Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Chevrolet S-Serie

2008-12-10T16:01:59Z

LibLord: Reverted edits by 209.106.212.253 to last version by 165.249.0.62 (HG)

{{Unreferenced|date=July 2008}}
{{Mergefrom|Chevrolet S-10 SS|date=July 2008}}

{{Infobox Automobile
|name=Chevrolet S-10
|image=[[Image:98-04 Chevrolet S-10.jpg|250px|1998-2004 Chevrolet S-10 regular cab]]
|manufacturer=[[General Motors]]
|production=1982–2004 ([[Shreveport, LA]])<br>1995- ([[São Paolo]], [[Brazil]])
|layout=[[Front-engine design|Front engine]], [[rear-wheel drive]] / [[four-wheel drive]]
|predecessor=[[Chevrolet LUV]]
|successor=[[Chevrolet Colorado]]/[[GMC Canyon]]
|class=Compact [[pickup truck]]
|wheelbase={{convert|108.3|in|mm|0|abbr)on}} (reg. cab short bed)<br>{{convert|117.9|in|mm|0|abbr)on}} (reg. cab long bed)<br>{{convert|122.9|in|mm|0|abbr)on}} (ext. cab short bed)
|assembly=[[Shreveport, Louisiana]], [[USA]]<br>[[São Paulo]], [[Brazil]]
}}

The '''Chevrolet S-10''' was a [[compact car|compact]] [[pickup truck]] from the [[Chevrolet]] marque of [[General Motors]]. When it was first introduced in 1982, the [[GMC (General Motors division)|GMC]] version was known as the '''S-15''' and later renamed the '''GMC Sonoma'''. A high-performance version was released in 1991 and given the name of [[GMC Syclone]]. The truck was also sold by [[Isuzu]] as the '''[[Isuzu Hombre|Hombre]]''' from 1996 through 2000. There was also an [[SUV]] version, the [[Chevrolet S-10 Blazer]]/[[GMC S-15 Jimmy]]. An [[Chevrolet S10 EV|electric version]] was leased as a fleet vehicle in 1997 and 1998. Together, these trucks are often referred to as the '''S-series'''. In 2004, the S-series was replaced by new models: the [[Chevrolet Colorado]], [[GMC Canyon]], and [[Isuzu i-Series]].

{{TOCleft}}
{{-}}

==First generation==
{{Infobox Automobile generation
|name=First generation
|image=[[Image:Chevrolet_S-10_extended_cab.jpg|250px|1991-1993 Chevrolet S-10 extended cab]]
|aka=GMC S-15<br>GMC Sonoma
|production=1982–1993
|engine=1.9 L [[Straight-4|I4]] <BR> 2.0 L [[Straight-4|I4]] <BR> 2.2 L [[Straight-4|I4]] <BR> 2.5 L [[Straight-4|I4]] <BR> 2.8 L [[V6]] <BR> 4.3 L [[V6]]
|transmission=4-speed [[Turbo-Hydramatic#THM200|THM-200C]] [[automatic transmission|automatic]] <BR>4-speed [[Turbo-Hydramatic#700R4_.2F_4L60_.2F_4L60E_.2F_4L65E|700r4/4L60/4L60E]] automatic <BR>5-speed Borg Warner [[Borg-Warner T-5 transmission|T5]] [[manual transmission|manual]]
|length={{convert|178.2|in|mm|0|abbr)on}} (short bed) <BR>{{convert|192.8|in|mm|0|abbr)on}} (extended cab) <BR> {{convert|194.2|in|mm|0|abbr)on}} (long bed)
|width={{convert|64.7|in|mm|0|abbr)on}}
|height={{convert|61.3|in|mm|0|abbr)on}}
|fuel_capacity={{Convert|13.2|usgal|L impgal|0|abbr=on}} <BR> {{Convert|19|usgal|L impgal|0|abbr=on}}
}}
[[Image:1st-Chevrolet-S10.jpg|thumb|right|250px|1983-1990 Chevrolet S-10 single cab]]
The first compact pickup truck from General Motors was the rebadged [[Isuzu KB]] sold since 1972 as the [[Chevrolet LUV]]. The 1973 Arab oil embargo forced GM to consider designing a domestically-produced compact pickup truck. As usual, parts from other GM chassis lines (primarily from the [[GM G platform (RWD)|GM G-body]] [[mid-size car|intermediates]]) were incorporated. The first S-series trucks were introduced in 1982. The Chevrolet and GMC models were identical apart from the grille. An extended cab and "Insta-Trac" four wheel drive were added the next year along with two new engines.

Track width was similar to the former [[GM H platform (RWD)|GM H-body]] [[subcompact]]s ([[Chevrolet Vega|Vega]]/[[Chevrolet Monza|Monza]]).

The sport utility S-10 Blazer and S-15 Jimmy debuted in 1983; GM was the second to introduce compact sport utilities behind [[Jeep]] but ahead of [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]. This trend occurred again where 4-door variants were introduced in March 1990 as 1991 [[model year|models]] alongside the similar [[Oldsmobile Bravada]].

New heavy-duty and off-road suspensions appeared in 1984 along with a hydraulic clutch, while the big news for 1985 was the discontinuing of the [[Chevrolet Cavalier|Cavalier]]'s OHV [[Straight-4|I4]] in favor of [[Pontiac]]'s Iron Duke. The OHV-derived 2.2 L engine and Isuzu 1.9 [[Liter|L]] were both gone the next year, leaving just the Iron Duke and updated 2.8 L [[V6]]. A much-welcomed 4.3 L V6 was added for 1988, and [[anti-lock brakes]] came the next year.

The GMC S-15 became the GMC Sonoma in 1991, and the Sierra trim packages are dropped to avoid confusion with the new GMC Sierra [[full-size]] pickup. The GMC Syclone also appeared that year. The Sonoma GT bowed in 1992. Added to this was the 4.3 L V6 Vortec W code engine. This generation's last year, 1993.

The Vortec is essentially the standard Z code {{Auto CID|262}} [[internal combustion engine|engine]]. The difference is the W code used a balance shaft, roller cam shaft, different heads, and Central Port Injection. The 1992 and 1993 engine came in either a {{Convert|195|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} or {{Convert|205|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} rating. The High Performance version came with a larger diameter Y pipe, and was only installed in some of the Blazers and S-10 Jimmies.

===Engines===
{| class=wikitable
!Years
!Engine
!Power
!Torque
![[VIN]] code
|-
|1982–1985||1.9 [[Liter|L]] [[Isuzu]] [[Straight-4|I4]], [[carburetor|2 barrel]]||{{Convert|84|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|101}}||A
|-
|1982–1985||2.8 L ''[[GM 60-Degree V6 engine|60°]]'' [[V6]], 2 barrel Rochester||{{Convert|115|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|148}}||B
|-
|1983–1985||2.2 L [[Diesel]] [[Straight-4|I4]]||{{Convert|58|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|93}}||S
|-
|1983–1984||2.0 L ''[[GM OHV engine|OHV]]'' [[Straight-4|I4]], 2 barrel||{{Convert|83|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|108}}||Y
|-
|1985–1989||2.5 L ''[[GM Iron Duke engine#Tech IV|Iron Duke]]'' [[Straight-4|I4]], Throttle-Body Injected||{{Convert|92|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|132}}||E
|-
|1986–1993||2.8 L ''[[GM 60-Degree V6 engine|60°]]'' [[V6]], [[TBI]]||{{Convert|125|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|150}}||R
|-
|1988–1995||4.3 L ''[[GM Vortec engine|GM 262inch 4300cc]]'' [[V6]], [[TBI]]||{{Convert|150|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}–{{Convert|165|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|230}}–{{Auto lbft|235}}||Z
|-
|1990–1993||2.5 L ''[[GM Iron Duke engine|Iron Duke]]'' [[Straight-4|I4]], [[TBI]]||{{Convert|105|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|135}}||A
|}
===1993 Sonoma===
Some 1993 Sonomas came with a factory equipped L35 W code engine. For 1993 no specialty labeling or limited edition tags were known to be used with the W code engine. Production totals for these vehicles are unknown.

{{clear}}
{{-}}

==Second generation==
{{Infobox Automobile generation
|name=Second generation
|image=[[Image:1994-1997 Chevrolet S-10.jpg|250px|1994-1997 Chevrolet S-10]]
|aka=GMC Sonoma <BR> [[Isuzu Hombre]]
|production=1994–2004
|engine=2.2 L {{convert|120|hp|abbr=on}} [[Straight-4|I4]] <BR> 4.3 L {{convert|165|hp|abbr=on}} [[V6]] <BR> 4.3 L {{convert|190|hp|abbr=on}} [[V6]]
|transmission=4-speed 4L60E automatic <BR> NV1500 (1996 and up with I4 engine) manual <BR> NV3500 (1990 and up with V6 engine) manual
|length={{convert|190|in|mm|0|abbr)on}} (short bed) <BR> {{convert|203|in|mm|0|abbr)on}} (extended cab) <BR> {{convert|205|in|mm|0|abbr)on}} (long bed)
|width={{convert|67.9|in|mm|0|abbr)on}}
|height={{convert|63.5|in|mm|0|abbr)on}}
|fuel_capacity={{Convert|19|usgal|L impgal|0|abbr=on}}
}}
[[Image:'94-'97 Chevrolet S-10 SS Regular Cab.JPG|thumb|left|200px|1994-1997 Chevrolet S-10 SS regular cab]]
[[Image:94-97 GMC Sonoma.jpg|200px|left|thumb|1994-1997 GMC Sonoma extended cab]]
The second-generation trucks appeared in 1994. All of the special models (the Syclone, Typhoon, and Sonoma GT) were gone, but the changes to the truck brought it in line with arch-rival [[Ford Ranger]]. The Iron Duke and 2.8 L 60° V6 engines were dropped, leaving just the 4.3 L Vortec and a new 2.2 L engine, itself a derivative of the old Cavalier OHV. This design generation was the first one to introduce airbags as safety features. Ironically, the fist model year of this design generation was also the last one to have non-airbagged models. Likewise models from other companies who started a design generation on this model year such as the [[Dodge Ram Van]] also had the last non-airbagged models that year.

Much of the chassis components were the same as the first generation (the A-frames between the first and second generation were the same although they were originally sourced from GM's G-body vehicle lineup), along with the steering knuckle, leaf springs, and differential assembly. The second generation also offered an optional 8.5" rear differential (they were common with 4WD S-series with the ZR2 off road package, and 2000-03 2WDs including the Xtreme). [[Image:ZR2a.jpg|250px|thumb|left|1998-2003 Chevy S10 extended cab ZR2]]Generally, for the [[Two wheel drive|2WD]] trucks, the 8.5" rearend was only used when it came with both a [[manual transmission]] and the large {{Auto Lrev|262}} [[V6 engine]]; it was standard for 4WD trucks with either [[transmission (mechanics)|transmission]]. This was also the year that GM introduced the [[RPO ZR2|ZR2 Offroad Package]].

[[Image:01-04 Chevrolet S-10 crew cab.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Chevrolet S-10 crew cab]]The 4.3 L engines were refreshed for 1996 and a third (rear) door was added for extended cab models, along with the sportside bed option. The exterior, interior, brakes, and 2.2 L [[Straight-4|I4]] engine were refreshed for 1998, and "Auto-Trac" [[all-wheel drive]] was optional starting in 1999 for the Blazers. Also the SS package was replaced by the "Xtreme" package. In 2001 a Crew Cab option was added and was available in 4WD and [[automatic transmission]] only.

The "Xtreme" package was available on all cabs and wheelbases with any powertrain. It required the "ZQ8" optional sport suspension, complete with a 2" "drop" installed at the factory. The "Xtreme" features a lower body "ground effects" package along the rocker panels and bottom of the pickup box and unique badging on the front doors and tailgates, along with 16" alloy wheels and P235/55/R16 Goodyear tires. Optional on the "xtreme" were rally stripes and a "Heat" graphics package, available separately or combined.

Base 2WD models came with 15x6.5 inch wheels with directional vents, [[Xtreme]] and [[ZQ8]] models came with 16x8" wheels while 4WD models (including the [[RPO ZR2|ZR2]]) used 15x7" wheels. The {{convert|14|in|mm|sing=on}} wheels used on the first generation were discontinued.
<br>
<br>
Second-generation S-series were also produced locally in [http://72.30.186.56/babelfish/translate_url_content?lp=pt_en&trurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww2.uol.com.br%2fbestcars%2fcpassado%2fs10-5.htm Brazil]; and are still in production even though the North American version of the S-series was discontinued in 2004. Brazilian S-10s have a different front grille, lamps and bumper, and are available with a 2.8 Diesel engine built by [[MWM Motores Diesel Ltda|MWM]].

==Engine Swaps==
The 2wd S-series Truck shares several front suspension components with the GM G-body platforms (I.e. Chevy Monte Carlo and [[Buick Regal]]). Along with the fact that the optional 4.3 liter V-6 shares several characteristics and dimensions of the early small block Chevy V-8 it has become a popular platform for Hot Rodders. Since the introduction of the S-series the ingenuity of its owners has made the [[V8]] installation one of the most popular American domestic [[engine swap]]s. With relative ease the V-8 swap has seen almost every size small block Chevy displacement produced from 262 in³ to the large {{Auto CID|400}} engine. Some owners have even been able to install the large big block GM engines such as the 396-427-454 in³ engines with minor modifications.

The LSx series powerplants (LS1, LS2 series) can also be swapped into the S-series.

The chassis is a very common swap into older trucks (especially) and cars from the mid 1930's to early 60's, giving the [http://www.ad-engineering.com/index.html advantages of late model running gear and the ability to have a large choice of engines, including the GM LS1. Kits are commercially available] to do this swap.

===Engines===
{| class=wikitable
!Years
!Engine
!Power
!Torque
![[VIN]] code
|-
|1994–1995||2.2 L ''[[GM I4 engine#I4 2200|I4 2200]]'' [[Straight-4|I4]], [[Multi-port Fuel Injection|MPFI]]||{{Convert|118|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|138}}||4
|-
|1996–1997||2.2 L ''[[GM Vortec engine#Vortec 2200|Vortec 2200]]'' [[Straight-4|I4]], [[Sequential Fuel Injection|SFI]]||{{Convert|118|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|138}}||4
|-
|1998–2003||2.2 L ''[[GM Vortec engine#Vortec 2200|Vortec 2200]]'' [[Straight-4|I4]], [[Sequential Fuel Injection|SFI]]||{{Convert|120|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|140}}||4 or 5
|-
|1994–1996||4.3 L ''[[GM Vortec engine#Vortec 4300|Vortec 4300]]'', [[TBI]]||{{Convert|150|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}–{{Convert|165|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|230}}–{{Auto lbft|235}}||Z
|-
|1993–1995||4.3 L ''[[GM Vortec engine#Vortec 4300|Vortec 4300]]'', [[CPI]]||{{Convert|180|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}–{{Convert|195|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|250}}||W
|-
|1996–2004||4.3 L ''[[GM Vortec engine#Vortec 4300|Vortec 4300]]'', [[SEFI]]||{{Convert|190|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}–{{Convert|190|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}}||{{Auto lbft|245}}–{{Auto lbft|250}}||W, X ('03-'04)
|}

Engine Code Options--
4- 2.2 L w/ MPFI or SFI,
5- 2.2 L w/ SFI and Flex Fuel Capable,
Z- 4.3 L w/ TBI,
W- 4.3 L w/ CPI,SFI
X- 4.3 L w/ MFI,

Please note that for '95 - '02 the "W" engine code was used to denote the 4.3L V6 with 190hp. The "X" code for '95-'02 was used for the 4.3L with 180hp. In 2003 GM removed the "W" engine code and the "X" engine code denoted 4.3L engines with 190hp.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Chevrolet S 10}}
* [http://www.syty.net Syclone/Typhoon/Sonoma GT Forums]
* [http://www.S10Forum.com S10Forum.com - A great site dedicated to S-series enthusiasts.]
* [http://www.s10v8.com S10 V8 Conversion Forum]
* [http://www.v8s10.org]

{{Chevrolet Truck}}

[[Category:Chevrolet vehicles|S-10]]
[[Category:Flexible-fuel vehicles]]
[[Category:Pickup trucks]]
[[Category:Rear wheel drive vehicles]]
[[Category:All wheel drive vehicles]]
[[Category:1980s automobiles]]
[[Category:1990s automobiles]]
[[Category:2000s automobiles]]
[[Category:Vehicles introduced in 1982]]
[[Category:Goods manufactured in the United States]]

[[fr:Chevrolet S-10]]
[[lt:Chevrolet S-10]]
[[ja:シボレー・S-10]]
[[pt:Chevrolet S-10]]

Cola-Mentos-Fontäne

2008-12-10T15:50:18Z

LibLord: Reverted edits by 64.251.50.178 to last version by Unpopular Opinion (HG)

{{globalize/US}}

'''Diet Coke and Mentos Eruption''' (also known as a '''Mentos eruption''' or a '''coke geyser''') is a reaction of [[Diet Coke]] and mint [[Mentos]] candies. The eruption is caused by opening a bottle of Diet Coke (typically a two liter bottle) and dropping a Mentos into the bottle. The reaction causes the Diet Coke to foam at a rapid rate and spew into the air. Mint is used instead of fruit-flavor Mentos because fruit flavored Mentos have a smooth coating which slows the reaction. Because of the nature of this physical reaction and the easy availability of the ingredients, the eruption is a popular subject for Internet videos, and has also appeared in non-Internet sources.
A variation of this experience consists on making the bottle rocket up by closing the cap shortly after Mentos is inserted and, then, slam the bottle into the ground cap first. The explosion will generate a reaction like the engines of a rocket.

==History==
[[Image:Diet Coke Mentos.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A [[Diet Coke]] 2 liter bottle shortly after Mentos were dropped into it]]
[[Image:Diet Coke Mentos Geyser.jpg|thumb|upright|right]]
[[Steve Spangler]] initiated the [[Internet phenomenon]] when he appeared on 9News in 2002 and 2005, both times showcasing the experiment. <ref>[[Denver, Colmy]] by [[InternetRetailer]] on [[March 27]], [[2007]]. Accessed on [[April 17]], [[2007]].</ref>
The experiment's result was then further popularized by the website Eepybird.com, which promoted a video in which Fritz Globe and Stephen Voltz re-created the fountain display seen in front of the [[Bellagio (hotel and casino)|Bellagio hotel]] in [[Las Vegas Strip|Las Vegas]] using a timed series of eruptions. Later Eepybird videos featured "self-activating" soda jets linked together to form a [[Domino Rally]]-style effect. In September 2007, the videos, including the "Extreme Diet Coke and Mentos Experiments" video that was viewed more than 10 million times, earned the pair the highest yearly payout of [[US$]]50,000 from the [[video hosting service]] [[Revver]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.usatoday.com/tech/webguide/internetlife/2007-09-13-revver_N.htm | title = Posters reap cash rewards at video-sharing site Revver | accessdate = 2007-09-13 | date = 2007-09-12 | author = Graham, Jefferson | work =USA Today | quote = The biggest paycheck — $50,000 for 15 clips — went to two guys from a Mentos mint into a bottle of Diet Coke (KO) and watched it explode}}</ref>

The eruption has been reproduced many times by popular sources, including the television shows ''[[Numb3rs]]'', ''[[Bones (TV series)|''Bones'']]'' and ''[[MythBusters]]'' and an appearance by cast member [[Kari Byron]] in ''[[FHM]]'' magazine, an experiment conducted by [[Bart Simpson]] on ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode, "[[The Debarted]]", an appearance on the ''[[Late Show with David Letterman]]'' by physics teacher Lee Marek, and others. The ''[[MythBusters]]'' later set the record highest soda jet recorded, at over 29 feet (9 meters), using a nozzle.

Setting world records for the most simultaneous Mentos-and-Diet-Coke Eruptions has become a new challenge for groups of people. The original world record - 504 simultaneous eruptions - was set on [[May 24]], [[2007]], and was broken on [[July 10]], [[2007]], by Circle R Ranch and Books Are Fun during a special event in Flower Mound, Texas. Guinness World Records certified the record-setting effort when independent sales representatives from Books Are Fun, a Reader's Digest Company, simultaneously dropped Mentos into individual two-liter bottles of Diet Pepsi, creating 791 gesers and reaching over 29 feet with the use of a nozzle.

The next record was set on [[April 23]], [[2008]], by students in the [[Belgian]] city of [[Leuven]]; they simultaneously launched 1,360 Mentos geysers<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/worldnews.html?in_article_id=561900&in_page_id=1811 Daily Mail news article]</ref>. Then, on [[May 14]], [[2008]], students at [[Louisville Male High School]] in Louisville, Kentucky, broke that record by setting off 1,800 simultaneous geysers.<ref>[http://www.wlky.com/video/16266774/index.html Video]</ref>.

The current [[Guinness World Record]] - 1,911 simultaneous geysers<ref>[http://gizmodo.com/5018549/turiba-university-sets-world-record-with-1911-simultaneous-coke+mentos-explosions Turiba University Sets World Record with 1911 Simultaneous Coke+Mentos Esplosions on Gizmodo.com]</ref> - was set on [[June 19]], [[2008]], by students of The School of Business Administration [http://www.turiba.lv?object_id=199 Turiba] in [[Latvia]]. This record was registered by the official representative of the Guinness World Record book<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_79ufqZ5H9M VIDEO - 1,911 Simultanous Cola & Mentos fountains were made to set new Guiness World Record on June 19th, 2008 in Riga, Latvia]</ref>.

==Explanation==
The reaction was the subject of an [[August 9]], [[2006]] episode of ''[[MythBusters]]'', a popular television program on the [[Discovery Channel]].<ref>[http://www.tv.com/mythbusters/diet-coke-and-mentos/episode/822481/summary.html MythBusters: Diet Coke and Mentos - TV.com]</ref> They concluded that the [[caffeine]], [[potassium benzoate]], [[aspartame]], and CO<sub>2</sub> gas contained in the [[Diet Coke]] and the [[gelatin]] and [[gum arabic]] ingredients of the Mentos all contribute to the jet effect.<ref name=OHare>{{cite news | first = Kate | last = O'Hare | url = http://www.zap2it.com/tv/news/zap-mythbustersmentos,0,4325641.story | title = The 'MythBusters' Take on the Mentos/Diet Coke Craze | accessdate = 2007-01-21 }}</ref> In addition, the MythBusters theorized that the physical structure of the Mentos is the most significant cause of the eruption due to nucleation. When flavored Mentos with a smooth waxy coating were tested in [[carbonated water]], no reaction occurred, whereas standard Mentos added to carbonated water formed a small eruption, by their claim, affirming the nucleation-site theory, the surface of the mint Mentos is littered with many small holes, allowing CO<sub>2</sub> bubbles to form very rapidly and in great quantity, in turn causing the jet of foam. This was further supported when [[rock salt]] was used as an effective substitute for Mentos.<ref name=OHare>{{cite news | first = Kate | last = O'Hare | url = http://www.zap2it.com/tv/news/zap-mythbustersmentos,0,4325641.story | title = The 'MythBusters' Take on the Mentos/Diet Coke Craze | accessdate = 2007-01-21 }}</ref>

A paper by Tonya Coffey, a physicist at Appalachian State University in Boone, North Carolina goes into detail on the reasons and physics behind the reaction.<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14114-science-of-mentosdiet-coke-explosions-explained.html Science of Mentos-Diet Coke explosions explained]</ref><ref>[http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.2888546 Diet Coke and Mentos: What is really behind this physical reaction?]</ref>

Steve Spangler, who first put the Mentos Geyser in the public eye, has several videos and detailed experiments about it on his website. <ref>Steve Spangler's personal website at http://www.stevespangler.com</ref> The Geyser Tube is a device invented for use in creating the reaction.[http://www.geysertube.com/]

One reason for the popularity of this demonstration is its comparative safety. Because the interaction releases only the carbon dioxide already present in the liquid, the cola bottle should not usually rupture if capped, although it is possible to break the bottle with physical force.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PEmq3xLvJ5U&feature=related|title=YouTube demonstration video}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QuMASPj6Fg&feature=related|title=YouTube video: Mentos rockets}}</ref> This differs from similar demonstrations with [[dry ice]] which have the potential to generate much larger pressures depending on the amount used.

==See also==
*[[Dry ice bomb]]
*[[Chlorine bomb]]
*[[Nucleation]]
*[[MythBusters (season 4)#Episode 57 .E2.80.94 .22Diet Coke and Mentos.22|"Diet Coke and Mentos"]], the ''[[MythBusters]]'' episode chronicling the experiment
*[[Alka-Seltzer rocket]]
*[[Water rocket]]
*[[Domino effect]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/HS/Journal/Issues/2006/Apr/clicSubscriber/V83N04/p577.pdf John E. Baur, Melinda B. Baur, The Ultrasonic Soda Fountain: A Dramatic Demonstration of Gas Solubility in Aqueous Solutions, Journal of Chemical Education, vol 83 no 4, April 2006, pp577–580]

== External links ==
*[http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=mentos+diet+coke&search=Search Various Videos of the "Mentos Eruption"] at [[YouTube]]
*[http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistryhowtoguide/ht/mentos.htm About.com Chemistry page with instructions]
*[http://www.eepybird.com/ Eepybird, official site]
*[http://cocamentos.free.fr/ Cocamentos, official european site, soon available in english]
*[http://www.cokerocketbros.com Coke Rocket Bros] videos of experiments with [[Coca-Cola|Coke]] and [[Mentos]]
*[http://www.flickr.com/groups/mentos/ Planet Mentos - Mentos eruption pics on flickr]
*[http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/consumer/faq/mentos.shtml Mentos Reaction Explained]
*[http://www.nakotnespilseta.lv Cola & Mentos record dedicated blog in Latvian]
*[http://www.sciencewonderland.synthasite.com Science Wonderland]

[[Category:Chemistry classroom experiments]]
[[Category:Internet memes]]
[[Category:YouTube videos]]
[[Category:Viral videos]]

[[da:Mentos-udbrud]]
[[eo:Kolao-mentosa efiko]]
[[fr:Effet geyser du mélange Mentos-boisson gazeuse]]
[[it:Eruzione Coca-Cola Light e Mentos]]
[[he:התפרצות כתוצאה מהתגרענות]]
[[pt:Efeito coca-mentos]]
[[fi:Kevytkola ja Mentos -purkaus]]
[[sv:Mentos och läsk-utbrott]]

Edamame

2008-12-10T15:33:40Z

LibLord: Reverted edits by 209.57.35.135 to last version by Lambiam (HG)

[[Image:Edamame by Zesmerelda in Chicago.jpg|thumb|Boiled green soybeans in the pod.]]

{{nihongo|'''Edamame'''|枝豆}} is a preparation of baby [[soybean]]s in the pod commonly found in [[Japan]], [[China]] and [[Korea]]. The pods are boiled in water together with [[condiment]]s such as [[salt]], and served whole.

Outside [[East Asia]], the dish is most often found in Japanese restaurants and some Chinese restaurants, but has also found popularity elsewhere as a healthy food item.

==Name==
The Japanese name ''edamame'' is commonly used in some [[English language|English]]-speaking countries to refer to the dish. The Japanese name literally means "twig bean" (''eda'' = "twig" + ''mame'' = "bean"), and is a reference to the short stem attached to the pod. This term originally referred to young soybeans in general. Over time, however, the prevalence of the salt-boiled preparation meant that the term ''edamame'' now often refers specifically to this dish.

In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], young soybeans are known as ''maodou'' ({{zh-cpl|c=毛豆|p=máodòu|l=hairy bean}}). Young soybeans in the pod are known as ''maodoujia'' ({{zh-cpl|c=毛豆荚|p=máodòujiá|l=hairy bean pod}}). Because boiling in the pod is the usual preparation for young soybeans, the dish is usually identified via a descriptive name, such as "boiled ''maodou''", or "salt-boiled ''maodou''", depending on the condiments added, but like in Japan, simply saying the name of the bean, maodou, in a Chinese restaurant will produce salt-flavored, boiled maodou.

==Preparation==
Green soybeans in the pod are picked before they ripen. The ends of the pod may be cut before boiling or steaming.

The pods are then boiled in water or steamed. The most common preparation uses salt for taste. The salt may either be dissolved in the boiling water before introducing the soybean pods, or it may be added after the pods have been cooked.

Other condiments can also be used. ''Jiuzao'' ({{zh-cpl|c=酒糟|p=jiǔzāo|l=wine dregs}}), made from the highly fermented grain residue left over from the distilling of [[rice wine]], can be used to add fragrance and flavor. Some recipes also call for [[Sichuan pepper]] for taste. [[Five-spice powder]] can also be used for flavoring.

Boiled soybean pods are usually served after cooling, but can also be served hot.

The beans are consumed by using one's fingers and teeth to squeeze them out of the pod. The pod itself is discarded.

The United States Department of Agriculture states that edamame are "a soybean that can be eaten fresh and is best known as a snack with a nutritional punch".<ref>[http://www.csrees.usda.gov/nea/ag_systems/sri/sustain_ag_sri_sare_beans.html USDA government article about edamame]</ref>

==Health==
Fiber-rich foods such as edamame help prevent mood fluctuations by keeping blood-sugar levels steady.<ref>[http://www.parade.com/articles/editions/2008/edition_06-15-2008/4Six_Great_Foods Parade Magazine June 15, 2008]</ref> Edamame also contains protein, which further helps stabilize blood sugar, and omega-3 fatty acids, which have been shown to combat depression {{Fact|date=July 2008}}.

Edamame beans contain higher levels of abscissic acid, sucrose, protein than other types of soybean. They also contain a high source of vitamin A, vitamin B and calcium.

==See also==
{{commons|category:Edamame|Edamame}}
*[[Soybean]]
*[[Kongnamul]]

==External links==
* [http://www.edamame.com/ Edamame.com] from Kimura & Associates, Food Broker.
* [http://www.evergreenseeds.com/edsoyed.html Edamame (Edible soybeans, Mao Dou)] from Evergreen seeds.
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/database/spicytofuandedamameb_89267.shtml BBC Food recipe]
==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Soy products]]
[[Category:Chinese ingredients]]
[[Category:Japanese cuisine]]

[[it:Edamame]]
[[ja:枝豆]]
[[zh:大豆]]

Nugent Castle

2008-12-10T14:23:49Z

LibLord: Reverted edits by 87.42.13.64 to last version by LibLord (HG)

{{Infobox Irish Place|
name = Delvin|
gaeilge = Dealbhna or Dealbhna Mhór|
crest image = |
motto = |
map image = Ireland map County Westmeath Magnified.png|
pin coords = left: 104px; top: 55px |
north coord = 53.6106 |
west coord = 7.0925 |
irish grid = N601626 |
area = |
elevation = 115 m |
province = [[Leinster]] |
county = [[County Westmeath]] |
dailconstituency = [[Westmeath (Dáil Éireann constituency)|Westmeath]]|
EU constituency = [[East (European Parliament constituency)|East]] |
stdcode = |
town pop = 271|
rural pop = 558|
census yr = 2002 |
|}}

'''Delvin''' ({{lang-ga|Dealbhna'' or ''Dealbhna Mhór}}) is a small town in north [[County Westmeath]], [[Ireland]] located on the [[N52 road (Ireland)|N52]] [[roads in Ireland|road]] at a junction with the [[N51 road (Ireland)|N51]] to [[Navan]]. The town is 20 km from [[Mullingar]] (along the N52) and is the setting of the book [[Valley of the Squinting Windows]] by [[Brinsley MacNamara]], described under the fictitious name of "Garradrimna".
[[Image:IMG DelvinCastle1779c.jpg|thumb|280px|left|Old ruin of Delvin/Nugent Castle <br>in the Main Street (1181)]]
The word Delvin comes from [[Delbhna]], a tribe from the west of Ireland. Members of this tribe settled in the place that is now Delvin.

==Delvin Castle and Clonyn Castle==
The original Delvin Castle (aka Nugent Castle), now in ruin, is believed to have been built in [[1181]] by [[De Lacy|Hugh de Lacy]], Lord of Meath for his brother-in-law, [[Gilbert de Nugent]]. Gilbert De Nugent came to Ireland with Hugh De Lacy in [[1171]]. Gilbert settled on some land in Delvin and was granted the title Baron of Delvin. The ruins of Nugent Castle remain near the center of the town. A second castle was built by Gilbert de Nogent some centuries later, some hundreds of metres from the centre of the Delvin settlement of that time. Today, [[Clonyn Castle]] is situated on dominant ground south of Delvin between the [[N52 road (Ireland)|N52]] and the Collinstown road. An alternative access to the castle grounds exists on this Collinstown road opposite the church. This access also is used by the Delvin golf course club members.

[[The Barony of Delvin]] remained with the Viscounts Gormanston throughout the 19th and early 20th century. Indeed, it was not until the 1990s that the Barony was once again deeded to a de Vere. Richard II granted Robert de Vere 9th Earl of Oxford and 10th Lord Chamberlain the Marquessate of Dublin and the whole of Ireland at this time, when the de Vere's took right to Kilkea Castle. (The Barony of Delvin was contained in the earldom of Oxford, by Aubery de Vere, until it was broken up by Robert de Vere's Irish dominions in 1392). Viscounts Gormanston stood down on behalf of Lady Wendy DeVere Knight-Wilton in the 1990s giving assignment on behalf of her husband, so the deed of the Barony could be passed on to him, Raymond John DeVere-Austin, AKA Raymond Austin (the DeVere family name was joined to Austin on his marriage to Wendy DeVere Knight-Wilton in 1984). It is the present holder, Baron DeVere-Austin of Delvin, to whom the honour of taking this historic feudal title into the next millennium belongs.

[[Image:DelvinRCChurch2935.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Church of the Assumption (1881)]]

==Amenities/Facilities==
Delvin Castle Golf Club—an 18 hole golf course—is located near the town. There is a bank branch, school, church, hotel/guest house, a few shops and a take-away in the town. There are also a few pubs on the Main Street, the most popular being O'Shaughnessy's. It is likely that several more amenities will open over the next few years due to the construction of a large housing estate near the town in 2004.

Recently a new hair salon has opened on main street and many new houses have been built since 2004. As of 2007 the town has continued to expand and work on a development in the centre of the village has recently recommenced. Plans have also recently been unveiled for the provision of a new sports and leisure facility within the village. Some outdoor facilities are expected to be available by Summer 2007, while plans for the multi-purpose indoor leisure complex are being prepared and fund raising gathers pace.
==See also==

*[[List of towns and villages in the Republic of Ireland|List of towns and villages in Ireland]]
* [[Sir Thomas Chapman, 7th Baronet]]
* Actress Mary McEvoy who played Biddy Byrne in Glenroe is from Delvin.

==External links==
*[http://www.hal-pc.org/~nugent/castle.html Nugent Castle]
*[http://cloghmore.bravepages.com/westmeath/delvin.html Picture of the Castle]
*[http://www.golfmidlandsireland.com/clubfrm.htm Delvin Golf Club]

[[Category:Towns and villages in County Westmeath]]

[[ga:Dealbhna]]
[[nl:Delvin]]
[[ru:Делвин]]
[[sv:Delvin]]

Nugent Castle

2008-12-10T14:22:36Z

LibLord: Reverted edits by 87.42.13.64 to last version by LibLord (HG)

Nugent Castle

2008-12-10T14:21:44Z

LibLord: Reverted edits by 87.42.13.64 to last version by 92.10.26.174 (HG)

Katzenjunges

2008-12-09T14:17:19Z

LibLord: Reverted edits by 170.158.63.173 to last version by ABF (HG)

{{ otheruses3|Kitten (disambiguation)}}

[[Image:Six weeks old cat (aka).jpg|thumb|right|250px|A six-week-old kitten]]
'''Kittens''' ([[Old English language|Old English]] [[diminutive]] of ''[[cat]]'') are juvenile domesticated cats (''Felis catus'') that are not fully-grown.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', Second Edition (Oxford University Press, 1989)</ref>

The young of [[big cat]]s are called [[cub]]s rather than kittens. Either term may be used for the young of smaller wild [[felidae|felids]] such as [[ocelot]]s, [[caracal]]s, and [[lynx]], but "kitten" is usually more common for these species.

Though the term primarily refers to young cats, it can also be used when talking about the young of [[beavers]], [[hedgehogs]], [[rabbits]], [[rats]], [[skunks]] and [[squirrels]].

[[Image:Youngkitten.JPG|thumb|200px|right|A kitten opens its [[eye]]s for the first time.]]
A [[Litter (animal)|litter]] of kittens usually consists of two to five kittens. They are born after a [[gestation]] that lasts between 64-67 days, with an average length of 66 days.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tsutsui T, Stabenfeldt GH |title=Biology of ovarian cycles, pregnancy and pseudopregnancy in the domestic cat |journal=J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. |volume=47 |issue= |pages=29–35 |year=1993|pmid=8229938}}</ref> Kittens emerge in a sac called the ''[[amnion]]'' which is bitten off and eaten by the mother cat.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Miglino MA, Ambrósio CE, dos Santos Martins D, Wenceslau CV, Pfarrer C, Leiser R |title=The carnivore pregnancy: the development of the embryo and fetal membranes |journal=Theriogenology |volume=66 |issue=6-7 |pages=1699–702 |year=2006 |pmid=16563485 |doi=10.1016/j.theriogenology.2006.02.027}}</ref>

For the first several weeks, kittens are unable to urinate or defecate without being stimulated by their mother. They are also unable to regulate their body temperature for the first three weeks, so kittens born in temperatures less than 27[[Celsius|°C]] (80 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]) can die from exposure if they are not kept warm by their mother.

The mother's milk is very important for the kittens' nutrition and proper growth. This milk transfers [[antibody|antibodies]] to the kittens, which helps protect them against [[infectious disease]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Casal ML, Jezyk PF, Giger U |title=Transfer of colostral antibodies from queens to their kittens |journal=Am. J. Vet. Res. |volume=57 |issue=11 |pages=1653–8 |year=1996 |pmid=8915447}}</ref> Newborn kittens are also unable to produce concentrated [[urine]], so have a very high requirement for fluids.<ref>{{cite book |author=Phillips C, Rochlitz I |title=Animal Welfare Volume 3: The Welfare of Cats |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3227-7_9 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/p810106748657h72/fulltext.pdf}} page 243</ref>

Kittens open their [[eye]]s about seven to ten days following [[birth]]. At first, the [[retina]] is poorly-developed and vision is poor. Kittens are not able to see as well as adult cats until about ten weeks after birth.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tootle JS, Friedlander MJ |title=Postnatal development of the spatial contrast sensitivity of X- and Y-cells in the kitten retinogeniculate pathway |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=1325–40 |year=1989 |pmid=2703879 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/reprint/9/4/1325.pdf}}</ref>

Kittens develop very quickly from about two weeks of age until their seventh week. Their coordination and strength improve, they play-fight with their litter-mates, and begin to explore the world outside the nest. They learn to wash themselves and others as well as play hunting and stalking games, showing their inborn ability as predators. These innate skills are developed by the kittens' mother or other adult cats bringing live prey to the nest. Later, the adult cats also demonstrate hunting techniques for the kittens to emulate.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Poirier FE, Hussey LK |title=Nonhuman Primate Learning: The Importance of Learning from an Evolutionary Perspective |journal=Anthropology & Education Quarterly |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=133–148 |year=1982 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-7761%28198222%2913%3A2%3C133%3ANPLTIO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A |doi=10.1525/aeq.1982.13.2.05x1830j}}</ref>

As they reach three to four weeks old, the kittens are gradually [[weaning|weaned]] and begin to eat solid food, with weaning usually complete by six to eight weeks.<ref>{{cite book |author=Phillips C, Rochlitz I |title=Animal Welfare Volume 3: The Welfare of Cats - Nutrition and Welfare |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3227-7_9 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/p810106748657h72/fulltext.pdf}} page 244</ref> Kittens live primarily on solid food after weaning, but usually continue to suckle from time to time until separated from their mothers. Some mother cats will scatter their kittens as early as three months of age, while others continue to look after them until they approach sexual maturity.
[[Image:Laitche-P013.jpg|left|thumb|220px|A litter of kittens with their mother]]
The gender of kittens is usually easy to determine by six to eight weeks. The [[male]]'s [[Urethral sphincter|urethral opening]] is round, whereas the [[female]]'s is a slit. Another marked difference is the distance between [[anus]] and urethral opening, which is greater in males than in females.

Kittens are highly social animals and spend most of their waking hours interacting with available animals and playing. Play with other kittens peaks in the third or fourth month after birth, with more solitary hunting and stalking play peaking later, at about five months.<ref name=p18>{{cite book |author=Crowell-Davis, S |title=Animal Welfare Volume 3: The Welfare of Cats - Cat Behaviour: Social Organization, Communication and Development |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3227-7_1 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/ux33718426526554/fulltext.pdf}} page 18</ref> Kittens are vulnerable to harm because they like to find dark places to hide; with sometimes fatal results if they are not watched carefully.

Although domestic kittens are commonly sent to new homes at six to eight weeks of age, it has been suggested that being with its mother and litter mates from six to twelve weeks is important for a kitten's social and behavioural development.<ref name=p18/> Usually, breeders will not sell a kitten that is younger than twelve weeks, and in many jurisdictions, it is illegal to give away kittens younger than eight weeks old.<ref>{{cite book |last= Sunquist |first= Mel |coauthors= Fiona Sunquist |title= Wild Cats of the World |publisher= University of Chicago Press |year= 2002 |isbn= 0-226-77999-8 | url= http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/779998.html }}</ref>

==Caring for domestic kittens==
Kittens require a high-calorie diet that contains more protein than the diet of adult cats.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rogers QR, Morris JG |title=Essentiality of amino acids for the growing kitten |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=718–23 |year=1979 |pmid=430271 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/109/4/718.pdf}}</ref> From weaning until about one year of age they should be fed a diet specifically formulated for kittens. Orphaned kittens too young to eat solid food may be fed a cat milk replacement formula every two to four hours. Kittens should not be fed cow's milk because it does not provide all of the necessary nutrients.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Guilford WG |title=Nutritional management of gastrointestinal tract diseases of dogs and cats |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=124 |issue=12 Suppl |pages=2663S–2669S |year=1994 |pmid=7996263 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/124/12_Suppl/2663S.pdf}}</ref> Cats are generally intolerant of sugars in their diets and both [[sucrose]] (table sugar) and [[lactose]] are not digested and cause soft stools or [[diarrhea]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kienzle E |title=Blood sugar levels and renal sugar excretion after the intake of high carbohydrate diets in cats |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=124 |issue=12 Suppl |pages=2563S–2567S |year=1994 |pmid=7996238 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/124/12_Suppl/2563S.pdf}}</ref> Orphaned kittens that are not urinating or defecating must be stimulated to do so after each meal by rubbing with a warm, damp washcloth at the base of their spine where the tail begins.<ref>''Feline How-to Manual'' from Pawprints and Purrs, Inc, on feeding newborn cats [http://www.sniksnak.com/cathealth/howto10.html Feline How-To Manual: Feeding the Cat - Including Newborn Kitten Feeding ~ Pawprints and Purrs, Inc.] at www.sniksnak.com</ref> This is vital to the kitten's survival.

Hand-reared kittens tend to be very affectionate and more dependent on humans as adults, but can also show volatile mood swings and aggression.<ref>{{cite book |author=Heath, S |title=Animal Welfare Volume 3: The Welfare of Cats - Behaviour Problems and Welfare |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3227-7_4 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/t52m34220512l285/fulltext.pdf}} page 102</ref> If a kitten develops diarrhea, it is best to seek advice from a veterinarian. The kitten may need to be de-wormed with a de-wormer at 6-8 weeks old and then again 2 weeks later.

== See also ==
*[[Cat]]
*[[Felidae]]
*[[Felis]]

==References==
{{Commons|Kitten|Kittens}}
{{Wikibooks|How to choose your pet and take care of it}}
{{Wiktionary}}
{{reflist}}

{{Cat nav}}

[[Category:Cats]]

[[da:Killing]]
[[nl:Kitten]]
[[simple:Kitten]]
[[tl:Kuting]]

GameTrailers

2008-12-08T19:23:15Z

LibLord: Reverted edits by 89.168.129.166 to last version by Mr.Z-man (HG)

{{Infobox Website
| name = GameTrailers
| logo = [[Image:GameTrailers logo.png|250px|GameTrailers logo]]
| screenshot =
| caption =
| url = [http://www.gametrailers.com/ www.GameTrailers.com]
| commercial = Yes
| type = [[Computer and video game]] [[trailer (film)|trailers]]/Entertainment
| registration = Optional
| owner = [[MTV Networks]]
| author = Geoffrey R. Grotz, Brandon Jones
| launch date =
| current status = Active
| revenue =
}}

'''GameTrailers''' ('''GT''') is a media website that specializes in video game related content. It provides free access to original programming (such as reviews and previews), game trailers and recorded game play. Many of the [[video clips]] are offered in [[High-definition video|high definition]] (960x540) along with [[standard definition]] (480x360).

Users can upload videos, create blogs and participate in forums. Users can also create factions for games or other interests. Factions have access to private forums. GameTrailers has a currency called GameTrailers Dollars (GTD), which can be earned by interacting with the website and used to purchase virtual items and real merchandise.

==Content History==
Gametrailers' first version of its magazine style show was GT Weekly and premiered in August 2005, hosted by [[Amanda Mackay]] and [[Daniel Kayser]]. After 44 episodes, in March 2007, the show was rebranded as GameOne and given a live chat where viewers could talk about the show.

On January 25, 2008, GameOne was replaced by Gametrailers TV, the rebranded version of [[Spike TV]]'s [[Game Head]], still hosted by [[Geoff Keighley]], but produced by Gametrailers and co-hosted by [[Amanda Mackay]] and [[Daniel Kayser]]. The show appears at 1:00 am on [[Spike TV]] every Friday night.<ref>http://www.gametrailers.com/press_releases/GTTVPremiere.htm</ref>

In February 2007, [[ScrewAttack]] started providing content including Top Tens, Video Game Vault entries and episodes of ''[[The Angry Video Game Nerd]]'' for GameTrailers. Shortly after, [[SpikeTV]]'s GameHead also started to cooperate with GameTrailers.

==Business History==
Gametrailers.com was founded by Geoff Grotz and Brandon Jones in 2003. Jon Slusser and his company Hornet Animation invested in the startup, and Jon took over as CEO. The company was then acquired by MTV Networks in November 2005 for an undisclosed sum.<ref>http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/11-22-2005/0004221765&EDATE=</ref>

In 2007, MTV Networks restructured its entertainment division, merging Ifilm.com and SpikeTV.com into Spike.com, and grouping this new property, GameTrailers, and [[Xfire]], into Spike Digital Entertainment, with Jon Slusser as the new SVP in charge, Geoff Grotz as VP of Product Development, and Brad Winters as the new GM of Gametrailers.com.<ref>http://www.gametrailers.com/press_releases/MTVN%20ENTERTAINMENT%20GROUP%20PROMOTES%20BRAD%20WINTERS%20TO.htm</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.gametrailers.com/ GameTrailers]
* [http://www.wikicheats.com/index.php/Main_Page WikiCheats] A wiki-based game walkthrough site run by GameTrailers

{{MTV Networks}}
{{Viacom}}

[[Category:MTV Networks]]
[[Category:Video game websites]]

{{videogame-website-stub}}

[[es:GameTrailers]]
[[ko:게임트레일러스]]
[[ms:GameTrailers]]
[[nl:GameTrailers]]
[[ja:GameTrailers]]
[[ta:கேம் ரெயிலர்ஸ் இணையத்தளம்]]

Joaquín Murrieta

2008-12-08T19:13:35Z

LibLord: Reverted edits by 156.3.164.225 to last version by 71.30.129.209 (HG)

[[Image:JoaquinTheMountainRobber.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Artist's rendition of "Joaquin the Mountain Robber" an etching by Thomas Armstrong which was published in the Sacramento ''Union Steamer Edition'' on April 22, 1853.]]
'''Joaquin Murrietta''' (sometimes spelled '''Murieta''' or '''Murietta''') (1829–ca. 1853), also called the '''Mexican or Chilean Robin Hood''' or the '''Robin Hood of El Dorado''', was a semi-legendary figure in [[California]] during the [[California Gold Rush]] of the 1850s. He was either an infamous bandit or a Mexican patriot, depending on one's point of view. Whatever the truth of the matter, his name has, for some political activists at least, symbolized resistance against [[English-American|Anglo-American]] economic and cultural domination in California.

The site of Murrieta's birth is disputed: either [[Alamos, Sonora|Alamos]] or Trincheras, in the northwestern state of [[Sonora]], [[Mexico]], or in [[Quillota]], [[Chile]] (near [[Valparaiso]]). Some scholars contend his maternal side had [[Cherokee]] ancestors from the southeastern US who migrated to Chile in the late 18th century.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Folklore claims Murrieta, a noble landowner supposedly of mainly Spanish [[Criollo (people)|Criollo]] blood, sympathized with the struggle of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] as well as that of the [[Mexicans]] and [[Spanish people|Spanish]] he encountered in his residence in 1850s California.

Some have alleged that he first went to California in 1850 to seek his fortune in the [[California Gold Rush]]. Instead of opportunity, though, he encountered [[racism]] and discrimination. While mining for gold he and his wife were attacked by a band of American miners upset by his success. They allegedly raped Murrieta's wife and lashed her. However, there is zero historical evidence for this story; the only source is a novel written in the 1850s. In that purely fictional novel, Murrieta sought justice through the legal system but was informed by a friend who was also a constable that there was no way to prosecute the crime because of a California law that prohibited Mexicans from testifying against a white man. To avenge this injustice, Murrieta formed a gang with his family and friends to hunt down those that attacked his family. They killed at least six, and since they were then outlaws, turned to a life of organized crime. Murrieta became a leader of the band called ''The Five Joaquins'', which also included Joaquin Botellier, Joaquin Carrillo, Joaquin Ocomorenia, and Joaquin Valenzuela. Between 1850 and 1853, these men, along with Murrieta's right hand man, "Three-Fingered Jack" (Manuel Garcia), were said to be responsible for the majority of cattle rustling, robberies, and murders committed in the [[Gold Country|Mother Lode]] area of the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevadas]]. They are credited with stealing more than $100,000 in [[gold]] and over 100 horses, killing 19 people (mostly [[Chinese American|Chinese]] mine workers), and having outrun three [[Posse Comitatus (Common Law)|posses]] and killing three lawmen. At the time, no one was certain of the name of the leader, so he was simply called Joaquin, and it was further uncertain if it was one or more bands. The band was supposedly supported by [[Californio]]s, who protected them, even by non-Hispanic Californians like [[Robert Livermore]].

On [[May 11]], [[1853]], [[California Governor|Governor of California]] [[John Bigler]] signed a legislative act creating the "[[California State Rangers]]," led by Captain [[Harry Love (lawman)|Harry Love]] (a former [[Texas Ranger]]), whose mission was to arrest the Five Joaquins. The California Rangers were paid $150 a month and stood a chance to split a $5000 reward for the capture of Murrieta. On [[July 25]], [[1853]], a group of these rangers encountered a group of Mexican males near Panoche Pass in [[San Benito County]], about 100 miles from the Mother Lode and 50 from [[Monterey, California|Monterey]]. A confrontation occurred, and two of the Mexicans were killed—one claimed to be Murrieta and the other was thought to be Garcia. There is now a plaque ([[California Historical Landmark]] #344) near the intersection of State Routes [[California State Route 33|33]] and [[California State Route 198|198]] that marks the approximate site of his headquarter, Arroyo de Cantua, where he was killed.

[[Image:JoaquinMurrieta-headflyer-02.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A poster advertising the display of the supposed head of Murrieta in Stockton, CA. 1853]]

The Rangers took Garcia's hand and Murrieta's head as evidence of their death and displayed them in a jar, preserved in [[brandy]] (known as the Jars of Brandy0. The jar was displayed in [[Mariposa County]], [[Stockton, California|Stockton]], and [[San Francisco]], and traveled throughout California, where spectators could, for $1, see the remains. Seventeen people, including a priest, signed [[affidavit]]s identifying the remains as Murrieta's, and Love and his Rangers received the reward money. However, a young woman claiming to be Murrieta's sister said she did not recognize the head and argued that it could not be her brother's since it did not have a characteristic scar on it. Additionally, numerous sightings of Murrieta were reported after his death was announced. Many people criticized Love for showing the remains in large cities far from the mining camps, where Murrieta might have been recognized. It has even been claimed that Love and his Rangers killed some innocent Mexicans and made up the story of the capture of Murrieta to claim the reward money. The head was lost in the [[1906 San Francisco Earthquake]].

Soon after his reported death, Murrieta became the subject of story and legend. In 1854 the first fictionalized account of his life appeared in a San Francisco newspaper and in a book by Cherokee author [[John Rollin Ridge]]. It tells a story of how his wife was gang [[rape]]d and killed, his brother was [[hanging|hanged]], and he was horsewhipped for a crime he did not commit. Murrieta swore to avenge them by killing all the [[Yankee|Yanqui]]s or [[gringo]]s he could find. Although there is no evidence to confirm that this actually happened to a man named Joaquin Murrieta, similar things did happen to other Mexicans living in California at that time. This account also inspired [[corrido]]s depicting him as a fierce avenger of injustices against Mexicans.

The siting of his alleged birthplace in Chile seems to be a result of reports that Murrieta sided with Chilean miners during the "[[Chili Gulch|Chilean War]]." A portion of Ridge's novel was reprinted in 1859 in the ''California Police Gazette''. This story was subsequently translated into [[Spanish language|Spanish]], which was translated into [[French language|French]], and finally the French version was translated back to Spanish by Roberto Hynne, who claimed to have been in California during the gold rush. This final version had Murrieta born in Chile instead of Mexico.

The [[University of California, Berkeley]] has a [[housing cooperative]] named in his honor, "[http://greenlining.org/sections/view/casaappCasa Joaquin Murrieta]." However, the city of [[Murrieta, California]], is not named after him.

==Joaquin Murrieta in media==
Joaquin Murrieta has been a widely used romantic figure in novels, stories, and films, and on TV.

*Joaquin Murrieta is depicted as a largely sympathetic character in the [[1936 in film|1936]] [[William A. Wellman]] film ''The Robin Hood of El Dorado'' [http://imdb.com/title/tt0028197].
*The fictional character of [[Zorro]] was in part inspired by the stories about Murrieta. In fact, a character with his name appears in ''[[The Mask of Zorro]]'', as do Three-Fingered Jack and Harry (here Harrison) Love. In the film, after Joaquin's death, his brother, Alejandro ([[Antonio Banderas]]), becomes the new Zorro and later kills Captain Love in revenge.
*Throughout the Mother Lode region of California, there are dozens of saloons, bars, hotels, and places where Murrieta is said to have robbed, slept, or been.
*He makes an appearance in a novel by [[Isabel Allende]], ''Hija de la Fortuna ([[Daughter of Fortune]])''.
*His story is told in a play, ''Fulgor y Muerte de Joaquin Murieta'' (The Splendor and Death of Joaquin Murrieta), by [[Pablo Neruda]].
*The first Soviet and Russian musical (rock opera), ''Звезда и смерть Хоакина Мурьеты'' (''Zvezda i smert’ Khoakina Mur’ety'' — The Star and Death of Joaquin Murrieta), 1976, by [[Alexei Rybnikov]] and [[Pavel Grushko]], is based on the play. Published as double LP (1978) and movie (1982). Now available on CD and DVD, respectively.
*A tribute song to this Chilean rebel can be heard in ''Premonicion de la Muerte de Joaquin Murieta'', performed by [[Quilapayún]]
* [[Victor Jara]], Chilean singer-songwriter assassinated by the Pinochet regime in Chile, also wrote the song ''Asi Como Hoy Matan Negros'' paying homage to Joaquin Murrieta.
* The [[Sons of the San Joaquin]] included a song called ''The Ballad of Joaquin Murrieta'' on their ''Way Out Yonder'' album.
* Bob Frank & John Murry included a song called ''Joaquin Murrieta, 1853'' on their 666 ''World Without End'' album.[http://www.bobfrankandjohnmurry.com]
* The corrido version of Joaquin Murreta's ballad states "... no soy chileno ni extraño en esta tierra que piso, de Mexico es California..." (I'm not Chilean or stranger to this land, California is Mexico...)
* In [[The Mother Hips]] song 'Time-sick Son of a Grizzly Bear' : "Were you out in Monterey/ In Joaquin Murrieta's day/ Adobe huts in the cypress groves/ Is where the rich man now builds his homes" from the 666 album [[Kiss the Crystal Flake]]
* The story (and, supposedly the actual severed head) of Joaquin Murrieta are featured in the 1978 film ''[[Faces of Death]]''
* Writer T. Jefferson Parker casts Murrieta as the great-great-great-great-great-great grandfather of one of the main characters in his novel ''L.A. Outlaws''.

==See also==
*[[Tiburcio Vasquez]]
*[[Gregorio Cortez]]

==References==
** ''Vida y Aventuras del Mas Celebre Bandido Sonorense, Joaquin Murrieta: Sus Grandes Proezas En California'', by Ireneo Paz, Mexico City, 1904; first English translation by Francis P. Belle, Regan Pub. Corp., Chicago, 1925. Republished with intro. and further translation by Luis Leal, ''Life and Adventures of the Celebrated Bandit Joaquin Murrieta: His Exploits in the State of California'', Arte Publico Press, 1999.

== External links ==
* [http://www.picacho.org/interest/joaquin-murrieta.html Joaquín Murrieta]
* [http://www.sptddog.com/sotp/jomu.html?artoid=4770&webpage=0 The Legend of Joaquin Murieta]
* [http://www.benicianews.com/articles/index.cfm?artoid=4770&webpage=0 Mystery of the decapitated Joaquin]
* [http://www.inn-california.com/Articles/biographic/murrietabionotes.html Joaquin Murrieta - Biographic Notes]
* [http://www.yosemite.ca.us/library/california_rangers/ ''The Last of the California Rangers'' by Jill L. Cossley-Batt (1928)]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mmurieta.html What's the story on Joaquin Murieta, the Robin Hood of California?]
* [http://www.militarymuseum.org/CaliforniaStateRangers.html Military museum 1940s history with Muster roll and text for legislative act passed]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Murrieta, Joaquin}}
[[Category:Mexican outlaws]]
[[Category:Mexican folklore]]
[[Category:American folklore]]
[[Category:California criminals]]
[[Category:Californios]]
[[Category:People from Quillota]]
[[Category:People from Álamos]]
[[Category:California Gold Rush]]
[[Category:1829 births]]
[[Category:1853 deaths]]
[[Category:Pleasanton, California]]
[[Category:American outlaws]]
[[Category:Latin American folklore]]
[[es:Joaquín Murieta]]
[[nl:Joaquín Murrieta]]
[[pl:Joaquín Murieta]]

Province of Massachusetts Bay

2007-12-21T15:34:36Z

LibLord: Reverted edits by 65.254.3.3 (talk) to last revision (178790145) by using VP

{{Infobox Former Country
|conventional_long_name = Province of Massachusetts Bay
|common_name = Massachusetts
|continent = North America
|country = United States
|status = Colony
|empire = United Kingdom
|government_type = Constitutional monarchy
|
|event_start = Charter Enacted
|year_start = 1692
|event_end = [[United States Declaration of Independence|Independence]]
|year_end = 1776
|date_end = [[4 July|July 4]], [[1776]]
|event_post = End of the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]
|date_post = 1782
|
|p1 = Plymouth Colony
|flag_p1 = Plymouthkolonie.jpg
|p2 = Massachusetts Bay Colony
|flag_p2 =
|s1 = Massachusetts
|flag_s1 = Flag of Massachusetts.svg
|s2 = Nova Scotia
|flag_s2 = Flag of Nova Scotia.svg
|
|image_flag =
|image_coat =
|image_map = Masscolony.png
|image_map_caption = A map of the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
|capital = [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]
|common_languages = [[English language|English]]
|currency = [[Pound sterling]], [[Spanish dollar]]
|
|leader1 = [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]
|year_leader1 = 1664-1685
|leader2 = [[George III of Great Britain|George III]]
|year_leader2 = 1769-1776
|title_leader = King
|representative1 = John Endicott
|year_representative1 = 1629-1630
|representative2 = Thomas Gage
|year_representative2 = 1774-1775
|title_representative = Royal Governor
|legislature = [[Massachusetts General Court|General Court]]
}}

The '''Province of Massachusetts Bay''' was a [[British overseas territories|crown colony]] organized [[October 7]], [[1691]] in [[North America]] by [[William and Mary]], the joint monarchs of the [[Kingdom of England]] and the [[Kingdom of Scotland]]. The charter was enacted [[May 14]], [[1692]] and included [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]], [[Plymouth Colony]], [[Martha's Vineyard]], [[Nantucket, Massachusetts|Nantucket]], the [[Province of Maine]] and what is now [[Nova Scotia]]. (Nova Scotia was separated in [[1696]], and became the [[Province of Nova Scotia]] in 1713.) The [[Province of New Hampshire]] gained its independence from Massachusetts Bay at the time of the creation of the Province of Massachusetts Bay.

The name Massachusetts comes from the [[Massachusett]], an [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] tribe. The name has been translated as "at the great hill," "at the place of large hills," or "at the range of hills," with reference to the [[Blue Hills Reservation|Blue Hills]], or in particular, [[Great Blue Hill]].

From 1691, the history of the Province of Massachusetts Bay is usually considered to be the same as that of [[Massachusetts]]. The 1691 "[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/states/mass07.htm William and Mary Charter]" was amended by [[George I of Great Britain|King George I]]'s "[[Explanatory Charter]]" which expanded on the original rights granted to the colony.

The Province of Massachusetts Bay existed until approximately [[October 7]], [[1774]] when the [[General Court of Massachusetts]] established a provincial congress in response to the tightening control of the crown, and as a preceding act to the revolt of the [[American Revolutionary War]].

The [[Massachusetts Constitution|Constitution]] or Form of Government for the [[Massachusetts|Commonwealth of Massachusetts]] was agreed upon in Cambridge in October [[1779]] and adopted by the delegates nine months later in June [[1780]] to go into effect "the last Wednesday of October next".

==See also==
* [[List of colonial governors of Massachusetts]], for a complete list of Governors from colonial times

==External links==
*[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~randall/massachusetts-bdm-identifier.html Colonial Massachusetts Town Nomenclature]

{{13colonies}}

[[Category:British North America|Massachusetts Bay, Province of]]
[[Category:History of Massachusetts]]
[[Category:History of Maine]]
[[Category:History of New Hampshire]]
[[Category:History of Nova Scotia]]
[[Category:Thirteen Colonies|Massachusetts]]

[[no:Provinsen Massachusetts Bay]]
[[pl:Prowincja Massachusetts Bay]]

[[Category:Former British colonies]]

{{US-hist-stub}}

Mille Petrozza

2007-04-15T16:35:35Z

LibLord: Reverted 1 edit by 24.239.83.163 (talk) to last revision (122226721) by Angryxpeh using VP

{{Infobox musical artist 
| Name = Mille Petrozza
| Img = Mille_Petrozza.jpg
| Img_capt =
| Img_size = 
| Landscape =
| Background =
| Birth_name = Miland Petrozza
| Alias =
| Born = {{birth date and age|1966|12|18}}
| Died =
| Origin = {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Germany]]
| Instrument = [[guitar]]<br/> [[singer]]<br/> [[song writer]]
| Genre = [[Thrash metal]]
| Occupation =
| Years_active = 1982 - present
| Label =
| Associated_acts = [[Kreator]]
| URL =
| Current_members =
| Past_members =
| Notable_instruments =
}}

'''Miland "Mille" Petrozza''' (born [[December 18]], [[1966]]) is a [[Germany|German]] (of [[Italy|Italian]] descent) guitarist and singer. He started playing in a school-band named Tyrant. He later founded the band Tormentor in 1982 but renamed it after a short while to [[Kreator]].

Petrozza also shared lead vocals in union with [[Tomas Lindberg]] for the track 'Dirty Coloured Knife' on the 2002 album from Israeli metal act Emblaze.

In 1994, he also played guitar in the metal all-star band [[Voodoocult]], along with amongst other [[Dave Lombardo]] and [[Chuck Schuldiner]].

He did an appearance on [[Edguy]]'s 2004 album: [[Hellfire Club (album)|Hellfire Club]] by doing the lead vocal on an alternate version of the album's opening song (Mysteria) featured as a bonus track to the album. He also appeared on [[Caliban (band)|Caliban]]'s 2006 album [[The Undying Darkness]] on track 11 "Moment of Clarity".

Petrozza has an extensive collection of guitars, but his primary guitar is a [[Jackson Guitars|Jackson]] [[King V]] guitar, which he plays almost exclusively live.

==External links==
* [http://www.kreator-terrorzone.de/site/index.php?s_id=1&lang=en&detail=3 Biography on Kreator's official website]

{{Kreator}}
{{Germany-musician-stub}}
[[Category: Living people|Petrozza, Mille]]
[[Category: German heavy metal guitarists|Petrozza, Mille]]
[[Category:German heavy metal musicians|Petrozza, Mille]]
[[Category: German heavy metal singers|Petrozza, Mille]]
[[Category:1966 births|Petrozza, Mille]]
[[Category:German people|Petrozza, Mille]]
[[Category:Kreator|Petrozza, Mille]]

[[cs:Mille Petrozza]]
[[it:Mille Petrozza]]
[[nl:Mille Petrozza]]
[[no:Mille Petrozza]]
[[pl:Mille Petrozza]]
[[fi:Mille Petrozza]]

Papst (Titel)

2007-04-04T17:00:53Z

LibLord: Revert to revision 120232048 dated 2007-04-04 14:02:04 by BillFlis using popups

{{Otheruses1|the head of the Roman Catholic Church}} {{Christianity}}

The '''Pope''' (from [[Latin]]: ''papa'', Papa, father; from [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''papas'' / {{polytonic|''παπάς''}} = priest originating from πατήρ = father )<ref name="fn_1">[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=pope&searchmode=none Etymology] of ‘Pope’.</ref> is the [[Bishop of Rome]] and the spiritual leader of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. He is believed by Catholics to fulfill this role as the [[Apostolic Succession|Successor]] of [[Saint Peter]], also making him [[Vicar of Christ]].
The office of the Pope is called the Papacy; his ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the [[Holy See]] (''Sancta Sedes'' in Latin) or [[Apostolic See]] (this latter, on the basis that both St. Peter and [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] were martyred at [[Rome]]). Early [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishops]] occupying the See of Rome were designated '''[[Vicar]] of Peter'''; for later Popes the more authoritative Vicar of [[Jesus|Christ]] was substituted; this designation was first used by the Roman [[Synod]] of 495 to refer to [[Pope Gelasius I]], an advocate of [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|papal supremacy]] among the [[Patriarch|patriarchs]]. [[Pope Marcellinus|Marcellinus]] (d. 304) is the first Bishop of Rome whom sources show used the title of Pope. In the 11th century,[[Gregory VII]] declared the term "Pope" to be reserved for the Bishop of Rome. The current Pope is [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]].

In addition to his service in this spiritual role, the Pope is also [[Head of State]] of the independent sovereign State of the [[Vatican City]], a [[city-state]] and [[nation]] entirely [[Enclave and exclave|enclaved]] by the city of [[Rome]]. Before 1870 the Pope's temporal authority extended over a large area of [[central Italy]]: the territory of the [[Papal States]]. The Papacy retained sovereign authority over the Papal States until the [[Italian unification]] of 1870; a final political settlement with the [[Italy|Italian]] government was not reached until the [[Lateran Treaty]] of 1929.

==Early history==
It is generally accepted amongst most Catholic and non-Catholic historians that the institution of the papacy as it exists today developed through the centuries, although it could not have occurred before the traditional arrival of Peter in Rome ''c.'' 50. During the first century of the Christian Church, the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance; but there are only a few 1st century references to the recognition of the [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|authoritative primacy]] of the [[Holy See|Roman See]] outside of Rome. The fact that [[Clement of Rome]]'s letter to the Corinthians (written ''c.'' 96)<ref name="fn_2">[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1010.htm Letter of Clement to the Corinthians]</ref> adapted a pastoral tone, and also the fact that [[St. Ignatius of Antioch]] once used the word "preside" in the same sentence that he used the word "Romans" in his letter to the Romans (written ''c.'' 105)<ref name="fn_3">[http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_article/244/Letter_of_Ignatius_of_Antioch_to_the_Romans.html Letter of Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans]</ref> are seen by some historians to present proof of the existence of a certain early Papal primacy. Others argue that these documents refer only to a primacy of honor. The [[Petrine Doctrine]] is still controversial as an issue of doctrine that continues to divide the eastern and western orthodox churches.

In the second century (AD 189), the assertion of the primacy of the Church of Rome may be indicated in St. [[Irenaeus]] of Lyon's ''[[Against Heresies]]'' (3:3:2): "With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." Although this may be the first clear instance of the church in Rome asserting its primacy (depending on how one reads this passage), there is no historical evidence to show that such a claim was ever accepted by the eastern churches, particularly since the seat of government of the [[Roman Empire]] was moved to [[Constantinople]] soon after the Eccumenical [[Council of Nicea]].

The [[First Council of Constantinople]] (AD 381) suggested strongly that Roman primacy was already asserted; however, it should be noted that, because of the controversy of this claim, the Pope did not personally attend this eccumencial council that was held in the eastern capital of the Roman empire, rather than at [[Rome]]. It was not until 440 that [[Pope Leo I|Leo the Great]] more clearly articulated the extension of papal authority as doctrine, promulgating in edicts and in councils his right to exert "the full range of apostolic powers that Jesus had first bestowed on the apostle Peter". It was at the Eccumenical [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451 that Leo I (through his emmissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter". At this same Council, an attempt at compromise was made when the bishop of Constantinople was given a primacy of honour only second to that of the Bishop of Rome, because "Constantinople is the New Rome." Ironically, Roman papal authorities rejected this language since it did not clearly recognize Rome's claim to juridical authority over the other churches.<ref>La Due, William J., "The Chair of Saint Peter", pp.300-301, Orbis Books (Maryknoll, NY; 1999)</ref>

The dogmas and traditions of the [[Catholic Church]] teach that the institution of the papacy was first mandated by the Biblical passages:

:Matt.16:18-19: "And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this ''rock'' I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it. I will give you the ''keys'' of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven."
The name "Peter" ({{Polytonic|''Πέτρος''}} in Greek) here translates as ''rock''. The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here are the basis for the symbolic keys often found in Catholic Papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms (see below).

==Election, death and abdication==
===Election===
{{main|Papal election}}
[[Image:Keys to Peter.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Traditional painting by Pietro Perugino depicting "The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter" (1492)]]

The Pope was originally chosen by those senior [[clergy]]men resident in and near Rome. In [[1059]] the electorate was restricted to the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in [[1179]]. [[Pope Urban VI]], elected [[1378]], was the last Pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election. Canon law requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the Pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80.

The [[Second Council of Lyons]] was convened on [[May 7]], [[1274]], to regulate the election of the Pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the Pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a Pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year ''Sede Vacante'' following the death of [[Pope Clement IV]] in [[1268]]. By the mid-[[sixteenth century]], the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the Pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.

Traditionally, the vote was conducted by acclamation, by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in [[1621]]. [[Pope John Paul II]] abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all Popes will be elected by full vote of the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]] by [[ballot]].

The election of the Pope almost always takes place in the [[Sistine Chapel]], in a meeting called a "[[papal election|conclave]]" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, ''cum clavi'', until they elect a new Pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar. The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for any elector to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the number of ballots are counted while still folded; if the total number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Otherwise, each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a Pope is elected by a two-thirds majority (since the promulgation of ''Universi Dominici Gregis'', the rules allow for a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days).
[[Image:John23leo.jpg|left|thumb|216px|[[Pope John XXIII]] wearing the [[Papal Tiara]] following his [[coronation]], a tradition which has now been discontinued]]

One of the most famous aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special oven erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from [[St Peter's Square]]. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or ''fumata nera''. (Traditionally, wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (''fumata bianca'') through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new Pope. At the end of the conclave that elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]], church bells were also rung to signal that a new Pope had been chosen.

The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the successfully elected Cardinal two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word "Accepto", his reign as Pope begins at that instant, ''not'' at the coronation ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new Pope then announces the [[regnal name]] he has chosen for himself. (If the Dean himself is elected Pope, the Vice Dean performs this duty).

The new Pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white Papal vestments ("immantatio") await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new Pope is given the "[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]" by the Cardinal Camerlengo, whom he either reconfirms or reappoints. The Pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the Cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" ("adoratio") and to receive his blessing.

The senior [[Cardinal Deacon]] then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following [[Habemus Papam|proclamation]]: ''Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!'' ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a Pope!"). He then announces the new Pope's Christian name along with the new name he has adopted as his regnal name.

Until [[1978]] the Pope's election was followed in a few days by a procession in great pomp and circumstance from the Sistine Chapel to [[St. Peter's Basilica]], with the newly elected Pope borne in the ''sedia gestatoria''. There the Pope was crowned with the ''[[Papal Tiara|triregnum]]'' and he gave his first blessing as Pope, the famous ''[[Urbi et Orbi]]'' ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another famed part of the coronation was the lighting of a torch which would flare brightly and promptly extinguish, with the admonition ''Sic transit gloria mundi'' ("Thus fades worldly glory"). Beginning with Pope John Paul I's election, this has been discontinued.

A [[traditionalist Catholic]] belief claims the existence of the [[Papal Oath (Traditionalist Catholic)|Papal Oath]] (not to be confused with the Oath against Modernism mandated by [[Pope Pius X]]), which the Popes from [[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]] on are said to have refused to swear, but there is no reliable authority for this claim.

The [[Latin]] term ''sede vacante'' ("vacant seat") refers to a papal interregnum, the period between the death of the Pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the name [[sedevacantism|Sedevacantist]], which designates a category of dissident, schismatic Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected Pope, and that there is therefore a ''Sede Vacante''; one of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the [[Second Vatican Council]] and especially the replacement of the [[Tridentine Mass]] with the ''[[Mass of Paul VI]]'' are heretical, and that, per the dogma of Papal infallibility (see above), it is impossible for a valid Pope to have done these things.

For many years, the Papacy was an institution dominated by [[Italians]]. Before the election of the non-Italian Karol Wojtyla as Pope John Paul II in [[1978]], the last non-Italian was the Dutch-German [[Pope Adrian VI]] of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born Benedict XVI, leading some to believe the Italian domination of the Papacy to be over.

===Death===
The current regulations regarding a papal [[interregnum]] — that is, a ''[[sede vacante]]'' ("vacant seat") — were promulgated by John Paul II in his [[1996]] document ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]''. During the "Sede Vacante", the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]], composed of the Pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the [[Camerlengo|Cardinal Chamberlain]]; however, canon law specifically forbids the Cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the [[Holy See]]. Any decision that needs the assent of the Pope has to wait until a new Pope has been elected and takes office.

It has long been claimed that a Pope's death is officially determined by the Cardinal Chamberlain by gently tapping the late Pope's head thrice with a silver hammer and calling his birth name three times, though this is disputed and has never been confirmed by the Vatican; there is general agreement that even if this procedure ever actually occurred, it was likely not employed upon the death of John Paul II. A [[medical doctor|doctor]] may or may not have already determined that the Pope had died before this point. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the [[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]. Usually the ring is on the Pope's right hand. But in the case of Paul VI, he had stopped wearing the ring during the last years of his reign. In other cases the ring might have been removed for medical reasons. The Chamberlain cuts the ring in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased Pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.

The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the [[crypt]] of a leading church or cathedral; the Popes of the [[20th century]] were all interred in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. A nine-day period of mourning (''novem dialis'') follows after the interment of the late Pope.

===Abdication===
{{mainarticle|Papal abdication}}

The Code of [[Canon law|Canon]] Law [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P16.HTM 332 §2] states, "If it happens that the [[Papal abdication|Roman Pontiff resigns]] his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone."

This right has been exercised by [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 and [[Pope Gregory XII]] in 1409, Gregory XII being the last to do so.

It was widely reported in June and July [[2002]] that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper ''Corriere della Sera''.

Nevertheless, 332 §2 caused speculation that:
* Pope John Paul II would have resigned as his health failed, or
* a properly manifested legal instrument had been prepared which effected his resignation if he could not perform his duties.

Pope John Paul II did not resign. He died on [[2 April]] [[2005]] after a long period of ill-health and was buried on [[8 April]] [[2005]].

After his death it was reported in his [[last will and testament]] that he considered abdicating in [[2000]] as he neared his 80th birthday. However, that portion of the will is unclear and others interpret it differently.

==Titles of the Pope==
===Currently used===
The titles of the Pope, in the order they are used in the Annuario Pontificio:
:*[[Bishop of Rome]]
:*[[Vicar of Christ]]
:*Successor of the Prince of the Apostles
:*[[Pontifex Maximus|Supreme Pontiff]] of the Universal Church
:*[[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of [[Italy]]
:*[[Metropolitan bishop|Archbishop and Metropolitan]] of the Roman [[Ecclesiastical province|Province]]
:*Sovereign of the State of the [[Vatican City]]
:*[[Servus Servorum Dei|Servant of the Servants of God]]

===Formerly used===
:* [[Patriarch]] of the West (dropped 2006)
:* [[Vicar]] of the Apostolic See

===Forms of address===
* "Your Holiness"
* "Holy Father"

===History of Papal titles===
As mentioned above, the Pope's titles include: Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman province, Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City, and Servant of the Servants of God.

The title "Vicar of Christ" refers to the Pope's divine commission. This title came into use in the fifth and sixth centuries. The [[Second Vatican Council]] confirmed the titles "Vicar of Christ" and "Successor of Peter".

The use of the term "Supreme Pontiff" (Pontifex Maximus) can be traced back to the end of the fourth century. The ancient title of the Roman High-Priest, whose origins date from the foundation of Rome, was assumed by the Bishops of Rome after being relinquished by the Emperor Gratian. The term has also been applied to other metropolitan bishops, although examples are limited (see ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]''). It was in the eleventh century that the title came to be applied exclusively to the Bishop of Rome. The addition of the phrase "of the Universal Church" is a more recent alteration of this title.

Finally, the title attached to the Pope, "Servant of the Servants of God", although used by Church leaders including St. Augustine and St. Benedict, was first used by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title Ecumenical Patriarch. It was not reserved for the Pope until the thirteenth century. The documents of Vatican II reinforced the understanding of this title as a reference to the Pope's role as a function of collegial authority, in which the Bishop of Rome serves the world's bishops.

The titles "Primate of Italy", "Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman province", and "Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City" are references to the legal and canonical authority of the Pope as defined by the laws of the Church and the Lateran Treaties of 1929.

The Pope's signature is usually in the format ''NN. PP. x'' (e.g., [[Pope Paul VI]] signed his name as "Paulus PP. VI"), the "PP." standing for ''Papa'' ("Pope"), and his name is frequently accompanied in inscriptions by the abbreviation "Pont. Max." or "P.M." (abbreviation of the Latin title ''Pontifex Maximus'', usually translated as "Supreme Pontiff"). The signature of [[Papal bull]]s is customarily ''NN. Episcopus Ecclesiae Catholicae'' ("NN. Bishop of the Catholic Church"), while the heading is ''NN. Episcopus [[Servus Servorum Dei]]'' ("NN. Bishop and Servant of the Servants of God"). Other titles used in some official capacity in the past include ''Summus Pontifex'' ("Highest Pontiff"), ''Sanctissimus Pater'' and ''Beatissimus Pater'' ("Most Holy Father" and "Most Blessed Father"), ''Sanctissimus Dominus Noster'' ("Our Most Holy Lord"), and, in the [[Middle Ages|Medieval period]], ''Dominus Apostolicus'' ("Apostolic Lord"). This title, however, was not abandoned altogether: the Pope is still referred to as "Dominum Apostolicum" in the Latin version of the Litany of the Saints, a solemn Catholic prayer. Writing informally, Catholics will often use the abbreviation H.H. (His Holiness), as in H.H. Benedict XVI.

The Pope's official seat or cathedral is the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]], and his official residence is the [[Palace of the Vatican]]. He also possesses a summer palace at [[Castel Gandolfo]] (situated on the site of the ancient city-state [[Alba Longa]]). Historically, the official residence of the Pope was the [[Lateran Palace]], donated by the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]].

The Pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the [[Holy See]]) is distinct from his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City). It is the Holy See which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the Pope's court (the [[Roman Curia]]) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church.

The name "Holy See" (also "Apostolic See") is in ecclesiastical terminology the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the Pope's various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the [[Apostle]] [[St. Peter]] (see [[Apostolic Succession]]). Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The Pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ''ubi Papa, ibi Curia'', wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the Pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the Popes lived in [[Avignon]] (the [[Avignon Papacy]]), a period often called the [[Babylonian Captivity]] in allusion to the [[Bible|Biblical]] exile of [[Israel]].

The title ''Patriarch of the West'' did not appear in the 2006 pontifical yearbook, and this led to considerable media speculation. The title Patriarch of the West was first used by Pope Theodore in 642, and was only used occasionally. Indeed, it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863. On [[22 March]] [[2006]], the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a "historical and theological reality" and of "being useful to ecumenical dialogue". The title Patriarch of the West symbolized the Pope's special relationship with, and jurisdiction over, the Latin Church — and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship, nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the Eastern churches, as solemnly proclaimed by Vatican II.

Since in the Eastern Churches the title "Pope" does not unambiguously refer to the Bishop of Rome, within them the construction "Pope of Rome" is frequently used whether they are in communion with Rome or not.

==Regalia and insignia==
[[Image:holysee-arms.png|thumb|200px|The coat of arms of the Holy See. That of the State of Vatican City is the same except that the positions of the gold and silver keys are interchanged.]]
{{Main|Papal regalia and insignia}}
*"[[Papal Tiara|Triregnum]]", also called the "tiara" or "triple crown"; recent Popes have not, however, worn the ''triregnum'', though it remains the symbol of the Papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies Popes wear an episcopal [[mitre]] (an erect cloth hat).
*Pastoral Staff topped by a [[crucifix]], a custom established before the [[13th century]].
*[[Pallium]], or pall, (a circular band of fabric about two inches wide, worn over the [[chasuble]] about the neck, breast and shoulders and having two twelve-inch-long pendants hanging down in front and behind, ornamented with six small black crosses distributed about the breast, back, shoulders, and pendants)(this form is no longer used by the current pontiff).
*"Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolizes the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven.
*[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]], a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning Pope around it.
*''[[Umbraculum]]'' (better known in the Italian form ''ombrellino'') is a canopy or umbrella (consisting of alternating red and gold stripes).
*''[[Sedia gestatoria]]'', a mobile throne carried by twelve footmen (''palafrenieri'') in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing ''[[flabella]]'' (fans made of white ostrich feathers). The use of the ''sedia gestatoria'' and of the ''flabella'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul II]], with the former being replaced by the so-called [[Popemobile]].

In heraldry each Pope has his own [[Papal Coat of Arms]]. Though unique for each Pope, the arms are always surmounted by the aforementioned two keys in saltire (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an ''X'') behind the escutcheon (one key silver and one key gold, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver ''triregnum'' with three gold crowns and red ''infulae'', or the red strips of fabric hanging from the back over the shoulders when worn ("two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). The flag most frequently associated with the Pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See ("Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right hand side in the white half of the flag. This flag was first adopted in [[1808]], whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colors of the Pontificate. With the recent election of [[Benedict XVI]] in [[2005]], his personal coat of arms eliminated the papal tiara; a [[mitre]] with three horizontal lines is used in its place, with the pallium, a papal symbol of authority more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan [[archbishops]] as a sign of communion with the See of Rome, was added underneath of the shield. The distinctive feature of the crossed keys behind the shield was maintained. The omission of the tiara in the Pope's personal coat of arms, however, did not mean the total disappearance of it from papal heraldry, since the coat of arms of the Holy See was kept unaltered.

==Status and authority==
{{Main|Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|Papal infallibility}}
The status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was [[dogma]]tically [[dogmatic definition|defined]] by the [[First Vatican Council]] in its ''Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ'' ([[July 18]], [[1870]]). The first chapter of this document is entitled "On the institution of the apostolic primacy in blessed Peter", and states that (s.1) "according to the Gospel evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of [[God]] was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the Lord" and that (s.6) "if anyone says that blessed Peter the [[apostle]] was not appointed by Christ the Lord as prince of all the apostles and visible head of the whole [[church militant]]; or that it was a primacy of honor only and not one of true and proper jurisdiction that he directly and immediately received from our Lord Jesus Christ Himself: let him be [[anathema]]..."
[[Image:Kruisheren uden bij paus pius xii Crosiers from Uden Holland with PiusXII.jpg|thumb|350px|To maintain contacts with local clergymen and Catholic communities, the Popes grant private audiences too. Here seen are the [[Canons Regular of the Holy Cross]] from [[Uden]] ([[Netherlands]]) received by [[Pope Pius XII]].]]

The Dogmatic Constitution's second chapter, "On the permanence of the primacy of blessed Peter in the Roman pontiffs", states that (s.1) "that which our Lord Jesus Christ [...] established in the blessed apostle Peter [...] must of necessity remain forever, by Christ's authority, in the church which, founded as it is upon a rock, will stand firm until the end of time," that (s.3) "whoever succeeds to the chair of Peter obtains by the institution of Christ Himself, the primacy of Peter over the whole church", and that (s.5) "if anyone says that it is not by the institution of Christ the Lord Himself (that is to say, by divine law) that blessed Peter should have perpetual successors in the primacy over the whole church; or that the Roman pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy: let him be anathema."

The Dogmatic Constitution's third chapter, "On the power and character of the [[primacy of the Roman pontiff]]," states that (s.1) "the definition of the [[ecumenical council]] of [[Council of Florence|Florence]], which must be believed by all faithful [[Christianity|Christian]]s, namely that the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff hold a worldwide primacy, and that the Roman pontiff is the successor of blessed Peter, the prince of the apostles, true vicar of Christ, head of the whole church and father and teacher of all Christian people," that (s.2) "by divine ordinance, the Roman church possesses a preeminence of ordinary power over every other church, and that the jurisdictional power of the Roman pontiff is both episcopal and immediate" and that "[[clergy]] and faithful, of whatever rite and dignity, both singly and collectively, are bound to submit to this power by the duty of [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] subordination and true obedience, and this not only in matters concerning faith and morals, but also in those which regard the discipline and government of the church throughout the world."

The powers of the Pope are defined by the Dogmatic Constitution (ch.3, s.8) such that "he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all cases which fall under ecclesiastical jurisdiction recourse may be had to his judgment" and that "the sentence of the apostolic see (than which there is no higher authority) is not subject to revision by anyone, nor may anyone lawfully pass judgment thereupon" (can. 331 defines the power of the Pope as "supreme, full, immediate and universal ordinary power in the Church, and he can always freely exercise this power"). It also dogmatically defined (ch.4, s.9) the doctrine of [[Papal infallibility]], ''sc.'' such that

:when the Roman Pontiff speaks ''ex cathedra'', that is, when in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed His church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals. Therefore, such definitions of the Roman pontiff are of themselves, and not by the consent of the church, irreformable.

The Catholic Church teaches that "it is absolutely necessary for the salvation of every creature to be united to the Roman Pontiff" ([[Pope Boniface VIII]]). This teaching is often summarized by the phrase "extra Ecclesiam nulla salus" (outside the Church exists no salvation), which has been reaffirmed by many Popes throughout the centuries. [[Blessed John XXIII]] said: "Into this fold of Jesus Christ no man may enter unless he be led by the Sovereign Pontiff, and only if they be united to him can men be saved." [[Pope Paul VI]] also said: "Those outside the Church do not possess the Holy Spirit. The Catholic Church alone is the Body of Christ... and if separated from the Body of Christ he is not one of His members, nor is he fed by His Spirit."

However, this dogma has been interpreted in many different ways by both Catholics and non-Catholics alike. Many Popes stressed that those who are "[[invincibly ignorant]] of the Catholic religion" can still obtain salvation. [[Pope Pius IX]] stated in his encyclical Quanto conficiamur moeror (1868): "We all know that those who are afflicted with invincible ignorance with regard to our holy religion, if they carefully keep the precepts of the natural law that have been written by God in the hearts of all men, if they are prepared to obey God, and if they lead a virtuous and dutiful life, can attain eternal life by the power of divine light and grace." [[Pope John Paul II]] wrote in his encyclical Redemptoris Missio: "But it is clear that today, as in the past, many people do not have an opportunity to come to know or accept the Gospel revelation or to enter the Church.... For such people, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally a part of the Church but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation. This grace comes from Christ; it is the result of his sacrifice and is communicated by the Holy Spirit. It enables each person to attain salvation through his or her free cooperation."

Moreover, the Catholic Church teaches that all Christians are "mysteriously" united through Baptism and the "invisible Church" (body of believers). However, Christians are not fully / "formally" united due to divisions in beliefs etc.

As stated in the Catechism of the Catholic Church:

'''817''' In fact, "in this one and only Church of God from its very beginnings there arose certain rifts, which the Apostle strongly censures as damnable. But in subsequent centuries much more serious dissensions appeared and large communities became separated from full communion with the Catholic Church- for which often enough, men of both sides were to blame" (UR 3 1). The ruptures that wound the unity of Christ's Body - here we must distinguish heresy, apostasy and schism-do not occur without human sin:

:Where there are sins, there are also divisions, schisms, heresies and disputes. Where there is virtue, however, there also are harmony and unity, from which arise the one heart and one soul of all believers (Cf. CIC, can.751.).

'''818''' "However, one cannot charge with the sin of the separation those who at present are born into these communities [that resulted from such separation] and in them are brought up in the faith of Christ, and the Catholic Church accepts them with respect and affection as brothers... All who have been justified by faith in Baptism are incorporated into Christ; they therefore have a right to be called Christians, and with good reason are accepted as brothers in the Lord by the children of the Catholic Church" (UR 3 1).

'''819''' "Furthermore, many elements of sanctification and of truth" (LG 8 2) are found outside the visible confines of the Catholic Church: "the written Word of God; the life of grace; faith, hope and charity, with the other interior gifts of the Holy Spirit, as well as the visible elements" (UR 3 2; cf. LG 15.). Christ's Spirit uses these Churches and ecclesial communities as means of salvation, whose power derives from the fullness of grace and truth that Christ has entrusted to the Catholic Church. All these blessings come from Christ and lead to Him, (Cf. UR 3.) and are in themselves calls to "Catholic unity" (Cf. LG 8.).

The Pope has many powers which he exercises. He can appoint [[bishop]]s to [[diocese]]s, erect and suppress dioceses, appoint prefects to the Roman [[dicastery|dicasteries]], approve or veto their acts, modify the [[Liturgy]] and issue liturgical laws, revise the [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Code of Canon Law]], canonize and beatify individuals, approve and suppress religious orders, impose canonical sanctions, act as a judge and hear cases, issue encyclicals, and issue infallible statements on matters pertaining to faith and morals which, according to the Church, must be believed by all Catholics. Most of these functions are performed by and through the various dicasteries of the [[Roman Curia]], with the Pope simply approving their actions prior to becoming official. While approval is generally granted, it is at the Pope's discretion.

==Political role==
[[Image:433px-Pope Pius VII.jpg|thumb|230px|left|[[Pope Pius VII]], bishop of Rome, in liturgical [[vestment]]s, next to his [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Caprara. [[Pius VII]] signed the [[Concordat of 1801]], illustratory of his important political role. Notice the [[pallium]] a clerical vestment which is noted at the bottom of the coat of arms of [[Benedict XVI]].]]
{{Politics of Vatican City}}

Though the progressive [[Christianization|Christianisation]] of the [[Roman Empire]] in the [[fourth century]] did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the [[fifth century]] left the Pope the senior Imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil leader was vividly displayed by [[Pope Leo I]]'s confrontation with [[Attila]] in [[452]] and was substantially increased in [[754]], when the [[Frankish people|Frankish]] ruler [[Pippin the Younger]] donated to the Pope a strip of territory which formed the core of the so-called [[Papal States]] (properly, the Patrimony of St. Peter). In [[800]] [[Pope Leo III]] crowned the Frankish ruler [[Charlemagne]] as Roman Emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; from that date it became the Pope's prerogative to crown the Emperor or any monarch with affiliations with the church until the crowning of Napoleon. As has been hitherto mentioned, the Pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in [[1870]] with their annexation by [[Italy]].

In addition to the Pope's position as a territorial ruler and foremost [[prince bishop]] of Christianity (especially prominent with the [[Renaissance]] Popes like [[Pope Alexander VI]], an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politico, and [[Pope Julius II]], a formidable general and statesman) and as the spiritual head of the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of [[Pope Gregory VII]] and [[Pope Alexander III]]), the Pope also possessed a degree of political and temporal authority in his capacity as Supreme Pontiff. Some of the most striking examples of Papal political authority are the Bull ''[[Laudabiliter]]'' in [[1155]] (authorizing [[Henry II of England]] to invade [[Ireland]]), the Bull ''[[Inter Caeteras]]'' in [[1493]] (leading to the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in [[1494]], which divided the world into areas of [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule), the Bull ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'' in [[1570]] ([[excommunication|excommunicating]] [[Elizabeth I of England]] and purporting to release all her subjects from their allegiance to her), and the Bull ''[[Inter Gravissimas]]'' in [[1582]] (establishing the [[Gregorian Calendar]]).

==Objections to the Papacy==
The Pope's position as Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church is [[dogma]]tic and therefore not open to debate or dispute within the Catholic Church; the First Vatican Council [[anathema]]tized all who dispute the Pope's primacy of honor and of jurisdiction (it is lawful to discuss the precise nature of that primacy, provided that such discussion does not violate the terms of the Council's Dogmatic Constitution). However, the Pope's authority is not undisputed outside the Catholic Church; these objections differ from denomination to denomination, but can roughly be outlined as (1) objections to the extent of the primacy of the Pope; and (2) objections to the institution of the Papacy itself.
[[Image:GestatorialChair1.jpg|270px|thumb|[[Pope Pius XII]], wearing the traditional 1877 [[Papal Tiara]], is carried through St. Peter's Basilica on a [[sedia gestatoria]] circa 1955]]

Some non-Roman-Catholic Christian communities, such as the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Old Catholic Church]], the [[Anglican Communion]], the [[Independent Catholic Churches]], and even some [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]], and therefore accept (to varying extents) the papal claims to a primacy of honour. However, these churches generally reject that the Pope is the successor to St. Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop, or raise questions about whether St. Peter was ever bishop of Rome at all. The primacy is therefore regarded primarily as a consequence of the Pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the [[Roman Empire]], a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th [[canon law|canon]] of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. In any event, these churches see no foundation at all to papal claims of ''universal immediate jurisdiction'', nor to claims of [[Papal Infallibility]]. Because none of them recognize the First Vatican Council as truly ecumenical, they regard its definitions concerning jurisdiction and Infallibility (and [[anathema]]tization of those who do not accept them) as invalid. Several of these communities refer to such claims as "[[Ultramontanism]]".

Other non-Catholic Christian denominations do not accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]], or do not understand it in hierarchical terms, and therefore do not accept the claim that the Pope is heir either to Petrine primacy of honor or to Petrine primacy of jurisdiction, or they reject both claims of honor or jurisdiction, as well as claims of Papal Infallibility, as unscriptural. The Papacy's complex relationship with the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire]]s, and other secular states, and the Papacy's territorial claims in Italy, are another focal point of these objections; as is the [[monarch]]ical character of the office of Pope. In [[Western Christianity]] these objections — and the vehement rhetoric they have at times been cast in — both contributed to and are products of the [[Protestant Reformation]]. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the Pope's authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the Pope is the [[Antichrist]] or the [[False Prophet]] spoken of in the [[Book of Revelation]] {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. These denominations tend to be more heterogeneous amongst themselves than the aforementioned hierarchical churches, and their views regarding the Papacy and its institutional legitimacy (or lack thereof) vary considerably.

Some objectors to the Papacy use empirical arguments, pointing to the corrupt characters of some of the holders of that office. For instance, some argue that claimed successors to [[St. Peter]], like [[Callixtus III]] and [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]] from the [[Borgia]] family, were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power to bind and loose on Earth or in Heaven. An omniscient and omnibenevolent God, some argue, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the [[Catholic Church]]. Defenders of the papacy argue that the Bible shows God as willingly giving privileges even to corrupt men (citing examples like some of the kings of Israel, the apostle [[Judas Iscariot]], and even St. Peter after he denied Jesus). They also argue that not even the worst of the corrupt Popes used the office to try to rip the doctrine of the Church from its apostolic roots, and that their failure to achieve that goal is evidence that the office is divinely protected. 

Some objectors to the papacy habitually refer to the Catholic Church and its members by the [[pejorative]] term ''[[papist]]'' to point out what they believe to be an inappropriate focus of attention on the office and an improper attribution of certain divine favors ''ex officio''.

==Other popes==
In the earlier centuries of Christianity, the title "Pope," meaning "father," had been used by all Bishops. Through time, however, the title has largely been restricted to the Bishop of Rome. Today, the heads of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] continue to be called "Pope", the former being called "Coptic Pope" or, more properly, "Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the Holy See of St. Mark" and the last called "Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa".

An '''[[antipope]]''' is a person who claims the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church or to confusion as to who is the legitimate Pope at the time (see [[Western Schism|Papal Schism]]). Though antipope movements were significant at one time, they are now overwhelmingly minor [[fringe]] causes.

"The [[Black Pope]]" is a derogatory name given to the [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus]] due to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits']] practice of wearing black cassocks (compared to the Pope's always wearing white robes), and to the order's specific allegiance to the Roman pontiff.

The Cardinal Prefect of the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]] (formerly the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith) is known as the "Red Pope": "red", because he is a cardinal; "pope", because he has almost absolute power over mission territories for Catholicism, essentially the Churches of Africa and Asia"<ref name = "Magister">[http://www.chiesa.espressonline.it/dettaglio.jsp?id=7049&eng=ylink Sandro Magister], Espresso Online.</ref>.

In the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a "pope" (поп). However, depending on the Russian speaker, this term might be one that is used derogatorily against the priest.

==Longest-reigning Popes==
The '''10 longest-reigning [[Pope]]s''' whose reign lengths can be determined from contemporary historical data are the following:

# [[Pope Pius IX|Pius IX]] (1846–1878): 31 years, 7 months and 23 days (11,560 days).
# [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] (1978–2005): 26 years, 5 months and 18 days (9,666 days).
# [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] (1878–1903): 25 years, 5 months and 1 day (9,281 days).
# [[Pope Pius VI|Pius VI]] (1775–1799): 24 years, 6 months and 15 days (8,962 days).
# [[Pope Adrian I|Adrian I]] (772–795): 23 years, 10 months and 25 days (8,729 days).
# [[Pope Pius VII|Pius VII]] (1800–1823): 23 years, 5 months and 7 days (8,560 days).
# [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]] (1159–1181): 21 years, 11 months and 24 days (8,029 days).
# [[Pope Sylvester I|St. Sylvester I]] (314–335): 21 years, 11 months and 1 day (8,005 days).
# [[Pope Leo I|St. Leo I]] (440–461): 21 years, 1 month, and 13 days. (7,713 days).
# [[Pope Urban VIII|Urban VIII]] (1623–1644): 20 years, 11 months and 24 days (7,664 days).

==Shortest-reigning Popes==

This is the '''list of 10 shortest-reigning [[pope]]s'''.

The number of calendar days includes part days. Eg. if a pope's reign commenced on 1 August and he died on 2 August, this would count as having reigned for two calendar days.

#[[Pope Urban VII|Urban VII]] ([[September 15]]–[[September 27]] , [[1590]]): reigned for 13 calendar days, died before consecration.
#[[Pope Boniface VI|Boniface VI]] (April, 896): reigned for 16 calendar days
#[[Pope Celestine IV|Celestine IV]] ([[October 25]]–[[November 10]], [[1241]]): reigned for 17 calendar days, died before consecration.
#[[Pope Theodore II|Theodore II]] (December, 897): reigned for 20 calendar days
#[[Pope Sisinnius|Sisinnius]] ([[January 15]]–[[February 4]], [[708]]): reigned for 21 calendar days
#[[Pope Marcellus II|Marcellus II]] ([[April 9]]–[[May 1]], [[1555]]): reigned for 22 calendar days
#[[Pope Damasus II|Damasus II]] ([[July 17]]–[[August 9]], [[1048]]): reigned for 24 calendar days
#[[Pope Pius III|Pius III]] ([[September 22]]–[[October 18]], [[1503]]): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Leo XI|Leo XI]] ([[April 1]]–[[April 27]], [[1605]]): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Benedict V|Benedict V]] ([[May 22]]–[[June 23]], [[964]]): reigned for 33 calendar days.
*[[Pope-elect Stephen|Stephen]] ([[March 23]]–[[March 26]], [[752]]), died of [[apoplexy]] three days after his election, and before his ordination as a bishop. He is not recognized a valid pope, but was added to the lists of popes in the fifteenth century as ''Stephen II'', causing difficulties in enumerating later popes named Stephen. He was removed in 1961 from the [[Vatican City|Vatican's]] [[List of popes|list]]. See "[[Pope-elect Stephen]]" for detailed explanations.

==Miscellanea==
* One of the official vehicles to transport the Pope is the [[Mercedes-Benz G-Class]] known as the "[[Popemobile]]".
* When choosing a new name, according to tradition, a Pope can choose any regnal name but one: Peter. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}
* Youngest Pope: [[Pope John XII]], who was 18 when he became Pope.
* Shortest reign: [[Pope Urban VII]], who was elected pope [[September 15]] [[1590]], and died [[September 27]] [[1590]].
* Papal burial traditions forbid autopsies.

==See also==
*[[List of popes]]
*[[List of popes (graphical)]]
*[[List of popes by length of reign]]
*[[List of ages of popes]]
*[[List of canonised popes]]
*[[Vestment]]
*[[Immaculate Conception]]
*[[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]]
*[[Ecumenical Council]]
*[[College of Bishops]]
*[[Pontifical University]]
*[[Caesaropapism]]
*[[Sedevacantism]]
*[[History of the Papacy]]
*[[Investiture Controversy]]
*[[African popes]]
*[[List of French popes]]
*[[List of German popes]]
*[[Myths and legends surrounding the Papacy]]
*[[Prophecy of the Popes]]
*[[Regnal name]]
*[[Papal Slippers]]
*[[Papal Coronation]]
*[[Papal Inauguration]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==Histories==
*Brusher, Joseph H. ''Popes Through The Ages''. Princeton: D. Van Nostland Company, Inc. 1959.
*Chamberlain, E.R. ''The Bad Popes''. 1969. Reprint: Barnes and Noble. 1993.
*Dollison, John ''Pope - Pourri''. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1994.
*Kelly, J.N.D. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Popes''. Oxford: University Press. 1986. ISBN 0-19-213964-9
*Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. ''Chronicles of the Popes - The Reign By Reign Record of The Papacy From St. Peter To The Present''. London: Thames and Hudson. 1997. ISBN 0-500-01798-0

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Loomis, Louise Ropes | title=The Book of the Popes (Liber Pontificalis): To the Pontificate of Gregory I | location=[[Evolution Publishing]] | publisher=[[Merchantville, NJ]] | year=2006 | id=ISBN 1-889758-86-8}}. Reprint of an English translation originally published in 1916.
*[[Ludwig von Pastor]], ''History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the [[Vatican Secret Archives|Secret Archives of the Vatican]] and other original sources'', 40 vols. St. Louis, B. Herder 1898 - [http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/b92040657d7c02f6.html]
* [[Vatican Information Service]] number 060322
* [[Hartmann Grisar]] (1845-1932), ''History of Rome and the Popes in the Middle Ages'', [http://www.amspress.com/ams/ AMS Press]; Reprint edition (1912). ISBN 0-404-09370-1
*[[James Joseph Walsh]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC22760194&id=B-cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22popes+and+science%22 ''The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time''], Fordam University Press, 1908, reprinted 2003, Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3646-9 Reviews: [http://books.google.com/books?vid=02tZKPD5CJrIa31EgK&id=G57Y1rlQVP0C&pg=PT2&lpg=PT2&dq=%22the+popes+and+science%22] [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1407075]

==External links==
{{Commons|Pope}}
*[http://www.vatican.va/ Vatican: the Holy See]
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm The Holy See - The Holy Father] – website for the past and present Holy Fathers (since [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]])
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/index.htm The Holy See - The Holy Father - Benedict XVI] – website for Benedict XVI
*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_INDEX.HTM Code of Canon Law] – Vatican site
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
*[http://www.dailycatholic.org/history/20ecume3.htm The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ], Fourth Session of the First Vatican Council
*[http://web.globalserve.net/~bumblebee/ecclesia/patriarchs.htm Eastern Church Defends Petrine Primacy and the Papacy]
*[http://thepopeblog.blogspot.com/ The Pope Blog] – Unofficial weblog about the Pope
*[http://popetribute.com/ Pope Tribute] – A tribute to the Pope, present and past
*[http://www.geocities.com/hashanayobel/papalinfo.htm Papal information] News about ongoing Papal Events
*[http://www.angelfire.com/tv2/benedictxvi/ Cardinal Jorge Arturo Medina Estevez announcing Habemus Papam (We have a Pope!)] ([[Windows Media Player]] Video).
*[http://www.americancatholic.org/news/BenedictXVI/ American Catholic - Pope Benedict XVI Starts His Papacy]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/pope/story/0,12272,1452750,00.html ''Swiss Watchers'' - article about the Papal Guards in THE GUARDIAN]
*[http://kolonisera.rymden.nu/pope/popes.php?l=1 Pope Endurance League - Sortable list of Popes]

{{Popes}}
{{Papal symbols and ceremonial}}

[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:Holy See|*]]
[[Category:Popes|*]]
[[Category:Religious leadership roles]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Roman Catholicism]]

{{Link FA|fi}}

[[af:Pous]]
[[als:Papst]]
[[ang:Pāpa]]
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[[hi:पोप]]
[[hr:Papa]]
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[[id:Paus (Katolik Roma)]]
[[is:Páfi]]
[[it:Papa]]
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[[kw:Pab]]
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[[lv:Romas pāvests]]
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[[li:Paus]]
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[[mk:Папа]]
[[ms:Paus (Katolik)]]
[[nl:Paus]]
[[ja:ローマ教皇]]
[[no:Pave]]
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[[nrm:Pape]]
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[[nds:Paapst]]
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[[ru:Папство]]
[[sco:Pape]]
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[[fi:Paavi]]
[[sv:Påve]]
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[[ta:பாப்பரசர்]]
[[th:พระสันตะปาปา]]
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[[tpi:Pop]]
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[[zh:教宗]]

Meat Pie

2007-04-03T23:26:02Z

LibLord: Revert to revision 119967136 dated 2007-04-03 13:28:27 by 58.160.248.52 using popups

[[Image:Meat pie.jpg|thumb|250px|A typical Australian Meat pie with Tomato Sauce]]
'''Australian meat pie''' refers to the most common variety of [[meat pie]] consumed in [[Australia]]. It is a hand-sized pie containing largely minced meat and gravy and consumed as a takeaway food snack.

It is considered [[Cultural icon|iconic]] in [[Australian]] culture and has been described by former [[New South Wales]] Premier [[Bob Carr]] as Australia's "national dish".<ref name="abc1">[http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/transcripts/s803054.htm Sausage Roll Policy]</ref>

Australians consume an average of 12 meat pies each per year. The popular brand Four'N Twenty Pie produce 50,000 pies per hour[http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/07/20/1058639657123.html]. The meat pie is heavily associated with [[Australian rules football]] and other sports as one of the most popular consumed food items whilst watching a game.

==Commercial production==
Manufacturers of pies in Australia tend to be state based, reflecting the long distances involved with interstate transport and lack of refrigeration capabilities in the early years of pie production. Many pies sold ready-to-eat at smaller outlets are sold unbranded and may be locally produced, produced by a brand-name vendor, or even imported, frozen pies heated prior to serving.

The Australian meat pie manufacturer [[Four'N Twenty Pie|Four'N'Twenty]] claims that their pie was invented in 1947 by L. T. McClure in a small Bendigo bakery, to become the brand Four'N'Twenty. Due to their relationship with [[Australian rules football]] Four'N Twenty has iconic status in Victoria and high popularity outside the state.

Other manfacturers predate this, and the pie manufacturer [[George Sargent (businessman)|Sargent]] can trace their pie making back to 1906. Sargent meat pies were served at the opening of the [[Old Parliament House, Canberra|Old Parliament House]] in 1927 — or rather 10,000 pies were not served and the left-over pies had to be buried nearby.

In [[Queensland]], [[Yatala Pies]] is one of the most successful independent direct meat pie retailers in the world (see [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]) and bakes on average over 2,000 pies and pastries per day, more in peak times.

In [[South Australia]], Balfours has been making pies since the early 1900s and remains (with Vili's) one of two major pie manufacturers in the state.

Produced in [[Western Australia]], [[Mrs Mac's Pies]] are now sold nationwide, found mostly in service stations and corner stores, competing with other brands in the contested takeaway hotbox market on the basis of quality and fillings other than the normal fare.

In [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], some of the well known and famous pie makers are Clarke's Pies from [[Mortlake, Victoria|Mortlake]], Kings Pies from [[Hamilton, Victoria|Hamilton]], Beaumont's Pies from [[Geelong]] and Patties Pies from [[Bairnsdale]].

In Tasmania, the main manufacturer of Meat Pies is National Pies, ironically a Tasmanian only company, as they have not yet started interstate sales. National Pies make typical beef mince pies, as well as "Cottage Pies", which are topped with mashed potato. National Pies' mince pies are rectangular in shape, as opposed to most other brands, which are round.

==Nutritional value==
[[New South Wales]] Premier [[Bob Carr]] launched a Childhood Obesity Summit in 2002 where he told participants that feeding children a diet of meat pies, [[sausage roll]]s and [[chiko rolls]] was akin to child cruelty.

In April 2002, the [[Australian Consumers Association]] conducted a study of 22 frozen meat pies available in supermarkets. They found three brands did not meet the minimum 25 per cent meat content requirement set by [[Food Standards Australia New Zealand]] (FSANZ), they also found that the fat content ranged from 15 to 35 grams of fat per pie. The ACA study was of a select group of frozen meat pies in supermarkets, thus the study does not account for freshly baked meat pies of which the meat content and nutritional value varies from bakery to bakery. Another study by ACA in 2006 found 5 of the 23 pie products tested had less than the minimum 25% meat required. The ACA awarded pie manufacturer [[Black and Gold]] The Shonky Award for "unAustralian Content" for being found to have just 17% meat.

The meats allowed by FSANZ in a meat pie are beef, buffalo, camel, cattle, deer, goat, hare, pig, poultry, rabbit and sheep. [[Kangaroo]] meat, a leaner alternative, is also sometimes used. It may include snouts, ears, tongue roots, tendons and blood vessels. Only offal (such as brain, heart, kidney, liver, tongue, tripe) must be specified on the label. Wild animals ("slaughtered ... in the wild state") may not be used.

==The Great Aussie Meat Pie Contest==
Started in 1990 and held annually since, the Great Aussie Pie Contest was created to find the best everyday commercially produced meat pie produced in Australia, to promote the higher quality pie production as well as attempting to increase media attention upon the foodstuff, the iconic meat pie often dwarfed by the omnipresent advertising of fast food chains.

The contest attracts various pie makers Australia wide, the pies for the contest are judged anonymously to avoid bias towards or against specific bakeries or states. Run in parallel to the main contest is one for gourmet pies, with categories for such fillings as chicken, seafood and even vegetarian pies. As well as the main prize, certificates of excellence are awarded for entries that reach set quality standards. The main award is highly coveted due to the greatly increased sales it generates, with many people travelling interstate to sample the winning pie.

==Other cultural references==
In the 1970s meat pies were mentioned in an advertising jingle for General Motors [[Holden]] Australia. The jingle — ''[[Australian rules football|Football]], meat pies, [[Kangaroo]]s and [[Holden]] Cars, they go together underneath the [[Crux|Southern Stars]]'' — was an adaptation of an American jingle for the [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] [[Chevrolet]] brand. Holden is owned by General Motors.

[[Cut-Me-Own-Throat Dibbler]], of [[Terry Pratchett]]'s [[Discworld]] series, is famous for selling "meat" pies to his unsuspecting customers.

==See also==
* [[Pie floater]]
* [[Meat pie]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* [http://www.greataussiepiecomp.com.au The Great Aussie Meat Pie Contest]
* [http://www.choice.com.au/viewArticle.aspx?id=105214&catId=100286&tid=100008&p=1&title=Test%3a+Meat+pies Choice Magazine - Meat Pies]
* [http://www.mrsmacs.com.au/MediaCentre/MeatPieTrivia.php Meat Pie history & trivia]

[[Category:Australian pies]]
[[Category:Australian rules football culture]]
[[Category:Savoury pies]]
[[Category:National dishes]]

Vom alten Schlag: Der Zweite Weltkrieg am anderen Ende der Welt. Erinnerungen

2007-04-03T21:10:24Z

LibLord: Revert to revision 118203769 dated 2007-03-27 06:47:43 by 209.31.26.194 using popups

'''''With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa''''' is a [[World War II]] memoir by former [[United States Marine]] Eugene B. Sledge. It was originally published in 1981 and reprinted in 1990 and 2007.

Nicknamed "Sledgehammer," Sledge experienced horrific combat during the battles of [[Battle of Peleliu|Peleliu]] and [[Battle of Okinawa|Okinawa]]. To many readers, this memoir is the definitive account of front line infantry combat from the Pacific war.

Sledge writes extensively of the lack of restraint among United States Marines and Japanese soldiers, during the battles. He discusses Japanese soldiers desecrating the bodies of dead United States Marines including one instance of a Japanese soldier having cut off the penis of an American soldier and placing it into his mouth. He also details the actions of some American Marines towards dead Japanese, including the removal of gold teeth from dead soldiers (and in one account, a Japanese soldier still barely alive.)

This book is considered to be one of the better first hand accounts of combat in the Pacific during World War II. The book is based on notes Sledge kept tucked away in a pocket sized Bible he carried with him during battle. Extensive research was also done in order to allow a clearer picture of the role of his division in the overall war.

==About the author==
Born Eugene Bondurant Sledge in [[Mobile, Alabama]] (November 4, 1923 - March 3, 2001), served as a PFC with K Company, [[3rd Battalion 5th Marines]] during the [[Battle of Peleliu|Peleliu]] and [[Battle of Okinawa|Okinawa]] battles. His lesser-known second book, ''China Marine: An Infantryman's Life after World War II'', was published posthumously in 2002 and covered his post war service in [[Beijing]] and his return home to Mobile where he became a Professor of Biology at the [[University of Montevallo]]. He died after a long struggle with [[stomach cancer]].

==External links==
*[http://www.studsterkel.org/gwar.php Studs Terkel audio interview with E.B. Sledge (6 parts)]

==References==
* {{cite book | title = With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa | author = Eugene Sledge | year = 2007 reprint | publisher = Presidio Press | id = ISBN 0891419063}}

[[Category:1981 books]]
[[Category:World War II personal accounts]]

{{bio-book-stub}}

Cyclecar

2007-02-13T15:26:28Z

LibLord: Reverted 1 edit by 216.79.193.56 (talk) to last revision (106814082) by Malcolma using VP

[[Image:LaVigneCyclecar1914.jpg|right|thumb|367px|1914 La Vigne cyclecar advertisement.]]
'''Cyclecars''' were small, generally inexpensive cars manufactured mainly between 1910 and the late 1920s.

==General description==
Cyclecars were propelled by single cylinder, V-twin or more rarely four cylinder engines, often air cooled. Sometimes these had been originally used in [[motorcycle]]s and other components from this source such as gearboxes were also employed. Cyclecars were half way between motorcycles and cars and were fitted with lightweight bodies, sometimes in a tandem two-seater configuration and could be primitive with minimal comfort and weather protection. They used various layouts and means of transmitting the engine power to the wheels, such as [[Belt (mechanical)|belt drive]] or [[chain drive]] often to one rear wheel only to avoid having to provide a [[differential]].

The rise of cyclecars was a direct result of reduced taxation both for registration and annual licences of lightweight small engined cars. In France, for example, a car classed for reduced rates if it weighed less than 350 kg.

On [[14 December]] [[1912]], at a meeting of the Federation Internationale des Clubs Moto Cycliste, it was formally decided that there should be an international classification of cyclecars to be accepted by the United Kingdom, Canada, United States, France, Holland, Belgium, Italy, Austria and Germany. It was also decided to establish two classes of cyclecars, as follows;
*(i) Large class
**Maximum weight 350 kg
**Maximum engine capacity 1100 cc
**Minimum tyre section 60 mm.
*(ii) Small class
**Minimum weight 150 kg
**Maximum weight 300 kg
**Maximum engine capacity 750 cc
**Minimum tyre section 55 mm.

All cyclecars were to have clutches and change-speed gears. This requirement could be fulfilled by even the simplest devices such as provision for slipping the belt on the pulley to act as a clutch, and varying of the pulley diameter to change the gear ratio.

==The cyclecars appear==
From 1898 to 1910, [[automobile]] production quickly expanded. Light cars of that era were commonly known as [[voiturette]]s. The smaller cyclecars appeared around 1910 with a boom shortly before the outbreak of [[World War I]].

The first successful cyclecars were [[Bédélia]] of [[France]] and [[G.N.]] from Britain.

==Sporting cars and cyclecar races==
Some cyclecars such as [[Amilcar]], [[Major (automobile|Major]] or [[Salmson]] of [[France]] had good enough performance and handling to be regrded as sports cars.

Races dedicated for cyclecars were also run with the first event of this kind organised by the [[Automobile Club de France]] in 1913 and a Cyclecar GP at [[Le Mans]] in 1920.

==The decline of cyclecars==
By the early 1920's the days of the cyclecar were numbered. Mass producers, such as [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], were able to reduce their prices to undercut those of the usually small cyclecar makers. Similar affordable cars were offered in Europe such as the [[Citroën Type C|Citroën 5CV]], [[Austin 7]] or [[Morris Cowley]].

The cyclecar boom was over. The majority of cyclecar manufacturers closed down. Some companies such as [[Chater-Lea]] survived by returning to the manufacture of motorcycles.

After [[World War II]] small, economic cars were again in demand and a new set of manufacturers appeared. The cyclecar name did not reappear however and the cars were called [[microcar]]s by enthusiasts and [[bubble car]]s by the general population.

==Cyclecars by countries==
[[Image:14ili15twomblyCycleCar4cyl_Bay.jpg|thumb|384px|right|A 1914 [[Twombly (cyclecar)|Twombly]] cyclecar.{{replacethisimage}}]]
===Argentina===
*[[Viglione]]

===Austria===
*[[Grofri]]

===Belgium===
*[[SCH]]

===Canada===
*[[Dart Cycle Car Co]]
*[[Glen Motor Company]]
*[[Gramm (automobile)|Gramm]]

===Czechoslovakia===
*[[Vaja]]

===France===
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
*[[Ajams]]
*[[Alcyon]]
*[[Amilcar]]
*[[Ardex]]
*[[Astatic]]
*[[Austral (cyclecar)]]
*[[Bédélia]]
*[[Benova]]
*[[Bignan]]
*[[Buc]]
*[[Causan]]
*[[Coadou et Fleury]]
*[[Contal]]
*D'Yrsan
*[[Grouesy]]
*[[Huffit]]
*[[Ipsi]]
*[[Jack Sport]]
*[[JG Sport]]
*[[Jouvie]]
*[[Laetitia (cyclecar)|Laetitia]]
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%;">
*[[La Confortable]]
*[[Major (automobile)|Major]]
*[[Marr (Cyclecar)|Marr]]
*[[Molla]]
*[[Orial]]
*[[Quo Vadis (automobile)|Quo Vadis]]
*[[Roll (automobile)|Roll]]
*[[Salmson]]
*[[Sénéchal]]
*[[SIMA-Violet]]
*[[Sphinx (cyclecar)|Sphinx]]
*[[Spidos]]
*[[Super (automobile)|Super]]
*[[Vaillant]]
*[[Villard (cyclecar|Villard]]
*[[Violet-Bogey]]
*[[Violette (cyclecar)|Violette]]
*[[Viratelle]]
*[[Virus (automobile)|Virus]]
*[[Weler]]
</div><br clear="all">

===Germany===
*[[Arimofa]]
*[[Koco]]
*[[Pluto (automobile)|Pluto]]
*[[Spinell]]
*[[Staiger]]

===Italy===
*[[Amilcar Italiana]]
*[[Anzani]]

===Spain===
*[[Alvarez]]
*[[David (car)|David]]
*[[Izaro]]
*[[JBR]]
*[[Salvador (automobile)|Salvador]]

===Sweden===
*[[Mascot (car)|Mascot]]
*[[Self (car)|Self]]

===United Kingdom===
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
*[[Adamson]]
*[[Aero Car (1919 automobile)|Aerocar]]
*[[Allwyn]]
*[[Alvechurch (automobile)|Alvechurch]]
*[[Amazon (automobile)|Amazon]]
*[[Archer (automobile)|Archer]]
*[[Armstrong (automobile)|Armstrong]]
*[[Athmac]]
*[[Atomette]]
*[[Autotrix]]
*[[AV (cyclecar)|AV]]
*[[Baby Blake]]
*[[Baker & Dale]]
*[[Bantam (car)|Bantam]]
*[[Barnard (cyclecar)|Barnard]]
*[[Baughan]]
*[[Bell (car)|Bell]]
*[[Black Prince (car)|Black Prince]]
*[[Blériot-Whippet]]
*[[Bound (automobile)|Bound]]
*[[Bow-V-Car]]
*[[BPD (automobile)|BPD]]
*[[Bradwell (car)|Bradwell]]
*[[Britannia (cyclecar)|Britannia]]
*[[Broadway (cyclecar)|Broadway]]
*[[Brough (cyclecar)|Brough]]
*[[Buckingham (car)|Buckingham]]
*[[Cambro]]
*[[Campion (automobile)|Campion]]
*[[C & H]]
*[[Carden (cyclecar)|Carden]]
*[[Carlette]]
*[[Carter (automobile)|Carter]]
*[[Castle Three]]
*[[CFB (car)|CFB]]
*[[CFL (automobile)|CFL]]
*[[Chater-Lea]]
*[[Coventry Premier]]
*[[Coventry-Victor]]
*[[Crescent (automobile)|Crescent]]
*[[Cripps (car)|Cripps]]
*[[Crompton (car)|Crompton]]
*[[CWS (car)|CWS]]
*[[Dallison]]
*[[Dennis (car)|Dennis]]
*[[DEW]]
*[[Douglas (cyclecar)|Douglas]]
*[[Duo (car)|Duo]]
*[[Dursley-Pedersen]]
*[[Economic (Cyclecar)|Economic]]
*[[Edmond (car)|Edmond]]
*[[Edmund (cyclecar)|Edmund]]
*[[Edwards (automobile)|Edwards]]
*[[EYME]]
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%;">
*[[GB (car)|GB]]
*[[Gerald Cyclecar Company|Gerald]]
*[[Gibbons (automobile)|Gibbons]]
*[[Gillyard]]
*[[Glover (cyclecar)|Glover]]
*[[GN (car)|GN]]
*[[Gnome(automobile)|Gnome]]
*[[Graham-White]]
*[[Guildford (car)|Guildford]]
*[[G.W.K.]]
*[[HCE]]
*[[Heybourn]]
*[[Hill & Stanier]]
*[[HMC (cyclecar)|HMC]]
*[[Howard (car)|Howard]]
*[[Howett]]
*[[HP (automobile)|HP]]
*[[Imperial (car)|Imperial]]
*[[Invicta (cyclecar)|Invicta]]
*[[Jappic]]
*[[JBS (car)|JBS]]
*[[Jewel (cyclecar)|Jewel]]
*[[Jones (cyclecar)|Jones]]
*[[Kendall (cyclecar)|Kendall]]
*[[LAD (car)|LAD]]
*[[La Rapide]]
*[[Lambert (cyclecar)|Lambert]]
*[[LEC (cyclecar)|LEC]]
*[[Lecoy]]
*[[Lester Solus]]
*[[Lington]]
*[[Little Midland|LM]]
*[[Matchless (car)|Matchless]]
*[[Marcus (automobile)|Marcus]]
*[[Menley (cyclecar)|Menley]]
*[[Norma (cyclecar)|Norma]]
*[[Princess (cyclecar)|Princess]]
*[[Richardson (cyclecar)|Richardson]]
*[[Simplic]]
*[[Skeoch]]
*[[Sterling (automobile)|Sterling]]
*[[Tamplin]]
*[[Tiny]]
*[[Truner]]
*[[VAL (automobile)|VAL]]
*[[Vee Gee]]
*[[Victor (cyclecar)|Victor]]
*[[Warne (car)|Warne]]
*[[Westall]]
*[[Wherwell]]
*[[Wilbrook (car)|Wilbrook]]
*[[Willis (cyclecar)|Willis]]
*[[Winson]]
*[[Winter (automobile)|Winter]]
*[[Woodrow (automobile)|Woodrow]]
*[[Xtra (automobile)|Xtra]]
</div><br clear="all">

===United States===
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
*[[American (cyclecar)|American]]
*[[Asheville (cyclecar)|Asheville]]
*[[Coey]]
*[[Comet (cyclecar)|Comet]]
*[[Cycle-Car]]
*[[Cyclops (cyclecar)]]
*[[Dayton (cyclecar)|Dayton]]
*[[Delco (cyclecar)|Delco]]
*[[Dodo (cyclecar)|Dodo]]
*[[Dudly Bug]]
*[[EIM (Cyclecar)|EIM]]
*[[Falcon (cyclecar)|Falcon]]
*[[Fenton (cyclecar)|Fenton]]
*[[Geneva (cyclecar)|Geneva]]
*[[Greyhound (cyclecar)|Greyhound]]
*[[Hanover(automobile)|Hanover]]
*[[Hawkins (cyclecar)|Hawkins]]
*[[Hoosier Scout (cyclecar)|Hoosier Scout]]
*[[IMP (cyclecar)|IMP]]
*[[Kearns LuLu]]
*[[Keller (cyclecar)|Keller]]
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%;">
*[[La Vigne]]
*[[Limit (cyclecar)|Limit]]
*[[Malcolm Jones]]
*[[Merz (cyclecar)|Merz]]
*[[Michaelson]]
*[[Mecca (cyclecar)|Mecca]]
*[[Mercury (cyclecar)|Mercury]]
*[[Motor Bob]]
*[[O-We-Go]]
*[[Pioneer (cyclecar)|Pioneer]]
*[[Post (cyclecar)|Post]]
*[[Prigg (cyclecar)|Prigg]]
*[[Pacific (automobile)|Pacific]]
*[[Real (cyclecar)|Real]]
*[[Scripps-Booth]]
*[[Trumbull (cyclecar)|Trumbull]]
*[[Twombly (cyclecar)|Twombly]]
*[[Vixen (cyclecar)|Vixen]]
*[[Winthur (cyclecar)|Winthur]]
*[[Wizzard (cyclecar)|Wizzard]]
*[[Woods Mobilette]]
*[[Xenia (automobile)|Xenia]]
</div><br clear="all">

==See also==
* [[List of automobile manufacturers]]
* [[Kei car]]

==Books==
*'From Cyclecar to Microcar - The Story of the Cyclecar Movement'. Author - Michael Worthington-Williams. Publisher Beaulieu Books 1981.
*'Minimal Motoring - From Cyclecar to Microcar'. Author - David Thirlby. Publisher Tempus Publishing Ltd ISBN 0-7524-2367-3, 2002.

==External links==
*[http://www.retroracer.net/?p=11 Modern Mechanics Cyclecar Plans]
*[http://canadiandriver.com/articles/bv/cyclecars.htm North American Cyclecars]
*[http://morgan3w.de/rivals/rivals.htm Cyclecar rivals to the Morgan 3 wheeler]

[[Category:Automobiles]]
[[Category:Car classifications]]

Becky Fischer

2007-02-10T15:02:01Z

LibLord: Reverted 1 edit by 68.187.45.41 (talk) to last revision (107076279) by Adamrush using VP

'''Becky Fischer''' (born 1951) is a controversial [[Pentecostal]] children's pastor. She is best known for her role in the 2006 documentary film ''[[Jesus Camp]]''.

Fischer is a third-generation Pentecostal on her father's side and a fourth-generation Pentecostal on her mother's side. Her grandfather was an ordained minister with the [[Assemblies of God]] for 75 years. While Fisher admits her own moral defeat over the "deadly sin" of gluttony, she is completely powerless to overcome her gluttonous eating habits. Fischer was a businesswoman in her native [[Bismarck, North Dakota]] for 23 years, the last eight as part-time children's pastor of her church. In [[1999]], she moved to [[North Wilkesboro, North Carolina]] to join [http://www.taschministries.com/ Tasch Ministries International], a ministry that specializes in [[Mission (Christian)|mission]] trips for children. After serving as a children's pastor for [[Rick Joyner]]'s [http://www.morningstarministries.org/ MorningStar Ministries] in Wilkesboro, she returned to North Dakota to begin her own ministry, Kids in Ministry International. She also pastors a church in [[Mandan, North Dakota|Mandan]], just outside Bismarck and is the author of several [http://kidsinministry.com/OnlineResources/index.html Sunday School curricula] for churches and the book [http://kidsinministry.com/OnlineResources/RedefiningCM21Century.html ''Redefining Children's Ministry in the 21st Century''.]

==Jesus Camp==
{{wikinews|Jesus Camp shuts down}}
Fischer was approached in [[2004]] by [[Heidi Ewing]] and [[Rachel Grady]] about filming her "Kids on Fire" camp outside [[Devils Lake, North Dakota]], as well as portions of her "Changing the World through Prayer Conference" at Christ Triumphant Church in [[Lee's Summit, Missouri]] (a suburb of [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]]) where Fischer is ordained.

When the film debuted at the [[Tribeca Film Festival]] in the summer of 2006, it generated some controversy for what was perceived by filmmakers as overtly political content. For example, in one scene shot at Christ Triumphant Church, a guest speaker brought a cutout of [[George W. Bush]] and asked several children assembled there to stretch their hands out toward him. Some press accounts erroneously suggested that the children were worshipping him, though the speaker in the film clearly tells them to "pray for" and "bless" the President. The [[laying on of hands]] and its derivative of stretching hands towards someone is a common practice in Pentecostal and [[charismatic movement|charismatic]] churches.

While somewhat uncomfortable with some elements of the final product, Fischer has refused to disown the film. In fact, she has used it as a tool to publicize her ministry and its work. She sees the real message of the film embedded amidst the political overtones. To Fischer, the real message of ''Jesus Camp'' is how passionate children can be for their faith in Christ when given the right opportunities. She feels that too many adults think children aren't capable of handling anything more significant than Bible stories in Christianity.

Fischer complains the average [[Sunday School]] is content to merely give them a roll-over of [[Bible]] stories for the first twelve years of their lives, causing them to become disinterested in God and the church by their teen years, and opting out of the church culture as a result. Fischer declares, "As a result, we have a crisis in Christianity resulting in as many as 70% of our own children leaving the Church and never returning." Her ministry explores ways to keep them engaged in their faith through adulthood. According to Fischer, this was the original reason she allowed herself to be filmed.

==Theology==
Although not advertised in the film, Fischer's ministry is part of an "apostolic network" of charismatic churches and ministries known as [http://www.harvestim.org Harvest International Ministries.] This organization is an offshoot of the [[charismatic movement]] that believes in the existence of present-day "apostles" and "prophets." This movement is considered to be heretical by many evangelical Christians (known as Cessationists) who believe that propetic revelation and certain gifts of the Holy Spirit (or Charismata) ceased with the completion of the New Testament and not for today. Fischer's full statement of beleifs is posted on her website http://www.kidsinministry.com/WeBelieve.html.

==Closing of the Camp==
Fischer has since announced that due to negative reactions to the camp after the film, including telephone calls and vandalism, the camp, which was held once a year for three days, will be discontinued indefinitely and will be replaced by other events. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2003365311_jesuscamp08.html]

==External links==
*[http://www.kidsinministry.com Kids in Ministry International], Fischer's ministry
*[http://www.country95radio.com/JesusCamp Media Reports on Jesus Camp], TV, Radio, Print Reviews & Reports
*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/main.jhtml?xml=/health/2006/11/18/ftjesus18.xml Telegraph Magazine: Kindergarten of Christ], extensive article about Kids in Ministry

[[Category:Living people|Fischer, Becky]]
[[Category:American religious leaders|Fischer, Becky]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity|Fischer, Becky]]
[[Category:Christian religious leaders|Fischer, Becky]]
[[Category:Christian ministers|Fischer, Becky]]
[[Category:People from Bismarck, North Dakota|Fischer, Becky]]

Altgriechische Medizin

2006-11-24T17:16:50Z

LibLord: Reverted 4 edits by 70.69.160.165 (talk) to last revision (88885825) by 66.65.138.97 using VP

{{verify}}
The history of '''medicine in ancient Greece''' covers the period from about [[776 BC]] to [[323 BC]]. Medical practice in [[Hellenistic civilization]] and the [[Greco-Roman]] era was also strongly influenced medicine of ancient Greece and is sometimes studied as part of ancient Greek medicine. Greek ideas on medicine were very important, ultimately influencing ideas in Western medicine for millenia to come. In particular, the influence of [[Hippocrates]] and [[Aristotle]] meant that not only did ideas on cures for diseases progress and change, but so did attitudes towards [[Physician|doctors]], healthy living and medicine in general.

Many people believe Greece was the home of the first [[Western culture|Western]] medical science, when doctors stopped relying on superstition and divine cures, and replaced them with rational curiosity about the causes of illness (the ancient Greeks were practically unique in being a largely [[secular]] country). According to tradition, the pioneer of this attitude of observation was Hippocrates (c.[[460 BC|460]] - [[377 BC|377]] [[BC]]). According to his traditional biography, Hippocrates based his medical practices on careful observation and keeping records of case histories. He is therefore often regarded as the "[[List of people known as the father or mother of something|father of Western medicine]]", as it was his ideas and interest in the whole patient that was the basis of further medicine for hundreds of years.

==Origins==
According to mythology, the Greek god [[Asclepius]] was trained as a doctor. Along with his daughters [[Hygieia]] and [[Panacea]], he was worshipped in a type of [[healing temple]] called ''asclepieion''. Such admiration for doctors and healing was not restricted to the gods; the ancient Greeks also greatly admired [[Ancient Egyptian medicine]]. The reputation of the [[Egyptians]] for their knowledge of herbs can be seen in the [[Odyssey]] (4.220).

The first known medical school opened in [[Cnido]] in [[700 BC]]. Alcmaeon, author of the first anatomical work, worked at this school, and it was here that the practice of observing patients was established. Hippocrates established his own medical school at [[Cos]].<ref>Atlas of Anatomy, ed. Giunti Editorial Group, Taj Books LTD 2002, p. 9</ref>. Despite their known respect for Egyptian medicine, attempts to discern any particular influence on Greek practice at this early time have not been dramatically successful because of the lack of sources and the challenge of understanding ancient medical terminology. It is clear, however, that the Greeks definitely imported Egyptian substances into their [[pharmacopoeia]], and the influence becomes more pronounced after the establishment of a school of Greek medicine in Alexandria.<ref>Heinrich Von Staden, ''Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 1-26.</ref>

==Hippocrates and Hippocratic medicine==
[[Image:Hippocrates.jpg|thumb|right|150px| Hippocrates]]
Hippocrates, founder of the school at Cos, was also regarded in Antiquity as the founder and developer of the concept of [[physis]], or considering the human being as an organic whole, as he believed that the environment would influence the whole body.
Hippocrates taught Greek doctors to recognise in the outward appearance of the patient which symptoms might be caused by disease, skills which were developed by later doctors into the more precise science of [[diagnosis]]. From these beginnings, four main aspects—[[observation]], diagnosis, [[prognosis]], and [[treatment]]—became the basis for professional clinical observation.

Hippocrates was said to be the founder of a school of doctors (actually trained through apprenticeship, not in a formal school) who practiced what might be called "Hippocratic medicine". The [[Hippocratic Corpus]] contains the core medical texts of this school. Although once thought to have been written by Hippocrates himself, today, many scholars believe that these texts were written by a series of authors over several decades.{{citeneeded}} Since it is impossible to determine which may have been written by Hippocrates himself, it is difficult to know which Hippocratic doctrines originated with him.

The existence of the [[Hippocratic Oath]] implies that this "Hippocratic" medicine was practiced by a group of professional physicians bound (at least among themselves) by a strict ethical code. Aspiring students normally paid a fee for training (a provision is made for exceptions) and entered into a virtual family relationship with his teacher. This training included some oral instruction and probably hands-on experience as the teacher's assistant, since the Oath assumes that the student will be interacting with patients. The Oath also places limits on what the physician may or may not do ("To please no one will I prescribe a deadly drug") and intriguingly hints at the existence of another class of professional specialists, perhaps akin to surgeons ("I will leave this operation to be performed by practitioners, specialists in this art").<ref>Owsei Temkin, "What Does the Hippocratic Oath Say?," in ''"On Second Thought" and Other Essays in the History of Medicine'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), pp. 21-28.</ref>

==The theory of the four humours==
[[Image:Four humours.png|thumb|200px|right|The equilibrium of the four humours: [[black bile]], [[yellow bile]], (red) [[blood]], and (green) [[phlegm]]]]
The Hippocratics, along with many other Greeks, also believed in the theory of the [[four humours]]. This theory had its roots in the belief in four [[Classical elements|elements]] which, [[Empedocles]] argued, made up everything in the world: earth, air, fire and water with their associated qualities of dryness, coldness, heat and wetness respectively. These, in turn, were linked to the four seasons; dry autumn, cold winter, hot summer and wet spring (it followed that you were more likely to suffer from a particular humour in the corresponding season). Among other corollaries, this theory meant that for some diseases, remedies to purge excess humours, such as [[bloodletting]] or [[vomiting]], seemed advisable.

These ideas influenced Western medicine for over 1500 years, being later taken up by [[Galen]] and absorbed into [[medieval medicine]], even stretching into some [[19th century]] medical practices.{{citeneeded}}

As to the exact relationship between the humours and illness, beliefs varied. The Hippocratics taught that an imbalance of the humours, or [[dyscrasia]], was symptomatic of an illness. Aristotle ([[384 BC|384]]-[[322 BC|322]] [[BC]]), however, suggested that it was the cause of illness.{{citeneeded}} It was believed that one could only be in perfect health when the humours were in balance, known as [[crasis]] or [[eucrasia]]. The natural tendency towards balance, or recovery, was called [[pepsis]] or [[coction]].

==Alexandria ==
When Alexander the Great founded Alexandria, Egypt in 332 BC, it had a major impact on Greek medical ideas and practices. The Library of Alexandria was soon established, and its collections of important scientific and philosophical texts became famous throughout the Hellenistic world, even into the Roman Empire. Alexandria was also the only city in Ancient Greece where dissection (and maybe even vivisection of criminals sentenced to death[citation needed]) was legal, which meant that doctors could gain a far more detailed knowledge of the workings of the human body, i.e., anatomy. The anatomists Herophilus and Erasistratus worked here, and many other doctors from all over the world went to study; for a time, Alexandria became the centre for medical knowledge in the West.

==Influence on Rome & Christianity ==
Through long contact with Greek culture, and their eventual conquest of Greece, the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] absorbed many of the Greek ideas on medicine. Early Roman reactions to Greek medicine ranged from enthusiasm to hostility, but eventually the Romans adopted a favorable view of Hippocratic medicine won out.<ref>von Staden, "Liminal Perils: Early Roman Receptions of Greek Medicine," in ''Tradition, Transmission, Transformation'', ed. F. Jamil Ragep and Sally P. Ragep with Steven Livesey (Leiden: Brill, 1996), pp. 369-418.</ref>

This acceptance led to the spread of Greek medical theories throughout the Roman Empire, and thus a large portion of the West. Following the collapse of the Empire, however, official Catholic support for [[Galen]]'s teachings made these the only politically acceptable ideas on medicine until the [[Renaissance]]. This support was a major reason for the huge impact of his teachings, despite their sometimes questionable value. For example, the theory of [[bloodletting]] was popular into the [[19th century]], despite its total inefficacy and the extreme riskiness: many people, including possibly [[George Washington]], died from its failure.

{{sectstub}}

==See also==

*[[Ancient Medicine]]
*[[Hippocrates]]
*[[Hippocratic Corpus]]
*[[Galen]]

==References==
<references/>

==Further reading==

*Louis Cohn-Haft, ''The Public Physicians of Ancient Greece'', Northampton, Massachusetts, 1956
*W. H. S. Jones, ''Philosophy and Medicine in Ancient Greece'', Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1946
*James Longrigg, ''Greek Rational Medicine: Philosophy and Medicine from Alcmæon to the Alexandrians'', Routledge, 1993.

==External links==

*[http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=50322 Ancient Greek Medicine in medicinenet.com]

*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/greek/index.html Greek Medicine by the History of Medicine Division of the National Library of Medicine.]

{{Ancient Greece}}

[[Category:History of ancient medicine]]
[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:History of medicine|Medicine in Ancient Greece]]

[[fr:Médecine en Grèce antique]]

Uxbridge

2006-11-20T22:02:14Z

LibLord: Reverted 3 edits by 213.106.172.133 (talk) to last revision (89094703) by AntiVandalBot using VP

{{otherplaces}}
{{infobox London place|
|Place= Uxbridge
|Borough= [[London Borough of Hillingdon|Hillingdon]]
|Traditional= [[Middlesex]] (1965)
|Constituency= [[Uxbridge (UK Parliament constituency)|Uxbridge]]
|PostTown= UXBRIDGE
|PostCode= [[UB8]]
|DiallingCode= 01895
|GridReference= TQ055835
|GLA= [[Ealing and Hillingdon (London Assembly constituency)|Ealing & Hillingdon]]
|Latitude= 51.540489
|Longitude= -0.477851
}}
'''Uxbridge''' is a place in the [[London Borough of Hillingdon]] in [[West London]], [[England]]. It is a suburban development situated 15.5 miles (25 km) west of [[Charing Cross]] and near to the boundary with [[Buckinghamshire]] which is locally the [[River Colne, Hertfordshire|River Colne]].

The name is derived from "Wuxen Bridge" which was likely to have been near the bottom of Oxford Road where the "Swan and Bottle" now stands. The Wuxen were a 7th-century [[Saxon people|Saxon]] tribe.

==Modern Uxbridge==
The town centre today comprises retail outlets and major office buildings, including the main European offices of several international companies including [[Xerox]], [[Arri]], [[American_President_Lines|APL]], Herbalife Europe Ltd and the Anadarko Algeria Oil Company. Other employers include Apple, [[Parexel]] International Ltd, [[Unisys]], [[F. Hinds]], The [[Coca-Cola]] Company, [[WMS Gaming]], [[Manpower]], [[Heinz]], [[Allied Irish Bank (GB)|AIB]] and [[General Mills]].

==History==
Archaeologists found [[Bronze age]] remains (before 700 BC) and medieval remains when the new shopping mall ''The Chimes'' was being built. Two miles away at [[Denham]], Upper [[Paleolithic]] remains have been found.

Uxbridge is not mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]] of the [[11th century]], but a hundred years later the existing church, St Margaret's, was built. The [[pub]] presently called "The Queens Head" has a sign depicting Anne Boleyn, wife of Henry VIII. The pub was previously called "The Axe" and possibly dates from the [[1540s]]. A tunnel connects the pub to the church. At the bottom of Windsor Street there is a cemetery with an archway. It was here on [[Lynch Green]] that three [[heresy|heretic]]s were burned to death in [[1555]]. Foxe's ''[[Book of Martyrs]]'' gives the names as [[John Denley]], [[Robert Smith (heretic)|Robert Smith]] and [[Patrick Packingham]], but other sources call the last one [[Patrick Rockingham]]. He was found guilty of denying the trinity.

Under [[Elizabeth I]], [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] were subject to severe constraints. [[Edmund Campion]] was a Catholic priest, trained in Douai in the [[Netherlands]], to give covert support to Catholics. He travelled around England on horseback, giving sermons in secret and pretending to be a diamond merchant. In [[1580]] he came to Uxbridge and hid for a couple of weeks, in a house owned by [[William Catesby]]. In [[1581]] Campion was caught. He was [[hanged, drawn and quartered]] in London. The 40 or so Catholics who died in this period are called the "Douai martyrs" which is also the name of the local Catholic secondary school, in [[Ickenham]].

In [[1605]] the [[Gunpowder Plot]] was uncovered. The flamboyant six-foot leader, [[Robert Catesby]] (son of William), escaped and hid in his house in Uxbridge. He was later shot. There were negotiations between [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] and the [[Parliamentary]] side in Uxbridge, [[January 30]] to [[February 22]] [[1645]], commemorated in the name of a local pub and restaurant, the [[Crown and Treaty]]. This latter is on the A4020 Oxford Road where it leaves the town, at the canal overbridge.

The covered market was built in [[1788]], but the previous building was about twice as big, creating big problems for traffic.

In the early [[19th century]], Uxbridge had an unsavoury reputation. The jurist [[William Arabin]] said of it residents "They will steal the very teeth out of your mouth as you walk through the streets. I know it from experience."

Uxbridge originally formed a [[chapelry]] within the parish of [[Hillingdon]]. It was split out as a separate [[civil parish]] in 1866, and became part of the [[Municipal Borough of Uxbridge|Uxbridge Urban District]] in 1894 under the [[Local Government Act 1894]].

In the [[1930s]] [[George Orwell]] was a teacher at [[Frays College]], now Frays Adult Education Centre. His novel ''A Clergyman's Daughter'' was based on his experiences there.

For about 200 years most of London's [[flour]] was produced in the Uxbridge area. There were also breweries, but the last one was closed down in the 1930s. Near here [[Ellen Terry]] the [[Shakespearean]] actress spent her final years, as a pub landlady.

Also there was a legend called david robinson (bn. 1993) which moved away from uxbridge into iver village and everyone knew him and thought he ws a legend. People liked him for his detemination and skills.

==Transport==

Uxbridge station, fronted by a pedestrian high street is served by the [[Metropolitan line|Metropolitan]] and [[Piccadilly line|Piccadilly]] underground lines.

The station is connected to a bus terminus with connections to Hillingdon, Hayes, Ealing, Ruislip, and Slough.

In 2013, the West London Tram Service will be completed providing a faster link into central London. The 427, 207, and 607 bus services will be replaced by the tram, which will run every 10-15 minutes along the 12-mile track on the Uxbridge Road from Uxbridge to [[Shepherd's Bush|Shepherd's Bush]].
The tram will connect into the [[White City, London|White City development]], due to open in 2009.

There were once three railway stations - [[Uxbridge Vine Street railway station|Uxbridge Vine Street]] (originally just Uxbridge Station), [[Uxbridge High Street railway station|Uxbridge High Street]], and [[Uxbridge tube station|Uxbridge Belmont Road]]. All three have now closed, replaced by the underground and bus services.

The former [[Grand Junction Canal]] now [[Grand Union Canal]], which connects London with [[Birmingham]], passes immediately to the west of Uxbridge, and forms the borough boundary. The first stretch was built in the late [[eighteenth century]] from [[Brentford]] to Uxbridge. Further upstream is Uxbridge Lock, and nearby is a flourmill belonging to Allied Mills. A Mister King, who called it “Kingsmill”, bought this in the nineteenth century. This brand name is one of the best-selling bread-makers in the UK, though most of the milling is now done on Tyneside.

==Shopping==
[[Image:Uxbridge.jpg|thumb|300px|A view of ''The Chimes'', ''Costa Coffee'', ''[[Abbey (bank)|Abbey Bank]]'' and ''[[Starbucks]]'' at Uxbridge High Street]]
The town centre is pedestrianised, and popular for shopping in West London. Uxbridge boasts two shopping centres, The Pavilions and The Chimes. Both contain a variety of shops, such as [[Gap (clothing retailer)|GAP]], [[Next (retailer)|Next]], [[British Home Stores|BHS]], [[Topshop|TopShop]] and many more. The Chimes also is home to the 12 Screen Uxbridge [[Odeon Cinemas|Odeon]]. In addition, just off the High Street is Windsor Street, a short road still populated by old, traditional, independent shops. Interestingly, the department store Randall's is owned by the Tory MP for [[Uxbridge (UK Parliament constituency)|Uxbridge]], [[John Randall (UK politician)|John Randall]], who was elected in a 1997 by-election when the sitting MP, Sir [[Michael Shersby]], died shortly after the 1997 general election. John Randall is a strong supporter of independent shop-keepers (somewhat unsurprisingly).

===Nearest places===

* [[Cowley, London|Cowley]]
* [[Denham, Buckinghamshire]]
* [[Hayes, Hillingdon|Hayes]]
* [[Ickenham]]
* [[Ruislip]]
* [[West Drayton]]
* [[Yiewsley]]
* [[Hillingdon]]
* [[len bloom's house]]
* [[barons makeup parlor]]

==See also==

Uxbridge is sometimes used as a facetious alternative to [[Oxbridge]], a portmanteau name for the universities of [[Oxford]] and [[Cambridge]], for example by the ''[[I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue]]'' radio show.

==References==

{{Unreferenced}}

{{London Districts}}

{{LondonLOOP | locale=Uxbridge | forward=[[Harefield]] | back=[[Hayes, Hillingdon|Hayes]] | A=11 | B=12}}

[[Category:Districts of London]]
[[Category:Hillingdon]]

[[af:Uxbridge]]

Roberto Clemente

2006-11-15T22:16:30Z

LibLord: Revert to revision 87469067 dated 2006-11-13 03:43:01 by 205.188.116.14 using popups

{{Infobox baseball player | name=Roberto Clemente| image name= 200-roberto.jpg|50px
| nicknames= "Arriba"
| birthdate= [[August 18]], [[1934]]
| birthplace= [[Carolina, Puerto Rico]]
| dead=dead
| deathdate= [[December 31]], [[1972]]
| deathplace=Off the coast of Carolina, Puerto Rico
| debutdate= [[April 17]], [[1955]]
| debutteam=[[Pittsburgh Pirates]]
| debutopponent=[[Brooklyn Dodgers]]
| debutstadium=[[Forbes Field]]
| teams='''As Player'''<BR>
[[Pittsburgh Pirates]] ([[1955 in sports|1955]] – [[1972 in sports|1972]])
| HOFer=HOFer
| inductiondate=[[August 6]], [[1973 in sports|1973]]
| careerhighlights=<br>
* 12 [[Gold Glove Awards]] ([[1961 in sports|1961]] - [[1972 in sports|1972]])
* 62nd on MLB All-Time Batting Average List (.317)
* 62nd on MLB All-Time Games List (2,433)
* 37th on MLB All-Time At Bats List (9,454)
* 72nd on MLB All-Time Runs List (1,416)
* 26th on MLB All-Time Hits List (3,000)
* 36th on MLB All-Time Total Bases List (4,492)
* 88th on MLB All-Time Doubles List (440)
* 27th on MLB All-Time Triples List (166)
* 89th on MLB All-Time RBI List (1,305)
* 27th on MLB All-Time Singles List (2,154)
* 47th on MLB All-Time Runs Created List (1,628)
* 65th on MLB All-Time Extra-Base Hits List (846)
* 66th on MLB All-Time Times on Base List (3,656)
* 25th on MLB All-Time Intentional Walks List (167)
*
* 11th player to reach 3,000 hits
* 12 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] appearances
* One NL [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP Award]] ([[1966 in sports|1966]])
* Two [[World Series]] rings ([[1960 in sports|1960]] and [[1971 in sports|1971]])
* One World Series MVP ([[1971 in sports|1971]])
* Led NL in batting 4 times
* Led NL in RBI once
* Led NL in hits twice
* Led NL in triples once
* Led NL in runs created once
* Led NL in intentional walks once
* Hit .300 or better 13 times
* Pittsburgh Pirates Career Leader in Games (Shares with Honus Wagner), At Bats, Hits, Total Bases, Singles and Grounding into Double Plays
}}

'''Roberto Clemente Walker''' ([[August 18]], [[1934]] – [[December 31]], [[1972]]) was a [[Major League Baseball]] [[right fielder]] and right-handed batter. He was elected to the [[United States Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] posthumously in [[1973 in sports|1973]] as the second [[Hispanic American]] to be selected ([[Lefty Gomez]] being the first in 1972), and the only exception to the mandatory five-year post-retirement waiting period since it was instituted in [[1954 in sports|1954]].

Clemente was born in [[Carolina, Puerto Rico|Carolina]], [[Puerto Rico]], the youngest of four children. He played 18 seasons in the majors from [[1955 in sports|1955]] to [[1972 in sports|1972]], all with the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], winning the [[National League]] [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award]] in 1966. He was very helpful in his native land, and other Latin American countries, often bringing food, and baseball supplies to them. He died in a [[Accidents and incidents in aviation|plane crash]] on [[December 31]], 1972 while en route to deliver aid to earthquake victims in [[Nicaragua]]. His [[corpse|body]] was never recovered.

==Baseball accomplishments==
Clemente was a 4-time NL batting champion, finishing in the top ten in [[batting average]] thirteen times. He finished his career with exactly 3,000 [[hit (baseball)|hits]], the 11th player in history to reach this number. His lifetime batting average was .317 and he batted .300 or better thirteen times, with 240 [[home runs]] and 1305 [[run batted in|runs batted in]]. He also hit 166 [[triple (baseball)|triples]] during his career, finishing in the top five of the league eleven times. These batting feats were accomplished in spite of playing most of his home games at [[Forbes Field]], a very tough park for hitters due to its faraway fences.

Clemente also had one of the most powerful throwing arms in baseball history. Broadcaster [[Vin Scully]] colorfully claimed, "Clemente could field the ball in New York and throw out a guy in Pennsylvania."<ref>{{cite news|author=Peter Leo|work=[[w:Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]]|title=He just can't kick the baseball habit|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06192/704891-294.stm|date=July 11, 2006}}</ref> Clemente won 12 [[Gold Glove Award]]s for his outstanding defense (a record among outfielders, which he shares with fellow legend [[Willie Mays]]); he was reported to be able to throw out a runner from his knees. He recorded 266 [[assist (baseball)|outfield assists]] during his career.

Perhaps Clemente's greatest feat was leading the Pittsburgh Pirates to a seven-game [[World Series]] victory over the [[Baltimore Orioles]] in 1971. He played in two World Series ([[1960 World Series|1960]] and [[1971 World Series|1971]]) and got a hit in all 14 games.

He is one of only four players (as of the end of the [[2005 in baseball|2005]] season) to have 10 or more Gold Gloves and a .300+ lifetime batting average.

Long time broadcaster Tim McCarver calls Roberto Clemente "the greatest right fielder of all time".

==Early career==
With his natural talent he had an amazing ability to make contact at the plate coupled with a tremendous arm in the field - Clemente first caught the eye of major league scouts while playing with the [[Santurce Crabbers (baseball)|Santurce Crabbers]] (alongside [[Willie Mays]]) in the [[Professional Baseball League of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican Winter League]]. At the age of 18, he hit .356 for Santurce in the winter of [[1952 in sports|1952]]-[[1953 in sports|1953]].

===1954 in Montreal===
Scout [[Al Campanis]] signed Clemente for the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]] with a $10,000 bonus later in 1953. His new team, however, was unable to fit him into a star-studded outfield featuring 1953 [[National League]] [[:Category:1953 National League All-Stars|All-Stars]] [[Carl Furillo]], [[Duke Snider]], and [[Jackie Robinson]]. Rules of the time required a team signing a player for a bonus, including salary, of more than $4,000 to keep him on the major league roster for two years or risk losing him in an off-season draft (the predecessor of today's [[Rule 5 Draft]]). Nevertheless, the Dodgers chose to have Clemente spend the 1954 season in the minors, with the [[Montreal Royals]], even though it meant they could lose him at the end of the year.

What has been written about Clemente in Montreal contains an assertion that the Dodgers and Royals tried to hide him—that is, play him very little so that other teams wouldn't notice him. Biographers and others who maintain that Clemente was hidden—and beyond that, that the organization may have tried to frustrate Clemente to the point that he would jump the team, making him ineligible to be drafted by another team—offer numerous supporting examples. The examples, with few exceptions, turn out to be false.

For example, it has been stated that Clemente once had three triples in a game and was benched the next game. A check of Montreal Royals box scores in 1954 reveals that Clemente never had a game with three triples in it. Clemente himself maintained that the Royals' strategy was to make him look bad, benching him if he did well and keeping him in the lineup if he was doing poorly. In reality, Clemente was in the starting lineup five games in a row early in the season (a strange strategy if the team really was trying to hide him). Clemente had one hit in the first of those games, started again, had three hits, and started the next three games, coming out of the starting lineup only after going hitless in those final three games. This would seem to belie the claims that the organization was trying to make him look bad by rewarding a good performance with a benching and vice versa.

After those five starts, he played sparingly over the next few months, but he did begin playing on a semi-regular basis on [[July 25]]. Over the final seven weeks of the season, Clemente (a right-handed batter) was in the starting lineup every time the opposing starting pitcher was lefthanded. And he started no games over that period in which the opposing starter was righthanded. (This is called platooning, and was a common practice of Montreal manager Max Macon.) However, two biographers—Kal Wagenheim and Bruce Markusen—make the outrageous and totally incorrect claim that Clemente did not play in any of the Royals’ final 25 games.

===1955-1959===
Regardless of the intentions of the Royals/Dodgers, Pittsburgh Pirates president [[Branch Rickey]] (the same person who, as Dodgers president, signed Jackie Robinson) drafted Clemente with the first selection in the post-season draft. Pittsburgh at the time was a fixture at the bottom of the National League and had lost 100 games in each of the three previous seasons. With little to lose, the Pirates installed Clemente in place of incumbent right fielder [[Sid Gordon]] early in the 1955 season. Although Clemente's skill with the glove was immediately apparent, he was less impressive at the plate; he batted .255 with 5 home runs and 47 RBI in his first full season in 1955. In [[1956 in sports|1956]], though, he hit his stride, producing a .311 batting average (third in the league) at the age of 21. It was the first of thirteen seasons in which Clemente would hit above .300.

==The 1960s==
While Clemente had begun to fulfill his potential, the Pirates continued to struggle through the 1950s, although they did manage their first winning season since [[1948 in sports|1948]] in 1959. In [[1960 in sports|1960]], however, the team broke through to a 95-59 record, a National League pennant, and a thrilling seven-game [[1960 World Series|World Series]] victory over the [[Mickey Mantle|Mantle]]-[[Roger Maris|Maris]] [[New York Yankees]]. Clemente batted .310 in the series, hitting safely at least once in every game. His .314 batting average, 16 home runs, and stellar defense earned him his first trip to the [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star game]]. Through the rest of the decade, Clemente firmly established himself as one of the premier players in baseball. For the rest of his career, he batted over .300 in every year save [[1968 in sports|1968]], when he hit .291; he was selected to every All-Star game; and he was given a [[Gold Glove Award|Gold Glove]] after every season from [[1961 in sports|1961]] onwards. He led the National League in batting average four times (1961, [[1964 in sports|1964]], [[1965 in sports|1965]], and [[1967 in sports|1967]]), led the NL in hits twice (1964 and 1967), and won the MVP award for his 1966 season, when he hit .317 while setting career highs in home runs (29) and RBI (119).

Regardless of his unquestionable success, some (including, supposedly, Clemente himself) felt that the media did not give him the recognition he deserved. Despite being the offensive and defensive leader of the strong 1960 Pirates club, he finished only eighth in voting for the MVP that season; teammate [[Dick Groat]] received the award. In protest Clemente reportedly never wore his 1960 World Series ring. He was also labeled a [[hypochondriac]] due to nagging injuries early in his career, although he played in 144 or more games in each season from 1960 to 1967. The 1966 MVP award was, in the eyes of many Pittsburgh fans, a long overdue acknowledgment of his greatness.

==The 1970s==
In [[1971 in sports|1971]], the Pirates again won the National League pennant behind [[Willie Stargell]]'s 48 home runs and Clemente's .341 batting average and faced the Baltimore Orioles in the [[1971 World Series|World Series]]. Baltimore had won 100 games and swept the [[American League Championship Series]], both for the third consecutive year, and were the defending World Series champions. Undaunted, Pittsburgh came back from down two games to none in the series to win it in seven for the second time in Clemente's career. He was the clear star of the series, with an incredible .414 batting average (12 hits in 29 [[at bat|at-bats]]), typically spectacular defense, and a crucial solo home run in the deciding 2-1 Game 7 victory. His efforts earned him the World Series MVP award.

[[Chuck Thompson]] (working for [[NBC Sports]] along with [[Curt Gowdy]]) describing the Game 7 home run in the fourth inning off of the Orioles' [[Mike Cuellar]]: ''That ball is hit well...a Clemente home run and the Pirates lead 1-0!''

Struggling with injuries, Clemente managed to appear in only 102 games in 1972, but still hit .312 for his final .300 season. On [[September 30]], he hit a [[double (baseball)|double]] off [[Jon Matlack]] of the [[New York Mets]] for his 3,000th hit. It was the last at-bat of his career during a regular season, though he did play in the 1972 NLCS playoffs against the Cincinnati Reds. In the playoffs, he batted .235 as he went 4 for 17. His last game ever was at Cincinnati's [[Riverfront Stadium]] in the 5th game of the playoff series.

==Death and posthumous honors==
[[Image:PresMedalFreedom.jpg|thumb|95px|right|'''Posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2002''']]
A hero in his native Puerto Rico, Clemente spent much of his time during the off-season involved in charity work. He died in a [[Accidents and incidents in aviation|plane crash]] off the coast of Isla Verde, Puerto Rico on [[December 31]], [[1972]] while en route to deliver aid to earthquake victims in [[Nicaragua]]. His body was never recovered.

Puerto Rico has honored Roberto Clemente's memory by naming the coliseum in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]] [[Coliseo Roberto Clemente]]. His native city, Carolina, named an avenue after him and realized his dream of establishing a sports complex where the youth could learn and practice sports in a healthy environment. Today this sports complex is called "Ciudad Deportiva Roberto Clemente" (Roberto Clemente Sports City). There is also a monument in his likeness created by Puerto Rican sculptor [[Jose Buscaglia Guillermety]] situated in Carolina. The state of [[New York]] named a state park after him almost immediately after his death; he now has several schools and parks named after him. [http://www.robertoclemente21.com/Namesakes/namesakes.html] The city of [[Miami, Florida]] named Roberto Clemente Park in the Hispanic neighborhood of Wynwood after him. Also, the Wynwood and the Beaches [[ASPIRA]] chapter named the Roberto Clemente Youth Club (RCYC) after him. This club is aimed at helping at-risk hispanic youth by instilling confidence and teaching them how to become successful while avoiding drugs and crime.

In [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], the [[Roberto Clemente Bridge|6th Street Bridge]] was renamed in his memory, and the Pirates retired his number 21 at the start of the 1973 season. The right field wall at the Pirates' [[PNC Park]] is 21 feet high in honor of Clemente. A statue of the outfielder stands outside the park; Clemente was the second Pirate so honored ([[Honus Wagner]] was the first). On the other side of the state, in eastern Pennsylvania, the [[Roberto Clemente Charter School]], in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], is named in Clemente's honor.

MLB presents the [[Roberto Clemente Award]] every year to the player who best follows Clemente's example with humanitarian work. In 2002, Clemente was posthumously awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]. In 2003, he was inducted into the [[U.S. Marine Corps]] Sports Hall of Fame. There is also currently a campaign underway to have all major league teams retire Clemente's number. Supporters cite an influence on baseball at least as strong as that of [[Jackie Robinson]], whose number is also retired throughout MLB.

In 1999, he ranked Number 20 on ''[[The Sporting News]]''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, the highest-ranking Latino player. Later that year, Clemente was nominated as a finalist for the [[Major League Baseball All-Century Team]]. Several Latino fans wrote letters saying that, as the greatest of all Latino players, he should have been awarded a spot on the team. In 2003, Clemente was inducted into the National Museum of the [[United States Marine Corps]] Hall of Fame. On [[October 26]], [[2005]], Clemente was named a member of Major League Baseball's [[Latino Legends Team]].

The film ''[[Chasing 3000]]'' (2006) chronicles two brothers who travel across country to see Clemente get this 3,000th hit. It is set to release in the [[United States]] on October 1, [[2006 in film|2006]]. The film stars [[Ray Liotta]], [[Keith David]], [[Trevor Morgan (actor)|Trevor Morgan]], and [[Rory Culkin]].

At the [[Major League Baseball]] [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star game]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] on July 11, 2006 many of the players on both teams wore yellow wristbands with the initials "RCW" in honor of Clemente. At the end of the 4th inning, Clemente was awarded the Commissioner's Historical Achievement Award by the Commissioner of Baseball, given to his widow. "Roberto was a hero in every sense of the word," Selig said.

==See also==
*[[List of players from Puerto Rico in Major League Baseball|Players from Puerto Rico in MLB]]
*[[List of famous Puerto Ricans]]
*[[List of top 500 Major League Baseball home run hitters]]
*[[Roberto Clemente, Jr.]]
*[[DHL Hometown Heroes]]
{{wikiquote}}

==External links/sources==
*[http://www.robertoclemente21.com/Namesakes/namesakes.html List of Places and Organizations named after Clemente]
*[http://www.robertoclemente21.com Official Roberto Clemente Webpage]
*[http://baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/clemente_roberto.htm Baseball Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.baseball-reference.com/c/clemero01.shtml Baseball Reference]
*[http://www.latinosportslegends.com/clemente.htm Latino Sports Legends]
*[http://www.corpsstories.com/ClementeRoberto.htm Famous Marines]
*[http://bioproj.sabr.org/bioproj.cfm?a=v&v=l&bid=1255&pid=2553 Society of American Baseball Research BioProject biography of Clemente]

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{{succession box | before = [[Eddie Mathews]] | title = [[Player of the Month|Major League Player of the Month]]| years = [[May]], [[1960]]| after = [[Lindy McDaniel]]}}
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{{end box}}
<center> {{MLBLLT}} </center>

[[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:Major league right fielders|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:Pittsburgh Pirates players|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1960 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1961 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1962 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1963 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1964 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1965 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1966 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1967 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1969 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1970 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1971 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1972 National League All-Stars|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:Puerto Rican baseball players|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1960 Pittsburgh Pirates World Series Championship Team|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1971 Pittsburgh Pirates World Series Championship Team|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:Gold Glove Award winners|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:3000 hit club|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:United States Marines|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:People from Pittsburgh|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:Plane crash victims|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1934 births|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:1972 deaths|Clemente, Roberto]]
[[Category:National League batting champions|Clemente, Roberto]]

[[es:Roberto Clemente]]
[[ja:ロベルト・クレメンテ]]

Kent Conrad

2006-11-15T21:04:57Z

LibLord: reverted edits by 165.234.84.188

{{Infobox Senator | name=Kent Conrad
| nationality=american
| image name=Kent Conrad official portrait.jpg
| jr/sr and state=Senior Senator, [[North Dakota]]
| party=[[North Dakota Democratic-NPL Party|Democratic-NPL]]
| term=[[1987]]–Present
| preceded=[[Mark Andrews]]
| succeeded=Incumbent (2013)
| date of birth=[[March 12]], [[1948]]
| place of birth=[[Bismarck, North Dakota|Bismarck]], [[North Dakota]]
| dead=alive
| date of death=
| place of death=
| spouse=Lucy Calautti
| religion=[[Unitarian Universalist Association|Unitarian Universalist]]
}}
'''Kent Conrad''' (born on [[March 12]] [[1948]]) is a [[United States senator]] from [[North Dakota]]. He is a member of the [[North Dakota Democratic-NPL Party]], the North Dakota affiliate of the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]]. He is the ranking Democrat on the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Budget|Senate Budget Committee]].

==Early years and education ==

Conrad was born in [[Bismarck, North Dakota]] to German-American parents and lived much of his early life in Bismarck. Orphaned at a young age, he was raised by his grandparents. He attended Roosevelt Elementary and Hughes Junior High, and several years of high school in [[Tripoli, Libya]]. He graduated in 1966 from [[Phillips Exeter Academy]], like his opposite on the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Budget|Senate Budget Committee]], Chairman [[Judd Gregg]]. He went to college at [[Stanford University|Stanford]] and received an [[MBA]] from [[George Washington University]].

He has one daughter, Jessamyn, from a previous marriage. His wife, Lucy Calautti, is a lobbyist for [[Major League Baseball]].

== Initial career ==
After graduating college, he became an assistant to the North Dakota tax commissioner, [[Byron Dorgan]], who later became his colleague in the Senate. In [[1980]], Conrad succeeded Dorgan as tax commissioner. Conrad was state tax commissioner until [[1986]], when he ran for Senate.

== Senate career ==
===Elections===

[[Image:CONRADPRESS.jpg|thumb|286px|left|Sen. Conrad talks about the growing deficit under [[President Bush]] using his trademark colorful charts.]]

In the 1986 election, Conrad defeated the Republican incumbent, [[Mark Andrews]]. During the campaign, Conrad pledged that he would not run for re-election if the Federal budget deficit had not fallen by the end of his term. By [[1992]] it became obvious that this would not be the case, and although polls showed that the electors would have welcomed him going back on his pledge, Conrad considered his promise binding and did not run for re-election. Dorgan won the Democratic primary election.

Conrad got an unusual opportunity to remain in the Senate when the other North Dakota senator, long-serving Dem-NPLer [[Quentin N. Burdick]], died on [[September 8]], [[1992]]. Burdick's widow, [[Jocelyn Burdick|Jocelyn Birch Burdick]], was appointed to that seat temporarily, but a special election was needed to fill the rest of the term. As this was not running for re-election, Conrad ran for and secured the Democratic-NPL nomination. He won the election and was sworn in [[December 5]], [[1992]], resigning his other seat the same day. (The first seat was then filled by Dorgan, who was appointed by the governor to fill the seat for the brief interim until he would have been sworn in under normal circumstances.)

Conrad was elected to another full term in [[1994]] and re-elected in [[2000]].

===Political positions ===
Conrad has been very vocal in his opposition to the spending policies of the [[George W. Bush|Bush Administration]]. He contends that they have worsened the problems of [[national debt]]. Conrad is opposed to most free-trade measures and is a strong supporter of farming subsidies.

Conrad is more moderate than many in his own party on the issues of [[abortion]], [[gun control]], and [[gay rights]]. He is one of the few members of the Democratic Party to have voted consistently in favor of banning the procedure commonly referred to as [[partial birth abortion|"partial-birth" abortion]]. He also opposes public funding of abortion. However, Conrad voted in favor of lifting the ban on military base abortions [http://www.ontheissues.org/Social/Kent_Conrad_Abortion.htm#2000-134]. On [[January 31]], [[2006]], Conrad was one of only four Democrats to vote in favor of confirming Judge [[Samuel Alito]] to the [[Supreme Court]].

Conrad voted against approving use of military force in [[Iraq]] in 1991 and was one of only 23 senators to vote against the [[Iraq war|war resolution of 2002]].

In April [[2006]], he was selected by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' as one of "America's 10 Best Senators."

===2006 re-election campaign===
{{main|North Dakota United States Senate election, 2006}}
Conrad is up for re-election in 2006. The Republicans tried to recruit popular Governor [[John Hoeven]] to face Conrad. Hoeven was considered by some to be the only Republican able to pose a threat to Conrad; Hoeven declined to run.

The only Republican to file by the deadline was [[Dwight Grotberg]], an Anderson town councilman and farmer from [[Sanborn, North Dakota|Sanborn]] in [[Barnes County, North Dakota|Barnes County]].

As of [[August]] [[2006]], Conrad had the highest approval rating among his constituents of any [[U.S. Senator]], at 74% approval to only 21% disapproval, despite his being a Democrat in a historically [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] state.[http://www.surveyusa.com/50State2006/100USSenatorApproval060817Approval.htm]

==Trivia==
*Conrad is widely known for being very detailed in his analysis of monetary policies and budget issues. He almost always uses charts, graphs, and other visuals at press conferences as well as on the Senate floor.
*Conrad is the only person ever to hold two U.S. Senate seats on the same day.
*He is the only [[Unitarian]] in the U.S. Senate.

==External links==
*[http://conrad.senate.gov/ Senator Kent Conrad official website]
*[http://www.kent-conrad.com/ Kent Conrad campaign website]
*[http://usliberals.about.com/od/liberalpersonalprofiles/p/KentConrad.htm About.com's Profile of US Senator Kent Conrad of North Dakota]
*{{CongBio2|c000705}}
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{{succession box |
before=[[Byron Dorgan]]|
title=[[List of North Dakota Tax Commissioners|Tax Commissioner of North Dakota]]|
years=1981–1986|
after=[[Heidi Heitkamp]]
}}
{{U.S. Senator box
| state=North Dakota
| class=3
| before=[[Mark Andrews]]
| after=[[Byron Dorgan ]]
| years=1987-1992}}
{{U.S. Senator box
| state=North Dakota
| class=1
| before=[[Jocelyn Burdick]]
| start=1992}}
{{end box}}
{{ND-FedRep}}
{{Current U.S. Senators}}
[[Category:1948 births|Conrad, Kent]]
[[Category:Living people|Conrad, Kent]]
[[Category:Phillips Exeter Academy alumni|Conrad, Kent]]
[[Category:Unitarians|Conrad, Kent]]
[[Category:United States Senators from North Dakota|Conrad, Kent]]
[[fr:Kent Conrad]]
[[pl:Kent Conrad]]
[[sv:Kent Conrad]]