 1995 |publisher= [[Dover Publications]] |isbn= 0-486-28907-9}}

{{coord|35|26|N|83|26|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Cherokee towns]]
[[Category:Swain County, North Carolina]]
[[Category:Native American culture]]
[[Category:Communities of the Great Smoky Mountains]]

[[fr:Keetoowah]]

Green Lakes State Park

2010-10-17T18:46:26Z

Lightmouse: /* 2010 Draft Master Plan */Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{Infobox park
| park = Green Lakes State Park
| image = Greenlake.jpg
| image size = 300px
| caption = [[Green Lake (New York)|Green Lake]], seen from its eastern shore. The lake's unusual blue-green color is due to annual "whitings" that leave suspended mineral solids in its water.<ref>Thompson, Joel B. (2000). "Microbial Whitings," chapter (pp. 250-261) in ''Microbial Sediments'', edited by Riding, Robert E. and Awramik, Stanley M. (Springer, 2000). ISBN 978-3540618287.</ref> The mineral content of the water also makes the lake [[meromictic]], which is quite rare and which has led to intense scientific study of the lake for nearly a century.
| type = [[List of New York state parks|State park]]
| location = [[Manlius (town), New York|Manlius]], [[New York]]
| coordinates = {{coord|43.049|-75.973|display=inline,title}}
| size = {{convert|1955|acre}}
| opened = {{Start date|1928}}
| operator = [[New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation]]
| visitors = 800,000
| status = Open year-round
| website = {{Url|http://nysparks.state.ny.us/parks/172/details.aspx|Green Lakes State Park website}}
}}

[[Image:GreenLakesSPap04.jpg|thumb|right|300px|False-color satellite photograph of the central portion of Green Lakes State Park. The photograph shows the location of the two lakes, the major stands of old growth forest, and the trails that thread this section of the park.]]

'''Green Lakes State Park''' is a [[New York State Park]] located east of [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] in the [[Manlius (town), New York|Town of Manlius]]. The park is strikingly scenic, and has a "masterpiece"<ref name="Dodson">
Dodson, James (2001). ''The Dewsweepers: Seasons of Golf and Friendship'' (Dutton Adult), p. 181. ISBN 0-525-94582-2</ref> golf course designed by [[Robert Trent Jones]] very early in his career. [[Green Lake (New York)|Green Lake]] itself is perhaps the most studied [[meromictic]] lake – one in which layers of water do not mix – in the world.<ref name="Hilfinger">
Hilfinger, Martin F., Mullins, Henry T., Burnett, Adam, and Kirby, Matthew E. (2001). "A 2500 year sediment record from Fayetteville Green Lake, New York: evidence for anthropogenic impacts and historic isotope shift," ''Journal of Paleolimnology'', Vol. 26, pp. 293-305.</ref> The park preserves the largest stand of old growth forest in Central New York,<ref name="terra">{{cite web |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070927203102/http://www.championtrees.org/oldgrowth/surveys/GreenLakesSP.htm |title=Green Lakes State Park: Old Growth Survey
|publisher=The Earth Renewal and Restoration Alliance (TERRA) |url=http://www.championtrees.org/oldgrowth/surveys/GreenLakesSP.htm |archivedate=2007-09-27}}</ref> and [[Round Lake National Natural Landmark|Round Lake]] has been designated as a [[National Natural Landmark]] by the [[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of the Interior]].<ref>
[http://www.nature.nps.gov/nnl/Registry/USA_Map/States/NewYork/NNL/RL/index.cfm "Round Lake"] entry in registry of National Natural Landmarks. National Park Service website. Retrieved December 11, 2006.</ref>

The park is centered on two small lakes, [[Green Lake (New York)|Green Lake]] and [[Round Lake National Natural Landmark|Round Lake]], which have an unusual blue-green color. These lakes lie at the base of a gorge that is somewhat longer than a mile in length. The lakes and the gorge are remnants of the ice ages, and exemplify some of the unusual geology of upstate New York.

The park's area is {{convert|1955|acre|km2}}, and it logs about 800,000 visitors each year.<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5XDnmtNAl |title=Parks at a Turning Point: Restoring and Enhancing New York’s State Park System |date=November, 2006 |publisher=[[Parks & Trails New York]] |url=http://www.ptny.org/pdfs/advocacy/State_parks_report.pdf |archivedate=2008-04-20}}</ref> Nearly half the park's area is [[old growth forest|old-growth forest]],<ref name="terra" /> which includes many very large specimens of [[Liriodendron tulipifera|tuliptrees]], [[Acer saccharum|sugar maples]], [[Fagus grandifolia|beech]], [[Tilia americana|basswood]], [[Tsuga|hemlocks]], and [[Thuja occidentalis|white cedars]]. One particularly impressive grove of trees, lying immediately to the southwest of Round Lake, is now called the ''Tuliptree Cathedral''.

==Camping and recreation==
At its northern end, Green Lake has a sandy swimming beach, lawns for sunbathing, and a building with changing facilities and a concession stand; Green Lake is certainly one of the most popular swimming beaches in Central New York. Adjacent to the beach, there is a boathouse with rowboat and paddleboat rentals in the summer season; privately owned boats are not permitted. The park has an 18-hole golf course (designed by [[Robert Trent Jones]]) and a clubhouse in its southeastern quadrant. Above the western cliffs along Green Lake there are a "[[frisbee]]" golf course, 137 campsites, and also eight cabins for those who prefer a less rustic experience. There are several formal picnic areas throughout the park, including some with picnic shelters that can be reserved for groups.

There is an extensive network of hiking trails throughout the park, including about {{convert|10|mi|km|0}} of [[Cross-country skiing|cross-country ski]] trails. Some of the trails are also available for mountain biking. The development of the lake area is mostly contained at its northern end. The western shoreline of Green Lake is undeveloped, and Round Lake itself is essentially in wilderness. Of this region, Mary Notarthomas has written that "When walking on the lake trails, one is cradled between the rich, vibrant, almost alien blue-green waters on one side and thickly vegetated, steep wooded inclines on the other.."<ref>{{cite web |last=Notarthomas |first=Mary |date=2006 |url=http://www.ttrn.com/greenlakes.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070929132429/http://www.ttrn.com/greenlakes.htm |title=Green Lakes on the Allegheny Plateau |work=[http://www.ttrn.com "Travel Talk Radio Network"] |archivedate=2007-09-29}}</ref>

The [[Old Erie Canal State Historic Park]] runs by the north entrance to Green Lakes State Park (just above the top of the aerial photograph). The [[Erie Canal]], which was abandoned in 1918, is still continuous within this State Historic Park, and the old towpath is now a walking and bicycling path. The Park extends {{convert|36|mi|km|0}} from the Butternut Creek aqueduct in [[De Witt, New York|DeWitt]] to the Erie Canal Village, which is near [[Rome, New York|Rome]].

[[Image:Golf course - Green Lakes State Park.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The golf course at Green Lakes State Park was designed by Robert Trent Jones in 1935.]]

==Golf course==
Green Lakes State Park has an 18-hole public golf course designed by [[Robert Trent Jones]] in 1935.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cornish |first1=Geoffrey S. |author1-link=Geoffrey Cornish |last2=Whitten |first2=Ronald E. |date=1993 |title=The Architects of Golf |publisher=Harper-Collins |isbn= 0062700820 |chapter=Robert Trent Jones (1906 - 2000) |chapterurl=http://bigred2.athletics.cornell.edu/golf/jones.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070813110903/http://bigred2.athletics.cornell.edu/golf/jones.html |archivedate=2007-08-13}}</ref> The course was one of Trent Jones' earliest. In lieu of payment for its design, he was given a lease for $1.00/year, and he operated it himself for several years. Jones opened the course on May 6, 1936. He'd invited [[Sam Snead]] and [[Gene Sarazen]] to play an exhibition match, and 13,000 people came to watch.<ref name="Petty">Petty, Warren R. (1991). "Green Lake State Park" in ''People and Places: Fayetteville, Manlius, Minoa and Neighbors Volume II'' ([http://manliushistory.org Manlius Historical Society]), pp. 127-144.</ref>

James Dobson has written of the course that "the original little masterpiece at Green Lakes, where Wendy and I and sometimes the other Dewsweepers slipped away to chase the game among the gloriously mature evergreens and admire the long view over a dark blue glacial lake, to the very foothills of the Adirondacks themselves, remained just about my favorite Trent Jones golf course of all."<ref name="Dodson" /> Trent Jones attended the 50th anniversary of the opening of the course in 1986.

==History and planning==
The movement to acquire the land around Green Lakes for a state park began around 1924. The history has been described in a memoir by Betsy Knapp.<ref>Knapp, Betsy (1989). ''Rocks, Fields And Beauty Forever: One Family's Memories of Fayetteville's Green Lakes'' (privately printed).</ref> Knapp, a descendant of the family that acquired and farmed this area in the early 19th century, noted the particular role of Harry Francis, then a professor at the [[State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry|New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University]].

In October 1927 {{convert|725|acre|km2}} were purchased for the new park.<ref name="Preservationist">{{cite journal |year=2004 |month=Spring/Summer |title=New York's Heartland: The development of the state parks program in central New York 1925-1950 |journal=The Preservationist |publisher=New York State Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=14–19 |url=http://www.nysparks.state.ny.us/news/public/archive/Preservationist/2004_SpringPreserv.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2009 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5ZdM85NHp |archivedate=2008-07-27}}</ref> In 1929, the Administration Building was built according to plans by [[Laurie D. Cox]], who was active in the design of several New York state parks. The first superintendent of the park, Arvin Henry Almquist, lived there for four years. The building, which had been boarded up for many years, was re-opened in 2008.<ref name="Herron">{{cite news|title=Building Green Lakes State Park: A 1929 Structure Served Several Purposes |last=Herron |first=Frank |date=June 27, 2004 |work=Syracuse Post Standard |page=H1 }}</ref>

During the Depression, the New York State Department of Conservation (under the administration of then-governor [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]) and later the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] (CCC) constructed the parks' buildings, cabins, golf course and trails. CCC camps SP-12 and SP-38 were created on the property of the park, comprising about 330 men working on the facilities. These men hauled loads of sand from [[Sylvan Beach, New York|Sylvan Beach]] (on nearby Oneida Lake) to create a sandy beach; they dug the basements of the park buildings by hand.

During World War II, the cabins were part of a compound used to house German prisoners of war.<ref name="Petty" />

Since 1928, the park has increased to {{convert|1955|acre|km2}}.<ref name=OPRHPpacket>{{cite web |title=Information Packet for Draft Master Plan and Draft Environmental Impact Statement Public Information Meeting Green Lakes State Park |publisher=New York State Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation |url=http://nysparks.state.ny.us/inside-our-agency/documents/GreenLakesInformationMeetingPacket.pdf |date=July 7, 2009 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5oNdRHXu1 |archivedate=2010-03-20}}</ref> There were additional acquisitions of land in 1960,<ref>Petty, Warren R. (1991). "Green Lake State Park" in ''People and Places: Fayetteville, Manlius, Minoa and Neighbors Volume II'' ([http://manliushistory.org Manlius Historical Society]), pp. 127-144. Petty indicates that the 1960 acquisition was by eminent domain from its owners Howard and Robert Cross.</ref> 1975,<ref>"New York State Will Enlarge Green Lakes Park," ''Eagle-Bulletin and Dewitt News-Times'', Vol. 85-12, No. 4, January 24, 1974. Parts of the "Amos tract" were purchased at the southwest border of the park, and in the immediate watershed leading to Round Lake.</ref> 1995,<ref name="Smith">Smith, Robert L. (1995). "State Buys Land as Buffer for Green Lakes," ''The Syracuse Post-Standard'', December 28, 1995. Ms. Betsy Knapp left a bequest to the park of 17 rolling acres at its southern edge, between the Signal Hill and Golden Acres neighborhoods of Fayetteville. The parcel included land that Knapp's great-great-grandfather David Collin III began farming in 1817, as well as a rare outcropping of [[dolomite]] known as Indian Oven Hill.</ref><ref>"State Adds {{convert|278|acre|km2}} to Green Lakes Park," ''Syracuse Post Standard'' December 15, 1995. The State of New York paid $2.16M to purchase {{convert|278|acre|km2}} at the western boundary from William Camperlino.</ref> and 1996.<ref>Weiner, Mark (1996). "State Adds {{convert|126|acre|km2}} to Green Lakes Park; Farmland is Purchased on North Side of Park," ''Syracuse Herald Journal'' January 29, 1996. The State of New York purchased land along the northern side of the park the from the estate of the Teske family.</ref> Plans to add an additional {{convert|1000|acre|km2}} to the park have apparently been frustrated.<ref name="Smith" />

In 2008, the bathhouse near the park's swimming area and beach was demolished, and a new building was constructed to replace it at a cost of about $2.3 million. The building incorporates changing facilities, restrooms and showers, a snack concession, and a meeting room.<ref>{{cite news |title=Green Lakes Gets a New Bathhouse |work=Syracuse Post Standard |last=Nolan |first=Maureen |date=October 1, 2008 |url=http://www.syracuse.com/news/index.ssf/2008/10/green_lakes_gets_a_new_bathhou.html |accessdate=July 9, 2009}}</ref>

===2010 Draft Master Plan===
On August 25, 2010 the State's Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation posted a draft "Master Plan and Environmental Impact Statement for Green Lakes State Park"; the period for submitting written comments on this plan ends on Friday, October 8, 2010.<ref name=DraftMaster>{{cite web |publisher=New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation |title=Draft Master Plan/Draft Environmental Impact Statement for Green Lakes State Park |url=http://www.nysparks.state.ny.us/inside-our-agency/documents/MasterPlans/GreenLakesStatePark/GreenLakesStateParkDEIS.pdf |date=August 25, 2010 |last1=Hiltbrand |first1=Robert W. |last2=Lyons |first2=Thomas B. |accessdate=2010-09-05}} Links to the figures and appendices are at {{cite web |title=Public Documents |url=http://www.nysparks.state.ny.us/inside-our-agency/public-documents.aspx |accessdate=2010-09-05 |publisher=New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation }}</ref> The plan calls for the designation of a Bird Conservation Area in the western half of the park. It also calls for designation of about {{convert|100|acre|km2}} of old growth forest near Round Lake as a Park Preservation Area; this area incorporates and extends the current National Natural Landmark region. The plan sets priorities for many other changes in the park, including the relocation of the "Rolling Hills" camping facilities immediately to the west of Round Lake. The present camping area would become a day-use picnic area. The plan notes that the large number of deer in the park may be problematic, but does not address specific solutions; bow-hunting has been discussed at public meetings regarding the master plan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Hunting ban is likely to stay at Green Lakes State Park |last=Mulder |first=James T. |publisher=Syracuse Post-Standard |date=August 29, 2010 |url=http://www.syracuse.com/news/index.ssf/2010/08/bowhunting_not_part_of_green_l.html }}</ref>

[[Image:Round Lake (2) - Fayetteville NY.jpg|thumb|right|300px|View of [[Round Lake National Natural Landmark|Round Lake]] looking northeast along the glacial meltwater spillway towards [[Green Lake (New York)|Green Lake]].]]

==Geology and limnology==
===Origin of the gorge===
The cliffs surrounding [[Round Lake National Natural Landmark|Round Lake]] are about {{convert|150|ft|m|0}} high, but the rocky gorge in which the lake lies is much deeper than this. The bottom of Round Lake is about {{convert|180|ft|m|0}} below its surface. Round Lake's bottom lies in sediments which may be another {{convert|150|ft|m|0}} deep. There is thus nearly {{convert|500|ft|m|0}} gouged out of the bedrock here.<ref name="HilfingerMullins" />

This deep gorge was formed towards the end of the last [[ice age]] - about 15,000 years ago - by an enormous river of water. The river originated in the melting, retreating ice sheet, and it flowed east through this channel on its way to the sea. The [[Niagara River]] gorge lying below [[Niagara Falls]] is an active example of this type of gorge formation; its depth is about {{convert|326|ft|m|0}}, which is somewhat shallower than that at Green Lakes. There are several other similar gorges in the same region as Green Lakes State Park, in particular at [[Clark Reservation State Park|Clark Reservation]], at Smoky Hollow ({{convert|1|mi|km|1|sing=on}} south of Clark Reservation), and at Pumpkin Hollow (about {{convert|10|mi|km|0}} west of Clark Reservation).<ref name="Van Diver">{{cite book |last=Van Diver |first=Bradford B. |date=1980 |title=Upstate New York: Geology Field Guide |page= |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company |location=Dubuque |isbn=0-840-32214-3}}</ref> Geologists call these gorges and hollows "the Syracuse channels."<ref>{{cite web |last=Allmendinger |first=R. W. |date=2005 |title=Syracuse Channels |url=http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/classes/RWA/EAS_210/General/FL_topo/SyrChan.html |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5oNKaJBTS |archivedate=2010-03-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Allmendinger |first=R. W. |date=2005 |url=http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/classes/RWA/EAS_210/General/FL_topo/FLfromNE.html |title=Finger Lakes from the Northeast |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5oNKvXjaq |archivedate=2010-03-20}} Visualization looking across the Syracuse channels from the northeast.</ref>

===Origin of the lakes===
[[Green Lake (New York)|Green Lake]] and [[Round Lake (New York)|Round Lake]] are probably the remnants of the "[[plunge pool]]s" of enormous waterfalls that existed during this era. However, the presence of two distinct lakes is not fully understood.<ref name="HilfingerMullins">Hilfinger, Martin F. and Mullins, Henry T. (1997). "Geology, Limnology, and Paleoclimatology of Green Lakes State Park, New York," in ''Field Trip Guide for the 69th Meeting of the New York State Geological Association'', edited by Todd W. Rayne, David G. Bailey, and Barbara J. Tewksbury (New York State Geological Association, ISSN 1061-8724).</ref> As expected for plunge pools, the lakes are fairly deep in comparison to their area. For example, Round Lake is {{convert|180|ft|m|0}} deep, and has a diameter of about {{convert|700|ft|m|0}}.

[[Image:GreenLakesDeadmanPoint.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A submerged reef at Deadman's Point; the reef built up over the years from the annual "whiting" events in Green Lake, during which calcium carbonate precipitates out of the lake's waters.]]

===The color of the lakes===
{{see also|Green Lake (New York)}}
Nearly half of the water that enters the lakes comes directly through the bedrock into which they are embedded.<ref>Takahashi, T., Broecker, W., Li, Y. H., and Thurber, D. (1968). "Chemical and isotopic balances for a meromictic lake," ''Limnol. and Ocean. 13'', pp. 272-292 (as discussed in Hilfinger and Mullins).</ref> This water contains a heavy load of dissolved minerals that are not present in water that enters through the surface from rain and snow. The high concentration of sulfur in the deep waters had already been reported by 1849; the lake's waters also have a high concentration of calcium and magnesium. This mineral concentration leads to "whiting" events each year in which small crystallites of [[calcite]] and other minerals precipitate from the water. At these times of year the lakes appear particularly green, and the small crystallites are deposited in a layer underneath the lakes' waters.<ref name="Thompson2"> Thompson, J.B., Schultze-Lam, S., Beveridge, T.J., Des Marais, D.J. (1997). "Whiting events: Biogenic origin due to the photosynthetic activity of cyanobacterial picoplankton," ''Limnology and Oceanography'' '''42'''(1), 133-141.</ref> The notable shoreline "reef" at Deadman's Point (see photo) on Green Lake was built up by this precipitation over thousands of years.

===Climate history and Green Lakes===
Nearly all lakes undergo mixing of their deepest waters with their surface waters at least once a year. This mixing does not occur for Green Lake and Round Lake. They are rare, [[meromictic]] lakes.<ref name="HilfingerMullins" /> Waters deeper than about 55 feet (18 m) do not mix with the surface waters; as a consequence, they are essentially devoid of oxygen, and are rich in calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. The meromictic character of the lakes is due both to their relative depth compared to their area, and to the influx of mineral rich ground waters.

Because of this lack of physical mixing, as well as the absence of growing plants or crawling animals in their oxygen-depleted depths, the deep bottoms of the lakes have relatively undisturbed annual layers of sediment (or [[varve]]s) that preserve a historical record, somewhat like [[Dendrochronology|tree ring]]s do. These varves are being used to study the climate of this area of New York over the last several thousand years.<ref name="Hilfinger" />

[[Image:GreenLakes Beach view.JPG|thumb|250px|right|A view from Green Lakes Beach]]
[[Image:GreenLakesStatePark.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Deadman's Point at Green Lake. "Marl reef", bacteria formed chalky shoreline formations, are visible in the foreground.]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links==
*[http://nysparks.state.ny.us/parks/172/details.aspx New York State Parks: Green Lakes State Park], official State of New York website for the park with contact and camping reservation information.
*[http://nysparks.state.ny.us/golf-courses/14/details.aspx Green Lakes State Park Golf Course webpage] with contact information, times and fees.
*{{cite web |title=Map of Green Lakes State Park |publisher=New York State Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation |url=http://nysparks.state.ny.us/inside-our-agency/documents/GreenLakesInformationMeetingPacket.pdf |date=July 7, 2009 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5oNdRHXu1 |archivedate=2010-03-20 |page=3}}
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tt8k0WbAnFs "The Underwater World of Green Lakes"], video obtained using a robotic submarine by [http://www.esf.edu/chemistry/teece/Research/GL/default.htm Dr. Mark A. Teece].
*[http://www.pbase.com/bgates/greenlakes Photographs by Bob Gates] at Green Lakes State Park.
*[http://www.nyfalls.com/lakes/greenlakes.html Photographs by Matthew Conheady] at Green Lakes State Park.
*[http://www.cnyheritage.org/cdm4/browse.php?CISOROOT=%2Ffayfre01 CNY Heritage Digital Library], featuring photographs taken by Arvin H. Almquist, the original superintendent of Green Lakes State Park, during the park's development (1929-1948).

{{Protected Areas of New York}}

[[Category:New York state parks]]
[[Category:Golf clubs and courses designed by Robert Trent Jones]]
[[Category:Golf clubs and courses in New York]]
[[Category:Civilian Conservation Corps in New York]]
[[Category:Parks in Onondaga County, New York]]

Hafizabad

2010-10-17T18:40:29Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{about|Hafizabad, a city and [[tehsil]] of [[Hafizabad District]] in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] province of [[Pakistan]]|others|Hafizabad (disambiguation)}}
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|subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of Pakistan|District]]
|subdivision_name2 =[[Hafizabad District]]
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|leader_name = Mubashar Abbas Bhatti
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|leader_name1 = Zahid Hussain Bhatti
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|website = [http://pportal.punjab.gov.pk/portal/portal/media-type/html/group/311 Punjab Gateway page]
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'''Hafizabad''' ({{lang-ur| حافظ آباد }}) is a city and [[tehsil]] of [[Hafizabad District]] in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] province of [[Pakistan]]. It is situated at 32° 4′ N. and 73° 41′ E.

== History ==
Hafizabad was formerly a place of some importance, and is mentioned in the [[Ain-i-Akbari]] as head-quarters of a mahal. Hafiz, the founder, was a favourite of emperor Akbar.<ref name="IGI">[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V13_011.gif Hafizabad Town - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 13, p. 5]</ref>

===Basic history===

Hafizabad is an old city. In 327 BC, when [[Sikandar-e-Azam]] attacked [[Hindustan]], the territory of the [[Sandal Bar]] (where Hafizabad is now located ) was a populated area. Big cities were located in this territory, and a lot of sub states were organized here in the presidency of Maharajaz and Rajaz.

In the sixth century, when the famous Chinese tourist Hewang Sayan came here, the area was backward but not empty. Then the tourist moved to Sangla; he stayed one night in one good town then called Jai Pura, which was located near the village Koriala. But afterwards this territory became unpopulated and jungle-like because of a shortage of water and Afghan attackers. This situation persisted until King Akbar’s period. In [[Ashok]]’s period a big city was situated at the site of the present village of Mehdi Abad; it was a holy place for [[Buddhist]]s, named after ”Bodhaya”.

===Legend of King Akbar===

According to one legend, King Akbar came to the present-day site of Hafizabad on a hunting trip. The King lost his company as he was busy hunting. This territory was a jungle-like area and there was nothing to eat or drink. The King felt thirsty and wanted to drink some water. Suddenly he was astonished to see smoke. He followed the smoke and found a cottage, and in the cottage there was a man named Sarmast. The King told him about his thirst and asked for some water. Sarmast had no water, but he called up a grazing deer and milked it to serve the king with milk. The King drank the milk and told the Sarmast that he was a king and said, "Please ask me for the thing you want. I will give you whatever you want." Faqir Sarmast asked him to build a town for his pupils. The King promised and ordered the current Hakim, named Hafiz Meerak, to construct a city there.

Hafiz Meerak did as the King ordered. The town, Hafizabad, took its name from his name. One source says that King Akbar wanted to name the town Akbarabad, but the name Hafizabad became popular until the King knew about its creation. King Akbar also remained the name same as Hafizabad. Historians think that this city came into being between 1556 - 1570. The main population was located where an old church is now located.

==Brief description==

Latitude of Hafizabad: 32,0667 (32°4′0.120″N)
Longitude of Hafizabad: 73,6833 (73°40′59.880″E)
Altitude of Hafizabad: 207 m

Hafizabad is situated {{convert|30|mi|km}} away in the west from Gujranwala. Connection with the city is via road which is called Gujranwala Road or Hafizabad Road. On the Wazirabad - Faisalabad Railway Section, Hafizabad is the eighth railway station. The distance to the city of Wazirabad is {{convert|37|mi|km}}. Basically it is an agricultural city. Since the construction of an interchange near Burj Dara, Hafizabad is now just 22 kilometers away from the [[M2 motorway (Pakistan)|M2 motorway]].

===Distance from Hafizabad to 20 biggest cities of Pakistan===
* Hafizabad - Karachi 1 030 km
* Hafizabad - Lahore 85 km
* Hafizabad - Faisalabad 92 km
* Hafizabad - Rawalpindi 180 km
* Hafizabad - Multan 296 km
* Hafizabad - Hyderabad 908 km
* Hafizabad - Gujranwala 48 km
* Hafizabad - Peshawar 292 km
* Hafizabad - Quetta 669 km
* Hafizabad - Islamabad 188 km
* Hafizabad - Bahawalpur 353 km
* Hafizabad - Sargodha 95 km
* Hafizabad - Sialkot 92 km
* Hafizabad - Sukkur 672 km
* Hafizabad - Larkana 728 km
* Hafizabad - Shekhupura 48 km
* Hafizabad - Jhang Sadr 157 km
* Hafizabad - Gujrat 67 km
* Hafizabad - Mardan 283 km
* Hafizabad - Kasur 128 km

===Distance from Hafizabad to top 10 cities of the world===

* Hafizabad - Prague 5 231 km
* Hafizabad - Berlin 5 299 km
* Hafizabad - London 6 204 km
* Hafizabad - Los Angeles 12 571 km
* Hafizabad - Moscow 3 831 km
* Hafizabad - New York 11 341 km
* Hafizabad - Paris 6 124 km
* Hafizabad - Peking 3 871 km
* Hafizabad - Rio De Janeiro 13 735 km
* Hafizabad - Sydney 10 861 km
* Hafizabad - Tokyo 5 954 km

===Rivers===

The [[Chenab River]] originates in the snow-covered central range of the Himalayas. It also receives numerous smaller streams from the lower hills which depend upon rainfall. It breaks out from a rocky gorge in the hills, six miles (10 km) to the north of Bajwat, Distt. Sialkot, flows downward from Marala Headwork and enters into [[Hafizabad District]] near Channi Sultan, a village of Hafizabad Tehsil. It forms a natural boundary between Mandi Bahauddin and Hafizabad districts.

== Industry ==
Hafizabad/Jalalpur Bhattian is famous for its high-quality rice. About 10% of the country's rice exports are from Hafizabad, which is sometimes referred to as the Land of Rice or City of Rice.
Cotton powe loom (weaving) is the second largest industry of Hafizabad. It is linked directly with the cotton market in Faisalabad and businessmen from Faisalabad deal directly with the cotton industry in Hafizabad. It plays an important role in the development of Hafizabad. This industry has been badly affected by the energy crisis.

Before the partition, the per-annum income of Hafizabad just from rice was 1.5 Crore. Peshwar, Agra, Mithra, Calcutta, Karachi, and Sukker were Hafizabad's main clients. Up to 23 rice mills were there until the partition of Hindustan; the main rice mills were Sohna Mill, Shri Haweli Ram Des Mills, Sardar Sundar Mills, Doctor Manohar Lal Rice Mills, Rajindar Nath Mills, Seeta Raam Mills, Mela Raam Bhagwan Rice Mills, Jeeram Daas Mills, Baily Raam Rice Mills and others.

The following types of rice are cultivated in Hafizabad: Basmati 385, Basmati 386, Super Karnal, Ery Nine, Erey Six, Super Fan, and KS 282.

=== Mosques ===
The city of Hafizabad has many mosques. Notable mosques include Shabir Shah Masjid, Masjid-e-Sadiqia, Eid gah Masjid, Masjid-e-Abu Hanifa, and Sidiqia Masjid.

==Education==
=== Colleges ===

In 1966 Government Degree College Hafizabad was established and it was the only college in this city at that time. Later on Government Islamia Degree College for Women was established.
Recently several colleges have been established in Hafizabad, including Punjab Colleges Hafizabad (2010) and
Causway College Hafizabad. Other colleges are also working in this city.
Fees for Degree College Avg. per annum are 3000.
Fees for Punjab College avg. per annum are 58,000.

=== Schools ===
A large number of schools operate in the city. Notable schools include [[Beaconhouse School System]], District Public School (1998), Govt High School 1 (founded in 1898, making it the oldest school in Hafizabad), 2 separately for boys and girls, M. H. Sufi Foundation, and The Educators.

District Public School was established in 1998 to meet the need of the people. It is situated outside the city and on a land mass of more than {{convert|3|acre|m2}}. It has three blocks: for Boys, Girls and playgroup. The grounds are very large. The school fee is normal and middle class families can easily pay. The first principal was Sir Arshad and the first student was Asad Raza Mohal. The school when started in 1998 had just 100 students and about 20 staff members. Now it has a student body of more than 1500. It offers coeducational classes up to class 2.

[[Beaconhouse School System]] operates a relatively expensive private school in Hafizabad. It offers coeducation from nurrsery class to 10th.

==Notable residents==
{{Cleanup-laundry|date=October 2010|section}}
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2010}}
* Late Mian Jehangir Khan Bhatti (ex-[[Member of Provincial Assembly|MPA]])
* Mullana Hakeem Noor Ahmed Yazdani (writer and religious scholar)
* Hakeem Sheikh Ghulam Hussain Rasulnagri (founder, chairman emeritus Ahl-e-Tasheeh Council Hafizabad)
* Aziz Ali Sheikh (award-winning writer and historian)
* Dr. Muzaffar Ali Sheikh (ex-MPA and chairman Standing Committee on Health Punjab)
* Sarfraz Bhatti (ex-MPA)
* Asadullah Aryan (MPA)
* Rai Jahngir (Tehsil [[Nazim]])
* Mian Intisar Hussain Bhattti (ex-MPA)
* Mian Anser Abbass Bhatti (Tehsil Nazim)
* Muhammad Yaqub Mohal (lawyer, candidate for MPA PP 107)
* Mian Shahid Hussain Bhatti (MPA)
* Mian Zahid Hussain Bhatti (District [[Naib Nazim]])
* Malik Fayyaz Awan (MPA)
* Rai Shahid Mahmood Shashoka (District Chairman Punjab Baituimal)
* Saira Afzal Tarar ([[National Assembly of Pakistan|MNA]])
* Shoukat Bhatti (ex-culture minister and youth minister)
* Ch. Afzal Husain Tarar (ex-MNA)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Tehsils of Punjab (Pakistan)}}

[[Category:Tehsils of Punjab]]

[[pnb:حافظ آباد]]
[[pt:Hafizabad]]
[[simple:Hafizabad Tehsil]]
[[sv:Hafizabad]]
[[ur:حافظ آباد]]
[[war:Hafizabad]]

Glenveagh Castle

2010-10-17T18:24:22Z

Lightmouse: /* Captain Adair */Mostly units using AWB (7290)

[[Image:Gleann Bheatha - geograph.org.uk - 69006.jpg|260px|thumb|Glenveagh Castle.]]
'''Glenveagh Castle''' ({{lang-ga|Caisleán Ghleann Bheatha }}) is a large [[castellated]] [[Mansion]] house built in the [[Scottish Baronial]] style within [[Glenveagh|Glenveagh National Park]], near both [[Churchill, County Donegal|Churchill]] and [[Gweedore]] in [[County Donegal]], [[Ireland]]. The castle was built between [[1870 in Ireland|1870]] and [[1873 in Ireland|1873]] and consists of a four storey rectangular keep surrounded by a [[garden]], and has a backdrop of some 165.4 km² (40,873 acres) of mountains, lakes, glens and woods complete with a herd of [[red deer]]. The Visitor Centre has displays that explain the park as well as an audio-visual show and is accessible for visitors with disabilities. The gardens and castle were left to the Irish nation in [[1981 in Ireland|1981]] by [[Henry Plumer McIlhenny]] of [[Philadelphia]], who had purchased the estate in [[1937 in Ireland|1937]]. [[Hollywood]] stars such as [[Marilyn Monroe]] and [[Greta Garbo]] stayed at the castle while McIlhenny owned it. The Irish ''Gleann Bheatha'' translates into English as "Glen of Life".

==Captain Adair==
The castle was built by [[John George Adair|Captain John George Adair]] ([[1823 in Ireland|1823]]-[[1885 in Ireland|1885]]), a native of [[County Laois|Co Leix]], and a member of the minor [[Landed gentry|gentry]]. Adair had made his fortune by chancy [[Speculation|land speculation]] in the [[United States]], and he returned to Ireland and bought up vast tracts of land in Donegal. Adair had married in [[1869 in Ireland|1869]], [[Cornelia Adair|Cornelia Wadsworth Ritchie]], a daughter of [[James S. Wadsworth]], a Union General in the [[American Civil War]]. Together they set about the creation of the Gardens and Castle. Adair's ambition was to create an estate and castle that surpassed [[Balmoral Castle|Balmoral]], Queen Victoria's Scottish retreat.
John Adair is remembered with scant affection in Donegal. On the heels of the [[Great Irish Famine]] and emigration on a par with the [[Highland Clearances]], John Adair evicted 224 tenants from their [[black house]]s on his land. This was not for financial gain, but merely to improve the æsthetic aspect from the castle. These tenant clearances are known as the "Derryveagh Evictions". The name of John George Adair as a Donegal landlord has passed into history and folklore, ballad and documentary. All have one thing in common - Adair was notoriously cruel. He purchased Glenveagh and Gartan in 1859 making an estate of {{convert|28000|acre|km2}}.

His troubles with the tenants began almost immediately. A row between them and Adair over shooting rights and trespassing sheep culminated in the murder of his Scottish steward James Murrog. Consequently Adair carried out his threat to evict the tenancy.
On the 3rd April 1861, a considerable cortege of 200 police, three sub officers, the [[Resident Magistrate|resident magistrate]] and the sub-sheriff set out from Letterkenny to undertake their duties. The evictions began at Lough Barra where a widow, Mrs Hanna McAward and her six daughters and one son were the first to suffer. The work of destruction continued for three days through Magerashangan, Staghall, Claggan, Ardator and Castletown among other townlands. In all, 44 families were evicted making a total of 244 persons.

Many of the evicted went to the [[Poor Law|work house]] in Letterkenny, others were helped by locals and the clergy also raised money. In Australia, the Donegal Relief Fund was revitalised and arrangements were made to help the young people aged between 16 and 28 years to emigrate. Many took advantage of the scheme. As they settled in Sydney the strong [[oral tradition]] ensured that the descendents remembered their families bitter memories.

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.gardens-guide.com/gardenpages/_0229.htm Glenveagh Castle Gardens]
*[http://www.npws.ie/en/NationalParks/GlenveaghNationalPark/ Glenveagh National Park]
*[http://www.dun-na-ngall.com/glenv.html Glenveagh Castle in Donegal]
*[http://donegal.goireland.com/scripts/low/xq/asp/areaid.175/areatype.C/cat.6/SubjectID.219/PremisesID.14412/qx/premises.htm Glenveagh Castle and Gardens]
*[http://www.ireland-fun-facts.com/glenveagh-castle.html Glenveagh Castle - Donegal's Camelot]
*[http://www.heritageireland.ie/en/HistoricSites/North/GlenveaghNationalParkDonegal/ Glenveagh Heritage Site]
*[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~donegal/gartan/derryveagh.htm The Derryveagh Evictions]
*[http://www.coillte.ie/index.php?id=252]

{{Historic Irish houses}}

{{coord|55|02|N|7|58|W|display=title|region:IE_type:landmark_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Castles in County Donegal]]
[[Category:Scottish baronial architecture]]
[[Category:Museums in County Donegal]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Gardens in County Donegal]]

[[ru:Замок Гленвех]]

Galbraith Mountain

2010-10-17T18:00:48Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7290)

{{Essay-like|date=April 2010}}

'''Galbraith Mountain''' is the common name for '''North Lookout Mountain,''' located between the communities of [[Sudden Valley, Washington|Sudden Valley]] and [[Bellingham, Washington]]. A {{convert|3125|acre|km2|adj=on}} area was owned by the Trillium Corporation until April 1, 2010, when the company surrendered the property to Polygon Financial Partners instead of defaulting on the loan held by Polygon.<ref>{{cite news
| author = Relyea, Kie
| title = New owner of Galbraith Mountain takes over; plans 90-day review of biking mecca
| quote =
| publisher = ''The Bellingham Herald''
| date = 4-6-2010
| pages =
| url = http://www.bellinghamherald.com/2010/04/06/1370752/new-owner-of-galbraith-mountain.html
| accessdate = 4-26-2010
}}</ref> Galbraith Mountain has two main summits, which are {{convert|1365|ft|m|abbr=on}} and {{convert|1785|ft|m|abbr=on}} high. Though they are not either the highest points on Lookout mountain, they are prominent from all over Western [[Whatcom County]]. The Whatcom Independent Mountain Pedalers (WHIMPs) created and maintained a large trail system under a 2005 contract with Trillium. The mountain has many access points; the two most popular are from Birch Street, off of Lakeway Drive, and Galbraith Lane, off of Samish Way.

Galbraith Mountain is home to four [[radio towers]], three of which are on the summit, and one about {{convert|100|ft|m|abbr=on}} below. There is active [[logging]] on the flanks of the [[mountain]], which has opened clear sight lines from the trails which criss-cross the area. Numerous [[kiosks]] and [[outdoor art]] were placed throughout the mountain by Trillium and the WMBC, including a [[bike]] maintenance station.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.whimpsmtb.com/mountains.html
|title=About WMBC
|publisher=Whatcom Independent Mountain Pedalers
|accessdate=2008-12-03
|last=
|first=
}}</ref>

As of April 26, 2010, Polygon's planned relationship with the mountain biking community and land use policy has not been established.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*WHIMPs description of Galbraith, including their original contract with Trillium: [http://www.whimpsmtb.com/galbraithmt.html]
*{{cite web
|url=http://trillium.baronclient.com/whoweare/
|title=Trillium Corporation
|publisher=trillium.baronclient.com
|accessdate=2008-12-03
|last=
|first=
}}

{{Coord|48|41|19|N|122|21|39|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Geography of Bellingham, Washington]]
[[Category:Whatcom County, Washington]]

Dulahazara-Safari-Park

2010-10-16T16:21:36Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB

'''Dulahazra Safari Park''' was developed on an undulating landscape of around {{convert|2224|acre|km2}} of area at [[Chakaria Upazila]] in [[Cox's Bazar District]], [[Bangladesh]], some 107 km away from the port city, with an objective to create facilities for eco-tourism, research work and entertainment aside from conserving wild animals in a natural environment.

Dulahazra Park is home to at least 4,000 animals of 165 species. After the new government took over in January 2007, joint forces rescued many of these new residents of the park during their drives at houses and establishments owned by graft suspects.<ref name="dailystar"/> Many individuals also ‘donated’ some of the animals to the park during this period. The seized and donated animals recently sent to the park include 90 spotted deer (chital), 42 barking deer (maya, a species of muntjac deer), three sambar deer, one freshwater crocodile, one saltwater crocodile, nine black bear, four pythons, 17 peacocks, 19 Turkish pheasants and two emus. <ref>http://www.bangladeshnews.com.bd/2007/05/20/starving-at-safari-park/</ref>

Other source of animale includes the Dhaka Zoo. While the animal population in Dhaka zoo has increased over the years due to their breeding, the Dhaka zoo donates a number of lions and tigers to the Dulhazra Safari Park.<ref name="dailystar">http://www.thedailystar.net/2005/06/05/d506052503109.htm</ref>

Visitor Attractions:

The park itself protects a large number of wild elephants which are native to the area. In the safari park there are domesticated elephants which are available for a ride. Other animal attractions include lions, Bengal tigers, Crocodiles, Bears, Chitals and lots of different types of birds and monkeys.

Since the park was made open to the public, it has been drawing a huge crowd all year round — 6,000 visitors daily during peak season (November to March) and 2,000 visitors daily during off season (April to October).

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Bangladesh}}

[[Category:Visitor attractions in Bangladesh]]

Dunsany Castle

2010-10-16T12:40:40Z

Lightmouse: /* Walled Garden */Mostly units using AWB

[[Image:Dunsany Castle in Meath mist.jpg|thumb|300px|Dunsany Castle]]
'''Dunsany Castle''' ({{lang-ga|Caisleán Dhun Samhna}}), Dunsany, [[County Meath]], [[Ireland]] is a modernised [[Norman architecture|Norman]] castle, started c. 1180 / 1181 by [[De Lacy|Hugh de Lacy]], who also commissioned [[Killeen Castle, Dunsany|Killeen Castle]], nearby, and the famous [[Trim Castle]]. It is possibly Ireland's oldest home in continuous occupation, having been held by the Cusack family, and their descendants by marriage, the [[Baron of Dunsany|Plunketts]], to the present day. The castle is surrounded by its [[demesne]], the inner part of the formerly extensive Dunsany estate; the demesne holds an historic church (still consecrated), a working walled garden, a walled farm complex, an ice house, various dwellings and other features.

==Location==
Dunsany Castle and demesne, and other remnants of the family estates, are situated in and near the townland of Dunsany, between the historic town of [[Trim, County Meath|Trim]] and [[Dunshaughlin]]. At Dunsany Cross(roads) is a hamlet, with a post office store, Catholic church and primary school, and a mix of private housing with a small local authority development. The former Dower House is located just east of the hamlet. The demesne can be reached from the [[N3 road (Ireland)|N3 road]] and from Trim, and is signposted from the Navan Road, from Dunshaughlin and from Warrenstown, near the former railway station for the area, at [[Drumree]]. The next village is [[Kilmessan]], and today Dunsany and Kilmessan together form a single Catholic parish.

==History==
The castle was built, probably in succession to basic "motte" fortifications, remnants of which can still be seen to the left and right in front of it, in the period 1180 - 1200, construction being thought to have begun in 1180 / 1181. Foundations and the lower parts of the four main towers are thought to be original, and some interior spaces, notably an old kitchen, but much additional work has been carried out, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the current castle is more than three times the size of the original.

The castle, along with Killeen Castle, was held by the Cusacks, initially on behalf of the deLacys, and passed by marriage in the early 15th century to the Plunketts. Originally, it and Killeen lay on a single estate but the first generation of Plunketts gave Killeen to the eldest son, and Dunsany to the younger, Christopher, following which the estate was divided, and the Castle descended in the hands of the [[Baron Dunsany|Barons of Dunsany]], who enjoyed almost uninterrupted ownership, aside from issues around Oliver Cromwell's operations in Ireland (the then Lady Dunsany defended the castle against an initial approach but the family were later forced out, some dying on the way to Connaught), and the aftermath of some other troubles between Ireland and England. They were cousins of [[Saint Oliver Plunket]].

The Dunsany Estate was reduced by the operation of the Land Acts in the late 19th and early 20th century but the castle is still surrounded by its original demesne, and other estate lands remain around the district, some adjacent to the demesne and some remote.

Much of the work of the writer [[Lord Dunsany]] was done at the Castle, notably in a room in one of the building's towers.

Since the 1990s, work has been carried out, with some attendant publicity, to restore some of the Dunsany properties in the immediate area and in Trim. The family's other castle, the largest in Ireland but a ruin, [[Trim Castle]], was transferred to the State in the 1990s.

==Castle structure==
The Castle is entered through a projecting porch and a lobby with a worked plaster ceiling, which opens into the central hallway, featuring the principal stairway and a vaulted ceiling, and into a secondary hall. The ground floor holds the grand dining room, with portraits of past family members, and a fine ''arts and crafts'' billiards room, as well as kitchen spaces, ancient and modern, and other rooms. On the first floor are the library, and drawing-room, which has Stapleton plasterwork from 1780. The library, which may have been worked on by James Shiel, is in the "Gothic Revival" style, with a "beehive" ceiling. Also on this floor is a secondary stairway (where a "priest's hole" for hiding Catholic ministers formerly existed). The third floor holds ornate bedrooms.

==Demesne==
===Walls, entrances and lodges===
The demesne is surrounded by a drystone wall, much of which was built during the Great Famine as a relief work.

The main entrance to the grounds today, opposite a medieval pilgrim cross, has the appearance of a Gothic ruin but is a "sham", concealing a residential "gatehouse" lodge, and with a solid black metal gate. Just behind this is the former Steward's House, a curious sunken structure, and just west on the public road is an access road for the demesne farm.

The former main gateway, leading to a long avenue which abruptly reveals the castle to arrivals, has a tower lodge and high white gates. A third gateway, at Dunsany Bridge, over the River Skane, had a curious black-stone lodge, which was vandalised in the 1980s.

===Church of St. Nicholas ("The Abbey")===
The Church of [[St. Nicholas]] (of Myra), known locally as "the Abbey", was built in the 1440s, on the site of an earlier church (standing in 1305). It is now a National Monument, with remnants of lofts and living quarters, and inside and around are tombs of family members and local residents. While it fell out of use and a new church was built at Dunsany Crossroads, it is still consecrated, and a wedding Mass was celebrated there (with a temporary roof installed) in the early 2000s, with the Bishop of Meath.

===Walled Garden===
There is a full-scale walled garden, over {{convert|3|acre|m2}} in size, still producing fruit and vegetables for the estate. A cottage, historically occupied by the senior gardener, is built into the walls of the garden. Nearby are working beehives.

===Other structures===
Also within the demesne are stone-built farm and stable yards, an ice-house and wells. There is a home within the stable yard, and at least one ruined cottage near the walls.

===Lands===
The lands comprise a mix of farmland, marsh and woodland. At the back of the demesne, alongside the old Dublin-Navan railway line, is the River Skane, a tributary of the [[River Boyne]].

==Access==
The castle can be visited on a certain number of days each year, for a fee.

==Points of Note==
The castle and demesne have been used for filming on occasions, for example for [[Braveheart]] (the wedding scene was filmed in the Church of St. Nicholas, for example) and the remake of [[The Magnificent Ambersons]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.dunsany.net Dunsany Family, Castle and Estate]
* [http://www.meathtourism.ie Meath Tourism]

{{Historic Irish houses}}

{{coord missing|County Meath}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dunsany Castle And Demesne}}
[[Category:Dunsany]]
[[Category:1180s architecture]]
[[Category:Castles in County Meath]]
[[Category:Norman architecture]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in County Meath]]
[[Category:Lord Dunsany]]

Crystal Mountain (Washington)

2010-10-16T10:40:38Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB

{{about|the ski area in Washington||Crystal Mountain (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox ski area
| name = Crystal Mountain
| logo = CrystalMtnLogo.png
| picture = Crystal Mountain Washington.JPG
| caption = Skiers on Crystal Mountain's slopes
| location = [[Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest]] 
[[Pierce County, Washington|Pierce County]], [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] {{USA}}
| nearest_city = [[Enumclaw, Washington|Enumclaw]] 40 mi. (65 km) north
| lat_degrees = 46
| lat_minutes = 45
| lat_seconds = 40
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 121
| long_minutes = 28
| long_seconds = 56
| long_direction = W
| vertical = 3100 ft (945 m) 2602 ft (793 m) - ''lifts''
| top_elevation = 7012 ft (2137 m) 7002 ft (2134 m) - ''lifts''
| base_elevation = 3912 ft (1192 m) 4400 ft (1341 m) - ''lifts''
| skiable_area = {{convert|2600|acre|km2}} lift serviced: 2300 acres (9.3 km²) inbounds backcountry 300 acres (1.2 km²)
| number_trails = 53 [[Image:Ski trail rating symbol-green circle.svg|13px]] - 13% easiest [[Image:Ski trail rating symbol-blue square.svg|13px]] - 57% more difficult [[Image:Ski trail rating symbol-black diamond.svg|13px]] - 30% most difficult
| longest_run = 2.5 mi (4 km) ''"Northway"''
| liftsystem = 10 [[chairlift|chairs]] 1 [[Magic carpet (ski lift)|magic carpet]]
| lift_capacity = 20,310 / hr
| fast_sixchair = 2
| fast_quadchair = 2
| triplechair = 2
| doublechair = 4
| terrainparks =
| snowfall = {{convert|350|in|m}}
| snowmaking = none
| nightskiing = none
| external_link = [http://www.skicrystal.com/ SkiCrystal.com]
|}}
{{coord|46|55|40|N|121|28|56|W|display=title|scale:1000000}}

'''Crystal Mountain''' is a [[ski area]], located on the [[Cascade Range]] of [[Washington state]] in the [[Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest]]. Crystal is the largest [[ski resort]] in the state, readily accessible from the [[Seattle]]-[[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]] metropolitan area through [[Enumclaw, Washington|Enumclaw]] via [[Washington State Route 410|Highway 410]]. It is primarily a day-use area, with ten [[chairlift]]s, various dining locations, and multiple hotels. In December 2010, Crystal will open Washington's first gondola at a ski area. It will provide year-round access to the resort's summit.

==History==
The Crystal Mountain Ski Area opened in December 1962, forged after some dedicated [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]] skiers were unable to start a resort within the boundaries of [[Mount Rainier National Park]]. The new [[ski area]] was established just outside the park's northeastern corner.

The following summer (1963), Crystal bought its first three Riblet double chairlifts: Miners' Basin, Green Valley, and Iceberg Ridge.

{{Location map|Washington|label='''Crystal Mountain'''|marksize=6|mark=Red_pog.svg|lat_dir=N|lat_deg=46|lat_min=55|lat_sec=40|lon_dir=W|lon_deg=121|lon_min=28|lon_sec=56|position=right|width=260|float=right|caption=location of Crystal Mountain, Washington}}

In [[1965 in sports|1965]], Crystal Mountain hosted the U.S. Alpine Ski Championships, which included famous skiers such as Olympic medalists [[James Heuga|Jimmy Heuga]] and [[Billy Kidd]], and future triple gold medalist [[Jean-Claude Killy]] of [[France]]. For the next few decades, Crystal Mountain expanded its boundaries to include areas such as Campbell Basin and the opening of Crystal’s backcountry areas.

Two weeks after the [[Alpine skiing at the 1972 Winter Olympics|Olympics]] in late February [[1972 Alpine Skiing World Cup|1972]], Crystal hosted the FIS [[Alpine Skiing World Cup|World Cup]] tour with two [[downhill]]s for both men and women, with the start above Campbell Basin. Weather forced a low start; the winning times were under 90 seconds. Newly-crowned [[Alpine skiing at the 1972 Winter Olympics|Olympic downhill champion]] [[Bernhard Russi]] of [[Switzerland]] won the Saturday race and took second on Sunday. [http://www.fis-ski.com/uk/604/1228.html?event_id=2735&cal_suchsector=AL]

In 1974, Crystal added its first triple chairlift, Bullion Basin (C-7); this was moved to its current location as the Gold Hills lift in 1984. That same year, the Rendezvous (C-9) and Discovery (C-8) triple chairlifts were installed. [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]’s first [[Detachable chairlift|high-speed detachable quad chairlift]], the "Rainier Express" (C-10), was installed in the summer of 1988. This new lift, nicknamed "Rex," had a vertical rise of 1700 feet (518 m) and replaced the Iceberg Ridge double chair (C-2), which had connected the top of the Miner's Basin lift (C-1) to the Summit House (6872 ft., 2095 m). The Rainier Express caused a reconfiguration of the Campbell Basin chairlift (C-5), which connected the main base area to Campbell Basin, the loading point for the High Campbell chair (C-6). The lower portion of the Campbell Basin chairlift was replaced with the Midway Shuttle (C-11), a fixed grip quad. The upper portion of the Campbell Basin lift remained (for nine more years), its loading area was just southeast of the Rainier Express base. It rose 1000 vertical feet (305 m) up the "K-2 Face" run, and was removed in the summer of 1997.

During the mid-1990s, the owners of Crystal Mountain became deeply in debt; unable to pay for important improvements such as new lifts and lodges, they sold the area to [[Boyne Resorts]] in March 1997. The deal directed Boyne to spend at least $15 million in capital improvements during the first ten years. After three years, Boyne had already completed more than half of the improvements with the installation of the Northwest’s first high speed six-passenger chairlifts, the Chinook and Forest Queen Express lifts. The Forest Queen Express replaced the Rendezvous triple chair and Campbell Basin double in the summer of 1997, and the Chinook Express replaced the Midway Shuttle in the summer of 1998. Boyne also made other improvements such as a new rental facility, paved parking lots, and five new Bombardier [[snowcat]] grooming machines. The Green Valley double chairlift (C-3) was replaced with a high-speed quad in the summer of 2000.

In the summer of 2004, Crystal built the Campbell Basin Lodge, a Cascade-style lodge serving pasta, pizza, soups, teriyaki, burgers, salads, Mexican food, etc. The construction of this upper mountain day lodge at 6200 feet (1890 m) was the final element of a development plan implemented in 1983.

In the summer of 2007, Crystal underwent a major expansion, increasing developed terrain by 70% to {{convert|2300|acre|km2}}. The Northway chairlift (fixed-grip double) was installed in the former "North Backcountry." [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/getaways/336494_crystalift25.html] [http://www.skicrystal.com/1733.html photos] In addition, the Summit House restaurant was remodeled and the intermediate run "Lucky Shot" was [[regrading|regraded]].

On March 6, 2010, Crystal announced on its website that a new gondola would be built in the Summer of 2010. The gondola will start at the site of the current mountain market and end at the summit house. This will be Washington's first gondola at a ski area.

==Mountain redevelopment==
Following the acquisition by [[Boyne Resorts]], Crystal Mountain submitted a Master Development Plan (MDP) to the [[United States Forest Service|USFS]], which included six alternatives for redevelopment of the mountain. A draft [[Environmental impact assessment|environmental impact study]] was issued in 2001 and finalized in August 2004. John Phipps, [[Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest]] Supervisor, selected Alternative Six with modifications from the Final Environmental Impact Statement. It approves new facilities including an aerial tram to the summit, a new chairlift in Northback, a surface lift, existing chairlift upgrades, base facility renovations, employee housing and wastewater facilities. The plan is the largest in Washington’s history, costing Boyne an estimated $40 million.

The new developments will include the expansion of the base area, including a new base area to be known as the Bullion Basin base area located at the north end of Parking Lot B. The new area is intended to relieve congestion of the current base and reduce walking distances from parking lots to the lifts. The new base area will include new lifts, as well as a lodge and parking structure.

Completed Projects:
* ''Northway'' (C-12) opens up Northback with a double chairlift. In a press release, general manager John Kircher stated, "The new lift in the Northback is designed to provide access but keep the snow quality higher." [www.skicrystal.com/1729.html] Presumably this hopes to address concerns (mostly from expert skiers) that the backcountry of Crystal will be ruined by much higher traffic by limiting capacity. The new lift is a fixed-grip double chairlift from [[Doppelmayr CTEC]], installed in the summer of 2007. It accesses terrain formerly in the North Backcountry and connects the Lower Northway run to the top of Northway Peak. [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/getaways/336494_crystalift25.html]

Under Construction:
* ''Summit Gondola'' will provide direct access from the current base area to the summit, which will provide a larger function during the summer months than during winter months, while allowing guests on foot summit access in winter (to meet demands for viewing Mt. Rainier while avoiding further development of Rainier National Park). The top terminal will be located just above the current Rainier Express top terminal.

Proposed and Approved:
* ''Kelly's Gap Express'' (C-13) will rise westwards from the new Bullion Base and terminating above and to the north of Green Valley Express.

* ''Bullion Basin'' (C15) would rise eastwards on the other side of valley from the Bullion Base to an area that previously had a lift abandoned in 1983 (the footprint of a lift and trails can be viewed from the top of Rex). This lift will also allow access to East Peak backcountry area for expert skiers. Rumors suggest that although this lift was included in the Record of Decision, the lift may not actually be built. As of July 2007, Crystal has received the former Millicent double chair from [[Brighton Ski Resort]] ([[Utah]]) to possibly be installed as the Bullion Basin chair in the future.

* ''Park N' Ride'' (C12) will provide access between the new Bullion Base and the current base area.

* Two new surface tows at the old base area (''Ptarmagin'', S1) and new Bullion Base (''Pika'', S2)

* High speed replacements for the Quicksilver and Discovery chairs with no additional trail development.

Proposed, but rejected by the Forest Service:
* Silver King Summit Lift
* East Peak Summit Lift and trail expansion. This would have crossed the Pacific Crest trail on the opposite side of the valley from the current resort.

==Resort overview==
[[Image:IMG 0091.jpg|thumb|right|500px|View from the top of Campbell Basin, looking down at Crystal Mountain's Campbell Basin Lodge]]
Today, Crystal is considered a top ski area in Washington with 2300 acres (9.3 km²) of terrain. Crystal offers gently winding cruisers such as Queens Run for novice skiers and steep, narrow chutes in the 1000 acre (4 km²) backcountry for seasoned experts. The inbounds area of the ski area is divided into four major sections.

The main base area of the mountain includes the chairlifts Chinook Express, Gold Hills, Discovery, Miners' Basin, and Quicksilver. Chinook Express and Miners’ Basin are the main access to the mountain and get very crowded in the morning hours. Gold Hills accesses the chalets and hotels on the opposite side of the valley from the rest of the ski area. Quicksilver and Discovery Chairlifts offer mild runs for beginners.

The Rainier Express chairlift accesses Lucky Shot, Green Valley, Snorting Elk Bowl, and the Northway Lift. At the top of Rex lies the Summit House Restaurant with views of Mount Rainier. The terrain is varied from well-groomed Lucky Shot, to steep, rocky Sunnyside.

The Green Valley area, with the Green Valley Express chairlift includes intermediate routes like Huckleberry and Green Valley Bowl. Experts enjoy ripping up Right Angle, Snorting Elk and other steep, rocky faces.

The Northway Lift accesses a series of faces and bowls, entitled Northway Bowl, Morning Glory Bowl, and Brand X. These bowls and runs funnel out into lower Otto Bahn, which puts skiers at the base of the double chair. Skiers going straight down the ridge from Northway can access the runs Right Angle, Left Angle, Niagaras, Gun Tower, and Upper Otto Bahn. Right Angle sends skiers to the Green Valley lift. Niagaras, Gun Tower, and Left Angle send skiers to the bottom of the mountain, and Upper Otto Bahn sends skiers back to Northway lift.

On the other side of the ski area lies the Forest Queen Express Chair. It features groomed beginner and intermediate runs like Downhill, Mr. Magoo, and C.M.A.C. (named for the Crystal Mountain Alpine Club.) The largest day lodge in the resort, the Campbell Basin Lodge is located at the top of the Forest Queen Chair.

The High Campbell double chair accesses the most advanced terrain at Crystal. At the top, skiers can either drop into Powder Bowl or take a long traverse into Campbell Basin or eventually into South Backcountry.

South Backcountry is a lift-accessed, avalanche-controlled inbounds backcounty area. Some of the terrain can be accessed by traversing, but most requires some hiking. Silver King, the 7012' summit of the ski area is famous for its lines such as Brain Damage and Pinball. The bowls include Avalanche Basin and Silver Basin.

In the summer, Crystal runs the Chinook and Rainier Express chairlifts for chairlift rides and dining at the Summit House Restaurant. The scenic chairlifts rise a total of 2500 vertical feet (760 m) to the top of the ridge. Along the way, sightseers can view fields of wildflowers and mountain springs. Once at the top, they can see the dominant volcanoes of the Cascade Range: Mt. Rainier, Mt. Hood, Mt. Adams, Mt. St. Helens, and even Mt. Baker. The Summit House, elevation 6872 feet (2095 m), serves an elegant brunch and dinner menu during the summer. Summer operations were suspended in 2007 because of the Northway chairlift construction and Summit House remodeling. Currently the Summit House serves sit-down meals only with reservations required.

Crystal Mountain has produced [[Winter Olympic Games|Olympic]] and [[Alpine Skiing World Cup|World Cup]] ski racers. [[Scott Macartney]] of [[Redmond, Washington|Redmond]] skied at the [[Alpine skiing at the 2002 Winter Olympics|2002 Winter Olympics]] in [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]] and at the [[Alpine skiing at the 2006 Winter Olympics|2006 Winter Olympics]] at Sestiere, Italy, where he finished 7th in the Super-G competition. Another [[Alpine skiing at the 2006 Winter Olympics|2006 Winter Olympics]] competitor, [[Libby Ludlow]] of [[Bellevue, Washington|Bellevue]], also grew up skiing at Crystal. Both were members of the Crystal Mountain Alpine Club (CMAC), known for producing talented and well-performing racers.

==External links==
* [http://www.skicrystal.com/ Crystal Mountain] - official site
* [http://skilifts.org/wa-crystal.htm Ski Lifts.org] - photos of lifts at Crystal Mountain
* [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/getaways/336494_crystalift25.html Northway lift] - ''[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]]'' - 25-Oct-2007
* [http://www.skicrystal.com/1733.html Ski Crystal.com] - photos of Northway lift installation - 2007
* [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/outdoors/2004191907_nwwcrystal210.html Northway lift: Crystal Mountain's chairway to heaven] - ''[[Seattle Times]]'' - 21-Feb-2008
* [http://www.fis-ski.com/uk/604/1228.html?event_id=2735&cal_suchsector=AL World Cup Downhills Feb 1972] FIS-Ski.com
{{Washington Ski areas navbox}}

[[Category:Pierce County, Washington]]
[[Category:Ski areas and resorts in Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Mountain biking venues in the United States]]

[[fr:Crystal Mountain]]
[[it:Crystal Mountain]]
[[pl:Crystal Mountain]]

Conboy Lake National Wildlife Refuge

2010-10-16T10:17:49Z

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'''Conboy Lake National Wildlife Refuge''' is located on the east slope of the [[Cascade Mountains]] at the base of {{convert|12307|ft|m|adj=on}} [[Mount Adams (Washington)|Mount Adams]] in southern [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]].

It currently encompasses over {{convert|6500|acre|km2}} of the historic [[Conboy Lake|Conboy]]/[[Camas Lake|Camas]] lakebeds, a shallow marshy [[wetland]] area drained by early settlers. [[Conifer]] forests, [[grassland]]s, shallow [[wetland]]s, and deep water provide homes for [[deer]], [[elk]], [[beaver]], [[coyote]], [[otter]], small [[rodent]]s, and 150 species of birds, as well as numerous amphibians, reptiles, and fish.

[[Bald eagle]], [[greater sandhill crane]], and the [[Oregon spotted frog]] are [[species of concern]]. Refuge visitors enjoy the scenery, hike the Willard Springs trail, and observe wildlife from the county roads that surround and cross the refuge.

==References==
*[http://www.fws.gov/refuges/profiles/index.cfm?id=13522 Refuge profile]
*[http://www.fws.gov/conboylake/ Refuge website]
{{Include-USGov|agency=United States Fish and Wildlife Service}}

{{coord|45|57|29|N|121|19|04|W|display=title}}

{{Protected Areas of Washington}}

[[Category:National Wildlife Refuges in Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Klickitat County, Washington]]

{{Washington-geo-stub}}
{{Washington-protected-area-stub}}

Columbia National Forest

2010-10-16T10:13:42Z

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'''Columbia National Forest''' was established in [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] by the [[U.S. Forest Service]] on July 1, 1908 when it was established from part of [[Rainier National Forest]] with {{convert|941440|acre|km2}}. On June 15, 1949 it was renamed [[Gifford Pinchot National Forest]] in honor of the forestry pioneer [[Gifford Pinchot]]. <ref>{{citation|title={{PDFlink|[http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/Places/National%20Forests%20of%20the%20U.S.pdf National Forests of the United States]|341 KB}}|date=September 29, 2005|author=Davis, Richard C.|publisher=The Forest History Society}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.foresthistory.org/ Forest History Society]
*[http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/Places/National%20Forests%20of%20the%20U.S.pdf Listing of the National Forests of the United States and Their Dates] (from [[Forest History Society]] website) ''Text from Davis, Richard C., ed. Encyclopedia of American Forest and Conservation History. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company for the Forest History Society, 1983. Vol. II, pp. 743-788.''

{{coord missing|Washington}}

[[Category:Former National Forests of Washington]]

Colfax (Washington)

2010-10-16T10:12:11Z

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{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Colfax
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|nickname =
|motto =


|image_skyline = ColfaxWA1.jpg
|imagesize = 300px
|image_caption = Colfax, looking southeast
|image_flag =
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|image_map = Whitman_County_Washington_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Colfax_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250px
|map_caption = Location of Colfax, Washington
|image_map1 =
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|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Washington|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Whitman County, Washington|Whitman]]


|government_footnotes =
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|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes =
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 4.3
|area_land_km2 = 4.3
|area_water_km2 = 0.0
|area_total_sq_mi = 1.7
|area_land_sq_mi = 1.7
|area_water_sq_mi = 0.0


|population_as_of = [[United States Census, 2000|2000]]
|population_footnotes =
|population_total = 2844
|population_density_km2 = 658.5
|population_density_sq_mi = 1705.6


|timezone = [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific (PST)]]
|utc_offset = -8
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|elevation_m = 601
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|latd = 46 |latm = 53 |lats = 3 |latNS = N
|longd = 117 |longm = 21 |longs = 49 |longEW = W


|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 99111
|area_code = [[Area code 509|509]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 53-13785{{GR|2}}
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
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'''Colfax''' is the [[county seat]] of [[Whitman County, Washington|Whitman County]], [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]], [[United States]].{{GR|6}}
The population was 2,844 at the [[2000 United States Census|2000 census]].
It is situated amidst wheat-covered hills in a valley at the confluence of the north and south forks of the [[Palouse River]]. [[U.S. Route 195 (Washington)|U.S. Route 195]], which forms the town's main street, intersects with [[Washington State Route 26|State Route 26]] at the north end of town; in the past, Colfax also lay at the junction of three railway lines. It was named after [[Schuyler Colfax]], the [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]] from 1869-73.

==History==
[[Palus (tribe)|Palouse Indians]] were the first known human inhabitants of the Colfax area. White settlers arrived in the summer of 1870, and soon built a sawmill. A flour mill and other businesses followed, and Colfax soon grew into a prosperous town. Originally, pioneer citizen James Perkin called the settlement "Belleville" in honor of his girlfriend; when he found a new love, he changed the town's name to Colfax.<ref>LaFollette, Taber, ''The History of Colfax'', Colfax History Committee, 1956, p. 8.</ref>

Colfax was officially incorporated on November 29, 1873. In 1889-90, the town vied with several other finalists to become the site of a new state agricultural college, present-day [[Washington State University]]. The honor ultimately fell to nearby [[Pullman, Washington|Pullman]], 15 miles (24 km) southeast. Until passed by Pullman at the [[1930 United States Census|1930 census]], Colfax was the largest city in the county.

===Notable natives===
Either born, raised, or made Colfax their home:
* [[Dinsmore Alter]], astronomer and meteorologist
* [[Roland Bainton]], professor of ecclesiastical history, Reformation scholar
* [[Yakima Canutt]], rodeo champion and Hollywood stuntman
* [[Timothy Ely]], contemporary American artist
* [[William La Follette]], politician, [[United States Congress|congressman]] from Washington
* [[Abe Goff]], politician, Republican [[United States Congress|congressman]] from Idaho
* [[John A. Kitzhaber]], [[Governor of Oregon]], 1995-2002.
* [[Morten Lauridsen]], composer of classical music
* [[Virgil T. McCroskey]], 1876–1970, an amateur conservationist who created two state parks: [[Steptoe Butte]] state park in Washington and [[Mary Minerva McCroskey State Park]] in Idaho. A pharmacist until 1920, McCroskey owned the Elk Drugstore on Main Street, the facade of which still bears his name.
* [[Kate Bigelow Montague]], (5 May 1885 - 30 October 1984) A novelist, author, and journalist. She also made amateur travel films of primarily southeast Asia, Europe and North America ca. the mid to late 1930s.<ref>[http://balder.prohosting.com/shissem/Hissem_Montagues_in_California.html The California Montagues (full text)]</ref>
* [[Robert Osborne]], Hollywood historian and journalist, prime-time host of [[Turner Classic Movies]]. As a teenager, he worked at ''The Rose'', a long-defunct movie theater in downtown Colfax, and broke both arms while putting [[Elizabeth Taylor|Elizabeth Taylor's]] name on the marquee.<ref>Waugh, Lisa. "Oscar expert held court with Hollywood's elite", ''CNN Interactive'', March 20, 1998 ([http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1998/showbiz/oscars/news/oscars.osbourne/ Full Text)]</ref>

==Geography and climate==
[[File:RiverColfaxWA.jpg|thumb|left|250px|South fork of the [[Palouse River]] in early autumn, at the end of the dry season]]
Colfax is located in southeastern Washington at {{coord|46|53|3|N|117|21|49|W|city}} (46.884033, -117.363668),{{GR|1}} at an elevation of {{convert|1962|ft|m}}. The nearest cities are [[Spokane, WA|Spokane]], [[Pullman, WA|Pullman]], [[Moscow, ID|Moscow]], and [[Lewiston, ID|Lewiston]]/[[Clarkston, WA|Clarkston]]. The area is geologically interesting, lying in the midst of the fertile [[Palouse|Palouse country]] in the middle of the [[Columbia River Plateau]], with the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the east, the [[Channeled Scablands]] to the west, and the [[Snake River]] to the south.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 1.7 square miles (4.3 km²).1.7 square miles (4.3 km²) of it is land and none of the area is covered with [[water]].
The Palouse River, confined for flood control to a concrete bed that reduces it to an eighteen-inch-wide stream during the dry season, runs through the middle of town, parallel to Main Street.

Colfax has a four-season climate, with hot, dry summers, cold winters, and a rainy season that generally runs from autumn til spring. The annual rainfall averages less than {{convert|20|in|mm}} a year. This climate, together with the deep, rich palouse topsoil, makes for near-ideal wheat growing conditions.

==Community resources==
[[File:CodgerPoleColfaxWA.jpg|thumb|The Codger Pole]]
===Tourist attractions===
* '''The Codger Pole''' is a chainsaw-carved monument by master carver Jonathan LaBenne. It is located on Main Street and commemorates a 1988 rematch, 50 years after the original 1938 game, between archrival football teams from [[Colfax High School (Washington)|Colfax High School]] and [[St. John, Washington|St. John.]] At {{convert|65|ft|m}} tall, it is the largest sculpture of its type in the world, and consists of portraits, carved into five upended red cedar logs, of the 51 players involved. The players are shown in old age but are wearing the football uniforms of the thirties.
* '''The Perkins House''', on Perkins Avenue, is a meticulously restored Victorian home built in 1886. The original owner was James Perkins, a leading pioneer citizen. The Perkins family occupied the home until 1968, by which time it was sadly dilapidated and slated for demolition. In 1970, the Whitman County Historical Society assumed ownership and began restoring the house, which is now listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]. Behind the house is a [[log cabin]], built in 1870, where Perkins lived for sixteen years. This cabin is the oldest standing structure in [[Whitman County, WA|Whitman County]]. The house is open for tours from May to September, on Thursdays and Saturdays.
* '''Colfax Golf Course and Country Club''' is a nine-hole course beside the river on North Palouse River Road. It was recently broke into and had equipment stolen.
* '''McDonald Park''', located immediately north of the golf course, consists of playing fields surrounded by a paved walking/jogging path. Regional baseball and softball tournaments are hosted here.
* '''The Colfax Trail''' is a three-mile (5 km) path converted from a disused railway line. It begins at a gravel quarry off Highway 26, just beyond the town's western limit, and follows the [[Palouse River]] westward, traversing cow pastures, pine woods, [[wetlands]], and [[basalt]] cliffs.

===Public services, businesses, and churches===
Among the town's other amenities are a public school, a hospital, several city parks, a skateboard park, a swimming pool and a [http://www.whitco.lib.wa.us public library] that was recently named among the best in Washington State. As the county seat, Colfax is also home to the Whitman County Courthouse and the Whitman County Jail. The local government consists of a seven-member [[City Council]] and a mayor (currently Norma Becker, serving her fifth term).

There is a small assortment of businesses, including building and farm supply stores, a medium-sized grocery ([[Rosauers]]), a pharmacy, a hotel, a Bed & Breakfast guesthouse, a fitness center, a florist, a coffee stall, four gift shops, a pawn shop, and ten restaurants. Local service-based businesses include lawyers, dentists, auto mechanics, banks, and retirement homes.

[http://www.switchboard.com Switchboard.com] lists nine churches in Colfax, including one [[Catholic Church]] , one congregation of [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (aka LDS or Mormon), and various [[Protestant]] and non-denominational churches including, ''Colfax Assembly (Assemblies of God),'' ''Colfax Nazarene Church'', ''First Baptist Church'', ''United Methodist Church'', and ''The Community Bible Church''.

A weekly newspaper called [http://www.wcgazette.com Whitman County Gazette] is published in Colfax. In addition, there is a daily newspaper called "The Daily Bulletin" which consists of a one page paper with daily news and advertisements that is published in Colfax.

===Annual Colfax events===
[[File:ThreshingbeeColfaxWA.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Antiquated threshing techniques are demonstrated at the annual threshing bee]]
* '''Palouse Plowing Bee''' and '''Palouse Empire Threshing Bee'''– held respectively on the third weekend in April and the first weekend after [[Labor Day]]. Farmers demonstrate traditional plowing and harvesting methods in a {{convert|15|acre|m2|adj=on}} field five miles (8 km) west of town.
* '''Perkins House Ice Cream Social''' – Held on the last Sunday in June on the lawn of the Perkins House; ice cream, pie, live [[Dixieland]] music, displays, and free house tours.
* '''Concrete River Days''' – A summer festival held on the second weekend in July, with a parade, sidewalk sales, and many outdoor activities; so named because the Palouse riverbed in downtown Colfax has been lined with concrete for the sake of flood control, and the water descends into a narrow central channel during the dry season.
* '''Palouse Empire Fair''' – Held in early September five miles (8 km) west of town; a midway, a rodeo, live music, and barns full of livestock and handicrafts.
* '''Lighted Christmas Parade'''– a night parade held in downtown Colfax, Mill Street, on the first Thursday in December. Festive floats, free candy, special programs at the public library, and Santa Claus.
* '''Autumn Harvest Hullabaloo ''' The Hullabaloo is an a fall festival similar to Colfax's ''Concrete River Days.''

==Demographics==
{{USCensusPop
|1860=
|1870=
|1880=444
|1890=1649
|1900=2121
|1910=2783
|1920=3027
|1930=2782
|1940=2853
|1950=3057
|1960=2860
|1970=2664
|1980=2780
|1990=2713
|2000=2844
|estimate=2915
|estyear=2010
|estref=
| footnote=source:<ref>Moffatt, Riley. ''Population History of Western U.S. Cities & Towns, 1850-1990''. [[Lanham, Maryland|Lanham]]: Scarecrow, 1996, 317.</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/files/SUB-EST2007-53.csv | title = Subcounty population estimates: Washington 2000-2007| format = [[comma-separated values|CSV]] | publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]], Population Division | date = 2009-03-18 | accessdate = 2009-04-26}}</ref>
|}}

The population has hovered near 3,000 since 1910.<ref>Erickson, Edith E. ''Colfax 100 Plus'', 1981, p. 64 (privately printed)</ref> As of the 2000 [[census]]{{GR|2}}, there were 2,844 people, 1,191 households, and 740 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 1,705.6 people per square mile (657.5/km²). There were 1,357 housing units at an average density of 813.8/sq mi (313.7/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 94.16% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.25% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.84% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.07% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.60% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 2.07% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 1.48% of the population.

There were 1,191 households out of which 27.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.6% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 6.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.8% were non-families. 35.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.90.

In the city the population was spread out with 23.5% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 22.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years, well above the national average of 35.3—possibly due to the presence of several retirement communities. For every 100 females there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $36,622, and the median income for a family was $47,589. Males had a median income of $32,188 versus $26,349 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $18,519. About 6.1% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 9.7% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.visitcolfax.com/ Colfax information] from the Chamber of Commerce
* [http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=9580 History of Colfax] at [[HistoryLink]]
*{{dmoz|Regional/North_America/United_States/Washington/Localities/C/Colfax}}

{{Whitman County, Washington}}

[[Category:Cities in Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Whitman County, Washington]]
[[Category:County seats in Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1873]]

[[bg:Колфакс]]
[[ca:Colfax (Washington)]]
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[[vo:Colfax (Washington)]]

Castle Oliver

2010-09-28T08:08:26Z

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[[File:Castle Oliver (1).jpg|thumb|300px|Castle Oliver south facade, [[porte cochere]] visible on left]]
'''Castle Oliver''' (also ''Clonodfoy'') is a [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] mock castle in the south part of [[County Limerick]], [[Ireland]]. Built for entertaining rather than for defense, it has a ballroom, drawing room, library, morning room, dining room and hall which feature hand-painted ceilings, decorated ornamental [[corbels]], superbly executed [[stained glass]] windows and stencil work. The castle stands on massive terraces and has a commanding view over much of its former {{convert|20000|acre|km2|adj=on}} estate.

== History ==
The lands where the castle stands were settled in about 1658 by Capt. Robert Oliver, one of [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s soldiers. The present castle replaced the former Castle Oliver, which stood a thousand yards to the south-west and was the birthplace of Eliza Oliver, mother of the notorious [[Lola Montez]], who became the lover and favourite of King [[Ludwig I of Bavaria]]. [[Image:Co east.jpg|thumb|left|Castle Oliver east facade with ballroom and dining room in main block, servants wing and coach house on right]] [[Image:Castle Oliver West.jpg|thumb|right|Castle Oliver west, stables wing on left]] The castle was for many years known as Clonodfoy, a contraction of an earlier Irish place name: Cloch an Otbhaidhigh, meaning 'the stone structure of Otway', Otway being an Anglo-Norman family name. Capt. Robert Oliver's descendant Richard Oliver married a Yorkshire heiress through whom he inherited substantial wealth. Their daughters, Mary Isabella and Elizabeth [[Oliver Gascoigne]], both married members of the Trench family of [[Woodlawn]], Galway. The younger sister, Elizabeth, married [[Frederic Mason Trench, 2nd Baron Ashtown]] in 1852. The sisters were highly accomplished [[artisans]], designing and executing both the stained glass work and [[verre eglomise]] (back-painted glass panels) which ornamented the ballroom fireplace. Much of their work has survived. The elder sister, Mary Isabella was a highly skilled wood-turner who published (under a male pseudonym) an authoritative book on the subject "The Art of Wood-turning" which is still a respected source of information on the subject. The sisters were the subject of an exhibition in 2006 "Maids & Mistresses", at another Oliver Gascoigne property, [[Lotherton Hall]] near Leeds, England.

[[File:Castle Oliver Ballroom.jpg|thumb|left|Ballroom with [[verre eglomise]] fireplace, Gothic-arched doors connect to drawing room]]

The sisters built the present castle in 1845. It was designed by the [[York]] architect [[George Fowler Jones]] in the [[Scottish Baronial]] style and built in a local pink sandstone, quarried on the estate. Fowler Jones designed several substantial commissions for the sisters, including almshouses and churches. The last descendant of the family moved out in 1978, after which the castle changed hands several times, eventually becoming the property of a local bank, who broke up the remaining land, farm and lodges into separate lots. The castle itself failed to find a buyer and languished into decay, falling prey to vandals and thieves. It appeared in the book "Vanishing houses of Ireland", published by the [[Irish Georgian Society]].

In 1988 it was purchased by the late Damian Haughton, who according to the subsequent owner, put a halt to most of the worst leaks in the roof. In 1998 it was purchased by Nicholas Browne, who continued the restoration work and transformed it back into a habitable residence. In 2006 it passed to the present owner, who completed high-grade restoration work to the main parts of the building and has made the castle available for rental. It contains about 110 rooms, and the largest private wine cellars in Ireland.

{{clear}}

== References ==
*''Castle Oliver and the Oliver Gascoignes'' by Nicholas Browne;
*''Burke's Guide to Irish Country Houses'' by [[Mark Bence-Jones]];
*''Ardpatrick'' by John Fleming

== External links ==
*[http://www.castleoliver.ie Castle Oliver's Website]
*[http://www.castle-oliver.com The History of Castle Oliver]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ak2/claydon/oliver.html More history about the Olivers]

{{coord|52.3266191|N|8.4841168|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Castles in County Limerick]]
[[Category:Scottish baronial architecture]]
[[Category:Mock castles in Ireland]]

Carton House

2010-09-28T08:06:43Z

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[[Image:Leinster House 1824.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Carton House, 1824]]'''Carton House''' was one of [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland's]] greatest stately homes{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} and one time ancestral seat of the Earls of Kildare and [[Duke of Leinster|Dukes of Leinster]]. Located {{convert|14|mi|km}} west of [[Dublin]], in [[Maynooth]], [[County Kildare]], the Carton [[demesne]] runs to 1,100 acres (4.5 km²). For two hundred years it possessed the finest example in Ireland of a [[Georgian era|Georgian]]-created parkland landscape. In the 2000s much of the estate was redeveloped into two golf courses and the house into a hotel complex.

==History==
===Beginning of the Carton Demesne===
During a history spanning more than eight centuries, Carton Demesne has seen many changes. The estate first came into the ownership of the FitzGerald family shortly after Maurice FitzGerald played an active role in the capture of [[Dublin]] by the Normans in 1170 and was rewarded by being appointed Lord of Maynooth, an area covering townlands which include Carton.

His son became Baron Offaly in 1205 and his descendant John FitzGerald, became [[Earl of Kildare]] in 1315. Under the eighth earl, the FitzGerald family reached pre-eminence as the virtual rulers of Ireland between 1477 and 1513.

However, the eighth earl’s grandson, the eloquently titled Silken Thomas was executed in 1537, with his five uncles, for leading an uprising against the English. Although the FitzGeralds subsequently regained their land and titles, they did not regain their position at the English Court until the 18th century when Robert, the 19th Earl of Kildare, became a noted statesman.

===First house at Carton===
The first record of a house at Carton was in the 17th century when [[Sir William Talbot, 1st Baronet|William Talbot]], [[Recorder of Dublin]], was given a lease of the lands by the 14th Earl of Kildare and is thought to have built a house. The house and lands were forfeited to the crown in 1691 and in 1703 sold to Major General Richard Ingoldsby, Master General of the Ordnance.

===Commencement of the current house===
In 1739, the lease was sold back to the 19th Earl of Kildare who employed Richard Castle to build the existing house. This was the same year the FitzGerald family bought [[Frescati House]]. Castle (originall Cassels) was also responsible for some other grand Irish houses including [[Westport House]], [[Powerscourt House]] and in 1745, [[Leinster House]], which he also built for the FitzGeralds.

In 1747 James the 20th Earl of Kildare and from 1766 first Duke of Leinster, married [[Lady Emily Lennox]], daughter of the Duke of Richmond and great–granddaughter of the English King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]].

Lady Emily played an important role in the development of the house and estate as it is today. She created the Chinese room (bedroom to Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]]) and decorated the famous Shell Cottage on the estate with shells from around the world. One of Emily’s 23 children was the famous Irish Patriot [[Lord Edward FitzGerald]], leader of the [[1798 rebellion]].

===19th century===
Carton remained unaltered until 1815 when the 3rd Duke decided to sell Leinster House to the [[Royal Dublin Society]] and make Carton his principal residence. He employed [[Richard Morrison]] to enlarge and re-model the house. Morrison replaced the curved colonnades with straight connecting links to obtain additional rooms including the famous dining room. At this time, the entrance to the house was moved to the north side.

===Sale and late history===
Carton remained in the control of the FitzGeralds until the early 1920s when the 7th Duke sold his birth right to a moneylender{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} Sir [[Harry Mallaby-Deeley]] in order to pay off gambling debts of £67,500.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kildare.ie/library/ehistory/2007/08/ |title=Sale to English Purchaser, Historic Co. Kildare Estate |publisher=Leinster Leader |date=June 17, 1922 |accessdate=2008-12-01}}</ref> He was third in line to succeed and so did not think he would ever inherit, but one of his brothers died in the war and another of a brain tumour and so Carton was lost to the FitzGeralds.

It is alleged that, In 1923, a local unit of the [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|IRA]] went to Carton with the intention of burning it down. However, they were stopped when a member of the FitzGerald family brought a large painting of [[Lord Edward FitzGerald]] to the door and pointed out that they would be burning the house of a revered Irish patriot.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

[[Ronald Nall-Cain, 2nd Baron Brocket]], whose principal residence was Brocket Hall in Hertfordshire, England, purchased the house in 1949 and in 1977 his son The Hon. David Nall-Cain, who had by then moved to the [[Isle of Man]], sold the house to its present owners.

===Government decision not to buy the estate===
Since 1977, Carton estate has been the property of the Mallaghan family and in the 1980s and 1990s the Irish government came under public and political pressure to buy the house and its grounds but decided not to do so.

===House as film set===
The house was used as a film location by many{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}} filmmakers and broadcasters. Two of the films made there were [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[Barry Lyndon]]'' in 1975 and ''[[The Big Red One]]'' in 1980. They starred [[Ryan O'Neal]] (as an 18th century Irish adventurer, with a soundtrack by ''[[The Chieftains]]'') and [[Lee Marvin]] respectively. The forthcoming film "Leap Year" starring Amy Adams, Matthew Goode, Adam Scott shot some scenes at Carton during 2009.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

===Conversion into a hotel with golf courses===
In 2000, Carton was redeveloped as a "premier golf resort and hotel", an action condemned by heritage groups, including [[An Taisce]], and criticised in [[Seanad Eireann]] (the Irish Senate) by Senator [[David Norris (politician)|David Norris]]. A hotel was added to the main house, altering it drastically, while the estate's eighteenth century grounds were converted into two golf courses.

==Sport==
===Golf===
Carton House Golf Club has two courses, one designed by [[Mark O'Meara]] and opened in 2002, the other designed by [[Colin Montgomerie]] and opened in 2003. The former is a parkland course, utilising the rolling land of the estate as well as the waters of the [[River Rye (Ireland)|River Rye]], while the latter features head high pot bunkers, "fast-running" greens and narrow fairways.

Carton House was the venue for the [[PGA European Tour|European Tour]]'s Nissan [[Irish Open (golf)|Irish Open]] in 2005 and 2006, having previously hosted the 2004 and 2005 AIB Amateur Open Championship. In 2006, Carton House was the first Irish golf club to be awarded the 'Committed to Green' environmental award by the International Committed to Green Foundation, and the International Association of Golf Tour Operators, European Golf Resort of the Year 2008.

====Golfing Union of Ireland====
The [[Golfing Union of Ireland]], the longest established golf union in the world, have their national headquarters on the estate. This facility also comprises the GUI National Academy, a {{convert|22|acre|m2|adj=on}} teaching facility for up and coming golfers, as well as being a facility available to all golfers in Ireland.

===Soccer===
{{Unreferenced|date=July 2009}}
A range of soccer teams come to Carton House for pre-season training. Newcastle FC became the first team to train at the Platinum One group facility. [[Real Madrid]] became the second team to go to Carton House in [[2009]]. [[Shamrock Rovers F.C.]] also trained their ahead of the 2010 season. Other teams such as [[Liverpool FC]], [[FC Barcelona]], [[AC Milan]], [[F.C. Internazionale Milano|Internazionale]], [[Chelsea F.C.]], [[Manchester City F.C.]] and [[Manchester United F.C.]] will train at Carton house in the near future.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} It was visited by the Brazil national team during 2008. In July, 2010, [[Wolverhampton Wanderers]] held a week-long training camp. During an interview for Irish TV <ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ZeyHARjP0g</ref>Wolves manager [[Mick McCarthy]] stated that [[Middlesbrough FC]] would be there later.

===GAA===
[[Dublin GAA]] used Carton House for training during the summer of 2009.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.cartonhouse.com Carton House]
* [http://www.maynooth.org Maynooth Town Co.Kildare]

{{Historic Irish houses}}

{{coord missing|County Kildare}}

[[Category:Maynooth]]
[[Category:Houses in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in County Kildare]]
[[Category:Golf clubs and courses in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Hotels in County Kildare]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in County Kildare]]
[[Category:FitzGerald dynasty]]
[[pt:Carton House]]

Benutzer:Shi Annan/Carib Territory

2010-09-27T10:08:54Z

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The '''Carib Territory''' or '''Carib Reserve''' is a {{convert|3700|acre|km2|adj=on}} district in the Caribbean island-nation of [[Dominica]]. It was established for the descendants of the indigenous [[Carib people]], also known as the Kalinago, who inhabited Dominica prior to European colonization and settlement.

The Carib Territory was officially formed by British colonial authorities in 1903, in a remote and mountainous area of Dominica's Atlantic coast. Its population remained largely isolated from the rest of the island throughout most of the 20th century, with only a ceremonial chief and no other formal self-governance. An incident later known as "the Carib War" escalated from a brief skirmish in the Territory in 1930, when law enforcement attempted to crack down on smuggling, to a political controversy ending with the abolition of the post of chief. The Chief was reinstated in 1952, and formalized local government was instituted the same year as part of an island-wide system. The Carib Reserve Act, enacted the year of Dominica's independence in 1978, reaffirmed the Carib Territory's boundaries, its land management, and institutions of local government. In the last decades of the 20th century, modern utilities and infrastructure were finally introduced to the Carib Territory, which also established contacts with foreign governments and other indigenous peoples in the region.

The present population of the Carib Territory is estimated around 3,000 Caribs. Legal residents share [[public property|communal ownership]] of all land within the Territory. The Carib Territory has limited local government in the institutions of the Carib Council, and its head the Carib Chief, which are the equivalent in power of [[village councils in Dominica|village councils]] and council chairpersons elsewhere in Dominica. The administrative centre is in [[Salybia]], the largest of eight hamlets in the Carib Territory.

A modern movement in the Carib Territory has supported the rediscovery and preservation of Carib culture. This has been fueled in part by Dominica's tourist industry. A model Carib village was established in the Territory in 2006. Cultural preservation groups stage performances at the model village and other locations, and practice traditional Carib crafts, such as making baskets and pottery, that are sold to tourists as souvenirs.

{{TOC limit|limit=2}}

==History==
===Establishment of the Carib Reserve===
Dominica is the only Eastern Caribbean island that still has a population of pre-Columbian native [[Carib people|Caribs]], who were exterminated or driven from neighbouring islands. The Caribs on Dominica fought against the Spanish and later European settlers for two centuries. Over time, however, their population declined and they were forced into remote regions of the island as European settlers and imported African slaves grew in number on the island.<ref>{{harvnb|Crask|2007|p=135}}.</ref> The first reservation of land for the Carib people occurred in 1763, when {{convert|232|acre|km2}} of mountainous land and rocky shoreline around [[Salybia]], on the east coast, were set aside by British colonial authorities as part of the surveying of the island and its division into lots.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Honychurch|1995|p=161}}; {{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=82}}.</ref> A legend arose that this land was set aside by the request of [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz|Queen Charlotte]], the wife of [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]; from this another legend spread, and persisted among some Carib to the present, that Charlotte had set aside half of Dominica for the Carib people.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=82}}.</ref> Later colonial officials were unable to locate any record of a title deed for the {{convert|232|acre|km2}}, however.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1995|p=161}} ("...and it was probable that no such title had ever existed.").</ref> European settlers continued attempts to turn the Carib lands into plantations through the end of the 18th century, but the Caribs successfully held out, often with the assistance of runaway slaves.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=181}}.</ref>

In 1902, [[Henry Hesketh Bell]], the Administrator of Dominica, sent a lengthy report to the [[Colonial Office]] on the state of the Carib people after he had visited its communities.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=82}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|2005|p=42}}. The report was sent on July 26, 1902 to [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]] [[Joseph Chamberlain]].</ref> He proposed that 3,700 acres (roughly 2% of Dominica's area) be set aside for the Caribs, and that a Carib "chief" be officially recognized and given a token annual allowance of 6 pounds. Bell's proposals were adopted in 1903, formally establishing the Carib Reserve.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=82}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|2005|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Crask|2007|p=135-137}}.</ref> Its boundaries were announced in the ''Official Gazette'' of Dominica on 4 July, 1903.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=181}}.</ref> The Carib Chief was subsequently endowed with a silver-headed staff, and a ceremonial sash embroidered with "The Chief of the Caribs" in gothic lettering.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1995|p=161}}; {{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=82}}.</ref> At the time the Carib Reserve was established, the Carib population of around 400 was extremely isolated from the rest of Dominica, but the community appreciated the token symbols.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1995|p=161}}.</ref>

==="The Carib War"===
The population of the Carib Reserve remained disconnected from the rest of Dominica, seldom seen and largely self-sustaining apart from some limited illegal trade with the neighboring French islands of [[Marie Galante]] and [[Martinique]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hulme|2007|p=10}}; Hulme notes that it was easier for the Caribs to travel to other islands than it was the other side of Dominica, owing to the mountainous terrain.</ref> The colonial Administrator decided to crack down on this smuggling due to its impact on revenues, and in 1930, five armed policemen entered the Territory to seize smuggled goods and to arrest suspects.<ref>{{harvnb|Hulme|2007|p=10}}; see also {{harvnb|Honychurch|1995|p=161-62}} for a more detailed account.</ref> When the police tried to seize a quantity of rum and tobacco and to take away suspects in Salybia, a crowd gathered in response and hurled stones and bottles. The police fired into the crowd, injuring four, of whom two later died. The police were beaten but managed to escape to [[Marigot]], without having seized prisoners or contraband. The Administrator responded by summoning the frigate [[HMS Delhi (D47)|HMS ''Delhi'']] to the coast, which fired [[star shell]]s into the air and displayed searchlights along the shore; the Caribs ran in fear from this display of force and hid in the woods. Marines landed to aid local police in the search for the perpetrators of the disturbance. Accurate news of the incident was difficult to come by, and rumors instead spread throughout the island of a Carib uprising. ''[[The London Times]]'' incorrectly reported that Caribs had looted and rioted in the capital, [[Roseau]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hulme|2007|p=10}}.</ref> The incident is still hyperbolically known as "The Carib War."<ref>{{harvnb|Hulme|2007|p=10}}.</ref>

Carib Chief Jolly John subsequently surrendered to authorities in Roseau and was charged, with five other Caribs, with wounding the police officers and theft, though the prosecution fell apart by the following year.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|2005|p=42}}.</ref> A commission of inquiry was appointed in 1931 by the [[Governor of the Leeward Islands]] to investigate the 1930 incident and the situation of the Caribs generally. The final report found fault on all sides. As a consequence for the Caribs, the position of Chief was eliminated, the staff and sash were confiscated, and the former chief was forbidden to call himself "king."<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1995|p=162}}.</ref>

===Local government and modern developments===
The Administrator did not relent to Carib petitions for the restoration of the position of Chief until June 1952, when he personally conducted an investiture ceremony and presented the new chief with the staff and sash.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1995|p=162}}.</ref> Later that year, the Carib Council was created as part of a system of local government for the whole island.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1995|p=162}}; {{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=83}}.</ref>

The Carib Reserve Act was enacted in 1978, the year of Dominican independence. It reaffirmed the boundaries set in 1903, and legally established common ownership of land within the Carib Reserve.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=184}}.</ref> A broader consequence of the Act was a renewed interest in the distinctiveness of Carib identity and in Carib culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=191}}.</ref> Though under the Carib Reserve Act, the area's official name is the Carib Reserve, the Carib people themselves, however, prefer the name Carib Territory, and that name is now in more popular use.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=191}} ("The reserve was renamed 'Carib Territory' by the Caribs themselves."); {{harvnb|Crask|2007|p=136}} ("This land became known as the Carib Reserve, and then, more recently, the Carib Territory."); {{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=83}} ("...the Carib Territory, as it is now popularly called...").</ref> Considering the word "reserve" a relic of colonialism and exploitation, Carib Territory residents have urged the [[Dominica House of Assembly]] to officially change the name.<ref>{{citation |url=http://kalinagopeople.com/index.php?pageid=12&menuid=24 |title=The Carib Reserve Act |accessdate=2 August 2010 |publisher=Kalinago people of Dominica}} ("The terminology 'Reserve', is a painful reminder of the horrors of colonial rule when native peoples were herded like cattle, and restricted to small unproductive areas of their own country, while the colonialists enriched themselves by exploiting the vast expanses of arable. [''sic''] As a mark of respect for the Carib population and a recognition of their historical and continuing contribution to the building of this nation, an appropriate gesture on the eve of the 21st century might be to erase that racist term from our Statute Books, once and for all.").</ref>

The communities of the Carib Territory remained isolated into the late 20th century. A motorable road was not laid through the Territory until 1970; telephone service and electricity were established in the 1980s.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=83}}.</ref> The Carib Territory was one of the last areas of Dominica to receive electricity, which began to be installed in 1986.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=186}}.</ref> By 1990, 55% of Carib households still did not have access to electricity, and 85% of households did not live within 5 minutes of their nearest water supply.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=186}}.</ref> The Carib people have remained possibly the poorest segment of the population of Dominican, which is in turn one of the poorest countries of the [[Lesser Antilles]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=184}}.</ref>

In the 1980s, the Carib Territory began to receive material, financial and ideological support from foreign governments, including the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[Great Britain]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=191}}.</ref> The Territory's leaders also reached out to other indigenous populations in the region, organizing a conference held in [[Saint Vincent (island)|Saint Vincent]]; the [[Caribbean Organization of Indigenous Peoples]] was subsequently formed.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=191}}.</ref> Successive Carib Chiefs also worked with the [[United Nations]] [[Working Group on Indigenous Populations]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=191}}.</ref>

==Geography==
The Carib Territory is located in the northeast of Dominica, on the Atlantic (windward) coast. It comprises {{convert|3700|acre|km2}} in [[Saint David Parish (Dominica)|Saint David Parish]], within boundaries first established by colonial authorities in 1903, and reaffirmed in Articles 41 and 42 of the Carib Reserve Act in 1978.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|pp=181, 193}}.</ref> The Dominican government may grant additional lands to the Territory, though it has never done so.<ref>Under Article 44 of the Carib Reserve Act; see {{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=193}}.</ref>

Most of the territory is uninhabited.<ref>{{harvnb|Crask|2007|p=137}}.</ref> Though the Carib Territory adjoins Dominica's east coast, due to its rugged topography it only has two access points to the [[Atlantic Ocean]], both of which are difficult landings.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=84}}.</ref> The land is mostly of poor quality, with the worst soil erosion on Dominica, and deforestation that has destroyed many streams in the Territory.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=184}}; {{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=84}} attributes this to overuse as a consequence of the communal land ownership. {{harvnb|Patterson|Rodriguez|2003|p=72}} further theorizes that this is because of rapid tenant turnover, which eliminates most incentives for long term land conservation.</ref>

The Carib Council and police station are located in the hamlet of [[Salybia]], the administrative center of the Carib Territory.<ref>{{harvnb|Crask|2007|p=137}}.</ref> There are seven other hamlets in the Carib Territory: [[Bataca]], [[Crayfish River (Dominica)|Crayfish River]], [[St Cyr (Dominica)|St Cyr]], [[Gaulette River]], [[Mahaut River]], [[Sinekou]] and [[Touna Aute]]. Aside from small shops selling Carib crafts, these settlements, and the small farms surrounding them, do not differ significantly from the rest of Dominica.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=80}} ("Visibly there is little to differentiate it from any other part of rural Dominica.").</ref>

==Demographics==
The Carib Territory has an estimated population of around 3,000, which makes it the largest settlement of indigenous people in the Caribbean.<ref>{{harvnb|Sullivan|2004|pp=36, 39}}. The Carib people themselves place the estimate higher, at between 3,500–4,000 as of 2009. {{citation |title=Official Website of The Kalinago People |url=http://kalinagopeople.com/index.php?pageid=1&menuid=1 |date=16 July 2009 |accessdate=3 August 2010 }}.</ref> The population of the Carib Territory was only around 400 at the time of its formation in 1903.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1995|p=161}}.</ref> This has grown over time, both in absolute numbers and in proportion to the total population of Dominica. In 1970, the population of the Carib Territory was 1.6% of Dominica's total population.<ref>{{harnvb|Kossek|1994|p=184}}.</ref> As of the 1991 government census, this had increased to 3.5%, with the population of the Carib Territory (including the nearby non-Carib village, [[Atkinson, Dominica|Atkinson]]) counted at 2,518 people; this increase was reflected in a large proportion of young adults and children.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=184}}.</ref>

Residents of the Carib Territory are among the poorest in Dominica.<ref>{{harvnb|Patterson|Rodriguez|2003|p=70}}.</ref> Territory residents are less educated, and have fewer work opportunities than other segments of the island's population.<ref>{{harvnb|Patterson|Rodriguez|2003|p=72}}.</ref>

==Government and land management==
The Carib Council comprises five members and the presiding Carib Chief. Popular elections are held every five years. Notwithstanding the different titles, these institutions have the same powers and responsibilities as other [[village councils in Dominica]], with the Carib Chief equal to a village council chairman.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=192}} ("The council's power was defined as similar to the kind of authority that a Village Council in Dominica would receive"); {{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=83}} ("Except for this title, [the Carib Chief] plays the same role as all the other Village Council chairmen in Dominica.")</ref>

The Kalinago are also represented in the [[House of Assembly of Dominica]] as part of the Salybia constituency. Though its Representative has more power in practice, the Carib Chief is utilized more as a spokesperson for the Territory.<ref>{{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=83}}.</ref>

As established by Article 25(1) of the Carib Reserve Act, all land within the Carib Territory is under the "sole custody, management and control" of the Carib Council and Chief.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=187}}.</ref> No individuals can buy or sell parcels of land or [[encumbrance|encumber]] it as collateral. Carib residents instead have [[usufruct]] rights: they can claim vacant, unused land to work and build a home upon, subject to approval by the Carib Council.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|pp=187-188}}.</ref> Land left untended for more than a year is considered vacant and may be claimed.<ref>{{harvnb|Crask|2007|p=137}}.</ref> Soil erosion and deforestation have been attributed to this common ownership, as the land is intensively used by a rapid succession of tenants.<ref>{{harvnb|Patterson|Rodriguez|2003|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=83}}. See also ''[[tragedy of the commons]]''.</ref>

Because of the usufruct rights over the communally-held land, legal residency in the Territory is a significant issue. Under Article 51 of the Carib Reserve Act, an individual becomes a legal resident and member of the Carib Territory community by birth; if at least one parent is Carib; or after 12 years of lawful residency within the Territory.<ref>{{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=194}}.</ref> The latter criteria has been a target of criticism from the Carib people, who view it as a means by which non-Caribs may appropriate their land.<ref>One Carib Council member was quoted as saying, "We did not agree with it but it was passed. Technically, what it is saying is, that after 12 years you are a Carib. That's magic." {{harvnb|Kossek|1994|p=195}}.</ref>

==Culture and tourism==
Beginning in the late 20th century, the people of the Carib Territory have had a renewed interest in Carib culture and identity. This has been motivated in part by the tourism industry in Dominica, in the forms of both [[ecotourism]] and [[cultural tourism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hulme|2007|pp=12-13}} ("[W]hat tourists actually come to see is the Caribs themselves.").</ref> The Territory and its residents receive very little revenue from tourism, however; there is no entry fee for visitors or any site management fees charged for nature activities, and most visitors stay and arrange their travel from outside the Territory.<ref>{{harvnb|Patterson|Rodriguez|2003|p=70-71}}.</ref> Images of the Carib Territory and its people have also been used to promote tourism to Dominica as a whole, rather than the Carib Territory specifically.<ref>{{harvnb|Patterson|Rodriguez|2003|pp=70-71}} ("Carib images are more likely to be found promoting the entire island rather than the territory itself.").</ref>

Carib arts and crafts are widely sold in the Territory, and elsewhere in Dominica, as souvenirs.<ref>{{harvnb|Crask|2007|p=136-37}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|2005|p=43}}; {{harvnb|Patterson|Rodriguez|2003|p=70}} ("The primary commodity value is through souvenirs, mainly the sale of handicrafts such as baskets woven of the ''larouma'' reed or bags made of ''[[heliconia]]'' leaves.").</ref> Chief among these is the [[Ischnosiphon arouma|larouma reed]] basket, which is handmade in brown, white, and black traditional designs; this craft has been noted as one of the few enduring aspects of traditional Carib culture.<ref>Historian [[Lennox Honychurch]] has called these baskets the Carib people's "strongest link with the past." {{harvnb|Honychurch|1998|p=84}}. See also {{harvnb|Crask|2007|p=136}}, and discussion at {{harvnb|Duvall|2004|pp=69-70}}.</ref>

The Kalinago Barana Auté, a representation of a [[pre-Columbian]] Carib village, is located in the hamlet of Crayfish River.<ref>{{harvnb|Crask|2007|pp=139-140}}.</ref> In the [[Carib language]], the name translates to "Kalinago cultural village by the sea." It opened in April 2006, with funding from the Dominican government. The village was based on a concept of Faustulus Frederick, who served as Carib Chief from 1975 to 1978. Its goal is to recreate and promote awareness of Carib traditions and culture. Its central feature is a karbet, a kind of large hut that used to be located in the center of a Carib village.<ref>"Karbet" is actually a French word used to describe the kind of structure; the original Carib word, ''taboui'', has fallen into disuse. See {{harvnb|Crask|2007|p=139}}.</ref> The karbet is used to stage presentations of Carib culture, such as dance performances. Other traditional cultural demonstrations at the Kalinago Barana Auté include pottery making, [[cassava]] processing, and basket weaving.<ref>{{harvnb|Crask|2007|pp=139-140}}.</ref>

Numerous organizations seek to preserve, teach, and promote Carib culture. Among these are the Karifuna Cultural Group and Carina Cultural Group, which stage music and dance performances for tourists at the Kalinago Barana Auté and a small stage in Bataca.<ref>{{harvnb|Crask|2007|pp=138-139}}.</ref> The Karifuna Cultural Group has traveled throughout the Caribbean, as well as South America and Europe, promoting Carib cultural heritage. The Carina Cultural Group has also established ties with Amerindian groups in South America. The Waitukubuli Karifuna Development Committee has built several traditional buildings in [[Salybia]]. Among these is the church of St. Marie of the Caribs, which is decorated with murals depicting Carib history, and has a Carib canoe for an altar.<ref>{{harvnb|Crask|2007|p=137}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|2005|p=43-44}}.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Indigenous movements in the Americas]]
*[[Indian reservation]]
*[[Indian reserve]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Crask |first=Paul |title=Dominica |year=2007 |publisher=[[Bradt Travel Guides]] |location=England |isbn=1841622176}}.
*{{citation |last=Duvall |first=David Timothy |year=2004 |chapter=Cultural tourism in postcolonial environments |title=Tourism and Postcolonialism |editor1-last=Hall |editor1-first=Colin Michael |editor2-last=Tucker |editor2-first=Hazel |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0415331021 |pages=57–75 }}.
*{{citation |last=Honychurch |first=Lennox |authorlink=Lennox Honychurch |title=[[The Dominica Story|The Dominica Story: A History of the Island]] |year= 1995 |publisher=[[Macmillan Education|Macmillan Education Ltd]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-333-62776-1}}.
*{{citation |last=Honychurch |first=Lennox |authorlink=Lennox Honychurch |title=Dominica: Isle of Adventure |year=1998 |edition=Third |publisher=[[Macmillan Education|Macmillan Education Ltd]] |isbn=978-0-333-72065-3 }}.
*{{citation |last=Hulme |first=Peter |chapter=Meditation on Yellow: Trade and Indigeneity in the Caribbean |title=Economies of Representation, 1790–2000: Colonialism and Commerce |editor1-last=Dale |editor1-first=Leigh |editor2-last=Gilbert |editor2-first=Helen |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2007 |pages=3–16 |isbn=0754662578}}.
*{{citation |last=Kossek |first=Brigitte |chapter=Land Rights, Cultural Identity and Gender Politics in the Carib Territory in Dominica |editor1-last=Kuppe |editor1-first=René |editor2-last=Potz |editor2-first=Richard |title=Law & Anthropology |volume=7 |pages=171–202 |year=1994 |publisher=Martinus Nijhof |isbn=0792331427 }}.
*{{citation |last1=Patterson |first1=Trista |last2=Rodriguez |first2=Luis |chapter=The Political Ecology of Tourism in the Commonwealth of Dominica |editor-last=Gössling |editor-first=Stefan |title=Tourism and Development in Tropical Islands: Political Ecology Perspectives |pages=60–87 |year=2003 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=1843762579}}
*{{citation |last=Saunders |first=Nicholas |title=The Peoples of the Caribbean: An Encyclopedia of Archaeology and Traditional Culture |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2005 |isbn=1576077012 }}
*{{citation |last=Sullivan |first=Lynne M. |title=Adventure Guide: Dominica & St. Lucia |publisher=Hunter Publishing, Inc. |year=2004 |isbn=1588433935 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{citation |last=Hulme |first=Peter |title=Remnants of Conquest: the Island Caribs and Their Visitors, 1877-1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0198112157 }}. Accounts and analysis of the writings of visitors to the Carib Territory.

==External links==
*[http://kalinagopeople.com/index.php?pageid=1&menuid=1 Official website of the Kalinago people of Dominica]
*[http://www.kalinagobaranaaute.com/features/crafts/ Official website of the Kalinago Barana Auté]

[[Category:Subdivisions of Dominica]]
[[Category:Saint David Parish, Dominica]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean]]

Benutzer:Andi oisn/Artikelwerkstatt2

2010-09-25T15:18:39Z

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{{Geobox Protected Area

| name = Ashdown Forest
| native_name =
| other_name =
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| category_local =
| category_iucn =

| image = Ashdown Forest View.JPG
| image_size = 240
| image_caption = Ashdown Forest near Greenwood Gate Clump

| country = England
| region = [[East Sussex]]
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| map = Uk_outline_map.png
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| map_caption = Location of Ashdown Forest in the UK
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| alt= Map of England and Wales with a red dot representing the location of the Ashdown Forest, Sussex.

| website = http://www.ashdownforest.org
}}

'''Ashdown Forest''' is an ancient area of tranquil open heathland and woodland occupying the highest sandy ridge-top of the [[High Weald AONB|High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]]. It is situated some {{convert|30|mi|km|0}} south of London in the county of [[East Sussex]], [[England]]. Rising to an altitude of {{convert|223|m|ft}} above sea level, its heights provide expansive vistas across the heavily wooded hills of the [[Weald]] to the chalk escarpments of the [[North Downs]] and [[South Downs]] on the horizon.

Ashdown Forest's origins lie in Norman times as a [[royal forest]] set aside for deer-hunting. By 1283 the forest was fenced in by a {{convert|23|mi|km|0}} ''pale'' enclosing a hunting park of some {{convert|20|sqmi|ha}}. 34 ''gates'' and ''hatches'' in the pale, still remembered in place names, allowed local people to enter to graze their livestock, collect firewood and cut heather and bracken for animal bedding. The Forest continued to be used by the monarchy and nobility for hunting into Tudor times, including notably [[Henry VIII]], who had a hunting lodge at [[Bolebroke Castle]], [[Hartfield]].

Ashdown Forest contains much evidence of prehistoric human activity, with the earliest evidence of human occupation dating back to 50,000 BCE. There are important Bronze Age, Iron Age and Roman remains.

The forest was twice the centre of an important iron industry, in Roman and Tudor times. One of England's first blast furnaces was built here in the 15th century.

In 1693 more than half the forest was taken into private hands, with the remainder set aside as common land. The latter today covers {{convert|9.5|sqmi|ha}} and is administered by a Board of Conservators; it is entirely open for public access (subject to various byelaws) and is the largest area of its kind in south-east England.

Ashdown Forest's ecological importance as a unique area of ''lowland heathland'' has been recognised by its designation by the UK government as a [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] and by the European Union as a [[Special Protection Area]] for birds and a [[Special Area of Conservation]] for its heathland habitats, and by its membership of [[Natura 2000]], which brings together Europe's most important and threatened wildlife areas.

Ashdown Forest is famous as the setting for the [[Winnie-the-Pooh]] stories written by [[A. A. Milne]], who lived on the northern edge of the forest and took his son, [[Christopher Robin Milne|Christopher Robin]], walking here. The illustrator of the Pooh stories, [[EH Shepard]], used the landscapes of Ashdown Forest as the backdrop for the drawings that he provided for Milne.

==Settlements==

Ashdown Forest's chief villages are situated on its periphery. These include [[Nutley, East Sussex|Nutley]], [[Forest Row]], [[Hartfield]], [[Maresfield]] and [[Danehill, East Sussex|Danehill]], while to the east lies the town of [[Crowborough]].

==Toponymy==
''Ashdown'' is of Anglo-Saxon origin and means Aesca’s hill<ref>Christian (1967), p.2</ref>. ''Forest'' is of Norman origin, an Old French word derived from the Latin "forestem silvam" (the "outside woods"). While the word ''forest'' has acquired the generic meaning of "an extensive area of woodland", in Norman times it denoted uncultivated land legally set aside by the Crown or by local magnates for hunting; such land was subject not to Common Law but to Forest Law, which protected both royal and aristocratic hunting privileges and [[commoner|commoners']] rights<ref>Langton and Jones (2008)</ref>. It follows that the designation of Ashdown by the Normans as a [[Royal Forest|royal forest]] does not imply that it was heavily wooded. In fact, royal forests in England in medieval times, of which there were many, typically consisted of a mixture of heath, woodland and other habitats in which a variety of game could flourish and Ashdown Forest, notwithstanding its location in the middle of the heavily wooded [[High Weald]], may have been no exception.

==Definition==
Ashdown Forest is very roughly shaped like an inverted triangle, some seven miles (11 km) from east to west and the same distance from north to south, with an extent of about {{convert|14000|acres|sqmi|1}}<ref>Straker(1940), p.121.</ref>.

The Forest can be defined in various ways. The most important is that given by the line of the medieval ''pale'', which goes back to the Forest's origins as a Norman deer-hunting park. This {{convert|23|mi|km}} long ditch and bank topped with an oak palisade enclosed an area of some {{convert|20.5|sqmi|ha}}. First referred to in 1283, the pale can still be discerned today.

In 1658, a comprehensive Parliamentary survey found Lancaster Great Park (the name given to Ashdown Forest from 1372 to 1672 after it was granted to [[John of Gaunt]], Duke of Lancaster, by [[Edward III]]) to have an area of {{convert|13991|acres|sqmi|1}} (5,662 hectares)<ref>Turner (1862), p.48.</ref>.

In 1693 the Forest assumed its present-day shape when rather more than half its area, 55%, was assigned by commissioners for enclosure and improvement by private landowners, while the remainder, much of which lay on the periphery of the forest close to existing settlements, was set aside as common land. Many present-day references to Ashdown Forest, particularly by the Board of Conservators and in legal, statutory and scientific documents and designations, treat the Forest as synonymous and co-terminous with this residual common land, which is distributed in a rather fragmentary way around the ancient forest. This can lead to confusion: according to one authority "''when people speak of Ashdown Forest, they may mean either a whole district of heaths and woodland that includes many private estates to which there is no public access, or they may be talking of the [common land] where the public are free to roam''".<ref>Christian (1967), p. 28.</ref>

Most of today's common land lies within the medieval pale, although one tract, near Chelwood Beacon, acquired quite recently by the Conservators, extends outside. The Conservators have acquired other tracts in recent years as suitable opportunities have arisen and incorporated them into the forest, for example at Chelwood Vachery. According to the definition used by the Conservators, which relates to the land for which they have statutory responsibility, the area of Ashdown Forest is {{convert|2472|ha|sqmi|1}}.

The area of Ashdown Forest stated in connection with statutory designations varies but in all cases is greater than that employed by the Conservators. The Ashdown Forest Site of Special Scientific Interest covers {{convert|3144|ha|sqmi|1}}, but this is because it also includes the Ministry of Defence's Pippingford Park Dry Training Area, which accounts for 11% ({{convert|346|ha|sqmi|1}}) of the designated area, and Sussex Wildlife Trust's adjoining Old Lodge Local Nature Reserve, which covers {{convert|76|ha|sqmi|1}}. The EU Special Protection Area (relating to protection of birds) covers {{convert|3207|ha|sqmi|1}}, while the EU Special Area of Conservation (relating to conservation of habitats) covers {{convert|2729|ha|sqmi|1}}.

==Geology and soils==
[[File:KentGeologyWealdenDomeSimple.svg|thumb|A geological north-south cross-section through the Wealden dome some {{convert|10|km|mi}} east of Ashdown Forest]]
Ashdown Forest is positioned centrally within the great [[Weald-Artois_Anticline|Weald-Artois]] anticline, a denuded dome that stretches from south-east England into northern France. Successively younger geological formations stretch away north and south from the high ridge of Ashdown Forest towards the chalk escarpments of the [[North Downs]] and [[South Downs]] respectively. The Forest is underlain predominantly by the sandy bedrock of the [[Lower Cretaceous]] Hastings Beds, in particular the Ashdown Sand formation. The latter, which forms the core of the local Crowborough/Ashdown Forest anticline and is 600–700 feet thick, consists of fine-grained, silty sandstones and siltstones with subordinate amounts of shale and mudstone. It has been exposed as the result of the erosion of the overlying Wadhurst Clay. Much of the iron ore which formed the basis of the Wealden iron industry, including Ashdown Forest, was obtained from the Wadhurst Clay, in which it occurs as both nodules and in tabular masses. Outcrops of the Wadhurst Clay formation are distributed discontinuously in a horseshoe shape around Ashdown Forest<ref>Gallois (1965), pp. 24-26</ref>.

Ashdown Forest's sandstone geology is a major determinant of its ecology and landscape. The Ashdown Sands, combined with a local climate that is generally wetter, cooler and windier than the surrounding area owing to the forest's elevation, which rises from {{convert|200|ft|m}} to over {{convert|700|ft|m}} above sea level, give rise to sandy soils that are characteristically acid, clay, and nutrient-poor<ref>Leslie and Short (1999), pp. 4-5.</ref>. On these soils have developed heathland, valley mires and damp woodland. These conditions have never favoured cultivation.

==Ecology==
[[Image:Ashdown Forest Kings Standing.jpg|thumb|right|Kings Standing, Ashdown Forest]]
Ashdown Forest is one of the largest single continuous blocks of lowland heath, semi-natural woodland and valley bog in south-east England. Heathland predominates: of its 2472 ha of common land, 55% (1365 ha) is heathland and 40% (997 ha) mixed woodland (the remaining 5% (112 ha) consists of car parks, picnic areas, golf courses, etc).

Reflecting its ecological importance in the UK and Europe, Ashdown Forest is designated as a [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] (SSSI)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-nature.org.uk/special/sssi/sssi_details.cfm?sssi_id=1001983 |title=Natural England - SSSI|accessdate=2008-05-25|publisher=English Nature}}</ref>, a [[Special Protection Area]] (SPA)<ref>[http://www.jncc.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=2052 Ashdown Forest Special Protection Area - Description]</ref> and a [[Special Area of Conservation]] (SAC). The first is a UK designation first made in 1953 in recognition of the Forest's unique ecology and reaffirmed in 1986. The latter two designations have been made under EU directives relating to the protection of birds and habitats respectively. The forest's importance on the European level is furthermore underlined by its membership of the [[Natura 2000]] network, which brings together Europe's most precious and threatened wildlife sites.<ref>The SSSI, SPA and SPA designations cover the Ashdown Forest common land plus the Old Lodge nature reserve and exclude privately-owned land.</ref>

===Flora===
====Heathland====
Ashdown Forest is noted for its profusion of heathland plants and flowers, such as the rare [[Gentiana pneumonanthe|Marsh Gentian]], but it also provides other distinctive or unusual plant habitats.

The extensive areas of dry heath are dominated by [[Calluna|ling]] ''Calluna vulgaris'', [[bell heather]] ''Erica cinerea'' and [[Ulex minor|dwarf gorse]] ''Ulex minor''. Important lichen communities include ''Pycnothelia papillaria''. [[Pteridium|Bracken]] ''Pteridium aquilinum'' is dominant over large areas. On the damper heath, [[cross-leaved heath]] ''Erica tetralix'' becomes dominant with [[List of the vascular plants of Britain and Ireland 8|deer-grass]] ''Trichophorum cespitosum''. The heath and bracken communities form a mosaic with acid grassland dominated by [[Molinia caerulea|purple moor-grass]] ''Molinia caerulea'' mingled with many specialised heathland plants such as [[Genista anglica|petty whin]] ''Genista anglica'', [[Salicaceae|creeping willow]] ''sp. Salicaceae'' and [[Dactylorhiza maculata|heath spotted orchid]] ''Dactylorhiza maculata''.

In the wet areas are found several species of [[Sphagnum|sphagnum moss]] together with [[Narthecium ossifragum|bog asphodel]] ''Narthecium ossifragum'', [[Eriophorum angustifolium|common cotton-grass]] ''Eriophorum angustifolium'' and specialities such as [[Gentiana pneumonanthe|marsh gentian]] ''Gentiana pneumonanthe'', [[Wahlenbergia|ivy-leaved bell flower]] ''Wahlenbergia hederacea'', [[Rhynchospora alba|white-beaked sedge]] ''Rhynchospora alba'' and [[Lycopodiella inundata|marsh club moss]] ''Lycopodiella inundata''. The Marsh Gentian, noted for its bright blue trumpet-like flowers, has a flowering season lasting from July well into October and is found in about a dozen colonies.

[[Ulex europaeus|Gorse]] ''Ulex europaeus'', [[Betula pendula|silver birch]] ''Betula pendula'', [[Quercus robur|pendunculate oak]] ''Quercus robur'' and [[Pinus sylvestris|scots pine]] ''Pinus sylvestris '' are scattered across the heath, in places forming extensive areas of secondary woodland and scrub. Older woodlands consist of [[Fagus sylvatica|beech]] ''Fagus sylvatica'' and [[Castanea sativa|sweet chestnut]] ''Castanea sativa''. These contain [[Common bluebell|bluebell]] ''Hyacinthinoides non-scripta'', [[Vaccinium myrtillus|bilberry]] ''Vaccinium myrtillus'', [[Blechnum spicant|the hard fern]] ''Blechnum spicant'' and [[Lonicera periclymenum|honeysuckle]] ''Lonicera periclymenum'' with [[Neottia nidus-avis|birds-nest orchid]] ''Neottia nidus-avis'' and [[Epipactis purpurata|violet helleborine]] ''Epipactis purpurata'' found particularly under beech. In the woodlands can also be found [[Anemone nemorosa|wood anemone]] ''Anemone nemorosa'' and [[Oxalis acetosella|common wood sorrel]] ''Oxalis acetosella''.

[[Image:Ashdown Forest - Friends Clump.jpg|thumb|right|Friends Clump]]

====Streams and ponds====
Forest streams, often lined by [[alder]] trees ''Alnus glutinosa'', [[Salix|grey sallow]] ''Salix cinerea'', birch and oak, cut through the soft sandstone forming steep-sided valleys (ghylls) that are sheltered from winter frosts and remain humid in summer, creating conditions more familiar in the Atlantic-facing western coastal regions of Britain. Uncommon [[bryophyte]]s such as the liverwort ''Nardia compressa'' and a range of ferns including the mountain fern ''Oreopteris limbosperma'' and the [[Dryopteris|hay-scented buckler fern]] ''Dryopteris aemula'' thrive in this “Atlantic” microclimate.

The damming of streams, digging for marl, and quarrying have produced several large ponds containing, particularly in former marl pits, localised rafts of [[Potamogeton natans|broad-leaved pondweed]] ''Potamogeton natans'', beds of [[Typha latifolia|bulrush (reedmace)]] ''Typha latifolia'' and [[Equisetum fluviatile|water horsetail]] ''Equisetum fluviatile''.

====Woodland====
Woodland covers nearly {{convert|1000|ha|acre}} of the Forest, 40% of its area<ref>Note: the figures quoted here refer to the land administered by the Conservators, and exclude all privately held land.</ref> Most of the woodland is young and contains few older trees. In particular, there is little ''Ancient Woodland'', defined as woodland that has been continuously wooded since 1600, though some wooded ghylls do contain older trees and there are a few individual old trees, especially beech, that may mark former boundaries. The two most common forms of Forest woodland are oak woods on acid brown earth soils, including hazel and chestnut coppice (62% of the total woodland area), and birch woods with oak in degenerating heathlands (27%). Alder trees growing in wet and waterlogged peaty soils account for about 1% of the woodland, while birch and willow trees growing in wet areas each account for less than 1%. Beechwoods growing on acid brown earth soils account for another 3%.<ref name="forestplan">Strategic Forest Plan of the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest 2008-2016, p9.</ref>

The clumps of [[Pinus sylvestris|Scots pine]] that form such a distinctive, iconic hilltop feature of Ashdown Forest were mostly planted in 1825 by Arabella Diana, Dowager Duchess, Lady of the Manor, to provide habitats for [[blackgame]] and possibly to add picturesque features to the barren landscape. She planted eight clumps and granted the public permission to cross her land to visit them. A clump at Millbrook also dates from this time. 20th century plantings comprise Macmillan Clump near Chelwood Gate (commemorating former British prime-minister [[Harold Macmillan]], who lived at Birch Grove, on the edge of the Forest at Chelwood Gate), Kennedy Clump (commemorating a visit to the area by [[John F. Kennedy]], when he stayed with Macmillan), Millenium Clump and Friends Clump, planted in 1973 to mark the Year of the Tree.

===Fauna===
====Birds====
Important populations of heath and woodland birds are found on the forest, notably [[Dartford Warbler]] ''Sylvia undata'' (the Forest has all-year resident populations of this, Britain's scarcest heathland bird species, which has seen a resurgence since the early 1990s) and [[Nightjar]] ''Caprimulgus europaeus''. Because of this, it has been designated as a European Union [[Special Protection Area]] and it is a popular destination for bird-watchers.

The Forest contains four main bird habitats<ref>{{cite web |title=Birds of Ashdown Forest |url=http://www.ashdownforest.org/conservation/birds_of_ashdown_forest.php}}</ref>:
* Open lowland heath, with various species of gorse and heather: [[Dartford Warbler]] ''Sylvia undata'', [[European Stonechat|Stonechat]] ''Saxicola rubecola'' and [[Meadow Pipit]] ''Anthus trivialis''; in the summer, [[Skylark]] ''Alauda arvensis'', [[Linnet]] ''Carduelis cannabina'', [[Yellowhammer]] ''Emberiza citrinella'' and [[Cuckoo]] ''Cuculus canorus''; and in winter, rarely, [[Hen Harrier]] ''Circus cyaneus''.
* Open areas of grassland, heather or gorse, with some bogs, interspersed with single trees or clumps of trees, particularly Scots Pine: [[Lesser redpoll]] ''Carduelis cabaret'', [[Goldcrest]] ''Regulus regulus''; in the summer, [[Woodlark]] ''Lullula arborea'', [[Tree Pipit]] ''Anthus sylvestris'', [[Nightjar|European Nightjar]] ''Caprimulgus europaeus'', [[Common Redstart]] ''Phoenicurus phoenicurus'', [[Spotted flycatcher]] ''Muscicapa striata'', [[Common Snipe]] ''Gallinago gallinago'', [[Eurasian Hobby]] ''Falco subbuteo'', [[Eurasian Woodcock]] ''Scolopax rusticola'', and [[Yellowhammer]]; in spring and autumn, [[Wheatear]] ''Oenanthe oenanthe'', [[Whinchat]] ''Saxicola rubetra'', [[Common crossbill]] ''Loxia curvirostra''; and in winter, rarely, [[Great Grey Shrike]] ''Lanius exubitor''.
* Scrub areas, especially on the boundary between woodland and heath/grassland: [[Reed bunting]] ''Emberiza schoeniclus''; in the summer, [[Turtle dove]] ''Streptopelia turtur ''; in winter, [[Eurasian Siskin]] ''Carduelis spinus'' and [[Lesser redpoll]].
* Mixed woodlands of oak, birch and sweet chestnut, often with Scots pine: [[Stock dove]] ''Columba oenas'', [[Marsh tit]] ''Parus palustris'', [[Tawny owl]] ''Strix aluco'', [[Bullfinch]] ''Pyrrhula pyrrhula'', and [[Eurasian Sparrowhawk]] ''Accipiter nisus''; in the summer [[Firecrest]] ''Regulus ignicapillus''; [[Common Buzzard]] ''Buteo buteo'' (occasional visitor).

[[Image:Cordulegaster boltonii Grd3.jpg|thumb|right|Golden-ringed dragonfly]]

====Insects====
The Forest supports a rich invertebrate fauna, with many heathland specialities. Half of Britain's 46 breeding species of damselflies and dragonflies (the [[Odonata]]) have been recorded, the scarcer among them being the [[Black Darter]], Brilliant Emerald and [[Small Red Damselfly]]. It is also an important home for the [[Golden-ringed Dragonfly|golden-ringed dragonfly]], which flies from mid-June to early September. Of the Forest's 34 species of butterfly, the most spectacular, the [[Purple Emperor]], can be hard to see. Another speciality, the [[Silver-studded Blue]], is by contrast plentiful, with the main food plants of its caterpillars being gorses and heathers.

====Deer====
Deer have been a feature of Ashdown Forest particularly since its impaling as a royal hunting park in the 13th century.<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/conservation/deer.php Deer in Ashdown Forest]</ref> [[Red deer]], an essential part of Wealden culture as long as 6-8,000 years ago, and [[Fallow deer]], already present in Sussex in the Romano-British era and particularly favoured by the Normans for hunting, were both hunted here until the 17th century. By the end of the 17th century Red deer had disappeared completely while Fallow deer had declined to very low numbers, the poor condition of the forest pale having allowed them to escape. Fallow deer returned in the 20th century, probably as a result of escapes from a local deer park. Also present are [[Roe deer]] (the only native deer roaming the forest), [[Muntjac]] and [[Sika deer]].

The population of Fallow deer has grown sharply in the last three decades, and they now number in their thousands. Around 500 a year are involved in collisions with motor vehicles on local roads<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/docs/AFVRSP_minutes_August_2009.pdf Ashdown Forest Villages Road Safety Partnership, minutes of 25 Augusst 2009 meeting]</ref> and many are killed. Reducing deer casualties and how best to control their numbers have become major public issues. The presence of deer in large numbers on the private land of the forest as well as on the common land administered by the Conservators makes resolving these issues more difficult.<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/conservation/Ashdown%20Area%20Deer%20Group.php Ashdown Area Deer Group]</ref>

==Landscape==
[[Image:Ashdown Forest from Standen.jpg|thumb|right|Ashdown Forest viewed from the gardens of [[Standen]] house]]
The whole of Ashdown Forest lies within the [[High Weald AONB|High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]], "...one of the best surviving, intact medieval landscapes in Northern Europe"<ref>http://www.highweald.org</ref>, characterised by rolling hills, steep-sided ghyll streams, sandstone outcrops, nationally-high woodland cover, many interconnected ancient woods, narrow sunken lanes, scattered farmsteads and hamlets, small irregular-shaped fields, and open heaths—of which Ashdown Forest is the greatest example.

The Forest reaches its highest altitude of {{convert|223|m|ft}} above sea level at Greenwood Gate Clump near King's Standing. From its hilltops there are expansive views across the [[High Weald]] in all directions<ref>[http://www.panoco.co.uk/example_ashdown.html A panoramic view from Ashdown Forest]</ref>, but particularly northwards toward the [[Greensand Ridge]] and beyond to the chalk escarpment of the [[North Downs]], and southwards to the chalk escarpment of the [[South Downs]]—a distance between horizons of about {{convert|50|km|mi}}.

Ashdown is the most extensive and best preserved of the forests that occupied the ''Forest Ridge'' of the High Weald, which constitute important remnants of the great Wealden forest, Anderida, of Roman and Saxon times. From west to east these forests are [[St Leonard's Forest]], Worth, Ashdown, Waterdown, South Frith Wood and Dallington.

Ashdown Forest is essentially a man-made landscape. The long-standing predominance of heathland over woodland owes much to human intervention over thousands of years. In this respect, it reflects the development of heathland in Britain generally, where the earliest evidence of heathland dates to Mesolithic times, before the introduction of agriculture, and the large-scale emergence of heathlands took place in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. In Anglo-Saxon times heathland was much more prominent than it is today; indeed, according to Oliver Rackham, the beginnings of Wealden heathland, including Ashdown, which he terms a ''heathland Forest'', can be traced back to before the Norman Conquest<ref>Rackham (1997), p.134.</ref>.

Ashdown Forest probably contained large areas of heath in medieval times. This would not have been unusual, as many of England's medieval forests consisted predominantly of heathland. For example, Sherwood Forest, in the Midlands, which was first described as a Forest in 1154, had at most one-third of its area recorded as woodland in [[Domesday Book]], and by the end of the 13th century was a vast heath incorporating a number of woods and parks with no more than a quarter of it being woodland.<ref>Rackham (1997), p.140.</ref> But unlike other heathlands in England, which have largely disappeared in the last 200 years, Ashdown's has largely survived. It now represents one of England's most extensive and important areas of ''lowland heathland''<ref>[http://www.jncc.gov.uk/page-1432 Lowland Heathland]</ref>, with the associated distinctive, often rare, heathland flora and fauna. Ashdown Forest's 1,500 ha of lowland heathland make it the largest area of this threatened habitat in south-east England.

The Forest's Commoners have played an important role in maintaining the Forest's heathland. From medieval times until quite recently they would graze large numbers of livestock on the Forest, which suppressed the growth of trees and scrub. For example, at the end of the 13th century Commoners were turning out 2,000-3,000 cattle onto the Forest, alongside the 1,000-2,000 deer that were also present<ref name="forestplan">Strategic Forest Plan of the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest 2008-2016</ref>, while according to a 1297 record the Forest was also being grazed by almost 2,700 swine<ref>Ashdown Forest and Its Inclosures. Ernest Straker</ref>. Other activities of the Commoners also contributed to preserving the heathland, such as the cutting of trees for firewood and other uses, collection of bracken for livestock bedding, and periodic heathland burning.

The large local iron industry, which grew very rapidly in Tudor times and continued to flourish in the early Stuart period, also had a major impact through its exploitation of the Forest's woodlands to feed the many local furnaces and forges. The loss of much of the tree cover from the fringes of the forest during the 16th century has been attributed at least in part to the rapid growth of the industry following the introduction from France of blast furnaces (from 1490 onwards) with their huge demand for charcoal. For example, large-scale tree cutting took place to feed the iron works of [[Ralph Hogge]] to the south of the forest between Buxted and Maresfield<ref>Cleere and Crossley (1995) p.137.</ref>. The loss of trees caused much public concern: as early as 1520 it was lamented that "much of the King's woods were cut down and coled [turned into charcoal] for the iron mills, and the Forest digged for Irne [iron] by which man and beast be in jeopardy" <ref>Straker (1940), p. 123.</ref>. Although it has been argued by some that sustainable woodland management through coppicing would necessarily have been introduced in the area to maintain the supply of charcoal, it seems that the industry continued to denude Ashdown Forest into the 17th century, so that by 1632 there was little great wood left, and by 1658 none, while by 1632 coppices were slight and much affected by illicit cutting<ref>Cleere and Crossley (1995) p.169.</ref>. The impact of the local iron industry on the forest was curtailed however by its rapid decline during the 17th century and disappearance in the 18th century.

Ashdown Forest's landscape in the early 19th century was famously described by [[William Cobbett]] in his Sussex Journal entry of 8 January 1822<ref>William Cobbett ''Rural Rides''. Constable, London. 1982. ISBN 0-09-464060-2</ref>: <blockquote>"At about three miles from [[East Grinstead|Grinstead]] you come to a pretty village, called [[Forest Row|Forest-Row]], and then, on the road to [[Uckfield]], you cross Ashurst (sic) Forest, which is a heath, with here and there a few birch scrubs upon it, verily the most villainously ugly spot I saw in England. This lasts you for five miles, getting, if possible, uglier and uglier all the way, till, at last, as if barren soil, nasty spewy gravel, heath and even that stunted, were not enough, you see some rising spots, which instead of trees, present you with black, ragged, hideous rocks."</blockquote>

At the start of the 20th century the forest was virtually treeless, apart from the picturesque clumps of Scots Pine that had been planted on its hill-tops in the early 19th century and the woods remaining in its deeper valleys and ghylls, and its heathland was the largest in south-east England. However, after World War II a sharp decline in livestock grazing by the commoners owing to economic and social factors (see below) led to a rapid and substantial loss of heathland to scrub and trees, particularly birch and pine. The increasing amounts of road traffic across the forest, with the consequent loss of animals in road traffic collisions, also became a major deterrent to grazing, with the last of the free-ranging livestock of the commoners being removed in 1985. As a consequence the proportion of heathland in the forest has declined greatly in the last sixty years, from 90% in 1947 to 60% in 2007.

==Conservation==
[[Image:Ashdown Forest Hebridean flock.jpg|thumb|right|Ashdown Forest's Hebridean sheep flock awaiting shearing]]
The post-war decline in the exploitation of the forest by the Commoners forced the Board of Conservators to move from a regulatory to a more interventionist role in Forest affairs in order to prevent any further loss of the extensive heathlands that give the Forest its distinctive open landscapes and rare wildlife habitats.

Today, the Conservators' publicly stated aim is to maintain the Forest's proportion of heathland to woodland at 60:40<ref>Annual Report of the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest 2007/2008, p. 2</ref>. This work is being assisted by substantial public funding from a central government agency, [[Natural England]], under a ten-year ''Higher Level Stewardship'' (HLS) agreement. Signed in August 2006, this agreement requires the Conservators to restore the Forest heathland to "favourable condition". It is the largest such scheme in south-east England.

The Conservators have taken various steps to stem the invasion of the heathland by scrub, trees and bracken. Regular mowing of bracken is carried out: an area of 266 ha out of the 400 ha on the Forest has been mown twice a year since 2000. Large areas of the highly invasive ''Rhododendron ponticum'' have been cleared, initially funded by the [[Forestry Commission]], and now carried on by local volunteers. Birch and other tree saplings are cut down in the winter.

The Conservators have taken steps to promote livestock grazing on the Forest. This is considered to be a cheaper, more effective and more sustainable way of restoring and maintaining heathland than the use of mowing machinery. Sheep (which are a recent introduction, only being a Common right on the Forest since 1900<ref>Penn (1984), p. 195.</ref>) are particularly useful because they will preferentially eat coarse grass and scrub and will ignore heather, and they will also graze in places that are difficult to mow. In 1996 the Secretary of State for the Environment gave permission for a 550 ha (1359 acre) fenced enclosure, representing about one-third of the Forest's 1500 ha of heathland, to be created in the south and west Chases to allow Commoners to graze their livestock in safety.

The enclosure of the Forest with fencing, however, no matter how discreetly done, was and remains somewhat controversial. In 2007, the Conservators commenced a close-shepherded grazing pilot project, funded by the HLS scheme, in which a flock of Hebridean sheep was guided by a shepherd to graze the unenclosed heathland. Among the advantages of this approach are that no fencing is required and grazing can be targeted on the most over-grown areas. In 2010, following completion of the project, the Conservators decided to continue close-shepherded grazing as an integral part of their management of the Forest's heathland. The flock has now grown to over 300 sheep.

==Recreation and leisure==

[[Image:Ashdown Forest cyclists on Crowborough Road.jpg|thumb|right| Cyclists crossing Ashdown Forest]]

Ashdown Forest is the largest area of open countryside in south-east England. It offers visitors a large, elevated expanse of unspoiled heath and woodland close to London and other centres of population where they may walk, picnic or simply sit while taking in glorious views. The Forest's common land is freely open to the public, subject to a number of bye-laws. These include prohibitions on activities that are detrimental to the forest environment such as off-road cycling (mountain biking) and other wheeled vehicles, horse-riding (except by permit), camping and the lighting of fires.

The forest attracts over 750,000 visitors each year<ref name="forestplan" />. Most come by car, and access is straightforward: the forest is crossed by a major artery, the [[A22]], which provides access from the [[M25 motorway|M25]] and [[M23 motorway|M23]] motorways. The Conservators have provided 48 unobtrusive car parks, and picnic areas. The nearest railway station is at [[East Grinstead]]<ref>http://www.eastsussex.gov.uk/roadsandtransport/public/train/default.htm Train service information</ref>. Two bus services cross the forest: the 261 service from East Grinstead railway station to Uckfield stops at Nutley, Chelwood Gate, Wych Cross, the Ashdown Forest Centre and Colemans Hatch (two-hourly; no service on Sundays or public holidays); the 270 service from East Grinstead railway station to Haywards Heath stops at Wych Cross and Chelwood Gate (hourly service, every day)<ref>http://www.eastsussex.gov.uk/roadsandtransport/public/buses/downloadmaps.htm Bus timetables and maps</ref>. Gatwick Airport is about 25 minutes away by car.

The ''Ashdown Forest Centre'' (see below) is the main visitor centre for the forest. Tourist information points may be found at [[Ashdown Forest Llama Park]], Forest Row Community Centre<ref>http://forestrow.gov.uk/index.php Forest Row Community Centre (tourist information point)</ref> and Perryhill Orchards<ref>http://www.perryhillorchards.co.uk Perryhill Orchards (tourist information point)</ref>, Hartfield. The Forest's principal tourism organisation is the ''Ashdown Forest Tourism Association''<ref>http://www.ashdownforest.com Ashdown Forest Tourism Association website</ref>.

The Forest is very popular with walkers, and all its common land is open to them. Two long-distance footpaths, the [[Vanguard Way]] and [[Wealdway]] cross the forest and meet near Old Lodge. The Wealdway passes through Five Hundred Acre wood, the [[Hundred Acre Wood]] of the Winnie-the-Pooh stories. The ''Ashdown Forest Centre'' produces a
series of leaflets detailing interesting walks in various parts of the forest, which may also be downloaded from its website<ref>
http://www.ashdownforest.org/downloads/downloads_all.php Source of Ashdown Forest walks leaflets</ref>.

Ashdown Forest contains {{convert|82|mi|km}} of permitted tracks that may be ridden by horse once an annual permit has been obtained from the Conservators. The main horse-riding organisation is the ''Ashdown Forest Riding Association'', which has around 200 members<ref>http://www.afranews.org.uk Ashdown Forest Riding Association website</ref>.

The Forest, with its attractive landscapes, vistas and hills, is a popular destination for road cyclists, races and cyclosportives such as the ''Hell of the Ashdown''<ref>http://www.hell.gb.com Hell of the Ashdown (cyclosportive) website</ref>. Former Tour de France rider [[Sean Yates]] lives at [[Forest Row]] and has taken [[Lance Armstrong]] training here. Off-road cycling and mountain biking is prohibited for environmental reasons, except along public bridleways. A local pressure group is campaigning for this ban to be lifted<ref>http://www.ashdowncc.org Ashdown Cycling Campaign website</ref>.

The ''Royal Ashdown Forest Golf Club'' occupies a large area of leasehold land in the northern part of the Forest near Forest Row. It is a traditional members' club founded in 1888 at the instigation of Earl de la Warr, Lord of the Manor, who became its first president. Its two 18-hole heathland courses are notable for the absence of bunkers (at the insistence of the Conservators). As elsewhere in Ashdown Forest, trees and bracken scrub have invaded following the cessation of grazing and decreased wood cutting by the Commoners, and the club is working with the Conservators to restore the golf courses to their original heathland character<ref>http://www.royalashdown.co.uk Royal Ashdown Forest Golf Club website</ref>.

The principal hotel within the Forest is the ''Ashdown Park Hotel & Country Club'', a listed 19th century mansion house set in 186 acres<ref>http://www.ashdownpark.com Ashdown Park Hotel and Country Club website</ref>.

==Visitor attractions==
===The Ashdown Forest Centre===
[[Image:Ashdown Forest Centre.JPG|thumb|right|The Ashdown Forest Centre]]
The Ashdown Forest Centre, situated opposite Ashdown Park hotel between Wych Cross and Coleman's Hatch, houses a visitor centre and is the administrative base for the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest. Completed in 1983, it consists of three old reconstructed barns. The visitor centre<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/about/forest_centre.phphere Ashdown Forest Centre Information Barn]</ref> has a permanent display about the forest's history and wildlife, details of walks in the forest and much other useful information for visitors, and an exhibition area for local craft and art work. It is open 7 days a week during the summer, weekends in the winter, and on Bank Holidays except Christmas Day and Boxing Day.

===Vachery Forest Garden===

Landscaped in 1925 by Col. Gavin Jones for F.J. Nettlefold, this 'lost' forest garden is situated in a remote, secluded steep-sided valley near Wych Cross. It was acquired by the Conservators in 1994 and is now undergoing restoration. Already uncovered are a 250 metre gorge constructed using limestone brought from [[Cheddar Gorge]], many unusual trees and a string of small lakes connected by sluices and weirs. The garden, which is open to the public, is part of Chelwood Vachery, a medieval estate dating back to at least 1229, and whose name may come from the French ''vache'', referring to the grazing of cattle here by Michelham Priory. A leaflet describing a walk through Chelwood Vachery is available from the Ashdown Forest Centre. The nearest car-park is ''Trees'' on the A22 road between Wych Cross and Nutley.

===Old Lodge Nature Reserve===

Old Lodge nature reserve<ref>[http://www.sussexwt.org.uk/reserves/page00023.htm Old Lodge nature reserve]</ref>, managed by Sussex Wildlife Trust, offers open vistas of the forest's heathland. A well-marked nature trail leads round most of the hilly 76 hectare reserve, which contains acidic ponds and areas of pine woodland. The reserve is notable for dragonfly, nightjar, redstart, woodcock, tree pipit, stonechat and adder.

===Nutley Windmill===
[[Image:Nutley Windmill 2.jpg|thumb|right| [[Nutley Windmill]]]]
[[Nutley Windmill]], which stands just north of the Nutley to Duddleswell road, is thought to be about 300 years old and is a rare example of an open-trestle post mill (the whole body of the mill can be rotated on its central post to face the wind). It has been restored to full working order and is open to the public. It is within easy walking distance of Friend's Clump car-park.

===The Airman's Grave===

The Airman's Grave is not in fact a grave, but a memorial to the six man crew of a Wellington bomber of 142 Squadron which crashed in the forest on the morning of 31 July 1941 on its return from a raid on Cologne during World War II. The memorial, which is a simple stone-walled enclosure on the heathland west of Duddleswell, shelters a white cross surrounded by a tiny garden of remembrance and was erected by the mother of Sergeant P.V.R. Sutton, who was aged 24 at the time of his death. A short public service takes place each year on Remembrance Sunday when a wreath is laid by an Ashdown Forest Ranger, at the request of Mrs Sutton, together with one from the Ashdown Forest Riding Association. The Ashdown Forest Centre has published a circular walk to the memorial from Hollies car park.

===Ashdown Forest Llama Park===

Situated south-east of Wych Cross on the [[A22]] main road, [[Ashdown Forest Llama Park]] breeds and sells llamas and alpacas, and operates as a visitor attraction to educate the public about these animals. The park has a gift shop, coffee shop and tourist information point for which there is no admission charge.

==Winnie-the-Pooh==
[[Image:Pooh sticks bridge.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Poohsticks Bridge in Ashdown Forest]]

Ashdown Forest is famous as the setting for the ''[[Winnie the Pooh|Winnie-the-Pooh]]'' stories, written by [[A. A. Milne]] for his son [[Christopher Robin Milne]]. The first book, ''[[Winnie-the-Pooh (book)|Winnie-the-Pooh]]'', was published in 1926 with illustrations by E. H. Shepard. The second book, ''[[The House at Pooh Corner]]'', also illustrated by Shepard, was published in 1928. These hugely popular stories were set in Ashdown Forest: A.A. Milne's country retreat at Cotchford Farm near [[Hartfield]] was situated just north of the forest about a mile from the entrance at Chuck Hatch; from there he and his wife, son and nanny would regularly venture out onto the forest. In his autobiography Christopher Milne wrote that “Pooh’s forest and Ashdown Forest are identical”. Several of the sites described in the books can be easily identified, although their names have been changed. For example Five Hundred Acre Wood became ''[[Hundred Acre Wood]]'' and Gills Lap became ''[[Galleon's Lap]]''. The ''North Pole'' and ''Gloomy Place'' are in Wren’s Warren valley as is ''The Dark and Mysterious Forest''. The landscapes depicted in Shepard’s illustrations for the books, which are very evocative of Ashdown Forest, can in many cases be matched up to actual views, allowing for a degree of artistic licence (Shepard's sketches of pine trees and other forest scenes are on display at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum|V&A Museum]] in London).

A leaflet, “Pooh Walks from Gills Lap”, available from the Ashdown Forest Centre and downloadable from its website, describes a walk that takes in many locations familiar from the Pooh stories including ''[[Galleon's Lap]]'', ''The Enchanted Place'', the ''[[Heffalump trap|Heffalump Trap]]'' and Lone Pine, ''North Pole'', ''100 Aker Wood'' and Eeyore’s ''Sad and Gloomy Place''.

[[Image:Gills Lap Plaque.JPG|thumb| right|Memorial plaque dedicated to [[A. A. Milne]] and [[E. H. Shepard]] at Gills Lap]]A memorial plaque to Milne and Shepard can be found at Gills Lap. Its heading is a quotation from the Pooh stories: "...and by and by they came to an enchanted place on the very top of the Forest called Galleons Lap". The dedication reads: "Here at Gills Lap are commemorated A.A. Milne 1882-1956 and E.H. Shepard 1879-1976 who collaborated in the creation of "Winnie-the-Pooh" and so captured the magic of Ashdown Forest and gave it to the world".

[[Poohsticks Bridge|Pooh Sticks Bridge]] is a mile north of Gills Lap at Chuck Hatch and is open to the public. The original bridge was built in 1907, restored in 1979 and completely rebuilt in 1999. So popular is the game of [[Poohsticks]] that the surrounding area has been denuded of twigs and small branches by the many visitors. A path leads to the bridge from a car-park on Chuck Hatch Lane, just off the B2026 Maresfield to Hartfield road.

''Pooh Corner'', situated on the High Street in Hartfield, sells Winnie-the-Pooh related products and offers much information for visitors.<ref>http://www.pooh-country.co.uk/ Pooh Corner</ref>


==History==

===Norman origins===
Ashdown Forest's origins lie as a Norman royal hunting forest, dating back to the period immediately following the [[Norman conquest]] of 1066. Prior to that, it formed an unnamed part of a much larger area of dense, impenetrable, and sparsely populated oak woodland, extending for {{convert|30|mi|km}} between the North and South Downs and for over {{convert|90|mi|km}} from east to west between Kent and Hampshire, that was known in Saxon times as ''Andredes weald'' ("the forest of Andred", from the name of the Roman fort at [[Pevensey]], ''Anderida''), from which the name of the physiographic region of south-east England in which Ashdown Forest is situated, the [[Weald]], is derived.<ref>Brandon (2003), Chapters 2 and 6.</ref>.

Ashdown Forest is not mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 but, lying as it did within the Forest of Pevensel (sic) in the [[Rape (county subdivision)|Rape]] of [[Pevensey]], it had already been granted by William the Conqueror to his half-brother [[Robert, Count of Mortain]]. This strategically and economically important Rape was awarded to Robert by William, along with several hundred manors across England, in recognition of his support during the invasion. There were two important conditions: the king could keep and hunt deer on the forest, while the commoners - tenant farmers who had smallholdings near the forest - could continue to use it to graze their livestock and cut wood for fuel and bracken for livestock bedding.

===The Forest pale===
[[File:The Hatch Inn.jpg|thumb|The Hatch Inn, Colemans Hatch, at an entrance to Ashdown Forest.]]
During the [[Middle Ages]] Ashdown Forest was enclosed as a royal hunting park by a 38 kilometre (23 mile) long ''pale''. This consisted of an earth bank 4–5 feet high surmounted by an oak paling fence with a deep ditch on the forest side that allowed deer to enter but not to leave. It enclosed an area of over 5,300 hectares (20.5 square miles)<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/ Ashdown Forest, home of the Conservators and Pooh Bear.]</ref>. Entry was via 34 gates and hatches, ''gates'' being used for access by wheeled vehicles, commoners' animals and mounted groups, ''hatches'' by pedestrians. These names survive in local place-names such as Chuck Hatch and Chelwood Gate. Some of these entrances were, and still are, marked by pubs, for example the 18th century Hatch Inn<ref>[http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~nickad/index.htm The Hatch Inn]</ref> at Coleman's Hatch, which occupies three former cottages believed to date to 1430 that later may have housed ironworkers from the nearby blast furnace at Newbridge.

It is not known precisely when the pale was built. Forest management accounts of 1283 refer to the cost of repairing the pale and building new lengths<ref name="ashdownforesthistory">http://www.ashdownforest.com/history.html</ref>. However, the granting of the "Free-chase of Ashdon" to John of Gaunt in 1372 and its renaming as ''Lancaster Great Park'' (see below) implies that the Forest may only have been recently enclosed (''chase'' denoted an open hunting ground, ''park'' an enclosed one). Although the condition of the pale deteriorated during the Tudor and Stuart period, and it seems to have fallen into almost complete disrepair by the end of the 17th century, remnants of the bank and ditch are still visible in places today, such as at Legsheath.

===Post-Conquest changes of ownership===

The forest was owned by the Lords of Pevensey Castle - various Norman nobles - for most of the period until the reign of [[Henry III of England|Henry III]], when, in 1268, it was vested in the Crown in perpetuity. The forest was used for deer hunting by [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], who built a hunting lodge near Nutley that was later to be used by John of Gaunt.

In 1372 [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] granted the "Free-chase of Ashdon" to his third son, [[John of Gaunt]], Duke of Lancaster. From then for the next 300 years, until 1672, it was known as ''Lancaster Great Park'', though the park reverted to the Crown with the rest of the Duchy of Lancaster after the Duke's death in 1399.

In 1561 Richard Sackville was granted the "mastership of the Forest and keepership of the wild beasts therein", thus beginning a family involvement that lasted over 400 years. The Sackvilles later became Earls of Dorset and it was in in 1605, under James I, that Thomas Sackville, Earl of Dorset, became Lord of the Manor of Duddleswell (the [[Manorialism|manor]] within which Lancaster Great Park lay). The Earls and Dukes of Dorset remained Lords of the Manor until the male line died out in 1815, at which point the freehold passed to the related [[Earl De La Warr|de la Warr]] (pronounced "Delaware") family, who retained it until 1988.

===The 1693 land division===

In 1693 more than half of Ashdown Forest was taken into private hands. Repeated attempts during the 17th century to enclose and improve the forest, whose condition had deteriorated by the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] in 1660 to a state where "the whole forest [had been] laid open and made waste"<ref>Straker (1940), p. 124.</ref>, had been strongly opposed by the commoners and by the owners of neighbouring estates who claimed right of pasture there. After the Restoration it was disafforested by letters patent of [[Charles II]] and granted, in 1671, to the Earl of Bristol and then to the Earl of Dorset and others whose efforts to enclose and develop the heathland were frustrated "by the crossness of the neighbourhood"<ref>Christian (1967), p.2.</ref>. In 1689, the Earl of Dorset brought a legal suit against 133 defendants led by one John Newnham who claimed rights of common on the forest having exercised them "from time out of mind". Commissioners appointed by the Duchy Court to divide up the 13,991 acres (5,662 ha) of forest made their award on 4 December 1693, setting aside 6,400 acres (2,590 ha) in the vicinity of farms and villages for the commoners. Here they were given sole right of pasturage and the right to cut birch, alder and willow. But they were excluded from the rest of the forest, 55 per cent of its area, which was assigned for "inclosure and improvement". As a result, the common land of Ashdown Forest today is highly fragmented and irregular in shape, broken up by large tracts of privately-owned land. Some of the largest enclosures, such as Hindleap Warren, Prestridge Warren, Broadstone Warren and Crowborough Warren, were created for intensive rabbit farming. Other large enclosures include Pippingford Park, today a military training area, and Five Hundred Acre Wood. That the forest today still appears to be an extensive area of wild country is partly because the land that was taken into private hands has largely remained uncultivated<ref>Hinde (1987), p. 66.</ref>. That said, the contrast between the areas of common land, which are predominantly heathland, and the privately-held lands, which are generally either quite heavily wooded or cleared for pasture, and which in cases cover large areas within the old forest pale, is stark.

===The 1876 dispute===

In 1876-82 a further challenge to commoners' rights, which became known as the ''Ashdown Forest Dispute'', led directly to today's framework of forest governance. On 13 October 1877 John Miles was seen cutting litter on behalf of his landlord Bernard Hale, a commoner, by a keeper employed by the Lord of the Manor, the [[Earl De La Warr]]. In a test case<ref>Short (1997)</ref><ref>[http://theweald.org/bk.asp?bookid=srs080998 Testimonies of Forest residents]</ref>, the earl challenged the right of Hale and Miles to cut and take away litter, claiming that it could only be taken away from the forest in the stomachs of their animals<ref>Hinde (1987), p. 66</ref>. The commoners lost, but an appeal in 1881 found in their favour. Following this dispute a Board of Conservators was established by Act of Parliament in 1885 to oversee the Forest bye-laws, including the protection of Commoner's rights. Further Acts of Parliament have since further refined the governance of Ashdown Forest, the final and most important being the Ashdown Forest Act 1974.

===Sale into public ownership===

In the 1980s the Lord of the Manor, the 10th Earl de la Warr, offered Ashdown Forest for sale direct to the local authority, [[East Sussex County Council]], if they would buy it; otherwise he would probably sell the forest piecemeal on the open market<ref>Willard (1989), p167</ref>. On 25 November 1988 this threat to split up the forest was averted when, with the benefit of donations from many sources, including the proceeds of a public appeal supported by [[Christopher Robin Milne]] that raised £175,000, East Sussex County Council purchased the freehold of Ashdown Forest from the executors of the earl, who had died the previous February. The freehold was then vested by the council in a newly-created charitable trust, the Ashdown Forest Trust.

==Iron working==

Ashdown Forest formed an important part of the [[Wealden iron industry]] that operated from pre-Roman times until the early 18th century. The forest was a particularly favourable location because of the presence of iron-ore in the local geology of Ashdown Beds and overlying Wadhurst Clay and of woodland for the production of charcoal fuel for furnaces and forges, while its deep, steep-sided valleys and locally high rainfall made it practical to dam streams to provide water power. The industry reached its peak in the two periods when the Weald was the main iron-producing region of Britain, namely in the first 200 years of the Roman occupation (1st to 3rd centuries AD) and during Tudor and early Stuart times. Iron-smelting in the former period was based on [[bloomery]] technology, while the latter depended on the [[blast furnace]].

===Iron Age and Roman Period===
When the Romans invaded Britain in AD 43 the Weald already had a well-established tradition of iron-making, using very small, clay bloomery furnaces for iron-smelting. The pre-Roman settlement pattern was one of sparse occupation based on major defended enclosures along the northern edge of the High Weald with smaller enclosures deeper within it, such as the hill-fort at Garden Hill. The association of these smaller enclosures with iron-making and other evidence suggest that Iron Age colonizers saw the Weald primarily as a source of iron<ref name="cleereromansussex">Cleere (1978)</ref>.

The Romans also saw the Weald's economic potential for iron-making and with growing markets in south-east England generated by the building of towns, villas and farms the industry grew, achieving high levels of output at its peak. There is evidence in Ashdown Forest of Roman bloomeries at Garden Hill, Pippingford Park and elsewhere. These are thought to have been private, commercial operations set up by entrepreneurs to produce iron goods for nearby civilian markets (in contrast to iron production in the eastern Weald, which is thought to have been state-controlled and linked to the needs of the British Fleet, the [[Classis Britannica]], and possibly part of an ''Imperial Estate'')<ref>Salway, Peter (1981), Roman Britain, pp. 637-638.</ref>.

The transition from Late Iron Age to Roman Era iron production in the Forest, as elsewhere in the Weald, may have been quite smooth, as bloomery production was already well-established and this southern coastal region of Britain had already become Romanised prior to the invasion of AD 43. It has been suggested that the poorly-built Roman-era bath building at Garden Hill may indicate continuity of indigenous community and activity, and a desire to indulge in a more Romanised way of life<ref name="Leslie and Short 1999, p.22">Leslie and Short (1999), p.22.</ref>.

The trunk road between [[London to Lewes Way (Roman road)|London and Lewes]], partly metalled with iron slag from local bloomeries, would have served to carry the Forest's iron products to the Roman province's pre-eminent mercantile centre at [[London]] and to the densely populated agricultural areas of the South Downs and coastal plain<ref name="cleereromansussex" />.

Although the Roman iron industry flourished from the invasion to the mid 3rd century, it then declined until there was very little activity at all during the 4th century.

===Saxon Period===
During the period between the departure of the Romans in the early 5th century AD and the Norman Conquest iron-making in the forest - as in the Weald as a whole - seems to have taken place on only a very small scale, judging from the lack of material evidence. A primitive Middle Saxon iron-smelting furnace at Millbrook, near Nutley, which operated in the 9th century, is the only furnace from the Saxon period to have been found in the entire Weald<ref>Tebbutt (1982)</ref><ref>Hodgkinson (2008), p.35.</ref>.

===Tudor and Stuart Period===
The local iron industry underwent a massive resurgence in Tudor and early Stuart times as a result of the introduction of the blast furnace from northern France. Blast furnaces were much larger and more permanent structures than bloomeries, and produced much greater quantities of iron. They correspondingly made much greater demands on local resources, in particular wood, iron ore and water (to operate the bellows and forges in what was now a two-stage smelting and forging process). Because of the huge demand for water, they were generally located in deep valleys where streams could be dammed to provide a sufficent, consistent flow.

Ashdown Forest became the site of Britain's second blast furnace when the works at Newbridge, south of Coleman's Hatch at the foot of Kidd's Hill, began operation in 1496. (Britain's earliest known blast furnace, a few miles away at Queenstock, [[Buxted]], began operation at the end of 1490). The Newbridge furnace, constructed at the commission of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] for the production of heavy metalwork for gun carriages for his war against the Scots, was designed and initially run by French immigrants<ref>Hodgkinson (2008) p.63 et seq.</ref>. The Crown's involvement with Newbridge continued until a replacement, larger furnace was built in 1539 on the western edge of Ashdown Forest at Stumbles. Other works set up around this time in or near the Forest include a steel forge at Pippingford Park, around 1505, and a furnace and forge at Parrock, Hartfield, in 1513. Unfortunately, there is little visible trace of any of these sites today.

The industry grew very rapidly in Ashdown Forest and elsewhere in the High Weald during the 16th century. The area became particularly noted for the production of cannons for the British navy. The iron-master and gun founder [[Ralf Hogge|Ralph Hogge]], who in 1543 had cast the first iron cannon in England at [[Buxted]], drew his raw materials from the southern part of the forest. The rapid expansion of the iron industry and its huge demand for raw materials, particularly the cutting of trees for making charcoal, is likely to have had a major impact on Ashdown Forest, where it is likely that production of wood through coppice management, in common with the practice generally in the High Weald, will have been required to ensure sufficient supply.

The industry declined in the 17th century as a result of competition from lower-cost and higher productivity iron-producing areas in England and overseas, particularly Sweden.

==Archaeology==
[[File:Ashdown Forest Roman Road.JPG|thumb|The ''agger'' of the London-Lewes Roman road, visible at Roman Road car park, Ashdown Forest.]]
Ashdown Forest contains a wealth of archeological features. Absence of ploughing, predominance of heathland and lack of building development have allowed archaeological sites to survive and remain visible. More than 570 such sites have been identified, including Bronze Age round barrows, Iron Age enclosures, prehistoric field systems, iron workings from Roman times onwards, the Pale, medieval and post-medieval pillow mounds for the rearing of rabbits, and a set of military kitchen mounds between Camp Hill and Nutley dating from 1793 that are among the only surviving ones in the United Kingdom.<ref>Ashdown Forest Life, Issue 8, Autumn/Winter 2009</ref> The earliest known trace of human activity in Ashdown Forest is a stone hand axe found near Gills Lap, which is thought to be about 50,000 years old<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/history/history_pre_roman.php Ashdown Forest]</ref>. The vast majority of finds however date from the Mesolithic (11,000-7,000 BP) and onwards into the modern era.

===Iron Age===
The late pre-Roman [[Iron Age]] (100 BC to AD 43) saw a conspicuous reconfiguration of the settlement and economic geography of Sussex, of which one aspect was the disappearance of hill-forts from the [[South Downs]] (except Devil's Dyke) and the establishment of hill-forts in the [[High Weald]], including one in Ashdown Forest at Garden Hill (see below)<ref>Money (1978), p.38.</ref>. Three other hill-forts lie in close proximity at Philpots, Saxonbury and Dry Hill. The general consensus is that these hill-forts are associated with a more intensive exploitation of the iron resources of the Weald<ref name="Leslie and Short 1999, p.22"/>. This period also presents the first evidence for centralised ceramic production, with specialist pottery sites identified at Chelwood Gate and [[Horsted Keynes]], both situated close to the Forest and ideally located to exploit the local potting clays. Elsewhere in Ashdown Forest there is evidence of Iron Age enclosures at Gills Lap, marked by a roundel of fir trees, and King's Standing, both situated on high hilltops.<ref>Christian (1967), p.7.</ref> Another site, at Chelwood Gate, known as Danes Graves, shows evidence of late pre-Roman Iron Age iron working.

===Garden Hill===

Garden Hill, situated on a hill spur south of Colemans Hatch Road, is Ashdown Forest's most important [[scheduled ancient monument]], containing both an Iron Age hill-fort and the remains of an important Romano-British iron-working centre<ref name="moneyandstreeten">Money & Streeten (date unknown)</ref>. In 1972 archaeologists uncovered a small but complete 2nd century AD Romano-British stone-built bath-house. Subsequent excavations produced evidence of Neolithic, Bronze Age and early pre-Roman occupation of the hill-top and uncovered remains of a late pre-Roman Iron Age and Romano-British iron-working settlement of the first, second and early 3rd centuries AD. This included pre-Roman round houses, a rectangular 2nd-century Roman timber villa to which the bath building was attached, and an almost complete pane of Roman window-glass that was later acquired by the British Museum. Both iron-making (ore roasting and smelting) and iron-working (forging) were conducted, but this is likely to have been small in scale. Later the industrial workings were levelled and replaced by the villa and other buildings of a non-industrial character, suggesting that the settlement may have operated through the 2nd century more as a managerial centre for other iron-working sites nearby, such as the small early 1st century bloomeries at Pippingford Park and Cow Park before probably becoming abandoned by the mid 3rd century<ref name="moneyandstreeten" />. Garden Hill lies within the Ministry of Defence's Pippingford Park military training area and is not open to the public.

===Roman roads and pre-Roman trackways===
The [[London to Lewes Way (Roman road)|London to Lewes Way]], one of three [[Roman roads in Britain|Roman roads]] that connected London with the important [[Wealden iron industry]], crosses Ashdown Forest in a north-south direction. The road ran in a direct line from its junction with [[Watling Street]] at [[Peckham]] in London to the [[South Downs]] on the east side of [[Lewes]], from where it connected with routes to the densely-populated corn-growing areas of the South Downs and coastal plain, and possibly to ports trading with Roman-occupied Gaul. The main purpose of the road, apart from linking the corn-growing areas with London, was to open up Ashdown Forest and neighbouring iron-producing areas for the export of iron products to London and Gaul. Given the great importance of the iron industry to the Romans, it is likely that the road was built soon after the Roman occupation, not long after AD 100 or possibly earlier.<ref>Margary (1965), p.124.</ref>

After crossing the [[Greensand Ridge]] the road runs virtually straight from Marlpit Hill southwards for {{convert|11|mi|km}}, entering Ashdown Forest near Chuck Hatch, reaching the top of the forest at Camp Hill, and then leaving the Forest via Duddleswell and Fairwarp. The [[Agger (Roman word)|agger]] varies in width (at Camp Hill it is {{convert|14|ft|m}} wide, at Five Hundred Acre Wood, {{convert|17|ft|m}} wide<ref>Margary (1965), p.159.</ref>) and is metalled with compacted sandstone lumps and iron slag from local bloomeries. Unusually, side ditches {{convert|62|ft|m}} apart run continuously for two miles (3 km) through the forest.<ref>Margary (1965), p.154.</ref> The remains of the road in the Forest were partly obliterated by tanks undertaking training exercises in World War II, but part of it is clearly marked out at Roman Road car park.

A secondary Roman road which passed through Wych Cross and Colemans Hatch reached the London-Lewes trunk road at Gallypot Street, Hartfield, and would probably have served to link the Romano-British iron-working complex at Garden Hill to the main road.<ref name="moneyandstreeten" />.

The north-south London-Lewes Roman road superseded an older trackway that ran from Titsey, at the foot of the Greensand Ridge, through the iron-age hillfort at Dry Hill, Forest Row, Danehill and Wivelsfield to Westmeston, at the foot of the South Downs. Across the Weald ran many old, broadly east-west trackways that followed the relatively lightly-wooded high sandy ridges. Some of these, particularly in iron-producing areas, would have formed part of the road network used by the Romans.<ref>Margary (1965) p.258.</ref> Among the important trackways that crossed Ashdown Forest were ridgeways from Crowborough and Nutley that clearly followed the high ridges of the Forest to Chelwood Gate and Wych Cross, and which then continued westwards to West Hoathly, Selsfield, Turners Hill and beyond.<ref>Margary (1965) p.264.</ref>

==Forest administration==

Ashdown Forest, narrowly defined as the common land set aside in 1693 (representing less than half of the forest's extent at that time) plus recent land acquisitions, is managed by an independent Board of Conservators. The Board has sixteen members: nine are appointed by East Sussex County Council (one of whom represents the Lord of the Manor, Ashdown Forest Trust), two by Wealden District Council, and the remaining five are elected by the Commoners, of whom four must be Commoners. Day to day running is carried out by the Forest Superintendent and a team of rangers. The Conservators are required to act in accordance with Parliamentary Acts. The last of these, the Ashdown Forest Act 1974, states (Section 16):

<blockquote>"It shall be the duty of the Conservators at all times as far possible to regulate and manage the forest as an amenity and place of resort subject to the existing rights of common upon the forest and to protect such rights of common, to protect the forest from encroachments, and to conserve it as a quiet and natural area of outstanding beauty."</blockquote>

A number of [[Byelaws in the United Kingdom|byelaws]] have been made by the Conservators under the 1974 Act to protect the forest. These include prohibitions on off-roading driving, mountain-biking, horse-riding (except by permit), camping, the lighting of fires, digging and the dumping of rubbish<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/about/byelaws.php List of Ashdown Forest Byelaws]</ref>.

Large numbers of volunteers support the work of the Conservators by undertaking conservation work in the forest. Many of these are recruited by the ''Friends of the Ashdown Forest''<ref>[http://www.friendsofashdownforest.co.uk The Friends of Ashdown Forest]</ref>, which has almost 1000 members. Fundraising by the Friends has helped towards the purchase of capital equipment for forest management such as motor vehicles and enabled the Conservators to buy back parcels of land within the Forest Pale for reincorporation into the Forest.

In 1994 the Conservators, with the help of funding from East Surrey County Council, purchased 28 ha (69 acres) of woodland at Chelwood Vachery (an estate that dates back to at least 1229), including an early 20th century garden and lake system, after the estate was divided up and offered for sale by its owner. The land is now undergoing restoration as a forest garden and is open to the public.

==The Ashdown Forest Commoners==
[[Image:Gate to ashdown forest - adjustments.JPG|thumb|right|A gate into Ashdown Forest at sunset]]

That Ashdown Forest today remains predominantly open and uncultivated heathland is largely due to the actions of its Commoners who, over many centuries, have exercised [[Common_land#Commons_rights|rights of common]] on the Forest and who have defended those rights against attempts, particularly in the 17th and 19th centuries, by the Lord of the Manor and others to limit or extinguish them. Their actions resulted in a large area of the forest being retained as common land—land, that is, which local property owners and tenants who possessed rights of common (''Commoners'') were entitled to use and exploit in certain specified ways. It was the Commoners' exploitation of the Forest, which may date back to before the arrival of the Normans, through such activities as livestock grazing, tree and bracken cutting, and burning, that played a major part in maintaining the Forest's predominantly heathland character and inhibited the invasion of scrub and secondary woodland.

It is important to note that use of the term ''Commoner'' does not imply that these were all necessarily "common" people. Commoners ranged from lowly tenants or landowners running small, subsistence farm-holdings to major landowners of high social standing. So, for example, the main protagonist on behalf of the Commoners in the celebrated 19th century Ashdown Forest dispute was Bernard Hale, a barrister and Deputy Lieutenant of Sussex.

The rights of common have varied over time. Today those that remain are ''pasturage'' and ''herbage'' - the right of the Commoner to graze livestock such as cattle and sheep on the forest (though, interestingly, sheep did not become ''commonable'' until the 1870s); ''[[estovers]]'' - the right to cut birch, willow and alder for use on the Commoner's property or tenement as firewood for the "ancestral hearth" or for repairs to house, fences and hedges; and ''litter'' - the cutting of brake (bracken), fern or heather for the bedding of livestock and thatching of roofs. Other historical rights: of ''[[pannage]]'' - feeding pigs on acorns, beech mast or other nuts, and ''[[turbary]]'' - the cutting of turf for fuel, have been lost; the former died out by 1500 while the latter was outlawed in the 19th century because of the damage it was causing to the forest floor. These rights may be claimed by landowner or tenant, but, as already noted, the rights are attached to their properties not to them as individuals; and the degree of exploitation permitted is scaled according to the acreage of the property concerned.

The Commoners' rights of common allowed the smallholders among them to practise a simple pastoral system. During the summer they would turn out their livestock onto the forest to graze; this would allow them to use the fields close to their smallholdings (the ''in-bye'' land) to produce hay for winter fodder or to grow cereals. In the winter, they would bring their animals indoors and bed them down on bracken litter. In the spring they would cover the in-bye land with the manure-laden litter to improve its fertility.

The 20th century saw a sharp decline in the exploitation of the forest by the Commoners, particularly after World War II. As their smallholdings increasingly became unable to compete with cheaper agricultural produce from elsewhere, many Commoners decided to give up their onerous work and moved to jobs in nearby towns and cities or else retired, in some cases selling up to commuters looking for an attractive country retreat. In 1965, an [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], the Commons Registration Act, which required commoners across the country to register to preserve their rights, resulted in a large drop in the number of Ashdown Forest Commoners: more than half the 1,300 Commoners, perhaps deterred by the bureaucratic process involved or apathetic, failed to register, losing for ever the rights of common that were attached to their land.

Today, 730 properties in and around Ashdown Forest retain commonable rights, but very few owners exercise their rights of common. This has affected the forest's ecology. Without human intervention, heath becomes old and woody, bracken spreads and scrubby birch and other trees invade, resulting in the loss of open heathland and of the plants and animals that rely on it. Because of this, the Conservators have in recent years moved beyond their original administrative and regulatory functions to play an increasingly active, interventionist role in conserving the Forest's heathlands.

All Commoners are obliged to pay a ''Forest Rate'' to contribute towards the upkeep of the Forest, which is based on the acreage of their land-holding. All are entitled to vote in elections for the five Commoners' representatives that sit on the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest.

==Notable people, film and television==
[[Brian Jones]] of [[The Rolling Stones]] lived at [[A.A. Milne]]'s former country home at Cotchford Farm and died there in 1969. The author of the [[Sherlock Holmes]] stories, [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]], lived at [[Crowborough]], on the eastern edge of the forest, as did the nature writer [[Richard Jefferies]] for a period while he wrote some of his famous essays.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://thesussexweald.com/N10.asp?NId=1131 | title=Jefferies, John Richard | publisher=The Weald of Kent, Surrey and Sussex | accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref> British Prime Minister [[Harold Macmillan]] lived at Birch Grove, a house on the edge of the forest near Chelwood Gate; the Macmillan Clump of trees is named in his honour. Major [[Edward Dudley Metcalfe]], the best friend and [[equerry]] of [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,761962-1,00.html | title=Good Old Duke | publisher=[[TIME]] | date=1939-09-25 | accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref>, lived in a grey stone house in the forest.

Various locations in and around Ashdown Forest have been used as settings for television and film productions. These include ''[[Colditz]]'', the 2002 version of ''[[The Four Feathers (2002 film)|The Four Feathers]]'', ''[[Under Suspicion (1991 film)|Under Suspicion]]'', ''[[Flyboys]]'' and [[HBO]]/[[BBC]]'s mini-series [[Band of Brothers (TV miniseries)|Band of Brothers]].<ref name="media">{{cite web | title=Film and Television locations in the area | url=http://www.ashdownforest.com/film.html | publisher=Ashdown Forest Tourism Association | accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |last=Brandon|first=Peter|year=2003|title=The Kent & Sussex Weald|publisher=Phillimore & Co Ltd|isbn=1-86077-241-2}}
*{{cite book |last=Christian|first=Garth|year=1967|title=Ashdown Forest|publisher=The Society of Friends of Ashdown Forest}}
*Cleere, Henry (1978). ''Roman Sussex—The Weald''. In Drewett (1978), pp. 59–63.
*{{cite book |last=Cleere|first=Henry| coauthors= Crossley, David|year=1995|title=The Iron Industry of the Weald (2nd edition)|publisher=Merton Priory Press|location=Cardiff|isbn=1-898937-04-4}}
*{{cite book |last=Drewett|first=Peter (ed.)| year=1978|title=Archaeology in Sussex to AD 1500|publisher=Council for British Archaeology, Research Report 29|location=London|isbn=}}
*{{cite book |last=Gallois|first=R.W. (ed.)| year=1965|title=British Regional Geology: The Wealden District|publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office|location=London|isbn=0-11-884078-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Glyn|first=Philip|coauthors=Prendergast, Hew |year=1995|title=Ashdown Forest, An Illustrated Guide|publisher=Essedon Press|isbn=0-9525549-0-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Hinde |first=Thomas|year=1987|title=Forests of Britain|publisher=Sphere Books Ltd|isbn=0-349-11687-3}}
*{{cite book |last=Hodgkinson|first=Jeremy|year=2008|title=The Wealden Iron Industry|publisher=The History Press|location=Stroud |isbn=978-0-7524-4573-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Kirby|first=Peter|year=1998|title=Forest Camera|publisher=Sweethaws Press|isbn=0-95117-955-0}}
*{{cite book| last =Langton| first =John | coauthors= Jones, Graham| title =Forests and Chases of England and Wales c.1500-c.1850 (2nd edition)| publisher =St John's College Research Centre| year =2008| location =Oxford| pages =118| url =| doi =| id = | isbn =978-0954497545}}
*{{cite book| last =Leslie| first =Kim | coauthors= Short, Brian| title =An Historical Atlas of Sussex | publisher =Phillimore & Co Ltd| year =1999| location =Chichester| pages =166| url =| doi =| id = | isbn =1-86077-112-2}}
*{{cite book| last =Margary| first =Ivan D. | title =Roman Ways in the Weald| publisher =Phoenix House| year =1965| location =| pages =| url =| doi =| id = | isbn =0460077422}}
*Money, J.H. (1978). ''Aspects of the Iron Age in the Weald''. In Drewett (1978), pp. 38–40.
*Money, J.H. & Streeten, A.D.F. (date unknown). ''Excavations in the Iron Age Hill Fort and Roman-British Iron-working Settlement at Garden Hill, Hartfield, East Sussex (1968–1978)''. Sussex Archaeological Collections, 16-26.
*{{cite book| last =Penn| first =Roger| title =Portrait of Ashdown Forest| publisher =Robert Hale| year =1984| location =London| pages =208| url =| doi =| id = | isbn =0-7090-1219-5}}
*{{cite book| last =Rackham | first =Oliver | title =The Illustrated History of the Countryside | publisher =Orion Publishing Group| year =1997| location =London| pages =244| url =| doi =| id = | isbn =1-85799-953-3}}
*{{cite book| last =Short| first =Brian| title =The Ashdown Forest Dispute, 1876-1882: Environmental Politics and Custom| publisher =Sussex Records Society| year =1997| location =| pages =| url =| doi =| id = | isbn =978-0854450411}}
*Straker, Ernest (1940). ''Ashdown Forest and Its Inclosures''. Sussex Archaeological Society, 121-135.
*Tebbutt, C.F. (1982) ''A Middle-Saxon Iron Smelting Furnace Site at Millbrook, Ashdown Forest, Sussex''. Sussex Archaeological Collections, 120, 19-35.
*Turner, Edward (1862). ''Ashdown Forest, or as it was sometimes called, Lancaster Great Park''. Sussex Archaeological Society, 36-64.
*{{cite book |last=Willard |first=Barbara|year=1989|title=The Forest - Ashdown in East Sussex|publisher=Sweethaws Press|isbn=0-9511795-4-3}}

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.ashdownforest.org/ Ashdown Forest website]
*[http://www.highweald.org/text.asp?PageId=170 Videos about Ashdown Forest, its history and management]
*[http://theweald.org/P4.asp?PId=PSx.AF Historical documents relating to Ashdown Forest.]



{{Winnie-the-Pooh}}
{{SSSI East Sussex}}

[[Category:Iron Age sites in England]]
[[Category:Stone Age sites in England]]
[[Category:Environment of East Sussex]]
[[Category:Geography of East Sussex]]
[[Category:Forests and woodlands of England]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest in East Sussex]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest notified in 1953]]
[[Category:Special Protection Areas in England]]
[[Category:Winnie-the-Pooh]]
[[Category:Special Areas of Conservation in England]]

[[fr:Forêt d'Ashdown]]
[[it:Foresta di Ashdown]]
[[pt:Floresta de Ashdown]]
[[simple:Ashdown Forest]]

Case Mountain

2010-09-19T11:35:06Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7069)

{{Infobox Protected area
| name = Case Mountain
| map = Case mountain trail.jpg
| location = [[Manchester, Connecticut|Manchester]] and [[Glastonbury, Connecticut|Glastonbury]], CT
| nearest_city = [[Hartford, Connecticut]]
| area = {{convert|640|acre|km2}} within town of Manchester
| governing_body = Town of Manchester and Metropolitan District Commission (MDC)
}}

Located in the southeastern section of [[Manchester, Connecticut]], the '''Case Mountain''' Recreational Area encompasses {{convert|640|acre|km2}} of combined open space and watershed land<ref name="recreation.ci.manchester.ct.us">http://recreation.ci.manchester.ct.us/CaseMountain.cfm Town of Manchester Recreation</ref> stretching from the [[Glastonbury, Connecticut|Glastonbury]] border north to Case Pond. Some trails lead south across the Glastonbury border to a larger area of land owned by the Metropolitan District Commission (MDC) to maintain the Buckingham Reservoir which provides drinking water to Manchester. The land around the reservoir is open to recreation. While there is a hill named Case Mountain in this area, locals refer to this entire trail system and forest in Manchester and Glastonbury simply as “Case Mountain.”

==History==
The Case family were prominent industrialists in Manchester, although not as well known as the [[Cheney Brothers Historic District|Cheney Family]] who started the first American-based silk company and owned many silk mills in Manchester. The Case family owned a large amount of land in the southeastern section Manchester that is now the Case Mountain Recreational Area and their mansions can be seen along Spring Street, near an entrance to the park.<ref>http://www.ctmuseumquest.com/?page_id=1348 CT MuseumQuest</ref> The Cases lived in their Manchester mansions during the summer, using the woods around them which are now owned by the town. The Case family built the carriage path that loops from Spring Street to the top of Lookout Mountain and down to Case Pond.

==Trails==
Case Mountain has a vast trail network for hiking and mountain biking, maintained by Manchester Conservation Commission and the [[Connecticut Forest and Park Association]].<ref name="recreation.ci.manchester.ct.us"/> The terrain is very rocky and hilly, making for somewhat difficult hiking and challenging mountain biking. Bring a trail map and good footwear.

The carriage path, a wide smooth gravel trail with white markings, leads visitors from the Spring Street parking area to the summit of Lookout Mountain (elev. 744 ft) and loops around to Case Pond. Visitors often mistake Lookout Mountain for Case Mountain (elev. 735). The summit of Lookout Mountain has benches and a kiosk and gives visitors a great view of Downtown Manchester, Downtown Hartford, and the hills off to the west.

The [[Shenipsit Trail]] is a [[Blue-Blazed Trails|blue-blazed]] trail running north-south through the area. Starting in [[East Hampton, Connecticut|East Hampton]] and going north to [[Somers, Connecticut|Somers]], the Shenipsit trail covers over {{convert|40|mi|km}}, about 5 of those miles are within the Case Mountain area. In the Glastonbury section of the Shenipsit Trail is a stretch of the trail known by local mountain bikers as “Slick Rock”. There are two vistas on this section of trail providing views of Hartford, but not nearly as panoramic as the views from the top of Lookout Mountain.

===Mountain Biking===
[[Mountain biking]] is a very popular activity at Case Mountain. Case Mountain was voted the Best Ride in Connecticut in Mountain Bike Magazine by readers.<ref>http://www.bicycling.com/tourdefrance/article/0,6802,ss1-2-13-12959-1,00.html</ref> Bikers tend to stick to single-track trails, such as the locally famous "Metavomit" trail. The terrain on these trails is rocky with many steep climbs and descents. Rocks, logs, boulders, and man-made ladder-bridges are often intentionally incorporated into these mountain biking trails. Trail-braiding, when short trails are created that go around an obstacle or technical section or short-cut a sharp corner, is a large problem on mountain-bike trails at Case Mountain, the result of beginners riding on advanced trails.

==Geology and Ecology==
The forest in which the Case Mountain trail system is located is mostly [[Secondary forest|second-growth]] deciduous forest. The forest floor is littered with [[boulder]]s and rock gardens deposited from [[glaciers]] during the last [[ice age]]. Along the Shenipsit Trail one can find clusters of Chestnut Oak, a very distinguishable tree that grows in rocky mountainous terrain in the Eastern US, and is prominent on ridgetops. In Glastonbury land owned by the MDC around the Buckingham Reservoir are large [[Eastern White Pine|white pine]] trees. The Roaring Brook flows through the area creating marshy habitat just upstream of the reservoir and is a wide, fast moving stream further upstream and downstream. There are several [[vernal pool]]s around Lookout and Case Mountains. These pools like small ponds in the winter and spring when they fill up with snowmelt. When wet, they teem with life, with frogs, toads, salamanders, fairy shrimp, and fingernail clams inhabiting them. By the summer they have usually dried up and appear to simply be small clearings in the woods. There have been [[American Black Bear|black bear]] sightings at Case Mountain along with other wildlife typical of southern New England.

==Getting There==
There are four parking areas in Manchester providing access to the trail network. All parking areas have an information kiosk with trail maps.
*Spring Street
*Line Street Trailhead
*Shenipsit Trailhead (Birch Mountain Road)
*Case Pond Trailhead (Birch Mountain Road)
There are also unofficial parking areas in Glastonbury providing access to trails that lead into Manchester.
*Mountain Road (cul-de-sac at the end of street)
*Old Hebron Road (access to the Buckingham Reservoir)
*Birch Mountain Road (underneath the power lines)

==External links==
* [http://www.bikerag.com/mountain%20bike%20trail%20reviews.htm Trail Map of Case Mountain]

==References==
<references/>
* [http://recreation.ci.manchester.ct.us/CaseMountain.cfm Town of Manchester Recreation]
* [http://www.ctmuseumquest.com/?page_id=1348 CT MuseumQuest]
* [http://www.bicycling.com/tourdefrance/article/0,6802,ss1-2-13-12959-1,00.html Mountain Bike Magazine]

{{ConnecticutTrailSystem}} {{Protected Areas of Connecticut}}

[[Category:Parks in Hartford County, Connecticut]]
[[Category:Manchester, Connecticut]]
[[Category:Hiking trails in Connecticut]]

Internationaler Rosentestgarten Portland

2010-09-18T11:25:27Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7069)

{{nofootnotes|date=January 2010}}
{{refimprove|date=January 2010}}
{{Infobox garden
|garden = International Rose Test Garden
|image = RoseTehst.jpg
|image size = 300px
|alt =
|caption = A panoramic view of the International Rose Test Garden
|type = [[Rose garden]]
|location = [[Portland, Oregon]], United States
|coordinates = {{coord|45.51908|-122.70557|display=inline,title}}
|size = {{convert|4.5|acre|m2}}
|plants = 7,000+
|species = 550
|collections = Shakespeare Garden Gold Medal Garden Royal Rosarian Garden Miniature Rose Garden
|opened = 1917
|owner = City of Portland
|operator =
|budget =
|visitors =
|status =
|free label 1 =
|free data 1 =
|free label 2 =
|free data 2 =
|website =
|image_dot_map =
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The '''International Rose Test Garden''' is a [[rose]] [[garden]] in [[Washington Park (Portland, Oregon)|Washington Park]] in [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]], [[Oregon]], United States. There are over 7,000 rose plants of approximately 550 varieties. The roses bloom from April through October with the peak coming in June, depending on the weather. New rose [[cultivar]]s are continually sent to the garden from many parts of the world and are tested for color, fragrance, disease resistance and other attributes. It is the oldest continuously operating public rose test garden in the United States and exemplifies Portland's nickname of the ''City of Roses''.

==Features==
[[File:Itrg1.jpg|thumb|upright|One of several gardens within the International Rose Test Garden]]
The International Rose Test Garden has {{convert|4.5|acres|m2}} in several tiers facing downtown Portland, the [[Willamette River]] and East Portland. On clear days there are views of the [[Cascade Mountains]], with [[Mount Hood]] featured prominently.

An [[amphitheater]] hosts many events throughout the year, predominantly [[european classical music|classical music]] concerts and a few plays. During good weather the amphitheater is popular with picnickers and people throwing the [[flying disc|disc]] around. The Queens Walk is a brick walkway at the side of the garden with a bronze star honoring each [[Portland Rose Festival|Rose Festival]] queen since 1907.

The Shakespeare Garden originally contained botanicals mentioned in the works of [[William Shakespeare]]. This was later modified to include fewer sun-loving plants due to the copious shade provided by the surrounding trees. There is a formal walkway, raised sitting area, and immaculately tended flora. The rose varieties are named after characters in his plays. It is popular for special occasions, particularly small weddings.

The Gold Medal Garden is a formal garden with award winning roses, walkways, a central fountain, and a gazebo. It is also a frequent site for weddings.

The [[Royal Rosarian]] Garden has paid tribute since 1924 to the goodwill ambassadors and official greeters who serve in the many [[Rose Festival]] events. As each rosarian is ''knighted'', they adopt a rose variety as their namesake. A rose is planted in this garden for each of the highest ranking Rosarian Prime Ministers. This garden-within-a-garden contains many roses which are no longer commercially available.

The Miniature Rose Garden is one of only six such testing grounds for the American Rose Society. The elevated beds at the entrance are popular for their unique varieties.

The Rose Garden Store opened May 1, 2000 to provide guest services.

An abstract stainless steel sculpture and reflection pool and several fountains mix classical and modern styles. Each area of the rose garden has unique character: rose varieties, trees, terrain, lawn.

The roses and other plantings are tended by one year-round gardener—two during the summer—and many volunteers. Approximately 500 hours are volunteered yearly by local enthusiasts

==History==
In 1917 a group of Portland nurserymen came up with the idea for an American rose test garden. Portland had an enthusiastic group of volunteers and {{convert|20|mi|km}} of rose bordered streets, largely from the 1905 Lewis & Clark Exposition. Portland was already dubbed "The City of Roses" so this was leveraged to enhance the reputation. Between Portland Parks and Recreation and the American Rose Society, the garden soon became a reality.

Jessie Currey, president of Portland's Rose Society at the time, petitioned for the city to serve as a safe haven for hybrid roses grown in Europe during World War I. Rose lovers feared that these unique plants could be destroyed as a result of the war. Foreign hybridists sent roses for test from many countries and the garden was an immediate success. Today, Portland is the only North American city that can issue its awards to roses of merit throughout the world.

==Photo gallery==
<gallery>
Image:RoseGardenAmpPano.jpg|The amphitheatre at the Rose Test Garden
Image:RoseTestGardenPortland.jpg|One view of the many rose beds in the garden
image:Pdx_washpark_rosegarden_shakespeare.jpg|Winter in the Shakespeare Garden
Image:InternationalRoseTestGarden.png|A pink rose at the Rose Test Garden, unknown [[cultivar]]
Image:Red_Rose_at_Intl_Test_Garden.JPG|An open red rose and rosebud at the Rose Test Garden, unknown cultivar
Image:Rose Test Garden Sign.JPG|Roses abound throughout the garden
Image:Itrg.jpg|Another view of the garden
Image:rose_dew.jpg|A rose with dew on the petals, from the International Rose Test Garden
</gallery>

==References==
*[[:Image:Pdx washpark rosegarden faq.jpeg|FAQ sign at main entrance]]
*[http://www.rosegardenstore.org/irtg_faqs.cfm Rose Garden store FAQs]

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.portlandrosesociety.org/ Portland Rose Society]
*[http://www.portlandonline.com/parks/finder/index.cfm?action=ViewPark&PropertyID=1113 Portland Parks & Recreation's page]
*[http://www.royalrosarian.org The Royal Rosarians]
*[http://www.rosegardenstore.org/ Rose Garden gift store and information center]

[[Category:Parks in Portland, Oregon]]
[[Category:Botanical gardens in Portland, Oregon]]
[[Category:Gardens in Oregon]]
[[Category:Rose gardens]]

[[es:International Rose Test Garden]]
[[fr:International Rose Test Garden]]
[[vi:Vườn thí nghiệm hoa hồng quốc tế]]

Benutzer:Molinarius/Silicon photonics

2010-09-15T20:05:16Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7069)

'''Silicon photonics''' is the study and application of [[photonics|photonic]] systems which use [[silicon]] as an [[optical medium]].<ref name="lipson_2005">{{cite journal
|title = Guiding, Modulating, and Emitting Light on Silicon -- Challenges and Opportunities
|journal = [[Journal of Lightwave Technology]]
|year = 2005
|volume = 23
|pages = 4222–4238
|author = Michal Lipson
}}</ref><ref name="jalali_2006">{{cite journal
|title = Silicon photonics
|journal = [[Journal of Lightwave Technology]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 24
|pages = 4600–4615
|author = B Jalali and S Fathpour
}}</ref><ref name="almeida_2004">{{cite journal
|title = All-optical control of light on a silicon chip
|journal = [[Nature]]
|year = 2004
|volume = 432
|pages = 1081–1084
|author = Vilson R. Almeida, Carlos A. Barrios, Roberto R. Panepucci and Michal Lipson
}}</ref><ref name="pavesi_book">{{cite book
|title = Silicon photonics
|isbn = 3540210229
|publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
|year = 2004
|author = Lorenzo Pavesi and David J. Lockwood
}}</ref><ref name="reed_book">{{cite book
|title = Silicon photonics: an introduction
|isbn = 0470870346
|publisher = [[John Wiley and Sons]]
|year = 2004
|author = Graham T. Reed and Andrew P. Knight
}}</ref> The silicon is usually patterned with [[nanoscale|sub-micrometre]] precision, into [[microphotonics|microphotonic]] components.<ref name="pavesi_book" /> These operate in the [[infrared]], most commonly at the 1.55 micrometre [[wavelength]] used by most [[fiber optic telecommunication]] systems.<ref name="lipson_2005" /> The silicon typically lies on top of a layer of silica in what (by analogy with [[silicon on insulator|a similar construction]] in [[microelectronics]]) is known as '''silicon on insulator''' (SOI).<ref name="pavesi_book" /><ref name="reed_book" />

Silicon photonic devices can be made using existing [[semiconductor fabrication]] techniques, and because silicon is already used as the substrate for most [[integrated circuit]]s, it is possible to create hybrid devices in which the [[optics|optical]] and [[electronics|electronic]] components are integrated onto a single microchip.<ref name="lipson_2005" /> Consequently, silicon photonics is being actively researched by many electronics manufacturers including [[IBM]] and [[Intel]], who see it is a means for keeping on track with [[Moore's Law]], by using [[optical interconnect]]s to provide faster [[data transfer]] both between and within [[Integrated circuit|microchip]]s.<ref name="ibm_silicon">{{cite web
|title = Silicon Integrated Nanophotonics
|publisher = [[IBM]] Research
|url = http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research_projects.nsf/pages/photonics.index.html
|accessdate = 2009-07-14
}}</ref><ref name="intel_silicon">{{cite web
|title = Silicon Photonics
|publisher = [[Intel]]
|url = http://techresearch.intel.com/articles/Tera-Scale/1419.htm
|accessdate = 2009-07-14
}}</ref>

The propagation of [[light]] through silicon devices is governed by a range of [[nonlinear optics|nonlinear optical]] phenomena including the [[Kerr effect]], the [[Raman effect]], [[two photon absorption]] and interactions between [[photons]] and [[free charge carriers]].<ref name="dekker_2008" >{{cite journal
|title = Ultrafast nonlinear all-optical processes in silicon-on-insulator waveguides
|journal = [[Journal of Physics D]]
|year = 2008
|volume = 40
|page = R249-R271
|author = R. Dekker, N. Usechak, M. Först and A. Driessen
}}</ref> The presence of nonlinearity is of fundamental importance, as it enables light to interact with light,<ref name="butcher_book">{{cite book
|title = The elements of nonlinear optics
|isbn = 0521424240
|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
|year = 1991
|author = Paul N. Butcher and David Cotter
}}</ref> thus permitting applications such as wavelength conversion and all-optical signal routing, in addition to the passive transmission of light.

Silicon waveguides are also of great academic interest, due to their ability to support exotic nonlinear optical phenomena such as [[Soliton (optics)|soliton propagation]].<ref name="hsieh_2006" >{{cite journal
|title = Ultrafast-pulse self-phase modulation and third-order dispersion in Si photonic wire-waveguides
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 14
|pages = 12380–12387
|author = I-Wei Hsieh, Xiaogang Chen, Jerry I. Dadap, Nicolae C. Panoiu and Richard M. Osgood,
}}</ref><ref name="zhang_2007">{{cite journal
|title = Optical solitons in a silicon waveguide
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 15
|pages = 7682–7688
|author = Jidong Zhang, Qiang Lin, Giovanni Piredda, Robert W. Boyd, Govind P. Agrawal and Philippe M. Fauchet
}}</ref><ref name="ding_2008">{{cite journal
|title = Solitons and spectral broadening in long silicon-on- insulator photonic wires
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2008
|volume = 16
|pages = 3310–3319
|author = W. Ding, C. Benton, A. V. Gorbach, W. J. Wadsworth, J.C. Knight, D. V. Skryabin, M. Gnan, M. Sorrel and R. M. De-La-Rue
}}</ref>

==Applications==
===Optical interconnects===
Future progress in computer technology (and the continuation of [[Moore's Law]]) is becoming increasingly dependent on ultra-fast [[data transfer]] between and within [[Integrated circuit|microchips]].<ref name="meindl_2003">{{cite journal
|title = Beyond Moore's Law: the interconnect era
|journal = Computing in Science & Engineering
|year = 2003
|volume = 5
|pages = 20–24
|author = J. D. Meindl
}}</ref> High speed [[optical interconnect]]s are seen as a promising way forward, and silicon photonics is seen as particularly useful, due to the ability to integrate electronic and optical components on the same silicon chip.<ref name="lipson_2005" /><ref name="barwicz_2006">{{cite journal
|title = Silicon photonics for compact, energy-efficient interconnects
|journal = Journal of Optical Networking
|year = 2006
|volume = 6
|pages = 63–73
|author = T. Barwicz, H. Byun, F. Gan, C. W. Holzwarth, M. A. Popovic, P. T. Rakich, M. R. Watts, E. P. Ippen, F. X. Kärtner, H. I. Smith, J. S. Orcutt, R. J. Ram, V. Stojanovic, O. O. Olubuyide, J. L. Hoyt, S. Spector, M. Geis, M. Grein, T. Lyszczarz and J. U. Yoon
}}</ref><ref name="orcutt_2008">{{cite conference
|authors = J. S. Orcutt, A. Khilo, M. A. Popovic, C. W. Holzwarth, B. Moss, H. Li, M. S. Dahlem, T. D. Bonifield, F. X. Kaertner, E. P. Ippen, J. L. Hoyt, R. J. Ram, and V. Stojanovic
|title = Demonstration of an Electronic Photonic Integrated Circuit in a Commercial Scaled Bulk CMOS Process
|conference = Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference and Photonic Applications Systems Technologies
|year = 2008
}}</ref> [[Intel]] senior vice president [[Pat Gelsinger]] has stated that, "Today, optics is a niche technology. Tomorrow, it's the mainstream of every chip that we build."<ref name="intel_silicon" /> IBM also has an extensive research program in the field.<ref name="ibm_silicon" />

Optical interconnects require the integration of a range of technologies. Firstly, an on-chip [[laser]] source is required. One such device is the [[hybrid silicon laser]], in which the silicon is bonded to a different [[semiconductor]] (such as [[indium phosphide]]) which acts as the [[lasing medium]].<ref name="intel_hybrid">{{cite web
|url = http://techresearch.intel.com/articles/Tera-Scale/1448.htm
|title = Hybrid Silicon Laser - Intel Platform Research
|publisher = [[Intel]]
|accessdate = 2009-07-14
}}</ref> Another possibility is the all-silicon [[Raman laser]], in which the silicon itself acts as the lasing medium.<ref name="rong_2005">{{cite journal
|title = An all-silicon Raman laser
|doi = 10.1038/nature03273
|journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]]
|pmid = 15635371
|year = 2005
|volume = 433
|issue = 7023
|pages = 292–294
|author = Haisheng Rong, Ansheng Liu, Richard Jones, Oded Cohen, Dani Hak, Remus Nicolaescu, Alexander Fang and Mario Paniccia
}}</ref>

There must also be a means to [[modulation|modulate]] the light, thus causing it to carry data in the form of optical pulses. One such technique is to control the density of free charge carriers, which (as described below) alter the optical properties of the waveguide. Modulators have been constructed where the light passes through the [[intrinsic semiconductor|intrinsic region]] of a [[PIN diode]], into which carriers can be injected or removed by altering the [[Electrical polarity|polarity]] of an applied [[voltage]].<ref name="barrios_2003">{{cite journal
|title = Electrooptic Modulation of Silicon-on-Insulator Submicrometer-Size Waveguide Devices
|journal = [[Journal of Lightwave Technology]]
|year = 2003
|volume = 21
|pages = 2332–2339
|author = C. Angulo Barrios, V. R. Almeida, R. Panepucci and M. Lipson
}}</ref> By using an [[optical ring resonator]] with a built in PIN diode, data transmission rates of 18 [[Gbit/s]] have been achieved.<ref name="xu_2007">{{cite journal
|title = High Speed Carrier Injection 18 Gbit/s Silicon Micro-ring Electro-optic Modulator
|journal = [in Proceedings of Lasers and Electro-Optics Society (IEEE, 2007)]
|year = 2007
|volume =
|page = pp.537–538
|author = Sasikanth Manipatruni, Qianfan Xu, Brad Schmidt, Jagat Shakya and Michal Lipson
}}</ref> By constructing devices where the electrical signal co-moves with the light, data rates of 30 Gbit/s have been achieved.<ref name="liu_2007">{{cite journal
|authors = Ansheng Liu, Ling Liao, Doron Rubin, Hat Nguyen, Berkehan Ciftcioglu, Yoel Chetrit, Nahum Izhaky and Mario Paniccia
|title = High-speed optical modulation based on carrier depletion in a silicon waveguide
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 15
|pages = 660–668}}
</ref> By constructing devices where the multiple wavelengths are used to scale the modulation capacity 50 Gbit/s modulation capacity has been achieved.<ref name="Manipatruni_2009">{{cite journal
|title = 50 Gbit/s wavelength division multiplexing using silicon microring modulators
|journal = [Group IV Photonics, 2009. GFP '09. 6th IEEE International Conference on ]
|year = 2009
|doi = 10.1109/GROUP4.2009.5338375]
|pages = 244–246
|author = Sasikanth Manipatruni; Long Chen; Lipson, Michal;
}}
</ref> A prototype optical interconnect with microring modulators integrated with germanium detectors has also been demonstrated <ref name="Long Chen_2009">{{cite journal
|title = Integrated GHz silicon photonic interconnect with micrometer-scale modulators and detectors
|journal = [[Opt. Express]]
|year = 2009
|volume = 17
|pages = 15248–15256
|author = Long Chen, Kyle Preston, Sasikanth Manipatruni, and Michal Lipson,
}}
}}</ref><ref name="register_vance">{{cite article
|title = Intel cranks up next-gen chip-to-chip play
|publisher = [[The Register]]
|author = [[Ashlee Vance]]
|url = http://www.theregister.co.uk/2007/01/27/intel_silicon_modulator/print.html
|accessdate = 2009-07-26
}}</ref>

After passage through a silicon [[waveguide]] to a different chip (or region of the same chip) the light must be [[photodetector|detected]], converting the data back into electronic form. Detectors based on [[metal-semiconductor junction]]s (with [[germanium]] as the semiconductor) have been integrated into silicon waveguides.<ref name="vivien_2007">{{cite journal
|title = High speed and high responsivity germanium photodetector integrated in a Silicon-On-Insulator microwaveguide
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 15
|pages = 9843–9848
|author = Laurent Vivien, Mathieu Rouvière, Jean-Marc Fédéli, Delphine Marris-Morini, Jean François Damlencourt, Juliette Mangeney, Paul Crozat, Loubna El Melhaoui, Eric Cassan, Xavier Le Roux, Daniel Pascal and Suzanne Laval
}}</ref> More recently, silicon-germanium [[avalanche photodiode]]s capable of operating at 40 Gbit/s have been fabricated.<ref name="kang_2008">{{cite journal
|title = Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain–bandwidth product
|journal = [[Nature Photonics]]
|year = 2008
|volume = 3
|pages = 59–63
|author = Yimin Kang, Han-Din Liu, Mike Morse, Mario J. Paniccia, Moshe Zadka, Stas Litski, Gadi Sarid, Alexandre Pauchard, Ying-Hao Kuo, Hui-Wen Chen, Wissem Sfar Zaoui, John E. Bowers, Andreas Beling, Dion C. McIntosh, Xiaoguang Zheng and Joe C. Campbell
}}</ref><ref name="register_modine">{{cite article
|title = Intel trumpets world's fastest silicon photonic detector
|publisher = [[The Register]]
|author = Austin Modine
|url = http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/12/08/intel_world_record_apd_research/
|accessdate = 2009-07-26
}}</ref>

===Optical routers and signal processors===
Another application of silicon photonics is in signal routers for [[fiber optic telecommunication|optical communication]]. Construction can be greatly simplified by fabricating the optical and electronic parts on the same chip, rather than having them spread across multiple components.<ref name="analui_2006">{{cite journal
|title = A Fully Integrated 20-Gb/s Optoelectronic Transceiver Implemented in a Standard 0.13- μm CMOS SOI Technology
|journal = [[IEEE]] Journal of Solid-State Circuits
|year = 2006
|volume = 41
|pages = 2945–2955
|author = B. Analui, D. Guckenberger, D. Kucharski and A. Narasimha
}}</ref> A wider aim is all-optical signal processing, whereby tasks which are conventionally performed by manipulating signals in electronic form are done directly in optical form.<ref name="almeida_2004" /><ref name="boyraz_2004">{{cite journal
|title = All optical switching and continuum generation in silicon waveguides
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2004
|volume = 12
|pages = 4094–4102
|author = Özdal Boyraz, Prakash Koonath, Varun Raghunathan and Bahram Jalali
}}</ref> An important example is all-[[optical switching]], whereby the routing of optical signals is directly controlled by other optical signals.<ref name="vlasov_2008">{{cite journal
|title = High-throughput silicon nanophotonic wavelength-insensitive switch for on-chip optical networks
|journal = [[Nature Photonics]]
|year = 2008
|volume = 2
|pages = 242–246
|author = Y. Vlasov, W. M. J. Green and F. Xia
}}</ref> Another example is all-optical wavelength conversion.<ref name="foster_2007">{{cite journal
|title = Broad-band continuous-wave parametric wavelength conversion in silicon nanowaveguides
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 15
|pages = 12949–12958
|author = Mark A. Foster, Amy C. Turner, Reza Salem, Michal Lipson and Alexander L. Gaeta
}}</ref>

===Long Range Telecommunications using Silicon Photonics===
Silicon microphotonics can be applied to long range telecommunications to enable the scaling of the internet bandwidth capacity by using micro-scale, ultra low power devices. The power consumption of datacenters may be significantly reduced if this is successfully achieved. Researchers at [Sandia],<ref name="Sandia_2010">{{cite journal
|title = Power penalty measurement and frequency chirp extraction in silicon microdisk resonator modulators
|journal = [[Proc. Optical Fiber Communication Conference (OFC)]]
|year = 2010
|issue = OMI7
|author = W. A. Zortman, A. L. Lentine, M. R. Watts, and D. C. Trotter
}}</ref> Kotura, NTT, Fujitsu and academic institutes have been attempting to prove this functionality. A prototype 80 km, 12.5 Gbit/s transmission has been reported using microring silicon devices [[recently]] <ref name="Biberman_Manipatruni_2010">{{cite journal
|doi = 10.1364/OE.18.015544
|title = First demonstration of long-haul transmission using silicon microring modulators
|journal = [[Opt. Express]]
|year = 2010
|volume = 18
|issue = 15
|pages = 15544–15552
|author = A. Biberman, S. Manipatruni, N. Ophir, L.Chen, M.Lipson, K.Bergman
|url = http://www.opticsinfobase.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri=oe-18-15-15544
}}</ref>

==Physical properties==
===Optical guiding and dispersion tailoring===
Silicon is [[transparency (optics)|transparent]] to [[infrared light]] with wavelengths above about 1.1 micrometres.<ref name="reading_lab">{{cite web
|url = http://www.rdg.ac.uk/infrared/library/infraredmaterials/ir-infraredmaterials-si.aspx
|title = Silicon (Si)
|publisher = [[University of Reading]] Infrared Multilayer Laboratory
|accessdate = 2009-07-17
}}</ref> Silicon also has a very high [[refractive index]], of about 3.5.<ref name="reading_lab" /> The tight optical confinement provided by this high index allows for microscopic [[optical waveguide]]s, which may have cross-sectional dimensions of only a few hundred [[nanometer]]s.<ref name="dekker_2008" /> This is substantially less than the wavelength of the light itself, and is analogous to a [[subwavelength-diameter optical fibre]]. Single mode propagation can be achieved,<ref name="dekker_2008" /> thus (like [[single-mode optical fiber]]) eliminating the problem of [[modal dispersion]].

The strong [[Interface conditions for electromagnetic fields|dielectric boundary effects]] that result from this tight confinement substantially alter the [[dispersion (optics)|optical dispersion relation]]. By selecting the waveguide geometry, it possible to tailor the dispersion to have desired properties, which is of crucial importance to applications requiring ultrashort pulses.<ref name="dekker_2008" /> In particular, the ''group velocity dispersion'' (that is, the extent to which [[group velocity]] varies with wavelength) can be closely controlled. In bulk silicon at 1.55 micrometres, the group velocity dispersion (GVD) is ''normal'' in that pulses with longer wavelengths travel with higher group velocity than those with shorter wavelength. By selecting a suitable waveguide geometry, however, it is possible to reverse this, and achieve ''anomalous'' GVD, in which pulses with shorter wavelengths travel faster.<ref name="yin_2006" >{{cite journal
|title = Dispersion tailoring and soliton propagation in silicon waveguides
|journal = [[Optics Letters]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 31
|pages = 1295–1297
|author = L. H. Yin, Q. Lin, and G. P. Agrawal.
}}</ref><ref name="turner_2006" >{{cite journal
|title = Tailored anomalous group-velocity dispersion in silicon channel waveguides
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 14
|pages = 4357–4362
|author = Amy C. Turner, Christina Manolatou, Bradley S. Schmidt, Michal Lipson, Mark A. Foster, Jay E. Sharping and Alexander L. Gaeta
}}</ref> Anomalous dispersion is significant, as it is a prerequisite for [[soliton]] propagation, and [[modulational instability]].<ref name="agrawal_book">{{cite book
|last = Agrawal
|first = Govind P.
|year = 1995
|title = Nonlinear fiber optics
|place = San Diego (California)
|publisher = Academic Press
|edition =2nd
|isbn = 0-12-045142-5
}}</ref>

In order for the silicon photonic components to remain optically independent from the bulk silicon of the [[wafer (electronics)|wafer]] on which they are fabricated, it is necessary to have a layer of intervening material. This is usually [[silica]], which has a much lower refractive index (of about 1.44 in the wavelength region of interest <ref name="malitson_1965">{{cite journal
|title = Interspecimen Comparison of the Refractive Index of Fused Silica
|journal = [[Journal of the Optical Society of America]]
|year = 1965
|volume = 55
|pages = 1205–1209
|author = I. H. Malitson
}}</ref>), and thus light at the silicon-silica interface will (like light at the silicon-air interface) undergo [[total internal reflection]], and remain in the silicon. This construct is known as silicon on insulator.<ref name="pavesi_book" /><ref name="reed_book" /> It is named after the technology of [[silicon on insulator]] in electronics, whereby components are built upon a layer of [[insulator (electrical)|insulator]] in order to reduce [[parasitic capacitance]] and so improve performance.<ref name="celler_2003">{{cite journal
|title = Frontiers of silicon-on-insulator
|journal = [[Journal of Applied Physics]]
|year = 2003
|volume = 93
|page = 4955
|author = G. K. Celler and S. Cristoloveanu
}}</ref>

===Kerr nonlinearity===
Silicon has a focusing [[Kerr nonlinearity]], in that the [[refractive index]] increases with optical intensity.<ref name="dekker_2008" /> This effect is not especially strong in bulk silicon, but it can be greatly enhanced by using a silicon waveguide to concentrate light into a very small cross-sectional area.<ref name="hsieh_2006" /> This allows [[nonlinear optics|nonlinear optical]] effects to be seen at low powers. The nonlinearity can be enhanced further by using a [[slot waveguide]], in which the high refractive index of the silicon is used to confine light into a central region filled with a strongly nonlinear [[polymer]].<ref name="koos_2007" >{{cite journal
|title = Nonlinear silicon-on-insulator waveguides for all-optical signal processing
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 15
|pages = 5976–5990
|author = C. Koos and L. Jacome and C. Poulton and J. Leuthold and W. Freude
}}</ref>

Kerr nonlinearity underlies a wide variety of optical phenomena.<ref name="agrawal_book" /> One example is [[four wave mixing]], which has been applied in silicon to realise both [[optical parametric amplification]] <ref name="foster_2006">{{cite journal
|title = Broad-band optical parametric gain on a silicon photonic chip
|journal = [[Nature]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 441
|page = 04932
|author = Mark A. Foster, Amy C. Turner, Jay E. Sharping, Bradley S. Schmidt, Michael Lipson and Alexander L. Gaeta
}}</ref> and parametric wavelength conversion.<ref name="foster_2007" /> Kerr nonlinearity can also cause [[modulational instability]], in which it reinforces deviations from an optical waveform, leading to the generation of [[Frequency spectrum|spectral]]-sidebands and the eventual breakup of the waveform into a train of pulses.<ref name="panoiu_2006">{{cite journal
|title = Modulation instability in silicon photonic nanowires
|journal = [[Optics Letters]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 31
|page = 3609
|author = Nicolae C. Panoiu, Xiaogang Chen and Richard M. Osgood, Jr.
}}</ref> Another example (as described below) is soliton propagation.

===Two-photon absorption===
Silicon exhibits [[two-photon absorption]] (TPA), in which a pair of [[photon]]s can act to excite an [[electron-hole pair]].<ref name="dekker_2008" /> This process is related to the Kerr effect, and by analogy with [[Mathematical descriptions of opacity|complex refractive index]], can be thought of as the [[Imaginary number|imaginary]]-part of a [[Complex number|complex]] Kerr nonlinearity.<ref name="dekker_2008" /> At the 1.55 micrometre telecommunication wavelength, this imaginary part is approximately 10% of the real part.<ref name="yin_2006_2">{{cite journal
|title = Impact of two-photon absorption on self-phase modulation in silicon waveguides: Free-carrier effects
|journal = [[Optics Letters]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 32
|pages = 2031–2033
|author = Lianghong Yin and Govind Agrawal
}}</ref>

The influence of TPA is highly disruptive, as it both wastes light, and generates unwanted [[heat]].<ref name="nikbin_article">{{cite article
|author = Darius Nikbin
|title = Silicon photonics solves its "fundamental problem"
|publisher = IOP publishing
|url = http://optics.org/cws/article/research/25379
|accessdate = 2009-07-14
}}</ref> It can be mitigated, however, either by switching to longer wavelengths (at which the TPA to Kerr ratio drops),<ref name="bristow_2007">{{cite journal
|title = Two-photon absorption and Kerr coefﬁcients of silicon for 850– {{convert|2200|nmi|km|abbr=on}}
|journal = [[Applied Physics Letters]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 90
|page = 191104
|author = Alan D. Bristow, Nir Rotenberg and Henry M. van Driel
}}</ref> or by using slot waveguides (in which the internal nonlinear material has a lower TPA to Kerr ratio).<ref name="koos_2007" /> Alternatively, the energy lost through TPA can be partially recovered (as is described below) by extracting it from the generated charge carriers.<ref name="tsia_2006">{{cite conference
|authors = K. M. Tsia, S. Fathpour and B. Jalali
|title = Energy Harvesting in Silicon Raman Amplifiers
|conference = 3rd [[IEEE]] International Conference on Group IV Photonics
|year = 2006
}}</ref>

===Free charge carrier interactions===
The [[Charge carriers in semiconductors|free charge carriers]] within silicon can both absorb photons and change its refractive index.<ref name="soref_1987">{{cite journal
|title = Electrooptical Effects in Silicon
|journal = [[IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics]]
|year = 1987
|volume = 23
|pages = 123–129
|author = R. A. Soref and B. R. Bennett
}}</ref> This is particularly significant at high intensities and for long durations, due to the carrier concentration being built up by TPA. The influence of free charge carriers is often (but not always) unwanted, and various means have been proposed to remove them. One such scheme is to [[ion implantation|implant]] the silicon with [[helium]] in order to enhance [[carrier recombination]].<ref name="liu_2006">{{cite journal
|title = Nonlinear absorption and Raman gain in helium-ion-implanted silicon waveguides
|journal = [[Optics Letters]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 31
|pages = 1714–1716
|author = Y. Liu and H. K. Tsang
}}</ref> A suitable choice of geometry can also be used to reduce the carrier lifetime. [[Rib waveguide]]s (in which the waveguides consist of thicker regions in a wider layer of silicon) enhance both the carrier recombination at the silica-silicon interface and the [[diffusion]] of carriers from the waveguide core.<ref name="dimitropoulos_2005">{{cite journal
|title = Lifetime of photogenerated carriers in silicon-on-insulator rib waveguides
|journal = [[Applied Physics Letters]]
|year = 2005
|volume = 86
|page = 071115
|author = D. Dimitropoulos, R. Jhaveri, R. Claps, J.C.S Woo and B. Jalali
}}</ref>

A more advanced scheme for carrier removal is to integrate the waveguide into the [[intrinsic semiconductor|intrinsic region]] of a [[PIN diode]], which is [[reverse bias]]ed so that the carriers are attracted away from the waveguide core.<ref name="jones_2005">{{cite journal
|title = Net continuous wave optical gain in a low loss silicon-on-insulator waveguide by stimulated Raman scattering
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2005
|volume = 13
|pages = 519–525
|author = Richard Jones, Haisheng Rong, Ansheng Liu, Alexander W. Fang and Mario J. Paniccia
}}</ref> A more sophisticated scheme still, is to use the diode as part of a circuit in which [[voltage]] and [[Electric current|current]] are out of phase, thus allowing power to be extracted from the waveguide.<ref name="tsia_2006" /> The source of this power is the light lost to two photon absorption, and so by recovering some of it, the net loss (and the rate at which heat is generated) can be reduced.

As is mentioned above, free charge carrier effects can also be used constructively, in order to modulate the light.<ref name="barrios_2003" /><ref name="xu_2007" /><ref name="liu_2007" />

===The Raman effect===
Silicon exhibits the [[Raman effect]], in which a photon is exchanged for a photon with a slightly different energy, corresponding to an excitation or a relaxation of the material. Silicon's Raman transition is dominated by a single, very narrow frequency peak, which is problematic for broadband phenomena such as [[Raman amplification]], but is beneficial for narrowband devices such as [[Raman laser]]s.<ref name="dekker_2008" /> Consequently, all-silicon Raman lasers have been fabricated.<ref name="rong_2005" />

==Solitons==

The evolution of light through silicon waveguides can be approximated with a cubic [[Nonlinear Schrödinger equation]],<ref name="dekker_2008" /> which is notable for admitting [[hyperbolic secant|sech]]-like [[soliton]] solutions.<ref name="drazin_book">{{cite book
|title = Solitons: an introduction
|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
|year = 1989
|isbn = 0-521-33655-4
|author = P. G. Drazin and R. S. Johnson
}}</ref> These [[optical soliton]]s (which are also known in [[optical fiber]]) result from a balance between [[self phase modulation]] (which causes the leading edge of the pulse to be [[Redshifted#Effects_due_to_physical_optics_or_radiative_transfer|redshifted]] and the trailing edge blueshifted) and anomalous group velocity dispersion.<ref name="agrawal_book" /> Such solitons have been observed in silicon waveguides, by groups at the universities of [[Columbia University|Columbia]],<ref name="hsieh_2006" /> [[Rochester University|Rochester]],<ref name="zhang_2007" /> and [[University of Bath|Bath]].<ref name="ding_2008" />

==External links==
* [http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research_projects.nsf/pages/photonics.index.html IBM's page on silicon integrated nanophotonics]
* [http://www.intel.com/go/sp/ Intel's page on silicon photonics]
* [http://www.uksiliconphotonics.co.uk/ Uk based project website on silicon photonics]
* [http://www.helios-project.eu/ European project website on silicon photonics]

==References==

<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Silicon Photonics}}
[[Category:Nonlinear optics]]
[[Category:Photonics]]
[[Category:Silicon]]

Benutzer:Molinarius/Silicon photonics

2010-09-14T21:56:40Z

Lightmouse: /* Long Range Telecommunications using Silicon Photonics */Mostly units using AWB (7069)

'''Silicon photonics''' is the study and application of [[photonics|photonic]] systems which use [[silicon]] as an [[optical medium]].<ref name="lipson_2005">{{cite journal
|title = Guiding, Modulating, and Emitting Light on Silicon -- Challenges and Opportunities
|journal = [[Journal of Lightwave Technology]]
|year = 2005
|volume = 23
|page = 4222–4238
|author = Michal Lipson
}}</ref><ref name="jalali_2006">{{cite journal
|title = Silicon photonics
|journal = [[Journal of Lightwave Technology]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 24
|page = 4600–4615
|author = B Jalali and S Fathpour
}}</ref><ref name="almeida_2004">{{cite journal
|title = All-optical control of light on a silicon chip
|journal = [[Nature]]
|year = 2004
|volume = 432
|page = 1081–1084
|author = Vilson R. Almeida, Carlos A. Barrios, Roberto R. Panepucci and Michal Lipson
}}</ref><ref name="pavesi_book">{{cite book
|title = Silicon photonics
|isbn = 3540210229
|publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
|year = 2004
|author = Lorenzo Pavesi and David J. Lockwood
}}</ref><ref name="reed_book">{{cite book
|title = Silicon photonics: an introduction
|isbn = 0470870346
|publisher = [[John Wiley and Sons]]
|year = 2004
|author = Graham T. Reed and Andrew P. Knight
}}</ref> The silicon is usually patterned with [[nanoscale|sub-micron]] precision, into [[microphotonics|microphotonic]] components.<ref name="pavesi_book" /> These operate in the [[infrared]], most commonly at the 1.55 micron [[wavelength]] used by most [[fiber optic telecommunication]] systems.<ref name="lipson_2005" /> The silicon typically lies on top of a layer of silica in what (by analogy with [[silicon on insulator|a similar construction]] in [[microelectronics]]) is known as '''silicon on insulator''' (SOI).<ref name="pavesi_book" /><ref name="reed_book" />

Silicon photonic devices can be made using existing [[semiconductor fabrication]] techniques, and because silicon is already used as the substrate for most [[integrated circuit]]s, it is possible to create hybrid devices in which the [[optics|optical]] and [[electronics|electronic]] components are integrated onto a single microchip.<ref name="lipson_2005" /> Consequently, silicon photonics is being actively researched by many electronics manufacturers including [[IBM]] and [[Intel]], who see it is a means for keeping on track with [[Moore's Law]], by using [[optical interconnect]]s to provide faster [[data transfer]] both between and within [[Integrated circuit|microchip]]s.<ref name="ibm_silicon">{{cite web
|title = Silicon Integrated Nanophotonics
|publisher = [[IBM]] Research
|url = http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research_projects.nsf/pages/photonics.index.html
|accessdate = 2009-07-14
}}</ref><ref name="intel_silicon">{{cite web
|title = Silicon Photonics
|publisher = [[Intel]]
|url = http://techresearch.intel.com/articles/Tera-Scale/1419.htm
|accessdate = 2009-07-14
}}</ref>

The propagation of [[light]] through silicon devices is governed by a range of [[nonlinear optics|nonlinear optical]] phenomena including the [[Kerr effect]], the [[Raman effect]], [[two photon absorption]] and interactions between [[photons]] and [[free charge carriers]].<ref name="dekker_2008" >{{cite journal
|title = Ultrafast nonlinear all-optical processes in silicon-on-insulator waveguides
|journal = [[Journal of Physics D]]
|year = 2008
|volume = 40
|page = R249-R271
|author = R. Dekker, N. Usechak, M. Först and A. Driessen
}}</ref> The presence of nonlinearity is of fundamental importance, as it enables light to interact with light,<ref name="butcher_book">{{cite book
|title = The elements of nonlinear optics
|isbn = 0521424240
|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
|year = 1991
|author = Paul N. Butcher and David Cotter
}}</ref> thus permitting applications such as wavelength conversion and all-optical signal routing, in addition to the passive transmission of light.

Silicon waveguides are also of great academic interest, due to their ability to support exotic nonlinear optical phenomena such as [[Soliton (optics)|soliton propagation]].<ref name="hsieh_2006" >{{cite journal
|title = Ultrafast-pulse self-phase modulation and third-order dispersion in Si photonic wire-waveguides
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 14
|page = 12380–12387
|author = I-Wei Hsieh, Xiaogang Chen, Jerry I. Dadap, Nicolae C. Panoiu and Richard M. Osgood,
}}</ref><ref name="zhang_2007">{{cite journal
|title = Optical solitons in a silicon waveguide
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 15
|page = 7682–7688
|author = Jidong Zhang, Qiang Lin, Giovanni Piredda, Robert W. Boyd, Govind P. Agrawal and Philippe M. Fauchet
}}</ref><ref name="ding_2008">{{cite journal
|title = Solitons and spectral broadening in long silicon-on- insulator photonic wires
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2008
|volume = 16
|page = 3310–3319
|author = W. Ding, C. Benton, A. V. Gorbach, W. J. Wadsworth, J.C. Knight, D. V. Skryabin, M. Gnan, M. Sorrel and R. M. De-La-Rue
}}</ref>

==Applications==
===Optical interconnects===
Future progress in computer technology (and the continuation of [[Moore's Law]]) is becoming increasingly dependent on ultra-fast [[data transfer]] between and within [[Integrated circuit|microchips]].<ref name="meindl_2003">{{cite journal
|title = Beyond Moore's Law: the interconnect era
|journal = Computing in Science & Engineering
|year = 2003
|volume = 5
|page = 20–24
|author = J. D. Meindl
}}</ref> High speed [[optical interconnect]]s are seen as a promising way forward, and silicon photonics is seen as particularly useful, due to the ability to integrate electronic and optical components on the same silicon chip.<ref name="lipson_2005" /><ref name="barwicz_2006">{{cite journal
|title = Silicon photonics for compact, energy-efficient interconnects
|journal = Journal of Optical Networking
|year = 2006
|volume = 6
|page = 63–73
|author = T. Barwicz, H. Byun, F. Gan, C. W. Holzwarth, M. A. Popovic, P. T. Rakich, M. R. Watts, E. P. Ippen, F. X. Kärtner, H. I. Smith, J. S. Orcutt, R. J. Ram, V. Stojanovic, O. O. Olubuyide, J. L. Hoyt, S. Spector, M. Geis, M. Grein, T. Lyszczarz and J. U. Yoon
}}</ref><ref name="orcutt_2008">{{cite conference
|authors = J. S. Orcutt, A. Khilo, M. A. Popovic, C. W. Holzwarth, B. Moss, H. Li, M. S. Dahlem, T. D. Bonifield, F. X. Kaertner, E. P. Ippen, J. L. Hoyt, R. J. Ram, and V. Stojanovic
|title = Demonstration of an Electronic Photonic Integrated Circuit in a Commercial Scaled Bulk CMOS Process
|conference = Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference and Photonic Applications Systems Technologies
|year = 2008
}}</ref> [[Intel]] senior vice president [[Pat Gelsinger]] has stated that, "Today, optics is a niche technology. Tomorrow, it's the mainstream of every chip that we build."<ref name="intel_silicon" /> IBM also has an extensive research program in the field.<ref name="ibm_silicon" />

Optical interconnects require the integration of a range of technologies. Firstly, an on-chip [[laser]] source is required. One such device is the [[hybrid silicon laser]], in which the silicon is bonded to a different [[semiconductor]] (such as [[indium phosphide]]) which acts as the [[lasing medium]].<ref name="intel_hybrid">{{cite web
|url = http://techresearch.intel.com/articles/Tera-Scale/1448.htm
|title = Hybrid Silicon Laser - Intel Platform Research
|publisher = [[Intel]]
|accessdate = 2009-07-14
}}</ref> Another possibility is the all-silicon [[Raman laser]], in which the silicon itself acts as the lasing medium.<ref name="rong_2005">{{cite journal
|title = An all-silicon Raman laser
|doi = 10.1038/nature03273
|journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]]
|pmid = 15635371
|year = 2005
|volume = 433
|issue = 7023
|page = 292–294
|author = Haisheng Rong, Ansheng Liu, Richard Jones, Oded Cohen, Dani Hak, Remus Nicolaescu, Alexander Fang and Mario Paniccia
}}</ref>

There must also be a means to [[modulation|modulate]] the light, thus causing it to carry data in the form of optical pulses. One such technique is to control the density of free charge carriers, which (as described below) alter the optical properties of the waveguide. Modulators have been constructed where the light passes through the [[intrinsic semiconductor|intrinsic region]] of a [[PIN diode]], into which carriers can be injected or removed by altering the [[Electrical polarity|polarity]] of an applied [[voltage]].<ref name="barrios_2003">{{cite journal
|title = Electrooptic Modulation of Silicon-on-Insulator Submicrometer-Size Waveguide Devices
|journal = [[Journal of Lightwave Technology]]
|year = 2003
|volume = 21
|page = 2332–2339
|author = C. Angulo Barrios, V. R. Almeida, R. Panepucci and M. Lipson
}}</ref> By using an [[optical ring resonator]] with a built in PIN diode, data transmission rates of 18 [[Gbit/s]] have been achieved.<ref name="xu_2007">{{cite journal
|title = High Speed Carrier Injection 18 Gb/s Silicon Micro-ring Electro-optic Modulator
|journal = [in Proceedings of Lasers and Electro-Optics Society (IEEE, 2007)]
|year = 2007
|volume =
|page = pp.537-538
|author = Sasikanth Manipatruni, Qianfan Xu, Brad Schmidt, Jagat Shakya and Michal Lipson
}}</ref> By constructing devices where the electrical signal co-moves with the light, data rates of 30 Gbit/s have been achieved.<ref name="liu_2007">{{cite journal
|authors = Ansheng Liu, Ling Liao, Doron Rubin, Hat Nguyen, Berkehan Ciftcioglu, Yoel Chetrit, Nahum Izhaky and Mario Paniccia
|title = High-speed optical modulation based on carrier depletion in a silicon waveguide
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 15
|page = 660–668
</ref> By constructing devices where the multiple wavelengths are used to scale the modulation capacity 50 Gbit/s modulation capacity has been achieved.<ref name="Manipatruni_2009">{{cite journal
|title = 50 Gbit/s wavelength division multiplexing using silicon microring modulators
|journal = [Group IV Photonics, 2009. GFP '09. 6th IEEE International Conference on ]
|year = 2009
|doi = 10.1109/GROUP4.2009.5338375]
|page = 244 - 246
|author = Sasikanth Manipatruni; Long Chen; Lipson, Michal;
}}
</ref> A prototype optical interconnect with microring modulators integrated with germanium detectors has also been demonstrated <ref name="Long Chen_2009">{{cite journal
|title = Integrated GHz silicon photonic interconnect with micrometer-scale modulators and detectors
|journal = [[Opt. Express]]
|year = 2009
|volume = 17
|page = 15248-15256
|author = Long Chen, Kyle Preston, Sasikanth Manipatruni, and Michal Lipson,
}}
}}</ref><ref name="register_vance">{{cite article
|title = Intel cranks up next-gen chip-to-chip play
|publisher = [[The Register]]
|author = [[Ashlee Vance]]
|url = http://www.theregister.co.uk/2007/01/27/intel_silicon_modulator/print.html
|accessdate = 2009-07-26
}}</ref>

After passage through a silicon [[waveguide]] to a different chip (or region of the same chip) the light must be [[photodetector|detected]], converting the data back into electronic form. Detectors based on [[metal-semiconductor junction]]s (with [[germanium]] as the semiconductor) have been integrated into silicon waveguides.<ref name="vivien_2007">{{cite journal
|title = High speed and high responsivity germanium photodetector integrated in a Silicon-On-Insulator microwaveguide
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 15
|page = 9843–9848
|author = Laurent Vivien, Mathieu Rouvière, Jean-Marc Fédéli, Delphine Marris-Morini, Jean François Damlencourt, Juliette Mangeney, Paul Crozat, Loubna El Melhaoui, Eric Cassan, Xavier Le Roux, Daniel Pascal and Suzanne Laval
}}</ref> More recently, silicon-germanium [[avalanche photodiode]]s capable of operating at 40 Gbit/s have been fabricated.<ref name="kang_2008">{{cite journal
|title = Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain–bandwidth product
|journal = [[Nature Photonics]]
|year = 2008
|volume = 3
|page = 59–63
|author = Yimin Kang, Han-Din Liu, Mike Morse, Mario J. Paniccia, Moshe Zadka, Stas Litski, Gadi Sarid, Alexandre Pauchard, Ying-Hao Kuo, Hui-Wen Chen, Wissem Sfar Zaoui, John E. Bowers, Andreas Beling, Dion C. McIntosh, Xiaoguang Zheng and Joe C. Campbell
}}</ref><ref name="register_modine">{{cite article
|title = Intel trumpets world's fastest silicon photonic detector
|publisher = [[The Register]]
|author = Austin Modine
|url = http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/12/08/intel_world_record_apd_research/
|accessdate = 2009-07-26
}}</ref>

===Optical routers and signal processors===
Another application of silicon photonics is in signal routers for [[fiber optic telecommunication|optical communication]]. Construction can be greatly simplified by fabricating the optical and electronic parts on the same chip, rather than having them spread across multiple components.<ref name="analui_2006">{{cite journal
|title = A Fully Integrated 20-Gb/s Optoelectronic Transceiver Implemented in a Standard 0.13- μm CMOS SOI Technology
|journal = [[IEEE]] Journal of Solid-State Circuits
|year = 2006
|volume = 41
|page = 2945–2955
|author = B. Analui, D. Guckenberger, D. Kucharski and A. Narasimha
}}</ref> A wider aim is all-optical signal processing, whereby tasks which are conventionally performed by manipulating signals in electronic form are done directly in optical form.<ref name="almeida_2004" /><ref name="boyraz_2004">{{cite journal
|title = All optical switching and continuum generation in silicon waveguides
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2004
|volume = 12
|page = 4094–4102
|author = Özdal Boyraz, Prakash Koonath, Varun Raghunathan and Bahram Jalali
}}</ref> An important example is all-[[optical switching]], whereby the routing of optical signals is directly controlled by other optical signals.<ref name="vlasov_2008">{{cite journal
|title = High-throughput silicon nanophotonic wavelength-insensitive switch for on-chip optical networks
|journal = [[Nature Photonics]]
|year = 2008
|volume = 2
|page = 242–246
|author = Y. Vlasov, W. M. J. Green and F. Xia
}}</ref> Another example is all-optical wavelength conversion.<ref name="foster_2007">{{cite journal
|title = Broad-band continuous-wave parametric wavelength conversion in silicon nanowaveguides
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 15
|page = 12949–12958
|author = Mark A. Foster, Amy C. Turner, Reza Salem, Michal Lipson and Alexander L. Gaeta
}}</ref>

===Long Range Telecommunications using Silicon Photonics===
Silicon microphotonics can be applied to long range telecommunications to enable the scaling of the internet bandwidth capacity by using micro-scale, ultra low power devices. The power consumption of datacenters may be significantly reduced if this is successfully achieved. Researchers at [Sandia] <ref name="Sandia_2010"> {{cite journal
|title = Power penalty measurement and frequency chirp extraction in silicon microdisk resonator modulators
|journal = [[Proc. Optical Fiber Communication Conference (OFC)]]
|year = 2010
|issue = OMI7
|author = W. A. Zortman, A. L. Lentine, M. R. Watts, and D. C. Trotter
}}</ref>, Kotura, NTT, Fujitsu and academic institutes have been attempting to prove this functionality. A prototype 80 km, 12.5 Gbit/s transmission has been reported using microring silicon devices [[recently]] <ref name="Biberman_Manipatruni_2010">{{cite journal
|doi = 10.1364/OE.18.015544
|title = First demonstration of long-haul transmission using silicon microring modulators
|journal = [[Opt. Express]]
|year = 2010
|volume = 18
|issue = 15
|page = 15544-15552
|author = A. Biberman, S. Manipatruni, N. Ophir, L.Chen, M.Lipson, K.Bergman
|url = http://www.opticsinfobase.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri=oe-18-15-15544
}}</ref>

==Physical properties==
===Optical guiding and dispersion tailoring===
Silicon is [[transparency (optics)|transparent]] to [[infrared light]] with wavelengths above about 1.1 [[micrometre|micron]]s.<ref name="reading_lab">{{cite web
|url = http://www.rdg.ac.uk/infrared/library/infraredmaterials/ir-infraredmaterials-si.aspx
|title = Silicon (Si)
|publisher = [[University of Reading]] Infrared Multilayer Laboratory
|accessdate = 2009-07-17
}}</ref> Silicon also has a very high [[refractive index]], of about 3.5.<ref name="reading_lab" /> The tight optical confinement provided by this high index allows for microscopic [[optical waveguide]]s, which may have cross-sectional dimensions of only a few hundred [[nanometer]]s.<ref name="dekker_2008" /> This is substantially less than the wavelength of the light itself, and is analogous to a [[subwavelength-diameter optical fibre]]. Single mode propagation can be achieved,<ref name="dekker_2008" /> thus (like [[single-mode optical fiber]]) eliminating the problem of [[modal dispersion]].

The strong [[Interface conditions for electromagnetic fields|dielectric boundary effects]] that result from this tight confinement substantially alter the [[dispersion (optics)|optical dispersion relation]]. By selecting the waveguide geometry, it possible to tailor the dispersion to have desired properties, which is of crucial importance to applications requiring ultrashort pulses.<ref name="dekker_2008" /> In particular, the ''group velocity dispersion'' (that is, the extent to which [[group velocity]] varies with wavelength) can be closely controlled. In bulk silicon at 1.55 microns, the group velocity dispersion (GVD) is ''normal'' in that pulses with longer wavelengths travel with higher group velocity than those with shorter wavelength. By selecting a suitable waveguide geometry, however, it is possible to reverse this, and achieve ''anomalous'' GVD, in which pulses with shorter wavelengths travel faster.<ref name="yin_2006" >{{cite journal
|title = Dispersion tailoring and soliton propagation in silicon waveguides
|journal = [[Optics Letters]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 31
|page = 1295–1297
|author = L. H. Yin, Q. Lin, and G. P. Agrawal.
}}</ref><ref name="turner_2006" >{{cite journal
|title = Tailored anomalous group-velocity dispersion in silicon channel waveguides
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 14
|page = 4357–4362
|author = Amy C. Turner, Christina Manolatou, Bradley S. Schmidt, Michal Lipson, Mark A. Foster, Jay E. Sharping and Alexander L. Gaeta
}}</ref> Anomalous dispersion is significant, as it is a prerequisite for [[soliton]] propagation, and [[modulational instability]].<ref name="agrawal_book">{{cite book
|last = Agrawal
|first = Govind P.
|year = 1995
|title = Nonlinear fiber optics
|place = San Diego (California)
|publisher = Academic Press
|edition =2nd
|isbn = 0-12-045142-5
}}</ref>

In order for the silicon photonic components to remain optically independent from the bulk silicon of the [[wafer (electronics)|wafer]] on which they are fabricated, it is necessary to have a layer of intervening material. This is usually [[silica]], which has a much lower refractive index (of about 1.44 in the wavelength region of interest <ref name="malitson_1965">{{cite journal
|title = Interspecimen Comparison of the Refractive Index of Fused Silica
|journal = [[Journal of the Optical Society of America]]
|year = 1965
|volume = 55
|page = 1205–1209
|author = I. H. Malitson
}}</ref>), and thus light at the silicon-silica interface will (like light at the silicon-air interface) undergo [[total internal reflection]], and remain in the silicon. This construct is known as silicon on insulator.<ref name="pavesi_book" /><ref name="reed_book" /> It is named after the technology of [[silicon on insulator]] in electronics, whereby components are built upon a layer of [[insulator (electrical)|insulator]] in order to reduce [[parasitic capacitance]] and so improve performance.<ref name="celler_2003">{{cite journal
|title = Frontiers of silicon-on-insulator
|journal = [[Journal of Applied Physics]]
|year = 2003
|volume = 93
|page = 4955
|author = G. K. Celler and S. Cristoloveanu
}}</ref>

===Kerr nonlinearity===
Silicon has a focusing [[Kerr nonlinearity]], in that the [[refractive index]] increases with optical intensity.<ref name="dekker_2008" /> This effect is not especially strong in bulk silicon, but it can be greatly enhanced by using a silicon waveguide to concentrate light into a very small cross-sectional area.<ref name="hsieh_2006" /> This allows [[nonlinear optics|nonlinear optical]] effects to be seen at low powers. The nonlinearity can be enhanced further by using a [[slot waveguide]], in which the high refractive index of the silicon is used to confine light into a central region filled with a strongly nonlinear [[polymer]].<ref name="koos_2007" >{{cite journal
|title = Nonlinear silicon-on-insulator waveguides for all-optical signal processing
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 15
|page = 5976–5990
|author = C. Koos and L. Jacome and C. Poulton and J. Leuthold and W. Freude
}}</ref>

Kerr nonlinearity underlies a wide variety of optical phenomena.<ref name="agrawal_book" /> One example is [[four wave mixing]], which has been applied in silicon to realise both [[optical parametric amplification]] <ref name="foster_2006">{{cite journal
|title = Broad-band optical parametric gain on a silicon photonic chip
|journal = [[Nature]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 441
|page = 04932
|author = Mark A. Foster, Amy C. Turner, Jay E. Sharping, Bradley S. Schmidt, Michael Lipson and Alexander L. Gaeta
}}</ref> and parametric wavelength conversion.<ref name="foster_2007" /> Kerr nonlinearity can also cause [[modulational instability]], in which it reinforces deviations from an optical waveform, leading to the generation of [[Frequency spectrum|spectral]]-sidebands and the eventual breakup of the waveform into a train of pulses.<ref name="panoiu_2006">{{cite journal
|title = Modulation instability in silicon photonic nanowires
|journal = [[Optics Letters]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 31
|page = 3609
|author = Nicolae C. Panoiu, Xiaogang Chen and Richard M. Osgood, Jr.
}}</ref> Another example (as described below) is soliton propagation.

===Two-photon absorption===
Silicon exhibits [[two-photon absorption]] (TPA), in which a pair of [[photon]]s can act to excite an [[electron-hole pair]].<ref name="dekker_2008" /> This process is related to the Kerr effect, and by analogy with [[Mathematical descriptions of opacity|complex refractive index]], can be thought of as the [[Imaginary number|imaginary]]-part of a [[Complex number|complex]] Kerr nonlinearity.<ref name="dekker_2008" /> At the 1.55 micron telecommunication wavelength, this imaginary part is approximately 10% of the real part.<ref name="yin_2006_2">{{cite journal
|title = Impact of two-photon absorption on self-phase modulation in silicon waveguides: Free-carrier effects
|journal = [[Optics Letters]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 32
|page = 2031–2033
|author = Lianghong Yin and Govind Agrawal
}}</ref>

The influence of TPA is highly disruptive, as it both wastes light, and generates unwanted [[heat]].<ref name="nikbin_article">{{cite article
|author = Darius Nikbin
|title = Silicon photonics solves its "fundamental problem"
|publisher = IOP publishing
|url = http://optics.org/cws/article/research/25379
|accessdate = 2009-07-14
}}</ref> It can be mitigated, however, either by switching to longer wavelengths (at which the TPA to Kerr ratio drops),<ref name="bristow_2007">{{cite journal
|title = Two-photon absorption and Kerr coefﬁcients of silicon for 850– 2200 nm
|journal = [[Applied Physics Letters]]
|year = 2007
|volume = 90
|page = 191104
|author = Alan D. Bristow, Nir Rotenberg and Henry M. van Driel
}}</ref> or by using slot waveguides (in which the internal nonlinear material has a lower TPA to Kerr ratio).<ref name="koos_2007" /> Alternatively, the energy lost through TPA can be partially recovered (as is described below) by extracting it from the generated charge carriers.<ref name="tsia_2006">{{cite conference
|authors = K. M. Tsia, S. Fathpour and B. Jalali
|title = Energy Harvesting in Silicon Raman Amplifiers
|conference = 3rd [[IEEE]] International Conference on Group IV Photonics
|year = 2006
}}</ref>

===Free charge carrier interactions===
The [[Charge carriers in semiconductors|free charge carriers]] within silicon can both absorb photons and change its refractive index.<ref name="soref_1987">{{cite journal
|title = Electrooptical Effects in Silicon
|journal = [[IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics]]
|year = 1987
|volume = 23
|page = 123–129
|author = R. A. Soref and B. R. Bennett
}}</ref> This is particularly significant at high intensities and for long durations, due to the carrier concentration being built up by TPA. The influence of free charge carriers is often (but not always) unwanted, and various means have been proposed to remove them. One such scheme is to [[ion implantation|implant]] the silicon with [[helium]] in order to enhance [[carrier recombination]].<ref name="liu_2006">{{cite journal
|title = Nonlinear absorption and Raman gain in helium-ion-implanted silicon waveguides
|journal = [[Optics Letters]]
|year = 2006
|volume = 31
|page = 1714–1716
|author = Y. Liu and H. K. Tsang
}}</ref> A suitable choice of geometry can also be used to reduce the carrier lifetime. [[Rib waveguide]]s (in which the waveguides consist of thicker regions in a wider layer of silicon) enhance both the carrier recombination at the silica-silicon interface and the [[diffusion]] of carriers from the waveguide core.<ref name="dimitropoulos_2005">{{cite journal
|title = Lifetime of photogenerated carriers in silicon-on-insulator rib waveguides
|journal = [[Applied Physics Letters]]
|year = 2005
|volume = 86
|page = 071115
|author = D. Dimitropoulos, R. Jhaveri, R. Claps, J.C.S Woo and B. Jalali
}}</ref>

A more advanced scheme for carrier removal is to integrate the waveguide into the [[intrinsic semiconductor|intrinsic region]] of a [[PIN diode]], which is [[reverse bias]]ed so that the carriers are attracted away from the waveguide core.<ref name="jones_2005">{{cite journal
|title = Net continuous wave optical gain in a low loss silicon-on-insulator waveguide by stimulated Raman scattering
|journal = [[Optics Express]]
|year = 2005
|volume = 13
|page = 519–525
|author = Richard Jones, Haisheng Rong, Ansheng Liu, Alexander W. Fang and Mario J. Paniccia
}}</ref> A more sophisticated scheme still, is to use the diode as part of a circuit in which [[voltage]] and [[Electric current|current]] are out of phase, thus allowing power to be extracted from the waveguide.<ref name="tsia_2006" /> The source of this power is the light lost to two photon absorption, and so by recovering some of it, the net loss (and the rate at which heat is generated) can be reduced.

As is mentioned above, free charge carrier effects can also be used constructively, in order to modulate the light.<ref name="barrios_2003" /><ref name="xu_2007" /><ref name="liu_2007" />

===The Raman effect===
Silicon exhibits the [[Raman effect]], in which a photon is exchanged for a photon with a slightly different energy, corresponding to an excitation or a relaxation of the material. Silicon's Raman transition is dominated by a single, very narrow frequency peak, which is problematic for broadband phenomena such as [[Raman amplification]], but is beneficial for narrowband devices such as [[Raman laser]]s.<ref name="dekker_2008" /> Consequently, all-silicon Raman lasers have been fabricated.<ref name="rong_2005" />

==Solitons==

The evolution of light through silicon waveguides can be approximated with a cubic [[Nonlinear Schrödinger equation]],<ref name="dekker_2008" /> which is notable for admitting [[hyperbolic secant|sech]]-like [[soliton]] solutions.<ref name="drazin_book">{{cite book
|title = Solitons: an introduction
|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
|year = 1989
|isbn = 0-521-33655-4
|author = P. G. Drazin and R. S. Johnson
}}</ref> These [[optical soliton]]s (which are also known in [[optical fiber]]) result from a balance between [[self phase modulation]] (which causes the leading edge of the pulse to be [[Redshifted#Effects_due_to_physical_optics_or_radiative_transfer|redshifted]] and the trailing edge blueshifted) and anomalous group velocity dispersion.<ref name="agrawal_book" /> Such solitons have been observed in silicon waveguides, by groups at the universities of [[Columbia University|Columbia]],<ref name="hsieh_2006" /> [[Rochester University|Rochester]],<ref name="zhang_2007" /> and [[University of Bath|Bath]].<ref name="ding_2008" />

==External links==
* [http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research_projects.nsf/pages/photonics.index.html IBM's page on silicon integrated nanophotonics]
* [http://www.intel.com/go/sp/ Intel's page on silicon photonics]
* [http://www.uksiliconphotonics.co.uk/ Uk based project website on silicon photonics]
* [http://www.helios-project.eu/ European project website on silicon photonics]

==References==

<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Silicon Photonics}}
[[Category:Nonlinear optics]]
[[Category:Photonics]]
[[Category:Silicon]]

Bahria Town

2010-09-14T14:32:01Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units, removed expand tag using AWB (7069)

{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; width: 17em; font-size: 90%;" cellspacing="3"
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: larger;" | '''Bahria Town (Pvt.) Ltd.'''
|-
| colspan="2" style="padding: 1em 0; text-align: center;" | [[File:Bahriatown.jpg]]
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | "Lifestyle Destination "
|-
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|'''Ownership'''
|style="padding-right: 1em;" | Private
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|'''Type of Institution'''
|style="padding-right: 1em;" | Real Estate Sector
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|'''Established'''
|style="padding-right: 1em;" | 1996
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|'''Chairman'''
|style="padding-right: 1em;" | [[Malik Riaz Hussain]]
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|'''Headquarters'''
|style="padding-right: 1em;" | [[Rawalpindi]] {{flag|Pakistan}}
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|'''Total Employees'''
|style="padding-right: 1em;" | 20,000
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|'''Homepage'''
|style="padding-right: 1em;" | http://www.bahriatown.com
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|}

'''Bahria Town''' is one of the largest real-estate developers in Asia. Bahria Town has projects in [[Lahore]], [[Rawalpindi]], and [[Islamabad]] and is planning to develop projects in [[Murree]] and [[Karachi]].<ref name="dt">{{cite news|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_14-4-2005_pg3_4|title=Housing boom a solution to Pakistan’s problems|author=Malik Riaz, Chief Executive of Bahria Town|work=Speech given at the NAB conference in Islamabad|date=April 14, 2005|publisher=Daily Times|accessdate=May 24, 2009}}</ref>

==Controversies==
Malik Riaz CEO Bharia Town, using his influence among the government officials got a contract to develop 2,388 kanals of (RECHS) Revenue Employees Cooperative Housing Society land for handing handing over to allocated owners/members of the society. The plot owners had already made full payments of development charges. There were again charged twice for developments charges from Bharia Town.
Malik Riaz later backed out of the development work and sold the land to Defence Housing Authority & Army$ Housing Directorate in violation of the law and contract, leaving the owners of the plots in the lurch. According to a recent survey plot prices in adjacent Housing societies ranges from 60 to 80 Lakh / Kanal.
A petition has been filled in the Lahore High Court (LHC) Rawalpindi bench against Malik Riaz (Bharia Town).<ref>[http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/print/Regional/26-May-2009/Judge-orders-outofcourt-settlement The Nation]</ref>

There are different phases to the scheme with mini golf course as well. The development of the Rawalpindi Bahria Town has been undertaken in partnership with Malaysian consortia TAK and MAX Corp<ref name="dt"/>

According to Pakistani news sources, Bahria Town has been associated with losses to investors resulting from delays to projects<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sweethome.overseaspakistanis.net/node/182|title=Bahria Town Phase-9 Rawalpindi map|date=19 June 2008|work=Apna Ghar|publisher=Overseas Pakistanis Net |accessdate=2009-05-24}}</ref>. Bahria Town Chief Executive, Malik Riaz, has blamed these losses on government corruption<ref name="dt" /> There have also been accusations that Bahria Town, along with other major developers, were involved in misrepresentation involving the Pakistani armed forces.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/2007/01/26/top11.htm|title=Report sought on builders using armed forces’ name|last=Khan|first=Sher Baz|date=26 January 2007|work=Dawn the Internet Edition|publisher=Dawn Group of Newspapers|accessdate=2009-05-24}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.bahriatown.com.pk/ Bahria Town - Official site]

{{coord|33|33|N|73|07|E|display=title|region:PK_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Towns in Lahore]]

{{PunjabPK-geo-stub}}

[[pnb:بحریہ ٹاؤن]]

Howard A. Hanson Dam

2010-09-14T13:32:29Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7069)

{{Infobox Dam
|dam_name=Howard A. Hanson Dam
|image=USACE Howard A Hanson Dam.jpg
|caption=Howard A. Hanson Dam (rear)
|official_name=
|crosses=[[Green River (Washington)|Green River]]
|reservoir=Howard A. Hanson Reservoir/Pool
|locale= [[King County, Washington|King County]], [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington, USA]]
|maint= [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]]
|length= 675 ft (206 m)
|height= 235 ft (72 m)
|hydraulic_head=
|width= 960 ft (292 m), '''Crest:''' 23 ft (7 m)
|irrigation=
|began=1959
|open=1961
|closed=
|cost=
|reservoir_capacity= 106,000 acre-ft (131,000,000 m3)
|reservoir_catchment= {{Convert|220|mi2|km2|lk=on}}
|reservoir_surface=
|turbines=
|installed_capacity=
|max_capacity=
|annual_generation=
}}
'''Howard A. Hanson Dam''' is an earthen [[embankment dam]] on the [[Green River (Washington)|Green River]], 21 miles (34 km) east of [[Auburn, Washington]]. The dam was completed in 1961 and its primary purpose is [[flood control]] along with water supply for [[Tacoma, Washington]].

After the dam's reservoir reached record levels in January 2009, the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] discovered seepage in the right abutment of the dam, leading to efforts to mitigate a potential flood.<ref name="USACEM">[http://www.nws.usace.army.mil/PublicMenu/Menu.cfm?sitename=HHD&pagename=mainpage USACE - Howard A. Hanson main page]</ref>

==History and construction==

The Green River Valley was settled in the 1850s and became a notable farming area until an [[aphid]] infestation destroyed most of the crops in 1890. Since then, the area mainly consisted of cattle and berry farms but farmers had to cope with yearly floods. These floods would lead to log jams which redirected the Green and other rivers. Sometimes farmers would illicitly clear log jams with [[dynamite]] which led to the flooding of other farms. To deal with the matter, the Associated Improvement Clubs of South King County was formed in 1926. The association created several [[dyke (construction)|dike]]s and repaired river courses but they would soon realize more help was needed.<ref>[http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=3549 History Link - Howard A. Hanson History]</ref>

It was not until 1936 that community leaders, citizens and with additional effort by [[United States Congress|Congress]], the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Seattle District began to search for a suitable flood control project site on the Green River. The selection was delayed by the [[Second World War]] and finally in 1949, Eagle [[Gorge]] was recommended to Congress as a site for a [[dam]] and [[reservoir]] project.<ref name="USACEM"/>

In 1955, funds were appropriated for the project; Congress gave $37 million, [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] State $1.5 million and King County provided $500,000. Construction on the dam which included the relocation of 13 miles (21 km) of [[railroad]] began in February 1959. During construction in December 1959, the last devastating flood occurred on the Green River; damaging homes and removing [[topsoil]] from farms. Despite this, the dam was completed almost five months ahead of time on [[Christmas]] Day, 1961. The completion of the dam ended a 70-year era of flooding in the Green River Valley and by 1996, the dam had prevented an estimated $694 million in flood damages.<ref name="USACEM"/>

The dam was originally named the Eagle Gorge Dam but was renamed by Congress in 1958 to the Howard A. Hanson Dam. Hanson lead civic and government groups in an effort to construct the dam. He was largely instrumental in obtaining funding for the dam. Hanson died in 1957 before construction began.<ref name="USACEM"/>

==Dam characteristics==
[[Image:Hansondamintakeusace.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Howard A. Hanson Dam, spillway gates and intake]]
The Howard A. Hanson Dam is an earthen embankment structure at a length of 675 ft (205 m) and height of 235 ft (70 m). The base of the dam is 960 ft (290 m) wide and sits within Eagle Gorge, a ravine with nearly vertical rock walls. The reservoir withheld by the dam collects water from 220 square miles (570 m2) of drainage area 7 miles (11 km) long. The dam structure contains a concrete [[spillway]] on its left side capable of discharging overflow at 107,000 cubic feet per second (3,000 m3/s). The spillway is controlled by two 45 x 30 ft (15 x 6 m) [[Tainter gate]]s while an outlet tunnel at the base of the dam is controlled by two 10 x 12 ft (3 x 4 m) Tainter gates.<ref name="USACEM"/>

The dam serves its flood control purpose during the rainy season collecting and then controlling the release of flood waters through the base outlet tunnel. This process occurs as often as necessary and in the event of an extreme flood, the spillway can be used. However, spillway use has never been required. In March, the dam serves to conserve water and during the summer, releases specific amounts to assist in fish migration and spawning along with enhancing sports fishing. During the winter, the reservoir is kept near empty. The dam is located within the Tacoma watershed and public access is not allowed. Water released from the dam is diverted into a [[water purification]] facility 3 miles (5 km) downstream for civil consumption.<ref name="USACEM"/>

==Flooding concerns==
[[Image:Hansondamaerialphotousace.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Howard A. Hanson Dam USACE annotated aerial photo]]
In January 2009, 15 inches (380 mm) of rainfall within 24 hours peaked water inflows behind the reservoir at {{convert|30500|ft3/s|m3}} , raising the reservoir level to a record high of 1,189 feet (362 m) above sea level.<ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2009376179_leakingdam24m.html Water seeping through Howard Hanson Dam is picking up speed - Seattle Times - Jan 24, 2009]</ref> In comparison, the maximum authorized storage level is 1,206 ft (367 m) above sea level and the normal summer level is 1,167 feet (355 m). The Howard A. Hanson dam had controlled and prevented a flood that would have caused an estimated $4 billion in damages.<ref>[http://www.nws.usace.army.mil/PublicMenu/documents/HHD/F1157update6-1-09.pdf Engineers continue testing, gathering data at Howard Hanson Dam - June 1, 2009]</ref><ref>[http://www.nws.usace.army.mil/PublicMenu/documents/HHD/FAQs_restricted_pool_Sept_09.pdf USACE Howard A. Hanson Dam FAQ]</ref>

However, soon after the flood the USACE discovered two depressions on the right [[abutment]] of the dam, increased water levels in groundwater monitoring wells and the appearance of [[sediment]]-laden water entering the abutment drainage [[tunnel]]. The USACE does not believe the dam is at immediate risk of failing but assessed increased danger to downstream communities until the problem was resolved. The USACE began to lower and restrict the elevation of the dam's reservoir. In addition, by November 2009, the USACE constructed an interim seepage barrier along with improving the drainage of the right abutment. These actions reduced the chance of flooding from a 1 in 3 to a 1 in 25 chance during 2010.<ref name="USACEM"/>

Although the level of the reservoir is restricted, there are still increased chances for flooding downstream. In the event of a major flood, increased releases in order to maintain proper levels may cause water to over-top downstream levees. Sandbags have and are being distributed throughout the Green River Valley as the USACE continues to inspect, monitor and repair the dam.<ref name="USACEM"/>

==See also==
*[[Green River (Washington)|Green River]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nws.usace.army.mil/PublicMenu/Menu.cfm?sitename=HHD&pagename=mainpage USACE - Howard A. Hanson Dam Main Page]
*[http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=3549 History Link - Howard A. Hanson Dam History]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|47|16|40|N|121|47|15|W|region:US-WA_type:landmark|display=title,inline}}

[[Category:King County, Washington]]
[[Category:Dams in Washington (U.S. state)]]

Satapuala

2010-09-14T11:20:34Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7069)

{{Infobox settlement
|official_name =Satapuala
|nickname=
|settlement_type=Village
|image_skyline =
|image_flag =
|image_seal =
|image_map =
|mapsize =
|map_caption =
|pushpin_map = Samoa
|pushpin_label_position =
|coordinates_display = inline,title
|coordinates_region = WS
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]
|subdivision_name = {{flag|Samoa}}
|subdivision_type1 =District
|subdivision_name1 =[[A'ana]]
|leader_title =
|leader_name =
|area_magnitude =
|area_total =
|area_land =
|area_water =
|population_as_of = 2006
|population_note =
|population_total =1,296
|population_footnotes =
|population_metro =
|population_density =
|timezone =-11
|utc_offset =
|timezone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|latd=13|latm=50|lats=3|latNS=S
|longd=172|longm=0|longs=28|longEW=W
|elevation_m=
|website =
|footnotes =
}}

'''Satapuala''' is a village situated on the north west coast [[Upolu]] island in [[Samoa]].<ref name=sc>{{cite web
|url=http://www.seacology.org/projects/individualprojects/SAMOA_satapuala2009.htm
|work=Seacology Island Projects|accessdate=13 November 2009|title=Satapuala Village Project}}</ref> The village is part of A'ana Alofi III Electoral Constituency (''Faipule District) which forms part of the larger political district [[A'ana]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.sbs.gov.ws/Portals/138/PDF/census%20survey/Table%202.%20Population%20byregion,%20faipule%20district%202006.pdf
|work=Samoa Bureau of Statistics
|title=Population and Housing Census Report 2006
|date= July 2008
|accessdate=19 December 2009}}</ref>

Satapuala is 40 minutes west from the country's capital [[Apia]].

The village was relocated in 1942 to build the [[Faleolo International Airport]]. Like other land in Samoa, customary land in Satapuala was also alienated during [[colonialism]].<ref name=bk1>{{cite book
|url=http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=cso6JiinsaEC&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&dq=WSTEC+Samoa&source=bl&ots=OuwNHcZ3Wf&sig=7eqTfknW3Nd75tWS0w8e4ZzHXsM&hl=en&ei=wtf8StLcKJCIswORrpCICw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=WSTEC%20Samoa&f=false
|title=Samoa: mapping the diversity
|first=R. Gerard Ward
|last=Paul Ashcroft
|page=61
|series=
|year=1998
|publisher=University of the South Pacific
|isbn=9820201349}}</ref>
Customary land has since come under the government.<ref name=bk1/> Part of the former customary village land is where the new Aggie Grey's Lagoon Resort (the Government is the majority shareholder) has been built with a golf course beside the airport. Other Satapuala land includes a large coconut plantation opposite the airport which the government had planned to sell as small freehold lots and to build businesses and resorts. The chiefs (matai) of Satapuala have made legal claims to return customary land from the government for many years.<ref name=rnzi>{{cite news
|url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=36661
|work=Radio New Zealand International|accessdate=13 November 2009|title=Villagers have vacated Satapuala land, 26 November 2007 UTC}}</ref> The disputed land is the property of the government's [[Samoa Trust Estate Corporation]] (STEC, formerly WSTEC), land which came under the Samoa government when [[German Samoa|German]] and [[New Zealand]] colonial rule ended in Samoa.<ref name=bk1/>

Leading Satapuala's legal claim against the government for more than two thousand acres (8 km²) was a high chief of the village, [[To’alepaiali’i Toeolesulusulu Salesa III]], the late Member of Parliament of the A'ana District and a prominent figure in Samoan politics. To'alepaiali'i was a Cabinet Minister in Samoa during the 1980s. He died during a trip to Sydney in November 2008.<ref name=so>{{cite news |first=Marieta Heidi|last=Ilalio|title=Samoa Mourns|url=http://www.samoaobserver.ws/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1612:satapuala-mourns
|work=Samoa Observer|date=2008-11-26|accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref>

In the early 20th century this village had also made land claims against the New Zealand colonial administration, since it wanted to put an airport on the village grounds.

Like most villages in Samoa, the geographic boundary of Satapuala covers an area from the coastline and inland. The village is separated into two sections. Satapuala-I-Tai (''tai'' means coastal) is the end of the village nearest to the [[lagoon]] shoreline. Satapuala-I-Uta (''uta'' means inland) is the end where most of the village people live, and also the place where the village road ends. The village of Satapuala is famous for having the historic ''[[Lapita]] Site''.

There is one narrow and roughly paved road which connects the two ends of Satapuala-I-Uta, although in Satapuala-I-Tai the road is unpaved. The main Upolu Highway is accessible from the main village junction, or also known as the ''Magafa''.
There are a few schools in Satapuala, including district college ''Satapuala College''. Many children from the village attend and so do those from places as far as [[Leulumoega]] to Falelatai. There is a large coconut plantation, where coconuts are used to make ''Samoan Brand Coconut Cream'' which is sold worldwide. There are some 10 family-owned shops in the village with 3 billiard gaming areas. The traditional 'Sa', evening prayers, takes place each day throughout the village and lasts for about 30 minutes. The 'Sa' is a Prayer Curfew, played throughout most of Samoa. The village is vibrant in colour and culture. Horses used for plantation work are sometimes kept in the village tied amongst the [[breadfruit]] and [[coconut]] trees. This village is abundant in crops and flowers although the thorny weed ''vao fefe''. Television and radio broadcast reception is reasonable in the village. A few pay phones are found around Satapuala's Main Village Shops, but the majority of pay phones are found at the airport, where there is internet access. Mobile Phones are widely used and through local companies Digicel and Go Mobile. Topping Up, Credit Recharges and SIM Cards can be purchased from the local stores. There are ATM outlets at the ANZ and Westpac branches at the airport. Like most villages in Samoa, Sunday is a sacred day. Churches in the village are [[Catholic Church]] of 'Sagato Atonio' and the [[LDS Church]], which is located across the narrow village road from the Catholic Church.

Ten minutes west from the village is [[Mulifanua]] Wharf where the inter-island ferry terminal is located for passenger and vehicle transport to [[Savai'i]] island. Boats to [[Manono Island|Manono]] or [[Apolima]] Islands are located at ''Manono Uta and Apolima Uta'', further west on the main road past Mulifanua wharf.

==2007 South Pacific Games==
Two of the events from the [[2007 Pacific Games|2007 edition of the]] [[South Pacific Games]] were held here. [[Sailing]] and the [[Triathlon]] took place in Satapuala and due to the event, Satapuala became a busy area of the Island of Upolu too, besides Apia and Tuna'imato.

Many [[Samoa]]ns and tourists have stood in this village since this is where the main international airport of Samoa, [[Faleolo International Airport]], stands. Only one aircraft disaster was recorded back in the 50s–70s{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}}, when a small domestic [[Polynesian Airlines]] plane from [[Pago Pago]] crashed on the shores of Satapuala.

==Transport==
The village is by the main island highway with a regular bus service. Fares to and from Satapuala are only $2 for adults and $1 for children under 12. From Apia to Satapuala the cost of a 40-minute taxi ride is approximately $40 to $50.

==Sport==
[[Volleyball]], [[cricket]] and [[rugby union]] are the most popular sports in the village especially among youths. These take place in the village 'malae', open grounds in front of the 'fale tele' main meeting houses.

==References==
<references/>

==External references==
*[http://docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache:4EV6K8u03EoJ:www.spc.int/prism/Country/WS/stats/Products%26Services/Reports/PDF/PopCensus/Preliminary%2520Report/2006%2520Census.pdf+Samauga+village&hl=en&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjUXLtGebImrywvVMue-j4XG9SKr3R2-zT2DCJc_6QxoUBbjPifxoG3JKatGzDMUwdGGbq_2WZwsYcZ-DBSoWvvCBozjCyzjdoLwbgb1oiW5e7X606Qi7P1OxotJaRfQDyv4VOm&sig=AFQjCNEWrRAJRVZx3W6fy8nMqMvr5N0zrQ Samoa Population Census 2006]

{{A'ana}}

[[Category:Populated places in Samoa]]

Andes (Town, New York)

2010-09-14T10:58:04Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7069)

{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Andes, New York
|settlement_type = [[Town]]
|nickname =
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|image_skyline =
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|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[New York]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in New York|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Delaware County, New York|Delaware]]
|government_footnotes =
|government_type = [[Town Council]]
|leader_title = [[Town Supervisor]]
|leader_name = Martin A. Donnelly ([[United States Republican Party|R]])
| leader_title1 = [[Town Council]]
| leader_name1 = {{Collapsible list
|title = Members' List
|frame_style = border:none; padding: 0;
|title_style = 
|list_style = text-align:left;display:none;
|1 = • Shayne Moshier ([[United States Republican Party|R]])
|2 = • Ritchie Gabriel ([[United States Republican Party|R]])
|3 = • Daniel Grommeck ([[United States Republican Party|R]])
|4 = • Martin Liddle ([[United States Republican Party|R]])
}}
|established_title =
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|population_as_of = [[United States Census, 2000|2000]]
|population_footnotes =
|population_total = 1,356
|population_density_km2 =
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|timezone = [[North American Eastern Time Zone|Eastern (EST)]]
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|footnotes =
}}

{{mergefrom|Andes (hamlet), New York|discuss=Talk:Andes (town), New York#Merger proposal|date=January 2009}}
'''Andes''' is a [[town]] in [[Delaware County, New York|Delaware County]], [[New York]], [[United States]]. The population was 1,356 at the 2000 census.

The '''Town of Andes''' formerly contained a village with the same name. The town is on the southeast border of the county.

== History ==
Settlement began in 1784.
The town was formed in 1819 from the [[Middletown, Delaware County, New York|Town of Middletown]].

In 1845 in an [[Anti-rent War]], protesters, several hundred dressed as "Calico Indians," shot and killed Under-Sheriff Osman Steele, when he and deputies attempted to collect overdue rent of about $64. Hundreds of protestors were arrested and two were sentenced to death, but their sentences were later commuted.

On December 31, 2003, the incorporated village of Andes ceased to exist. During a special village election on June 3, 2002, the residents approved dissolving the village by a vote of 81 to 63. [http://old.thedailystar.com/news/stories/2004/01/09/andes.html]

==Geography==
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 112.5 square miles (291.5 km²), of which, 109.1 square miles (282.5 km²) of it is land and 3.5 square miles (9.0 km²) of it (3.07%) is water.

The south town line is the border of [[Ulster County, New York|Ulster County]], New York. Andes is partly in the [[Catskill Park]].

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 1,356 people, 604 households, and 381 families residing in the town. The [[population density]] was 12.4 people per square mile (4.8/km²). There were 1,326 housing units at an average density of 12.2/sq mi (4.7/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 96.90% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.44% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (United States Census)|African American]], 0.29% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.59% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 1.03% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 0.74% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 1.92% of the population.

There were 604 households out of which 20.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.3% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 5.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.8% were non-families. 31.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.77.

In the town the population was spread out with 18.4% under the age of 18, 6.3% from 18 to 24, 21.4% from 25 to 44, 32.4% from 45 to 64, and 21.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females there were 104.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 107.7 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $35,119, and the median income for a family was $39,474. Males had a median income of $28,074 versus $22,847 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the town was $20,650. About 6.1% of families and 9.4% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 14.4% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over.

== Communities and locations in Andes ==
*[[Andes (hamlet), New York|Andes]] – The [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]] of Andes, is on Route 28 in the north part of the town.
*[[Pepacton Reservoir]] – A [[reservoir (water)|reservoir]] partly inside the town.
*'''Union Grove''' – A community lost to the reservoir.

==Notable residents==
Notable current and former residents of Andes include:
*[[Ira Black]] (1941–2006), [[neuroscientist]] and [[stem cell]] researcher who served as the first director of the [[Stem Cell Institute of New Jersey]].<ref>Pearce, Jeremy. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/12/nyregion/12black.html "Dr. Ira B. Black, 64, Leader in New Jersey Stem Cell Effort, Dies"], ''[[The New York Times]]'', January 12, 2006. Accessed August 13, 2009.</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*Patricia Breakey. [http://old.thedailystar.com/news/stories/2004/01/09/andes.html "Andes residents begin life after end of village"], ''The Daily Star'' ([[Oneonta, New York]]), January 9, 2004. 

==External links==
* [http://www.delawarecounty.org/Andes Town of Andes, NY]
* [http://www.bearsystems.com/andes/andes.html Andes area information]

{{Delaware County, New York}}

{{coord|42|11|20.31|N|74|47|8.97|W|region:US|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Andes (Town), New York}}
[[Category:Delaware County, New York]]
[[Category:Towns in New York]]

Andersonville (Georgia)

2010-09-14T09:07:21Z

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{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2010}}
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'''Andersonville''' is a city in [[Sumter County, Georgia|Sumter County]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], United States. The population was 331 at the 2000 census (174 in 1910). It is located in the southwest part of the state, about {{convert|60|mi|km}} southwest of [[Macon, Georgia]] on the [[Central of Georgia]] [[railroad]]. During the [[American Civil War]], it was the site of a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] which is now [[Andersonville National Historic Site]].

Andersonville is part of the [[Americus, Georgia|Americus]] [[Americus micropolitan area|Micropolitan Statistical Area]].

==Geography==
Andersonville is located at {{Coord|32|11|49|N|84|8|30|W|type:city}} (32.197008, −84.141701){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 1.3 square miles (3.4 km²), all of it land.

== History ==
The little hamlet of Anderson was named for Mr. John Anderson who was a Director in the South Western Railroad at the time it was extended from Oglethorpe to Americus in 1853. It was known as Anderson Station until the post office was established in November 1855 and the government changed the name of the station from “Anderson” to “Andersonville” in order to avoid confusion with the Post office in Anderson, South Carolina.
The Town of Andersonville, served as Supply Depot during the time of the prison,and it included a post office, a depot, a blacksmith shop and stable, a couple of general stores, two saloons, a school, a Methodist church and about a dozen houses. (Ben Dykes, who owned the land on which the prison was built, was both depot agent and postmaster.)
Until the establishment of the prison, the area was entirely dependent on agriculture, and, after the close of the prison, the town continued economically dependent on agriculture. The town changed very little over the years, until 1968 when the mining of kaolin, bauxitic kaolin, and bauxite was undertaken in a big way by Mu1coa, Mullite Company of America which turned {{convert|2000|acre|km2}} of scrub oak wilderness into a massive mining and refining operation and now ships more than 2000 tons of refined ore from Andersonville each week.
In 1974, long time Mayor, Lewis Easterlin and a group of concerned citizens decided to promote tourism in the town by turning the clock back on the town and make it look much as it did during the American Civil War. Now today Andersonville, Georgia welcomes tourists from all over the world who come for the history, museums, and to step back in time.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 254.1 people per square mile (98.3/km²). There were 142 housing units at an average density of 109.0/sq mi (42.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 65.26% white and 34.74% African American. 1.21% of the population were [[Hispanics in the United States|Hispanic]] or [[Race (United States Census)|Latino]].

There were 124 households out of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were married couples living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21.

In the city the population was spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $29,107, and the median income for a family was $30,972. Males had a median income of $26,591 versus $20,000 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $15,168. About 19.8% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 29.3% of those under age 18 and 13.5% of those age 65 or over.

==Climate==

{{Weather box
|location = Andersonville
|single line = yes
|Jan high F = 60
|Feb high F = 62
|Mar high F = 70
|Apr high F = 78
|May high F = 86
|Jun high F = 91
|Jul high F = 92
|Aug high F = 92
|Sep high F = 88
|Oct high F = 79
|Nov high F = 68
|Dec high F = 61
|year high F = 77
|Jan low F = 38
|Feb low F = 40
|Mar low F = 46
|Apr low F = 53
|May low F = 61
|Jun low F = 68
|Jul low F = 71
|Aug low F = 70
|Sep low F = 66
|Oct low F = 55
|Nov low F = 44
|Dec low F = 39
|year low F = 54
|Jan precipitation inch = 4.3
|Feb precipitation inch = 4.8
|Mar precipitation inch = 5.3
|Apr precipitation inch = 3.9
|May precipitation inch = 3.5
|Jun precipitation inch = 4.3
|Jul precipitation inch = 5.5
|Aug precipitation inch = 4.9
|Sep precipitation inch = 3.4
|Oct precipitation inch = 2.3
|Nov precipitation inch = 2.7
|Dec precipitation inch = 4
|year precipitation inch = 48.9
|source 1 = <ref>weatherbase.com</ref>
|date=August 2008
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.andersonvillegeorgia.com/ Official website of Andersonville, Georgia]
* [http://www.americusgeorgia.net/ AmericusGeorgia.net – Area info... by and for Andersonville Locals]

{{Sumter County, Georgia}}

[[Category:Cities in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Sumter County, Georgia]]
[[Category:Americus micropolitan area]]

[[es:Andersonville]]
[[fr:Andersonville (Géorgie)]]
[[io:Andersonville, Georgia]]
[[it:Andersonville (Georgia)]]
[[ht:Andersonville, Georgie]]
[[nl:Andersonville]]
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[[vo:Andersonville]]

Columbia Basin Project

2010-09-14T00:05:23Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7069)

[[Image:Columbia basin project.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The Columbia Basin Irrigation Project]]

The '''Columbia Basin Project''' (or '''CBP''') in Central [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]], [[USA]], is the [[irrigation]] network that the [[Grand Coulee Dam]] makes possible. It is the largest water reclamation project in the United States, supplying irrigation water to over {{convert|670000|acre|km2}} of the {{convert|1100000|acre|km2}} large project area, all of which was originally intended to be supplied and is still classified as irrigable and open for the possible enlargement of the system. Water pumped from the [[Columbia River]] is carried over {{convert|331|mi|km}} of main canals, stored in a number of reservoirs, then fed into {{convert|1339|mi|km}} of lateral irrigation canals,<ref name=75years>{{cite journal |last= Bloodworth |first= Gina |coauthors= James White |year= 2008 |title= The Columbia Basin Project: Seventy-Five Years Later |journal= Yearbook of the Association of Pacific Coast Geographers |volume= 70 |issue= Annual 2008 |pages= pp. 96–111 |issn= 0066-9628 |url= http://www.gale.cengage.com/ |accessdate= 25 October 2009}}</ref> and out into {{convert|3500|mi|km}} of drains and wasteways.<ref>{{cite web |title= Project details - Columbia Basin Project |publisher= [[United States Bureau of Reclamation]] |url= http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Project.jsp?proj_Name=Columbia+Basin+Project |accessdate= 25 October 2009}}</ref>

==History==
The [[U.S. Bureau of Reclamation]] was created 1902 to aid development of dry western states. Central Washington's [[Columbia Plateau]] was a prime candidate—a desert with fertile [[loess]] soil and the [[Columbia River]] passing through.

Competing groups lobbied for different irrigation projects; a [[Spokane, Washington|Spokane]] group wanted a {{convert|134|mi|km}} gravity flow canal from [[Lake Pend Oreille]] while a [[Wenatchee, Washington|Wenatchee]] group (further south) wanted a large dam on the Columbia River, which would pump water up to fill the nearby [[Grand Coulee]], a formerly-dry canyon-like [[coulee]].

After thirteen years of debate, President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] authorized the dam project. Construction of Grand Coulee Dam began in 1933 and was completed in 1942. Its main purpose of pumping water for irrigation was postponed during [[World War II]] in favor of electrical power generation that was used for the war effort. Additional [[hydroelectric]] generating capacity was added into the 1970s. The Columbia River [[reservoir (water)|reservoir]] behind the dam was named [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt Lake]] in honor of the president. The irrigation holding reservoir in Grand Coulee was named [[Banks Lake]].

After World War II the project suffered a number of setbacks. Irrigation water began to arrive between 1948 and 1952, but the costs escalated, resulting in the original plan, in which the people receiving irrigation water would pay back the costs of the project over time, being repeatedly revised and becoming a permanent water subsidy. In addition, the original vision of a social engineering project intended to help farmers settle on small landholdings failed. Farm plots, at first restricted in size, became larger and soon became corporate agribusiness operations.<ref name=75years/>

The original plan was that a federal agency similar to the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] would manage the entire system. Both the Bureau of Reclamation and the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]] sought to gain control as the primary administrative agency, and both pressed their own plan for doing so. The rivalry between them was ultimately so paralyzing that a power vacuum was created. Neither agency gain control and large private interests prevailed instead. As a result the original vision lost its cohesive focus and corporate interests gained as the main beneficiaries.<ref name=75years/>

The determination to finish the project's plan to irrigation the full {{convert|1100000|acre|km2}} waned during the 1960s. The estimated total cost for completing the project had more than doubled between 1940 and 1964, it had become clear that the government's financial investment would not be recovered, and that the benefits of the project were unevenly distributed and increasingly going to larger businesses and corporations. These issues and others dampened enthusiasm for the project, although the exact motives behind the decision to stop construction with the project about half finished are not known.<ref name=75years/>

==Geology==
[[Image:Drum-Heller-Channels.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Drumheller Channels, 10 miles (16 km) south of [[Potholes Reservoir]], are examples of [[channeled scablands]]]]
The [[Columbia Basin]] in Central Washington is fertile due to its loess soils, but large portions are a near [[desert]], receiving less than ten inches (254 mm) of rain per year. The area is characterized by huge deposits of [[flood basalt]], thousands of feet thick in places, laid down over a period of approximately 11 million years, during the [[Miocene]] epoch.<ref>Orr (1996), pg. 288.</ref> These flood basalts are exposed in some places, while in others they are covered with thick layers of loess.

During the last ice age [[glacier]]s shaped the landscape of the [[Columbia River Plateau]]. Ice blocked the Columbia River near the north end of Grand Coulee, creating glacial lakes [[Glacial Lake Columbia|Columbia]] and Spokane. Ice age glaciers also created [[Glacial Lake Missoula]], in what is now [[Montana]]. Erosion allowed glacial Lake Columbia to begin to drain into what became Grand Coulee, which was fully created when glacial Lake Missoula along with glacial Lake Columbia catastrophically emptied.<ref>Orr (1996), pg. 305.</ref> This flood event was one of several known as the [[Missoula Floods]]. Unique erosion features, called [[channeled scablands]], are attributed to these amazing floods.

==Irrigation of the Columbia Basin==
When it was built, Grand Coulee Dam was the largest dam in the world, but it was only part of the irrigation project. Additional dams were built at the north and south ends of Grand Coulee, the dry canyon south of Grand Coulee Dam, allowing the coulee to be filled with water pumped up from the Columbia River. The resulting reservoir, called [[Banks Lake]], is about {{convert|30|mi|km}} long. Banks Lake serves as the CBP's initial storage reservoir. Additional canals, [[siphon]]s, and reservoirs were built south of Bank Lake, reaching over {{convert|100|mi|km}}. Water is lifted {{convert|280|ft|m}} from Lake Roosevelt to feed the massive network.

Two and three percent of the Columbia's flow is currently diverted at the Grand Coulee Dam. The amount of water annually diverted into the CBP and used for irrigation is larger than the entire annual flow of the [[Colorado River]].<ref name=75years/> There are plans to double the area of irrigated land, according to tour guides at the dam, over the next several decades. However, the Bureau of Reclamation website states that no further development is anticipated, with {{convert|671000|acre|km2}} irrigated out of the original {{convert|1100000|acre|km2}} planned.<ref>[http://www.usbr.gov/dataweb/html/columbia.html Bureau of Reclamation website]</ref>

Interest in completing the Columbia Basin Project's {{convert|1100000|acre|km2}} has grown in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. One reason for the renewed interest is the substantial depletion of the Odessa aquifer. Agricultural operations within the CBP's boundaries but outside the developed portion have for decades used groundwater pumped from the Odessa aquifer to irrigate crops.<ref name=75years/>

==Unintended consequences==
[[Hydroelectricity]] was not the primary goal of the project, but during [[World War II]] the demand for electricity in the region boomed. The [[Hanford Site|Hanford nuclear reservation]] was built just south of the project and aluminum smelting plants flocked to the Columbia Basin. A new power house was built at the Grand Coulee Dam, starting in the late sixties, that tripled the generating capacity. Part of the dam had to be blown up and re-built to make way for the new generators. Electricity is now transmitted to [[Canada]] and as far south as [[San Diego]].

There are a number of issues regarding the runoff of irrigation water. The project region receives about 6 to {{convert|10|in|mm}} of annual rainfall, while the application of irrigation water amounts to an equivalent 40 to {{convert|50|in|mm}}. The original plans did not sufficiently address the inevitable seepage and runoff.<ref name=75years/> In some cases the results are beneficial. For example, numerous new lakes provide recreation opportunities and habitat for fish and game. In other cases agricultural chemical in the runoff cause pollution.

==Environmental impact==
The most prominent negative environmental impact has been the reduction in native fish stocks above the dams. The majority of fish in the Columbia basin are migratory fish like salmon, sturgeon and steelhead. These migratory fish are often destroyed or unable to pass through the narrow passages and turbines at dams. In addition to the physical barriers the dams pose, the slowing speed and altered course of the river raises temperatures, alters oxygen content, and changes river bed conditions. These altered conditions can stress and potentially kill both migratory and local non-migratory organisms in the river. The decimation of these migratory fish stocks has been especially dire for many of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the Pacific Northwest who depended on the salmon for a way of life.

The negative environmental impacts of the Columbia Basin Project have made it a contentious and often politicized issue. A common argument for not implementing environmental safeguards at dam sites is that post-construction modifications would likely have to be significant. Tour guides at the Grand Coulee dam site, for example, indicate that a "fish ladder might have to be {{convert|5|mi|km}} long to get the fish up the {{convert|550|ft|m}} needed, and many fish would die before reaching the upper end" thus no fish ladders were built. Advocates of remedial measures point out that such steps would still be better than the status quo, which has led to marked die-offs and the likely extinction<ref>NWFS 2003 Update Summary, p.5</ref> of several types of salmon.

The massive amounts of irrigation water provided by this project greatly benefits the agricultural production of the area. North Central Washington is one of the largest and most productive tree fruit producing areas on the planet. Without Coulee Dam and the greater Columbia Basin Project, much of North Central Washington State would be too arid for cultivation.

==Economic benefits and costs==
According to the federal Bureau of Reclamation the yearly value of the Columbia Basin Project is $630 million in irrigated crops, $950 million in power production, $20 million in flood damage prevention, and $50 million in recreation.<ref>{{cite web |title= The Story of the Columbia Basin Project |publisher= [[United States Bureau of Reclamation]] |url= http://www.usbr.gov/pn/project/columbia_details.html#ten |accessdate= 25 October 2009}}</ref> The project itself involves costs that are difficult to determine. The farms that receive irrigation water must pay for it, but due to insufficient data from the Bureau of Reclamation it is not possible to compare the total cost paid by the Bureau to the payments received. Nevertheless, the farm payments account for only a small fraction of the total cost to the government, resulting in a the project's agricultural corporations receiving a large water subsidy from the government.<ref name=75years/> Critics describe the CBP as a classical example of federal money being used to subsidize a relatively small group of private special interest irrigation farming in the American West in places where it would never be economically viable under other circumstances.<ref name=75years/>

==See also==
*[[Tributaries of the Columbia River]]
*[[Cities on the Columbia River]]
*[[Hydroelectric dams on the Columbia River]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://contentdm.lib.uidaho.edu/cdm4/browse.php?CISOROOT=%2Fcrbproj University of Idaho Libraries Digital Collections- Columbia Basin Project] Photographs of the construction of the Columbia Basin Project, with a special emphasis on the construction of Grand Coulee Dam.
*[http://www.nwcouncil.org/history/ColumbiaBasinProject.asp History of the CBP] from the Northwest Power and Conservation Council
*[http://www.usbr.gov/pn/project/columbia_index.html Official Website]
*[http://www.usbr.gov/pn/programs/fcrps/salmonrecovery.html Official explanation of Salmon Recovery and Salmon Death-minimizing activities required by the [[Endangered Species Act]]]
* West Coast Salmon Biological Review Team (2003) "[http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/trt/brt/background_and_introduction041905.pdf Updated Status of Federally Listed ESUs of West Coast Salmon and Steelhead]" National Marine Fisheries Service

{{Columbia River}}

[[Category:Columbia River]]
[[Category:Irrigation projects]]
[[Category:Irrigation in the United States]]

[[fr:Columbia Basin Project]]

Internationaler Rosentestgarten Portland

2010-09-13T22:21:25Z

Lightmouse: Mostly units using AWB (7069)

{{nofootnotes|date=January 2010}}
{{refimprove|date=January 2010}}
{{Infobox garden
|garden = International Rose Test Garden
|image = RoseTehst.jpg
|image size = 300px
|alt =
|caption = A panoramic view of the International Rose Test Garden
|type = [[Rose garden]]
|location = [[Portland, Oregon]], United States
|coordinates = {{coord|45.51908|-122.70557|display=inline,title}}
|size = 4.5 acres
|plants = 7,000+
|species = 550
|collections = Shakespeare Garden Gold Medal Garden Royal Rosarian Garden Miniature Rose Garden
|opened = 1917
|owner = City of Portland
|operator =
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The '''International Rose Test Garden''' is a [[rose]] [[garden]] in [[Washington Park (Portland, Oregon)|Washington Park]] in [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]], [[Oregon]], United States. There are over 7,000 rose plants of approximately 550 varieties. The roses bloom from April through October with the peak coming in June, depending on the weather. New rose [[cultivar]]s are continually sent to the garden from many parts of the world and are tested for color, fragrance, disease resistance and other attributes. It is the oldest continuously operating public rose test garden in the United States and exemplifies Portland's nickname of the ''City of Roses''.

==Features==
[[File:Itrg1.jpg|thumb|upright|One of several gardens within the International Rose Test Garden]]
The International Rose Test Garden has {{convert|4.5|acres|m2}} in several tiers facing downtown Portland, the [[Willamette River]] and East Portland. On clear days there are views of the [[Cascade Mountains]], with [[Mount Hood]] featured prominently.

An [[amphitheater]] hosts many events throughout the year, predominantly [[european classical music|classical music]] concerts and a few plays. During good weather the amphitheater is popular with picnickers and people throwing the [[flying disc|disc]] around. The Queens Walk is a brick walkway at the side of the garden with a bronze star honoring each [[Portland Rose Festival|Rose Festival]] queen since 1907.

The Shakespeare Garden originally contained botanicals mentioned in the works of [[William Shakespeare]]. This was later modified to include fewer sun-loving plants due to the copious shade provided by the surrounding trees. There is a formal walkway, raised sitting area, and immaculately tended flora. The rose varieties are named after characters in his plays. It is popular for special occasions, particularly small weddings.

The Gold Medal Garden is a formal garden with award winning roses, walkways, a central fountain, and a gazebo. It is also a frequent site for weddings.

The [[Royal Rosarian]] Garden has paid tribute since 1924 to the goodwill ambassadors and official greeters who serve in the many [[Rose Festival]] events. As each rosarian is ''knighted'', they adopt a rose variety as their namesake. A rose is planted in this garden for each of the highest ranking Rosarian Prime Ministers. This garden-within-a-garden contains many roses which are no longer commercially available.

The Miniature Rose Garden is one of only six such testing grounds for the American Rose Society. The elevated beds at the entrance are popular for their unique varieties.

The Rose Garden Store opened May 1, 2000 to provide guest services.

An abstract stainless steel sculpture and reflection pool and several fountains mix classical and modern styles. Each area of the rose garden has unique character: rose varieties, trees, terrain, lawn.

The roses and other plantings are tended by one year-round gardener—two during the summer—and many volunteers. Approximately 500 hours are volunteered yearly by local enthusiasts

==History==
In 1917 a group of Portland nurserymen came up with the idea for an American rose test garden. Portland had an enthusiastic group of volunteers and {{convert|20|mi|km}} of rose bordered streets, largely from the 1905 Lewis & Clark Exposition. Portland was already dubbed "The City of Roses" so this was leveraged to enhance the reputation. Between Portland Parks and Recreation and the American Rose Society, the garden soon became a reality.

Jessie Currey, president of Portland's Rose Society at the time, petitioned for the city to serve as a safe haven for hybrid roses grown in Europe during World War I. Rose lovers feared that these unique plants could be destroyed as a result of the war. Foreign hybridists sent roses for test from many countries and the garden was an immediate success. Today, Portland is the only North American city that can issue its awards to roses of merit throughout the world.

==Photo gallery==
<gallery>
Image:RoseGardenAmpPano.jpg|The amphitheatre at the Rose Test Garden
Image:RoseTestGardenPortland.jpg|One view of the many rose beds in the garden
image:Pdx_washpark_rosegarden_shakespeare.jpg|Winter in the Shakespeare Garden
Image:InternationalRoseTestGarden.png|A pink rose at the Rose Test Garden, unknown [[cultivar]]
Image:Red_Rose_at_Intl_Test_Garden.JPG|An open red rose and rosebud at the Rose Test Garden, unknown cultivar
Image:Rose Test Garden Sign.JPG|Roses abound throughout the garden
Image:Itrg.jpg|Another view of the garden
Image:rose_dew.jpg|A rose with dew on the petals, from the International Rose Test Garden
</gallery>

==References==
*[[:Image:Pdx washpark rosegarden faq.jpeg|FAQ sign at main entrance]]
*[http://www.rosegardenstore.org/irtg_faqs.cfm Rose Garden store FAQs]

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.portlandrosesociety.org/ Portland Rose Society]
*[http://www.portlandonline.com/parks/finder/index.cfm?action=ViewPark&PropertyID=1113 Portland Parks & Recreation's page]
*[http://www.royalrosarian.org The Royal Rosarians]
*[http://www.rosegardenstore.org/ Rose Garden gift store and information center]

[[Category:Parks in Portland, Oregon]]
[[Category:Botanical gardens in Portland, Oregon]]
[[Category:Gardens in Oregon]]
[[Category:Rose gardens]]

[[es:International Rose Test Garden]]
[[fr:International Rose Test Garden]]
[[vi:Vườn thí nghiệm hoa hồng quốc tế]]

Benutzer:Stefan/Tong lau

2010-09-13T16:22:52Z

Lightmouse: /* Tong Lau in Hong Kong */Mostly units using AWB (7069)

{{expand|date=August 2008}}
{{primarysources|date=August 2008}}
[[File:HK ShanghaiStreet CantoneseVerandahTypePrewarShophouses.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Nos. 600-626 Shanghai Street]], in [[Mong Kok]], [[Hong Kong]].]]
'''Tong Lau''' (唐樓) or '''Kee-lau''' ([[Mandarin Chinese]]: '''Qilou''') was a [[tenement building]] design in late 19th century to 1960s and unique to [[Hong Kong]] and southern [[China]].

==Overview==
Tong Lau is essentially a balcony-type tenement building for residential and commercial use. The ground floor portion is reserved for commercial use, mostly by small businesses like [[pawnshops]] and food vendors. The upper floors were residential use and catered to Chinese residents of [[Hong Kong]]. Most ''Tong Lau'' were 2-4 storeys tall and 15 feet (4.5 m) in width.

==Early Tong Lau==
[[File:HK LSC Lui Seng Chun 2.JPG|230px|thumb|[[Lui Seng Chun]] in [[Mong Kok]], Hong Kong, was built in 1931.]]
19th Century ''Tong Lau'' encompassed [[Chinese architecture|Chinese]] and [[Europe]]an architectural features. The Chinese component was based on building design from southern China, mainly in [[Guangdong]] Province. European influences were usually [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]].

The ''Tong Lau'' roof used wood and/or [[Xieding tiles]] and iron was used for the balconies. The balcony's design was based on the [[Guangzhou-style]]. Windows used French styling and were made of wood and glass.

The upper floors were supported by brick pillars and protruded out to the edge of the street.

Inside, the floors were connected by wooden stairs. Most floors ranged from 450-700 square feet with very high ceilings. Top floors were often living quarters for shopkeepers and their family.

Other architectural features of early Tong Laus:
* [[granite]] capped [[balustrades]]
* decorative [[urns]] on the roof
* wooden floors and joists
* Canton floor tiles

An example of early ''Tong Lau'' or ''Kee-Lau'' is [[Lui Seng Chun]], a [[reinforced concrete]] building built in Hong Kong in 1931.<ref>[http://www.amo.gov.hk/en/built_reuse1.php Antiquities and Monuments Office - Lui Seng Chun]</ref>

==Post War Tong Lau==
[[Image:HK Sai Ying Pun Centre Street Chinese Building 01.jpg|230px|thumb|Example of Tong Lau in [[Sai Ying Pun]], Hong Kong.]]
[[Image:HK Blue Hse Stone Nullah Lane c.jpg|230px|thumb|The osteopathy clinic in the [[Blue House (Hong Kong)|Blue House]], in [[Wan Chai]], Hong Kong.]]
''Tong Lau built'' after [[World War II]] were simpler in design:

Iron balconies were replaced with concrete ones and later sealed with windows. Roofs were often flat with an open terrace and later renovated to allow for additional residential space.

Wooden windows gave way to stainless steel windows. Air conditioning units were added to the windows in the 1970s and 1980s. Often clothes racks were added below the windows and hung above the sidewalk or street below. Signs were hung on the exterior walls and protruded onto the streets below.

Other features of the new ''Tong Lau'' included:
* mosaic floor tiles
* [[terrazzo]] staircase

The post-war boom and influx of immigrants meant [[Hong Kong]] ran short of housing. Tong Lau were seen as a solution and many of these buildings were renovated to become rental units.

Rooms on the upper floors were divided into smaller rooms and sublet as units by owners. They would only accommodate bunk beds. The middle of the floor was common space for tenants to eat and stretch. Bathrooms and kitchens were also shared amongst the tenants on each floor. Tenants paid for electricity and water on a monthly basis.

The sublet of floors in the ''Tong Lau'' results in changes in housing regulations in Hong Kong (Laws of Hong Kong {{convert|123|°F|°C|abbr=on}} chapter "Building (Planning) Regulations", 46).

After the 1960s, many Tong Lau were demolished to give way to taller apartment and commercial buildings. Comparatively few Tong Lau are found in Hong Kong today.

On the 29th January 2010, there is a significant incident of spontaneous whole-building-collapse at no.45J, Ma Tau Wai Road, Hung Hom, when a five-storey Tong Lau of more than 50 years history suddenly collapsed at approximately 1:43pm. There are four people killed, buried under the debris. Such spontaneous, cascading and complete building-collapse in Hong Kong is quite rare since the Second World War and the incident raised concern of the [[HKSAR Government]] and the Hong Kong Public towards the safety of the aging "Tong Lau" population in Hong Kong especially those built with similar specifications about 50 or more years ago.

==Tong Lau in Mainland China==
[[File:Haikou Bo Ai Lu2.jpg|230px|thumb|Old shopping area in [[Haikou]], [[Hainan]] Province.]]
[[File:Guangzhou-shopping-street-0539.jpg|230px|thumb|Shopping street in [[Guangzhou]].]]
Southern China, namely cities in [[Guangdong]] Province, is where the ''Tong Lau'' or ''Qilou'' originated in the late 19th century. They were built by wealthy Chinese merchants in the cities like [[Guangzhou]].

''Qilou'' styles varied from Chinese to European:
* Gothic Style
* Nanyang (Southeast Asia) Style
* Ancient Roman Gallery Style
* Imitation Baroque Style
* Modernisme　
* Traditional Chinese Architectural Style

Locations in [[Guangzhou]] with ''Qilou'':
* Renmin Zhong Road
* Renmin Nan Road
* Shangxiajiu pedestrian street, including Dishifu Road
* Yide road especially area around the [[Sacred Heart Cathedral of Guangzhou|Sacred Heart Stone House Cathedral]]
* Wanfu Road
* Taikang Road
* Xinhua Bookstore of Science and Technology on Beijing Road
* Oi Kwan Hotel on Yanjiangxi Road
* 186 Wenming Road
* 139 Dezheng Nan Road

==Tong Lau in Macau==
[[File:Macau Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro Chow Tai Fook shops.JPG|230px|thumb|[[Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro]] in Macau.]]
[[File:Hk wan chai tram ways 1.jpg|thumb|230px|60-66 [[Johnston Road]], in [[Wan Chai]], Hong Kong, before renovation.]]
[[File:灣仔和昌大押.jpg|thumb|230px|60-66 Johnston Road, Hong Kong, after renovation.]]
[[File:HK Wan Chai Hennessy Road Pawn Shop building.JPG|thumb|230px|Tong Lau housing a [[pawnshop]] at Nos. 369, 371 [[Hennessy Road]], [[Wan Chai]], Hong Kong.]]
''Tong Lau'' are also found in [[Macau]] on [[Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro]] near the [[Largo do Senado]]. ''Tong Lau'' are better preserved in Macau, where they did not give way to newer buildings. Upper floors no longer house people and often reused for commercial use. ''Tong Lau'' here often feature [[Architecture of Portugal|Portuguese]] colonial architectural influences.

==Tong Lau in Hong Kong==
The existence of ''Tong Laus'' was a culmination of a series of historic forces from economic development of [[Hong Kong]], Second World War as well as the influx of Chinese migrants to Hong Kong.<ref>[http://www.ura.org.hk/html/c806000e2b.html Urban Renewal Authority : 60 -66, Johnston Road]</ref>

In 1898, the government introduced a building and public health ordinance which defined all the buildings including ''Tong Laus''. In 1903, the government introduced a maximum height per storey of {{convert|9|ft|m}}, with a four storey limit. This explains the general appearance of ''Tong Laus''. Yet, the ordinance changed in 1964, so no ''Tong Lau'' was built from then on.<ref name="Preservation lacks long-term vision.">Preservation lacks long-term vision. (November 26, 2008). ''South China Morning Post.'', p.5.</ref>

''Tong Laus'' are found throughout [[Hong Kong]] (the [[Heritage conservation in Hong Kong|grading]] of the buildings is indicated into brackets):
* [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]]
** Nos. 174, 176 [[Queen's Road Central]] / 125, 127 [[Wellington Street, Hong Kong|Wellington Street]]<ref name="1444 HB">[http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/ce/Museum/Monument/form/AAB_brief_info_en.pdf Antiquities and Monuments Office - Introduction to 1444 Historic Buildings]</ref>
** Nos. 17, 19 [[Shing Wong Street]]
** Nos. 1-12 [[Wing Lee Street]]<ref>[http://www.ura.org.hk/html/c806000e10e.html Urban Renewal Authority : 10-12 Wing Lee Street]</ref>
* [[Cheung Chau]]
** Nos. 233, 234, 242 Tai San Back Street<ref name="1444 HB" />
* [[Lantau Island]]
** Nos. 46, 48 [[Kat Hing Street]], [[Tai O]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
* [[Mong Kok]]
** No. 119 [[Lai Chi Kok Road]] ([[Lui Seng Chun]]) ([[List of Grade I historic buildings in Hong Kong|Grade I]])<ref name="1444 HB" />
** No. 729 [[Nathan Road]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
** Nos. 1, 3 [[Playing Field Road]]<ref>[http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/ce/Museum/Monument/form/Brief_Information_on_proposed_Grade_III_Items.pdf Brief Information on Proposed Grade III Items. See pp 214-215]</ref>
** Nos. 177-179<ref name="1444 HB" />, 190-204<ref name="20 shops">[http://www.news.gov.hk/en/category/infrastructureandlogistics/080919/html/080919en06006.htm# news.gov.hk - "20 pre-war shophouses to be preserved" (September 19, 2008)]</ref>, 210-212<ref name="20 shops" /> [[Prince Edward Road West]]
** [[Nos. 600-626 Shanghai Street|Nos. 600-606, 612, 614, 620-626 Shanghai Street]]<ref name="1444 HB" /><ref name="20 shops" /> ([[List of Grade I historic buildings in Hong Kong|Grade I]])
* [[North Point]]
** Nos. 89, 91 [[Electric Road]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
* [[Sai Ying Pun]]
** Nos. 145, 147, 149, 151, 153 [[Third Street (Hong Kong)|Third Street]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
* [[Sha Tau Kok]]
** Nos. 1-22 [[San Lau Street]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
* [[Sham Shui Po]]
** Nos. 187, 189 [[Apliu Street]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
** No. 1235 [[Canton Road]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
** Nos. 130, 132 [[Ki Lung Street]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
*** Nos. 117, 119, 121, 123, 125 [[Nam Cheong Street]] ([[List of Grade II historic buildings in Hong Kong|Grade II]])<ref name="1444 HB" />
** No. 75 [[Un Chau Street]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
** No. 170 [[Yee Kuk Street]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
** Nos. 51, 53 [[Yen Chow Street]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
** Nos. 269, 271 [[Yu Chau Street]] ([[List of Grade II historic buildings in Hong Kong|Grade II]])<ref name="1444 HB" />
* [[Sheung Wan]]
** No. 1 [[Queen's Road West]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
* [[Wan Chai]]
** Nos. 369, 371 [[Hennessy Road]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
** Nos. 2, 4, 6, 8 [[Hing Wan Street]]<ref name="1444 HB" /> ([[List of Grade II historic buildings in Hong Kong|Grade II]])
** Nos. 60-66 [[Johnston Road]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
** No. 8 [[King Sing Street]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
** Nos. 1-11 [[Mallory Street]] and 6-12 [[Burrows Street]] ([[Green House (Hong Kong)|Green House]]) ([[List of Grade II historic buildings in Hong Kong|Grade II]])<ref name="1444 HB" />
** Nos. 186-190 [[Queen's Road East]] ([[List of Grade II historic buildings in Hong Kong|Grade II]])<ref name="1444 HB" /><ref>[http://www.ura.org.hk/html/c806000e4e.html Urban Renewal Authority - 186-190, Queen's Road East]</ref>
** No. 6 [[Stewart Road]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
** Nos. 72-74A [[Stone Nullah Lane]] ([[Blue House (Hong Kong)|Blue House]]) ([[List of Grade I historic buildings in Hong Kong|Grade I]])<ref name="1444 HB" />
** No. 18 [[Ship Street, Hong Kong|Ship Street]] ([[List of Grade II historic buildings in Hong Kong|Grade II]])<ref name="1444 HB" />
* [[Yuen Long]]
** No. 31 Lee Yick Street, [[Yuen Long Kau Hui]]<ref name="1444 HB" />
** Nos. 33-35 [[Nam Mun Hau]], Yuen Long Kau Hui<ref name="1444 HB" />

Other areas include: [[Cheung Sha Wan]], [[Hung Hom]], [[Kwun Tong]], [[Shek Kip Mei]], [[Tai Po]], [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], [[Wong Tai Sin, Hong Kong|Wong Tai Sin]], [[Yau Ma Tei]].

==Architects==
[[W.H. Bourne]] a local Hong Kong architect, was one of a few designers of ''Tong Lau''.

==See also==
* [[Shophouse]], similar buildings in Southeast Asia
* [[Architecture of Hong Kong]]
* [[Housing in Hong Kong]]
* [[Terraced house]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Tenement houses in China|Tong Lau}}
* [http://www.heritage.gov.hk/en/rhbtp/virtual.htm Conserve and Revitalise Hong Kong Heritage]
* [http://www.ura.org.hk/html/c804000e2e.html Mallory Street/Burrows Street Project]
* [http://www.skyline-technologies.com/news/0105/100105.htm Heritage enthusiast battles against the wrecker's ball]
* [http://www.ura.org.hk/html/c806000e2e.html Tong Laus in Wan Chai]
*[http://www.lifeofguangzhou.com/node_10/node_228/node_233/node_244/2008/06/25/121437869540623.shtml Old Qilou Buildings: Historical Architecture in Guangzhou (Part 1)]
* [http://www.lifeofguangzhou.com/node_10/node_228/node_233/node_244/2008/07/07/121540905241489.shtml Old Qilou Buildings: Historical Architecture in Guangzhou (Part 2)]

[[Category:Chinese architecture]]
[[Category:Hong Kong architecture]]
[[Category:Macau architecture]]
[[Category:Housing in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Apartment types]]
[[Category:House types]]
[[Category:Cantonese words and phrases]]

[[zh-yue:唐樓]]
[[zh:唐樓]]