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[[File:A Day with Keats, Neatby plate - Autumn.png|thumb|Illustration for "To Autumn" by William James Neatby, from ''A Day with Keats'', 1899|alt=Drawing of trees with orange and red leaves with a lake at the bottom and hills in the distance.]]

"'''To Autumn'''" is a [[poetry|poem]] by English [[Romanticism|Romantic]] poet [[John Keats]] (31 October 1795 – 23 February 1821). The work was composed on 19 September 1819 and published in 1820 in a volume of Keats's poetry that included ''[[Lamia (poem)|Lamia]]'' and ''[[The Eve of St. Agnes]]''. "To Autumn" is the final work in a group of poems known as [[John Keats's 1819 odes|Keats's "1819 odes"]]. Although personal problems left him little time to devote to poetry in 1819, he composed "To Autumn" after a walk near [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]] one autumnal evening. The work marks the end of his poetic career, as he needed to earn money and could no longer devote himself to the lifestyle of a poet. A little over a year following the publication of "To Autumn", Keats died in [[Rome, Italy|Rome]].

The poem has three eleven-line [[stanza]]s which describe a progression through the season, from the late maturation of the crops to the harvest and to the last days of autumn when winter is nearing. The imagery is richly achieved through the [[personification]] of Autumn, and the description of its bounty, its sights and sounds. It has parallels in the work of English landscape artists,<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 176">Bewell 1999 p. 176</ref> with Keats himself describing the fields of stubble that he saw on his walk as being like that in a painting.<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 580">Bate 1963 p. 580</ref>

The work has been interpreted as a meditation on death; as an [[allegory]] of artistic creation; as Keats's response to the [[Peterloo Massacre]], which took place in the same year; and as an expression of [[nationalism|nationalist]] sentiment. One of the most [[anthology|anthologised]] English [[lyric poem]]s, "To Autumn" has been regarded by critics as one of the most perfect short poems in the English language.

==Background==
[[File:Keats19.jpg|thumb|left|Sketch of Keats by Charles Brown, August 1819, one month before the composition of "To Autumn"|alt=Portrait in pencil of a man in his mid-twenties with medium-length curly hair. He is leaning on his right arm and faces right. He is wearing a white jacket.]]

During the spring of 1819, Keats wrote many of his major odes: "[[Ode on a Grecian Urn]]", "[[Ode on Indolence]]", "[[Ode on Melancholy]]", "[[Ode to a Nightingale]]", and "[[Ode to Psyche]]". After the month of May, he began to pursue other forms of poetry, including the verse tragedy ''Otho the Great'' in collaboration with friend and roommate Charles Brown, the second half of ''Lamia'', and a return to his unfinished epic ''[[Hyperion (poem)|Hyperion]]''.<ref name="Bate pp. 526–562">Bate 1963 pp. 526–562</ref> His efforts from spring until autumn were dedicated completely to a career in poetry, alternating between writing long and short poems, and setting himself a goal to compose more than fifty lines of verse each day. In his free time he also read works as varied as [[Robert Burton (scholar)|Robert Burton]]'s ''[[Anatomy of Melancholy]]'', [[Thomas Chatterton]]'s poetry, and [[James Henry Leigh Hunt|Leigh Hunt]]'s essays.<ref>Gittings 1968 pp. 269–270</ref>

Although Keats managed to write many poems in 1819, he was suffering from a multitude of financial troubles throughout the year, including concerns over his brother, George, who, after emigrating to America, was badly in need of money. Despite these distractions, on 19 September 1819 he found time to write "To Autumn". The poem marks the final moment of his career as a poet. No longer able to afford to devote his time to the composition of poems, he began working on more lucrative projects.<ref name="Bate pp. 526–562"/> Keats's declining health and personal responsibilities also raised obstacles to his continuing poetic efforts.<ref name="Motion p. 461">Motion 1999 p. 461</ref>

On 19 September 1819, Keats walked near Winchester along the [[River Itchen, Hampshire|River Itchen]]. In a letter to his friend John Hamilton Reynolds written on 21 September, Keats described the impression the scene had made upon him and its influence on the composition of "To Autumn":<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 580"/> "How beautiful the season is now – How fine the air. A temperate sharpness about it [...] I never lik'd stubble fields so much as now [...] Somehow a stubble plain looks warm – in the same way that some pictures look warm – this struck me so much in my sunday's walk that I composed upon it."<ref>Keats 2008 p. 184</ref> Not everything on Keats's mind at the time was bright; the poet knew in September that he would have to finally abandon ''Hyperion''. Thus, in the letter that he wrote to Reynolds, Keats also included a note saying that he abandoned his long poem.<ref>Bate 1963 p. 585</ref> Keats did not send "To Autumn" to Reynolds, but did include the poem within a letter to Richard Woodhouse, Keats's publisher and friend, and dated it on the same day.<ref>Evert 1965 pp. 296–297</ref>

The poem was revised and included in Keats's 1820 collection of poetry titled ''Lamia, Isabella, the Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems''. Although the publishers Taylor and Hessey feared the kind of bad reviews that had plagued Keats's 1818 edition of ''[[Endymion (poem)|Endymion]]'', they were willing to publish the collection after the removal of any potentially controversial poems to ensure that there would be no politically motivated reviews that could give the volume a bad reputation.<ref>McGann 1979 pp. 988–989</ref>
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==Poem==
[[File:John Keats - To Autumn Manuscript 1 unrestored.jpg|right|thumb|Manuscript copy of "To Autumn" page 1|alt=A white sheet of paper that is completely filled with a poem in cursive hand writing. Many of the lines mid-way down the page are scratched out.]]
[[File:John Keats - To Autumn Manuscript 2 unrestored.jpg|right|thumb|Manuscript copy of "To Autumn" page 2|alt=A white sheet of paper that is completely filled with a poem in cursive hand writing. A few of the words are scratched out with other words written above as corrections. Words can be partly seen from the other side of the page but they are illegible. A note midway down the page describes that it is an "Original manuscript of John Keats's Poem to Autumn."]]

:Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness
:Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun
:Conspiring with him how to load and bless
:With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;
:To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees,
:And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;
:To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells
:With a sweet kernel; to set budding more,
:And still more, later flowers for the bees,
:Until they think warm days will never cease,
:For Summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells.

:Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?
:Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find
:Thee sitting careless on a granary floor,
:Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind;
:Or on a half-reap'd furrow sound asleep,
:Drows'd with the fume of poppies, while thy hook
:Spares the next swath and all its twined flowers:
:And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep
:Steady thy laden head across a brook;
:Or by a cider-press, with patient look,
:Thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours.

:Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they?
:Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,-
:While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day,
:And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue;
:Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn
:Among the river sallows, borne aloft
:Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;
:And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;
:Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft
:The red-breast whistles from a garden-croft;
:And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.

==Themes==

"To Autumn" describes, in its three stanzas, three different aspects of the season: its fruitfulness, its labour and its ultimate decline. Through the stanzas there is a progression from early autumn to mid autumn and then to the heralding of winter. Parallel to this, the poem depicts the day turning from morning to afternoon and into dusk. These progressions are joined with a shift from the tactile sense to that of sight and then of sound, creating a three-part symmetry which is not present in Keats's other odes.<ref name=Sp>Sperry 1973 p. 337</ref>

As the poem progresses, Autumn is represented [[metaphor]]ically as one who conspires, who ripens fruit, who harvests, who makes music. The first stanza of the poem represents Autumn as involved with the promotion of natural processes, growth and ultimate maturation, two forces in opposition in nature, but together creating the impression that the season will not end.<ref name="Bate p. 582">Bate 1963 p. 582</ref> In this stanza the fruits are still ripening and the buds still opening in the warm weather. Stuart Sperry says that Keats emphasises the tactile sense here, suggested by the imagery of growth and gentle motion: swelling, bending and plumping.<ref name=Sp/>

[[File:Sparsholt Road - geograph.org.uk - 81201.jpg|thumb|left|Harvested field, Hampshire]]

In the second stanza Autumn is [[Personification|personified]] as a harvester,<ref>The full personification of Autumn emerges only in the second stanza. McFarland 2000 p. 222</ref> to be seen by the viewer in various guises performing labouring tasks essential to the provision of food for the coming year. There is a lack of definitive action, all motion being gentle. Autumn is not depicted as actually harvesting but as seated, resting or watching.<ref name="Bate p. 582"/> In lines 14–15 the personification of Autumn is as an exhausted labourer. Near the end of the stanza, the steadiness of the gleaner in lines 19–20 again emphasises a motionlessness within the poem.<ref name=Wag>Wagner 1996 pp. 110–111</ref> The progression through the day is revealed in actions that are all suggestive of the drowsiness of afternoon: the harvested grain is being winnowed, the harvester is asleep or returning home, the last drops issue from the cider press.<ref name=Sp/>

The last stanza contrasts Autumn's sounds with those of Spring. The sounds that are presented are not only those of Autumn but essentially the gentle sounds of the evening. Gnats wail and lambs bleat in the dusk. As night approaches within the final moments of the song, death is slowly approaching alongside the end of the year. The full-grown lambs, like the grapes, gourds and hazel nuts, will be harvested for the winter. The twittering swallows gather for departure, leaving the fields bare. The whistling red-breast and the chirping cricket are the common sounds of winter. The references to Spring, the growing lambs and the migrating swallows remind the reader that the seasons are a cycle, widening the scope of this stanza from a single season to life in general.<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 582–583</ref>

Of all of Keats's poems, "To Autumn", with its catalog of concrete images,<ref>Sperry 1973 p. 341</ref> most closely describes a paradise as realized on earth while also focusing on archetypal symbols connected with the season. Within the poem, autumn represents growth, maturation, and finally an approaching death. There is a fulfilling union between the ideal and the real.<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 581–583</ref>

Scholars have noted a number of literary influences on "To Autumn", from [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Georgics]]'',<ref>O'Rourke 1998 p. 173</ref> to [[Edmund Spenser]]'s "Mutability Cantos",<ref>Helen Vendler, discussed in O'Rourke 1998 p. 165</ref> to the language of Thomas Chatterton,<ref>Hartman 1975 p. 100, Bewell 1999 pp. 182–183</ref> to [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]'s "[[Frost at Midnight]]",<ref name="Bloom 1968 p. 96">Bloom 1968 p. 96</ref> to an essay on autumn by Leigh Hunt, which Keats had recently read.<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 178">Bewell 1999 p. 178</ref>

"To Autumn" is thematically connected to other odes that Keats wrote in 1819. For example, in his "Ode to Melancholy" a major theme is the acceptance of the process of life. When this theme appears later in "To Autumn",<ref>Bate 1962 p. 522</ref> however, it is with a difference. This time the figure of the poet disappears, and there is no exhortation of an imaginary reader. There are no open conflicts, and "dramatic debate, protest, and qualification are absent".<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 581">Bate 1963 p. 581</ref> In process there is a harmony between the finality of death and hints of renewal of life in the cycle of the seasons, paralleled by the renewal of a single day.<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 583">Bate 1963 p. 583</ref>

Critics have tended to emphasize different aspects of the process. Some have focused on renewal; [[Walter Jackson Bate]] points to the theme of each stanza including "its contrary" idea, here death implying, though only indirectly, the renewal of life.<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 583"/> Also, noted by both Bate and Jennifer Wagner, the structure of the verse reinforces the sense of something to come; the placing of the couplet before the end of each stanza creates a feeling of suspension, highlighting the theme of continuation.<ref name=Wag/>

Others, like [[Harold Bloom]], have emphasized the "exhausted landscape", the completion, the finality of death, although "Winter descends here as a man might hope to die, with a natural sweetness". If death in itself is final, here it comes with a lightness, a softness, also pointing to "an acceptance of process beyond the possibility of grief."<ref>Bloom 1968 pp. 95–97</ref> The progress of growth is no longer necessary; maturation is complete, and life and death are in harmony. The rich description of the cycle of the seasons enables the reader to feel a belonging "to something larger than the self", as James O'Rourke expresses it, but the cycle comes to an end each year, analogous to the ending of single life. O'Rourke suggests that something of a fear of that ending is subtly implied at the end of the poem,<ref>O'Rourke 1998 p. 177</ref> although, unlike the other great odes, in this poem the person of the poet is entirely submerged,<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 581"/> so there is at most a faint hint of Keats's own possible fear.

According to [[Helen Vendler]], "To Autumn" may be seen as an allegory of artistic creation. As the farmer processes the fruits of the soil into what sustains the human body, so the artist processes the experience of life into a symbolic structure that may sustain the human spirit. This process involves an element of self-sacrifice by the artist, analogous to the living grain's being sacrificed for human consumption. In "To Autumn", as a result of this process, the "rhythms" of the harvesting "artist-goddess" "permeate the whole world until all visual, tactile, and kinetic presence is transubstantiated into Apollonian music for the ear," the sounds of the poem itself.<ref>Vendler 1988 pp. 124–125</ref>

In a 1979 essay, [[Jerome McGann]] argued that while the poem was indirectly influenced by historical events, Keats had deliberately ignored the political landscape of 1819.<ref>McGann 1979 pp. 988–1032</ref> Countering this view, Andrew Bennett, Nicholas Roe and others focused on what they believed were political allusions actually present in the poem, Roe arguing for a direct connection to the [[Peterloo Massacre]] of 1819.<ref>Strachan 2003 p. 175</ref> Later, Paul Fry argued against McGann's stance when he pointed out, "It scarcely seems pertinent to say that 'To Autumn' is therefore an evasion of social violence when it is so clearly an encounter with death itself [...] it is not a politically encoded escape from history reflecting the coerced betrayal [...] of its author's radicalism. McGann thinks to rescue Keats from the imputation of political naïveté by saying that he was a radical browbeaten into quietism".<ref>Fry 1995 pp. 123–124</ref>

In his 1999 study of the effect on British literature of the diseases and climates of the colonies, Alan Bewell read "the landscape of 'To Autumn{{'"}} as "a kind of biomedical allegory of the coming into being of English climatic space out of its dangerous geographical alternatives."<ref>Bewell 1999 p. 177</ref> Britain's colonial reach over the previous century and a half had exposed the mother country to foreign diseases and awareness of the dangers of extreme tropical climates. Keats, with medical training,<ref>Bewell 1999 p. 162</ref> having suffered chronic illness himself,<ref>Bewell 1999 p. 163</ref> and influenced like his contemporaries by "colonial medical discourse",<ref>Bewell 1999 p. 231</ref> was deeply aware of this threat.

According to Bewell, the landscape of "To Autumn" presents the temperate climate of rural England as a healthful alternative to disease-ridden foreign environments.<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 182">Bewell 1999 p. 182</ref> Though the "clammy" aspect of "fever", the excessive ripeness associated with tropical climates, intrude into the poem, these elements, less prominent than in Keats's earlier poetry, are counterbalanced by the dry, crisp autumnal air of rural England.<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 176"/> In presenting the particularly English elements of this environment, Keats was also influenced by contemporary poet and essayist Leigh Hunt, who had recently written of the arrival of autumn with its "migration of birds", "finished harvest", "cyder [...] making" and migration of "the swallows",<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 178"/> as well as by English landscape painting<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 176"/> and the "pure" English idiom of the poetry of Thomas Chatterton.<ref>Bewell 1999 pp. 182–83</ref>

In "To Autumn", Bewell argues, Keats was at once voicing "a very personal expression of desire for health"<ref>Bewell 1999 p. 183</ref> and constructing a "myth of a national environment".<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 182"/> This "political" element in the poem,<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 178"/> Bewell points out, has also been suggested by [[Geoffrey Hartman]], who expounded a view of "To Autumn" as "an ideological poem whose form expresses a national idea".<ref>Hartman 1975 p. 88; qtd. in Bewell 1999 p. 176</ref>

Thomas McFarland, on the other hand, in 2000 cautioned against overemphasizing the "political, social, or historical readings" of the poem, which distract from its "consummate surface and bloom".<ref>McFarland quotes Shelley. McFarland 2000 pp. 224–25</ref> Most important about "To Autumn" is its concentration of imagery and allusion in its evocation of nature,<ref>McFarland 2000 pp. 223–24</ref> conveying an "interpenetration of livingness and dyingness as contained in the very nature of autumn".<ref>McFarland 2000 p. 221</ref>

==Structure==
"To Autumn" is a poem of three stanzas, each of eleven lines. Like others of Keats's odes written in 1819, the structure is that of an [[Ode#English ode|odal hymn]], having three clearly defined sections corresponding to the Classical divisions of [[strophe]], [[antistrophe]], and [[epode]].<ref>Bate 1963 p. 499</ref> The stanzas differ from those of the other odes through use of eleven lines rather than ten, and have a [[couplet]] placed before the concluding line of each stanza.<ref name="B182">Bate 1962 pp. 182–184</ref>

"To Autumn" employs poetical techniques which Keats had perfected in the five poems written in the Spring of the same year, but departs from them in some aspects, dispensing with the [[narrator]] and dealing with more concrete concepts.<ref name="B581">Bate 1963 pp. 581–582</ref> There is no dramatic movement in "To Autumn" as there is in many earlier poems; the poem progresses in its focus while showing little change in the objects it is focusing on. There is, in the words of Walter Jackson Bate, "a union of process and stasis", "energy caught in repose", an effect that Keats himself termed "stationing".<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 581–584</ref> At the beginning of the third stanza he employs the dramatic [[Ubi sunt]] device associated with a sense of melancholy, and questions the personified subject: ''"Where are the songs of Spring?"''<ref>Flesch 2009 p. 170</ref>

Like the other odes, "To Autumn" is written in [[iambic pentameter]] (but greatly modified from the very beginning) with five stressed syllables to a line, each usually preceded by an unstressed syllable.<ref>Blades 2002 p. 104</ref> Keats varies this form by the employment of Augustan inversion, sometimes using a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable at the beginning of a line, including the first: ''"Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness"''; and employing [[spondee]]s in which two stressed syllables are placed together at the beginnings of both the following stanzas, adding emphasis to the questions that are asked: ''"Who hath not seen thee..."'', ''"Where are the songs...?"''

The [[rhyme]] of "To Autumn" follows a pattern of starting each stanza with an [[Sonnet#English (Shakespearean) sonnet|ABAB pattern]] which is followed by [[rhyme scheme]] of CDEDCCE in the first verse and CDECDDE in the second and third stanzas.<ref name="B182"/> In each case, there is a couplet before the final line. Some of the language of "To Autumn" resembles phrases found in earlier poems with similarities to ''[[Endymion (poem)|Endymion]]'', ''[[Sleep and Poetry]]'', and ''Calidore''.<ref>Ridley 1933 pp. 283–285</ref> Keats characteristically uses [[syllable|monosyllabic words]] such as ''"...how to load and bless with fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run."'' The words are weighted by the emphasis of [[bilabial consonants]] (b, m, p), with lines like ''"...for Summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells."'' There is also an emphasis on [[vowel length#Long vowels in English|long vowels]] which control the flow of the poem, giving it a slow measured pace: ''"...while barred clouds bloom the soft dying day"''.<ref name="B182"/>

Between the manuscript version and the published version of "To Autumn" Keats tightened the language of the poem. One of Keats's changes emphasised by critics is the change in line 17 of "Drows'd with red poppies" to "Drows'd with the fume of poppies", which emphasises the sense of smell instead of sight. The later edition relies more on [[passive voice|passive]], [[participle|past participles]], as apparent in the change of "While a gold cloud" in line 25 to "While barred clouds".<ref>Bate 1962 p. 183</ref> Other changes involve the strengthening of phrases, especially within the transformation of the phrase in line 13 "whoever seeks for thee may find" into "whoever seeks abroad may find". Many of the lines within the second stanza were completely rewritten, especially those which did not fit into a rhyme scheme. Some of the minor changes involved adding punctuation missing from the original manuscript copy and altering capitalisation.<ref>Ridley 1933 pp. 285–287</ref>

==Critical reception==
Critical and scholarly praise has been unanimous in declaring "To Autumn" one of the most perfect poems in the English language. [[Algernon Charles Swinburne|A.C. Swinburne]] placed it with "Ode on a Grecian Urn" as "the nearest to absolute perfection" of Keats's odes; Aileen Ward declared it "Keats's most perfect and untroubled poem"; and [[Douglas Bush]] has stated that the poem is "flawless in structure, texture, tone, and rhythm";<ref>Bennett 1991 qtd. p. 159</ref> Walter Evert, in 1965, stated that "To Autumn" is "the only perfect poem that Keats ever wrote – and if this should seem to take from him some measure of credit for his extraordinary enrichment of the English poetic tradition, I would quickly add that I am thinking of absolute perfection in whole poems, in which every part is wholly relevant to and consistent in effect with every other part."<ref>Evert 1965 p. 298</ref>

Early reviews of "To Autumn" focused on it as part of Keats's collection of poems ''Lamia, Isabella, the Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems''. An anonymous critic in the July 1820 ''Monthly Review'' claimed, "this writer is very rich both in imagination and fancy; and even a superabundance of the latter faculty is displayed in his lines 'On Autumn,' which bring the reality of nature more before our eyes than almost any description that we remember. [...] If we did not fear that, young as is Mr K., his peculiarities are fixed beyond all the power of criticism to remove, we would exhort him to become somewhat less strikingly original,—to be less fond of the folly of too new or too old phrases,—and to believe that poetry does not consist in either the one or the other."<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 162</ref> Josiah Conder in the September 1820 ''Eclectic Review'' mentioned, "One naturally turns first to the shorter pieces, in order to taste the flavour of the poetry. The following ode to Autumn is no unfavourable specimen."<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 233</ref> An anonymous reviewer in ''The Edinburgh Magazine'' for October 1820 added to a discussion of some of Keats's longer poems the afterthought that "The ode to 'Fancy,' and the ode to 'Autumn,' also have great merit."<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 215</ref>

Although, after Keats's death, recognition of the merits of his poetry came slowly, by mid century, despite widespread [[Victorian morality|Victorian]] disapproval of the alleged "weakness" of his character and the view often advanced "that Keats's work represented mere sensuality without substance",<ref>Matthews 1971 pp. 27, 33, 34</ref> some of his poems began to find an appreciative audience, including "To Autumn". In an 1844 essay on Keats's poetry in the ''Dumfries Herald'', George Gilfillian placed "To Autumn" among "the finest of Keats' smaller pieces".<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 306</ref> In an 1851 lecture, David Macbeth Moir acclaimed "four exquisite odes,—'To a Nightingale,' 'To a Grecian Urn,' 'To Melancholy,' and 'To Autumn,'—all so pregnant with deep thought, so picturesque in their limning, and so suggestive."<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. pp. 351–352</ref> In 1865, [[Matthew Arnold]] singled out the "indefinable delicacy, charm, and perfection of [...] Keats's [touch] in his Autumn".<ref>Arnold 1962 pp. 376, 380</ref> John Dennis, in an 1883 work about great poets, wrote that "the 'Ode to Autumn', ripe with the glory of the season it describes—must ever have a place among the most precious gems of lyrical poetry."<ref>Dennis 1883 p. 372</ref> The 1888 Britannica declared, "Of these [odes] perhaps the two nearest to absolute perfection, to the triumphant achievement and accomplishment of the very utmost beauty possible to human words, may be that to Autumn and that on a Grecian Urn".<ref>Baynes 1888 p. 23</ref>

At the turn of the 20th century, a 1904 analysis of great poetry by Stephen Gwynn claimed, "above and before all [of Keats's poems are] the three odes, ''To a Nightingale'', ''On a Grecian Urn'', and ''To Autumn''. Among these odes criticism can hardly choose; in each of them the whole magic of poetry seems to be contained."<ref>Gwynn 1904 p. 378</ref> [[Sidney Colvin]], in his 1917 biography, pointed out that "the ode ''To Autumn'' [...] opens up no such far-reaching avenues to the mind and soul of the reader as the odes ''To a Grecian Urn'', ''To a Nightingale'', or ''On Melancholy'', but in execution is more complete and faultless than any of them."<ref>Colvin 1917 pp. 421–22</ref> Following this in a 1934 analysis of Romantic poetry, Margaret Sherwood stated that the poem was "a perfect expression of the phase of primitive feeling and dim thought in regard to earth processes when these are passing into a thought of personality."<ref>Sherwood 1934 p. 263</ref>

Harold Bloom, in 1961, described "To Autumn" as "the most perfect shorter poem in the English language."<ref>Bloom 1993 p. 432</ref> Following this, Walter Jackson Bate, in 1963, claimed that "[...] each generation has found it one of the most nearly perfect poems in English."<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 581"/> Later, in 1973, Stuart Sperry wrote, {{"'}}To Autumn' succeeds through its acceptance of an order innate in our experience – the natural rhythm of the seasons. It is a poem that, without ever stating it, inevitably suggests the truth of 'ripeness is all' by developing, with a richness of profundity of implication, the simple perception that ripeness is fall."<ref>Sperry 1973 p. 336</ref> In 1981, [[William Walsh (academic)|William Walsh]] argued that "Among the major Odes [...] no one has questioned the place and supremacy of 'To Autumn', in which we see wholly realized, powerfully embodied in art, the complete maturity so earnestly laboured at in Keats's life, so persuasively argued about in his letters."<ref>Walsh 1981 p. 118</ref> Literary critic and academic Helen Vendler, in 1988, declared that "in the ode 'To Autumn,' Keats finds his most comprehensive and adequate symbol for the social value of art."<ref>Vendler 1988 p. 124</ref>

In 1997, Andrew Motion summarised the critical view on "To Autumn": "it has often been called Keats's 'most ... untroubled poem' [...] To register the full force of its achievement, its tensions have to be felt as potent and demanding."<ref name="Motion p. 461"/> Following in 1998, [[M. H. Abrams]] explained, {{"'}}To Autumn' was the last work of artistic consequence that Keats completed [...] he achieved this celebratory poem, with its calm acquiescence to time, transience and mortality, at a time when he was possessed by a premonition [...] that he had himself less than two years to live".<ref>Abrams 1998 pp. 51–52</ref> James Chandler, also in 1998, pointed out that "If ''To Autumn'' is his greatest piece of writing, as has so often been said, it is because in it he arguably set himself the most ambitious challenge of his brief career and managed to meet it."<ref>Chandler 1998 p. 430</ref> Timothy Corrigan, in 2000, claimed that {{"'}}To Autumn' may be, as other critics have pointed out, his greatest achievement in its ability [...] to redeem the English vernacular as the casual expression of everyday experience, becoming in this his most exterior poem even in all its bucolic charm."<ref>Corrigan 2000 p. 156</ref> In the same year, Thomas McFarland placed "To Autumn" with "Ode to a Nightingale", "Ode on a Grecian Urn", "The Eve of St. Agnes" and ''Hyperion'' as Keats's greatest achievement, together elevating Keats "high in the ranks of the supreme makers of world literature".<ref>McFarland 2000 pp. 225–26</ref> In 2008, Stanley Plumly wrote, "history, posterity, immortality are seeing 'Ode to a Nightingale,' 'Ode on a Grecian Urn,' and 'To Autumn' as three of the most anthologized lyric poems of tragic vision in English."<ref>Plumly 2008 p. 343</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=20em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* Abrams, M. H. "Keats's Poems: The Material Dimensions". In ''The Persistence of Poetry''. Ed. Robert Ryan and Ronald Sharp. Amherst: University of Mass. Press, 1998. ISBN 1-55849-175-9
* Arnold, Matthew. ''Lectures and Essays in Criticism''. Ed. R.H. Super. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1962. {{OCLC|3012869}}
* Bate, Walter Jackson. ''John Keats''. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963. {{OCLC|291522}}
* Bate, Walter Jackson. ''The Stylistic Development of Keats''. New York: Humanities Press, 1962. (Originally published 1945.) {{OCLC|276912}}
* Baynes, Thomas (Ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Vol XIV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1888. {{OCLC|1387837}}
* Bennett, Andrew. ''Keats, Narrative and Audience''. Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-521-44565-5
* Bewell, Alan. ''Romanticism and Colonial Disease''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8018-6225-6
* Blades, John. ''John Keats: the poems''. Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 978-0-333-94895-8
* Bloom, Harold. ''The Visionary Company''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993. (Originally published 1961; revised and enlarged edition 1971.) ISBN 0-8014-0622-6
* Bloom, Harold. "The Ode ''To Autumn''". In ''Keats's Odes''. Ed. Jack Stillinger. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968, pp. 44–47. {{OCLC|176883021}}
* Chandler, James. ''England in 1819''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. ISBN 0-226-10108-8
* Colvin, Sidney. ''John Keats: His Life and Poetry''. London: Macmillan, 1917. {{OCLC|257603790}}
* Corrigan, Timothy. "Keats, Hazlitt and Public Character". In ''Challenge of Keats''. Ed. Allan Christensen, Lilla Jones, Giuseppe Galigani, and Anthony Johnson. Atlanta: Rodopi, 2000. ISBN 90-420-0509-2
* Dennis, John. ''Heroes of Literature, English Poets''. New York: E. & J. B. Young, 1883. {{OCLC|4798560}}.
* Evert, Walter. ''Aesthetics and Myth in the Poetry of Keats''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965. {{OCLC|291999}}
* Flesch, William. ''Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century''. Facts on File, 2009. ISBN 978-0-8160-5896-9
* Fry, Paul. ''A Defense of Poetry''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-8047-2452-0
* Gittings, Robert. ''John Keats''. London: Heinemann, 1968. {{OCLC|295596}}
* Gwynn, Stephen. ''The Masters of English Literature''. London: Macmillan, 1904. {{OCLC|3175019}}
* Hartman, Geoffrey. "Poem and Ideology: A Study of 'To Autumn{{'"}} (1975), in ''John Keats: Modern Critical Views''. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House, 1985, pp. 87–104. ISBN 0-87754-608-8
* Keats, John. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J-su12fRTngC The Life and Letters of John Keats]''. Ed. Richard Houghton (reprint). Read Books, 2008.
* Matthews, G. M. (ed.). ''Keats: The Critical Heritage''. London: Routledge, 1971. ISBN 0-7100-7147-7
* McFarland, Thomas. ''The Masks of Keats: The Endeavour of a Poet''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-818645-2
* McGann, Jerome. "Keats and the Historical Method in Literary Criticism". ''MLN'' 94 (1979): 988–1032.
* Motion, Andrew. ''Keats''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. ISBN 0-226-54240-8
* O'Rourke, James. ''Keats's Odes and Contemporary Criticism''. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998. ISBN 0-8130-1590-1
* Plumly, Stanley. ''Posthumous Keats''. New York: W. W. Norton, 2008. ISBN 978-0-393-06573-2
* Ridley, Maurice. ''Keats' Craftsmanship''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1933. {{OCLC|1842818}}
* Sherwood, Margaret. ''Undercurrents of Influence in English Romantic Poetry''. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1934. {{OCLC|2032945}}
* Sperry, Stuart. ''Keats the Poet''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-691-06220-X
* Strachan, John. ''A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on the Poems of John Keats''. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-23477-8
* Vendler, Helen. ''The Music of What Happens''. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-674-59152-6
* Wagner, Jennifer. ''A Moment's Monument''. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8386-3630-6
* Walsh, William. ''Introduction to Keats''. London: Methuen, 1981. ISBN 0-416-30490-7
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{wikisource|To Autumn (Keats)}}
* Audio: [http://poemsoutloud.net/columns/archive/the_critic_and_john_keats/ Listen to Robert Pinsky read "To Autumn"] by John Keats (via [http://poemsoutloud.net/ poemsoutloud.net])

{{John Keats}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:British poems]]
[[Category:Poetry by John Keats]]
[[Category:1819 poems]]

Chilcot-Bericht

2015-08-27T07:17:37Z

Lessogg: linkin

{{Use British English|date=June 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Iraq Inquiry
|AKA = Chilcot Inquiry
|Participants = [[John Chilcot|Sir John Chilcot]], [[Lawrence Freedman|Sir Lawrence Freedman]], [[Martin Gilbert|Sir Martin Gilbert]] (now deceased), [[Roderic Lyne|Sir Roderic Lyne]], [[Usha Prashar, Baroness Prashar|Baroness Prashar]]
|Location = [[London]], [[England]]
|Date = {{Start date|df=yes|2009|11|24}} – {{End date|df=yes|2011|2|2}}
|URL =
}}

The '''Iraq Inquiry''', also referred to as the '''Chilcot Inquiry''' after its chairman, [[John Chilcot|Sir John Chilcot]],<ref name=Guardian1>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/jul/31/iraq-inquiry-fourth-plinth-chilcot My alternative to another round of Iraq whitewashing] [[The Guardian]], 31 July 2009</ref><ref name=Guardian2>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/aug/14/british-army-abuses-iraq-chilcot-inquiry Investigate UK abuses in Iraq] The Guardian, 14 August 2009</ref> is a British public inquiry into the nation's role in the [[Iraq War]]. The inquiry was announced on 15 June 2009 by [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Gordon Brown]], with an initial announcement that proceedings would take place in private, a decision which was subsequently reversed after receiving criticism in the media and the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]].<ref name=BBC1>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8100432.stm Iraq war inquiry to be in private] BBC News, 15 June 2009</ref><ref name=AlJ1>[http://english.aljazeera.net/news/europe/2009/06/200961514301331360.html UK PM announces Iraq war inquiry] [[Al Jazeera]], 15 June 2009</ref><ref name=Guardian3>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/jun/22/iraq-war-inquiry |title=Public Iraq war inquiry 'essential', says chairman |publisher=The Guardian |date= 22 June 2009|accessdate=24 November 2009| first=Haroon | last=Siddique |location=London}}</ref>

The Inquiry was pursued by a committee of [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Counsellors]] with broad [[terms of reference]] to consider Britain's involvement in Iraq between mid-2001 and July 2009. It covered the run-up to the conflict, the subsequent military action and its aftermath with the purpose to establish the way decisions were made, to determine what happened and to identify lessons to ensure that in a similar situation in future, the British government is equipped to respond in the most effective manner in the best interests of the country.<ref name=BBC6>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7312757.stm |title=The key points of the Iraq war inquiry explained |publisher=BBC News |date=5 March 2010}}</ref> The open sessions of the inquiry commenced on 24 November 2009 and concluded on 2 February 2011.

In 2012, the government vetoed the release of the documents to the Inquiry detailing minutes of Cabinet meetings in the days leading up to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq in 2003]]. Concurrently, the British Foreign Office successfully appealed against a judge's ruling and blocked the disclosure of extracts of a conversation between [[George W. Bush]] and [[Tony Blair]] moments before the invasion. The government stated that revealing a phone call conversation between Bush and Blair moments before the invasion would later present a "significant danger" to [[United Kingdom–United States relations|British-American relations]].<ref name="dailymail.co.uk">John Kampfner, ''[[Daily Mail]]'', 3 August 2012, [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-2182924/Chilcot-inquiry-Hypocrisy-insidious-culture-secrecy.html Hypocrisy and this insidious culture of secrecy]</ref> The million-word report of the Inquiry was due to be released to the public by 2014,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/10191047/Foreign-Office-braced-for-criticism-in-Chilcot-report-over-its-record-keeping-around-Iraq-War.html|title=Foreign Office braced for criticism in Chilcot report over its record-keeping around Iraq War|date=27 July 2013|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]|accessdate=27 January 2013}}</ref> but difficult negotiations were continuing with the United States over the publication of documents.<ref>James Cusick, ''[[The Independent]]'', 13 November 2011, [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/exclusive-us-blocks-publication-of-chilcots-report-on-how-britain-went-to-war-with-iraq-8937772.html Exclusive: US blocks publication of Chilcot’s report on how Britain went to war with Iraq ]</ref> The Lord-in-Waiting [[William Wallace, Baron Wallace of Saltaire|Lord Wallace of Saltaire]] said on behalf of the government that it would be "inappropriate" to publish the report in the months leading up to the [[Next United Kingdom general election|next general election]] in May 2015.<ref name=BBCNov314>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-29884094|title=Iraq Inquiry set to cost taxpayers £10m|publisher=[[BBC News Online]]|date=3 November 2014|accessdate=14 November 2014}}</ref>

In August it transpired that the Report would in any event be further delayed, possibly into 2016. This was said to be due to the legal requirement of "[[Maxwellisation]]", allowing any person who is to be criticised a fair opportunity to comment on a draft prior to finalisation and publication.{{citation needed|reason=Looks like hearsay|date=August 2015}}

==Build up==
It was initially announced by Prime Minister [[Gordon Brown]] that the Iraq Inquiry would be held [[in camera]], excluding the public and press. However, the decision was later deferred to Sir [[John Chilcot]], the inquiry chairman, who said that it was "essential to hold as much of the proceedings of the inquiry as possible in public".<ref name="NS">{{cite news|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/2009/06/hold-public-inquiry-iraq|title=Chilcot calls for public Iraq inquiry|date=23 June 2009|work=[[New Statesman]]|accessdate=15 February 2010}}</ref><ref name="Tele 1">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/5604841/Large-parts-of-Iraq-inquiry-to-be-heard-in-public.html|title=Large parts of Iraq inquiry to be heard in public|last=Whitehead|first=Tom|date=23 June 2009|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]|accessdate=15 February 2010|location=London}}</ref> In July 2009, when the inquiry commenced, it was announced that the committee would be able to request any British document and call any British citizen to give evidence.<ref name="BBC 30/7">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8176698.stm|title=Will Iraq probe worry ministers?|last=Chakrabarti |first=Reeta|date=30 July 2009|work=[[BBC News]]|accessdate=15 February 2010}}</ref> In the week before the inquiry began hearing witnesses, a series of documents including military reports were leaked to a newspaper which appeared to show poor post-war planning and lack of provisions.<ref name="Tele 2">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/defence/6625415/Iraq-report-Secret-papers-reveal-blunders-and-concealment.html|title=Iraq report: Secret papers reveal blunders and concealment|last=Gilligan|first=Andrew |date=21 November 2009|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group Limited]]|accessdate=15 February 2010 |location=London}}</ref>

==Committee members==
The committee of inquiry, the members of which were chosen by Gordon Brown,<ref>[http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/faq.aspx#I03 About the Iraq Inquiry: questions and answers] The Iraq Inquiry</ref> comprises:<ref name=BBC1/><ref>"[http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/about.aspx About the Inquiry]" The Iraq Inquiry</ref>

*[[John Chilcot|Sir John Chilcot]] (chairman), a career diplomat and senior civil servant who was previously a member of the [[Butler Review]]
*[[Lawrence Freedman|Sir Lawrence Freedman]], a military historian, and Professor of War Studies at [[King's College London]]. His memo outlining five tests for military intervention was used by [[Tony Blair]] in drafting his Chicago foreign policy speech
*[[Martin Gilbert|Sir Martin Gilbert]], (died 3 February 2015) a historian who supported the invasion of Iraq and claimed in 2004 that [[George W. Bush]] and Blair may one day "join the ranks of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] and [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]]"<ref name=Observer1>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1379819,00.html Statesmen for these times] [[The Observer]], 26 December 2004</ref>
*[[Roderic Lyne|Sir Roderic Lyne]], former Ambassador to [[Russia]] and to the [[United Nations]] in [[Geneva]], previously served as private secretary to Prime Minister [[John Major]]
*[[Usha Prashar, Baroness Prashar|Baroness Prashar]], a [[crossbencher]], member of the [[Joint Committee on Human Rights]], and the current chairwoman of the [[Judicial Appointments Commission]]

The committee also takes secretarial support during proceedings from Margaret Aldred.<ref name="opening statement">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article6929445.ece?print=yes&randnum=1151003209000|title=Sir John Chilcot's opening statement to Iraq Inquiry|date=24 November 2009|work=Times Online|publisher=[[Times Newspapers Ltd]]|accessdate=12 February 2010|location=London|first1=Anushka|last1=Asthana|first2=Jill|last2=Sherman}}</ref>

===Advisors to the committee===

[[Roger Wheeler (British Army officer)|General Sir Roger Wheeler]] Ex Chief of the General Staff, and Commander in Chief Land Forces.<ref>http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/media/36690/roger_wheelercv1.pdf</ref>

[[Rosalyn Higgins|Dame Rosalyn Higgins]] former President of the International Court of Justice.<ref>http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/media/36687/dame_rosalyn_cv.pdf</ref>

==Proceedings==
The inquiry commenced in July 2009, with public hearings commencing on 24 November 2009 with [[Peter Ricketts]], chairman of the [[Joint Intelligence Committee (United Kingdom)|Joint Intelligence Committee]] at the time of the invasion of Iraq, as the first witness. Opening the proceedings, Sir John Chilcot announced that the inquiry was not seeking to apportion blame, but to "get to the heart of what happened" but that it would not "shy away" from making criticism where it was justified.<ref name="Telegraph 25/11">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/6645689/Iraq-Inquiry-British-officials-discussed-regime-change-two-years-before-war.html|title=Iraq Inquiry: British officials discussed regime change two years before war|date=25 November 2009|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]|accessdate=12 February 2010|location=London}}</ref> The commission resumed its hearings in January 2011 with the former prime minister, [[Tony Blair]], as its prime witness.

===29 October Protocol===
On 29 October 2009, the UK Government published a Protocol in agreement with the Iraq Inquiry on the treatment of sensitive written and electronic information.<ref>[http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/media/306669/protocol.pdf Iraq Inquiry Protocol] Cabinet Office</ref> Evidence which will not be made available to the public includes anything likely to:

*a) cause harm or damage to the public interest, guided by the normal and established principles under which the balance of public interest is determined on grounds of [[Public Interest Immunity]] in proceedings in England and Wales, including, but not limited to,
** i) national security, defence interests or international relations;
** ii) the economic interests of the United Kingdom or of any part of the United Kingdom;
*b) endanger the life of an individual or otherwise risk serious harm to an individual;
*c) make public commercially sensitive information;
*d) breach the principle of [[legal professional privilege]] (LPP);
*e) prejudice, in the case of legal advice (following any voluntary waiver of LPP) rather than material facts, the position of HMG in relation to ongoing legal proceedings;
*f) breach the rules of law which would apply in proceedings in England and Wales under the provisions of Section 17 of the [[Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000]];
*g) breach the rules of law applicable to the disclosure of information by the Security Service, SIS or GCHQ, the third party rule governing non-disclosure of intelligence material or other commitments or understandings governing the release of sensitive information;
*h) breach the [[Data Protection Act 1998]]; or
*i) prejudice the course or outcome of any ongoing statutory or criminal inquiry into matters relating to the information proposed for release

==Witnesses==
{{main|List of witnesses of the Iraq Inquiry}}
The inquiry heard evidence from a variety of witnesses, such as politicians, including several cabinet ministers at the time of the invasion; senior civil servants, including lawyers and intelligence chiefs; diplomats, mostly composed of British ambassadors to Iraq and the United States; and high-ranking military officers including former Chiefs of the General Staff and Chiefs of the Defence Staff as well as senior operational commanders.<ref name="Telegraph 25/11">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/6645689/Iraq-Inquiry-British-officials-discussed-regime-change-two-years-before-war.html|title=Iraq Inquiry: British officials discussed regime change two years before war|date=25 November 2009|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]|accessdate=12 February 2010|location=London}}</ref>

The inquiry heard mostly from civil servants, intelligence and security officials, diplomats and military officers from the first public hearings up until it recessed for Christmas. Key witnesses included [[Christopher Meyer|Sir Christopher Meyer]], former ambassador to the United States who gave evidence on [[List of witnesses of The Iraq Inquiry#26 November|26 November]]; [[Michael Boyce, Baron Boyce|Admiral Lord Boyce]], former [[Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the Defence Staff]]; [[John Scarlett|Sir John Scarlett]], Chief of the [[Secret Intelligence Service]]; [[Tim Cross|Major-General Tim Cross]], the most senior British officer on the ground in the aftermath of the invasion; and [[Brian Burridge|Air Chief Marshall Sir Brian Burridge]], overall commander of British forces in the invasion.

Former Prime Minister Tony Blair was publicly questioned by the enquiry on 29 January 2010, and again on 21 January 2011.<ref>http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/hearings/timetable.aspx</ref> On both of these occasions protests took place outside the conference centre.<ref name="Tele 3">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/tony-blair/8274202/Chilcot-Inquiry-Tony-Blair-heckled-as-he-expresses-regret-for-this-loss-of-life-in-the-Iraq-war.html|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=Telegraph Media Group|accessdate=19 June 2011|location=London|first=Rosa|last=Prince|title=Chilcot Inquiry: Tony Blair heckled as he expresses regret for this loss of life in the Iraq war|date=21 January 2011}}</ref> Because of widespread public interest in Blair's evidence, public access to the hearings had to be allocated by lottery.<ref>http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/news/20101208-ballot.aspx</ref> Special dispensations to attend were allocated to those whose close family were casualties of the war, some of whom shouted angry accusations at Blair during his second appearance.<ref name="Tele 3"/>

From the inquiry's resumption in January 2010, it heard predominantly from politicians and former government officials, including [[Alastair Campbell]], Tony Blair's director of communications.

Gordon Brown had to retract his claim that spending on defence rose every year during the Iraq war, as this was found not to have been the case.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8573664.stm Brown misled Iraq inquiry over defence budget - Cameron] BBC News, 17 March 2010</ref>

After a recess to avoid influencing the [[United Kingdom general election, 2010|general election]], the inquiry resumed public hearings on 29 June 2010. The first witness was [[Douglas Brand]], chief police adviser to the Iraqi Interior Ministry from 2003–05.<ref name="BBC IV">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/politics/10437254.stm|title=Iraq inquiry told of post-war police training errors|date=29 June 2010|work=[[BBC News]]|accessdate=29 June 2010}}</ref>

The final witness in the public hearings, heard on 2 February 2011, was [[Jack Straw]], Foreign Secretary from 2001–06.<ref name="BBC-evidencetimeline">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-12224606|title=Iraq inquiry - day by day timeline of evidence given|date=2 February 2011|work=[[BBC News]]|accessdate=5 February 2011}}</ref>

==Criticism==
The timing and nature of the inquiry generated a certain political controversy as it would not report back until after the [[United Kingdom general election, 2010|general election]].<ref name="Tele 1"/> [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] leader [[David Cameron]], dismissed the inquiry as "an [[The Establishment|establishment]] stitch-up", and the [[Liberal Democrats]] threatened a boycott.<ref name=BBC2>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8102203.stm Anger over 'secret Iraq inquiry'] BBC News, 16 June 2009</ref> In a Parliamentary debate over the establishment of the inquiry, [[Member of Parliament|MPs]] from all the major parties criticised the government's selection of its members.<ref name=TWFY1>{{cite web|url=http://www.theyworkforyou.com/debates/?id=2009-06-24c.800.1#g808.1|date=24 June 2009|title=Iraq Inquiry|publisher=They Work For You}}</ref> MPs drew attention to the absence of anyone with first hand military expertise, the absence of members with acknowledged or proven inquisitorial skills, and the absence of any elected representatives.
Gilbert's appointment to the enquiry was criticised on the basis that he had once compared Bush and Blair to Roosevelt and Churchill.<ref name=Observer1/> Several MPs drew attention to the fact that Chilcot would be unable to receive evidence under oath.

The criticism by the Liberal Democrats continued with the start of public hearings, with party leader [[Nick Clegg]] accusing the government of "suffocating" the inquiry, referring to the power given to government departments to veto sections of the final report. Meanwhile, a group of anti-war protestors staged a demonstration outside the conference centre.<ref name="Times 25/11">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article6931594.ece?print=yes&randnum=1151003209000|title=Gordon Brown accused of suffocating the Chilcot Iraq Inquiry|coauthors=Hines, Nico; Brown, David|date=25 November 2009|work=Times Online|publisher=[[Times Newspapers Ltd]]|accessdate=12 February 2010|location=London|first1=Anushka|last1=Asthana|first2=Jill|last2=Sherman}}</ref><ref name="BBC 25/11">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/uk_politics/8375439.stm|title=Iraq inquiry being 'suffocated' - Lib Dem leader Clegg|date=25 November 2009|work=[[BBC News]]|accessdate=12 February 2010}}</ref> Concerns were also raised about the expertise of the panel, particularly with regard to issues of legality by senior judges.<ref name="Telegraph II">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/6637328/Iraq-inquiry-civil-servant-Sir-John-Chilcot-incapable-of-addressing-legal-issues.html|title=Iraq inquiry: civil servant Sir John Chilcot 'incapable of addressing legal issues'|last=Laing |first=Aislinn|date=24 November 2009|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]|accessdate=12 February 2010 |location=London}}</ref> On 22 November 2009, former British Ambassador [[Oliver Miles]] published an article in the ''[[Independent on Sunday]]'',<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/oliver-miles-the-key-question-ndash-is-blair-a-war-criminal-1825374.html |title=The key question – is Blair a war criminal?}}</ref> in which he questioned the appointment to the inquiry panel of two British historians on the basis of their previous support for [[Israel]]. In a diplomatic cable from the US embassy in London, released as part of [[Cablegate]], Jon Day, director general for security policy at the British Ministry of Defence is cited having promised the US to have "put measures in place to protect your interests" regarding the inquiry.<ref>{{cite web | title=09LONDON2198, U/S TAUSCHER'S MEETINGS WITH FS MILIBAND AND OTHER| url=http://www.cablegatesearch.net/cable.php?id=09LONDON2198&version=1291138620 | accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref> This has been interpreted as an indication that the inquiry is restricted "to minimize embarrassment for the United States."<ref>{{ cite news | title=WikiLeaks cable reveals secret pledge to protect US at Iraq inquiry | url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/30/wikileaks-chilcot-iraq-war-inquiry | work=The Guardian | first=Robert | last=Booth| accessdate=30 November 2010 | location=London | date=30 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.salon.com/news/wikileaks/index.html?story=/politics/war_room/2010/11/30/wikileaks_uk_iraq_inquiry | title=Is Britain's Iraq war inquiry compromised? | work=www.salon.com | first=Justin | last=Elliott | accessdate=30 November 2010 }}</ref>

In 2012, [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] [[Dominic Grieve]] was criticized when he vetoed the release of documents to the Inquiry detailing minutes of Cabinet meetings in the days leading up to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]] in 2003. Concurrently, the Foreign Office successfully appealed against a judge's ruling and blocked the disclosure of extracts of a conversation between Bush and Blair moments before the invasion. The British government stated that revealing the content of a phone call between Bush and Blair moments before the invasion would later present a "significant danger" to [[United Kingdom–United States relations|British-American relations]].<ref name="dailymail.co.uk"/> In his submission to the inquiry, [[Philippe Sands]] observed that:

{{Quote|
an independent Dutch Inquiry has recently concluded – unanimously and without ambiguity – that the war was not justified under international law. The Dutch inquiry Committee was presided by W.J.M. Davids, a distinguished former President of the Dutch Supreme Court, and four of its seven members were lawyers. The Dutch Committee was well-placed to address the substantive legal issues. I note, however, that the composition of this Inquiry includes no members with any legal background.<ref>{{Cite web |last= Sands |first= Philippe |authorlink= Philippe Sands |date= 4 October 2010 |title= Submission to Iraq inquiry |url= http://www.theguardian.com/law/interactive/2010/oct/04/iraq-inquiry-submissions-philippe-sands |publisher= [[The Guardian|theguardian.com]] |accessdate= 15 February 2013 }}</ref>
}}

In 2011, the ''[[The Independent|Independent]]'', published an article with 15 charges that have yet to be answered by the inquiry.<ref name="Independent 1/11">{{Cite web|author=Michael Savage|date=21 January 2011|title=The case against Blair: 15 charges that have yet to be answered|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/the-case-against-blair-15-charges-that-have-yet-to-be-answered-2190375.html|publisher=[[The Independent|independent.co.uk]]|accessdate=29 August 2013}}</ref> Speaking at a public meeting in 2013, [[David Owen]] said that the inquiry "is being prevented from revealing extracts that they believe relevant from exchanges between President Bush and Prime Minister Blair". He blamed Blair and Cameron for this state of affairs, who he believed, have entered into a private deal to prevent the publication of important documents out of mutual self-interest.<ref>{{Cite news | last = Oborne | first = Peter | authorlink = Peter Oborne | date = 29 May 2013 | title = The whiff of suspicion over the Chilcot Inquiry grows stronger | url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/10086837/The-whiff-of-suspicion-over-the-Chilcot-Inquiry-grows-stronger.html | publisher = [[The Daily Telegraph|telegraph.co.uk]] }}</ref> It emerged that the Cabinet Office was resisting the release of "more than 130 records of conversations" between Bush and Blair, as well as "25 notes from Mr Blair to President Bush" and "some 200 cabinet-level discussions".<ref>{{Cite news | last = Doward | first = Jamie | date = 10 November 2013 | title = Iraq war inquiry blocked in bid to make Bush-Blair 'kick ass' memo public | url = http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/nov/10/iraq-war-tony-blair-george-bush | accessdate = 10 November 2013 | publisher = [[The Observer]] }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk}}
*[http://www.iraqinquirydigest.org/ Iraq Inquiry Digest]
{{Members of the Iraq Inquiry}}
{{British Inquiries into the Iraq War}}
{{Iraq War}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Iraq Inquiry, The}}
[[Category:Political controversies]]
[[Category:Public inquiries in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Iraq Inquiry| ]]
[[Category:2009 in British politics]]
[[Category:2010 in British politics]]

Benutzer:Romulus/Lucy Worsley

2015-08-24T14:03:06Z

Lessogg: punctuatin

{{Infobox person
|name = Lucy Worsley
|image =Lucy Worsley.jpg
|imagesize =
|caption =Worsley in 2014
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1973|12|18}}
|birth_place = [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[Berkshire]], England
|occupation = Historian, author, curator, television presenter
|spouse = {{marriage|Mark Hines|2011}}
|website = [http://www.lucyworsley.com/ LucyWorsley.com]
|footnotes =
|alma_mater=[[University of Sussex]] ([[Doctor of Philosophy|DPhil]], 2001) [[New College, Oxford]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], 1995)
}}

'''Lucy Worsley''' (born 18 December 1973) is an English historian, author, curator and television presenter.<ref name="telegraph_april2011">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8445957/Dr-Lucy-Worsley-Im-just-an-historian-who-wandered-into-TV.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120624070326/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8445957/Dr-Lucy-Worsley-Im-just-an-historian-who-wandered-into-TV.html |archivedate=24 June 2012 |last=Woods |first=Judith |title=Dr Lucy Worsley: 'I'm just an historian who wandered into TV' |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |date=13 April 2011 |accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref>

Worsley is currently Joint Chief Curator at [[Historic Royal Palaces]] but is best known as a presenter of BBC television series on historical topics, including ''Elegance and Decadence: The Age of the Regency'' (2011), ''Harlots, Housewives and Heroines: A 17th Century History for Girls'' (2012), and ''The First Georgians: The German Kings Who Made Britain'' (2014)''.

==Early life and education==
Lucy Worsley was born in [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[Berkshire]]. Her father, Peter Worsley, is a geologist and expert in [[glaciers]] and [[permafrost]] and an [[Emeritus|emeritus professor]] at [[Reading University]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://berksandbucks.greatbritishlife.co.uk/people/lucy_worsley_on_her_passion_for_the_past_1_3238665|title=Lucy Worsley on her passion for the past|work=Berkshire and Buckinghamshire Life}}</ref> her mother is a consultant in educational policy and practice. She has a younger brother. Before going to university, Worsley attended [[St Bartholomew's School]], [[Newbury, Berkshire|Newbury]] and [[West Bridgford School]], [[Nottingham]]. She graduated from [[New College, Oxford]], in 1995 with a first-class honours BA degree in Ancient and Modern History.

==Career==
Worsley began her career as an historic house curator at [[Milton, Vale of White Horse|Milton Manor]],<ref>SPAB News, Vol. 18., no. 2, 1997</ref> near [[Abingdon, Oxfordshire|Abingdon]], in the summer of 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lucyworsley.com/tag/milton-manor/|title=Milton Manor - Lucy Worsley|publisher=LucyWorsley.com}}</ref> From 1996 to 2002, she was an Inspector of Historic Buildings for [[English Heritage]] in the East Midlands region. During that time she studied the life of [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle]] and wrote the English Heritage guide to his home, [[Bolsover Castle]]. In 2001 she was awarded a [[Doctor of Philosophy|DPhil]] from the [[University of Sussex]] for a thesis on "The Architectural Patronage of William Cavendish, first Duke of Newcastle, 1593–1676".<ref>{{Cite thesis |degree=D.Phil. |chapter= |title=The Architectural Patronage of William Cavendish, first Duke of Newcastle, 1593–1676 |url=http://www.opengrey.eu/item/display/10068/529218 |last=Worsley |first=Lucy |year=2001 |publisher= |accessdate=1 April 2013 |docket= |oclc= }}</ref> The thesis later became her book ''Cavalier: A Tale of Chivalry, Passion and Great Houses''.<ref name=Inde>{{cite news|last=Spencer|first=Charles|title=Cavalier: a tale of chivalry, passion and great houses, by Lucy Worsley|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/cavalier-a-tale-of-chivalry-passion-and-great-houses-by-lucy-worsley-462737.html|accessdate=24 September 2013|newspaper=The Independent on Sunday|date=26 August 2007}}</ref>

During 2002–2003, she was Major Projects and Research Manager for Glasgow Museums<ref name=Kingston /> before becoming Chief Curator at [[Historic Royal Palaces]], the independent charity looking after the [[Tower of London]], [[Hampton Court Palace]], [[Kensington Palace|Kensington Palace State Apartments]], the [[Banqueting House, Whitehall|Banqueting House]] in Whitehall and [[Kew Palace]] in [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Kew Gardens]]. She oversaw the £12 million refurbishment of the Kensington Palace state apartments and gardens.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/it-is-time-for-princess-diana-to-take-her-place-in-history-6463450.html | title=It is time for Princess Diana to take her place in history | last=Law |first=Katie | date=27 April 2010 | accessdate=1 April 2013 | newspaper=London Evening Standard }}</ref>

In 2005 she was elected a Senior Research Fellow at the [[Institute of Historical Research]], [[University of London]]; she was also appointed visiting professor at [[Kingston University]].<ref name=Kingston>{{cite web | url=http://fada.kingston.ac.uk/staff/lucy_worsley/lucy_worsley.php | title=Kingston University – Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture | accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref>

===Television career===
In 2011 she presented the four-part television series ''{{Citation/make link|http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/history_of_home.shtml |If Walls Could Talk}}'' exploring the history of British homes, from peasants' cottages to palaces; and the three-part series ''{{Citation/make link|http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0140vb9 |Elegance and Decadence: The Age of the Regency}}''.

In 2012 she co-presented the three-part television series ''Antiques Uncovered'', with antiques and collectibles expert [[Mark Hill (antiques expert)|Mark Hill]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01hbmsp |title=Antiques Uncovered |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=19 June 2012 |accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref> and (broadcast at the same time) ''Harlots, Housewives and Heroines'', a three-part series on the lives of women after the Civil War and the [[Restoration of Charles II]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01j2fcq |title=Harlots, Housewives and Heroines: A 17th Century History for Girls at BBC4.com |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=28 May 2012 |accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref> Later that year she presented a documentary on [[Dorothy Hartley]]'s ''Food in England'' as part of the BBC Four "Food and Drink" strand.

Her BBC series, ''A Very British Murder'', examined the "morbid national obsession" with murder. The series looked at a number of cases from the 19th century, beginning with the [[Ratcliff Highway murders]] which gained national attention in 1811, the [[Red Barn Murder]] of 1826 and the "Bermondsey Horror" case of Frederick and [[Maria Manning]] in 1849.<ref>{{cite news|last=Worsley |first=Lucy|title=How murder became a very British obsession: It was our bloodthirsty ancestors who turned us into a nation hooked on killers|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2426693/How-murder-British-obsession-It-bloodthirsty-ancestors-turned-nation-hooked-killers.html|accessdate=24 September 2013|newspaper=Daily Mail|date=20 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Owen|first=Pamela|title=A Very British Murder: How we became hooked on morbid mysteries |url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/very-british-murder-how-became-2291022|accessdate=24 September 2013|newspaper=The Mirror|date=22 September 2013}}</ref>

In 2014, the three-part series ''The First Georgians: The German Kings Who Made Britain'' explored the contributions of the German-born kings [[George I of Great Britain|George I]] and [[George II of Great Britain|George II]]. The series explained why the Hanoverian George I came to be chosen as a British monarch, how he was succeeded by his very different son George II and why without either, the current United Kingdom would likely be a very different place. The series emphasises the positive influence of these kings whilst showing the flaws in each.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:80px;"| Year
! class="unsortable" scope="col" style="width:450px;"| Title
! class="unsortable" scope="col" style="width:150px;"| Channel
! class="unsortable" scope="col" style="width:400px;"| Notes
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2015 || ''When Lucy met Roy: Sir [[Roy Strong]] at 80'' || [[BBC Four]] || 23 August 2015.<ref name=BBC4Roy>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b067fm60?ns_mchannel=email&ns_source=inxmail_newsletter&ns_campaign=bbcartsnewsletter_kl__&ns_linkname=na&ns_fee=0|title=When Lucy met Roy: Sir Roy Strong at 80|work=BBC}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2015 || ''Cake Bakers and Trouble Makers: Lucy Worsley's 100 years of the WI'' || [[BBC Two]] || 20 July 2015.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2015 || ''Britain's Tudor Treasure: A Night at Hampton Court'' || [[BBC Two]] || 7 February 2015. Co-presented with [[David Starkey]].
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2014 || ''Dancing Cheek To Cheek: An Intimate History Of Dance'' || [[BBC Four]] || 17 November 2014. Co-presented with [[Len Goodman]].
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2014 || ''Tales from the Royal Wardrobes'' || [[BBC Four]] || 7 July 2014.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2014 || ''The First Georgians: The German Kings Who Made Britain'' || BBC Four || 1 May 2014. Three part series.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2013 || ''A Very British Murder'' || BBC Four || 23 September 2013. Three part series.<ref name=RadioTimes1>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiotimes.com/programme/cnsj4t/a-very-british-murder-with-lucy-worsley|title=A Very British Murder with Lucy Worsley|work=RadioTimes}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2013 || ''Tales from the Royal Bedchamber'' || BBC Four || 5 August 2013.<ref name=RadioTimes2>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiotimes.com/episode/cmk6nm/tales-from-the-royal-bedchamber|title=Radio Times|work=RadioTimes}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2013 || ''Fit to Rule: How Royal Illness Changed History'' || [[BBC Two]] || Part 1,<ref>The Telegraph Reviews [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/tv-and-radio-reviews/9980143/Fit-to-Rule-How-Royal-Illness-Changed-History-BBC-Two-review.html Part 1]</ref> Part 2, Part 3.<ref>The Telegraph Reviews [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/tv-and-radio-reviews/10011282/Fit-to-Rule-How-Royal-Illness-Changed-History-BBC-Two-review.html Part 3]</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2013 || ''Secret Knowledge, Episode 3'' || BBC Four || Bolsover Castle 27 March 2013.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiotimes.com/episode/vwzyb/secret-knowledge--bolsover-castle-with-lucy-worsley-secret-knowledge|title=Secret Knowledge|work=RadioTimes}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2012 || ''Food in England: The Lost World of Dorothy Hartley'' || BBC Four || 6 November 2012
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2012 || ''Harlots, Housewives and Heroines: A 17th Century History for Girls'' || BBC Four || Three part series (May 2012).
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2012 || ''Inside the world of Henry VIII'' || [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History Channel]] ||
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2012 || ''Antiques Uncovered'' || BBC Two || May 2012.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2011 || ''Elegance and Decadence: The Age of the Regency'' || BBC Four || Three part series (August–September 2011).
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2011 || ''If Walls Could Talk: The History of the Home'' || BBC Four || April 2011.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2011 || ''When God Spoke English'' || BBC Four || 21 February 2011.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2010 || ''The Curse of the Hope Diamond'' || [[Channel 4]] || 24 May 2010.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2010 || ''King Alfred the Great?'' || [[BBC South]] || 17 May 2010.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2009 || ''Inside the Body of Henry VIII'' || |History Channel ||
|}

===Awards and honours===
In February 2015, the [[Royal Television Society]]’s nominated Worsley (best presenter) and ''The First Georgians'' (best history programme) in its annual awards.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/11433985/Claudia-Winkleman-nominated-for-RTS-award-for-her-new-role-as-Strictly-presenter.html |title= Claudia Winkleman nominated for RTS award for her new role as Strictly presenter|work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|author=Siobhan Palmer |date=25 February 2015 |accessdate= 17 March 2015}}</ref>

In July 2015, she was made an honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of Sussex (where she had done her PhD).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wadsworth|first1=Jo|title=TV historian given honorary Sussex Uni degree|url=http://www.brightonandhovenews.org/2015/07/13/tv-historian-given-honorary-sussex-uni-degree-2/40994|publisher=Brighton and Hove News|accessdate=20 July 2015}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Worsley lives in Southwark<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/esmagazine/lucy-worsley-s-my-london-8688225.html |title=Lucy Worsley’s My London |publisher=Evening Standard |date=5 July 2013 |accessdate=23 August 2015}}</ref> by the [[River Thames]] in south London with her husband, the architect Mark Hines,<ref name="telegraph_april2011" /> whom she married in November 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lucyworsley.com/on-being-2-5-famous/ |title=On being 2.5% famous |publisher=Lucy Worsley |date=22 July 2012 |accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref> With reference to having children, Worsley says she has been "educated out of normal reproductive function".<ref>Times, 5/8/13</ref>

As a TV presenter, she is known for having a [[rhotacism]], a minor speech impediment<ref name="telegraph_april2011" /> which affects her pronunciation of ''"r"''. When she made the move from BBC Four to BBC Two for the series ''Fit to Rule: How Royal Illness Changed History'', she worked with a [[Speech-language pathology|speech and language therapist]] to help with her pronunciation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lucyworsley.com/in-which-my-speech-impediment-in-criticised-but-all-ends-happily/|title=In which my speech impediment is criticised, but all ends happily|publisher=LucyWorsley.com}}</ref> Her trademark hair clip was also removed.

In her teens, Worsley represented Berkshire at [[Cross country running|cross-country]] and is still a keen runner.<ref name="telegraph_october2011">{{cite news|last=Wintle |first=Angela |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/lifestyle/8828217/World-of-Dr-Lucy-Worsley-curator-and-broadcaster.html |title=World of Dr Lucy Worsley, curator and broadcaster |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |date=14 October 2011 |accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref>

==Publications==
*'' A Very British Murder: The Story of a National Obsession'' (2014).
* ''If Walls Could Talk: An Intimate History of the Home'' (2011).
* ''The Secret History of Kensington Palace'' (2011).
* ''Henry VIII: 500 Facts'' (2009) with Brett Dolman, [[Suzannah Lipscomb]] and Lee Prosser.
* ''Cavalier: A Tale of Chivalry, Passion and Great Houses'' (2008).
* ''The Royal Palaces of London'' (2008) with David Souden, Brett Dolman and Foreword by [[HRH The Prince of Wales]].
* ''Hampton Court Palace: The Official Illustrated History'' (2005) with David Souden.
* ''Kirby Hall, Northamptonshire (English Heritage Guidebooks'') (2001).
* ''Bolsover Castle'' (2001) with Louise Wilson.
* ''Hardwick Old Hall'' (1998).

==References==
{{reflist|33em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-27208339 BBC Historian Lucy Worsley explores her own past]
* {{Twitter|Lucy_Worsley}}
*[http://www.hrp.org.uk/ Royal Historic Palaces Official Website]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/tv/authors/d116849a-88f1-320b-bb28-7b4dc98fe33e Lucy Worsley BBC Blog Page]
*{{imdb name|3917687}}
*[http://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2011/mar/27/lucy-worsley-tv-history-interview 'Lots of historians are sniffy about re-enactors'] ''The Guardian'' 27 March 2011.

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Worsley, Lucy
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = English historian
| DATE OF BIRTH = 18 December 1973
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[Berkshire]], [[England]], [[UK]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Worsley, Lucy}}
[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:Alumni of New College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Sussex]]
[[Category:English historians]]
[[Category:English television presenters]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People with a speech impediment]]
[[Category:People from Reading, Berkshire]]
[[Category:People educated at St. Bartholomew's School]]
[[Category:People educated at West Bridgford School]]

Benutzer:Romulus/Lucy Worsley

2015-08-24T14:00:32Z

Lessogg: /* Publications */ punctuatin

{{Infobox person
|name = Lucy Worsley
|image =Lucy Worsley.jpg
|imagesize =
|caption =Worsley in 2014
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1973|12|18}}
|birth_place = [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[Berkshire]], England
|occupation = Historian, author, curator, television presenter
|spouse = {{marriage|Mark Hines|2011}}
|website = [http://www.lucyworsley.com/ LucyWorsley.com]
|footnotes =
|alma_mater=[[University of Sussex]] ([[Doctor of Philosophy|DPhil]], 2001) [[New College, Oxford]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], 1995)
}}

'''Lucy Worsley''' (born 18 December 1973) is an English historian, author, curator and television presenter.<ref name="telegraph_april2011">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8445957/Dr-Lucy-Worsley-Im-just-an-historian-who-wandered-into-TV.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120624070326/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8445957/Dr-Lucy-Worsley-Im-just-an-historian-who-wandered-into-TV.html |archivedate=24 June 2012 |last=Woods |first=Judith |title=Dr Lucy Worsley: 'I'm just an historian who wandered into TV' |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |date=13 April 2011 |accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref>

Worsley is currently Joint Chief Curator at [[Historic Royal Palaces]] but is best known as a presenter of BBC television series on historical topics, including ''Elegance and Decadence: The Age of the Regency'' (2011), ''Harlots, Housewives and Heroines: A 17th Century History for Girls'' (2012), and ''The First Georgians: The German Kings Who Made Britain'' (2014)''.

==Early life and education==
Lucy Worsley was born in [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[Berkshire]]. Her father, Peter Worsley, is a geologist and expert in [[glaciers]] and [[permafrost]] and an [[Emeritus|emeritus professor]] at [[Reading University]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://berksandbucks.greatbritishlife.co.uk/people/lucy_worsley_on_her_passion_for_the_past_1_3238665|title=Lucy Worsley on her passion for the past|work=Berkshire and Buckinghamshire Life}}</ref> her mother is a consultant in educational policy and practice. She has a younger brother. Before going to university, Worsley attended [[St Bartholomew's School]], [[Newbury, Berkshire|Newbury]] and [[West Bridgford School]], [[Nottingham]]. She graduated from [[New College, Oxford]] in 1995 with a first-class honours BA degree in Ancient and Modern History.

==Career==
Worsley began her career as an historic house curator at [[Milton, Vale of White Horse|Milton Manor]],<ref>SPAB News, Vol. 18., no. 2, 1997</ref> near [[Abingdon, Oxfordshire|Abingdon]], in the summer of 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lucyworsley.com/tag/milton-manor/|title=Milton Manor - Lucy Worsley|publisher=LucyWorsley.com}}</ref> From 1996 to 2002, she was an Inspector of Historic Buildings for [[English Heritage]] in the East Midlands region. During that time she studied the life of [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle]] and wrote the English Heritage guide to his home, [[Bolsover Castle]]. In 2001 she was awarded a [[Doctor of Philosophy|DPhil]] from the [[University of Sussex]] for a thesis on "The Architectural Patronage of William Cavendish, first Duke of Newcastle, 1593–1676".<ref>{{Cite thesis |degree=D.Phil. |chapter= |title=The Architectural Patronage of William Cavendish, first Duke of Newcastle, 1593–1676 |url=http://www.opengrey.eu/item/display/10068/529218 |last=Worsley |first=Lucy |year=2001 |publisher= |accessdate=1 April 2013 |docket= |oclc= }}</ref> The thesis later became her book ''Cavalier: A Tale of Chivalry, Passion and Great Houses''<ref name=Inde>{{cite news|last=Spencer|first=Charles|title=Cavalier: a tale of chivalry, passion and great houses, by Lucy Worsley|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/cavalier-a-tale-of-chivalry-passion-and-great-houses-by-lucy-worsley-462737.html|accessdate=24 September 2013|newspaper=The Independent on Sunday|date=26 August 2007}}</ref>

During 2002–2003, she was Major Projects and Research Manager for Glasgow Museums<ref name=Kingston /> before becoming Chief Curator at [[Historic Royal Palaces]], the independent charity looking after the [[Tower of London]], [[Hampton Court Palace]], [[Kensington Palace|Kensington Palace State Apartments]], the [[Banqueting House, Whitehall|Banqueting House]] in Whitehall and [[Kew Palace]] in [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Kew Gardens]]. She oversaw the £12 million refurbishment of the Kensington Palace state apartments and gardens.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/it-is-time-for-princess-diana-to-take-her-place-in-history-6463450.html | title=It is time for Princess Diana to take her place in history | last=Law |first=Katie | date=27 April 2010 | accessdate=1 April 2013 | newspaper=London Evening Standard }}</ref>

In 2005 she was elected a Senior Research Fellow at the [[Institute of Historical Research]], [[University of London]]; she was also appointed visiting professor at [[Kingston University]].<ref name=Kingston>{{cite web | url=http://fada.kingston.ac.uk/staff/lucy_worsley/lucy_worsley.php | title=Kingston University – Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture | accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref>

===Television career===
In 2011 she presented the four-part television series ''{{Citation/make link|http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/history_of_home.shtml |If Walls Could Talk}}'' exploring the history of British homes, from peasants' cottages to palaces; and the three-part series ''{{Citation/make link|http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0140vb9 |Elegance and Decadence: The Age of the Regency}}''.

In 2012 she co-presented the three-part television series ''Antiques Uncovered'', with antiques and collectibles expert [[Mark Hill (antiques expert)|Mark Hill]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01hbmsp |title=Antiques Uncovered |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=19 June 2012 |accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref> and (broadcast at the same time) ''Harlots, Housewives and Heroines'', a three-part series on the lives of women after the Civil War and the [[Restoration of Charles II]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01j2fcq |title=Harlots, Housewives and Heroines: A 17th Century History for Girls at BBC4.com |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=28 May 2012 |accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref> Later that year she presented a documentary on [[Dorothy Hartley]]'s ''Food in England'' as part of the BBC Four "Food and Drink" strand.

Her BBC series, ''A Very British Murder'', examined the "morbid national obsession" with murder. The series looked at a number of cases from the 19th century, beginning with the [[Ratcliff Highway murders]] which gained national attention in 1811, the [[Red Barn Murder]] of 1826 and the "Bermondsey Horror" case of Frederick and [[Maria Manning]] in 1849.<ref>{{cite news|last=Worsley |first=Lucy|title=How murder became a very British obsession: It was our bloodthirsty ancestors who turned us into a nation hooked on killers|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2426693/How-murder-British-obsession-It-bloodthirsty-ancestors-turned-nation-hooked-killers.html|accessdate=24 September 2013|newspaper=Daily Mail|date=20 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Owen|first=Pamela|title=A Very British Murder: How we became hooked on morbid mysteries |url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/very-british-murder-how-became-2291022|accessdate=24 September 2013|newspaper=The Mirror|date=22 September 2013}}</ref>

In 2014, the three-part series ''The First Georgians: The German Kings Who Made Britain'' explored the contributions of the German-born kings [[George I of Great Britain|George I]] and [[George II of Great Britain|George II]]. The series explained why the Hanoverian George I came to be chosen as a British monarch, how he was succeeded by his very different son George II and why without either, the current United Kingdom would likely be a very different place. The series emphasises the positive influence of these kings whilst showing the flaws in each.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:80px;"| Year
! class="unsortable" scope="col" style="width:450px;"| Title
! class="unsortable" scope="col" style="width:150px;"| Channel
! class="unsortable" scope="col" style="width:400px;"| Notes
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2015 || ''When Lucy met Roy: Sir [[Roy Strong]] at 80'' || [[BBC Four]] || 23 August 2015.<ref name=BBC4Roy>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b067fm60?ns_mchannel=email&ns_source=inxmail_newsletter&ns_campaign=bbcartsnewsletter_kl__&ns_linkname=na&ns_fee=0|title=When Lucy met Roy: Sir Roy Strong at 80|work=BBC}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2015 || ''Cake Bakers and Trouble Makers: Lucy Worsley's 100 years of the WI'' || [[BBC Two]] || 20 July 2015.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2015 || ''Britain's Tudor Treasure: A Night at Hampton Court'' || [[BBC Two]] || 7 February 2015. Co-presented with [[David Starkey]].
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2014 || ''Dancing Cheek To Cheek: An Intimate History Of Dance'' || [[BBC Four]] || 17 November 2014. Co-presented with [[Len Goodman]].
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2014 || ''Tales from the Royal Wardrobes'' || [[BBC Four]] || 7 July 2014.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2014 || ''The First Georgians: The German Kings Who Made Britain'' || BBC Four || 1 May 2014. Three part series.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2013 || ''A Very British Murder'' || BBC Four || 23 September 2013. Three part series.<ref name=RadioTimes1>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiotimes.com/programme/cnsj4t/a-very-british-murder-with-lucy-worsley|title=A Very British Murder with Lucy Worsley|work=RadioTimes}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2013 || ''Tales from the Royal Bedchamber'' || BBC Four || 5 August 2013.<ref name=RadioTimes2>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiotimes.com/episode/cmk6nm/tales-from-the-royal-bedchamber|title=Radio Times|work=RadioTimes}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2013 || ''Fit to Rule: How Royal Illness Changed History'' || [[BBC Two]] || Part 1,<ref>The Telegraph Reviews [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/tv-and-radio-reviews/9980143/Fit-to-Rule-How-Royal-Illness-Changed-History-BBC-Two-review.html Part 1]</ref> Part 2, Part 3.<ref>The Telegraph Reviews [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/tv-and-radio-reviews/10011282/Fit-to-Rule-How-Royal-Illness-Changed-History-BBC-Two-review.html Part 3]</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2013 || ''Secret Knowledge, Episode 3'' || BBC Four || Bolsover Castle 27 March 2013.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiotimes.com/episode/vwzyb/secret-knowledge--bolsover-castle-with-lucy-worsley-secret-knowledge|title=Secret Knowledge|work=RadioTimes}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2012 || ''Food in England: The Lost World of Dorothy Hartley'' || BBC Four || 6 November 2012
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2012 || ''Harlots, Housewives and Heroines: A 17th Century History for Girls'' || BBC Four || Three part series (May 2012).
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2012 || ''Inside the world of Henry VIII'' || [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History Channel]] ||
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2012 || ''Antiques Uncovered'' || BBC Two || May 2012.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2011 || ''Elegance and Decadence: The Age of the Regency'' || BBC Four || Three part series (August–September 2011).
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2011 || ''If Walls Could Talk: The History of the Home'' || BBC Four || April 2011.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2011 || ''When God Spoke English'' || BBC Four || 21 February 2011.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2010 || ''The Curse of the Hope Diamond'' || [[Channel 4]] || 24 May 2010.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2010 || ''King Alfred the Great?'' || [[BBC South]] || 17 May 2010.
|-
| style="text-align:Center;"| 2009 || ''Inside the Body of Henry VIII'' || |History Channel ||
|}

===Awards and honours===
In February 2015, the [[Royal Television Society]]’s nominated Worsley (best presenter) and ''The First Georgians'' (best history programme) in its annual awards.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/11433985/Claudia-Winkleman-nominated-for-RTS-award-for-her-new-role-as-Strictly-presenter.html |title= Claudia Winkleman nominated for RTS award for her new role as Strictly presenter|work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|author=Siobhan Palmer |date=25 February 2015 |accessdate= 17 March 2015}}</ref>

In July 2015, she was made an honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of Sussex (where she had done her PhD).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wadsworth|first1=Jo|title=TV historian given honorary Sussex Uni degree|url=http://www.brightonandhovenews.org/2015/07/13/tv-historian-given-honorary-sussex-uni-degree-2/40994|publisher=Brighton and Hove News|accessdate=20 July 2015}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Worsley lives in Southwark<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/esmagazine/lucy-worsley-s-my-london-8688225.html |title=Lucy Worsley’s My London |publisher=Evening Standard |date=5 July 2013 |accessdate=23 August 2015}}</ref> by the [[River Thames]] in south London with her husband, the architect Mark Hines,<ref name="telegraph_april2011" /> whom she married in November 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lucyworsley.com/on-being-2-5-famous/ |title=On being 2.5% famous |publisher=Lucy Worsley |date=22 July 2012 |accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref> With reference to having children, Worsley says she has been "educated out of normal reproductive function".<ref>Times, 5/8/13</ref>

As a TV presenter, she is known for having a [[rhotacism]], a minor speech impediment<ref name="telegraph_april2011" /> which affects her pronunciation of ''"r"''. When she made the move from BBC Four to BBC Two for the series ''Fit to Rule: How Royal Illness Changed History'', she worked with a [[Speech-language pathology|speech and language therapist]] to help with her pronunciation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lucyworsley.com/in-which-my-speech-impediment-in-criticised-but-all-ends-happily/|title=In which my speech impediment is criticised, but all ends happily|publisher=LucyWorsley.com}}</ref> Her trademark hair clip was also removed.

In her teens, Worsley represented Berkshire at [[Cross country running|cross-country]] and is still a keen runner.<ref name="telegraph_october2011">{{cite news|last=Wintle |first=Angela |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/lifestyle/8828217/World-of-Dr-Lucy-Worsley-curator-and-broadcaster.html |title=World of Dr Lucy Worsley, curator and broadcaster |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |date=14 October 2011 |accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref>

==Publications==
*'' A Very British Murder: The Story of a National Obsession'' (2014).
* ''If Walls Could Talk: An Intimate History of the Home'' (2011).
* ''The Secret History of Kensington Palace'' (2011).
* ''Henry VIII: 500 Facts'' (2009) with Brett Dolman, [[Suzannah Lipscomb]] and Lee Prosser.
* ''Cavalier: A Tale of Chivalry, Passion and Great Houses'' (2008).
* ''The Royal Palaces of London'' (2008) with David Souden, Brett Dolman and Foreword by [[HRH The Prince of Wales]].
* ''Hampton Court Palace: The Official Illustrated History'' (2005) with David Souden.
* ''Kirby Hall, Northamptonshire (English Heritage Guidebooks'') (2001).
* ''Bolsover Castle'' (2001) with Louise Wilson.
* ''Hardwick Old Hall'' (1998).

==References==
{{reflist|33em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-27208339 BBC Historian Lucy Worsley explores her own past]
* {{Twitter|Lucy_Worsley}}
*[http://www.hrp.org.uk/ Royal Historic Palaces Official Website]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/tv/authors/d116849a-88f1-320b-bb28-7b4dc98fe33e Lucy Worsley BBC Blog Page]
*{{imdb name|3917687}}
*[http://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2011/mar/27/lucy-worsley-tv-history-interview 'Lots of historians are sniffy about re-enactors'] ''The Guardian'' 27 March 2011.

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Worsley, Lucy
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = English historian
| DATE OF BIRTH = 18 December 1973
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[Berkshire]], [[England]], [[UK]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Worsley, Lucy}}
[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:Alumni of New College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Sussex]]
[[Category:English historians]]
[[Category:English television presenters]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People with a speech impediment]]
[[Category:People from Reading, Berkshire]]
[[Category:People educated at St. Bartholomew's School]]
[[Category:People educated at West Bridgford School]]

The Story of Stuff

2015-01-25T15:18:17Z

Lessogg: /* Bibliography */ fixed

{{Infobox film
|name=The Story of Stuff
|image=The Story of Stuff.jpg
|caption=
|director=Louis Fox
|producer=Erica Priggen
|narrator=[[Annie Leonard]]<ref name="LA Times">{{cite news|last=Roosevelt|first=Margot|title=Teaching 'stuff' about ecology|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2010/jul/13/local/la-me-story-of-stuff-20100713|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=July 13, 2010}}</ref>
|editing=Braelan Murray
|music=
|distributor=
|released={{Film date|2007|12|4|Online}}
|runtime=20 minutes
|language=[[English language|English]]
}}

'''''The Story of Stuff''''' is a short [[animated documentary]] about the [[Product lifecycle management|lifecycle]] of [[material good]]s. The documentary is critical of excessive [[consumerism]] and promotes [[sustainability]].

Filmmaker [[Annie Leonard]] wrote and narrated the film, which was funded by [[Tides Center|Tides Foundation]], Funders Workgroup for Sustainable Production and Consumption, Free Range Studios and other foundations. [[Free Range Studios]] also produced the documentary,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://storyofstuff.org/movies/story-of-stuff/|title=Story Of Stuff|accessdate=2013-12-29|publisher=storyofstuff.com}}</ref> which was first launched online on December, 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://storyofstuff.org/movies/story-of-stuff/|title=The Story of Stuff|accessdate=2013-12-29|publisher=storyofstuff.com}}</ref>

The documentary is being used in elementary schools, arts programs, and economics classes as well as places of worship and corporate sustainability trainings.<ref name="NYTlesson">{{cite news|url=http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/05/15/studying-stuff|title=Studying "Stuff" Examining "The Story of Stuff" with a Critical Eye|accessdate=2013-12-29| work=The New York Times | date=May 15, 2009}}</ref> By February 2009, it had been seen in 228 countries and territories. According to the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' {{as of|2010|7|lc=on}}, the film had been translated into 15 languages and had been viewed by over 12 million people.<ref name="LA Times"/>

==Contents==
The 20-minute video presents a critical vision of [[consumerist]] society, primarily American. It purports to expose "the connections between a huge number of environmental and social issues, and calls us together to create a more sustainable and just world."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.storyofstuff.com|title=The Story of Stuff|date=2008-07-28}}</ref> The video is divided into seven chapters: ''Introduction'', ''Extraction'', ''Production'', ''Distribution'', ''Consumption'', ''Disposal'', and ''Another Way''.

The video divides up the ''materials economy'' into a system composed of [[exploitation of natural resources|extraction]], [[Outline of industrial organization|production]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]], [[consumption (economics)|consumption]], and [[waste management|disposal]]. To articulate the problems in the system, Leonard adds people, the government, and [[corporation]]s.

Leonard's thesis, "you cannot run a linear system on a finite planet indefinitely" is supported throughout the video by [[statistical data]]. Although the video itself doesn't give attribution to her information, the producers provide an annotated script that includes footnotes with explanations and sources for some of her assertions:

*"... more than 50% of [[United States|our]] federal tax money is now going to the [[Military budget of the United States|military]]..." She cites the [[War Resisters League]] website, which differs from government reports that put the figure at around 20-25%;<ref>[http://www.irs.gov/app/understandingTaxes/whys/thm01/les01/ac3_thm01_les01.jsp Citizen's Guide to the Federal Budget], irs.gov</ref> WRL explains the difference in that it doesn't count trust funds like [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] (since this revenue is not obtained directly from income taxes), considers veterans benefits as part of "past military" spending, and includes 80% of the debt interest payments under the rationale that most debt would have been avoidable with reduced military spending.<ref>[http://www.warresisters.org/pages/piechart.htm Where Your Income Tax money really Goes], warresisters.org</ref>
*"Of the 100 largest economies on Earth now, 51 are corporations." She cites {{Harvcoltxt|Anderson|Cavanagh|2000}},<ref>itself a revised edition of {{Harvcoltxt|Anderson|Cavanagh|1996}}</ref> which bases this claim on the 1999 figures of GDP and corporate sales as reported by [[Fortune (magazine)|''Fortune'']]<ref>''Fortune Magazine'', July 31, 2000.</ref> and the ''World Development Report 2000''.
*"We [The U.S.] have 5% of the world's population but we're consuming 30% of the world's resources and creating 30% of the world's waste." She cites {{Harvcoltxt|Seitz|2001}}, who says, "...in 1990 the United States, with about 5 percent of the world's population, was using about one-quarter of the energy being used by all nations."<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Seitz|2001|p=120}}</ref> and a chapter in ''Global Environmental Issues'' that puts the US production of waste at around 10 billion tons per year before the turn of the millennium.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Taylor|Morrissey|2004|p=247}}</ref>
*"80% of the planet's original forests are gone." She cites the Natural Resources Defense Council website, which says that only about 20% of the world's original wilderness forests remain.<ref>[http://www.nrdc.org/land/forests/fboreal.asp The Canadian Boreal Forest], National resources Defense Council</ref> and the website for the [[Rainforest Action Network]].<ref>[http://www.ran.org ran.org] [[Rainforest Action Network]]</ref>
*"Forty percent of waterways in the US have become undrinkable." She cites a source which she quotes in a footnote as actually having said, "Today, 40 percent of our nation’s rivers are unfishable, unswimmable, or undrinkable".
*"In the [[Amazon rainforest|Amazon]] alone, we’re losing 2000 trees a minute." She cites {{Harvcoltxt|de Seve|2002}}, which puts the Amazon deforestation rate in 1995 at {{convert|5|e6acre|km2}} a year.
*"Each of us in the U.S. is targeted with more than 3,000 [[advertisement]]s a day." This particular figure comes from the American Academy of Pediatrics<ref>{{citation
|author=American Academy of Pediatrics
|year=2006
|title=Committee on Communications Policy Statement: children, adolescents, and advertising
|journal=Pediatrics
|volume=118
|issue=6
|pages=2563–2569
|pmid=17142547
|doi=10.1542/peds.2006-2698
|last2=Strasburger
}}</ref> which itself cites a 1999 ''[[Albuquerque Journal]]'' article by columnist Ellen Goodman<ref>cited as {{citation
|last=Goodman
|first=Ellen
|title=Ads pollute most everything in sight
|journal=Albuquerque Journal
|date=June 27, 1999
|pages=C3
}}</ref> on a figure of 3,000 ads viewed by young Americans on television, the internet, billboards, and magazines.<ref>See [http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/118/6/2563 here] for a list of concerns with this particular statement</ref> Despite the specific wording of this article ("The average young person views more than 3000 ads per day..."), Annie Leonard specifies that she is referring to ads ''targeted'', not necessarily viewed.
*"Each of us in the United States makes 4{{frac|1|2}} pounds (2.04 [[kg]]) of garbage a day." She cites the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency website, which states that 245.7 million tons of [[municipal solid waste]] was produced in 2005.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/mswchar05.pdf Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 2005 Facts and Figures]</ref> {{Harvcoltxt|Taylor|Morrissey|2004|p=247}} reiterates this figure.
*"[[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|Dioxin]] is the most toxic man made substance known to science. And incinerators are the number one source of dioxin." She cites Mocarelli et al.<ref>{{citation
|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02290-X
|last1=Mocarelli
|first1=Paolo
|last2=Gerthoux
|first2=Pier Mario
|last3=Ferrari
|first3=Enrica
|last4=Patterson
|first4=Donald G. Jr
|last5=Kieszak
|first5=Stephanie
|last6=Brambilla
|first6=Paolo
|last7=Vincoli
|first7=Nicoletta
|last8=Signorini
|first8=Stefano
|last9=Tramacere
|first9=Pierluigi
|last10=Needham
|first10=Larry L.
|year=2000
|title=Paternal concentrations of dioxin and sex ratio of offspring
|journal=[[The Lancet]]
|volume=355
|issue=9218
|pages=1858–1863
|pmid=10866441
}}</ref>
Leonard also quotes what [[Victor Lebow]] said in 1955 regarding economic growth:
:"Our enormously productive economy... demands that we make consumption our way of life, that we convert the buying and use of goods into rituals, that we seek our spiritual satisfaction, our ego satisfaction, in consumption... we need things consumed, burned up, replaced and discarded at an ever-accelerating rate."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/965920/LebowArticle|title="Price Competition in 1955", Victor Lebow|date=2008-07-28}}</ref>

==Reaction==
''The Story of Stuff'' has been subject to public discussion, especially after ''[[The New York Times]]'' published a front page article about the video on May 10, 2009.<ref>Leslie Kaufman, [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/11/education/11stuff.html?_r=2&em A Cautionary Video About America’s ‘Stuff’], The New York Times, May 10, 2009</ref> Even before ''The New York Times'' article, ''The Sustainable Enterprise Fieldbook'' pointed to ''The Story of Stuff'' as a successful portrayal of the problems with the consumption cycle,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wirtenberg|Russell|Lipsky|2008|p=62}}</ref> and {{Harvcoltxt|Greyson|2008}} says it is an engaging attempt to communicate circular economics. [[Ralph Nader]] called the film "a model of clarity and motivation." John Passacantando, Executive Director of [[Greenpeace]], called it a "mega-hit on three levels".

It also attracted the attention of commentators such as [[Glenn Beck]], who characterized the video as an "anti-capitalist tale that unfortunately has virtually no facts correct."<ref>[http://www.glennbeck.com/content/articles/article/198/30932/ Debunking Story of Stuff], Glennbeck,com, September 22, 2009</ref> Influenced by critical commentary, the [[Montana]] [[Board of education|school board]] opposed the screening of the film in a biology classroom in a 4–3 vote.<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/2009/05/14/viral-video-story-stuff-is-full-misleading-numbers/ Viral Video 'The Story of Stuff' Is Full of Misleading Numbers], Fox News, May 14, 2009</ref><ref>Jesse Froehling, [http://missoulanews.bigskypress.com/missoula/the-politics-of-stuff/Content?oid=1148043 The Politics of Stuff], Missoula Independent, February 19, 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.yesmagazine.org/for-teachers/resources/missoula-school-board-bans-story-of-stuff Missoula School Board Bans Story of Stuff], Yes! March 11, 2009</ref> The subsequent public outcry against this decision led to a rewrite of the school board's policy and an award for the teacher who screened the film.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://missoulian.com/news/local/article_3de96666-9f5a-11de-8c6a-001cc4c03286.html |title=Big Sky teacher who showed 'Story of Stuff' earns EcoDareDevil Award |accessdate=2010-07-17|author=Michael Moore |date=2009-09-12|publisher=[[The Missoulian]] }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Sustainable development}}
{{div col|3}}
*''[[The Age of Stupid]]''
*[[Brominated flame retardant]]
*[[Cost externalizing]]
*[[Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds|Dioxins]]
*[[Incineration]]
*[[Planned obsolescence]]
*[[Pollution]]
*[[Recycling]]
*''[[The Meatrix]]''
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{citation
|last=Anderson
|first=Sarah
|last2=Cavanagh
|first2=John
|year=1996
|title=The Top 200: The Rise of Global Corporate Power
|place=Washington, D.C.
|publisher=[[Institute for Policy Studies]]
}}
*{{citation
|last=Anderson
|first=Sarah
|last2=Cavanagh
|first2=John
|year=2000
|title=The Top 200: The Rise of Global Corporate Power
|place=Washington, D.C.
|publisher=Institute for Policy Studies
|url=http://www.corpwatch.org/downloads/top200.pdf
}}
*{{citation
|last=de Seve
|first=Karen
|year=2002
|title=Welcome to my jungle ... before it's gone
|journal=[[Science World (magazine)|Science World]]
|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1590/is_11_58/ai_84307435
}}
*{{citation
|last=Greyson
|first=James
|year=2008
|chapter=Systemic economic instruments for energy, climate and global security
|title=Sustainable Energy Production and Consumption
|editor-last=Barbir
|editor-first=Frano
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=1-4020-8493-5
|pages=139–158
|editor2-last=Ulgiati
|editor2-first=Sergio
|url=http://www.wiser.org/resource/view/c67ee002ac4501b56598ffb6f7c4ac4b/section/gallery
}}
*{{citation
|last=Madison
|first=James
|title=Letters and other writings of James Madison
|work=Volume 4 of Letters and Other Writings of James Madison: Fourth President of the United States, James Madison
|publisher=J. B. Lippincott & co.
|year=1865
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=EiYWAAAAYAAJ
}}
*{{Citation
|last=Seitz
|first=John L.
|year=2001
|title=Global Issues: An Introduction
|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell
|edition=1st
}}
*{{citation
|last=Taylor
|first=Ros
|last2=Morrissey
|first2=Kathy
|year=2004
|chapter=Coping with Pollution: Dealing with Waste
|editor-last=Harris
|editor-first=Frances
|title=Global Environmental Issues
|publisher=John Wiley and Sons
|isbn=0-470-84561-9
|pages=229–264
}}
*{{citation
|last=Wirtenberg
|first=Jeana
|last2=Russell
|first2=William G.
|last3=Lipsky
|first3=David
|title=The Sustainable Enterprise Fieldbook: When it All Comes Together
|year=2008
|publisher=AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn
|isbn=0-8144-1278-5
}}

==External links==
*[http://storyofstuff.com/ ''Story of Stuff'' web site]
*[http://www.youtube.com/user/storyofstuffproject ''Story of Stuff'' on YouTube]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Story Of Stuff, The}}
[[Category:2007 in the environment]]
[[Category:Documentary films about consumerism]]
[[Category:Documentary films about environmental issues]]
[[Category:Home video]]

Cadzow Castle

2015-01-21T10:33:36Z

Lessogg: /* History */ linkin to White Park cattle

[[Image:CadzowCastle01.JPG|thumb|250px|Cadzow Castle, seen across the [[Avon Water|Avon Gorge]] from the Duke's Bridge]]

'''Cadzow Castle''', now in ruins, was constructed between 1500 and 1550 on the site of an earlier [[Scottish royalty|royal]] castle, one mile south-east of the centre of [[Hamilton, South Lanarkshire]], [[Scotland]]. The town of Hamilton was formerly known as Cadzow or Cadyou<ref>George Chalmers, ''Caledonia, Or, A Historical and Topographical Account of North Britain from the Most Ancient to the Present Times: With a Dictionary of Places, Chorographical and Philological'', Vol. 6 (A. Gardner, 1890), p. 683.</ref> ({{lang-scom|{{lang|ang|Cadȝow}}}}, the "{{lang|ang|ȝ}}" being the letter [[yogh]]), until renamed in 1455 in honour of [[James Hamilton, 1st Lord Hamilton]]. The castle sits above a gorge overlooking the [[Avon Water]] in what is now [[Chatelherault Country Park]], but was previously the hunting and pleasure grounds of the [[Duke of Hamilton]]'s estate of [[Hamilton Palace]]. The ruin is a category B [[listed building]] and a [[Scheduled Ancient Monument]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hsewsf.sedsh.gov.uk/hslive/hsstart?P_HBNUM=12483 |title=Cadzow Castle, Listed Building Report |accessdate=2010-04-19 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=Historic Scotland}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hsewsf.sedsh.gov.uk/eschedule/show?id=90342&OK=Y |title=Entry in the Schedule of Monuments, The Monument Known as Cadzow Castle |accessdate=2010-04-19 |last= |first= |coauthors= |year=2003 |work= |publisher=Historic Scotland}}</ref>

==History==

===The early castle===
The ancient [[kings of Strathclyde]] are said to have had a [[hunting|hunting lodge]] at Cadzow, prior to that kingdom's assimilation into Scotland in the 12th century. The original Cadzow Castle was built in the 12th century as an occasional royal residence for [[David I of Scotland|King David I]] (1124–1153). Royal charters of David's reign were issued from here as early as 1139. His successors [[Alexander II of Scotland|Alexander II]], [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] and others down to [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]] also used the castle, primarily as a hunting lodge. It is possible that this earlier castle was on an alternative site at {{gbmappingsmall|NS729548}}, now known as Castlehill, although the area is now a housing estate.

[[Image:Cadzowforest.jpg|left|thumb|The ancient Cadzow oak forest and Cadzow [[White Park cattle]] in the 19th century.]]

The estate of Cadzow was divided in 1222, with Cadzow Castle passing to the [[Clan Cumming|Comyns]]. Following the forfeiture of their lands for supporting [[John I of Scotland|John Baliol]], the estate was granted by Robert the Bruce to [[Walter fitz Gilbert of Cadzow|Walter FitzGilbert de Hambeldon]] in the early 14th century. FitzGilbert was ennobled as the first [[Duke of Hamilton|Baron of Cadzow]], and is the ancestor of the Dukes of Hamilton. He constructed a [[motte-and-bailey|motte]] near the town ({{gbmappingsmall|NS729548}}), which remains, adjacent to the M74 motorway.

===The 16th-century castle===
The present castle was built around 1530 by Sir [[James Hamilton of Finnart]], who also constructed nearby [[Craignethan Castle]]. Following her escape from [[Loch Leven Castle]] in 1568, [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], stayed here. As a result it was destroyed by forces of the [[John Erskine, 17th Earl of Mar|Earl of Mar]], regent for James VI, in the late 16th century, as retaliation against the Hamiltons for their support of Mary. It was partially rebuilt in the 18th century, to serve as a [[folly]] within the Duke's park.

==The castle today==
The site is now owned and managed by [[Historic Scotland]]. There is no public access to the ruins, as the structure is unstable, and largely supported by scaffolding. Footpaths within the country park allow visitors to view the ruin. The Duke's Bridge, built high across the Avon Gorge, offers the most dramatic view of the ruins above the wooded gorge. A series of excavations, sponsored by Historic Scotland, took place at the castle between 2000 and 2003.

==References==
{{reflist}}
*{{cite web |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/45740/details/cadzow+castle/ |title=Cadzow Castle |accessdate=2010-04-19 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work=[[CANMORE]] |publisher=[[Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland]]}}

==External links==
{{commons|Cadzow Castle}}
*{{historic-scotland-link|046}}

{{coord|55.760450|-4.017450|region:GB-SLK_type:landmark|display=title}}

[[Category:1530s architecture]]
[[Category:Castles in South Lanarkshire]]
[[Category:Category B listed buildings in South Lanarkshire]]
[[Category:Listed castles in Scotland]]
[[Category:Royal residences in Scotland]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Scotland]]

William Church (Erfinder)

2014-12-19T17:34:10Z

Lessogg: m

Dr. '''William Church''' (* um 1778 in [[Vermont]]; † [[1863]] in [[Birmingham]]) war der Erfinder der Typensetzmaschine und der Typengießmaschine, auf welche er [[1822]] ein Patent erhielt. Die Maschinen sollten helfen, das [[Satz (Druck)|Setzen von Schrift]] zu beschleunigen.

== Leben ==
William Church wurde ca. 1778 in Vermont geboren. Seit etwa 1807 begann er eine Setzmaschine zu entwickeln. Im Jahr 1820 siedelte er nach England über und lebte in Birmingham. Die Entwicklung seiner Maschine führte er in England fort, es dauerte aber insgesamt 15 Jahre, bis er die Typensetzmaschine und auch die Typengießmaschine fertigstellen konnte. Am 18. Februar 1822 erhielt Church schließlich ein Patent auf seine Entwicklungen. Im folgenden Jahr richtete William Church eine Presse in Birmingham ein, wo seine Maschinen in der Praxis erprobt wurden. William Church war insgesamt 40 Jahre als Ingenieur tätig.

== Leistungen ==
[[Datei:Church setting machine.jpg|thumb|Die erste Setzmaschine, erfunden von Church]]
Church hatte es als erster geschafft, eine Maschine zu entwickeln, die den Setzvorgang automatisieren konnte. Die Setzmaschine besaß einen Rahmen aus Holz mit einer waagrechten Platte. Darüber ein pultartiges Gestell mit den Behältern für die [[Letter]]n. Unterhalb davon eine Querbalken, an dem die Tastatur zur Eingabe montiert war.
Die Maschine wurde mit Hilfe eines Uhrwerks mit Gewichten angetrieben, das durch ein Pedal wieder aufgezogen wurde. Durch den Druck einer Taste wurde die unterste Type aus dem Behälter freigegeben und fiel durch ihr Eigengewicht auf den vorderen Teil der Platte. Dort schob sie ein Stößel in die Mitte, wo sich der Sammelkanal für die Matrizen befand. Danach konnte die nächste Letter von der Tastatur ausgelöst werden. Die dadurch gesammelte, fertige Zeile musste noch mit der Hand [[Ausschließen (Bleisatz)|ausgeschlossen]] werden. Das [[Ablegen (Buchdruck)|Ablegen]] der Typen nach dem Druck geschah ebenso per Hand. Jedoch hatte Church geplant, dass für den Satz stets neues Schriftmaterial verwendet wurde, weil gebrauchte Typen zu häufig in der Maschine stecken blieben. Aus diesem Grund entwarf und baute er auch die Schnellgießmaschine als Ergänzung. Obwohl seine Maschinen durchaus funktionierten, scheiterte die flächendeckende Einführung. Das Ziel der Mechanisierung, die Zeit- und Kostenersparnis für den Setzvorgang, konnte die Maschine nicht verwirklichen. Zu viele Arbeitsschritte mussten mit der Hand erfolgen und die Verwendung der herkömmlichen Handsatztypen aus dem [[Bleisatz]] erwies sich als nicht praktikabel. Sie blieben oft in der Maschine stecken, wodurch sich die Zeitersparnis verringerte. Nach William Church versuchten noch viele weitere Erfinder, Maschinen für Bleisatzlettern zu bauen, doch keiner hatte damit Erfolg. So bleibt die Maschine von Church als ein früher Versuch zur Mechanisierung der Satztechnik bestehen, ohne jedoch eine praxistaugliche Lösung darzustellen. Einige Prinzipien seiner Maschine fanden jedoch später in erfolgreicheren Erfindungen Einzug. Zum Beispiel wurden genau wie bei Church auch in der [[Linotype Setzmaschine]] die Matrizen durch ihr Eigengewicht in die Sammelstelle befördert.

== Weblinks ==
{{Commonscat|William Church (Inventor)|William Church}}

== Literatur ==
* Severin Corsten, Günther Pflug, u.a. (Hrsg.): ''Lexikon des gesamten Buchwesens''. 2. Auflage. Band II. Anton Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-7772-8527-7.
* Hans-Jürgen Wolf: ''Geschichte der graphischen Verfahren. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Technik.'' Historia Verlag, Dornstadt 1990, ISBN 3-9800257-4-8.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Church, William}}
[[Kategorie:Erfinder]]
[[Kategorie:US-Amerikaner]]
[[Kategorie:Brite]]
[[Kategorie:Engländer]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren im 18. Jahrhundert]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1863]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Church, William
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=US-amerikanischer Erfinder (Setzmaschine)
|GEBURTSDATUM=um 1778
|GEBURTSORT=[[Vermont]]
|STERBEDATUM=1863
|STERBEORT=[[Birmingham]]
}}

Fiverr

2014-11-25T11:14:44Z

Lessogg: fixin wp punct

{{advert|date=September 2012}}
{{Infobox website
|name = Fiverr
|logo = [[File:Fiverr Logo.png|230px]]
|logocaption =
|screenshot = [[File:Fiverr.com homepage.png|300px]]
|collapsible = Yes
|collapsetext =
|caption =
|url = {{URL|fiverr.com}}
|slogan = Browse. Buy. Done.
|commercial = Yes
|type = Online Marketplace
|registration = Required
|area_served = Worldwide
|language = [[American English|English]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|content license =
|owner = Shai Wininger, Micha Kaufman
|author =
|industry = [[Freelance marketplace]], [[Online outsourcing]], [[Service catalog]]
|launch date = February 2010
|alexa ={{IncreaseNegative}} 177 ({{as of|2014|10|30|alt=October 2014}})<ref name="alexa">{{cite web|url= http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/fiverr.com |title= Fiverr.com Site Info | publisher= [[Alexa Internet]] |accessdate= 2014-10-30 }}</ref>
|revenue =
|current status = Active
|footnotes =
}}
'''Fiverr''' is a global online marketplace offering tasks and services, referred to as "gigs", beginning at a cost of $5 per job performed, from which it gets its name. The site is primarily used by [[freelancer]]s who use Fiverr to offer a variety of different services, and by customers to buy those services.<ref name="TechCrunch Fiverr">{{cite news|title=Task-Based Marketplace Fiverr Raises $15M From Accel And Bessemer|url=http://techcrunch.com/2012/05/03/task-based-marketplace-fiverr-raises-15m-from-accel-and-bessemer/|accessdate=2012-05-04|newspaper=TechCrunch|date=3 May 2012|author=Leena Rao}}</ref>

Currently, Fiverr lists more than three million services on the site that range between $5 and $500.<ref name="Fiverr TNW">{{cite news|title=Fiverr helps get things done for as little as $5, raises $15m from Accel and Bessemer|url=http://thenextweb.com/insider/2012/05/03/fiverr-helps-get-things-done-for-as-little-as-5-raises-15m-from-accel-and-bessemer/|accessdate=2012-05-04|newspaper=The Next Web|date=3 May 2012|author=Robin Wauters}}</ref>

== History ==
Fiverr was founded by Micha Kaufman and Shai Wininger in 2009. CrunchBase describes Fiverr as “one of the world’s largest online marketplaces for services” available in more than 200 countries. Fiverr’s purpose is to provide a platform for people to buy and sell a variety of digital services typically offered by freelance contractors, such as writing, graphic design, and programming.<ref>[http://www.crunchbase.com/company/fiverr CrunchBase Profile - Fiverr]</ref> Fiverr’s services start at $5, which is what the company’s name is based on and can go up to thousands of dollars with Gig Extras. Each service offered is called a “Gig”.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hoover|first=Lisa|title=Fiverr Outsources Your Small Jobs for $5|url=http://lifehacker.com/5488130/fiverr-outsources-your-small-jobs-for-5|work=Lifehacker|publisher=Gawker Media|accessdate=8 March 2010}}</ref>

The website was launched in February 2010 and by 2012 was hosting over 1.3 million Gigs.<ref name="1 1/2 months">{{cite news|title=What Will People Do for $5? Fiverr Lets You Find Out|url=http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2010/03/16/what-will-people-do-for-5-fiverr-lets-you-find-out/|accessdate=2011-04-10|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=16 March 2010|author=Mary Pilon}}</ref> The website transaction volume has grown 600% since 2011. Additionally, Fiverr.com has been ranked among the top 100 most popular sites in the U.S. and top 150 in the world since the beginning of 2013.<ref name="Fiverr TNW"/>

On May 3, 2012, Fiverr secured US$15 million in funding from [[Accel Partners]] and [[Bessemer Venture Partners]], bringing the company's total funding to US$20 million.<ref name="TechCrunch Fiverr"/>

On December 2013, Fiverr released their iOS app in the Apple App Store.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bilton|first=Ricardo|title=Fiverr launches its first iOS app to help mobilize the up-and-coming gig economy|url=http://venturebeat.com/2013/12/10/fiverr-launches-its-first-ios-app-to-help-mobilize-the-up-and-coming-gig-economy/|work=Venture Beat|accessdate=21 April 2014}}</ref>

On March 2014, Fiverr released their Android app in the Google Play store.<ref>{{cite web|last=Henry|first=Alan|title=Fiverr Brings Its Low-Cost Side-Hustle Marketplace to Android|url=http://lifehacker.com/fiverr-brings-its-low-cost-side-hustle-marketplace-to-a-1543442598|work=Lifehacker|publisher=Gawker Media|accessdate=14 March 2014}}</ref>

During August 2014, Fiverr announced that it has raised $30 million in a Series C round of funding from Bessemer Venture Partners, Accel and other investors. The round brings Fiverr's total funding to date to $50 million.<ref name="TechCrunch Fiverr"/>

== Function ==
Fiverr facilitates the buying and selling of "Gigs" or micro-jobs online. More than 3 million Gigs are available on the site, which range from funny and quirky to business micro-services. For example, advertised services have included "to sing while holding a sign with your company logo" and "to receive travel tips for visiting Paris”. Gigs on Fiverr are fairly diverse, and range from “get a well-designed business card”, “a career consultant will create an eye-catching resume design”, “help with HTML, JavaScript, CSS, and JQuery”, to “I will be your personal assistant or virtual assistant” and “I will have Harold the Puppet make a birthday video.” <ref>{{cite web|last=Dachis|first=Adam|title=Five Annoying Life Problems You Can Solved for $5 with Fiverr|url=http://lifehacker.com/five-annoying-life-problems-you-can-solve-for-5-with-f-1260424144|work=Lifehacker|publisher=Gawker Media|accessdate=9 September 2013}}</ref>

==The Gig Economy==

Fiverr's purpose is to act as a marketplace where people can create a business out of their hobbies.<ref name="sideshow">{{cite news|title=How Fiverr.com is changing the creative economy $5 at a time|url=http://news.yahoo.com/blogs/sideshow/fiverr-com-changing-creative-economy-5-time-140436788.html|accessdate=2012-03-04|newspaper=Yahoo News Blog|date=3 April 2012|author= Eric Pfeiffer}}</ref> The company describes this idea as the "Gig Economy".<ref>{{cite web|last=Kaufman|first=Micha|title=The Gig Economy: The Force That Could Save The American Worker?|url=http://www.wired.com/2013/09/the-gig-economy-the-force-that-could-save-the-american-worker/|work=WIRED|publisher=Condé Nast|accessdate=17 September 2013}}</ref>

==Seller Levels==
In January 2012, Fiverr launched Levels, a reputation-based promotion system. After sellers complete at least 10 transactions, they unlock advanced tools to offer add-on services and increase the value of their Gigs. Now, close to 50% of the Gigs offered on Fiverr sell for more than $5.<ref name="pehub">{{cite news|title=Fiverr Inks $15M|url=http://www.pehub.com/148768/fiverr-inks-15m/|accessdate=2012-05-04|newspaper=Private Equity Hub|date=3 May 2012|author= Press Release}}</ref>

Fiverr has three "Levels": Level 1; Level 2; and Top Rated Seller.<ref name="Levels System">{{cite news|title=Fiverr outs new Levels feature, aims to aid user buying decisions and reward sellers|url=http://www.technologyblogged.com/technology-news/fiverr-outs-new-levels-feature-aims-to-aid-user-buying-decisions-and-reward-sellers|accessdate=2012-03-19|newspaper=technologyblogged|date=12 January 2012|author=Jakk}}</ref><ref name="Official Levels explanation on Fiverr">{{cite web|title=Fiverr's Levels|url=http://www.fiverr.com/levels|website=Fiverr.com|accessdate=26 June 2014}}</ref>

Once sellers move up a level they gain the following sales tools:<ref name="Levels System"/><ref name="Official Levels explanation on Fiverr"/>

*'''Gig Extras''' which enable sellers to add-on services to their Gig at an additional cost (up to $100).
*'''Multiples''' which enable buyers to order more than one Gig at a time.
*'''Extra Fast''' which enables sellers to expedite their Gig

==See also==
*[[TaskRabbit]]
*[[Elance]]
*[[Freelancer.com]]
*[[Guru.com]]
*[[Freelance marketplace]]
*[[elancing]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://fiverr.com/}}
* [http://www.crunchbase.com/company/fiverr Fiverr CrunchBase]

[[Category:Companies established in 2010]]
[[Category:Commerce websites]]
[[Category:Internet companies of Israel]]
[[Category:Internet companies of the United States]]

Liste ungewöhnlicher Todesfälle

2014-10-22T11:25:40Z

Lessogg: /* Antiquity */ punctuatin

{{dynamic list}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2013}}
This is a '''list of unusual deaths'''. This list only includes unique or extremely rare circumstances of death recorded throughout history, noted as being unusual by multiple sources. Note: some of the deaths are mythological or are considered to be unsubstantiated by contemporary researchers. [[Oxford English Dictionary|Oxford Dictionaries]] defines the word "unusual" as "not habitually or commonly occurring or done" and "remarkable or interesting because different from or better than others."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/unusual?q=unusual | title=Definition of unusual in English | publisher=Oxford Dictionaries | accessdate=26 October 2013}}</ref>

Some other articles also cover deaths that might be considered unusual or ironic, including [[list of entertainers who died during a performance]], [[list of inventors killed by their own inventions]], [[list of association footballers who died while playing]], [[list of professional cyclists who died during a race]] and the [[list of political self-immolations]].
{{TOC limit|2}}

== Antiquity ==
{{Hatnote|'''Note:''' Many of these stories are likely to be [[wikt:apocryphal|apocryphal]].}}
[[File:Death of Aeschylus in Florentine Picture Chronicle.jpg|thumb|The death of [[Aeschylus]] illustrated in the 15th century ''Florentine Picture Chronicle'' by [[Maso Finiguerra]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Meditation in Solitude |author=Ursula Hoff |journal=Journal of the Warburg Institute |volume= 1 |year=1938 |pages=292–294 |publisher=The Warburg Institute |jstor=749994 |issue=44 |doi=10.2307/749994 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref>]]

*[[circa|c.]] 620 BC: '''[[Draco (lawgiver)|Draco]]''', Athenian law-maker, was smothered to death by gifts of cloaks and hats showered upon him by appreciative citizens at a theatre on [[Aegina]].<ref>Suidas. "[http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?login=guest&enlogin=guest&db=REAL&field=adlerhw_gr&searchstr=delta,1495&filter=CD-Unicode {{lang|grc|Δράκων}}]", ''Suda On Line'', Adler number delta, 1495.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |page=161 |chapter=Most Unusual Death |title=Felton & Fowler's Best, Worst, and Most Unusual |author=Bruce Felton, Mark Fowler |publisher=Random House |year=1985 |isbn=9780517462973 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref>
*564 BC: '''[[Arrhichion]] of [[Phigalia]]''', Greek [[Pankration|pankratiast]], caused his own death during the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic]] finals. Held by his unidentified opponent in a stranglehold and unable to free himself, Arrichion's trainer shouted "What a fine funeral if you do not submit at [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]]!" Arrichion then kicked his opponent with his right foot while casting his body to the left, causing his opponent so much pain that he made the sign of defeat to the [[umpire]]s, while at the same time breaking Arrichion's own neck as the other fighter was still strangleholding him. Since the opponent had conceded defeat, Arrichion was proclaimed victor posthumously.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Salt Lake Loonie |author=Brett Matlock, Jesse Matlock |publisher=University of Regina Press |year=2011 |page=81 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Journal of Hellenic Studies |author=EN Gardiner |year=1906 |quote=Fatal accidents did occur as in the case of Arrhichion, but they were very rare... |bibcode=1929Natur.124..121 |volume=124 |page=121 |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/124121a0 |issue=3117 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref>
*455 BC: '''[[Aeschylus]]''', the great Athenian author of [[tragedy|tragedies]]. [[Valerius Maximus]] wrote that he was killed by a [[tortoise]] dropped by an eagle that had mistaken his head for a rock suitable for shattering the shell of the reptile. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Naturalis Historiæ]]'', adds that Aeschylus had been staying outdoors to avert a prophecy that he would be killed by a falling object.<ref name=CGC>{{citation |page=136 |quote=The unusual nature of Aeschylus's death... |title=A Cabinet of Greek Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the Cradle of Western Civilization |author=J. C. McKeown |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=9780199982103}}</ref><ref name=tortue>{{citation |title=La tortue d'Eschyle et autres morts stupides de l'Histoire |isbn=9782352042211 |publisher=Editions Les Arènes |year=2012}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Naturalis Historiæ |author=[[Pliny the Elder]] |volume=Book X |chapter=chapter 3}}</ref>
*401 BC: '''[[Mithridates (soldier)|Mithridates]]''', a soldier who embarrassed his king, [[Artaxerxes II]], by boasting of killing his rival, [[Cyrus the Younger]], was executed by [[scaphism]]. The king's physician, [[Ctesias]], reported that he survived the insect torture for 17 days.<ref name=10tbd>{{Cite book |chapter=10 truly bizarre deaths |title=Listverse.Com's Ultimate Book of Bizarre Lists |author=Jamie Frater |publisher=Ulysses Press |year=2010 |isbn=9781569758175 |pages=12–14 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref><ref name=acogc>{{Cite book |title=A Cabinet of Greek Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the Cradle of Western Civilization |page=102 |author=J. C. McKeown |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=9780199982127 |quote=Ctesias, the Greek physician to Artaxerxes, the king of Persia, gives an appallingly detailed description of the execution inflicted on a soldier named Mithridates, who was misguided enough to claim the credit for killing the king's brother, Cyrus... |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref>
*270 BC: '''[[Philitas of Cos]]''', Greek intellectual, is said by [[Athenaeus]] to have studied arguments and erroneous word usage so intensely that he wasted away and starved to death.<ref name="9.401e">[[Athenaeus]], ''[[Deipnosophistae]]'', [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature.AthV2.p0115 9.401e].</ref> British classicist [[Alan Cameron (classical scholar)|Alan Cameron]] speculates that Philitas died from a [[wasting]] disease which his contemporaries joked was caused by his [[pedant]]ry.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= The Classical Quarterly |volume=41 |issue=2 |year=1991 |pages=534–8 |author=Alan Cameron |title= How thin was Philitas? |doi= 10.1017/S0009838800004717}}</ref>
*210 BC: '''[[Qin Shi Huang]]''', the first [[Emperor of China]], whose artifacts and treasures include the famous [[Terracotta Army]], died after ingesting several pills of [[mercury poisoning|mercury]] in the belief that it would grant him [[immortality|eternal life]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Wright, David Curtis |year=2001 |title=The History of China |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |page=49 |isbn=0-313-30940-X |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The First Emperor |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=9780191527630 |pages=82, 150 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.esquire.com/blogs/culture/Royalty-and-their-strange-deaths |title=Royalty and their Strange Deaths |author=Nate Hopper |date=4 Feb 2013 |journal=[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]] |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref>
*206 BC: One ancient account of the death of '''[[Chrysippus]]''', the 3rd century BC [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[Stoicism|Stoic]] philosopher, tells that he died of laughter after he saw a [[donkey]] eating his [[common fig|figs]]; he told a slave to give the donkey neat wine to drink to wash them down with, and then, "...having laughed too much, he died" (Diogenes Laertius 7.185).<ref name="Chrysippus">{{cite book|first=Diogenes|last= Laertius|title=Lives, Teachings and Sayings of the Eminent Philosophers, with an English translation by R.D. Hicks|year=1964-5|publisher=Harvard UP/W. Heinemann Ltd|location=Cambridge, Mass/London}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Riginos |first=Alice Swift |title=Platonica |year=1976 |publisher=Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition |isbn=90 04 04565 1 |page=195 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=0LM3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA195}}</ref>
*258 AD: The [[deacon]] '''[[Saint Lawrence]]''' was roasted alive on a giant grill during the persecution of [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]].<ref>[http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=366 "St. Lawrence – Martyr" at catholic.org]</ref><ref>[http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-lawrence-of-rome/ "Saint Lawrence of Rome" at saints.sqpn.com]</ref> [[Prudentius]] tells that he joked with his tormentors, "Turn me over — I'm done on this side".<ref>{{citation |page=42 |title=Enduring Creation: Art, Pain, and Fortitude |author=Nigel Jonathan Spivey |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=9780520230224}}</ref> He is now the [[patron saint]] of cooks and firefighters.<ref>{{citation |title=The Encyclopedia Americana |volume=vol. 17 |page=85 |year=1981 |isbn=9780717201129}}</ref>

{{Gallery
|width=160| height=250|align=center|lines=6
|File:Chrysippos BM 1846.jpg|The stoic [[Chrysippus]] who is said to have died of laughter when a donkey ate his figs.
|File:Antikythera philosopher.JPG|Greek intellectual [[Philitas of Cos]], said to have studied arguments and erroneous word usage so intensely that he wasted away and starved to death.<ref name="9.401e"/>
|File:Qinshihuang.jpg |[[Qin Shi Huang]], the first [[Emperor of China]] who sought immortality through ingesting poisonous mercury.
|File:Martyrdom of Lawrence - Edited.jpg |The martyrdom of [[Saint Lawrence]] by [[Titian]] shows Lawrence over the fire.
}}

== Middle Ages ==
*1327: '''[[Edward II of England]]''', after being deposed and imprisoned by his [[Queen consort|wife]] [[Isabella of France|Isabella]] and her lover [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]], was rumoured to have been murdered by having a [[Horn (anatomy)|horn]] pushed into his anus through which a red-hot iron was inserted, burning out his internal organs without marking his body.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schama |first=Simon |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A History of Great Britain: 3000BC-AD1603|year=2000 |publisher=BBC Worldwide |location= London|id= }} p.220</ref><ref>[http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storycode=176011 A red-hot poker? It was just a red herring | General | Times Higher Education]</ref> However there is no real academic consensus on the manner of Edward II's death and it has been plausibly argued that the story is propaganda.<ref>Phillips, Seymour, Edward II, Yale University Press, copyright 2010. pgs 560–565.</ref>

== Renaissance ==
*1567: '''Hans Steininger''', the [[burgomaster]] of [[Braunau am Inn|Braunau]] (then [[Bavaria]], now [[Austria]]), died when he broke his neck by tripping over his own beard.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hall |first1= Charles Winslow|year=1910 |title=The Nobility of the Trades: Barbers and Hairdressers|journal= National Magazine|volume=32 |issue=1 |page=472 |publisher= |date=April 1910}}</ref> The beard, which was {{convert|4.5|ft|m}} long at the time, was usually kept rolled up in a leather pouch.<ref>{{cite web|title=HowStuffWorks – 10 Bizarre Ways to Die|url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/human-biology/10-ways-to-die3.htm}}</ref>
*1660: '''[[Thomas Urquhart]]''', the [[Scottish people|Scottish]] aristocrat, [[polymath]] and first translator of [[François Rabelais]]'s writings into English, is said to have died laughing upon hearing that [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] had taken the throne.<ref>{{cite book | title = Rabelais in English Literature | last = Brown | first = Huntington | isbn = 0-7146-2051-3 | publisher = Routledge | page = 126 | year = 1968}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = The History of Scottish Poetry | publisher = Edmonston & Douglas | year = 1861 | page = 539}}</ref>
*1667: '''James Betts''' died from asphyxiation after being sealed in a cupboard by Elizabeth Spencer, at [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]] in an attempt to hide him from her father, [[John Spencer (Master of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge)|John Spencer]].<ref name=Rackham>{{cite book| last = Rackham | first = Oliver | title= Treasures of Silver at Corpus Christi College | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-521-81880-X}}</ref><ref name="Corpus Christi College">{{cite web|url=http://www.corpus.cam.ac.uk/about-corpus/maps-and-tours/take-a-virtual-tour/225|title=Corpus Christi Website -Corpus Ghost|publisher=Corpus Christi College}}{{dead link|date=April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Guiley| first = Rosemary Ellen | title= The Encyclopedia of Ghosts and Spirits | publisher = Checkmark books| edition = 2nd | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-8160-4086-5}}</ref>

== 18th century ==
*1771: '''[[Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden]]''', died of digestion problems on 12 February 1771 after having consumed a meal of lobster, caviar, sauerkraut, smoked herring and champagne, topped off with 14 servings of his favourite dessert: [[semla]] served in a bowl of hot milk.<ref>[http://www.thelocal.se/6470/20070220/ The lowdown on Sweden's best buns] ''The Local'', February 2007</ref> He is thus remembered by Swedish schoolchildren as "the king who ate himself to death."<ref>[http://www.messengernews.net/page/content.detail/id/503630.html?nav=5007 Semlor are Swedish treat for Lent] Sandy Mickelson, ''The Messenger'', 27 February 2008</ref>

== 19th century ==
[[Image:Clement Vallandigham - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb|150px|Clement Vallandigham – died after demonstrating how a victim might have accidentally shot himself.]]
*1834: '''[[David Douglas]]''', Scottish [[botany|botanist]], fell into a [[pit trap]] where he was trampled by a wild bull.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=74QkpEL5TCoC&pg=PA106 |title=Early American Naturalists: Exploring The American West, 1804–1900 |page=106 |author=John Moring |publisher=Taylor Trade Publications |year=2005 |isbn=9781589791831 |postscript=.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yDC7gu-sCMsC&pg=PA160 |page=160 |title=Flower Hunters |author=John and Mary Gribbin |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=9780192807182 |postscript=.}}{{dead link|date=April 2014}}</ref>

*1871: '''[[Clement Vallandigham]]''', a lawyer and Ohio, U.S., politician defending a man on a charge of murder, accidentally shot himself demonstrating how the victim might have shot himself while in the process of drawing a weapon when standing from a kneeling position. Though the defendant, Thomas McGehan, was ultimately cleared, Vallandigham died from his wound.<ref>[http://www.historiclebanonohio.com/?q=vallandigham Death of Clement Vallandigham | HistoricLebanonOhio.com]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.civil-war-150.com/tag/clement-vallandigham/ |title=Fatal Accident to Mr. Vallandigham: The Western Reserve Chronicle, June 21, 1871, page 2 |publisher=civil-war-150.com |date=June 13, 2012 |accessdate=November 2, 2013}}</ref>

== 20th century ==

=== 1920s ===
*1923: '''[[George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon]]''', died after a mosquito bite on his face, which he cut while shaving, became seriously infected with [[erysipelas]], leading to blood poisoning and eventually pneumonia. Some have alleged his death is attributable to the so-called [[curse of the pharaohs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/carnarvon.htm |title=The Life of Lord Carnarvon |publisher=Touregypt.net |date= |accessdate=11 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |title=Carnarvon Is Dead Of An Insect's Bite At Pharaoh's Tomb. Blood Poisoning and Ensuing Pneumonia Conquer Tut-ankh-Amen Discoverer in Egypt. |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20C11F7355416738DDDAC0894DC405B838EF1D3 |quote=The Earl of Carnarvon died peacefully at 2 o'clock this morning. He was conscious almost to the end. |work=[[New York Times]] |date=5 April 1923 |accessdate=12 August 2008 }}</ref>

[[Image:Isadora Duncan portrait.jpg|thumb|150px|Isadora Duncan, dancer, died when her long scarf caught on the wheel of a car, breaking her neck.]]

*1926: '''Phillip McClean''', 16, from [[Queensland]], Australia, became the only person documented to have been killed by a [[cassowary]]. After encountering the bird on their family property near [[Mossman, Queensland|Mossman]] in April,<ref>{{cite book|last=Christensen|first=Liana|title=Deadly Beautiful: Vanishing Killers of the Animal Kingdom|year=2011|publisher=Exisle Publishing|location=Wollombi, NSW|isbn=9781921497223|page=272}}</ref> McClean and his brother decided to kill it with clubs. When McClean struck the bird, it knocked him down, then kicked him in the neck, opening a 1.25 cm (0.5 in) long cut in one of his main blood vessels. Though the boy managed to get back on his feet and run away, he collapsed a short while later and died from the hemorrhage.<ref>Kofron, Christopher P., Chapman, Angela. (2006) "Causes of mortality to the endangered Southern Cassowary Casuarius casuariusjohnsonii in Queensland, Australia." Pacific Conservation Biology vol. 12: 175–179</ref>
*1926: '''[[Harry Houdini]]''', the famous American escape artist, was punched in the stomach by an amateur boxer. Though Houdini had performed this stunt before, he was not prepared for the punch and complications from this injury may have caused him to die days later, on 31 October 1926. It was later determined that Houdini died of a ruptured appendix,<ref>{{cite web|title=Harry Houdini – Biography|url=http://www.apl.org/history/houdini/biography.html|publisher=Appleton History|accessdate=4 August 2009}}{{dead link|date=April 2014}}</ref> though it is contested as to whether or not the punches actually caused the appendicitis.<ref>{{cite web|title=Death of Houdini|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/houdini.asp|publisher=Urban Legends Reference Paces|accessdate=9 May 2012}}</ref><ref name=cfk/>
*1927: '''[[Isadora Duncan]]''', dancer, died of a broken neck when her long scarf caught on the wheel of a car in which she was a passenger.<ref>{{cite news|last=Brown|first=Ismene|title=Isadora Duncan, Sublime or Ridiculous?|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/dance/4949201/Isadora-Duncan-sublime-or-ridiculous.html|work=The Telegraph|date=6 March 2009|accessdate=26 April 2013|location=London}}</ref>

=== 1950s ===
*1958: '''[[Gareth Jones (actor)|Gareth Jones]]''', actor, collapsed and died between scenes of a live television play, ''[[Underground (1958 TV play)|Underground]]'', at the studios of [[Associated British Corporation]] in [[Manchester]], England. Director [[Ted Kotcheff]] continued the play to its conclusion, improvising around Jones's absence. Coincidentally, Jones's character was to have a heart-attack, which is what Jones suffered and died of.<ref>Cited by Gareth Rubin [http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2009/may/31/television-drama-theatre "Live TV drama is resurrected as Sky shrugs off lessons of history",] ''The Guardian'', 31 May 2009</ref><ref>Matthew Sweet [http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/do-not-adjust-your-set-by-kate-dunn-587580.html Review: "'Do Not Adjust Your Set' By Kate Dunn,] ''The Independent'', 20 July 2003</ref>

=== 1960s ===
*1961: U.S. Army Specialists '''John A. Byrnes''' and '''Richard Leroy McKinley''' and Navy Electrician's Mate '''Richard C. Legg''' were killed by a [[water hammer]] explosion during maintenance on the [[SL-1]] nuclear reactor in Idaho.<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/gov.ntis.A13886VNB1 SL-1 The Accident: Phases I and II] U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Idaho Operations Office video ([http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gIBQMkd96CA Youtube 1]) ([http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVr6bD-z9hM Youtube 2])</ref><ref>[http://www.inl.gov/proving-the-principle/chapter_15.pdf Chapter 15 "The SL-1 Reactor" (page 142)] 9.5 MB PDF</ref><ref name="Tucker">{{cite book |last=Tucker |first=Todd |title=Atomic America: How a Deadly Explosion and a Feared Admiral Changed the Course of Nuclear History|isbn=978-1-4165-4433-3 |year=2009 |publisher=Free Press |location=New York}} See summary: http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0904/2008013842-s.html</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=McKeown |first=William |title=Idaho Falls: The Untold Story of America's First Nuclear Accident |isbn=978-1-55022-562-4 |year=2003 |publisher=ECW Press |location=Toronto}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/04/business/media/04bingham.html?pagewanted=2&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/People/M/McFadden,%20Robert%20D.%20Jr.
|title=Barry Bingham Jr., Louisville Publisher, Is Dead at 72
|author=
|work=The New York Times
|date= 4 April 2006
| first=Robert D.
| last=McFadden
| accessdate=11 May 2010
}}</ref>

* 1966: Skydiver '''[[Nick Piantanida]]''' died from the effects of [[uncontrolled decompression]] four months after an attempt to break the world record for the highest parachute jump. During his third attempt, his face mask came loose (or he possibly opened it by mistake), causing loss of air pressure and irreversible brain damage.<ref>{{cite book |title=Magnificent Failure: Free Fall from the Edge of Space |last1=Ryan |first1=Craig |publisher=Smithsonian Air and Space Museum Press |year=2003| isbn=978-1-58834-141-9 |oclc=51059086 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/article687679.ece Dive Hard], [[The Globe and Mail]], 25 May 2008</ref>

=== 1970s ===
*1971: '''[[Georgy Dobrovolsky]]''', '''[[Vladislav Volkov]]''' and '''[[Viktor Patsayev]]''', Soviet cosmonauts, died when their [[Soyuz 11|Soyuz-11]] spacecraft depressurized during preparations for reentry. These are the only known human deaths outside the Earth's atmosphere.<ref>"[http://web.archive.org/web/20081012062830/http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/n-s/space.html%20 Space disasters and near misses]". Channel 4. Archived from [http://www.channel4.com/programmes/categories/history the original] on 12 October 2008. Retrieved 29 June 2011.</ref>

*1974: '''Basil Brown''', a 48-year-old health food advocate from [[Croydon]], England, drank himself to death by consuming 10 gallons (37.85 litres) of [[carrot juice]] in ten days, causing him to overdose on vitamin A and suffer severe liver damage.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yLQsAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jAoEAAAAIBAJ&dq=unusual-death&pg=6515%2C4463628 | work=Star-News | location=Wilmington, North Carolina |title=Unusual death | date=20 February 1974 | accessdate=12 June 2010| page=28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Staub |first=Jack E.|title=Alluring Lettuces: And Other Seductive Vegetables for Your Garden |year=2005 |publisher=Gibbs Smith|location=Layton, Utah |isbn=1-4236-0829-1|oclc=435711200 |page=230 |chapter=74. Yellowstone Carrot: Daucus carota savicus|chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=qbMz7YrTBMEC&lpg=PA230&ots=zu1Pef9qdF&dq=bl&pg=PA230#v=onepage&q=%22Basil%20Brown%22&f=false}}</ref>

*1977: '''[[Tom Pryce]]''', a Welsh [[Formula 1]] driver, was killed when struck on the head by a [[fire extinguisher]] when his car hit and killed a marshal at 170 mph who was running across the [[Kyalami]] race track to extinguish a burning car.<ref>{{citation |title=Thinning the Herd: Tales of the Weirdly Departed |author=Cynthia Ceilán |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9781599216911 |page=185}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=The tragedy of Tom Pryce, Wales' Formula One hero |date=4 March 2012 |author=James Roberts |publisher=BBC Wales |quote=one of the most bizarre, tragic accidents in the sport's history}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Strange Deaths |isbn=0099416603 |author=John Dunning |year=1995}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Strange Deaths: More Than 375 Freakish Fatalites |isbn=0760719470 |year=2000}}</ref>

*1978: '''[[Kurt Gödel]]''', the Austrian/American logician and mathematician, died of starvation when his wife was hospitalized. Gödel suffered from extreme paranoia and refused to eat food prepared by anyone else.<ref>Toates, Frederick; Olga Coschug Toates (2002). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Practical Tried-and-Tested Strategies to Overcome OCD. Class Publishing, 221. ISBN 978-1-85959-069-0.</ref>
*1979: '''[[Robert Williams (robot fatality)|Robert Williams]]''', a worker at a Ford Motor Co. plant, was the first known human to be killed by a robot,<ref name="rlid">Robot firm liable in death, Tim Kiska, ''The Oregonian'', 11 August 1983.</ref> after the arm of a one-ton factory robot hit him in the head.<ref name="a">{{cite news|last=Kiska|first=Tim|title=Death on the job: Jury awards $10 million to heirs of man killed by robot at auto plant |pages=A10|work=[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]] |date=11 August 1983|url=http://docs.newsbank.com/g/GooglePM/PI/lib00187,0EB295F7D995F801.html |accessdate=11 September 2007}}</ref>
*1979: '''John Bowen''', a 20-year-old from [[Nashua, New Hampshire]], U.S., was attending a [[New York Jets]] football game at [[Shea Stadium]] on 9 December. During a half-time show event featuring custom-made remote control flying machines, a 40-pound model plane shaped like a lawnmower accidentally dove into the stands, striking Bowen and another spectator, causing severe head injuries. Bowen died in the hospital four days later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/lawnmower.asp |title=Flying Lawnmower Death – Grim Reaper (contains additional references) |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://www.courant.com/ny-spsmain28112329894sep28,0,3404154.story It was a grand stage for excitement]{{dead link|date=March 2011}} by Joe Gergen, Hartford Courant, 28 September 2008.</ref>

=== 1980s ===
*1981: '''David Allen Kirwan''', a 24-year-old, died from third-degree burns after attempting to rescue a friend's dog from the 200 °F (93 °C) water in Celestine Pool, a hot spring at [[Yellowstone National Park]] on 20 July 1981.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/hotspring.asp Hot Springs Death – Help Springs Eternal] at Snopes.com</ref><ref>Lee Whittlesey, ''Death in Yellowstone: Accidents and Foolhardiness in the First National Park''. Boulder, Colo. : Roberts Rinehart Publishers, ©1995.</ref>
*1981: '''[[Boris Sagal]]''', a film director, died while shooting the TV miniseries ''[[World War III (TV miniseries)|World War III]]'' when he walked into the tail rotor blade of a helicopter and was nearly [[decapitation|decapitated]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40911FE3E5C0C778EDDAC0894D9484D81 | work=The New York Times | title=Boris Sagal, 58, Movie Director, Dies After A Helicopter Accident|date=24 May 1981|accessdate=11 May 2010|first=Shawn G. | last=Kennedy}}</ref><ref name="salon1">{{cite web|url=http://open.salon.com/blog/jrobertg/2009/07/08/10_strange_celebrity_deaths |title=10 Strange Celebrity Deaths – J. Robert Godbout |publisher=Open Salon |date=2009-07-08 |accessdate=2013-09-27}}</ref>

*1982: '''David Grundman''' was killed near [[Lake Pleasant Regional Park|Lake Pleasant]], [[Arizona]], U.S., while shooting at cacti with his shotgun. After he fired several shots at a 26 ft (8 m) tall [[Saguaro Cactus]] from extremely close range, a 4 ft (1.2 m) limb of the cactus detached and fell on him, crushing him.<ref name="salon1"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/saguaro.asp |title=Cactus Courageous – Death by Saguaro |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/content/printVersion/160293 |title=When Cactus and Civilization collide – Trifling with Saguaros can be Hazardous to one's Health |publisher=Phoenixnewtimes.com |date=3 March 1993 |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref>

*1983: '''[[Byford_Dolphin#Diving_bell_accident|Truls Hellevik]]''', a diver undergoing [[Decompression (diving)|decompression]] aboard the oil rig ''[[Byford Dolphin]]'' was accidentally exposed to an eight-[[atmosphere_(unit)|Atmosphere]] change in [[air pressure]], leading to instantaneous massive expansion of his internal bodily gasses, causing him to explode into many small parts which rained down upon the rig; official investigation of the incident led to changes in some [[Diving_bell#Use_with_hyperbaric_chambers|diving-bell resurfacing procedures]].<ref name="pmid3381801">{{cite journal |author=Giertsen JC, Sandstad E, Morild I, Bang G, Bjersand AJ, Eidsvik S |title=An explosive decompression accident |journal=American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=94–101 |date=June 1988 |pmid=3381801 |doi= 10.1097/00000433-198806000-00002|url= |accessdate= }}</ref> <ref name=AADreport>{{cite web |publisher=Norwegian Petroleum Directorate |date=2002-08-27 |title=Report to AAD regarding the Byford Dolphin accident |url=http://www.npd.no/English/Aktuelt/Nyheter/aad_redegjorelse.htm |accessdate=2009-03-24}}</ref>

=== 1990s ===
*1993: '''[[Garry Hoy]]''', a 38-year-old lawyer in [[Toronto]], Canada, fell to his death on 9 July 1993, after he threw himself against a window on the 24th floor of the [[Toronto-Dominion Centre]] in an attempt to prove to a group of visitors that the glass was "unbreakable," a demonstration he had done many times before. The glass did not break, but popped out of the window frame, causing Hoy to plummet 24 stories to his death.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/window.asp Window Test Death – Through a Glass, Quickly] at Snopes.com</ref><ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20070315.RGOODMAN15/TPStory/? Goodman and Carr falls prey to rivals]{{dead link|date=April 2014}} by Jacquie McNish, The Globe and Mail, 15 March 2007.</ref>

*1997: '''[[Karen Wetterhahn]]''', a professor of chemistry at [[Dartmouth College]], died of mercury poisoning ten months after a few drops of [[dimethylmercury]] landed on her protective gloves. Although Wetterhahn had been following the required procedures for handling the chemical, it still permeated her gloves and skin within seconds. As a result of her death, regulations were altered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/dimethylmercury/dmmh.htm |title=Dimethylmercury and Mercury Poisoning |publisher=Chm.bris.ac.uk |date= |accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaomt.org/testfoundation/dimethylmercury.htm |title=The Trembling Edge of Science |publisher=Iaomt.org |date= |accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref>

*1999: '''Jon Desborough''', a [[physical education]] teacher at [[Liverpool College]], died when he slipped and fell onto the blunt end of a [[javelin]] he was retrieving. The javelin passed through his [[eye socket]] and into his brain, causing severe brain damage and putting him into a coma. He died a month later.<ref>{{cite news |last=Breslin |first=Maria |title=Teacher hit by javelin dies |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/teacher-hit-by-javelin-dies-1099330.html |accessdate=26 April 2012 |newspaper=The Independent |date=11 June 1999 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Javelin teacher dies in hospital |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/365923.stm |accessdate=26 April 2012 |publisher=BBC News |date=10 June 1999}}</ref>

== 21st century ==

=== 2000s ===
* 2001: Diana Dick, a retired [[Oxford University]] teacher was killed by a domestic house cat. The cat scratched her leg, opening a varicose vein, and she bled to death. <ref>{{cite web|last1=Lomax|first1=Sophie|title=Retired teacher bleeds to death from cat scratch|url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2001/jul/30/schools.highereducation|website=theguardian.com|publisher=Guardian News and Media|accessdate=30 September 2014|date=Monday 30 July 10.28 EDT|year=2001|quote=A retired Oxford University tutor bled to death after her Persian cat scratched a varicose vein on her leg. Diana Dick died on Saturday after her carer was unable to staunch a cut caused by the animal. Paramedics answering a call from the widow's carer found Mrs Dick, a former language teacher, collapsed over her living room table. The carer had reportedly tried to stem the flow of blood earlier in the day after Mrs Dick's cat, Frangipani, scratched a vein. Neighbours said the carer had attempted to resuscitate Mrs Dick, 60, who lived alone in in Botley, Oxford.}}</ref>
* 2007: '''[[Water intoxication#Notable cases|Jennifer Strange]]''', a 28-year-old woman from [[Sacramento, California]], U.S., died of [[water intoxication]] while trying to win a [[Nintendo]] [[Wii]] console in a [[KDND]] 107.9 "The End" radio station's "[[Hold Your Wee for a Wii]]" contest, which involved drinking increasingly large quantities of water without urinating.<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/california/la-me-water14jan14,1,1368543.story?coll=la-headlines-pe-california "Woman dies after being in water-drinking contest"]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}, ''The Los Angeles Times'', 14 January 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.knbc.com/news/10761800/detail.html "Woman's Death After Water-Drinking Contest Investigated"]{{dead link|date=March 2011}} ''KNBC.com'', 16 January 2007</ref>
* 2007: '''Humberto Hernandez''', a 24-year-old [[Oakland, California]], U.S., resident, was killed after being struck in the face by an airborne [[Fire Hydrant|fire hydrant]] while walking. A passing car had struck the fire hydrant and the water pressure shot the hydrant at Hernandez with enough force to kill him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/hydrant.asp |title=Fire Hydrant Death – Fire Plugged |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://cbs5.com/local/Humberto.Hernandez.fire.2.456707.html Oakland Man Killed By Airborne Fire Hydrant]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}, CBS5.com, 22 June 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/offbeat/2007-06-23-fire-hydrant_N.htm |title=Flying fire hydrant kills Calif. man |publisher=Usatoday.com |date=23 June 2007 |accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref>
* 2008: '''David Phyall''', 50, the last resident in a block of flats due to be demolished in [[Bishopstoke]], near [[Southampton]], [[Hampshire]], England, decapitated himself with a chainsaw to highlight the injustice of being forced to move out.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/death-was-carefully-thought-through-suicide-1025503.html|title= Chainsaw death was 'carefully thought through suicide'|last=Halfpenny|first=Martin|date=19 November 2008|work=The Independent|accessdate=22 November 2008 | location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/hampshire/7737721.stm |publisher=BBC News | title=Man cut off head in flat protest | date=19 November 2008}}</ref>
* 2009: '''[[Taylor Mitchell]]''', a Canadian [[Folk music|folk]] singer, was attacked and killed by three [[coyote]]s, the only recorded adult person to have been killed by this species.<ref name="CBC">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/nova-scotia/story/2009/10/28/ns-coyote-attack-died.html|title=Coyotes kill Toronto singer in Cape Breton|publisher=[[CBC.ca]]|date=12 October 2009|accessdate=29 October 2009|deadurl=yes}}{{dead link|date=April 2014}}</ref><ref>''A History of Urban Coyote Problems'', Robert M. Tim & Rex O. Baker, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, 2007</ref>

===2010s===
*2010: '''[[Mike Edwards (musician)|Mike Edwards]]''', British founding member and cellist for the band [[ELO]], died when a large round bale of hay rolled down a hill and smashed his van while he was out driving.<ref name=cfk>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/celebritynews/7984944/Mike-Edwards-hay-bale-death-celebrities-in-freak-killings.html |title=Mike Edwards hay bale death: celebrities in freak killings |journal=[[Daily Telegraph]] |date=6 Sep 2010 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-devon-20259274 |title=ELO cellist Mike Edwards's hay bale death 'preventable' |publisher=BBC News |date=8 November 2012 |accessdate=7 August 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://ultimateclassicrock.com/mike-edwards-strange-rock-deaths/ Mike Edwards — Killed by a Hay Bale]</ref>
*2011: '''Jose Luis Ochoa''', 35, died after being stabbed in the leg at an illegal [[cockfight]] in [[Tulare County, California]] U.S., by one of the birds that had a knife attached to its limb.<ref>{{cite news |title=Man stabbed to death by cockfighting bird |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-12393125 |publisher=BBC News |date=8 February 2011 |accessdate=19 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Peralta |first=Eyder |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/02/07/133565050/weird-news-california-man-fatally-stabbed-by-rooster |title=Weird News: California Man Fatally Stabbed By Rooster : The Two-Way |publisher=NPR |date=2011-02-07 |accessdate=2013-09-26}}</ref>
* 2012: ''' Edward Archbold''', 32, a man of [[West Palm Beach, Florida]], U.S., died after winning a cockroach eating contest. The cause of death was determined to be accidental choking due to "arthropod body parts."<ref>{{cite news| url=http://usnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/11/26/15460502-florida-man-who-died-in-cockroach-eating-contest-choked-to-death-autopsy-says?lite |title=Florida man who died in cockroach-eating contest choked to death, autopsy says |work=[[NBC News]] |date=26 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wptv.com/dpp/news/region_c_palm_beach_county/west_palm_beach/edward-archbold-roach-eating-contest-death-what-really-killed-the-west-palm-beach-man |title=Edward Archbold, roach eating contest death: What really killed the West Palm Beach man? |author=By: Robert Nolin, Sun Sentinel |date=October 10, 2012 |accessdate=27 October 2013}}</ref>
* 2013: '''Takuya Nagaya''', 23, from Japan, started to slither on the floor and talk about becoming a snake. His mother took this to mean that he had been possessed by a snake demon and called for her husband, 53-year-old Katsumi Nagaya, who spent the next two days physically beating his son in an attempt to exorcise the demon. This killed Takuya.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Billones |first1=Cherrie Lou |title=Father bites his own son to death for being ‘possessed by a snake’ |url=http://japandailypress.com/father-bites-his-own-son-to-death-for-being-possessed-by-a-snake-2121879/ |accessdate=July 3, 2014 |work=Japan Daily Press |date=January 21, 2013}}</ref>
* 2013: '''An unnamed Belarusian fisherman''', 60, was killed by a [[beaver]] while attempting to grab the animal to have his picture taken with it. The beaver bit the man, severing a large artery in his leg.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/29/beaver-kills-man-belarus |title=Beaver kills man in Belarus |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=29 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Jones |first=Simon |date=May 31, 2013 |title=Beavers are born to bite wood, not people|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn23625-beavers-are-born-to-bite-wood-not-people.html |newspaper=New Scientist |accessdate=January 22, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=McNeilly|first1=Scott|title=Man Dies In Half Moon Bay|url=http://abc30.com/news/man-dies-in-california-after-beach-hole-collapses/212620/|website=www.abc30.com|accessdate=23 July 2014}}</ref>
* 2013: '''João Maria de Souza''', 45, of [[Caratinga]], Brazil, was killed while asleep, by a cow that fell through the roof of his house onto his bed.<ref>{{cite news|last=Roper|first=Matt|title=Brazilian man dies after cow falls through his roof on top of him|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/brazil/10177786/Brazilian-man-dies-after-cow-falls-through-his-roof-on-top-of-him.html|work=http://www.telegraph.co.uk|accessdate=20 February 2014|location=London|date=13 July 2013}}</ref>
* 2013: '''[[Kendrick Johnson]]''', 17, of [[Lowndes High School]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], was discovered trapped upside down in a rolled up gym mat in his high school gymnasium. Police had originally ruled that the cause of Johnson's death was accidental positional asphyxiation after he climbed in to retrieve a shoe and became trapped. The case has since been reopened and investigated as a possible homicide.<ref name="FBI">{{cite news|title=Federal prosecutor will look into Kendrick Johnson case|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/31/justice/georgia-gym-mat-death/index.html?hpt=hp_t1|publisher=CNN|accessdate=31 October 2013}}</ref><ref name=surveillance>{{cite news|last=Tinuoye|first=Kunbi|title=Kendrick Johnson family makes emotional plea for surveillance to be released|url=http://thegrio.com/2013/10/10/kendrick-johnson-family-makes-emotional-plea-for-surveillance-to-be-released/}}</ref><ref name=CNN>{{cite news|last=Zdanowicz|first=Christina|title=Family demands answers in Kendrick Johnson's death|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/05/10/us/kendrick-johnson-death-irpt/|newspaper=CNN|date=May 10, 2013}}</ref><ref name=gutierrez>{{cite news|last=Gutierrez|first=Gabe|title=Feds to investigate mysterious death of Georgia teen Kendrick Johnson|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/feds-investigate-mysterious-death-georgia-teen-kendrick-johnson-f8C11506328|newspaper=NBC News|date=October 31, 2013}}</ref>
* 2014: '''Oscar Otero Aguilar''', 21, of [[Mexico City]], Mexico, accidentally shot himself in the head while posing for a “[[selfie]]” with a loaded gun.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/mexico/11010891/Man-shoots-himself-while-posing-for-a-selfie.html|title=Man shoots himself while posing for a 'selfie'|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|accessdate=12 August 2014}}</ref>
* 2014: '''Peng Fan''', a chef in [[Foshan]], [[Southern China]], was bitten by a [[cobra]]'s severed head, which he had cut off 20 minutes prior. Fan had set the head aside while using the body to prepare a soup.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://nypost.com/2014/08/24/chinese-chef-dies-after-severed-cobra-head-bites-him/|title=Chinese chef dies after severed cobra head bites him}}</ref> According to investigating police, the case was "highly unusual". The chef might have had a severe reaction to the bite.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/563742/20140825/cobra-head-chef-dead-decapitated.htm#.U_zzR_ldVZk |title=Decapitated Cobra Head Bites Chef [Graphic Video] - International Business Times |publisher=Au.ibtimes.com |date=4 July 2014 |accessdate=26 August 2014}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Darwin Awards]]
* [[Death by coconut]]
* [[Death from laughter]]
* [[Execution by elephant]]
* [[List of causes of death by rate]]
* [[List of inventors killed by their own inventions]]
* [[List of mummies]]
* [[List of people executed for witchcraft]]
* [[List of people who disappeared mysteriously]]
* [[Spontaneous human combustion]]
* ''[[1000 Ways to Die]]''
* [[Toilet-related injuries and deaths]]
{{div col end}}
{{portal bar|Death|History}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite journal |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JS5mHAAACAAJ |title=Curious and Unusual Deaths|author=[[Russell Robert Winterbotham]] |publisher= Haldeman-Julius, Girard, Kansas |year=1929 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}
*{{Cite journal |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7HTfGRRllAQC |title=Curious Events in History |author=Michael Powell |publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc |date=5 August 2008 |isbn=9781402763076 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}
*Nick Daws ''Daft Deaths and Famous Last Words''
*Tracey Turner, ''Dreadful Fates''
*Dale Dreher, ebook ''Death by Misadventure: 210 Dumb Ways to Die.''
*{{Cite journal |url=http://books.google.com/?id=HCExOEknBQ0C |title=Mysterious Deaths and Disappearances |author=[[David Southwell]] and Sean Twist |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |date=1 September 2007 |isbn=9781404210813 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}
*[[John Dunning (journalist)|John Dunning]] ''Strange Deaths'' (true crime)
*{{cite book |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fijmTMOJrJcC |title=Strange Deaths: More Than 375 Freakish Fatalities |isbn=9780760719473 |date=2000-01-01 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}
*{{cite book |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1wrJygAACAAJ |title=Strange Inhuman Deaths |isbn=9780750938648 |author1=Bellamy |first1=John G |date=2008-12-01 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}
*{{Cite book |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5RpLMwEACAAJ |title=The Fortean Times Book of Strange Deaths |isbn=9781907779978 |year=2011 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}
*{{cite book |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=py_ZAAAACAAJ |title=The Fortean Times Book of More Strange Deaths |isbn=9781902212029 |date=October 1998 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}

==External links==
* [http://health.discovery.com/tv-shows/curious-and-unusual-deaths-pictures.htm Curious and Unusual Deaths Pictures]. Discovery Channel.
* [http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/freakish.asp Freakish Fatalities] Snopes.com

{{death}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Unusual deaths}}
[[Category:Death-related lists]]
[[Category:Lists of people by cause of death]]
[[Category:Lists of things considered unusual|Deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths by cause]]

Liz Truss

2014-07-15T09:54:13Z

Lessogg: /* Parliamentary career */ punctin

{{Infobox MP
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Elizabeth Truss
| honorific-suffix = [[Member of Parliament|MP]]
| image =Liz Truss MP, Minister for Education and Childcare, at her speech setting out government plans to promote more great childcare.jpg
| caption = Truss in 2013
| office = [[Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs|Secretary of State for Environment Food and Rural Affairs]]
| primeminister = [[David Cameron]]
| term_start = 15 July 2014
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Owen Paterson]]
| successor =
| office1 = [[Parliamentary Under Secretary of State]] for [[Department for Education|Education and Childcare]]
| primeminister1 = [[David Cameron]]
| term_start1 = 4 September 2012
| term_end1 = 15 July 2014
| predecessor1 = [[Sarah Teather]] (''as Minister of State for Schools and Families)''
| successor1 =
| office2 = [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] for [[South West Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)|South West Norfolk]]
| parliament2 =
| term_start2 = 6 May 2010
| term_end2 =
| majority2 = 13,140 (26.7%)<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/election2010/results/constituency/e27.stm South West Norfolk], BBC Election 2010 result</ref>
| predecessor2 = [[Christopher Fraser]]
| successor2 =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1975|07|26|df=yes}}<ref name="Democracy Live profile">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/democracylive/hi/representatives/profiles/40370.stm |title=Elizabeth Truss MP |publisher=BBC |work=BBC Democracy Live |date= |accessdate=25 July 2010}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Oxford]], [[Oxfordshire]], [[England]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[United Kingdom|British]]
| spouse = 
| party = [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
| relations =
| children = Two
| residence = [[Downham Market]], [[Norfolk]]
| alma_mater = [[Merton College]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]
| profession = Economist
| religion =
| signature =
| website = {{URL|http://www.elizabethtruss.com}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Elizabeth Mary Truss'''<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue= 59418 |date= 13 May 2010 |startpage= 8744 |city=London |accessdate= 21 June 2010 }}</ref> (born 26 July 1975), also known as '''Liz Truss''', is a British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] politician who has been the [[Member of Parliament]] (MP) for [[South West Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)|South West Norfolk]] since the [[United Kingdom general election, 2010|2010 general election]]. In September 2012, she was appointed as [[Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State]] with responsibility for education and childcare in the [[Department for Education]].<ref name="DfE biography">{{cite web |url=https://education.gov.uk/aboutdfe/departmentalinformation/ministerialteam/truss |title=Elizabeth Truss MP |author= |year=2012 |work= |publisher=[[Department for Education]] |accessdate=11 September 2012}}</ref>

Truss grew up in a left-wing family in [[Paisley]] and [[Leeds]], before attending [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. She worked in sales and as an economist, before becoming deputy director at the think-tank [[Reform (think tank)|Reform]]. She was elected in 2010 for South West Norfolk.

As a [[backbencher]], Truss called for reform in a number of policy areas, including childcare, maths education, and the economy.<ref name="The lady's for turning">{{cite news |title=The lady's for turning, right from CND to Conservative |first=Anushka |last=Asthana |url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/politics/article3440383.ece |newspaper=[[The Times]] |date=9 June 2012 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref> She founded the Free Enterprise Group of Conservative MPs. She has authored and co-authored a number of papers and books, including ''After the Coalition'' (2011) and ''[[Britannia Unchained]]'' (2012).

As a minister, Truss's responsibilities include childcare and early learning, assessment, qualifications and curriculum reform, behaviour and attendance, and school food review.<ref>[https://www.gov.uk/government/people/elizabeth-truss "Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Education and Childcare"], gov.uk website. Retrieved 13 February 2014.</ref>

On 15 July 2014, she was appointed [[Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs]] by [[David Cameron]].

==Early life==
Truss was raised in a northern, left-wing household; her father is a professor with an interest in mathematical logic, and her mother was a nurse, teacher, and member of the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament|CND]].<ref name="Times profile">{{cite news |title=Profile: Elizabeth Truss |first=|last=|url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/Test/politics/article189702.ece |newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] |date=8 November 2009 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref> Truss has described both as being "to the left of Labour".<ref name="The lady's for turning" /> While her mother agreed to campaign for Truss when she ran for election to Parliament, her father – due to his politics – refused to do so.<ref name="The lady's for turning" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Next right |first=James |last=Forsyth |url=http://www.spectator.co.uk/issues/23-june-2012/next-right |newspaper=[[The Spectator]] |date=23 June 2012 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref>

Truss attended a state primary school in [[Paisley]], in [[Scotland]],<ref name="The lady's for turning" /> followed by [[Roundhay School]], a [[comprehensive school]] in north-east Leeds. She lived in [[Canada]] for a year, and contrasts the competitive attitude in schooling there with the "trendy" education she received in Leeds.<ref name="The lady's for turning" /> Amongst her [[GCE Advanced Level|A-levels]], Truss studied both Ordinary Maths and Advanced Maths.<ref name="Norfolk MP calls for">{{cite news |title=Norfolk MP calls for cash for maths |first=Deborah |last=McGurran |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-17538107 |newspaper=[[BBC News]] |date=28 March 2012 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref> She read [[Philosophy, Politics and Economics]] at [[Merton College, Oxford]].

After graduation in 1996, she worked for [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] as a commercial manager and [[Cable & Wireless Worldwide|Cable & Wireless]] as economics director, and became a qualified management accountant.<ref>[http://www.elizabethtruss.com/about-elizabeth-truss-0 "Biography"], Elizabeth Truss' official website</ref> Truss became the deputy director of [[Reform (think tank)|Reform]] in January 2008,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/elizabeth-truss |title=''Guardian'' contributor page |publisher=Guardian |date= |accessdate=2014-07-15}}</ref> where she advocated more rigorous academic standards in schools, a greater focus on tackling serious and organised crime, and urgent action to deal with Britain's falling competitiveness. She co-authored ''The Value of Mathematics''<ref>[http://www.reform.co.uk/pages/2145/view "The value of mathematics"], Reform, June 2008</ref> and ''A New Level''<ref>[http://www.reform.co.uk/pages/2152/view "A new level"], Reform, June 2009</ref> amongst other reports.

Truss was President of [[Oxford University Liberal Democrats]] and expressed [[Republicanism in the United Kingdom|republican]] sentiments at the 1994 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] conference.<ref name="Times profile" /><ref>Jonathan Oliver [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article6898340.ece "'Naughty' Tory candidate drives wedge into party"], ''The Sunday Times'', 1 November 2009</ref> Truss joined the Conservative Party in 1996.<ref name="Democracy Live profile" /> She served as the chairman of the [[Lewisham Deptford (UK Parliament constituency)|Lewisham Deptford]] Conservative Association from 1998 to 2000.<ref name="Democracy Live profile" /> She was elected as a councillor in the [[Greenwich London Borough Council|London Borough of Greenwich]] in 2006, standing down in 2010, shortly before the end of her term of office.

==Candidate==
She had previously unsuccessfully fought the parliamentary seats of [[Hemsworth (UK Parliament constituency)|Hemsworth]] in 2001 and [[Calder Valley (UK Parliament constituency)|Calder Valley]] in 2005.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/person/9162/elizabeth-truss "Electoral History and Profile"], Guardian</ref>

In October 2009, she was selected for the Norfolk seat by members of the constituency Conservative Association, and won over 50% of the vote in the first round of the final against five other candidates, one of whom was local to the county.<ref name=telegraph13nov09>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/6554080/David-Cameron-phones-local-grandee-to-try-to-save-Elizabeth-Truss-from-deselection.html "David Cameron phones local grandee"], ''Daily Telegraph'', 13 November 2009</ref>
<ref>[http://iaindale.blogspot.co.uk/2009/10/edp-column-why-liz-truss-deserves.html "Iain Dale's EDP column"], ''Eastern Daily Press'', 31 October 2009</ref> However, shortly afterwards, some members of the constituency Association, dubbed the 'Turnip Taliban' and led by former [[High Sheriff of Norfolk]] [[Bagge baronets|Sir Jeremy Bagge, 7th Baronet]],<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1229704/Im-bothered-Turnip-bit-Taliban-does-upset-Sir-Jeremy-Bagge-reveals-thoughts-Tory-groups-nicknames.html “Sir Jeremy Bagge reveals his thoughts about his Tory group's nicknames”], “Daily Mail” 21 November 2009</ref> objected to Truss’s selection, claiming that information about her extramarital affair with Conservative MP [[Mark Field]] (reported to have taken place several years previously) had been withheld from the members.<ref name=edp30oct09>[http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/tory_s_affair_details_withheld_at_meeting_1_524413 “Tory's affair details 'withheld at meeting'”], “Eastern Daily Press” 30 October 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/a-field-day-for-the-tory-old-guard-1821258.html "A field day for the Tory old guard"], by Andy McSmith, ''[[The Independent]]'', 16 November 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/conservative/6525668/Liz-Truss-won-seat-from-another-Tory-emboiled-in-affair.html "Liz Truss 'won seat from another Tory emboiled in affair'"], by Nick Britten, ''[[The Daily Telegraph]], 08 November 2009.</ref> A motion was proposed to terminate Truss’s candidature, but this was defeated by 132 votes to 37 at a general meeting of the Association’s members three weeks later.<ref name=bbc17nov09>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/norfolk/8363403.stm "Tory woman wins selection battle"], BBC News, 17 November 2009</ref>

==Parliamentary career==
Since being elected to Parliament on 6 May 2010, she has campaigned for issues including the retention of the [[Panavia Tornado|RAF Tornado]] base at [[RAF Marham]] in her constituency<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-norfolk-11749819 "Campaign aim to keep Tornado base at RAF Marham"], BBC News, 13 November 2010</ref> and the dualling of the A11 west of Thetford.<ref>[http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/crime/former_minister_s_regret_over_a11_dualling_1_833276 "Former minister’s regret over A11 dualling"], EDP, 17 March 2011</ref> Her work to campaign for design improvements to road junctions in her constituency, notably the A47, led to her being named as Road Safety Parliamentarian of the Month by road safety charity [[Brake (charity)|Brake]] in January 2013.<ref>[http://www.brake.org.uk/parliamentarian-awards/etruss.htm "Road Safety Parliamentarian of the Month"], Brake, January 2013</ref> From March 2011, she was a Member of the Justice Select Committee<ref>[http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/justice-committee/membership/ "Justice committee - membership"], UK Parliament, March 2011</ref> until she was appointed as a minister.

In March 2011, she wrote a paper for the liberal think-tank [[CentreForum]] in which she argued for an end to bias against serious academic subjects in the education system so that social mobility can be improved.<ref>[http://www.centreforum.org/index.php/mainpublications/29-academic-rigour-social-mobility "Academic rigour and social mobility: how low income students are being kept out of top jobs"], CentreForum, 15 March 2011</ref> Truss wrote a further paper for the same think-tank in May 2012, in which she argued for change in the structure of the childcare market in Britain.<ref>[http://www.centreforum.org/assets/pubs/affordable-quality.pdf "Affordable quality: new approaches to childcare"], CentreForum, May 2012</ref>

In October 2011, she founded the Free Enterprise Group, now supported by 41 other Conservative MPs.<ref>[http://www.freeenterprise.org.uk/ "Free Enterprise Group"], FEG website</ref> In September 2011, together with four other members of the Free Enterprise Group, she had co-authored ''After the Coalition'', a book which sought to challenge the consensus that Britain's economic decline is inevitable by arguing for the return of a more entrepreneurial and meritocratic culture.<ref>[http://www.bitebackpublishing.com/products/40/ "After the Coalition"], Biteback Publishing, 16 September 2011</ref> A further volume by the same authors, ''Britannia Unchained'', billed as "an insightful and critical assessment of Britain's challenges in the face of future uncertainty", was published in September 2012.<ref>[http://www.palgrave.com/booksellers/sellin/Britannia-Unchained.pdf "Britannia Unchained"], Palgrave Macmillan</ref> As part of a serialisation in the ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'', Truss wrote an article previewing her chapter on the importance of science in education.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/9517706/We-must-shift-science-out-of-the-geek-ghetto.html "We must shift science out of the geek ghetto"], Daily Telegraph, 4 September 2012</ref> The piece was praised by the physicist [[Brian Cox (physicist)|Brian Cox]] as an "excellent article".<ref>[https://twitter.com/ProfBrianCox/status/242942710514855937 "Brian Cox tweet"], Twitter, 4 September 2012</ref>

Truss has championed Britain following Germany's lead in allowing people to have tax-free and less-heavily regulated "[[marginal employment|mini-jobs]]".<ref>{{cite news |title=Treasury considers bid to boost employment with tax-free 'mini-jobs' |first=Juliette |last=Jowit |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2012/aug/19/treasury-boost-employment-mini-jobs |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=19 August 2012 |accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref> Since Truss published a paper on the policy for the Free Enterprise Group in February 2012, the policy has been examined by the Treasury as a policy to promote growth.<ref>{{cite news |title=Treasury 'considers tax-free mini-jobs to spur employment' |first1=Rachel |last1=Cooper |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/9486693/Treasury-considers-tax-free-mini-jobs-to-spur-employment.html |newspaper=[[Daily Telegraph]] |date=20 August 2012 |accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Treasury weighs German 'mini jobs' scheme |first1=Helen |last1=Warrell |first2=Chris |last2=Bryant |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/30c22eda-ea18-11e1-929b-00144feab49a.html |newspaper=[[Financial Times]] |date=19 August 2012 |accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref>

Truss has campaigned for improved teaching of more rigorous school subjects, especially mathematics. She has publicised that only 20% of British students study maths to 18,<ref name="Norfolk MP calls for" /> and called for maths classes to be compulsory for all of those in full-time education.<ref>{{cite news |title=Maths should be compulsory until 18, says MP report |first=Sean |last=Coughlan |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-18522634 |newspaper=[[BBC News]] |date=21 June 2012 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref> Truss herself studied double [[GCE Advanced Level|A-level]] maths.<ref name="Norfolk MP calls for" /> She has argued that [[comprehensive school]] pupils are being "mis-sold" easy, low-value subjects to boost school results: with comprehensive school pupils six times as likely to take media studies at A-level as privately educated pupils are.<ref>{{cite news |title=Comprehensive school pupils 'mis-sold' soft A-level courses |first=Graeme |last=Paton |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/8575270/Comprehensive-school-pupils-mis-sold-soft-A-level-courses.html |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=15 June 2011 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref> Truss has also criticised the over-reliance on calculators to the detriment of mental arithmetic.<ref>{{cite news |title=Elizabeth Truss in a calculated move on maths |first=Deborah |last=McGurran |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-15994164 |newspaper=[[BBC News]] |date=1 December 2011 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref>

On 4 September 2012, Truss was appointed as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Department for Education, with responsibility for education and childcare.<ref name="DfE biography"/> In this role, she has developed some of the policy areas that she had pursued as a backbencher.

In January 2013, she announced proposals to reform A-Levels, by concentrating examinations at the end of two-year courses.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/democracylive/21160860 "A-level shake up will 'end the treadmill' of repeated exams"], BBC Democracy Live, 23 January 2013</ref>

Later in the same month, Truss outlined plans to reform childcare, intended to overhaul childcare qualifications, and provide more choice of quality education and care for parents.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2013/jan/29/childcare-restrictions-relaxed-minister-announces "Childcare restrictions to be relaxed, minister announces"], Guardian, 29 January 2013</ref> The proposed reforms were broadly welcomed by some organisations such as the charity [[4Children]],<ref>[http://www.education.gov.uk/inthenews/inthenews/a00220984/parents-choice-hq-childcare "Parents to have more choice of high quality childcare"], Department for Education, 29 January 2013</ref> the [[Confederation of British Industry]]<ref>[http://www.daynurseries.co.uk/news/article.cfm/id/1558751/coalition-promises-more-great-childcare-but-growing-anxiety-in-the-nursery-sector "Coalition promises 'More Great Childcare' amid growing anxiety in the nursery sector"], daynurseries.co.uk, 29 January 2013</ref> and the [[College of West Anglia]].<ref>[http://www.lynnnews.co.uk/news/latest-news/king-s-lynn-college-supports-childcare-changes-1-4768197 "College supports childcare changes"], Lynn News, 8 February 2013</ref> However, the proposals met opposition from others. The TUC General Secretary [[Frances O'Grady]] and the then Shadow Education Secretary [[Stephen Twigg]] were among those criticising the reforms,<ref>[http://www.channel4.com/news/childcare-plans-will-hit-standards-labour-warns "Childcare plans will hit standards, Labour warns"], Channel 4 News, 29 January 2013</ref> echoed by some parents and childcare bodies, such as the charity National Day Nurseries Association.<ref>[http://www.ndna.org.uk/news/press+releases/January+2013/More-Great-Childcare "Quality of early education must not be sacrificed if we want More Great Childcare says national charity"], NDNA, 29 January 2013</ref> The columnist [[Polly Toynbee]] was highly critical of the minister's plans,<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2013/jan/29/hofit-six-toddlers-in-bugy-truss-childcare "How do you fit six toddlers into a buggy? Ask Liz Truss"], Guardian, 29 January 2013</ref> and challenged Truss to demonstrate how to care for two babies alongside four toddlers on her own. Truss responded to Toynbee's challenge by saying that being an early educator was a very demanding job, requiring great and specialist expertise, for which she was not trained.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2013/jan/29/childcare-reform-proposals-fierce-criticism "Childcare reform proposals face fierce criticism"], Guardian, 29 January 2013</ref> In the event, aspects of the reforms relating to relaxation of childcare ratios were blocked by the Deputy Prime Minister [[Nick Clegg]].<ref>[http://news.sky.com/story/1100006/childcare-ratio-shake-up-blocked-by-clegg "Childcare Ratio Shake-Up Blocked By Clegg"], Sky News, 6 June 2013</ref>

==Personal life==
Truss is married with 2 daughters, and lives in [[Downham Market]], in her constituency, and [[Greenwich]], London.

==Bibliography==
* ''[http://www.reform.co.uk/content/4504/research/education/the_value_of_mathematics The Value of Mathematics]'' (June 2008)
* ''[http://www.reform.co.uk/content/4511/research/education/a_new_level A New Level]'' (June 2009)
* ''[http://www.centreforum.org/index.php/mainpublications/29-academic-rigour-social-mobility Academic rigour and social mobility: how low income students are being kept out of top jobs]'' (March 2011)
* ''[http://www.freeenterprise.org.uk/sites/freeenterprise.drupalgardens.com/files/Learning%20lessons%20from%20Germany.pdf A decade of gains - learning lessons from Germany]'' (February 2012)
* ''[http://www.centreforum.org/index.php/mainpublications/352-affordable-quality Affordable quality: new approaches to childcare]'' (May 2012)

* ''After the Coalition'' (2011)
* ''Britannia Unchained'' (2012)

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.elizabethtruss.com/ Elizabeth Truss official website]
* [http://www.freeenterprise.org.uk/ Free Enterprise Group official website]

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{incumbent succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[South West Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)|South West Norfolk]]
| start = [[United Kingdom general election, 2010|2010]]
| before = [[Christopher Fraser]]
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Persondata 
| NAME = Truss, Elizabeth
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = British politician
| DATE OF BIRTH = 26 July 1975
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Oxford]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Truss, Elizabeth}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Alumni of Merton College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Conservative Party (UK) MPs]]
[[Category:Councillors in Greenwich]]
[[Category:Female members of the United Kingdom Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:People educated at Roundhay School]]
[[Category:People from Leeds]]
[[Category:UK MPs 2010–]]

Liz Truss

2014-07-15T09:51:26Z

Lessogg: /* Early life */ punctin

{{Infobox MP
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Elizabeth Truss
| honorific-suffix = [[Member of Parliament|MP]]
| image =Liz Truss MP, Minister for Education and Childcare, at her speech setting out government plans to promote more great childcare.jpg
| caption = Truss in 2013
| office = [[Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs|Secretary of State for Environment Food and Rural Affairs]]
| primeminister = [[David Cameron]]
| term_start = 15 July 2014
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Owen Paterson]]
| successor =
| office1 = [[Parliamentary Under Secretary of State]] for [[Department for Education|Education and Childcare]]
| primeminister1 = [[David Cameron]]
| term_start1 = 4 September 2012
| term_end1 = 15 July 2014
| predecessor1 = [[Sarah Teather]] (''as Minister of State for Schools and Families)''
| successor1 =
| office2 = [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] for [[South West Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)|South West Norfolk]]
| parliament2 =
| term_start2 = 6 May 2010
| term_end2 =
| majority2 = 13,140 (26.7%)<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/election2010/results/constituency/e27.stm South West Norfolk], BBC Election 2010 result</ref>
| predecessor2 = [[Christopher Fraser]]
| successor2 =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1975|07|26|df=yes}}<ref name="Democracy Live profile">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/democracylive/hi/representatives/profiles/40370.stm |title=Elizabeth Truss MP |publisher=BBC |work=BBC Democracy Live |date= |accessdate=25 July 2010}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Oxford]], [[Oxfordshire]], [[England]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[United Kingdom|British]]
| spouse = 
| party = [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
| relations =
| children = Two
| residence = [[Downham Market]], [[Norfolk]]
| alma_mater = [[Merton College]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]
| profession = Economist
| religion =
| signature =
| website = {{URL|http://www.elizabethtruss.com}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Elizabeth Mary Truss'''<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue= 59418 |date= 13 May 2010 |startpage= 8744 |city=London |accessdate= 21 June 2010 }}</ref> (born 26 July 1975), also known as '''Liz Truss''', is a British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] politician who has been the [[Member of Parliament]] (MP) for [[South West Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)|South West Norfolk]] since the [[United Kingdom general election, 2010|2010 general election]]. In September 2012, she was appointed as [[Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State]] with responsibility for education and childcare in the [[Department for Education]].<ref name="DfE biography">{{cite web |url=https://education.gov.uk/aboutdfe/departmentalinformation/ministerialteam/truss |title=Elizabeth Truss MP |author= |year=2012 |work= |publisher=[[Department for Education]] |accessdate=11 September 2012}}</ref>

Truss grew up in a left-wing family in [[Paisley]] and [[Leeds]], before attending [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. She worked in sales and as an economist, before becoming deputy director at the think-tank [[Reform (think tank)|Reform]]. She was elected in 2010 for South West Norfolk.

As a [[backbencher]], Truss called for reform in a number of policy areas, including childcare, maths education, and the economy.<ref name="The lady's for turning">{{cite news |title=The lady's for turning, right from CND to Conservative |first=Anushka |last=Asthana |url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/politics/article3440383.ece |newspaper=[[The Times]] |date=9 June 2012 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref> She founded the Free Enterprise Group of Conservative MPs. She has authored and co-authored a number of papers and books, including ''After the Coalition'' (2011) and ''[[Britannia Unchained]]'' (2012).

As a minister, Truss's responsibilities include childcare and early learning, assessment, qualifications and curriculum reform, behaviour and attendance, and school food review.<ref>[https://www.gov.uk/government/people/elizabeth-truss "Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Education and Childcare"], gov.uk website. Retrieved 13 February 2014.</ref>

On 15 July 2014, she was appointed [[Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs]] by [[David Cameron]].

==Early life==
Truss was raised in a northern, left-wing household; her father is a professor with an interest in mathematical logic, and her mother was a nurse, teacher, and member of the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament|CND]].<ref name="Times profile">{{cite news |title=Profile: Elizabeth Truss |first=|last=|url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/Test/politics/article189702.ece |newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] |date=8 November 2009 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref> Truss has described both as being "to the left of Labour".<ref name="The lady's for turning" /> While her mother agreed to campaign for Truss when she ran for election to Parliament, her father – due to his politics – refused to do so.<ref name="The lady's for turning" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Next right |first=James |last=Forsyth |url=http://www.spectator.co.uk/issues/23-june-2012/next-right |newspaper=[[The Spectator]] |date=23 June 2012 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref>

Truss attended a state primary school in [[Paisley]], in [[Scotland]],<ref name="The lady's for turning" /> followed by [[Roundhay School]], a [[comprehensive school]] in north-east Leeds. She lived in [[Canada]] for a year, and contrasts the competitive attitude in schooling there with the "trendy" education she received in Leeds.<ref name="The lady's for turning" /> Amongst her [[GCE Advanced Level|A-levels]], Truss studied both Ordinary Maths and Advanced Maths.<ref name="Norfolk MP calls for">{{cite news |title=Norfolk MP calls for cash for maths |first=Deborah |last=McGurran |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-17538107 |newspaper=[[BBC News]] |date=28 March 2012 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref> She read [[Philosophy, Politics and Economics]] at [[Merton College, Oxford]].

After graduation in 1996, she worked for [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] as a commercial manager and [[Cable & Wireless Worldwide|Cable & Wireless]] as economics director, and became a qualified management accountant.<ref>[http://www.elizabethtruss.com/about-elizabeth-truss-0 "Biography"], Elizabeth Truss' official website</ref> Truss became the deputy director of [[Reform (think tank)|Reform]] in January 2008,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/elizabeth-truss |title=''Guardian'' contributor page |publisher=Guardian |date= |accessdate=2014-07-15}}</ref> where she advocated more rigorous academic standards in schools, a greater focus on tackling serious and organised crime, and urgent action to deal with Britain's falling competitiveness. She co-authored ''The Value of Mathematics''<ref>[http://www.reform.co.uk/pages/2145/view "The value of mathematics"], Reform, June 2008</ref> and ''A New Level''<ref>[http://www.reform.co.uk/pages/2152/view "A new level"], Reform, June 2009</ref> amongst other reports.

Truss was President of [[Oxford University Liberal Democrats]] and expressed [[Republicanism in the United Kingdom|republican]] sentiments at the 1994 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] conference.<ref name="Times profile" /><ref>Jonathan Oliver [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article6898340.ece "'Naughty' Tory candidate drives wedge into party"], ''The Sunday Times'', 1 November 2009</ref> Truss joined the Conservative Party in 1996.<ref name="Democracy Live profile" /> She served as the chairman of the [[Lewisham Deptford (UK Parliament constituency)|Lewisham Deptford]] Conservative Association from 1998 to 2000.<ref name="Democracy Live profile" /> She was elected as a councillor in the [[Greenwich London Borough Council|London Borough of Greenwich]] in 2006, standing down in 2010, shortly before the end of her term of office.

==Candidate==
She had previously unsuccessfully fought the parliamentary seats of [[Hemsworth (UK Parliament constituency)|Hemsworth]] in 2001 and [[Calder Valley (UK Parliament constituency)|Calder Valley]] in 2005.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/person/9162/elizabeth-truss "Electoral History and Profile"], Guardian</ref>

In October 2009, she was selected for the Norfolk seat by members of the constituency Conservative Association, and won over 50% of the vote in the first round of the final against five other candidates, one of whom was local to the county.<ref name=telegraph13nov09>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/6554080/David-Cameron-phones-local-grandee-to-try-to-save-Elizabeth-Truss-from-deselection.html "David Cameron phones local grandee"], ''Daily Telegraph'', 13 November 2009</ref>
<ref>[http://iaindale.blogspot.co.uk/2009/10/edp-column-why-liz-truss-deserves.html "Iain Dale's EDP column"], ''Eastern Daily Press'', 31 October 2009</ref> However, shortly afterwards, some members of the constituency Association, dubbed the 'Turnip Taliban' and led by former [[High Sheriff of Norfolk]] [[Bagge baronets|Sir Jeremy Bagge, 7th Baronet]],<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1229704/Im-bothered-Turnip-bit-Taliban-does-upset-Sir-Jeremy-Bagge-reveals-thoughts-Tory-groups-nicknames.html “Sir Jeremy Bagge reveals his thoughts about his Tory group's nicknames”], “Daily Mail” 21 November 2009</ref> objected to Truss’s selection, claiming that information about her extramarital affair with Conservative MP [[Mark Field]] (reported to have taken place several years previously) had been withheld from the members.<ref name=edp30oct09>[http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/tory_s_affair_details_withheld_at_meeting_1_524413 “Tory's affair details 'withheld at meeting'”], “Eastern Daily Press” 30 October 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/a-field-day-for-the-tory-old-guard-1821258.html "A field day for the Tory old guard"], by Andy McSmith, ''[[The Independent]]'', 16 November 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/conservative/6525668/Liz-Truss-won-seat-from-another-Tory-emboiled-in-affair.html "Liz Truss 'won seat from another Tory emboiled in affair'"], by Nick Britten, ''[[The Daily Telegraph]], 08 November 2009.</ref> A motion was proposed to terminate Truss’s candidature, but this was defeated by 132 votes to 37 at a general meeting of the Association’s members three weeks later.<ref name=bbc17nov09>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/norfolk/8363403.stm "Tory woman wins selection battle"], BBC News, 17 November 2009</ref>

==Parliamentary career==
Since being elected to Parliament on 6 May 2010, she has campaigned for issues including the retention of the [[Panavia Tornado|RAF Tornado]] base at [[RAF Marham]] in her constituency<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-norfolk-11749819 "Campaign aim to keep Tornado base at RAF Marham"], BBC News, 13 November 2010</ref> and the dualling of the A11 west of Thetford.<ref>[http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/crime/former_minister_s_regret_over_a11_dualling_1_833276 "Former minister’s regret over A11 dualling"], EDP, 17 March 2011</ref> Her work to campaign for design improvements to road junctions in her constituency, notably the A47, led to her being named as Road Safety Parliamentarian of the Month by road safety charity [[Brake (charity)|Brake]] in January 2013.<ref>[http://www.brake.org.uk/parliamentarian-awards/etruss.htm "Road Safety Parliamentarian of the Month"], Brake, January 2013</ref> From March 2011, she was a Member of the Justice Select Committee<ref>[http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/justice-committee/membership/ "Justice committee - membership"], UK Parliament, March 2011</ref> until she was appointed as a minister.

In March 2011, she wrote a paper for the liberal think-tank [[CentreForum]] in which she argued for an end to bias against serious academic subjects in the education system so that social mobility can be improved.<ref>[http://www.centreforum.org/index.php/mainpublications/29-academic-rigour-social-mobility "Academic rigour and social mobility: how low income students are being kept out of top jobs"], CentreForum, 15 March 2011</ref> Truss wrote a further paper for the same think-tank in May 2012, in which she argued for change in the structure of the childcare market in Britain.<ref>[http://www.centreforum.org/assets/pubs/affordable-quality.pdf "Affordable quality: new approaches to childcare"], CentreForum, May 2012</ref>

In October 2011, she founded the Free Enterprise Group, now supported by 41 other Conservative MPs.<ref>[http://www.freeenterprise.org.uk/ "Free Enterprise Group"], FEG website</ref> In September 2011, together with four other members of the Free Enterprise Group, she had co-authored ''After the Coalition'', a book which sought to challenge the consensus that Britain's economic decline is inevitable by arguing for the return of a more entrepreneurial and meritocratic culture.<ref>[http://www.bitebackpublishing.com/products/40/ "After the Coalition"], Biteback Publishing, 16 September 2011</ref> A further volume by the same authors, ''Britannia Unchained'', billed as "an insightful and critical assessment of Britain's challenges in the face of future uncertainty", was published in September 2012.<ref>[http://www.palgrave.com/booksellers/sellin/Britannia-Unchained.pdf "Britannia Unchained"], Palgrave Macmillan</ref> As part of a serialisation in the ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'', Truss wrote an article previewing her chapter on the importance of science in education.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/9517706/We-must-shift-science-out-of-the-geek-ghetto.html "We must shift science out of the geek ghetto"], Daily Telegraph, 4 September 2012</ref> The piece was praised by the physicist [[Brian Cox (physicist)|Brian Cox]] as an "excellent article".<ref>[https://twitter.com/ProfBrianCox/status/242942710514855937 "Brian Cox tweet"], Twitter, 4 September 2012</ref>

Truss has championed Britain following Germany's lead in allowing people to have tax-free and less-heavily regulated '[[marginal employment|mini-jobs]]'.<ref>{{cite news |title=Treasury considers bid to boost employment with tax-free 'mini-jobs' |first=Juliette |last=Jowit |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2012/aug/19/treasury-boost-employment-mini-jobs |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=19 August 2012 |accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref> Since Truss published a paper on the policy for the Free Enterprise Group in February 2012, the policy has been examined by the Treasury as a policy to promote growth.<ref>{{cite news |title=Treasury 'considers tax-free mini-jobs to spur employment' |first1=Rachel |last1=Cooper |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/9486693/Treasury-considers-tax-free-mini-jobs-to-spur-employment.html |newspaper=[[Daily Telegraph]] |date=20 August 2012 |accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Treasury weighs German 'mini jobs' scheme |first1=Helen |last1=Warrell |first2=Chris |last2=Bryant |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/30c22eda-ea18-11e1-929b-00144feab49a.html |newspaper=[[Financial Times]] |date=19 August 2012 |accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref>

Truss has campaigned for improved teaching of more rigorous school subjects, especially mathematics. She has publicised that only 20% of British students study maths to 18,<ref name="Norfolk MP calls for" /> and called for maths classes to be compulsory for all of those in full-time education.<ref>{{cite news |title=Maths should be compulsory until 18, says MP report |first=Sean |last=Coughlan |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-18522634 |newspaper=[[BBC News]] |date=21 June 2012 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref> Truss herself studied double [[GCE Advanced Level|A-level]] maths.<ref name="Norfolk MP calls for" /> She's argued that [[comprehensive school]] pupils are being 'mis-sold' easy, low-value subjects to boost school results: with comprehensive school pupils six times as likely to take media studies at A-level as privately educated pupils are.<ref>{{cite news |title=Comprehensive school pupils 'mis-sold' soft A-level courses |first=Graeme |last=Paton |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/8575270/Comprehensive-school-pupils-mis-sold-soft-A-level-courses.html |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=15 June 2011 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref> Truss has also criticised the over-reliance on calculators to the detriment of mental arithmetic.<ref>{{cite news |title=Elizabeth Truss in a calculated move on maths |first=Deborah |last=McGurran |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-15994164 |newspaper=[[BBC News]] |date=1 December 2011 |accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref>

On 4 September 2012, Truss was appointed as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Department for Education, with responsibility for education and childcare.<ref name="DfE biography"/> In this role, she has developed some of the policy areas that she had pursued as a backbencher.

In January 2013, she announced proposals to reform A-Levels, by concentrating examinations at the end of two-year courses.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/democracylive/21160860 "A-level shake up will 'end the treadmill' of repeated exams"], BBC Democracy Live, 23 January 2013</ref>

Later in the same month, Truss outlined plans to reform childcare, intended to overhaul childcare qualifications, and provide more choice of quality education and care for parents.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2013/jan/29/childcare-restrictions-relaxed-minister-announces "Childcare restrictions to be relaxed, minister announces"], Guardian, 29 January 2013</ref> The proposed reforms were broadly welcomed by some organisations such as the charity [[4Children]],<ref>[http://www.education.gov.uk/inthenews/inthenews/a00220984/parents-choice-hq-childcare "Parents to have more choice of high quality childcare"], Department for Education, 29 January 2013</ref> the [[Confederation of British Industry]]<ref>[http://www.daynurseries.co.uk/news/article.cfm/id/1558751/coalition-promises-more-great-childcare-but-growing-anxiety-in-the-nursery-sector "Coalition promises 'More Great Childcare' amid growing anxiety in the nursery sector"], daynurseries.co.uk, 29 January 2013</ref> and the [[College of West Anglia]].<ref>[http://www.lynnnews.co.uk/news/latest-news/king-s-lynn-college-supports-childcare-changes-1-4768197 "College supports childcare changes"], Lynn News, 8 February 2013</ref> However, the proposals met opposition from others. The TUC General Secretary [[Frances O'Grady]] and the then Shadow Education Secretary [[Stephen Twigg]] were among those criticising the reforms,<ref>[http://www.channel4.com/news/childcare-plans-will-hit-standards-labour-warns "Childcare plans will hit standards, Labour warns"], Channel 4 News, 29 January 2013</ref> echoed by some parents and childcare bodies, such as the charity National Day Nurseries Association.<ref>[http://www.ndna.org.uk/news/press+releases/January+2013/More-Great-Childcare "Quality of early education must not be sacrificed if we want More Great Childcare says national charity"], NDNA, 29 January 2013</ref> The columnist [[Polly Toynbee]] was highly critical of the minister's plans,<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2013/jan/29/hofit-six-toddlers-in-bugy-truss-childcare "How do you fit six toddlers into a buggy? Ask Liz Truss"], Guardian, 29 January 2013</ref> and challenged Truss to demonstrate how to care for two babies alongside four toddlers on her own. Truss responded to Toynbee's challenge by saying that being an early educator was a very demanding job, requiring great and specialist expertise, for which she was not trained.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2013/jan/29/childcare-reform-proposals-fierce-criticism "Childcare reform proposals face fierce criticism"], Guardian, 29 January 2013</ref> In the event, aspects of the reforms relating to relaxation of childcare ratios were blocked by the Deputy Prime Minister [[Nick Clegg]].<ref>[http://news.sky.com/story/1100006/childcare-ratio-shake-up-blocked-by-clegg "Childcare Ratio Shake-Up Blocked By Clegg"], Sky News, 6 June 2013</ref>

==Personal life==
Truss is married with 2 daughters, and lives in [[Downham Market]], in her constituency, and [[Greenwich]], London.

==Bibliography==
* ''[http://www.reform.co.uk/content/4504/research/education/the_value_of_mathematics The Value of Mathematics]'' (June 2008)
* ''[http://www.reform.co.uk/content/4511/research/education/a_new_level A New Level]'' (June 2009)
* ''[http://www.centreforum.org/index.php/mainpublications/29-academic-rigour-social-mobility Academic rigour and social mobility: how low income students are being kept out of top jobs]'' (March 2011)
* ''[http://www.freeenterprise.org.uk/sites/freeenterprise.drupalgardens.com/files/Learning%20lessons%20from%20Germany.pdf A decade of gains - learning lessons from Germany]'' (February 2012)
* ''[http://www.centreforum.org/index.php/mainpublications/352-affordable-quality Affordable quality: new approaches to childcare]'' (May 2012)

* ''After the Coalition'' (2011)
* ''Britannia Unchained'' (2012)

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.elizabethtruss.com/ Elizabeth Truss official website]
* [http://www.freeenterprise.org.uk/ Free Enterprise Group official website]

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{incumbent succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[South West Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)|South West Norfolk]]
| start = [[United Kingdom general election, 2010|2010]]
| before = [[Christopher Fraser]]
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Persondata 
| NAME = Truss, Elizabeth
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = British politician
| DATE OF BIRTH = 26 July 1975
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Oxford]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Truss, Elizabeth}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Alumni of Merton College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Conservative Party (UK) MPs]]
[[Category:Councillors in Greenwich]]
[[Category:Female members of the United Kingdom Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:People educated at Roundhay School]]
[[Category:People from Leeds]]
[[Category:UK MPs 2010–]]

An den Herbst

2013-09-19T12:59:46Z

Lessogg: fixin redirect is The Eve of St. Agnes

[[File:A Day with Keats, Neatby plate - Autumn.png|thumb|Illustration for "To Autumn" by William James Neatby, from ''A Day with Keats'', 1899|alt=Drawing of trees with orange and red leaves with a lake at the bottom and hills in the distance.]]

"'''To Autumn'''" is a [[poetry|poem]] by English [[Romanticism|Romantic]] poet [[John Keats]] (31 October 1795 – 23 February 1821). The work was composed on 19 September 1819 and published in 1820 in a volume of Keats's poetry that included ''[[Lamia (poem)|Lamia]]'' and ''[[The Eve of St. Agnes]]''. "To Autumn" is the final work in a group of poems known as [[John Keats's 1819 odes|Keats's "1819 odes"]]. Although personal problems left him little time to devote to poetry in 1819, he composed "To Autumn" after a walk near [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]] one autumnal evening. The work marks the end of his poetic career, as he needed to earn money and could no longer devote himself to the lifestyle of a poet. A little over a year following the publication of "To Autumn", Keats died in [[Rome, Italy|Rome]].

The poem has three eleven-line [[stanza]]s which describe a progression through the season, from the late maturation of the crops to the harvest and to the last days of autumn when winter is nearing. The imagery is richly achieved through the [[personification]] of Autumn, and the description of its bounty, its sights and sounds. It has parallels in the work of English landscape artists,<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 176">Bewell 1999 p. 176</ref> with Keats himself describing the fields of stubble that he saw on his walk as being like that in a painting.<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 580">Bate 1963 p. 580</ref>

The work has been interpreted as a meditation on death; as an [[allegory]] of artistic creation; as Keats's response to the [[Peterloo Massacre]], which took place in the same year; and as an expression of [[nationalism|nationalist]] sentiment. One of the most [[anthology|anthologised]] English [[lyric poem]]s, "To Autumn" has been regarded by critics as one of the most perfect short poems in the English language.

==Background==
[[File:Keats19.jpg|thumb|left|Sketch of Keats by Charles Brown, August 1819, one month before the composition of "To Autumn"|alt=Portrait in pencil of a man in his mid-twenties with medium-length curly hair. He is leaning on his right arm and faces right. He is wearing a white jacket.]]

During the spring of 1819, Keats wrote many of his major odes: "[[Ode on a Grecian Urn]]", "[[Ode on Indolence]]", "[[Ode on Melancholy]]", "[[Ode to a Nightingale]]", and "[[Ode to Psyche]]". After the month of May, he began to pursue other forms of poetry, including the verse tragedy ''Otho the Great'' in collaboration with friend and roommate Charles Brown, the second half of ''Lamia'', and a return to his unfinished epic ''[[Hyperion (poem)|Hyperion]]''.<ref name="Bate pp. 526–562">Bate 1963 pp. 526–562</ref> His efforts from spring until autumn were dedicated completely to a career in poetry, alternating between writing long and short poems, and setting himself a goal to compose more than fifty lines of verse each day. In his free time he also read works as varied as [[Robert Burton (scholar)|Robert Burton]]'s ''[[Anatomy of Melancholy]]'', [[Thomas Chatterton]]'s poetry, and [[James Henry Leigh Hunt|Leigh Hunt]]'s essays.<ref>Gittings 1968 pp. 269–270</ref>

Although Keats managed to write many poems in 1819, he was suffering from a multitude of financial troubles throughout the year, including concerns over his brother, George, who, after emigrating to America, was badly in need of money. Despite these distractions, on 19 September 1819 he found time to write "To Autumn". The poem marks the final moment of his career as a poet. No longer able to afford to devote his time to the composition of poems, he began working on more lucrative projects.<ref name="Bate pp. 526–562"/> Keats's declining health and personal responsibilities also raised obstacles to his continuing poetic efforts.<ref name="Motion p. 461">Motion 1999 p. 461</ref>

On 19 September 1819, Keats walked near Winchester along the [[River Itchen, Hampshire|River Itchen]]. In a letter to his friend John Hamilton Reynolds written on 21 September, Keats described the impression the scene had made upon him and its influence on the composition of "To Autumn":<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 580"/> "How beautiful the season is now – How fine the air. A temperate sharpness about it [...] I never lik'd stubble fields so much as now [...] Somehow a stubble plain looks warm – in the same way that some pictures look warm – this struck me so much in my sunday's walk that I composed upon it."<ref>Keats 2008 p. 184</ref> Not everything on Keats's mind at the time was bright; the poet knew in September that he would have to finally abandon ''Hyperion''. Thus, in the letter that he wrote to Reynolds, Keats also included a note saying that he abandoned his long poem.<ref>Bate 1963 p. 585</ref> Keats did not send "To Autumn" to Reynolds, but did include the poem within a letter to Richard Woodhouse, Keats's publisher and friend, and dated it on the same day.<ref>Evert 1965 pp. 296–297</ref>

The poem was revised and included in Keats's 1820 collection of poetry titled ''Lamia, Isabella, the Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems''. Although the publishers Taylor and Hessey feared the kind of bad reviews that had plagued Keats's 1818 edition of ''[[Endymion (poem)|Endymion]]'', they were willing to publish the collection after the removal of any potentially controversial poems to ensure that there would be no politically motivated reviews that could give the volume a bad reputation.<ref>McGann 1979 pp. 988–989</ref>
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==Poem==
[[File:John Keats - To Autumn Manuscript 1 unrestored.jpg|right|thumb|Manuscript copy of "To Autumn" page 1|alt=A white sheet of paper that is completely filled with a poem in cursive hand writing. Many of the lines mid-way down the page are scratched out.]]
[[File:John Keats - To Autumn Manuscript 2 unrestored.jpg|right|thumb|Manuscript copy of "To Autumn" page 2|alt=A white sheet of paper that is completely filled with a poem in cursive hand writing. A few of the words are scratched out with other words written above as corrections. Words can be partly seen from the other side of the page but they are illegible. A note midway down the page describes that it is an "Original manuscript of John Keats's Poem to Autumn."]]

:Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness
:Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun
:Conspiring with him how to load and bless
:With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eaves run;
:To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees,
:And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;
:To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells
:With a sweet kernel; to set budding more,
:And still more, later flowers for the bees,
:Until they think warm days will never cease,
:For Summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells.

:Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?
:Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find
:Thee sitting careless on a granary floor,
:Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind;
:Or on a half-reap'd furrow sound asleep,
:Drows'd with the fume of poppies, while thy hook
:Spares the next swath and all its twined flowers:
:And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep
:Steady thy laden head across a brook;
:Or by a cider-press, with patient look,
:Thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours.

:Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they?
:Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,-
:While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day,
:And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue;
:Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn
:Among the river sallows, borne aloft
:Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;
:And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;
:Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft
:The red-breast whistles from a garden-croft;
:And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.

==Themes==

"To Autumn" describes, in its three stanzas, three different aspects of the season: its fruitfulness, its labour and its ultimate decline. Through the stanzas there is a progression from early autumn to mid autumn and then to the heralding of winter. Parallel to this, the poem depicts the day turning from morning to afternoon and into dusk. These progressions are joined with a shift from the tactile sense to that of sight and then of sound, creating a three-part symmetry which is not present in Keats's other odes.<ref name=Sp>Sperry 1973 p. 337</ref>

As the poem progresses, Autumn is represented [[metaphor]]ically as one who conspires, who ripens fruit, who harvests, who makes music. The first stanza of the poem represents Autumn as involved with the promotion of natural processes, growth and ultimate maturation, two forces in opposition in nature, but together creating the impression that the season will not end.<ref name="Bate p. 582">Bate 1963 p. 582</ref> In this stanza the fruits are still ripening and the buds still opening in the warm weather. Stuart Sperry says that Keats emphasises the tactile sense here, suggested by the imagery of growth and gentle motion: swelling, bending and plumping.<ref name=Sp/>

[[File:Sparsholt Road - geograph.org.uk - 81201.jpg|thumb|left|Harvested field, Hampshire]]

In the second stanza Autumn is [[Personification|personified]] as a harvester,<ref>The full personification of Autumn emerges only in the second stanza. McFarland 2000 p. 222</ref> to be seen by the viewer in various guises performing labouring tasks essential to the provision of food for the coming year. There is a lack of definitive action, all motion being gentle. Autumn is not depicted as actually harvesting but as seated, resting or watching.<ref name="Bate p. 582"/> In lines 14–15 the personification of Autumn is as an exhausted labourer. Near the end of the stanza, the steadiness of the gleaner in lines 19–20 again emphasises a motionlessness within the poem.<ref name=Wag>Wagner 1996 pp. 110–111</ref> The progression through the day is revealed in actions that are all suggestive of the drowsiness of afternoon: the harvested grain is being winnowed, the harvester is asleep or returning home, the last drops issue from the cider press.<ref name=Sp/>

The last stanza contrasts Autumn's sounds with those of Spring. The sounds that are presented are not only those of Autumn but essentially the gentle sounds of the evening. Gnats wail and lambs bleat in the dusk. As night approaches within the final moments of the song, death is slowly approaching alongside the end of the year. The full-grown lambs, like the grapes, gourds and hazel nuts will be harvested for the winter. The twittering swallows gather for departure, leaving the fields bare. The whistling red-breast and the chirping cricket are the common sounds of winter. The references to Spring, the growing lambs and the migrating swallows remind the reader that the seasons are a cycle, widening the scope of this stanza from a single season to life in general.<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 582–583</ref>

Of all of Keats's poems, "To Autumn", with its catalog of concrete images,<ref>Sperry 1973 p. 341</ref> most closely describes a paradise as realized on earth while also focusing on archetypal symbols connected with the season. Within the poem, autumn represents growth, maturation, and finally an approaching death. There is a fulfilling union between the ideal and the real.<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 581–583</ref>

Scholars have noted a number of literary influences on "To Autumn", from [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Georgics]]'',<ref>O'Rourke 1998 p. 173</ref> to [[Edmund Spenser]]'s "Mutability Cantos",<ref>Helen Vendler, discussed in O'Rourke 1998 p. 165</ref> to the language of Thomas Chatterton,<ref>Hartman 1975 p. 100, Bewell 1999 pp. 182–183</ref> to [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]'s "[[Frost at Midnight]]",<ref name="Bloom 1968 p. 96">Bloom 1968 p. 96</ref> to an essay on autumn by Leigh Hunt, which Keats had recently read.<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 178">Bewell 1999 p. 178</ref>

"To Autumn" is thematically connected to other odes that Keats wrote in 1819. For example, in his "Ode to Melancholy" a major theme is the acceptance of the process of life. When this theme appears later in "To Autumn",<ref>Bate 1962 p. 522</ref> however, it is with a difference. This time the figure of the poet disappears, and there is no exhortation of an imaginary reader. There are no open conflicts, and "dramatic debate, protest, and qualification are absent".<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 581">Bate 1963 p. 581</ref> In process there is a harmony between the finality of death and hints of renewal of life in the cycle of the seasons, paralleled by the renewal of a single day.<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 583">Bate 1963 p. 583</ref>

Critics have tended to emphasize different aspects of the process. Some have focused on renewal; [[Walter Jackson Bate]] points to the theme of each stanza including "its contrary" idea, here death implying, though only indirectly, the renewal of life.<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 583"/> Also, noted by both Bate and Jennifer Wagner, the structure of the verse reinforces the sense of something to come; the placing of the couplet before the end of each stanza creates a feeling of suspension, highlighting the theme of continuation.<ref name=Wag/>

Others, like [[Harold Bloom]], have emphasized the "exhausted landscape", the completion, the finality of death, although "Winter descends here as a man might hope to die, with a natural sweetness". If death in itself is final, here it comes with a lightness, a softness, also pointing to "an acceptance of process beyond the possibility of grief."<ref>Bloom 1968 pp. 95–97</ref> The progress of growth is no longer necessary; maturation is complete, and life and death are in harmony. The rich description of the cycle of the seasons enables the reader to feel a belonging "to something larger than the self", as James O'Rourke expresses it, but the cycle comes to an end each year, analogous to the ending of single life. O'Rourke suggests that something of a fear of that ending is subtly implied at the end of the poem,<ref>O'Rourke 1998 p. 177</ref> although, unlike the other great odes, in this poem the person of the poet is entirely submerged,<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 581"/> so there is at most a faint hint of Keats's own possible fear.

According to [[Helen Vendler]], "To Autumn" may be seen as an allegory of artistic creation. As the farmer processes the fruits of the soil into what sustains the human body, so the artist processes the experience of life into a symbolic structure that may sustain the human spirit. This process involves an element of self-sacrifice by the artist, analogous to the living grain's being sacrificed for human consumption. In "To Autumn", as a result of this process, the "rhythms" of the harvesting "artist-goddess" "permeate the whole world until all visual, tactile, and kinetic presence is transubstantiated into Apollonian music for the ear," the sounds of the poem itself.<ref>Vendler 1988 pp. 124–125</ref>

In a 1979 essay, [[Jerome McGann]] argued that while the poem was indirectly influenced by historical events, Keats had deliberately ignored the political landscape of 1819.<ref>McGann 1979 pp. 988–1032</ref> Countering this view, Andrew Bennett, Nicholas Roe and others focused on what they believed were political allusions actually present in the poem, Roe arguing for a direct connection to the [[Peterloo Massacre]] of 1819.<ref>Strachan 2003 p. 175</ref> Later, Paul Fry argued against McGann's stance when he pointed out, "It scarcely seems pertinent to say that 'To Autumn' is therefore an evasion of social violence when it is so clearly an encounter with death itself [...] it is not a politically encoded escape from history reflecting the coerced betrayal [...] of its author's radicalism. McGann thinks to rescue Keats from the imputation of political naïveté by saying that he was a radical browbeaten into quietism".<ref>Fry 1995 pp. 123–124</ref>

In his 1999 study of the effect on British literature of the diseases and climates of the colonies, Alan Bewell read "the landscape of 'To Autumn{{'"}} as "a kind of biomedical allegory of the coming into being of English climatic space out of its dangerous geographical alternatives."<ref>Bewell 1999 p. 177</ref> Britain's colonial reach over the previous century and a half had exposed the mother country to foreign diseases and awareness of the dangers of extreme tropical climates. Keats, with medical training,<ref>Bewell 1999 p. 162</ref> having suffered chronic illness himself,<ref>Bewell 1999 p. 163</ref> and influenced like his contemporaries by "colonial medical discourse",<ref>Bewell 1999 p. 231</ref> was deeply aware of this threat.

According to Bewell, the landscape of "To Autumn" presents the temperate climate of rural England as a healthful alternative to disease-ridden foreign environments.<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 182">Bewell 1999 p. 182</ref> Though the "clammy" aspect of "fever", the excessive ripeness associated with tropical climates, intrude into the poem, these elements, less prominent than in Keats's earlier poetry, are counterbalanced by the dry, crisp autumnal air of rural England.<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 176"/> In presenting the particularly English elements of this environment, Keats was also influenced by contemporary poet and essayist Leigh Hunt, who had recently written of the arrival of autumn with its "migration of birds", "finished harvest", "cyder [...] making" and migration of "the swallows",<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 178"/> as well as by English landscape painting<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 176"/> and the "pure" English idiom of the poetry of Thomas Chatterton.<ref>Bewell 1999 pp. 182–83</ref>

In "To Autumn", Bewell argues, Keats was at once voicing "a very personal expression of desire for health"<ref>Bewell 1999 p. 183</ref> and constructing a "myth of a national environment".<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 182"/> This "political" element in the poem,<ref name="Bewell 1999 p. 178"/> Bewell points out, has also been suggested by [[Geoffrey Hartman]], who expounded a view of "To Autumn" as "an ideological poem whose form expresses a national idea".<ref>Hartman 1975 p. 88; qtd. in Bewell 1999 p. 176</ref>

Thomas McFarland, on the other hand, in 2000 cautioned against overemphasizing the "political, social, or historical readings" of the poem, which distract from its "consummate surface and bloom".<ref>McFarland quotes Shelley. McFarland 2000 pp. 224–25</ref> Most important about "To Autumn" is its concentration of imagery and allusion in its evocation of nature,<ref>McFarland 2000 pp. 223–24</ref> conveying an "interpenetration of livingness and dyingness as contained in the very nature of autumn".<ref>McFarland 2000 p. 221</ref>

==Structure==
"To Autumn" is a poem of three stanzas, each of eleven lines. Like others of Keats's odes written in 1819, the structure is that of an [[Ode#English ode|odal hymn]], having three clearly defined sections corresponding to the Classical divisions of [[strophe]], [[antistrophe]], and [[epode]].<ref>Bate 1963 p. 499</ref> The stanzas differ from those of the other odes through use of eleven lines rather than ten, and have a [[couplet]] placed before the concluding line of each stanza.<ref name="B182">Bate 1962 pp. 182–184</ref>

"To Autumn" employs poetical techniques which Keats had perfected in the five poems written in the Spring of the same year, but departs from them in some aspects, dispensing with the [[narrator]] and dealing with more concrete concepts.<ref name="B581">Bate 1963 pp. 581–582</ref> There is no dramatic movement in "To Autumn" as there is in many earlier poems; the poem progresses in its focus while showing little change in the objects it is focusing on. There is, in the words of Walter Jackson Bate, "a union of process and stasis", "energy caught in repose", an effect that Keats himself termed "stationing".<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 581–584</ref> At the beginning of the third stanza he employs the dramatic [[Ubi sunt]] device associated with a sense of melancholy, and questions the personified subject: ''"Where are the songs of Spring?"''<ref>Flesch 2009 p. 170</ref>

Like the other odes, "To Autumn" is written in [[iambic pentameter]] (but greatly modified from the very beginning) with five stressed syllables to a line, each usually preceded by an unstressed syllable.<ref>Blades 2002 p. 104</ref> Keats varies this form by the employment of Augustan inversion, sometimes using a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable at the beginning of a line, including the first: ''"Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness"''; and employing [[spondee]]s in which two stressed syllables are placed together at the beginnings of both the following stanzas, adding emphasis to the questions that are asked: ''"Who hath not seen thee..."'', ''"Where are the songs...?"''

The [[rhyme]] of "To Autumn" follows a pattern of starting each stanza with an [[Sonnet#English (Shakespearean) sonnet|ABAB pattern]] which is followed by [[rhyme scheme]] of CDEDCCE in the first verse and CDECDDE in the second and third stanzas.<ref name="B182"/> In each case, there is a couplet before the final line. Some of the language of "To Autumn" resembles phrases found in earlier poems with similarities to ''[[Endymion (poem)|Endymion]]'', ''[[Sleep and Poetry]]'', and ''Calidore''.<ref>Ridley 1933 pp. 283–285</ref> Keats characteristically uses [[syllable|monosyllabic words]] such as ''"...how to load and bless with fruit the vines that round the thatch-eaves run."'' The words are weighted by the emphasis of [[bilabial consonants]] (b, m, p), with lines like ''"...for Summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells."'' There is also an emphasis on [[vowel length#Long vowels in English|long vowels]] which control the flow of the poem, giving it a slow measured pace: ''"...while barred clouds bloom the soft dying day"''.<ref name="B182"/>

Between the manuscript version and the published version of "To Autumn" Keats tightened the language of the poem. One of Keats's changes emphasised by critics is the change in line 17 of "Drows'd with red poppies" to "Drows'd with the fume of poppies", which emphasises the sense of smell instead of sight. The later edition relies more on [[passive voice|passive]], [[participle|past participles]], as apparent in the change of "While a gold cloud" in line 25 to "While barred clouds".<ref>Bate 1962 p. 183</ref> Other changes involve the strengthening of phrases, especially within the transformation of the phrase in line 13 "whoever seeks for thee may find" into "whoever seeks abroad may find". Many of the lines within the second stanza were completely rewritten, especially those which did not fit into a rhyme scheme. Some of the minor changes involved adding punctuation missing from the original manuscript copy and altering capitalisation.<ref>Ridley 1933 pp. 285–287</ref>

==Critical reception==
Critical and scholarly praise has been unanimous in declaring "To Autumn" one of the most perfect poems in the English language. [[Algernon Charles Swinburne|A.C. Swinburne]] placed it with "Ode on a Grecian Urn" as "the nearest to absolute perfection" of Keats's odes; Aileen Ward declared it "Keats's most perfect and untroubled poem"; and [[Douglas Bush]] has stated that the poem is "flawless in structure, texture, tone, and rhythm";<ref>Bennett 1991 qtd. p. 159</ref> Walter Evert, in 1965, stated that "To Autumn" is "the only perfect poem that Keats ever wrote – and if this should seem to take from him some measure of credit for his extraordinary enrichment of the English poetic tradition, I would quickly add that I am thinking of absolute perfection in whole poems, in which every part is wholly relevant to and consistent in effect with every other part."<ref>Evert 1965 p. 298</ref>

Early reviews of "To Autumn" focused on it as part of Keats's collection of poems ''Lamia, Isabella, the Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems''. An anonymous critic in the July 1820 ''Monthly Review'' claimed, "this writer is very rich both in imagination and fancy; and even a superabundance of the latter faculty is displayed in his lines 'On Autumn,' which bring the reality of nature more before our eyes than almost any description that we remember. [...] If we did not fear that, young as is Mr K., his peculiarities are fixed beyond all the power of criticism to remove, we would exhort him to become somewhat less strikingly original,—to be less fond of the folly of too new or too old phrases,—and to believe that poetry does not consist in either the one or the other."<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 162</ref> Josiah Conder in the September 1820 ''Eclectic Review'' mentioned, "One naturally turns first to the shorter pieces, in order to taste the flavour of the poetry. The following ode to Autumn is no unfavourable specimen."<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 233</ref> An anonymous reviewer in ''The Edinburgh Magazine'' for October 1820 added to a discussion of some of Keats's longer poems the afterthought that "The ode to 'Fancy,' and the ode to 'Autumn,' also have great merit."<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 215</ref>

Although, after Keats's death, recognition of the merits of his poetry came slowly, by mid century, despite widespread [[Victorian morality|Victorian]] disapproval of the alleged "weakness" of his character and the view often advanced "that Keats's work represented mere sensuality without substance",<ref>Matthews 1971 pp. 27, 33, 34</ref> some of his poems began to find an appreciative audience, including "To Autumn". In an 1844 essay on Keats's poetry in the ''Dumfries Herald'', George Gilfillian placed "To Autumn" among "the finest of Keats' smaller pieces".<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 306</ref> In an 1851 lecture, David Macbeth Moir acclaimed "four exquisite odes,—'To a Nightingale,' 'To a Grecian Urn,' 'To Melancholy,' and 'To Autumn,'—all so pregnant with deep thought, so picturesque in their limning, and so suggestive."<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. pp. 351–352</ref> In 1865, [[Matthew Arnold]] singled out the "indefinable delicacy, charm, and perfection of [...] Keats's [touch] in his Autumn".<ref>Arnold 1962 pp. 376, 380</ref> John Dennis, in an 1883 work about great poets, wrote that "the 'Ode to Autumn', ripe with the glory of the season it describes—must ever have a place among the most precious gems of lyrical poetry."<ref>Dennis 1883 p. 372</ref> The 1888 Britannica declared, "Of these [odes] perhaps the two nearest to absolute perfection, to the triumphant achievement and accomplishment of the very utmost beauty possible to human words, may be that to Autumn and that on a Grecian Urn".<ref>Baynes 1888 p. 23</ref>

At the turn of the 20th century, a 1904 analysis of great poetry by Stephen Gwynn claimed, "above and before all [of Keats's poems are] the three odes, ''To a Nightingale'', ''On a Grecian Urn'', and ''To Autumn''. Among these odes criticism can hardly choose; in each of them the whole magic of poetry seems to be contained."<ref>Gwynn 1904 p. 378</ref> [[Sidney Colvin]], in his 1917 biography, pointed out that "the ode ''To Autumn'' [...] opens up no such far-reaching avenues to the mind and soul of the reader as the odes ''To a Grecian Urn'', ''To a Nightingale'', or ''On Melancholy'', but in execution is more complete and faultless than any of them."<ref>Colvin 1917 pp. 421–22</ref> Following this in a 1934 analysis of Romantic poetry, Margaret Sherwood stated that the poem was "a perfect expression of the phase of primitive feeling and dim thought in regard to earth processes when these are passing into a thought of personality."<ref>Sherwood 1934 p. 263</ref>

Harold Bloom, in 1961, described "To Autumn" as "the most perfect shorter poem in the English language."<ref>Bloom 1993 p. 432</ref> Following this, Walter Jackson Bate, in 1963, claimed that "[...] each generation has found it one of the most nearly perfect poems in English."<ref name="Bate 1963 p. 581"/> Later, in 1973, Stuart Sperry wrote, {{"'}}To Autumn' succeeds through its acceptance of an order innate in our experience – the natural rhythm of the seasons. It is a poem that, without ever stating it, inevitably suggests the truth of 'ripeness is all' by developing, with a richness of profundity of implication, the simple perception that ripeness is fall."<ref>Sperry 1973 p. 336</ref> In 1981, [[William Walsh (academic)|William Walsh]] argued that "Among the major Odes [...] no one has questioned the place and supremacy of 'To Autumn', in which we see wholly realized, powerfully embodied in art, the complete maturity so earnestly laboured at in Keats's life, so persuasively argued about in his letters."<ref>Walsh 1981 p. 118</ref> Literary critic and academic Helen Vendler, in 1988, declared that "in the ode 'To Autumn,' Keats finds his most comprehensive and adequate symbol for the social value of art."<ref>Vendler 1988 p. 124</ref>

In 1997, Andrew Motion summarised the critical view on "To Autumn": "it has often been called Keats's 'most ... untroubled poem' [...] To register the full force of its achievement, its tensions have to be felt as potent and demanding."<ref name="Motion p. 461"/> Following in 1998, [[M. H. Abrams]] explained, {{"'}}To Autumn' was the last work of artistic consequence that Keats completed [...] he achieved this celebratory poem, with its calm acquiescence to time, transience and mortality, at a time when he was possessed by a premonition [...] that he had himself less than two years to live".<ref>Abrams 1998 pp. 51–52</ref> James Chandler, also in 1998, pointed out that "If ''To Autumn'' is his greatest piece of writing, as has so often been said, it is because in it he arguably set himself the most ambitious challenge of his brief career and managed to meet it."<ref>Chandler 1998 p. 430</ref> Timothy Corrigan, in 2000, claimed that {{"'}}To Autumn' may be, as other critics have pointed out, his greatest achievement in its ability [...] to redeem the English vernacular as the casual expression of everyday experience, becoming in this his most exterior poem even in all its bucolic charm."<ref>Corrigan 2000 p. 156</ref> In the same year, Thomas McFarland placed "To Autumn" with "Ode to a Nightingale", "Ode on a Grecian Urn", "The Eve of St. Agnes" and ''Hyperion'' as Keats's greatest achievement, together elevating Keats "high in the ranks of the supreme makers of world literature".<ref>McFarland 2000 pp. 225–26</ref> In 2008, Stanley Plumly wrote, "history, posterity, immortality are seeing 'Ode to a Nightingale,' 'Ode on a Grecian Urn,' and 'To Autumn' as three of the most anthologized lyric poems of tragic vision in English."<ref>Plumly 2008 p. 343</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=20em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
* Abrams, M. H. "Keats's Poems: The Material Dimensions". In ''The Persistence of Poetry''. Ed. Robert Ryan and Ronald Sharp. Amherst: University of Mass. Press, 1998. ISBN 1-55849-175-9
* Arnold, Matthew. ''Lectures and Essays in Criticism''. Ed. R.H. Super. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1962. {{OCLC|3012869}}
* Bate, Walter Jackson. ''John Keats''. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963. {{OCLC|291522}}
* Bate, Walter Jackson. ''The Stylistic Development of Keats''. New York: Humanities Press, 1962. (Originally published 1945.) {{OCLC|276912}}
* Baynes, Thomas (Ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Vol XIV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1888. {{OCLC|1387837}}
* Bennett, Andrew. ''Keats, Narrative and Audience''. Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-521-44565-5
* Bewell, Alan. ''Romanticism and Colonial Disease''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8018-6225-6
* Blades, John. ''John Keats: the poems''. Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 978-0-333-94895-8
* Bloom, Harold. ''The Visionary Company''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993. (Originally published 1961; revised and enlarged edition 1971.) ISBN 0-8014-0622-6
* Bloom, Harold. "The Ode ''To Autumn''". In ''Keats's Odes''. Ed. Jack Stillinger. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968, pp. 44–47. {{OCLC|176883021}}
* Chandler, James. ''England in 1819''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. ISBN 0-226-10108-8
* Colvin, Sidney. ''John Keats: His Life and Poetry''. London: Macmillan, 1917. {{OCLC|257603790}}
* Corrigan, Timothy. "Keats, Hazlitt and Public Character". In ''Challenge of Keats''. Ed. Allan Christensen, Lilla Jones, Giuseppe Galigani, and Anthony Johnson. Atlanta: Rodopi, 2000. ISBN 90-420-0509-2
* Dennis, John. ''Heroes of Literature, English Poets''. New York: E. & J. B. Young, 1883. {{OCLC|4798560}}.
* Evert, Walter. ''Aesthetics and Myth in the Poetry of Keats''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965. {{OCLC[291999}}
* Flesch, William. ''Companion to British Poetry, 19th Century''. Facts on File, 2009. ISBN 978-0-8160-5896-9
* Fry, Paul. ''A Defense of Poetry''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-8047-2452-0
* Gittings, Robert. ''John Keats''. London: Heinemann, 1968. {{OCLC|295596}}
* Gwynn, Stephen. ''The Masters of English Literature''. London: Macmillan, 1904. {{OCLC|3175019}}
* Hartman, Geoffrey. "Poem and Ideology: A Study of 'To Autumn{{'"}} (1975), in ''John Keats: Modern Critical Views''. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House, 1985, pp. 87–104. ISBN 0-87754-608-8
* Keats, John. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J-su12fRTngC The Life and Letters of John Keats]''. Ed. Richard Houghton (reprint). Read Books, 2008.
* Matthews, G. M. (ed.). ''Keats: The Critical Heritage''. London: Routledge, 1971. ISBN 0-7100-7147-7
* McFarland, Thomas. ''The Masks of Keats: The Endeavour of a Poet''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-818645-2
* McGann, Jerome. "Keats and the Historical Method in Literary Criticism". ''MLN'' 94 (1979): 988–1032.
* Motion, Andrew. ''Keats''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. ISBN 0-226-54240-8
* O'Rourke, James. ''Keats's Odes and Contemporary Criticism''. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998. ISBN 0-8130-1590-1
* Plumly, Stanley. ''Posthumous Keats''. New York: W. W. Norton, 2008. ISBN 978-0-393-06573-2
* Ridley, Maurice. ''Keats' Craftsmanship''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1933. {{OCLC|1842818}}
* Sherwood, Margaret. ''Undercurrents of Influence in English Romantic Poetry''. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1934. {{OCLC|2032945}}
* Sperry, Stuart. ''Keats the Poet''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-691-06220-X
* Strachan, John. ''A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on the Poems of John Keats''. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-23477-8
* Vendler, Helen. ''The Music of What Happens''. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-674-59152-6
* Wagner, Jennifer. ''A Moment's Monument''. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8386-3630-6
* Walsh, William. ''Introduction to Keats''. London: Methuen, 1981. ISBN 0-416-30490-7
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{wikisource|To Autumn (Keats)}}
* Audio: [http://poemsoutloud.net/columns/archive/the_critic_and_john_keats/ Listen to Robert Pinsky read "To Autumn"] by John Keats (via [http://poemsoutloud.net/ poemsoutloud.net])

{{John Keats}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:British poems]]
[[Category:Poetry by John Keats]]
[[Category:1819 poems]]

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Militärgeschichte Australiens während des Zweiten Weltkriegs

2013-04-25T13:49:40Z

Lessogg: /* Home front */ wikii style

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[[File:Aust soldiers Wewak June 1945.jpg|thumb|300px|alt=Two soldiers crouching on an incline in jungle terrain. The man on the left is holding a rifle and the man on the right is firing a light machine gun|An Australian light machine gun team in action during the [[Aitape-Wewak campaign]], June 1945]]
[[Australia]] entered [[World War II|World War II]] shortly after the [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|invasion of Poland]], declaring war on Germany on 3 September 1939. By the end of the war, almost a million Australians had served in the [[Australian Defence Force|armed forces]], whose military units fought primarily in the [[European Theatre of World War II|European theatre]], [[North African campaign]], and the [[South West Pacific theatre of World War II|South West Pacific theatre]]. In addition, Australia [[Attacks on Australia during World War II|came under direct attack]] for the first time in its history; its casualties from enemy action during the war were 27,073 killed and 23,477 wounded.<ref>27,073 Australians were killed and 23,477 were wounded by enemy action during the war, however when non-battle casualties are included these figures are 39,767 killed and another 66,553 wounded. See {{cite web |title=Australian War Casualties |publisher=Australian War Memorial |date=15 December 2005 |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/research/infosheets/war_casualties.asp |accessdate=4 April 2009}}</ref>

In effect, Australia fought two wars between 1939 and 1945<ref>Hasluck (1970). p. 2.</ref> – one against Germany and Italy as part of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]]'s war effort and the other against Japan in alliance with the United States and Britain. While most Australian forces were withdrawn from the Mediterranean following the outbreak of war in the Pacific, they continued to take part in large numbers in the air offensive against Germany. From 1942 until early 1944, Australian forces played a key role in the [[Pacific War]], making up the majority of Western Allied strength throughout much of the fighting there. The military was largely relegated to subsidiary fronts from mid-1944, but continued offensive operations against the Japanese until the war ended.

World War II contributed to major changes in the nation's economy, military and foreign policy. The war accelerated the process of industrialisation, led to the development of a larger peacetime military and began the process with which Australia shifted the focus of its foreign policy from Britain [[Australia–United States relations|to the United States]]. The effects of the war also fostered the development of a more diverse and cosmopolitan Australian society.

==Outbreak of war==
[[File:Troop ship farewell (000304-01).jpg|thumb|Five women standing at the edge of a dock. A large ship is sailing away from them.|Women friends and family on the wharf waving farewell to the departing troop ship RMS ''Strathallan'' carrying the Advance Party of the 6th Division to service overseas. They include [[George Alan Vasey]]'s wife [[Jessie Vasey]] (second from the left). The photograph is especially poignant because Vasey did not survive the war.]]
Between World War I and World War II, Australia suffered greatly from the [[Great Depression]]. This limited Australian defence expenditure and led to a decline in the size and effectiveness of the armed forces during the late 1920s and early 1930s. In the years leading up to the war, Australia followed Britain's policy towards [[Nazi Germany]], supporting first its [[appeasement of Hitler]] and then its guarantee of Polish independence.<ref>Macintyre (1986). p. 325.</ref>

Australia entered the war against Germany on 3 September 1939, shortly after Britain declared war when its ultimatum for Germany to withdraw from Poland expired.<ref>Hasluck (1965). pp. 151–56</ref> Unlike Canada and South Africa there was no legislative debate. The government of Australia believed that, as [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Robert Menzies]] said, "Britain is at war therefore Australia is at war", and asked London to notify Germany that Australia was an associate of the United Kingdom.<ref>Hasluck (1970), pp. 6–7.</ref> Australia's support of war was primarily made on the grounds that its interests were inextricably linked to those of Britain, and that a British defeat would destroy the system of imperial defence which Australia relied upon for security against Japan. This position received almost universal public support, though there was little enthusiasm for war.<ref>Beaumont (1996). pp. 1–3.</ref>

At the time war was declared, the Australian armed forces were less prepared than at the outbreak of [[World War I|World War I]] in August 1914. The [[Royal Australian Navy]] (RAN) was the best prepared of the three services, but was small and equipped with only two [[heavy cruiser]]s, four [[light cruiser]]s, two [[Sloop-of-war|sloops]], five obsolete [[destroyer]]s and a number of small and auxiliary warships.<ref>Coates (2006). p. 116.</ref> The [[Australian Army]] comprised a small permanent cadre of 3,000 men and 80,000 part-time militiamen who had volunteered for training with the [[Australian Army Reserve|Citizen Military Forces]] (CMF). The [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) was the weakest of the services, and few of its 246 aircraft were modern.<ref>Coates (2006). p. 118.</ref> While the Government began a large military expansion and transferred some RAAF aircrew and units to British control upon the outbreak of war, it was unwilling to immediately dispatch an expeditionary force overseas due to the threat posed by Japanese intervention.<ref>Macintyre (1986). p. 326.</ref>

The first Australian shot of the war took place several hours after the declaration of war when a gun at [[Fort Queenscliff]] fired [[Warning shot|across the bows]] of an Australian ship as it attempted to leave [[Melbourne]] without required clearances.<ref>McKernan (1983). p. 4.</ref> On 10 October 1939, a [[Short Sunderland]] of [[No. 10 Squadron RAAF|No. 10 Squadron]], based in England for re-equipment, became the first Australian and the first [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] air force unit to go into action when it undertook a mission to [[Tunisia]].<ref name="Stephens 76-–79">Stephens (2006). pp. 76–79.</ref>
[[File:AIF (AWM ARTV04333).jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=A drawing of a man wearing a 1940s-era business suit and hat cradling a military uniform in his right arm and holding a rifle with his left hand. There is a blue background behind the man and a cutting from a newspaper to the right of him.|An AIF recruiting poster]]

On 15 September 1939, Menzies announced the formation of the [[Second Australian Imperial Force]] (AIF). This was an [[Expeditionary warfare|expeditionary force]], which initially consisted of 20,000 men organised into an infantry division (the [[6th Division (Australia)|6th Division]]) and auxiliary units. The AIF was institutionally separate from the CMF, which was legally restricted to service in Australia and its external territories, and was formed by raising new units rather than transferring CMF units. On 15 November Menzies announced the reintroduction of conscription for home defence service effective 1 January 1940.<ref>Long (1961). p. 39.</ref> Recruitment for the AIF was initially slow, but one in six men of military age had enlisted by March 1940 and there was a huge surge of volunteers after the [[Battle of France|fall of France]] in June 1940. Men volunteered for the AIF for a range of reasons, with the most common being a sense of duty to defend Australia and the British Empire.<ref>Beaumont (1996). pp. 7–9.</ref> In early 1940 each of the services introduced regulations which prohibited the enlistment of people not "substantially of European origin"; while these regulations were strictly enforced by the RAN and Army, the RAAF continued to accept small numbers of non-European Australians.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). p. 4.</ref>

The AIF's major units were raised between 1939 and 1941. The 6th Division was formed during October and November 1939 and embarked for the Middle East in early 1940 to complete its training and receive modern equipment after the British Government assured the Australian Government that Japan did not pose an immediate threat. It was planned that the division would join the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] in France when its preparations were complete, but this did not eventuate as France was conquered before the division was ready.<ref>Palazzo (2001). pp. 139–140.</ref> A further three AIF infantry divisions (the [[7th Division (Australia)|7th Division]], [[8th Division (Australia)|8th Division]] and [[9th Division (Australia)|9th Division]]) were raised in the first half of 1940 as well as a [[corps]] headquarters ([[I Corps (Australia)|I Corps]]) and numerous support and service units. All of these divisions and the majority of the support units were deployed overseas during 1940 and 1941. An AIF armoured division (the [[1st Armoured Division (Australia)|1st Armoured Division]]) was also raised in early 1941 but never left Australia.<ref>Palazzo (2001). pp. 144–146.</ref>

While the government initially proposed deploying the entire RAAF overseas, it was instead decided to focus the force's resources on training aircrew to facilitate a massive expansion of Commonwealth air power.<ref>Stevens (2006). p. 75.</ref> In late 1939 Australia and the other Dominions established the [[Empire Air Training Scheme]] (EATS) to train large numbers of men for service in the British [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) and other Commonwealth air units. Almost 28,000 Australians were eventually trained through EATS in schools in Australia, Canada and [[Rhodesia]]. While many of these men were posted to Australian [[Article XV squadrons]], the majority served with British and other Dominion squadrons. Moreover, these nominally 'Australian' squadrons were not under RAAF control and Australians often made up a minority of their airmen.<ref>Stevens (2006). pp. 60–64.</ref> As the Australian Government had no effective control over how airmen trained through EATS were used, most Australian historians regard the scheme as having hindered the development of Australia's defence capability.<ref>Beaumont (1996). p. 18.</ref> Nevertheless, RAAF airmen trained through EATS represented about nine percent of all aircrew who fought for the RAF in the European and Mediterranean theatres and made an important contribution to Allied operations.<ref>Stevens (2006). p. 73.</ref>

==North Africa, the Mediterranean and the Middle East==
During the first years of World War II, Australia's military strategy was closely aligned with that of the United Kingdom. In line with this, most Australian military units deployed overseas in 1940 and 1941 were sent to the [[Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II|Mediterranean and Middle East]] where they formed a key part of the Commonwealth forces in the area. The three AIF infantry divisions sent to the Middle East saw extensive action, as did the RAAF squadrons and warships in this theatre.<ref>Grey (2008). pp. 156–164.</ref>

===North Africa===
[[File:HMAS Sydney (AWM 301473) cropped.jpg|thumb|alt=A large World War II-era warship at sea|HMAS ''Sydney'' in 1940]]
The RAN was the first of the Australian services to see action in the Mediterranean. At the time [[Military history of Italy during World War II|Italy entered the war]] on 10 June 1940 the RAN had a single cruiser ({{HMAS|Sydney|1934|2}}) and the five elderly destroyers of the so-called '[[Scrap Iron Flotilla]]' at [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] with the [[British Mediterranean Fleet]]. During the first days of the [[Battle of the Mediterranean]], ''Sydney'' sank an Italian destroyer and {{HMAS|Voyager|D31|2}} a submarine. The Mediterranean Fleet maintained a high operational tempo, and on 19 July ''Sydney'', with a British destroyer squadron in company, engaged the fast Italian light cruisers [[Italian cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni|''Bartolomeo Colleoni'']] and [[Italian cruiser Giovanni dalle Bande Nere|''Giovanni dalle Bande Nere'']] in the [[Battle of Cape Spada]]. In the running battle which followed, ''Bartolomeo Colleoni'' was sunk. The Australian ships spent much of their time at sea throughout 1940 and ''Sydney'' was relieved by her [[sister ship]] {{HMAS|Perth|D29|2}} in February 1941.<ref>Frame (2004). pp. 153–157.</ref>

The Australian Army first saw action in [[Operation Compass]], the successful Commonwealth offensive in North Africa which was conducted between December 1940 and February 1941. The 6th Division relieved the [[4th Infantry Division (India)|4th Indian Division]] on 14 December. Although the 6th Division was not fully equipped, it had completed its training and was given the task of capturing Italian fortresses bypassed by the [[7th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)|British 7th Armoured Division]] during its advance.<ref>Long (1973). p. 54.</ref>
[[File:AfricaMap1.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A map of North Africa with lines and military units marked on it.|A map of North Africa showing the progress of Operation Compass and strategic locations]]

The 6th Division went into action at [[Bardia, Libya|Bardia]] on 3 January 1941. Although the fortress was manned by a larger Italian force, the Australian infantry quickly penetrated the defensive lines with the support of British tanks and artillery. The majority of the Italian force surrendered on 5 January and the Australians took 40,000 prisoners.<ref>Long (1973). pp. 55–58.</ref> The 6th Division followed up this success by assaulting the fortress of [[Tobruk]] on 21 January. Tobruk was secured the next day with 25,000 Italian prisoners taken.<ref>Long (1973). pp. 60–62.</ref> The 6th Division subsequently pushed west along the coast road to [[Cyrenaica]] and captured [[Benghazi]] on 4 February.<ref>Long (1973). p. 63.</ref> The 6th Division was withdrawn for deployment to Greece later in February and was replaced by the untested 9th Division, which took up garrison duties in Cyrenaica.<ref>Coates (2006). p. 132.</ref>

In the last week of March 1941, a German-led force launched an offensive in Cyrenaica which rapidly defeated the Allied forces in the area, forcing a general withdrawal towards Egypt. The 9th Division formed the [[rear guard]] of this withdrawal, and on 6 April was ordered to defend the important port town of [[Tobruk]] for at least two months. During the ensuing [[siege of Tobruk]] the 9th Division, reinforced by the [[18th Brigade (Australia)|18th Brigade]] of the 7th Division and British artillery and armoured regiments, used fortifications, aggressive patrolling and artillery to contain and defeat repeated German armoured and infantry attacks. Tobruk's defenders were sustained by the Mediterranean Fleet, and the elderly Australian destroyers made repeated supply 'runs' into the port. {{HMAS|Waterhen|D22|2}} and {{HMAS|Parramatta|U44|2}} were sunk during these operations. Upon the request of the Australian Government, the bulk of the 9th Division was withdrawn from Tobruk in September and October 1941 and was replaced by the [[70th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|British 70th Division]]. The 2/13th Battalion was forced to remain at Tobruk until the siege was lifted in December when the convoy evacuating it was attacked, however. The defence of Tobruk cost the Australian units involved 3,009 casualties, including 832 killed and 941 taken prisoner.<ref>Coulthard-Clark (2001). pp. 183–186.</ref>

Two Australian fighter squadrons also took part in the fighting in North Africa. No. 239 Wing, a [[Curtiss P-40]]-equipped unit in the [[Desert Air Force]], was dominated by Australians, in the form of two RAAF squadrons—[[No. 3 Squadron RAAF|No. 3 Squadron]] and [[No. 450 Squadron RAAF|No. 450 Squadron]]—and numerous individual Australians in RAF squadrons. These two squadrons differed from the other RAAF squadrons in the Mediterranean in that they were made up of predominantly Australian ground staff and pilots; the other RAAF units had ground crews made up of mostly British RAF personnel.<ref>Odgers (2000). pp. 185–186, 191–192.</ref>

===Greece, Crete and Lebanon===
[[File:Australians Crete (007789).jpg|thumb|alt=A line of unarmed soldiers disembarking from a ship down a gangway.|Australian troops land in Alexandria after being evacuated from Greece.]]
In early 1941 the 6th Division and I Corps headquarters took part in the ill-fated Allied [[Battle of Greece|expedition to defend Greece]] from a German invasion. The corps' commander, Lieutenant-General [[Thomas Blamey]], and Prime Minister Menzies both regarded the operation as risky, but agreed to Australian involvement after the British Government provided them with briefings which deliberately understated the chance of defeat. The Allied force deployed to Greece was much smaller than the German force in the region and the defence of the country was compromised by inconsistencies between Greek and Allied plans.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). pp. 241–242.</ref>

Australian troops arrived in Greece during March and manned defensive positions in the north of the country alongside British, New Zealand and Greek units. ''Perth'' also formed part of the naval force which protected the Allied troop convoys travelling to Greece and participated in the [[Battle of Cape Matapan]] in late March. The outnumbered Allied force was not able to halt the Germans when they invaded on 6 April and was forced to retreat. The Australians and other Allied units conducted a fighting withdrawal from their initial positions and were evacuated from southern Greece between 24 April and 1 May. Australian warships also formed part of the force which protected the evacuation and embarked hundreds of soldiers from Greek ports. The 6th Division suffered heavy casualties in this campaign, with 320 men killed and 2,030 captured.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 144–146.</ref>

While most of the 6th Division returned to Egypt, the [[19th Brigade (Australia)|19th Brigade Group]] and two provisional infantry battalions landed at [[Crete]] where they formed a key part of [[Crete order of battle|the island's defences]]. The 19th Brigade was initially successful in holding its positions when [[Battle of Crete|German paratroopers landed]] on 20 May, but was gradually forced to retreat. After several key airfields were lost the Allies evacuated the island's garrison. Approximately 3,000 Australians, including the entire [[2/7th Australian Infantry Battalion|2/7th Infantry Battalion]], could not be evacuated, and were taken prisoner.<ref>Coulthard-Clark (2001). p. 190.</ref> As a result of its heavy casualties the 6th Division required substantial reinforcements and equipment before it was again ready for combat.<ref>Kuring (2004). p. 127.</ref> ''Perth'' and the new destroyers {{HMAS|Napier|G97|2}} and {{HMAS|Nizam|G38|2}} also took part in operations around Crete, with ''Perth'' embarking soldiers for evacuation to Egypt.<ref>Frame (2004). pp. 160–161.</ref>
[[File:Australian transport trucks Syria June41.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A road at the edge of a cliff with trucks driving both ways along it.|Australian Army transport trucks move along the coast road in Lebanon during the Syria-Lebanon campaign.]]

The Allied defeat during the Greek Campaign indirectly contributed to a change of government in Australia. Prime Minister Menzies' leadership had been weakened by the lengthy period he spent in Britain during early 1941, and the high Australian losses in the Greek Campaign led many members of his [[United Australia Party]] (UAP) to conclude that he was not capable of leading the Australian war effort. Menzies resigned on 26 August after losing the confidence of his party and was replaced by [[Arthur Fadden]] from the [[National Party of Australia|Country Party]], which was the UAP's coalition partner. Fadden's government collapsed on 3 October and was replaced by an [[Australian Labor Party]] government under the leadership of [[John Curtin]].<ref>McKernan (2006). pp. 125–133.</ref>

The 7th Division and the [[17th Brigade (Australia)|17th Brigade]] from the 6th Division formed a key part of the [[Syria-Lebanon Campaign order of battle|Allied ground forces]] during the [[Syria-Lebanon campaign]] which was fought against [[Vichy French]] forces in June and July 1941. RAAF aircraft also joined the [[Royal Air Force]] in providing [[close air support]]. The Australian force entered Lebanon on 8 June and advanced along the coast road and [[Litani River]] valley. Although little resistance had been expected, the Vichy forces mounted a strong defence which made good use of the mountainous terrain.<ref>Johnston (2007). pp. 18–19.</ref> After the Allied attack became bogged down reinforcements were brought in and the Australian I Corps headquarters took command of the operation on 18 June. These changes enabled the Allies to overwhelm the French forces and the 7th Division [[Battle of Beirut (1941)|entered Beirut]] on 12 July. The loss of Beirut and a British breakthrough in Syria led the Vichy commander to seek an armistice and the campaign ended on 13 July.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 154–159.</ref>

===El Alamein===
[[File:2-8 Field Regt.jpg|thumb|alt=An artillery gun and its crew in a desert. A pile of shell cases is in the foreground.|Guns of the 2/8th Field Regiment at El Alamein in July 1942]]
In the second half of 1941 the Australian I Corps was concentrated in Syria and Lebanon to rebuild its strength and prepare for further operations in the Middle East. Following the outbreak of war in the Pacific most elements of the Corps, including the 6th and 7th Divisions, returned to Australia in early 1942 to counter the perceived Japanese threat to Australia. The Australian Government agreed to British and United States requests to temporarily retain the 9th Division in the Middle East in exchange for the deployment of additional US troops to Australia and Britain's support for a proposal to expand the RAAF to 73 squadrons.<ref>Hasluck (1970). pp. 73–87, 177</ref> The Government did not intend that the 9th Division would play a major role in active fighting, and it was not sent any further reinforcements.<ref>Hasluck (1970). pp. 177, 197–198.</ref> All of the RAN's ships in the Mediterranean were also withdrawn to the Pacific but most RAAF units in the Middle East remained in the theatre.<ref>Beaumont (1996). p. 17.</ref>

In June 1942 four Australian [[J, K and N class destroyer|N class destroyers]] were transferred to the Mediterranean from the Indian Ocean to participate in [[Operation Vigorous]], which was an attempt to supply the [[Siege of Malta (World War II)|besieged island]] of [[Malta]] from Egypt. This operation ended in failure, and {{HMAS|Nestor|G02|2}} had to be scuttled on 16 June after being bombed the previous day. After this operation, the three surviving destroyers returned to the Indian Ocean.<ref name="Long_1973_265">Long (1973). p. 265.</ref>

In mid-1942, the Axis forces [[Battle of Gazala|defeated the Commonwealth force in Libya]] and advanced into north-west Egypt. In June the [[British Eighth Army]] made a stand just over 100 km west of [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]], at the railway siding of [[El Alamein]] and the 9th Division was brought forward to reinforce this position. The lead elements of the Division arrived at El Alamein on 6 July and the Division was assigned the most northerly section of the Commonwealth defensive line. The 9th Division played a significant role in the [[First Battle of El Alamein]] which halted the Axis advance, though at the cost of heavy casualties, including the entire 2/28th Infantry Battalion which was forced to surrender on 27 July. Following this battle the division remained at the northern end of the El Alamein line and launched diversionary attacks during the [[Battle of Alam el Halfa]] in early September.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 168–172.</ref>

In October 1942, the 9th Division and the RAAF squadrons in the area took part in the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]]. After a lengthy period of preparation, the Eighth Army launched its major offensive on 23 October. The 9th Division was involved in some of the heaviest fighting of the battle, and its advance in the coast area succeeded in drawing away enough German forces for the heavily reinforced [[2nd Division (New Zealand)|2nd New Zealand Division]] to decisively break though the Axis lines on the night of 1/2 November. The 9th Division suffered a high number of casualties during this battle and did not take part in the pursuit of the retreating Axis forces.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 172–176.</ref> During the battle the Australian Government requested that the division be returned to Australia as it was not possible to provide enough reinforcements to sustain it, and this was agreed by the British and US governments in late November. The 9th Division left Egypt for Australia in January 1943, ending the AIF's involvement in the war in North Africa.<ref>Long (1973). pp. 284–285.</ref>

===Tunisia, Sicily and Italy===
Although the Second Battle of El Alamein marked the end of a major Australian role in the Mediterranean, several RAAF units and hundreds of Australians attached to Commonwealth forces remained in the area until the end of the war. After the 9th Division was withdrawn Australia continued to be represented in North Africa by several RAAF squadrons which supported the 8th Army's advance through Libya and the subsequent [[Tunisia Campaign]]. Two Australian destroyers ({{HMAS|Quiberon||2}} and {{HMAS|Quickmatch||2}}) also participated in [[Operation Torch|the Allied landings in North Africa]] in November 1942.<ref>Odgers (2000). pp. 183–184.</ref>
[[File:3 Sqn Mustangs.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Five World War II-era propeller driven fighters in the air|No. 3 Squadron [[P-51 Mustang]] fighters return from a raid over Northern Italy in May 1945]]

Australia played a small role in the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian Campaign]]. The RAN returned to the Mediterranean between May and November 1943 when eight [[Bathurst class corvette|''Bathurst'' class corvettes]] were transferred from the [[British Eastern Fleet]] to the Mediterranean Fleet to protect the invasion force during the [[Allied invasion of Sicily]]. The corvettes also escorted convoys in the western Mediterranean before returning to the Eastern Fleet.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 192–195.</ref> No. 239 Wing and four Australian Article XV squadrons also took part in the Sicilian Campaign, flying from bases in Tunisia, Malta, North Africa and Sicily.<ref>Stanley (1987). pp. 118–124.</ref> No. 239 Wing subsequently provided air support for the [[Allied invasion of Italy]] in September 1943 and moved to the mainland in the middle of that month. The two Australian fighter bomber squadrons provided close air support to the Allied armies and attacked German supply lines until the end of the war. [[No. 454 Squadron RAAF|No. 454 Squadron]] was also deployed to Italy from August 1944 and hundreds of Australians served in RAF units during the campaign.<ref>Stanley (1987). pp. 126–139.</ref>

The RAAF also took part in other Allied operations in the Mediterranean. Two RAAF squadrons, [[No. 451 Squadron RAAF|No. 451 Squadron]] ([[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfires]]) and [[No. 458 Squadron RAAF|No. 458 Squadron]] ([[Vickers Wellington|Wellingtons]]), supported the [[Operation Dragoon|Allied invasion of southern France]] in August 1944. No. 451 Squadron was based in southern France in late August and September and when the operation ended both squadrons were moved to Italy, though No. 451 Squadron was transferred to Britain in December. [[No. 459 Squadron RAAF|No. 459 Squadron]] was based in the eastern Mediterranean until the last months of the war in Europe and attacked German targets in Greece and the [[Aegean Sea]].<ref>Long, (1973), pp. 374–384</ref> In addition, 150 Australians served with the [[Balkan Air Force]], principally in [[No. 148 Squadron RAF|No. 148 Squadron RAF]]. This special duties squadron dropped men and supplies to [[Yugoslav Partisans|guerrillas]] in [[Yugoslavia]] and attempted to supply the Polish [[Armia Krajowa|Home Army]] during the [[Warsaw Uprising]] in 1944.<ref>Stanley (1987). p. 135.</ref>

==Britain and Western Europe==
[[File:10 Sqn (AWM 042259).jpg|thumb|A No. 10 Squadron Sunderland departing for a patrol over the Atlantic in 1941.]]
While the majority of the Australian military fought on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] in France during World War I, relatively few Australians fought in Europe during World War II. The RAAF, including thousands of Australians posted to British units, made a significant contribution to the strategic bombing of Germany and efforts to safeguard Allied shipping in the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]]. The other services made smaller contributions, with two Army brigades being briefly based in Britain in late 1940 and several of the RAN's warships serving in the Atlantic.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 120, 180–191.</ref>

===Defence of Britain===
Australians participated in the defence of Britain throughout the war. More than 100 Australian airmen fought with the [[Royal Air Force]] during the [[Battle of Britain]] in 1940, including [[Non-British personnel in the RAF during the Battle of Britain|over 30 fighter pilots]].<ref>Coulthard-Clark (2001). p. 173.</ref> Two AIF brigades (the 18th and [[25th Brigade (Australia)|25th]]) were also stationed in Britain from June 1940 to January 1941 and formed part of the British mobile reserve which would have responded to any German landings. An Australian Army forestry group served in Britain between 1940 and 1943.<ref>Long (1973). pp. 41–43.</ref> Several Australian fighter squadrons were also formed in Britain during 1941 and 1942 and contributed to defending the country from German air raids and, from mid-1944, [[V-1 flying bomb]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/raaf/fighter.html |title=Air war Europe 1939–1945: Fighter Command |accessdate=12 December 2007|work=Australia's War 1939–1945 |publisher=Government of Australia}}</ref>

The RAAF and RAN took part in the [[Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945)|Battle of the Atlantic]]. No. 10 Squadron, based in Britain at the outbreak of war to take delivery of its [[Short Sunderland]] flying boats, remained there throughout the conflict as part of [[RAF Coastal Command]]. It was joined by [[No. 461 Squadron RAAF|No. 461 Squadron]] in April 1942, also equipped with Sunderlands. These squadrons escorted Allied convoys and sank 12 [[U-boat]]s. [[No. 455 Squadron RAAF|No. 455 Squadron]] also formed part of Coastal Command from April 1942 as an anti-shipping squadron equipped with light bombers. In this role the squadron made an unusual deployment to Vaenga in the [[Soviet Union]] in September 1942 to protect [[Convoy PQ-18]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/units/unit_11153.asp |title=455 Squadron RAAF |accessdate=15 March 2008|publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> Hundreds of Australian airmen also served in RAF Coastal Command squadrons.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.raaf.gov.au/raafmuseum/exhibitions/heritage.htm |title=RAAF Museum: Heritage Gallery |publisher=RAAF Museum |accessdate=16 December 2008}}</ref> In addition to the RAAF's contribution, several of the RAN's cruisers and destroyers escorted shipping in the Atlantic and Caribbean and hundreds of RAN personnel served aboard [[Royal Navy]] ships in the Atlantic throughout the war.<ref name="Stephens 76-–79"/><ref name="Long 1973. p. 369">Long (1973). p. 369.</ref>

===Air war over Europe===
The RAAF's role in the [[Strategic bombing during World War II|strategic air offensive in Europe]] formed Australia's main contribution to the defeat of Germany.<ref name="Stevens 2006. p. 107">Stevens (2006). p. 107.</ref> Approximately 13,000 Australian airmen served in dozens of British and five Australian squadrons in [[RAF Bomber Command]] between 1940 and the end of the war.<ref name="Stevens 2006. p. 107"/> There was not a distinctive Australian contribution to this campaign, however, as most Australians served in British squadrons and the Australian bomber squadrons were part of RAF units.<ref>Stevens (2006). p. 99.</ref>
[[File:460 Sqn (AWM 044167).jpg|thumb|left|Members of No. 460 Squadron and the Lancaster bomber [[G for George]] in August 1943]]

The great majority of Australian aircrew in Bomber Command were graduates of the Empire Air Training Scheme. These men were not concentrated in Australian units, and were instead often posted to the Commonwealth squadron with the greatest need for personnel where they became part of a multi-national bomber crew. Five Australian heavy bomber squadrons ([[No. 460 Squadron RAAF|No. 460]], [[No. 462 Squadron RAAF|No. 462]], [[No. 463 Squadron RAAF|No. 463]], [[No. 466 Squadron RAAF|No. 466]] and [[No. 467 Squadron RAAF|No. 467]] squadrons) were formed within Bomber Command between 1941 and 1945, however, and the proportion of Australians in these units increased over time.<ref name="Stanley03">Stanley (2003)</ref> [[No. 464 Squadron RAAF|No. 464 Squadron]], which was equipped with light bombers, was also formed as part of Bomber Command but was transferred to the [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|Second Tactical Air Force]] in June 1943 where it continued to attack targets in Europe.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/units/unit_11171.asp |title=464 Squadron RAAF |publisher=Australian War Memorial |accessdate=9 July 2008}}</ref> Unlike Canada, which concentrated its heavy bomber squadrons into [[No. 6 Group RCAF|No. 6 Group RCAF]] in 1943, the RAAF squadrons in Bomber Command were always part of British units, and the Australian Government had little control over how they were used.<ref>Stephens (2006). pp. 65–67.</ref>
[[File:453 Sqn (AWM 100821).jpeg|thumb|alt=Black and white photo of World War II-era single-engined monoplane aircraft in a field. The fuselage and wings of the aircraft are marked with vertical black and white stripes.|No. 453 Squadron Spitfires in Normandy during 1944. The aircraft are painted with [[invasion stripes]].]]

Australians took part in all of Bomber Command's major offensives and suffered heavy losses during raids on German cities and targets in France.<ref>Odgers (2000). pp. 187–191.</ref> The Australian contribution to major raids was often substantial, and the Australian squadrons typically provided about 10 percent of the main bomber force during the winter of 1943–44, including during the [[Battle of Berlin (air)|Battle of Berlin]].<ref>Stevens (2006). pp. 102–103.</ref> Overall, the Australian squadrons in Bomber Command dropped 6 percent of the total weight of bombs dropped by the command during the war.<ref>Long (1973). p. 393.</ref> Australian aircrew in Bomber Command had one of the highest casualty rates of any part of the Australian military during World War II. Although only two percent of Australians enlisted in the military served with Bomber Command, they incurred almost 20 percent of all Australian deaths in combat; 3,486 were killed and hundreds more were taken prisoner.<ref>Stevens (2006). p. 96.</ref>

Hundreds of Australians participated in the [[Western Front (World War II)|liberation of Western Europe]] during 1944 and 1945. Ten RAAF squadrons, hundreds of Australians in RAF units and about 500 Australian sailors serving with the Royal Navy [[Australian contribution to the Battle of Normandy|formed part of the force]] assembled for the [[Operation Overlord|landing in Normandy]] on 6 June 1944; overall, it has been estimated that about 3000 Australian personnel took part in this operation.<ref>Stanley (2004)</ref> From 11 June until September 1944 the Spitfire-equipped [[No. 453 Squadron RAAF|No. 453 Squadron RAAF]] was often based at [[forward airfield]]s in France and it and Australian light bomber and heavy bomber squadrons supported the liberation of France.<ref>{{cite journal |last= |first= |author=Air Power Development Centre |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Australian Contribution to D-Day Operations |publisher=RAAF Air Power Development Centre |year=2004 |url=http://www.raaf.gov.au/airpower/html/publications/pathfinder/2004/Pathfinder_13_Dec04_hires.pdf |format=|accessdate=25 January 2009 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070903053406/http://www.raaf.gov.au/airpower/html/publications/pathfinder/2004/Pathfinder_13_Dec04_hires.pdf |archivedate = 3 September 2007}}</ref> RAAF light bomber and fighter squadrons continued to support to the Allied armies until the end of the war in Europe by attacking strategic targets and escorting bomber formations.<ref>Long (1973). pp. 379–393.</ref> No. 451 and 453 Squadrons formed part of the [[British Army of the Rhine|British Army of Occupation]] in Germany from September 1945, and it was planned that there would be a long-term Australian presence in this force. Few RAAF personnel volunteered to remain in Europe, however, and both squadrons were disbanded in January 1946.<ref>Herington (1963). pp. 450–451.</ref>

==War in the Pacific==
[[File:Pacific War Japanese Advances.jpg|thumb|The Japanese advance through the Malay Barrier in 1941–42 and feared offensive operations against Australia]]
Due to the emphasis placed on cooperation with Britain, relatively few Australian military units were stationed in Australia and the [[Asia-Pacific]] Region after 1940. Measures were taken to improve Australia's defences as [[Pacific War|war with Japan]] loomed in 1941, but these proved inadequate. In December 1941 the Australian Army in the Pacific comprised the 8th Division, most of which was stationed in Malaya, and eight partially trained and equipped divisions in Australia, including the [[1st Armoured Division (Australia)|1st Armoured Division]]. The RAAF was equipped with 373 aircraft, most of which were obsolete trainers, and the RAN had three cruisers and two destroyers in Australian waters.<ref>Horner (1993). pp. 2–3.</ref>

In 1942 the Australian military was reinforced by units recalled from the Middle East and an expansion of the CMF and RAAF. United States Military units also arrived in Australia in great numbers before being deployed to New Guinea. The Allies moved onto the offensive in late 1942, with the pace of advance accelerating in 1943. From 1944 the Australian military was mainly relegated to subsidiary roles, but continued to conduct large-scale operations until the end of the war.<ref>Grey (2008). pp 165–196.</ref>

===Malaya and Singapore===
{{See also|Battle of Malaya|Battle of Singapore}}
From the 1920s Australia's defence thinking was dominated by the so-called '[[Singapore strategy]]'. This strategy involved the construction and defence of a major naval base at Singapore from which a large British fleet would respond to Japanese aggression in the region. To this end, a high proportion of Australian forces in Asia were concentrated in Malaya during 1940 and 1941 as the threat from Japan increased.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). pp. 339–340.</ref> At the outbreak of war the Australian forces in Malaya comprised the 8th Division (less the [[23rd Brigade (Australia)|23rd Brigade]]) under the command of Major General [[Gordon Bennett (Australian soldier)|Gordon Bennett]], four RAAF squadrons and eight warships.<ref>Coates (2006). p. 203.</ref> The RAAF became the first service to see action in the Pacific when Australian aircraft shadowing the Japanese invasion convoy bound for Malaya were fired at on 6 December 1941. Australian units participated in the unsuccessful Commonwealth attempts to defeat the Japanese landings, with RAAF aircraft attacking the [[beachhead]]s and {{HMAS|Vampire|D68|2}} accompanying the British battleship {{HMS|Prince of Wales|53|2}} and battlecruiser {{HMS|Repulse|1916|2}} during their [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|failed attempt]] to attack the Japanese invasion fleet.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 210–212.</ref>
[[File:Aust AT gun Singapore (012449).jpg|thumb|left|Australian anti-tank gunners overlooking the [[Johore Causeway]] between Singapore and Malaya in February 1942]]

The 8th Division and its attached [[Indian Army (1858–1947)|Indian Army]] units was assigned responsibility for the defence of [[Johore]] in the south of Malaya and did not see action until mid-January 1942 when Japanese spearheads first reached the state. The division's first engagement was the [[Battle of Muar]], in which the [[Twenty-Fifth Army (Japan)|Japanese Twenty-Fifth Army]] was able to outflank the Commonwealth positions due to Bennett misdeploying the forces under his command so that the weak Indian [[45th Indian Infantry Brigade|45th Brigade]] was assigned the crucial coastal sector and the stronger Australian brigades were deployed in less threatened areas. While the Commonwealth forces in Johore achieved a number of local victories, they were unable to do more than slow the Japanese advance and suffered heavy casualties. After being outmanoeuvred by the Japanese, the remaining Commonwealth units withdrew to Singapore on the night of 30–31 January.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 212–214.</ref>

Following the withdrawal to Singapore the 8th Division was deployed to defend the island's north-west coast. Due to the casualties suffered in Johore most of the division's units were at half-strength. The commander of the Singapore fortress, Lieutenant General [[Arthur Ernest Percival]], believed that the Japanese would land on the north-east coast of the island and deployed the near full-strength [[18th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|British 18th Division]] to defend this sector. [[Battle of Sarimbun Beach|The Japanese landing]] on 8 February took part in the Australian sector, however, and the 8th Division was forced from its positions after just two days of heavy fighting. The division was also unable to turn back the [[Battle of Kranji|Japanese landing at Kranji]] and withdrew to the centre of the island.<ref>Coulthard-Clark (2001). pp. 202–204.</ref> After further fighting in which the Commonwealth forces were pushed into a narrow perimeter around the urban area of Singapore, Percival surrendered his forces on 15 February. Following the surrender 14,972 Australians were taken prisoner,<ref>Wigmore (1957). p. 512.</ref> though some escaped on ships. These escapees included Major General Bennett, who was found by two post-war inquiries to have been unjustified in leaving his command.<ref>Lodge (1993)</ref> The loss of almost a quarter of Australia's overseas soldiers and the failure of the Singapore Strategy that had permitted it to accept the sending of the AIF to aid Britain, stunned the country.<ref>Hasluck (1970), p. 71</ref>

===Netherlands East Indies and Rabaul===
While Australia's contribution to the pre-war plans to defend South East Asia from Japanese aggression was focused on the defence of Malaya and Singapore, small Australian forces were also deployed to defend several islands to the north of Australia. The role of these forces was to defend strategic airfields which could be used to launch attacks on the Australian mainland.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 202–204.</ref> Detachments of [[coastwatchers]] were also stationed in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] and [[Solomon Islands]] to report on any Japanese operations there.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/coastwatcher/index.html |title=The Coastwatchers 1941–1945 |accessdate=26 January 2009|work=Australia's War 1939–1945}}</ref>
[[File:Darwin 42.jpg|thumb|left|An oil storage tank explodes during the first Japanese air raid on Darwin on 19 February 1942]]

At the start of the Pacific War the strategic port town of [[Rabaul]] in [[New Britain]] was defended by '[[Lark Force]]', which comprised the 2/22nd Infantry Battalion reinforced with coastal artillery and a poorly equipped RAAF bomber squadron. While Lark Force was regarded as inadequate by the Australian military,<ref name="Hasluck 1970. p. 14">Hasluck (1970). p. 14.</ref> it was not possible to reinforce it before the Japanese [[South Seas Force]] landed at Rabaul on 23 January 1942. The outnumbered Australian force [[Battle of Rabaul (1942)|was swiftly defeated]] and most of the survivors surrendered in the weeks after the battle. Few members of Lark Force survived the war, as at least 130 were murdered by the Japanese on 4 February and 1,057 Australian soldiers and civilian prisoners from Rabaul were killed when the ship carrying them to Japan (''[[Montevideo Maru]]'') was sunk by a US submarine on 1 July 1942.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/remember.nsf/pages/NT000016EE?openDocument |title=Rabaul, 1942 |accessdate=19 October 2010|last=Moremon |first=John |year=2003 |work=Remembering the War in New Guinea |publisher=Australia-Japan Research Project }}</ref>

AIF troops were also dispatched from Darwin to the [[Netherlands East Indies]] (NEI) in the first weeks of the Pacific War. Reinforced battalions from the 23rd Brigade were sent to [[Kupang|Koepang]] in [[West Timor]] ('[[Sparrow Force]]') and the island of [[Ambon Island|Ambon]] ('Gull Force') to defend these strategic locations from Japanese attack. The [[2/2nd Commando Squadron (Australia)|2/2nd Independent Company]] was also sent to [[Dili]] in [[Portuguese Timor]] in violation of Portugal's neutrality.<ref name="Hasluck 1970. p. 14"/> The force at Ambon [[Battle of Ambon|was defeated]] by the Japanese landing on 30 January and surrendered on 3 February 1942. Over 300 Australian prisoners were subsequently killed by Japanese troops in a series of mass executions during February.<ref>Coulthard-Clark (2001). pp. 201–202.</ref> While the force at Koepang was defeated after the Japanese landed there on 20 February and also surrendered, [[Australian commandos]] waged a [[Battle of Timor|guerrilla campaign]] against the Japanese in Portuguese Timor until February 1943.<ref>Coulthard-Clark (2001). pp. 207–208.</ref> {{HMAS|Voyager|D31|6}} and {{HMAS|Armidale|J240|2}} were lost in September and December 1942, respectively, while operating in support of the commandos.<ref>Long (1973). p. 250.</ref>
[[File:HMAS Yarra (AWM 016263).jpg|thumb|HMAS ''Yarra'']]

In the lead-up to the [[Battle of Java (1942)|Japanese invasion of Java]] a force of 242 carrier and land-based aircraft [[Air raids on Darwin, 19 February 1942|attacked Darwin on 19 February 1942]]. At the time Darwin was an important base for Allied warships and a staging point for shipping supplies and reinforcements into the NEI. The Japanese attack was successful, and resulted in the deaths of 251 civilians and military personnel, most of whom were non-Australian Allied seamen, and heavy damage to [[RAAF Base Darwin]] and the town's port facilities.<ref>Coulthard-Clark (2001). pp. 204–206.</ref>

Several Australian warships, a 3,000 strong Army unit and aircraft from several RAAF squadrons participated in the unsuccessful defence of Java when the Japanese invaded the island in March 1942. ''Perth'' formed part of the main [[American-British-Dutch-Australian Command]] (ABDACOM) naval force which was defeated in the [[Battle of the Java Sea]] on 27 February during an attempt to intercept one of the Japanese invasion convoys. ''Perth'' was sunk on 1 March when she and {{USS|Houston|CA-30|6}} [[Battle of Sunda Strait|encountered]] another Japanese invasion force while trying to escape to [[Tjilatjap]] on the south coast of Java. The sloop {{HMAS|Yarra|U77|2}} was also sunk off the south coast of Java when she was attacked by three Japanese cruisers while escorting a convoy on 4 March. Other Australian warships, including the light cruiser {{HMAS|Hobart|1939|2}} and several corvettes successfully escaped from NEI waters. An army force made up of elements from the 7th Division also formed part of the ABDACOM land forces on Java but saw little action before it surrendered at [[Bandung]] on 12 March after the Dutch forces on the island began to capitulate. RAAF aircraft operating from bases in Java and Australia also participated in the fighting, and 160 ground crew from [[No. 1 Squadron RAAF|No. 1 Squadron RAAF]] were taken prisoner.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 224–227.</ref>

Following the conquest of the NEI, the Japanese Navy's [[1st Air Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy|main aircraft carrier force]] [[Indian Ocean raid|raided the Indian Ocean]]. This force attacked [[Ceylon]] in early April, and ''Vampire'' was sunk off [[Trincomalee]] on 12 April while escorting {{HMS|Hermes|95|6}}, which was also lost. The Australian Army's [[16th Brigade (Australia)|16th]] and 17th Brigades formed part of the island's garrison at the time of the raid but did not see action.<ref>Long (1973). pp. 186–187.</ref>

===Build up of forces in Australia===

After the fall of Singapore the Australian Government and many Australians feared that Japan would invade the Australian mainland. Australia was ill-prepared to counter such an attack as the RAAF lacked modern aircraft and the RAN was too small and unbalanced to counter the Imperial Japanese Navy. Additionally, the Army, although large, contained many inexperienced units and lacked mobility.<ref>Grey (1999). p. 171.</ref> In response to this threat most of the AIF was brought back from the Middle East and the Government appealed to the United States for assistance. British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] attempted to divert the 6th and 7th Divisions to [[Burma]] while they were en route to Australia, but Curtin refused to authorise this movement. As a compromise two brigades of the 6th Division disembarked at [[Ceylon]] and formed part of the island's garrison until they returned to Australia in August 1942.<ref>Day (1999). pp. 452–457.</ref>
[[File:Geraldton exercise 1942 (028696).jpg|thumb|left|Australian soldiers exercising to defend [[Geraldton, Western Australia]] in October 1942]]

The perceived threat of invasion led to a major expansion of the Australian military. By mid-1942 the Army had a strength of ten infantry divisions, [[Australian armoured units of World War II|three armoured divisions]] and hundreds of other units.<ref>Grey (2001). p. 140.</ref> The RAAF and RAN were also greatly expanded, though it took years for these services to build up to their peak strengths.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). pp. 458, 468.</ref> Due to the increased need for manpower, the restrictions which prohibited non-Europeans from joining the military ceased to be enforced from late 1941, and about 3000 [[Indigenous Australians]] eventually enlisted. Most of these personnel were integrated into existing formations, but a small number of racially segregated units such as the [[Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion]] were formed.<ref> Dennis et al. (2008). pp. 4–5</ref> Thousands of Australians who were ineligible for service in the military responded to the threat of attack by joining [[Auxiliaries|auxiliary]] organisations such as the [[Volunteer Defence Corps (Australia)|Volunteer Defence Corps]] and [[Volunteer Air Observers Corps (Australia)|Volunteer Air Observers Corps]], which were modelled on the [[British Home Guard]] and [[Royal Observer Corps]] respectively.<ref>McKernan (1983). pp. 122–124.</ref> Australia's population and industrial base were not sufficient to maintain these forces once the threat of invasion had passed, and the Army was progressively reduced in size from 1943<ref>Palazzo (2001). p. 174.</ref> while only 53 of the 73 RAAF squadrons approved by the government were ever raised.<ref>Stephens (2006). pp. 152–153.</ref>

Despite Australian fears, the Japanese [[Proposed Japanese invasion of Australia during World War II|never intended]] to invade the Australian mainland. While an invasion was considered by the Japanese [[Imperial General Headquarters]] in February 1942, it was judged to be beyond the Japanese military's capabilities and no planning or other preparations were undertaken.<ref name="Stanley 2007. p. 29">Stanley (2007). p. 29.</ref> Instead, in March 1942 the Japanese military adopted a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States by capturing [[Port Moresby]] in New Guinea and the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Fiji]], [[Samoa]] and [[New Caledonia]].<ref>Horner (1993). pp. 4–5.</ref> This plan was frustrated by the Japanese defeat in the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]] and was postponed indefinitely after the [[Battle of Midway]].<ref>Horner (1993). p. 10.</ref> While these battles ended the threat to Australia, the Australian government continued to warn that an invasion was possible until mid-1943.<ref name="Stanley 2007. p. 29"/>
[[File:Curtin MacArthur Blamey (042766).jpg|thumb|MacArthur with Blamey and Prime Minister Curtin in March 1942]]

The collapse of British power in the Pacific also led Australia to reorient its foreign and military policy towards the United States. In February 1942 the US and British Governments agreed that Australia would become a strategic responsibility of the United States and the Allied [[ANZAC Force]] was created specifically to defend the Australian continent. In March, General [[Douglas MacArthur]] arrived in Australia after escaping from the Philippines and assumed command of the [[South West Pacific theatre of World War II|South West Pacific Area]] (SWPA). All of the Australian military's combat units in this area were placed under MacArthur's command, and MacArthur replaced the Australian Chiefs of Staff as the Australian Government's main source of military advice until the end of the war.<ref>Beaumont (1996a). pp. 34–36.</ref> Australian General Thomas Blamey was appointed the Allied land force commander, but MacArthur did not permit him to command American forces.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). p. 92.</ref> MacArthur also rejected [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army|US Army Chief of Staff]] General [[George Marshall|George Marshall's]] request that he appoint Australians to senior posts in his General Headquarters. Nevertheless, the partnership between Curtin and MacArthur proved beneficial for Australia between 1942 and 1944 as MacArthur was able to communicate Australian requests for assistance to the US Government.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). p. 332.</ref>

Large numbers of United States military personnel were based in Australia during the first years of the Pacific War. The first US units arrived in Australia in early 1942 and almost 1 million US personnel passed through Australia during the war. Many US military bases were constructed in northern Australia during 1942 and 1943, and Australia remained an important source of supplies to US forces in the Pacific until the end of the war. Relations between Australians and Americans were generally good, though there was some conflict between US and Australian soldiers<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/allin/yanksdownunder.html |title=All in – 'over-sexed, over-paid and over here' |accessdate=2 March 2008|work=Australia's War 1939–1945}}</ref> and the Australian Government only reluctantly accepted the presence of [[African American]] troops.<ref>Day (1999). pp. 441–442</ref>

===Papuan campaign===
Japanese forces first landed on the mainland of New Guinea on 8 March 1942 when they [[Invasion of Lae-Salamaua|invaded Lae and Salamaua]] to secure bases for the defence of the important base they were developing at Rabaul. Australian guerrillas from the [[New Guinea Volunteer Rifles]] established observation posts around the Japanese beachheads and the [[2/5th Cavalry Commando Squadron (Australia)|2/5th Independent Company]] successfully raided [[Salamaua]] on 29 June.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/remember.nsf/pages/NT00002612 |title=New Guinea north coast, 1942 |accessdate=7 November 2007|last=Moremon |first=John |year=2003 |work=Remembering the War in New Guinea |publisher=Australia-Japan Research Project |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070831180651/http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/remember.nsf/pages/NT00002612  |archivedate = 31 August 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Australian troops at Milne Bay.jpg|thumb|left|Australian troops at Milne Bay]]

After the Battle of the Coral Sea frustrated the Japanese plan to capture Port Morseby via an amphibious landing, the Japanese attempted to capture the town by landing the South Seas Force at Buna on the north coast of [[Territory of Papua|Papua]] and advancing overland using the [[Kokoda Track]] to cross the rugged [[Owen Stanley Range]]. The [[Kokoda Track campaign]] began on 22 July when the Japanese began their advance, opposed by an ill-prepared CMF brigade designated '[[Maroubra Force]]'. This force was successful in delaying the South Seas Force but was unable to halt it. Two AIF battalions from the 7th Division reinforced the remnants of Maroubra Force on 26 August but the Japanese continued to make ground and reached the village of Ioribaiwa near Port Moresby on 16 September.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 233–236.</ref> The South Seas Force was forced to withdraw back along the track on this day, however, as supply problems made any further advance impossible and an Allied counter-landing at Buna was feared.<ref>Bullard (2007). pp. 182–184.</ref> Australian forces pursued the Japanese along the Kokoda Track and forced them into a small [[bridgehead]] on the north coast of Papua in early November.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/remember.nsf/pages/NT00002102?openDocument |title=Kokoda, 1942: Australian counter-attack |accessdate=13 July 2008|last=Moremon |first=John |year=2003 |work=Remembering the War in New Guinea |publisher=Australia-Japan Research Project}}</ref> The Allied operations on the Kokoda Track were made possible by native Papuans who were recruited by the [[Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit]], often forcibly, to carry supplies and evacuate wounded personnel.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). p. 222.</ref> The RAAF and USAAF also played an important role throughout the campaign by attacking the Japanese force's supply lines and [[airdrop]]ping supplies to Australian Army units.<ref>{{cite journal |pages=121–124 |author= |title=The Air Campaign Over the Kokoda Trail |publisher=Air Power Development Centre |year=2005 |url=http://airpower.airforce.gov.au/admin/ProductFiles/Publication/Materials/27/Pathfinder%20Vol2.pdf |accessdate=25 January 2009 |isbn=978-1-920800-23-9}}</ref>
[[File:Papua Campaign maps.jpg|thumb|The Kokoda and Buna-Gona campaigns]]

Australian forces also defeated an attempt to capture the strategic [[Milne Bay]] area in August 1942. During the [[Battle of Milne Bay]] two brigades of Australian troops, designated Milne Force, supported by two RAAF fighter squadrons and US Army engineers defeated a smaller Japanese invasion force made up of [[Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces]] units. This was the first notable Japanese land defeat and raised Allied morale across the Pacific Theatre.<ref>Coates (2006). p. 232.</ref>

Australian and US forces [[Battle of Buna-Gona|attacked the Japanese bridgehead in Papua]] in late November 1942 but did not capture it until January 1943. The Allied force comprised the exhausted 7th Division and the inexperienced and ill-trained [[32nd Infantry Division (United States)|US 32nd Infantry Division]] and was short of artillery and supplies. Due to a lack of supporting weapons and MacArthur and Blamey's insistence on a rapid advance the Allied tactics during the battle were centred around infantry assaults on the Japanese fortifications. These resulted in heavy casualties and the area was not secured until 22 January 1943.<ref>Coates (2006). p. 240.</ref> Throughout the fighting in Papua, most of the Australian personnel captured by Japanese troops were murdered. In response, Australian soldiers aggressively sought to kill their Japanese opponents for the remainder of the war. The Australians generally did not attempt to capture Japanese personnel, and some prisoners of war were murdered.<ref>Johnson (1996), pp. 38–40</ref>
[[File:M3 Light Tanks assault on Buna.jpg|thumb|left|Australian light tanks and infantry in action at Buna]]

Following the defeats in Papua and [[Guadalcanal]] the Japanese withdrew to a defensive perimeter in the [[Territory of New Guinea]]. In order to secure their important bases at [[Lae]] and Salamaua they [[Battle of Wau|attempted to capture Wau]] in January 1943. Reinforcements were flown into the town and defeated the Japanese force in its outskirts following heavy fighting. The Japanese force began to withdraw towards the coast on 4 February. Following their defeat at Wau the Japanese attempted to reinforce Lae in preparation for an expected Allied offensive in the area. This ended in disaster when, during the [[Battle of the Bismarck Sea]], a troop convoy was destroyed by USAAF and RAAF aircraft from the [[Fifth Air Force|US Fifth Air Force]] and [[No. 9 Operational Group RAAF|No. 9 Operational Group RAAF]] with the loss of about 3,000 troops.<ref>Long (1973). pp. 251–256.</ref>

The Papuan campaign led to a significant reform in the composition of the Australian Army. During the campaign, the restriction banning CMF personnel from serving outside of Australian territory hampered military planning and caused tensions between the AIF and CMF. In late 1942 and early 1943 Curtin overcame opposition within the Labor Party to extending the geographic boundaries in which conscripts could serve to include most of the [[South West Pacific theatre of World War II|South West Pacific]] and the [[Defence (Citizen Military Forces) Act 1943|necessary legislation]] was passed in January 1943.<ref>Beaumont (1996a). pp. 41–42.</ref> The [[11th Brigade (Australia)|11th Brigade]] was the only CMF formation to serve outside of Australian territory, however, when it formed part of [[Merauke Force]] in the NEI during 1943 and 1944.<ref>Johnston (2007). p. 8.</ref>

===Attacks on Australian shipping===
{{Main|Axis naval activity in Australian waters}}
[[File:Starr King (AWM 128144).jpg|thumb|A [[liberty ship]] sinking after being attacked by [[Japanese submarine I-21|''I-21'']] near [[Port Macquarie, New South Wales|Port Macquarie]] in February 1943]]
The Japanese efforts to secure New Guinea included a prolonged submarine offensive against the Allied lines of communication between the United States and Australia and Australia and New Guinea. These were not the first Axis naval attacks on Australia; during 1940 and 1941 five German [[Armed merchantmen|surface raiders]] operated in Australian waters at various times. The German attacks were not successful in disrupting Australian merchant shipping, though ''Sydney'' was sunk with the loss her entire crew of 641 men in November 1941 in a [[Battle between HMAS Sydney and German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran|battle with the German auxiliary cruiser ''Kormoran'']], off the coast of Western Australia.<ref>Cooper (2001)</ref>

Following the defeat of the Japanese surface fleet the IJN deployed submarines to disrupt Allied supply lines by attacking shipping off the Australian east coast. This campaign began with an unsuccessful [[Attack on Sydney Harbour|midget submarine raid on Sydney Harbour]] on the night of 31 May. Following this attack, Japanese submarines operated along the Australian east coast until August 1942, [[List of ships sunk by Axis warships in Australian waters|sinking eight merchant ships]].<ref>Stevens (2005). pp. 192–201.</ref> The submarine offensive resumed in January 1943 and continued until June during which time a further 15 ships were sunk off the east coast. The 1943 sinkings included the [[AHS Centaur|hospital ship ''Centaur'']], which was torpedoed off Queensland on 14 May with the loss of 268 lives.<ref>Stevens (2005). pp. 218–248.</ref> The Japanese did not conduct further submarine attacks against Australia after June 1943 as their submarines were needed to counter Allied offensives elsewhere in the Pacific.<ref>Stevens (2005). p. 246.</ref> A single German submarine, [[German submarine U-862|''U-862'']], operated in the Pacific Ocean during the war, cruising off the Australian coast and New Zealand in December 1944 and January 1945. It sank two ships in Australian waters before returning to [[Jakarta|Batavia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uboat.net/ops/monsun3.htm |title=The Monsun boats |last=Jedrzejewski |first=Marcin |publisher=uboat.net |accessdate=3 June 2009}}</ref>

Considerable Australian and other Allied military resources were devoted to protecting shipping and ports from Axis submarines and warships. For instance, the RAN escorted over 1,100 coastal convoys<ref name="RAN_WW2">{{cite web |url=http://www.navy.gov.au/RAN_in_the_Second_World_War |title=RAN in the Second World War |last=Straczek |first=J.H |publisher=Royal Australian Navy |accessdate=13 March 2009}}</ref> the Army established [[Coastal defences of Australia during World War II|coastal defences]] to protect important ports<ref>Palazzo (2001). pp. 155–158.</ref> and a high proportion of the RAAF's operational squadrons were used to protect shipping at various times.<ref>Odgers (1968). p. 141.</ref> Nevertheless, the use of these units for defensive tasks and the shipping casualties in Australian waters did not seriously affect the Australian economy or Allied war effort.<ref>Stevens (2005). pp. 330–334.</ref>

===New Guinea offensives===
After halting the Japanese advance, Allied forces went on the offensive across the SWPA from mid 1943. Australian forces played a key role throughout this offensive, which was designated [[Operation Cartwheel]]. In particular, General Blamey oversaw a highly successful series of operations around the north-east tip of New Guinea which "was the high point of Australia's experience of operational level command" during the war.<ref>Horner (2002). pp. 15–16.</ref>
[[File:Kaiapit fly in 057499.jpg|thumb|left|Troops of the 2/16th Battalion disembark from [[C-47 Skytrain|Dakota]] aircraft at Kaiapit]]

After the successful defence of Wau the [[3rd Division (Australia)|3rd Division]] [[Salamaua-Lae campaign|began advancing towards Salamaua]] in April 1943. This advance was mounted to divert attention from Lae, which was one of the main objectives of Operation Cartwheel, and proceeded slowly. In late 3 June Division was reinforced by the US 162nd Regimental Combat Team which staged an amphibious landing to the [[Landing at Nassau Bay|south of Salamaua]]. The town was eventually captured on 11 September 1943.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/pushingback/wausalamaua.html |title='Bloody ridges': Wau-Salamaua |accessdate=1 January 2008|work=Australia's War 1939–1945}}</ref>

In early September 1943 Australian-led forces mounted a [[pincer movement]] to capture Lae. On 4 September 9 Division made an amphibious landing to the [[Landing at Lae|east of the town]] and began advancing to the west. The following day, the [[503d Infantry Regiment (United States)|US 503rd Parachute Regiment]] made an [[Landing at Nadzab|unopposed parachute drop]] at Nadzab, just west of Lae. Once the airborne forces secured Nadzab Airfield the 7th Division was flown in and began advancing to the east in a race with the 9th Division to capture Lae. This race was won by the 7th Division, which captured the town on 15 September. The Japanese forces at Salamaua and Lae suffered heavy losses during this campaign, but were able to escape to the north.<ref>Coates (2004). pp. 57–60.</ref>
[[File:Australian Operation Cartwheel battles.jpg|thumb|Operation Cartwheel in New Guinea and western New Britain]]

After the fall of Lae the 9th Division was given the task of [[Huon Peninsula campaign|capturing the Huon Peninsula]]. The [[20th Brigade (Australia)|20th Brigade]] landed near the strategic harbour of [[Finschhafen]] on 22 September 1943 and secured the area. The Japanese responded by dispatching the [[20th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|20th Division]] overland to the area and the remainder of the 9th Division was gradually brought in to reinforce the 20th Brigade against the expected counter-attack. The Japanese mounted a strong attack in mid-October which was defeated by the 9th Division after heavy fighting. During the second half of 9 November Division [[Battle of Sattelberg|captured the hills]] inland of Finschhafen from well dug in Japanese forces. Following its defeat the 20th Division retreated along the coast with the 9th Division and [[4th Brigade (Australia)|4th Brigade]] [[Battle of Sio|in pursuit]].<ref>Long (1973). pp. 331–343.</ref> The Allies scored a major intelligence victory towards the end of this campaign when Australian engineers found the 20th Division's entire [[cipher]] library, which had been buried by the retreating Japanese. These documents led to a [[Cryptanalysis|code breaking]] breakthrough which enabled MacArthur to accelerate the Allied advance by bypassing Japanese defences.<ref>Coates (2006). p. 254.</ref>
[[File:Aust ships Cape Gloucester (106687).jpg|thumb|left|HMAS ''Australia'' and ''Arunta'' bombarding Cape Gloucester]]

While the 9th Division secured the coastal region of the Huon Peninsula the 7th Division drove the Japanese from the inland [[Finisterre Range]]. The [[Finisterre Range campaign]] began on 17 September when the 2/6th Independent Company was air-landed in the Markham Valley. The company [[Battle of Kaiapit|defeated a larger Japanese force]] at Kaiapit and secured an airstrip which was used to fly the Division's [[21st Brigade (Australia)|21st]] and [[25th Brigade (Australia)|25th Brigades]] in. Through aggressive patrolling the Australians forced the Japanese out of positions in extremely rugged terrain and in January 1944 the division began its attack on the key [[Shaggy Ridge]] position. The ridge was taken by the end of January, with the RAAF playing a key supporting role. Following this success the Japanese withdrew from the Finisterre Range and Australian troops linked up with American patrols from [[Landing at Saidor|Saidor]] on 21 April and secured [[Madang]] on 24 April.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 254–257.</ref>

In addition to supporting the Army's operations on the New Guinea mainland, the RAN and RAAF took part in offensive operations in the [[Solomon Islands]]. This involvement had begun in August 1942 when both of the RAN's heavy cruisers, {{HMAS|Australia|D84|2}} and {{HMAS|Canberra|D33|2}}, supported the US Marine [[Guadalcanal Campaign|landing at Guadalcanal]]. On the night after the landing, ''Canberra'' was sunk during the [[Battle of Savo Island]] and the RAN played no further role in the [[Guadalcanal Campaign]].<ref>Frame (2004). pp. 183–184.</ref> RAAF aircraft supported several US Army and Marine landings during 1943 and 1944 and a RAAF radar unit participated in the [[Battle of Arawe|capture of Arawe]]. The Australian cruisers ''Australia'' and {{HMS|Shropshire|73|2}} and destroyers {{HMAS|Arunta|I30|2}} and {{HMAS|Warramunga|I44|2}} provided fire support for the [[1st Marine Division (United States)|US 1st Marine Division]] during the [[Battle of Cape Gloucester]] and the [[1st Cavalry Division (United States)|US 1st Cavalry Division]] during the [[Admiralty Islands campaign]] in late 1943 and early 1944. The landing at Cape Gloucester was also the first operation for the RAN amphibious transport {{HMAS|Westralia|1939|2}}.<ref>Long (1973). pp. 345–347.</ref>

===North Western Area Campaign===
{{Main|North Western Area Campaign}}
[[File:18 Sqn (AWM P02769-001).jpg|thumb|[[B-25 Mitchell]] bombers from [[No. 18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF|No. 18 (NEI) Squadron]] near Darwin in 1943. This was one of three joint Australian-Dutch squadrons formed during the war.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/alliesinadversity/australia/nei.asp |title=No. 18 (NEI) Squadron, RAAF |accessdate=4 November 2007|publisher=Australian War Memorial |work=Allies in adversity}}</ref>]]
The attack on Darwin in February 1942 marked the start of a prolonged aerial campaign over northern Australia and the Japanese-occupied Netherlands East Indies. Following the first attack on Darwin the Allies rapidly deployed fighter squadrons and reinforced the Army's [[Northern Territory Force]] to protect the town from a feared invasion.<ref>Powell (1988). pp. 108–110.</ref> These air units also attacked Japanese positions in the NEI and the Japanese responded by staging dozens of [[Air raids on Australia, 1942–43|air raids on Darwin and nearby airfields]] during 1942 and 1943, few of which caused significant damage. These raids were opposed by US, Australian and British fighters and suffered increasingly heavy casualties as Darwin's defences were improved.<ref>Coulthard-Clark (2001). p. 206.</ref> The Japanese also conducted a number of small and ineffective raids on towns and airfields in northern Queensland and Western Australia during 1942 and 1943.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). pp. 288–289.</ref>

While the Japanese raids on northern Australia ceased in late 1943, the Allied air offensive continued until the end of the war. During late 1942 Allied aircraft conducted attacks on Timor in support of the Australian guerrillas operating there. From early 1943 United States [[heavy bomber]] squadrons operated against Japanese targets in the eastern NEI from bases near Darwin. The Allied air offensive against the NEI intensified from June 1943 in order to divert Japanese forces away from New Guinea and the Solomons and involved Australian, Dutch and United States bomber units. These attacks continued until the end of the war, with the US heavy bombers being replaced by Australian [[B-24 Liberator]]-equipped squadrons in late 1944. From 1944 several RAAF [[PBY Catalina]] squadrons were also based at Darwin and conducted highly effective mine-laying sorties across South East Asia.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 269–271.</ref>

===Advance to the Philippines===
The Australian military's role in the South-West Pacific decreased during 1944. In the latter half of 1943 the Australian Government decided, with MacArthur's agreement, that the size of the military would be reduced to release manpower for war-related industries which were important to supplying Britain and the US forces in the Pacific. Australia's main role in the Allied war effort from this point forward was supplying the other Allied countries with food, materials and manufactured goods needed for the defeat of Japan.<ref>Hasluck (1970). p. 623.</ref> As a result of this policy, the Army units available for offensive operations were set at six infantry divisions (the three AIF divisions and three CMF divisions) and two armoured brigades. The size of the RAAF was set at 53 squadrons and the RAN was limited to the ships which were in service or planned to be built at the time.<ref>Palazzo (2001). pp 177–178</ref> In early 1944 all but two of the Army's divisions were withdrawn to the [[Atherton Tableland]] in north Queensland for training and rehabilitation.<ref>Horner (1982). p. 302.</ref> Several new battalions of Australian-led Papuan and New Guinea troops were formed during 1944 and organised into the [[Royal Pacific Islands Regiment|Pacific Islands Regiment]], however, and largely replaced the Australian Army battalions disbanded during the year. These troops had seen action alongside Australian units throughout the New Guinea campaign.<ref>Long (1963). pp. 82–83.</ref>
[[File:80 Sqn (OG1751).jpg|thumb|left| [[No. 80 Squadron RAAF|No. 80 Squadron]] aircraft at Noemfoor in November 1944]]

After the liberation of most of Australian New Guinea the RAAF and RAN participated in the US-led [[Western New Guinea campaign]], which had the goal of securing bases to be used to mount the [[Philippines campaign (1944–45)|liberation of the Philippines]]. Australian warships and the fighter, bomber and airfield construction squadrons of [[Australian First Tactical Air Force|No. 10 Operational Group RAAF]] participated in the capture of [[Operations Reckless and Persecution|Hollandia]], [[Battle of Biak|Biak]], [[Battle of Noemfoor|Noemfoor]] and [[Battle of Morotai|Morotai]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/pushingback/islandhopping.html |title='Island hopping' |accessdate=1 January 2008|work=Australia's War 1939–1945 }}</ref> After western New Guinea was secured No. 10 Operation Group was renamed the First Tactical Air Force (1TAF) and was used to protect the flank of the Allied advance by attacking Japanese positions in the NEI and performing other garrison tasks. The losses incurred performing these relatively unimportant roles led to a decline in morale, and contributed to the [[Morotai Mutiny|'Morotai Mutiny']] in April 1945.<ref>Odgers (1968). p. 498.</ref>

Elements of the RAN and RAAF also took part in the liberation of the Philippines. Four Australian warships and the assault transports {{HMAS|Kanimbla|1936|2}}, {{HMAS|Manoora|1935|2}} and ''Westralia''—along with a number of smaller warships and support ships—took part in the [[Battle of Leyte|US landing at Leyte]] on 20 October 1944. Australian sources state that ''Australia'' became the first Allied ship to be struck by a [[kamikaze]] when she was attacked during this operation on 21 October, though this claim was disputed by US historian [[Samuel Eliot Morison]].<ref>Nichols (2004)</ref> Australian ships also participated in the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], with ''Shropshire'' and ''Arunta'' engaging Japanese ships during the Battle of Surigao Strait on 25 October. The Australian naval force took part in the [[Invasion of Lingayen Gulf]] in January 1945; during this operation ''Australia'' was struck by a further five Kamikazes which killed 44 of her crew and forced her to withdraw for major repairs. RAN ships also escorted US supply convoys bound for the Philippines.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 266–268.</ref> The RAAF's [[No. 3 Airfield Construction Squadron RAAF|No. 3 Airfield Construction Squadron]] and [[No. 1 Wireless Unit RAAF|No. 1 Wireless Unit]] also landed in the Philippines and supported US operations there, and 1TAF raided targets in the southern Philippines from bases in the NEI and New Guinea.<ref>Odgers (1968). pp. 374–379.</ref>

While the Australian Government offered MacArthur I Corps for service in Leyte and Luzon, nothing came of several proposals to utilise it in the liberation of these islands.<ref>Horner (1982). pp. 382–383.</ref> The Army's prolonged period of relative inactivity during 1944 led to public concern, and many Australians believed that the AIF should be demobilised if it could not be used for offensive operations.<ref>McKernan (2006). p. 445.</ref> This was politically embarrassing for the government, and helped motivate it to look for new areas where the military could be employed.<ref>Beaumont (1996a). p. 46.</ref>

===Mopping up in New Guinea and the Solomons===
[[File:Final NG campaigns.jpg|thumb|Australian and Japanese Army forces in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands in late 1944]]
In late 1944, the Australian Government committed twelve Australian Army brigades to replace six US Army divisions which were conducting defensive roles in [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]], [[New Britain]] and the Aitape-Wewak area in New Guinea. While the US units had largely conducted a static defence of their positions, their Australian replacements mounted offensive operations designed to destroy the remaining Japanese forces in these areas.<ref name="Grey 1999. pp. 184–185">Grey (1999). pp. 184–185.</ref> The value of these campaigns was controversial at the time and remains so to this day. The Australian Government authorised these operations for primarily political reasons. It was believed that keeping the Army involved in the war would give Australia greater influence in any post-war peace conferences and that liberating Australian territories would enhance Australia's influence in its region.<ref>Day (2003), pp. 623–624.</ref> Critics of these campaigns argue that they were unnecessary and wasteful of the lives of the Australian soldiers involved as the Japanese forces were already isolated and ineffective.<ref name="Grey 1999. pp. 184–185"/>

[[File:Infantry wide bay (AWM 078376).jpg|thumb|left|Infantry at Wide Bay in January 1945]]
The [[5th Division (Australia)|5th Division]] replaced the [[40th Infantry Division (United States)|US 40th Infantry Division]] on New Britain during October and November 1944 and continued the [[New Britain Campaign]] with the goals of protecting Allied bases and confining the large Japanese force on the island to the area around Rabaul. In late 5 November Division established bases closer to the Japanese perimeter and began aggressive patrols supported by the [[Allied Intelligence Bureau]].<ref name="Coates 2006. p. 276">Coates (2006). p. 276.</ref> The division conducted amphibious landings at Open Bay and Wide Bay at the base of the [[Gazelle Peninsula]] in early 1945 and defeated the small Japanese garrisons in these areas. By April the Japanese had been confined to their fortified positions in the Gazelle Peninsula by the Australian force's aggressive patrolling. The 5th Division suffered 53 fatalities and 140 wounded during this campaign. After the war it was found that the Japanese force was 93,000 strong, which was much higher than the 38,000 which Allied intelligence had estimated remained on New Britain.<ref name="Coates 2006. p. 276"/>

[[File:Boomerangs Bougainville OG2064.jpg|thumb|Australian-designed [[CAC Boomerang]] aircraft at Bougainville in early 1945]]
The [[Australian II Corps|II Corps]] continued the [[Bougainville campaign]] after it replaced the [[XIV Corps (United States)|US Army's XIV Corps]] between October and December 1944. The corps consisted of the 3rd Division, 11th Brigade and [[Fiji Infantry Regiment]] on Bougainville and the 23rd Brigade which garrisoned neighbouring islands and was supported by RAAF, [[Royal New Zealand Air Force|RNZAF]] and USMC air units.<ref>Odgers (1968). p. 318.</ref> While the XIV Corps had maintained a defensive posture, the Australians conducted offensive operations aimed at destroying the Japanese force on Bougainville. As the Japanese were split into several enclaves the II Corps fought geographically separated campaigns in the north, centre and southern portions of the island. The main focus was against the Japanese base at Buin in the south, and the offensives in the north and centre of the island were largely suspended from May 1945. While Australian operations on Bougainville continued until the end of the war, large Japanese forces remained at Buin and in the north of the island.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 273–275.</ref>

The 6th Division was assigned responsibility for [[Aitape-Wewak campaign|completing the destruction]] of the [[Japanese Eighteenth Army]], which was the last large Japanese force remaining in the Australian portion of New Guinea. The division was reinforced by CMF and armoured units and began arriving at [[Aitape]] in October 1944. The 6th Division was also supported by several RAAF squadrons and RAN warships.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 278–279.</ref> In late 1944 the Australians launched a two-pronged offensive to the east towards [[Wewak]]. The 17th Brigade advanced through the inland [[Torricelli Mountains]] while the remainder of the division moved along the coast. Although the Eighteenth Army had suffered heavy casualties from previous fighting and disease, it mounted a strong resistance and inflicted significant casualties. The 6th Division's advance was also hampered by supply difficulties and bad weather. The Australians secured the coastal area by early May, with Wewak being captured on 10 May after a small force was landed to the east of the town. By the end of the war the Eighteenth Army had been forced into what it had designated its 'last stand' area which was under attack from the 6th Division. The Aitape-Wewak campaign cost Australia 442 lives while about 9,000 Japanese died and another 269 were taken prisoner.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 278–280.</ref>

===Borneo Campaign===
[[File:Borneo Campaign CMH.jpg|thumb|A map showing the progress of the Borneo campaign]]
The [[Borneo Campaign (1945)|Borneo Campaign of 1945]] was the last major Allied campaign in the SWPA. In a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July, the Australian I Corps, under Lieutenant General [[Leslie Morshead]], attacked Japanese forces occupying the island. Allied naval and air forces, centred on the [[US 7th Fleet]] under Admiral [[Thomas Kinkaid]], 1TAF and the US [[Thirteenth Air Force]] also played important roles in the campaign. The goals of this campaign were to capture Borneo's oilfields and [[Brunei Bay]] to support the US-led invasion of Japan and British-led [[Operation Zipper|liberation of Malaya]] which were planned to take place later in 1945.<ref>Coates (2006). p. 282.</ref> The Australian Government did not agree to MacArthur's proposal to extend the offensive to include the liberation of Java in July 1945, however, and its decision to not release the 6th Division for this operation contributed to it not going ahead.<ref>Horner (1982). pp. 394–395.</ref>

The campaign opened on 1 May 1945 when the [[26th Brigade (Australia)|26th Brigade Group]] landed on the small island of [[Tarakan Island|Tarakan]] off the east coast of Borneo. The goal of this operation was to secure the island's airstrip as a base to support the planned landings at [[Brunei]] and [[Balikpapan]]. While it had been expected that it would take only a few weeks to secure Tarakan and re-open the airstrip, [[Battle of Tarakan (1945)|intensive fighting on the island]] lasted until 19 June and the airstrip was not opened until 28 June. As a result, the operation is generally considered to have not been worthwhile.<ref>Long (1973). pp. 447–453.</ref>
[[File:Australian soldiers civilians Labuan.jpg|left|thumb|Australian soldiers and local civilians on Labuan Island. The soldier on the left is armed with an Australian-designed [[Owen submachine gun|Owen gun]].]]

The second phase of the Borneo Campaign began on 10 June when the 9th Division [[Operation Oboe Six|conducted simultaneous assaults]] on the north-west on the island of [[Labuan Territory|Labuan]] and the coast of Brunei. While Brunei was quickly secured, the Japanese garrison on Labuan held out for over a week. After the [[Brunei Bay]] region was secured the [[24th Brigade (Australia)|24th Brigade]] was [[Battle of North Borneo|landed in North Borneo]] and the 20th Brigade advanced along the western coast of Borneo south from Brunei. Both brigades rapidly advanced against weak Japanese resistance and most of north-west Borneo was liberated by the end of the war.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 286–288.</ref> During the campaign the 9th Division was assisted by indigenous fighters who were waging a guerrilla war against Japanese forces with the support of Australian special forces.<ref>Gin (2002)</ref>

The third and final stage of the Borneo Campaign was the capture of Balikpapan on the central east coast of the island. This operation had been opposed by General Blamey, who believed that it was unnecessary, but went ahead on the orders of Macarthur. After a 20-day preliminary air and naval bombardment the 7th Division landed near the town on 1 July. Balikpapan and its surrounds [[Battle of Balikpapan (1945)|were secured after some heavy fighting]] on 21 July but mopping up continued until the end of the war. The capture of Balikpapan was the last large-scale land operation conducted by the Western Allies during World War II.<ref>Coates (2006). pp. 288–292.</ref> Although the Borneo Campaign was criticised in Australia at the time, and in subsequent years, as pointless or a waste of the lives of soldiers, it did achieve a number of objectives, such as increasing the isolation of significant Japanese forces occupying the main part of the [[Dutch East Indies]], capturing major oil supplies and freeing Allied prisoners of war, who were being held in deteriorating conditions.<ref>Grey (1999). pp. 184–186.</ref>

Australia's leadership changed again during the Borneo Campaign. Prime Minister Curtin suffered a heart attack in November 1944 and [[Deputy Prime Minister of Australia|Deputy Prime Minister]] [[Frank Forde]] acted in his place until 22 January 1945. Curtin was hospitalised with another bout of illness in April 1945 and [[Treasurer of Australia|Treasurer]] [[Ben Chifley]] became acting Prime Minister as Forde was attending the [[San Francisco Conference]]. Curtin died on 5 July 1945 and Forde was sworn in as Prime Minister. Forde did not have the support of his party, however, and was replaced by Chifley after a leadership ballot was held on 13 July.<ref>Hasluck (1970). pp. 489–591.</ref>

===Intelligence and special forces===
[[File:Central Bureau headquarters 1944-45.jpg|thumb|Central Bureau's headquarters building at [[Ascot, Queensland|Ascot]] in Brisbane]]
Australia developed large [[List of Australian intelligence agencies|intelligence services]] during the war. Prior the outbreak of war the Australian military possessed almost no intelligence gathering facilities and was reliant on information passed on by the British intelligence services. Several small [[signals intelligence]] units were established in 1939 and 1940, which had some success intercepting and deciphering Japanese transmissions before the outbreak of the Pacific War.<ref>Horner (1982). pp. 224–225.</ref>

MacArthur began organising large scale intelligence services shortly after his arrival in Australia. On 15 April 1942, the joint Australian-US [[Central Bureau]] [[signals intelligence]] organisation was established at Melbourne. Central Bureau's headquarters moved to Brisbane in July 1942 and [[Manila]] in May 1945. Australians made up half the strength of Central Bureau, which was expanded to over 4,000 personnel by 1945.<ref>Horner (1982). p. 242.</ref> The Australian Army and RAAF also provided most of the Allied radio interception capability in the SWPA, and the number of Australian radio interception units was greatly expanded between 1942 and 1945. Central Bureau broke a number of Japanese codes and the intelligence gained from these decryptions and [[radio direction finding]] greatly assisted Allied forces in the SWPA.<ref>Clarke (2005). pp. 48–51.</ref>
[[File:Commandos Timbered Knoll.jpg|left|thumb|Commandos from the 2/3rd Independent Company in New Guinea during July 1943]]

Australian [[special forces]] played a significant role in the Pacific War. Following the outbreak of war [[Australian commandos|commando companies]] were deployed to Timor, the Solomon and Bismarck islands and New Caledonia. Although the [[1st Independent Company (Australia)|1st Independent Company]] was swiftly overwhelmed when the Japanese invaded the Solomon Islands in early 1942, the [[2/2nd Commando Squadron (Australia)|2/2nd]] and [[2/4th Commando Squadron (Australia)|2/4th]] independent companies waged a successful guerrilla campaign on Timor which lasted from February 1942 to February 1943 when the Australian force was evacuated.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/japadvance/timor.html |title=Fall of Timor |accessdate=15 January 2008|work=Australia's War 1939–1945}}</ref> The commando companies also played an important role in the New Guinea, New Britain, Bougainville and Borneo campaigns where they were used to collect intelligence, spearhead offensives and secure the flanks of operations conducted by conventional infantry.<ref>Kuring (2004). pp. 140–141.</ref>

Australia also formed small-scale raiding and reconnaissance forces, most of which were grouped together as the [[Allied Intelligence Bureau]]. [[Z Special Unit]] conducted raids far behind the front line, including a successful [[Operation Jaywick|raid on Singapore in September 1943]]. [[M Special Unit]], coastwatchers and smaller AIB units also operated behind Japanese lines to collect intelligence.<ref>Long (1963). pp. 617–622.</ref> AIB parties were often used to support Australian Army units and were assigned to inappropriate tasks such as tactical reconnaissance and liaison. AIB missions in Timor and Dutch New Guinea were also hampered by being placed under the command of unpopular Dutch colonial administrators.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). p. 508.</ref> The RAAF formed a specially-equipped unit ([[No. 200 Flight RAAF|No. 200 Flight]]) in 1945 to support these operations by transporting and supplying AIB parties in areas held by the Japanese.<ref>Nelmes (1994). pp. 128–133.</ref>

===Operations against the Japanese home islands===
[[File:Blamey Japanese surrender.jpg|thumb|General Blamey signing the Japanese instrument of surrender on behalf of Australia]]
Australia played a minor role in the [[Japan campaign]] in the last months of the war and was preparing to participate in the [[Operation Downfall|invasion of Japan]] at the time the war ended. Several Australian warships operated with the [[British Pacific Fleet]] (BPF) during the [[Battle of Okinawa]] and Australian destroyers later escorted British aircraft carriers and battleships during attacks on targets in the [[Japanese Archipelago|Japanese home islands]].<ref>Gill (1968). pp. 603–607, 611–614, 663–665, 673–674.</ref> Despite its distance from Japan, Australia was the BPF's main base and a large number of facilities were built to support the fleet.<ref>Horner (1982). pp. 377–381.</ref>

Australia's participation in the planned invasion of Japan would have involved elements of all three services fighting as part of Commonwealth forces. It was planned to form a new [[10th Division (Australia)|10th Division]] from existing AIF personnel which would form part of the [[Commonwealth Corps]] with British, Canadian and New Zealand units. The corps' organisation was to be identical to that of a US Army corps, and it would have participated in the invasion of the Japanese home island of [[Honshū]] which was scheduled for March 1946.<ref>Horner (1982). pp. 414–418.</ref> Australian ships would have operated with the BPF and US Pacific Fleet and two RAAF heavy bomber squadrons and a transport squadron were scheduled to be redeployed from Britain to Okinawa to join the [[Air raids on Japan|strategic bombardment of Japan]] as part of [[Tiger Force (air)|Tiger Force]].<ref>Day (2003). pp. 650, 671.</ref> Planning for operations against Japan ceased in August 1945 when [[Surrender of Japan|Japan surrendered]] following the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]].<ref>Long (1963). p. 549</ref>

General Blamey signed the [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender]] on behalf of Australia during the ceremony held on board {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}} on 2 September 1945.<ref>Long (1973). p. 468.</ref> Several RAN warships were [[List of Allied ships at the Japanese surrender|among the Allied ships]] anchored in [[Tokyo Bay]] during the proceedings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq69-2.htm |title=Allied Ships Present in Tokyo Bay During the Surrender Ceremony, 2 September 1945 |publisher=United States Navy Naval Historical Center |accessdate=3 June 2009}}</ref> Following the main ceremony on board ''Missouri'', Japanese field commanders surrendered to Allied forces across the Pacific Theatre. Australian forces accepted the surrender of their Japanese opponents at ceremonies conducted at Morotai, several locations in Borneo, Timor, Wewak, Rabaul, Bougainville and Nauru.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/vevp/surrender.html |title='Surrender' |accessdate=23 February 2008|work=Australia's War 1939–1945}}</ref>

==Australians in other theatres==
In addition to the major deployments, Australian military units and service men and women served in other theatres of the war, typically as part of British-led Commonwealth forces. About 14,000 Australians also served in the [[British Merchant Navy|Merchant Navy]] and crewed ships in many areas of the world.<ref>McKernan (2006). pp. 393–394.</ref>
[[File:Mission 204 (P00763001).jpg|thumb|left|Four members of the Australian contingent to Mission 204 in [[Yunnan Province]], China, during 1942]]

Australia played a minor role in the British-led campaigns against [[Vichy French]] colonial possessions in Africa. In late September 1940 ''Australia'' took part in the unsuccessful British and Free French [[Battle of Dakar|attempt to capture Dakar]] in which she sank a Vichy French destroyer. The Australian Government was not informed of the cruiser's involvement in this operation prior to the battle and complained to the British Government.<ref name="Horner 1982. p. 40">Horner (1982). p. 40.</ref> Three Australian destroyers also took part in the [[Battle of Madagascar|invasion of Madagascar]] in September 1942.<ref name="Long_1973_265" /> Closer to home, {{HMAS|Adelaide|1918|2}} played a significant role in ensuring that [[New Caledonia]] came under [[Free French Forces|Free French]] control in September 1940 by escorting a pro-Free French Governor to [[Nouméa]] and taking station off the city during the popular protests which resulted in the Governor replacing the pro-Vichy authorities.<ref name="Horner 1982. p. 40"/>

Australian warships served in the [[Red Sea]] and [[Persian Gulf]] through much of the war. From June to October 1940 HMAS ''Hobart'' took part in the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]], and played an important role in the [[Italian conquest of British Somaliland|successful evacuation]] of [[Berbera]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.navy.gov.au/HMAS_Hobart_(I) |title=HMAS ''Hobart'' (I) |accessdate=15 September 2008|publisher=Royal Australian Navy}}</ref> In May 1941, ''Yarra'' supported an operation in which [[Gurkha]] troops were landed near [[Basra]] during the [[Anglo-Iraqi War]]. In August 1941 ''Yarra'' and ''Kanimbla'' took part in the [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran]], with ''Yarra'' sinking the Iranian sloop ''Babr'' near Kohorramshahr and ''Kanimbla'' landing troops at Bandar Shapur.<ref>Nash and Stevens (2006). pp. 9–10.</ref> A dozen [[Bathurst class corvette|''Bathurst'' class corvettes]] also escorted Allied shipping in the Persian Gulf during 1942.<ref>Long (1973). p. 287.</ref>

While most Australian units in the Pacific Theatre fought in the SWPA, hundreds of Australians were posted to British units in Burma and India. These included 45 men from the 8th Division who volunteered to train Chinese guerrillas with the British Mission 204 in southern China and served there from February to September 1942.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/farflung/index.html |title=Far Flung Australians |accessdate=2 December 2007|work=Australia's War 1939–1945}} see also {{cite journal |last=Andrews |first=Eric |year=1987 |title=Mission 204: Australian Commandos in China, 1942 |journal=Journal of the Australian War Memorial |publisher=Australian War Memorial |location=Canberra |issue=10 |pages=pp. 11–20 |issn=07296274}}</ref> Hundreds of Australians also served with RAF units in India and Burma, though no RAAF units were deployed to this theatre. In May 1943, some 330 Australians were serving in forty-one squadrons in India, of which only nine had more than ten Australians.<ref name="Long 1973. p. 369"/> In addition, many of the RAN's corvettes and destroyers served with the British [[Eastern Fleet]] where they were normally used to [[Indian Ocean in World War II|protect convoys in the Indian Ocean]] from attacks by Japanese and German submarines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/farflung/fareast.html |title='The Far East' |accessdate=17 August 2008|work=Australia's War 1939–1945}}</ref>

==Prisoners of war==
[[File:POWs Burma Thai RR.jpg|thumb|Australian and Dutch POWs at Tarsau, Thailand in 1943]]
Just under 29,000 Australians were taken [[prisoner of war|prisoner]] by the Axis during the war. Only 14,000 of the 21,467 Australian prisoners taken by the Japanese survived captivity. The majority of the deaths in captivity were due to malnutrition and disease.<ref>Beaumont (2001). p. 345.</ref>

The 8,000 Australians captured by Germany and Italy were generally treated in accordance with the [[Geneva Conventions]]. The majority of these men were taken during the fighting in Greece and Crete in 1941, with the next largest group being 1,400 airmen shot down over Europe. Like other western Allied POWs, the Australians were held in permanent camps in Italy and Germany. As the war neared its end the Germans moved many prisoners towards the interior of the country to prevent them from being liberated by the advancing Allied armies. These movements were often made through [[The March (1945)|forced marches in harsh weather]] and resulted in many deaths.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/behindwire/march.html |title=Forced marches |accessdate=22 March 2008|work=Australia's War 1939–1945}}</ref> Four Australians were also executed following a mass escape from [[Stalag Luft III]] in March 1944.<ref>Herrington (1963). p. 495.</ref> While the Australian prisoners suffered a higher death rate in German and Italian captivity than their counterparts in [[World War I|World War I]], it was much lower than the rate suffered under Japanese internment.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). p. 429.</ref>

[[File:Japanese camp administrator Ikeuchi at Morotai.jpg|thumb|left|The Japanese interpreter in charge of Australian POWs at Ambon arriving at Morotai in October 1945]]
Like the other Allied personnel captured by the Japanese, most of the thousands of Australians captured in the first months of 1942 during the conquest of Malaya and Singapore, the NEI and New Guinea [[Japanese war crimes|were held in harsh conditions]]. Australians were held in camps across the Asia-Pacific region and many endured long voyages in [[Hell ship|grossly overcrowded ships]]. While most of the Australian POWs who died in Japanese captivity were the victim of deliberate [[malnutrition]] and disease, hundreds were deliberately killed by their guards. The [[Burma Railway|Burma-Thai Railway]] was the most notorious of the prisoner of war experiences, as 13,000 Australians worked on it at various times during 1942 and 1943 alongside thousands of other Allied POWs and Asians conscripted by the Japanese; nearly 2,650 Australians died there.<ref name="Beaumont_96a_pg48">Beaumont (1996a). p. 48.</ref> Thousands of Australian POWs were also sent to the Japanese home islands where they [[Aso Mining forced labor controversy|worked in factories and mines]] in generally harsh conditions.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). p. 433.</ref> The POWs held in camps at Ambon and Borneo suffered the highest death rates; 77 percent of those at Ambon died and few of the 2,500 Australian and British prisoners in Borneo survived; almost all were killed by overwork and a [[Sandakan Death Marches|series of death marches]] in 1945.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). p. 434.</ref>

The treatment of the POWs prompted many Australians to remain hostile towards Japan after the war.<ref>Macintyre (1999). pp. 192–193.</ref> Australian authorities investigated the abuses against Allied POWs in their country's zone of responsibility after the war, and guards who were believed to have mistreated prisoners were among those tried by Australian-administered [[war crimes trials]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.naa.gov.au/about-us/publications/fact-sheets/fs61.aspx |title=Fact sheet 61 – World War II war crimes |year=2003 |publisher=National Archives of Australia |accessdate=4 January 2009}}</ref>

Thousands of Axis POWs were held in Australia during the war. A total of 25,720 POWs were held in Australia: 18,432 Italians, 5,637 Japanese and 1,651 Germans. These prisoners were housed in [[List of POW camps in Australia|purpose-built camps]] and were treated in accordance with the Geneva Convention.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). p. 435.</ref> A total of 16,798 civilians were also interned. These included 8,921 Australian-resident '[[enemy alien]]s', while the remainder were civilians sent to Australia for internment by other Allied countries.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). pp. 21–22.</ref> On the morning of 5 August 1944, approximately half of the 1,104 Japanese held at a camp near [[Cowra, New South Wales]] [[Cowra breakout|attempted to escape]]. The prisoners overwhelmed their guards and over 400 broke through the wire fences; however, every escapee was either recaptured or killed within 10 days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/Encyclopedia/cowra/ |title=Cowra Breakout |accessdate=15 September 2008|work=Australian War Memorial Encyclopedia |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref>

==Home front==
{{Main|Australian home front during World War II}}
[[File:Inspecting RAAF practice bombs.jpg|thumb|Workers inspecting practice bombs at a factory in South Australia during 1943]]
During the war the Australian Government greatly expanded its powers in order to better direct the war effort, and Australia's industrial and human resources were focused on supporting the Allied armed forces. The expansion of the government's powers began on 9 September 1939 when the National Security Act became law. This act enabled the government to introduce industrial conscription, and both men and women were ordered into essential industries. [[Rationing]] was first introduced in 1940 and was greatly expanded during 1942. The Government also strongly encouraged [[austerity]] and [[war bond]]s as a means of reducing demand for scarce resources.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/allin/livingwar.html |title=All in – 'living with war' |accessdate=2 March 2008|work=Australia's War 1939–1945}}</ref>

Government policies to develop war-related industries were successful in increasing the sophistication of Australia's industrial sector and self-sufficiency in most categories of weapons. In the decades leading up to the war successive Australian governments had provided subsidies, tariffs and other incentives encourage the development of military-related manufacturing sectors such as the production of aircraft, automobiles, electronics and chemicals.<ref>Ross (1999). pp. 26–28.</ref> These secondary industries were integrated into a [[war economy]] during 1940 and 1941 and were able to meet most of the Army's needs by 1942.<ref>Ross (1999). pp. 28–31.</ref> Government-led efforts to develop and manufacture advanced technology enjoyed some notable successes, including the development of lightweight [[radar]] sets, optical devices for artillery and equipment adapted for use in the [[tropics]].<ref>Ross (1999). pp. 32–34.</ref> Australian industry also developed new weapons which were mass-produced for the military, including the [[Owen submachine gun]] and a [[Ordnance QF 25-pounder Short|shortened version]] of the [[Ordnance QF 25 pounder|Ordnance QF 25 pounder]].<ref>Ross (1999). pp. 34–36.</ref> In addition, Australian scientists and pharmaceutical companies made important advances in the treatment of [[tropical disease]]s.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). p. 484.</ref> Not all development projects were successful though: efforts to develop an Australian tank (the [[Sentinel tank|Sentinel]]) did not cease until after it had been rendered obsolete and unnecessary,<ref>Mellor (1958). p. 320.</ref> and the development of Australian-designed advanced bomber and fighter aircraft (the [[CAC Woomera]] and [[CAC CA-15]] respectively) were abandoned as the engines these aircraft required were not available and adequate US and British designs were produced under licence instead.<ref>Mellor (1958). pp. 411–412.</ref>
[[File:Victory job (AWM ARTV00332).jpg|thumb|left|Australian women were encouraged to participate in the war effort]]

The massive expansion of the military led to a critical shortage of male workers and increased female participation in the labour force. The number of Australian women in paid employment increased from 644,000 in 1939 to 855,000 in 1944. While this was only a 5 percentage point increase in the proportion of all Australian women who were working, large numbers of women moved from traditionally "female" roles such as domestic servants into "male" roles in industry. [[Women in the Australian military|Female branches of the armed forces]] were established in 1941, and by 1944 almost 50,000 women were serving in the [[Women's Royal Australian Naval Service]], [[Australian Women's Army Service]] and [[Women's Auxiliary Australian Air Force]]. Thousands more served with the civilian [[Australian Women's Land Army]] or undertook voluntary war work. Manpower shortages became an increasingly significant economic issue towards the end of the war, and the Australian military was reduced in size from 1944 to free up personnel for war industries and the civilian economy.<ref>Darian-Smith (1996). pp. 61–65.</ref>

Industrial conscription and the drive to increase productivity led to an increasing degree of [[industrial unrest]] over time. Many workers were required to work long hours in poor conditions and were not able to change their employment due to the manpower laws. Poor work conditions were exacerbated by the Government's austerity measures reducing workers' standards of living. As a result, [[Strike action|strikes]] and other forms of protest disrupted Australian production, especially from 1943 onwards. These protests attracted considerable criticism from other civilians and members of the military.<ref>McKernan (1983). pp. 227–331.</ref> In May 1943 the Government introduced policies which enabled workers who were undertaking unlawful industrial action to be conscripted into the military, but this had little impact due to the shortage of skilled labour in the industries most prone to industrial disputes.<ref>Butlin and Schedvin (1977). pp. 371–374.</ref>

World War II marked the beginning of a long period of Australian [[economic growth]]. The war greatly increased the size and importance of the Australian manufacturing sector and stimulated the development of more technologically advanced industries. As part of this trend many workers acquired relatively high skill levels and female labour force participation rates greatly increased. Many women were forced out of traditionally male-dominated industries after the war, however.<ref>Haig-Muir and Hay (1996). pp. 130–132.</ref>

==After the war==
[[File:HMAS Shropshire (123797).jpg|thumb|[[HMAS Shropshire|HMAS ''Shropshire'']] arriving in Sydney in November 1945 carrying long serving soldiers]]
World War II [[Australian casualties of World War II|cost thousands of Australian lives]] and consumed a large portion of the national income. During the war, 27,073 members of the Australian military were either killed, died of wounds or died while prisoners of war. Of these, 9,572 were killed in the war against Germany and Italy and 17,501 in the war against Japan. Prisoners of war held by the Japanese made up nearly half of Australia's deaths in the Pacific.<ref name="Long 1973. p. 474">Long (1973). p. 474.</ref> At least 386 Australian civilian seamen were killed during the war.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/merchant_navy.asp |title=Merchant Navy, Second World War |work=Australian War Memorial Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Australian War Memorial |accessdate=17 August 2008}}</ref> Total Australian war expenditure was [[Australian pound|£]]2,949,380,000 and at its peak in 1942–43, military costs accounted for 40.1 percent of national income.<ref name="Long 1973. p. 474"/>

In the months after the war, Australian authorities were responsible for administering all of Borneo and the NEI east of [[Lombok]] until the British and Dutch colonial governments were re-established. While British and Indian forces in the west of the NEI became caught up in the [[Indonesian National Revolution]], the Australians were able to avoid clashes with local nationalists.<ref>Hasluck (1970). pp. 602–609</ref> Australian forces were also responsible for guarding the 344,000 remaining Japanese in the NEI and Australian territories and administering war crimes trials in these areas.<ref>Long (1973). pp. 471–472.</ref> A volunteer force was formed as Australia's contribution to the [[British Commonwealth Occupation Force]] (BCOF) in Japan, and Australia provided the BCOF's headquarters and a high proportion of its personnel.<ref>Dennis et al. (2008). pp. 110–112.</ref> This force later formed the nucleus of the post-war Australian Army, which included permanent combat units for the first time.<ref>Grey (2001). p. 164.</ref>

The Australian military was [[Demobilisation of the Australian military after World War II|rapidly demobilised]] after the Japanese surrender. At the end of the war the military had a strength of nearly 600,000 personnel, of whom 224,000 were serving in the Pacific and 20,000 in Britain and other places. Demobilisation planning had begun at the end of 1942 with the final scheme being approved by the Government in March 1945. General demobilisation started on 1 October 1945 and was completed in February 1947. The process generally ran smoothly, though there were protests over delays at Morotai and Bougainville. Personnel were provided with training while they waited to be demobilised and the government provided post-demobilisation assistance with employment, loans, education and other benefits.<ref>James (2009). pp. 14–17</ref> Service women were given similar assistance to their male counterparts, but were placed under pressure to return to 'traditional' family roles.<ref>Adam-Smith (1984). pp. 362–363, 367.</ref>

World War II led to significant changes to Australian society. Economically, the war accelerated the development of Australia's manufacturing industry and led to a large fall in unemployment. The impact of World War II changed Australian society, and contributed to the development of a more cosmopolitan society in which women were able to play a larger role. The war also resulted in a greater maturity in Australia's approach to international affairs, as demonstrated by the development of a more independent foreign policy and the encouragement of [[Post war immigration to Australia|mass immigration]] after the war.<ref>Grey (1999). p. 191.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Military of Australia}}
*[[Battle_and_theatre_honours_of_the_Australian_Army#Second_World_War_.281939.E2.80.931945.29|Australian Army battle honours of World War II]]
{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
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* {{cite book |last=Long |first=Gavin |authorlink=Gavin Long |title=To Benghazi |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/second_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67903 |series=Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 1 – Army |year=1961 (reprint) |publisher=Australian War Memorial |location=Canberra |isbn=}}
* {{cite book |last=Long |first=Gavin |title=Greece, Crete and Syria |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/second_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67904 |series=Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 1 – Army |year=1953 |publisher=Australian War Memorial |location=Canberra|oclc=570184876}}
* {{cite book |last=Long |first=Gavin |title=The Final Campaigns |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/second_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67909 |series=Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 1 – Army |year=1963 |publisher=Australian War Memorial |location=Canberra |isbn=}}
* {{cite book |last=Long |first=Gavin |title=The Six Years War. A Concise History of Australia in the 1939–1945 War |year=1973 |publisher=The Australian War Memorial and the Australian Government Printing Service |location=Canberra |isbn=0-642-99375-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Macintyre |first=Stuart |authorlink=Stuart Macintyre|title=The Oxford History of Australia. Volume 4: 1901–1942 The Succeeding Age |year=1986 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-19-554612-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Macintyre |first=Stuart|title=A Concise History of Australia |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-62577-7}}
* {{cite book |last=McKernan |first=Michael |title=All In! Australia During the Second World War |year=1983 |publisher=Thomas Nelson Australia |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-17-005946-4}}
* {{cite book |last=McKernan |first=Michael |title=The Strength of a Nation. Six years of Australians fighting for the nation and defending the homeland during WWII |year=2006 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |location= Sydney |isbn=978-1-74114-714-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Mellor |first=D.P. |title= The Role of Science and Industry |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/second_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67920 |series=Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 4 – Civil |year=1958 |publisher=Australian War Memorial |location=Canberra |isbn=}}
* {{cite book |title=Australia's Navy in the Gulf. From Countenance to Catalyst, 1941–2006 |last=Nash |first=Greg |authorlink= |coauthors=Stevens, David |year=2006 |publisher=Topmill |location=Sydney |isbn=}}
* {{cite book|last=Nelmes|first=Michael V|title=Tocumwal to Tarakan. Australians and the B-24 Liberator|publisher=Banner Books|location=Canberra|year=1994|isbn=1-875593-04-7}}
* {{cite journal |last=Nichols |first=Robert |year=2004 |title=The first kamikaze attack? |journal=Wartime |publisher=Australian War Memorial |location=Canberra |issue=28 |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/wartime/28/article.asp|accessdate=4 June 2009}}
* {{cite book |last=Odgers |first=George |authorlink=George Odgers |coauthors= |title=Air War Against Japan 1943–1945 |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/second_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67913 |series=Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 3 – Air |year=1968 (reprint) |publisher=Australian War Memorial |location=Canberra }}
* {{cite book |title=100 Years of Australians at War |last=Odgers |first=George |year=2000 |publisher=Ken Fin Books |location=Melbourne |isbn=1-86302-669-X}}
* {{cite book |title=The Australian Army. A History of its Organisation 1901–2001 |last=Palazzo |first=Albert |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-19-551507-2}}
* {{cite book |title=The Shadow's Edge. Australia's Northern War |last=Powell |first=Alan |year=1988 |publisher=Melbourne University Press |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-522-84371-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Andrew |title=Arming the Nation. A History of Defence Science and Technology in Australia |editor=Frank Cain |publisher=Australian Defence Studies Centre |location=Canberra |year=1999 |chapter=The Rise of Australian Defence Industry and Science 1901–1945 |isbn=0-7317-0433-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Stanley |first=Peter |title=Air Battle Europe 1939–1945 |publisher=Time-Life Books (Australia) |location=Sydney |year=1987 |series=Australians at War |isbn=0-949118-05-2}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/events/conference/2003/stanley.asp|title=The roundel: concentric identities among Australian airmen in Bomber Command|last=Stanley|first=Peter|year=2003|work=Australian War Memorial 2003 History Conference - Air War Europe|publisher=Australian War Memorial|accessdate=26 June 2008}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/dday/index.asp |title=Australians and D-Day |accessdate=6 July 2008|author=Stanley, Peter |year=2004 |work= |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}
* {{cite journal |last=Stanley |first=Peter|year=2007 |month= |title=What is the Battle for Australia? |journal=Australian Army Journal |volume=4 |issue=2, Winter 2007 |url=http://www.defence.gov.au/army/lwsc/docs/AAJ_Winter2007.pdf |accessdate=24 February 2008}}
* {{cite book |last=Stanley |first=Peter |title=Invading Australia. Japan and the Battle for Australia, 1942 |publisher=Penguin Group (Australia) |location=Melbourne |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-670-02925-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Stephens |first=Alan |origyear=2001 |year=2006 |title=The Royal Australian Air Force: A History |location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-555541-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Stevens |first=David |title=A Critical Vulnerability: The Impact of the Submarine Threat on Australia's Maritime Defence 1915–1954 |url=http://www.navy.gov.au/Publication:Papers_in_Australian_Maritime_Affairs_No._15 |series=Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs (No. 15) |year=2005 |publisher=Sea Power Centre - Australia |location=Canberra |isbn=0-642-29625-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Wigmore |first=Lionel |title=The Japanese Thrust |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/second_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67906 |series=Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 1 – Army |year=1957 |publisher=Australian War Memorial |location=Canberra}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Military history of Australia during World War II}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/index/ww2.asp |title=Second World War |accessdate= |author= |date= |work= |publisher=[[Australian War Memorial]]}}
* {{cite web |url=http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/remember.nsf/ |title=Remembering the War in New Guinea |accessdate= |last= |first= |coauthors= |year=2003 |work=[http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/ajrp2.nsf/ Australia-Japan Research Project] |publisher=[[Australian War Memorial]]}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/index.html |title=Australia's War 1939–1945 |accessdate= |author= |date= |work= |publisher=[[Department of Veterans' Affairs (Australia)|Department of Veterans' Affairs]]}}

{{Australian Military History}}
{{WWIIHistory}}

{{featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:World War II}}
[[Category:Military history of Australia during World War II]]
[[Category:Wars involving Australia]]

Brood XIX

2011-06-20T14:22:50Z

Lessogg: not possessive

[[File:Brood XIX Cicada.jpg|thumb|right|Cicada from Brood XIX, Chapel Hill, NC, May 29, 2011]]
[[File:Cicada's.ogv|thumb|right|Cicadas in Maury County Tennessee on May 28 2011]]
'''Brood XIX''' (also known as '''Brood 19''' and '''The Great Southern Brood''') is the largest (most widely distributed) brood of 13-year [[Magicicada|periodical cicadas]], last seen in 1998 and reappearing in May and June of 2011 across a wide stretch of the southeastern United States. Periodical cicadas (''Magicicada spp.'') are often referred to as "17-year locusts" because most of the known distinct broods have a 17-year life cycle. Brood XIX is one of only three surviving broods with a 13-year cycle. It is also notable because it includes four different 13-year species, one of which was discovered in Brood XIX in 1998 by scientists listening to cicada songs.

==Position among other broods of cicadas==
{{Main|Magicicada#Broods}}
Every 13 years, Brood XIX tunnels ''en masse'' to the surface of the ground, lays [[egg (biology)|eggs]], and then dies off in several weeks.

In 1907, entomologist [[Charles Lester Marlatt|C. L. Marlatt]] postulated the existence of 30 different broods of periodical cicadas: 17 distinct broods with a 17-year life cycle, to which he assigned Roman numerals I through XVII (with emerging years 1893 through 1909); plus 13 broods with a 13-year cycle, to which he assigned Roman numerals XVIII through XXX (1893 through 1905).<ref name=marlatt1907>{{cite book|last=Marlatt|first=C.L.|title=The Periodical Cicada|year=1907|publisher=USDA|page=28|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CloDAAAAYAAJ}}</ref> Many of these hypothetical broods, however, have not been observed. Today only 15 are recognized.<ref name=post>{{cite web|last=Post|first=Susan L.|title=A Trill of a Lifetime|url=http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/highlights/periodicalCicada.html|year=2004|publisher=The Illinois Steward|accessdate=9 June 2011}}</ref>

Brood XIX is one of three extant broods of 13-year cicadas. The other two are [[Brood XXII|Broods XXII]] and [[Brood XXIII|XIII]], expected to re-emerge in 2014 and 2015 respectively.<ref name=broods>{{cite web|title=Magicicada broods and distributions|url=http://www.magicicada.org/about/brood_pages/broods.php|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=10 June 2011}}</ref> A fourth 13-year brood, [[Brood XXI]] (The Floridian Brood) was last recorded in 1870 in the Florida panhandle, but is believed to be now extinct.<ref name=broodxxi>{{cite web|title=Brood XXI (13-year) The Floridian Brood|url=http://www.magicicada.org/about/brood_pages/broodXXI.php|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=10 June 2011}}</ref>

==Species present==
Brood XIX includes all four different species of 13-year cicadas: ''[[Magicicada tredecim]]'' (Walsh and Riley, 1868), ''[[Magicicada tredecassini]]'' (Alexander and Moore, 1962), ''[[Magicicada tredecula]]'' (Alexander and Moore, 1962), and the recently discovered ''[[Magicicada neotredecim]]'' (Marshall and Cooley, 2000). 2011 is the first appearance of Brood XIX since the discovery of the new species, which was first observed in this brood in 1998 when scientists observed an unexpected peak of acoustical frequencies in the brood's song.<ref name=natgeoxix>{{cite web|title=Brood XIX (13-year) The Great Southern Brood|url=http://www.magicicada.org/about/brood_pages/broodXIX.php|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=10 June 2011}}</ref><ref name=displace/>

The two species ''M. tredecim'' and ''M. neotredecim'' have an unusual geographical relationship in Brood XIX, with only a slight overlap between them, in a narrow band from northern Arkansas to southern Indiana. The other 13-year species occur together throughout the brood range, so in most parts of the range only three of the four species are present.<ref name=neotred>{{cite web|title=''Magicicada neotredecim'' Marshall and Cooley 2000|url=http://www.magicicada.org/about/species_pages/m_ndecim.php|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=10 June 2011}}</ref> All four 13-year species have distinct male calling songs, but the songs of ''M. tredecim'' and ''M. neotredecim'' in their narrow range of overlap show [[reproductive character displacement]] (RCD) that makes them even more distinct. (RCD functions to prevent reproductive overlap.)<ref name=displace>{{cite web|title=Reproductive character displacement in Magicicada -decim calling songs.|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=10 June 2011}}</ref> RCD is particularly noticeable in Brood XIX.<ref name=magixix>{{cite web|title=Magicicada Brood XIX is emerging now|url=http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/projects/cicada/magicicada_central/magicicada_central.php|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=13 June 2011}}</ref>

For Brood XIX in Alabama, adults of ''M. tredecula'' are less common than those of ''M. tredecim'' and ''M. tredecassini''.<ref name=alabama>{{cite web|last=Hyche|first=L.L.|title=Periodical Cicadas1 ("The 13-Year Locusts") in Alabama|url=http://www.ag.auburn.edu/enpl/bulletins/cicadas/cicadas.htm|publisher=Auburn University|accessdate=10 June 2011}}</ref>

==Geographical distribution==
Most maps of cicada distribution originate from 19th-century compilations that may show ranges much wider than those of current broods. The [[National Geographic Society]] is gathering reports from the public about the geographical distribution of Brood XIX as part of a larger project to remap the distribution of ''Magicicada''.<ref name=mapping>{{cite web|title=Magicicada Mapping Project Homepage|url=http://www.magicicada.org/map_project/maps.php|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=10 June 2011}}</ref> Older maps show occurrences of Brood XIX cicadas in Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia<ref name =natgeoxix/>

Across most of the range of Brood XIX, one observes ''M. tredecim'' in the southern regions and ''M. neotredecim'' in more northern ones, with some overlap in the westernmost region (mostly Missouri and Illinois).<ref name=displace/>

==2011 emergence==
In early May 2011,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1386233/US-states-braced-cicadas-invasion-hatch-13-years-underground.html |title=U.S. states braced for invasion of cicadas as they hatch after 13 years underground |work=[[Daily Mail]] |date=12 May 2011 |accessdate=12 May 2011}}</ref> cicadas began emerging throughout an area roughly enclosed by [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], Texas, [[North Carolina]], [[Missouri]], [[Tennessee]] and [[Maryland]]. The next three appearances will be in 2024, 2037 and 2050.<ref name=michmap>{{cite web|title=Brood XIX (13-year)|url=http://insects.ummz.lsa.umich.edu/fauna/Michigan_Cicadas/Periodical/BroodXIX.html|publisher=University of Michigan|accessdate=10 June 2011}}</ref>

News reports of the cicadas' emergence in Illinois included links to a video showing holes in the ground left by larval emergence, an adult cicada breaking out of its larval shell, and massed adult cicadas marching up tree trunks.<ref name=illinois>{{cite news|last=Young|first=Chris|title=They're here: Periodical cicadas are emerging|url=http://www.sj-r.com/top-stories/x530606039/Theyre-here-periodical-cicadas-are-emerging|accessdate=10 June 2011|newspaper=State Journal Register|date=2 June 2011}}</ref>

By June 8, 2011, a North Carolina reported that adult cicadas, which typically live for about a month, were dying en masse. Nymphs from eggs that have been laid by Brood XIX females will emerge from the earth again in 2024, to restart the cycle.<ref name=newsobs>{{cite news|last=Hart|first=Dave|coauthor=Matt Caulder|title=Cicadas emerge with an unearthly racket|url=http://www.newsobserver.com/2011/06/08/1256325/brood-xix.html|accessdate=10 June 2011|newspaper=News Observer|date=8 June 2011}}</ref>

==Bibliography==
*[http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/projects/cicada/magicicada_central/magicicada_central.php Magicicada Central]
*More, Thomas, ''Singing Insects of North America'', University of Florida [http://buzz.ifas.ufl.edu/g900m17y.htm map]
* Post, Susan L. ''The Trill of a Life Time'', photographs by Michael R. Jeffords, ''The Illinois Steward'', Spring 2004. [http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/highlights/periodicalCicada.html]
* Stannard, Jr., Lewis. ''The Distribution of Periodical Cicadas in Illinois'', 1975.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* "Brood XIX (13-year), [http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/projects/cicada/magicicada_central/about/brood_pages/broodXIX.php]
* ''Cicada Mania'' [http://www.cicadamania.com/cicadas/]
* "''Magicicada'' Broods", [http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/projects/cicada/magicicada_central/about/brood_pages/broods.php]
* More, Thomas, ''Singing Insects of North America'', University of Florida [http://buzz.ifas.ufl.edu/g900m17y.htm map]
* Post, Susan L. ''The Trill of a Life Time'', photographs by Michael R. Jeffords, ''The Illinois Steward'', Spring 2004. [http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/highlights/periodicalCicada.html]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qQX_boOARUk Video of emerging Brood XIX cicadas in Illinois, 2011]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oCxDxHttvl4 Video of Brood XIX cicadas] responding to the saxophone playing of [[David Rothenberg]]
[[Category:Cicadas]]
[[Category:2011 in the United States]]

{{Cicada Broods}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Brood XIX}}

Rough Wooing

2011-03-11T10:27:48Z

Lessogg: punctuating style

The '''War of the Rough Wooing''' (December 1543 – March 1550) was fought between Scotland and England. The term "Rough Wooing" was only coined many years later by Sir [[Walter Scott]].<ref>Scott, Walter, ''Tales of a Grandfather'', (1866), 103, (Chp. 29).</ref> War was declared by [[Henry VIII of England]], in an attempt to force the Scots to agree a marriage between his son [[Edward VI of England|Edward]] and [[Mary, Queen of Scots]]. Scotland benefitted from French military aid. Edward VI continued the war until changing circumstances made it irrelevant in 1550. It was the last major conflict between Scotland and England before the [[Union of the Crowns]] in [[1603]], excepting perhaps the English intervention at the [[Siege of Leith]] in 1560, and was part of the [[Anglo-Scottish Wars]] of the 16th century.

{{campaign
|name=Rough Wooing
|battles= [[Battle of Ancrum Moor|Ancrum Moor]] – [[Battle of Pinkie Cleugh|Pinkie Cleugh]] – [[Siege of Haddington|Haddington]] – [[Broughty Castle]]
}}

==From Solway Moss to the Treaty of Boulogne==
In 1542, a Scottish army came to grief at the [[Battle of Solway Moss]]<ref>Paterson, pp. 166-168</ref> and [[James V]] died soon after, leaving Mary an infant queen in the care of her mother [[Mary of Guise]]. The English marriage for Mary proposed by the [[Treaty of Greenwich]] was conditionally accepted by the Scottish government led by [[James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran|Regent Arran]]. However, Arran was slow to advance the marriage due to strong internal factions favouring alliance with France and the continuance of the Catholic religion in Scotland. Twenty years later, the English diplomat [[Ralph Sadler]] reported [[Adam Otterburn]]'s words to him on the Scottish opinion of the marriage;<blockquote>"Our people do not like of it. And though the Governor and some of the nobility have consented to it, yet I know that few or none of them do like of it; and our common people do utterly mislike of it. I pray you give me leave to ask you a question: if your lad was a lass, and our lass were a lad, would you then be so earnest in this matter? ... And lykewise I assure you that our nation will never agree to have an Englishman king of Scotland. And though the whole nobility of the realm would consent, yet our common people, and the stones in the street would rise and rebel against it.<ref>Clifford, Arthur, ed., ''Sadler State Papers'', vol. 2, Edinburgh (1809), 559-560, (abbreviated, spelling modernised).</ref></blockquote>
In Scotland civil war ensued with the Regent opposed by the Douglas faction in the East and [[Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox|Matthew, Earl of Lennox]] in the [[Battle of Glasgow (1544)|West at Glasgow]]. With this internal background, the Scots then faced the anger of Henry VIII, after the [[Parliament of Scotland|Scottish Parliament]] renounced the Greenwich treaty in December 1543. Five days later, on 20 December, war was declared in Edinburgh by the messenger [[Berwick Pursuivant#Henry Ray|Henry Ray, Berwick Pursuivant]].<ref>Merriman (2000), 137.</ref>

Major hostilities began with an attack on Edinburgh on 3 May 1544,<ref>Merriman (2000), 145.</ref> led by the [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset|Earl of Hertford]] and [[John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland|Viscount Lisle]]. The English army landed at [[Granton, Edinburgh|Granton]], then occupied [[Leith]]. The next day the troops entered Edinburgh's [[The Canongate|Canongate]], and then set the city on fire. The ships at Leith were loaded with looted goods and the army returned to England by land, burning towns and villages along the way.<ref>Grafton, Richard, ''A Chronicle at Large, 1569'', vol. 2, London (1809),490-1.</ref> Against these English incursions, the Scots won a victory at the [[Battle of Ancrum Moor]] in 1545.<ref>Paterson, pp. 182-184</ref> Scotland was included the Treaty of Camp, or Treaty of Ardres, of 6 June 1546, which concluded the [[Italian War of 1542-1546]]. This brought 18 months of peace between England and Scotland.<ref>Merriman, Marcus, ''The Rough Wooings'', Tuckwell (2000), 163, 195-201.</ref> However, in May 1546 Fife lairds had murdered the Francophile [[David Beaton|Cardinal Beaton]] at [[St Andrews Castle]]. These Protestant lairds became known as the Castilians, and garrisoned the castle against Regent Arran, hoping for English military support.<ref>Elizabeth Bonner, (1996)</ref>

The English retained a fort they had established at [[Langholm]] in the Scottish borders. Unable to secure its return by diplomatic leverage, Regent Arran reduced it by force on 17 July 1547 following an unsuccesful attempt in June. At the same time, a French naval force took St Andrews Castle from the Castilians.<ref>Merriman, Marcus, ''The Rough Wooings'', Tuckwell (2000), 221-229.</ref> An English invasion then quelled internal dissent in September 1547, when the English won a major encounter at the [[Battle of Pinkie Cleugh]]<ref>Paterson, pp. 195-198</ref> close to [[Musselburgh]], and put much of southern Scotland under military occupation. [[Siege of Haddington|Haddington]] was occupied, along with [[Broughty Castle]] near Dundee. Beginning on 5 April 1548, [[Robert Bowes (lawyer)|Sir Robert Bowes]] built a fort at [[Thirlestane Castle|Lauder]].<ref>''Calendar State Papers Scotland'', vol. 1 (1898), 106, 108.</ref> Increased French support included the services of military engineers like [[Migiliorino Ubaldini]] who strengthened [[Edinburgh Castle]] and [[Dunbar Castle|Dunbar]]. At the command of [[William Grey, 13th Baron Grey de Wilton|Grey of Wilton]], [[Musselburgh]] was burnt by the English on 9 June 1548 and [[Dunbar]] on 12 June. On 16 June 10,000 French troops arrived at Leith, and besieged Haddington with artillery.<ref>''Calendar State Papers Scotland'', vol. 1 (1898), 118, 119, 122, 132-133, Grey to Somerset.</ref>

Mary was taken to safety and bethrothal to the dauphin in France in August 1548<ref>Marshall, Rosalind K., ''Queen of Scots'', Mercat (2000), 27.</ref> and [[Piero Strozzi]] began to fortify Leith with 300 Scottish workmen. Strozzi had been shot in the leg at Haddington and was carried around the works by 4 men in a chair.<ref>''Calendar State Papers Scotland'', vol.1 (1898), 158, Clinton to Grey.</ref> By May 1549, the English army on the frontier included 3200 soldiers with 1700 German and 500 Spanish and Italian mercenaries.<ref>HMC, ''Rutland'', vol. 1 (1888), 36-7.</ref> However, with more military and financial assistance from France brought by [[Paul de Thermes]], the Scots were able to maintain resistance. [[André de Montalembert]], sieur d'Essé took [[Inchkeith]] on 19 June 1549.

==Treaty of Boulogne==
[[File:Hans Eworth Sir John Luttrell.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[John Luttrell (soldier)|Sir John Luttrell]], English commander at [[Inchcolm]] and [[Broughty Castle]]]]
The English abandoned Haddington on 19 September 1549. Hostilities ended with Scotland comprehended in the Treaty of Boulogne of 24 March 1550, which was primarily between French and England. There were conditions to return prisoners and dismantle border fortifications. As part of the treaty six French and English hostages were to be exchanged on 7 April. These were, for France; Mary of Guise's brother the [[Claude, Duke of Aumale|Marquis de Mayenne]]; Louis Trémoille; Jean de Bourbon, Comte de Enghien; Francis de Montmorency; [[Claude d'Annebault|Jean d'Annebaut son of the Admiral of France]]; Francis of Vendôme, were sent to London. For England; [[Henry Brandon, 2nd Duke of Suffolk|Henry Brandon]]; [[Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford]]; [[George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury|George Talbot]]; John Bourchier, 5th Baron FitzWarren; [[Henry FitzAlan, 19th Earl of Arundel|Henry Fitzalan]]; [[Henry Stanley, 4th Earl of Derby|Henry Stanley]]. The hostages at both courts were well entertained and most had returned home by August 1550.<ref>Jordan, W.K., ''Chronicle and Papers of Edward VI'', London (1966), 21-22, 45, (Jordan and other souces assumed ''Mayenne'' was Francis, not Claude)</ref> In France, [[Henry II of France|Henry II]] organised a triumphal entry to [[Rouen]] on 1 October 1550. Mary of Guise and Mary, Queen of Scots took part.<ref>British Library festival books website {{cite web|url=http://special-1.bl.uk/treasures/festivalbooks/pagemax.aspx?strFest=0020&strPage=8|title=C'est la Deduction du Sumpteaux Spectacles, ... Rouen (1551)}}, 8.</ref> There were banners depicting the French victories in Scotland; and a herald recited,<blockquote>"Voila Dondy, Edimpton, Portugray, Où Termes prist & Essé le degrè, Pour devenir chevalier de ton ordre. Sire, voyez ceste Ysle de Chevaulx, Voyez aussy le fort chasteau de Fargues, O quants assaulx, escarmouches & cargues, Voila aussi le fort pres de Donglass, Et plus deca ou est assis ce bourg, Est le chasteau conquis de Rossebourg. Here are Dundee, Haddington, Broughty Craig, Where de Thermes, with d'Essé, became [[Order of St Michael|knights of your order]], Sire, see [[Inchkeith]], [[Fast Castle]], O many assaults, skirmishes and charges, [[Dunglass]], and near to that town, [[Roxburgh]].<ref>from Merriman, Marcus, ''Rough Wooings'', (2000), 34-36: citing ''Deduction'', Rouen (1551).</ref></blockquote> The Treaty of Norham in 1551 formally ended the war and the English military presence withdrew from Scotland.<ref>Paterson, pp. 202-204</ref> By October 1551, Mary of Guise herself was welcomed in England and she travelled from Portsmouth to meet Edward VI in London.<ref>WK Jordan, (1966), 89-94: ''CSP Foreign Edward'' VI, (1861), 190-1.</ref>

==Treaty of Norham==
The peace concluded at [[Norham Castle]] and church on 10 June 1551 was negotiated by Thomas Erskine, Master of Erskine, Lord Maxwell, Sir Robert Carnegy of Kinnaird, and [[Robert Reid (bishop)|Robert Reid]], [[Bishop of Orkney]] with Louis St Gelais, Seigneur de Lansac, representing [[Henry II of France]]. The English delegation included [[Robert Bowes (lawyer)|Sir Robert Bowes]], Sir Leonard Beckwith, [[Thomas Chaloner (statesman)|Sir Thomas Challoner]] and [[Richard Sampson]], Bishop of [[Diocese of Lichfield|Lichfield and Coventry]].<ref>''CSP Foreign Edward'', (1861), 87.</ref> The terms included: the English abandoning their holdings in Scotland; the border and [[Debatable Lands]] to revert to original lines and usage; [[Edrington]] and fishing rights on the Tweed returned to Scotland; all captives, pledges, and hostages to be returned.<ref>Rhymer, Thomas ed., ''Foedera'', vol. 15, (1704), 263-273.</ref> Edward VI ratified the treaty on 30 June and Mary on 14 August 1551.<ref>Ritchie, Pamela E., ''Mary of Guise, 1548-1560'', Tuckwell (2002), 57-60.</ref>

==The propaganda war==
The English objective to forward a union between Scotland and England had wavering support among some sectors of the Scottish population. These Scots may not have relished French domination of Scottish affairs or may have seen alliance with England as furthering the Protestant cause. A number of books and pamplets were published in England as [[propaganda]] to encourage these feelings. These focussed on four aspects of the conflict; long-standing debates about the rights of the English crown in Scotland; the perceived injustice of the Scottish rejection of the Treaty of Greenwich; and the merit of the Protestant religion. The English commander at Broughty, [[Andrew Dudley]], hoped to distribute bibles printed in English which were not freely available in Scotland. Scotland countered the English propaganda with the ''[[Complaynt of Scotland]]'', probably printed in France in 1549. Another work, ''Ane Resonyng'' by [[William Lamb alias Paniter|William Lamb]] did not make it to the press.

The first of these books was written before the battle of Solway Moss. This was ''A Declaration, conteyning the iust causes and consyderations, of this present warre with the Scottis, wherein alsoo appereth the trewe & right title, that the kings most royall maiesty hath to the soveraynitie of Scotlande''. A journal of Hertford's raid on Edinburgh of 1544 was printed as ''The Late expedicion of the Earl of Hertford into Scotland''. Somerset began a new round in 1547 shortly before the battle of Pinkie by publishing the Scot James Henrisoun's, ''An Exhortacion to the Scottes to conforme themselfes to the honourable, Expedient & godly Union betweene the two realmes of Englande & Scotland.'' This was followed by Somerset's printed ''Proclamation'' of 4 September 1547, and the ''Epistle or Exhortation'' of February 1548. The Pinkie campaign was described by [[William Patten (historian)|William Patten]] in ''The Expedition into Scotland of the most worthy Prince, Edward Duke of Somerset''. A Welshman, Nicholas Bodrugan, added his ''Epitome of the title of the kynges majestie of Englande'', which looks back to [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] to justify English claims and seeks to reassure Scottish fears that the civil law of England was harsher than Scots law.<ref>Merriman, Marcus, ''The Rough Wooings'', Tuckwell (2000), 265-291: These English pamphlets were reprinted in the EETS edition of the ''Complaynt of Scotlande'', (1872)</ref> [[Henry Stewart, 1st Lord Methven|Lord Methven]] understood the effect of the English propaganda and raised concern with Mary of Guise in June 1548.<ref>Cameron, Annie I., ed., ''The Scottish Correspondence of Mary of Lorraine'', SHS (1927), 240-243.</ref>

The Protestant Fife lairds who killed David Beaton and held the Regent's son, [[James Hamilton, 3rd Earl of Arran|James Hamilton]] hostage at St Andrews Castle were gambling on English assistance. The [[Patrick Gray, 4th Lord Gray|Lord Gray]] and the [[Patrick Ruthven, 3rd Lord Ruthven|Master of Ruthven]] were also happy to deal with the English. Other Scots were induced to sign bonds and take payments from the English and became "assured men". This mostly happened in the war-zones of the border and around English garrisons. A sample bond for assurance was drafted by a Scot [[Henry Balnaves]] at St Andrews Castle in December 1546.<ref>[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=80885 ''Letters and Papers Henry VIII'', vol. 21 part 2, (1910), no. 524 (2)]</ref> After the war ended many Scots were accused of assurance or collaboration as a crime; 192 citizens of Dundee were acquitted in 1553 and the whole town of Dumfries received a pardon.<ref>Merriman, Marcus, ''The Rough Wooing'', Tuckwell, (2000), 364.</ref> In July 1549 with English losses in France the assurance system ceased.<ref>Merriman, Marcus, ''The Rough Wooings'', Tuckwell, (2000), 342.</ref> James Henrisoun then asked his English masters;<blockquote>"Whether it were better to conquer hearts without charges, or burn, and build forts at great charges, which will never conquer Scotland?"<ref>''Calendar State Papers Scotland'', vol. 1 (1898), 180, no. 357.</ref></blockquote>

At the end of the war the French celebrated their successful intervention at fêtes like the entry to Rouen. The details of these events were published in illustrated festival books. In England a number of the English commanders had their portraits painted celebrating their martial prowess, including [[John Luttrell (soldier)|John Luttrell]], [[James Wilford]], [[Thomas Wyndham (navigator)|Thomas Wyndham]], and a picture (now lost) was made to commemorate Edward Shelley who was killed at Pinkie.<ref>Cust, Lionel, 'The Painter HE', ''2nd Annual Volume of the Walpole Society'', Oxford (1913).</ref> Exploits during the siege of Haddington were later celebrated by the Elizabethan author [[Ulpian Fulwell]] in 1575.

==References==
===Primary===
* Anonymous, [http://special-1.bl.uk/treasures/festivalbooks/pagemax.aspx?strFest=0020&strPage=1 ''C'est la Deduction du Sumpteaux Spectacles, ... par les citoiens de Rouen''], Rouen (1551)
* Anonymous, ''The late expedition in Scotland under the conduct of the Earl of Hertford'', Reynold Wolf, London (1544).
* [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3bRYAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Beaugué, Jean de, ''Histoire de la guerre d'Écosse pendant les campagnes 1548 et 1549'', Maitland Club, Edinburgh (1830)]
* [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=POhEhgztHHwC&source=gbs_navlinks_s Beaugué, Jean de, ''History of the Campaigns of 1548 and 1549'', (1707)]
* [http://www.archive.org/details/calendarstatepa00baingoog ''Calendar of the State Papers relating to Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots 1547–1603'', H.M. General Register House Edinburgh, vol. 1, ed. J. Bain, (1898)]
* ''Calendar of State Papers of Edward VI, 1547-1553'', ed. C. S. Knighton, (1992).
* [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R7gKAAAAYAAJ&dq=state+papers+foreign+edward&source=gbs_navlinks_s ''Calendar of State Papers, Foreign series, Edward'' VI, ed. W. B. Turnbull, Longman (1861)]
* Historical Manuscripts Commission, ''12th Report and Appendix, Part IV, Duke of Rutland'', vol. 1 (1888), pp33–56.
* ''Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of King Henry VIII'', ed. J. S. Brewer & R. H. Brodie, 1965 reprint.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/correspondancep00pongoog ''Correspondance Politique de Odet de Selve'', (1888)], French Ambassador in London
* Fullwell, Ulpian, ''The Flower of Fame, with a discourse of the worthie service that was done at Haddington in Scotlande the second yere of the raigne of King Edward the Sixe'', William Hoskins, London (1575)
* [http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924091786032 Bain, JS., ed., ''The Hamilton Papers'', 2 vols, Edinburgh, (1890-2)]
* Henrisoun (Harryson), James, ''An Exhortation to the Scottes'', [[Richard Grafton]], London (1547)
* Patten, William, ''The Expedition into Scotland of Edward Duke of Somerset'', [[Richard Grafton]], London, 1548.
* [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vgNm5eaz25AC&dq=sadler+state+papers&source=gbs_navlinks_s Clifford, Arthur, ed., ''Sadler State Papers'', vol. 1, Edinburgh (1809)]
* [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Occ_AAAAcAAJ&vq=600&source=gbs_navlinks_s Clifford, Arthur, ed., ''Sadler State Papers'', vol. 2, Edinburgh (1809)]
* ''State Papers of Henry VIII'' - part iv - ''Scotland and the Borders'', vol. 5, (1836).
* [http://www.archive.org/details/complayntofscotl01henruoft ''The Complaynt of Scotland'', 1549, Early English Text Society, (1872)]
* Jordan, WK ed., ''The Chronicle and Political Papers of King Edward'' VI, George Allen (1966).
* Lamb, William, ed. Lyall, R. J., ''Ane Resonyng'', AUP (1985) ISBN 0 08 028485 X

===Secondary===
* Balfour Paul, J., ''Edinburgh in 1544 and Hertford's Invasion'', in Scottish Historical Review, vol. 8, 1911.
* Bonnar, Elizabeth, ''The recovery of St. Andrews Castle in 1547, French diplomacy in the British Isles'', English Historical Review, June 1996, 578-598
* Bush, M. L., ''The Government Policy of Protector Somerset'', 1975.
* Donaldson, G., ''Scotland: James V to James VII'', 1965.
* Ferguson, J., ''1547: The Rough Wooing'', in Blackwood's Magazine, vol. 258, 1947.
* Head, D. M. ''Henry VIII's Scottish Policy: a Reassessment'', in the Scottish Historical Review, vol. 61, 1981-2.
* [[J. D. Mackie|Mackie, J. D.]], ''Henry VIII and Scotland'', in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, fourth series, vol 29, 1947.
* Merriman, M., ''The Assured Scots: Scottish Collaboration with England during the Rough Wooing'', in the Scottish Historical Review, vol. 47, 1968.
* [http://www.criticalimprov.com/index.php/irss/article/view/655 Merriman, M, 'War and Propaganda during the "Rough Wooing",' ''International Review of Scottish Studies'', Vol 10 (1980)]
* Merriman, M. & Summerson, J., ''The History of King's Works'', part 8, vol. 4 part iv, HMS0, (1982)
* Merriman, M, ''The Rough Wooings, Mary Queen of Scots'', 1542–1551, Tuckwell (2000) ISBN 1 86232 090 X
* {{cite book|last=Paterson|first=Raymond Campbell|authorid=Raymond Campbell Paterson|title= My Wound is Deep: A History of the Later Anglo-Scottish Wars, 1380-1560|location=Edinburgh|publisher=John Donald Publishers Ltd|year=1997|isbn=0-85976-465-6}}
* Pollard, A. F., ''The Protector Somerset and Scotland,'' in the English Historical Review, vol. 13, 1898.
* Ritchie, Pamela E., ''Mary of Guise in Scotland 1548-1560'', Tuckwell (2002) ISBN 1 86232 184 1

===Footnotes===
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rough Wooing}}
[[Category:16th century in England]]
[[Category:16th century in Scotland]]
[[Category:Wars involving Scotland]]
[[Category:Wars involving England]]
[[Category:The Rough Wooing|*Main]]
[[Category:England–Scotland relations]]

[[fr:Rough Wooing]]

Randlord

2011-01-02T12:30:22Z

Lessogg: Undid revision 405321530 by 90.215.164.30 (talk)

'''Randlord''' is a term used to denote the entrepreneurs who controlled the [[diamond]] and [[gold]] mining industries in [[South Africa]] in its pioneer phase from the 1870s up to [[World War I]].

A small number of European adventurers and financiers, largely of the same generation, gained control of the diamond mining industry at [[Kimberley, Northern Cape]]. They set up an infrastructure of financing and industrial consolidation which they then applied to exploit the discoveries of gold from 1886 in [[South African Republic|Transvaal]] at [[Witwatersrand]] — the "Rand".

Many of the Randlords received [[Baronet|baronetcies]] from [[Queen Victoria]] in recognition of their contributions.

==Notable Randlords==
*[[George Albu|Sir George Albu, 1st Bt]] (1857–1935)
*[[Leopold Albu]] (1861–1938)
*Sir [[Abe Bailey]] (1864–1940)
*[[Barney Barnato]] (1852–1897)
*[[Alfred Beit]] (1853–1906)
*[[Otto Beit|Sir Otto Beit, 1st Bt]] (1865–1930)
*[[Hermann Ludwig Eckstein]] (1847–1893)
*[[Friedrich Gustav Jonathan Eckstein]] (1857–1930)
*[[George Herbert Farrar|Sir George Herbert Farrar]] (1859–1915)
*[[Adolf Goerz]] (1857-1900)
*[[John Hays Hammond]] (1855–1936) {{flagicon|United States}}
*Sir David Harris (1852-1942)
*[[Gustav Imroth]] (1862-1946)
*[[Solomon Joel]] (1865–1931)
*[[Woolf Joel]] (1863–1898)
*[[John Dale Lace]] (1859-1937)
*[[Isaac Lewis]] (1849–1927)
*[[Samuel Marks]] (1843–1920)
* Sir [[Carl Meyer]]
*[[Max Michaelis|Maximilian Michaelis]] (1852–1932)
*[[Sigismund Neumann]] (1857–1916)
*[[Lionel Phillips|Sir Lionel Phillips, 1st Bt]] (1855–1936)
*[[Jules Porgès]] (1838–1921)
*[[Cecil John Rhodes]] (1853–1902)
*[[Joseph Benjamin Robinson|Sir Joseph Benjamin Robinson, 1st Bt]] (1840–1929)
*[[Charles Ernest Rube]] (1852–1914)
*[[Charles Rudd|Charles Dunell Rudd]] (1844–1916)
*[[Jim B Taylor]]
*[[Julius Wernher|Sir Julius Wernher, 1st Bt]] (1850–1912)
*[[Sir Thomas Cullinan]] (1862-1936)

==Industrial legacy==
As the first generation of Randlords died or retired, the next generation concentrated on the process of consolidation and corporatization, developing the mining companies into integrated quoted companies. Cecil Rhodes's first round of diamond mine consolidation with [[De Beers|De Beers Consolidated Mines]] was continued by Sir [[Ernest Oppenheimer]] (1880–1957) best represents this phase, with his strengthening of the market power of De Beers and his development from 1917 of the giant [[Anglo American (mining)|Anglo American]] mining company (whose gold interests are now held by [[AngloGold Ashanti]]. Other Johannesburg mining houses formed the basis of other corporate mining giants which still exist. For example: Porgès and Eckstein's "Corner House" became [[Randgold Resources]]; Rhodes's Consolidated Gold Fields became [[Gold Fields Limited]]; George and Leopold Albu's General Mining and Finance Corporation became [[Gencor]]; Barney Barnato's Johannesburg Consolidated Investment Company or "Johnnies" became [[JCI Limited]].

==Philanthropy and cultural legacy==
The Randlords came largely from humble backgrounds, and many used their fortunes to elevate their position in society. A significant number overcame the prejudices against nouveaux-riches and Jews to gain entry to the English "establishment" and received knighthoods.

Their architectural patronage has left a legacy across South Africa and England. In Johannesburg alone, structures such as the Randlord mansions on [[Parktown]] Ridge sprang up, many designed by [[Sir Herbert Baker]]. The Johannesburg Art Gallery in Joubert Park was championed by Florence Phillips, wife of Sir Lionel Phillips. Across the UK, many public collections and mansions bear witness to the wealth of the Randlords, including the Wernher Collection, formerly at [[Luton Hoo]] and now at [[Ranger's House]].

Amongst many philanthropic ventures by Randlords, the Beit Trust established by Sir Alfred Beit built over 400 bridges in southern Africa;<ref>http://www.beittrust.org.uk/History.htm Beit Trust</ref> the [[Rhodes Scholarships]] at the [[University of Oxford]] were endowed by Cecil Rhodes.

==Other uses==
Randlord may also be used loosely as a term for any wealthy South African businessman. The phrase gained extra meaning when the currency of South Africa was renamed the [[South African rand|rand]] in 1961.

==See also==
*[[History of the Jews in South Africa]]
*[[Joel family]]
*[[:Category:Oppenheimer family|Oppenheimer family]] ([[De Beers]])
*[[List of diamond mines]]
*[[Woolf Barnato]]
*[[Jameson Raid]]

==Sources==
*Maryna Fraser, ‘Randlords (act. 1880s–1914)’, ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', online edn, Oxford University Press, Oct 2006 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/theme/95075, accessed 7 Oct 2006]

==Further reading==
*Michael Stevenson – ''Art & Aspirations, the Randlords of South Africa and their Collections''
* Geoffrey Wheatcroft – ''The Randlords: The Men Who Made South Africa'' (Weidenfeld, 1985) ISBN 0-297-78437-4

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
* http://www.parktownheritage.co.za/history.htm
* http://www.sahistory.org.za/
[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:South African people]]
[[Category:De Beers]]
[[Category:Gold]]
[[Category:Diamond]]
[[Category:Businesspeople in mining|*]]

Jonathan Miller

2010-10-22T15:52:41Z

Lessogg: /* Bibliography */ punctuation

{{Otherpeople}}

{{Infobox actor
| name = Jonathan Miller
| birth_name = Jonathan Wolfe Miller
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1934|07|21|df=y}}
| birth_place = London, England
| spouse = Helen Rachel Collet (1956–present)
| years_active =
| website =
}}

[[Knight Bachelor|Sir]] '''Jonathan Wolfe Miller''' [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born 21 July 1934) is a British theatre and [[opera]] director, author, television presenter, humorist and sculptor. Trained as a [[physician]] in the late 1950s, he first came to prominence in the 1960s with his role in the BBC comedy sketch show ''[[Beyond the Fringe]]'' with fellow writers and performers [[Peter Cook]], [[Dudley Moore]] and [[Alan Bennett]]. Despite having seen few operas and not knowing how to read music, he began [[Theatre director|stage-directing]] them in the 1970s and has since become one of the world's leading opera directors with several classic productions to his credit. His best-known production is probably his 1982 "[[American Mafia|Mafia]]"-styled ''[[Rigoletto]]'' set in 1950s [[Little Italy, Manhattan]]. He has also become a well-known [[television personality]] and familiar [[public intellectual]] in the UK and US.

==Biography==
=== Early life ===
Miller grew up in [[St John's Wood]], London in a well-connected [[Jew]]ish family. His father Emanuel (1892–1970) was a [[psychiatrist]] specialising in child development and his mother Betty (née Spiro; 1910–1965) was a novelist and biographer. Miller's sister Sarah (died 2006) worked in television for many years and retained an involvement with Judaism that he, an [[Atheism|atheist]], has always eschewed.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Miller married Helen Rachel Collet in 1956. They have two sons and a daughter.<ref>[[Who's Who (UK)|Who's Who 2009]]</ref>

Miller studied [[natural science]]s and medicine at [[St John's College, Cambridge]] ([[MB BCh]], 1959), where he was a member of the [[Cambridge Apostles]], before going on to [[University College London]]. He qualified as a medical doctor in 1959 and then worked as a hospital [[Foundation House Officer|house officer]] for two years.

===1960s: ''Beyond the Fringe''===
While studying medicine, Miller was involved in  the [[Cambridge Footlights]]. In 1960, he helped to write and produce a musical [[revue]], ''[[Beyond the Fringe]]'', at the [[Edinburgh Festival]]. This launched, in addition to his own, the careers of [[Alan Bennett]], [[Peter Cook]] and [[Dudley Moore]]. Miller quit the show shortly after its move to [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in 1962 and took over as editor and presenter of the [[BBC]]'s flagship arts programme ''[[Monitor (arts programme)|Monitor]]'' in 1965. All these appointments were unsolicited invitations, the ''Monitor'' appointment arose because Miller had approached [[Huw Wheldon]] about taking up a place on the BBC's director training course, in which Miller was assured that he would "pick it up as he went along".{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} In 1966, he wrote, produced and directed a film adaptation of ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1966 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' for the BBC, followed in 1968 by ''Whistle and I'll Come to You'', an adaptation of [[M. R. James]]' ghost story "Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad". By 1970, his reputation in British theatre was such that he mounted a [[West End theatre|West End]] production of ''[[The Merchant of Venice]]'' starring [[Laurence Olivier]].

=== 1970s: Medical history and opera===
Miller held a research fellowship in the [[history of medicine]] at [[University College, London]] from 1970 to 1973. In 1974, he also started directing and producing operas for [[Kent Opera]] and [[Glyndebourne Festival Opera|Glyndebourne]], followed by a new production of ''The Marriage of Figaro'' for [[English National Opera]] in 1978. Despite only having seen a few operas and not knowing how to read music, Miller has become one of the world's leading opera directors with classic productions being ''[[Rigoletto]]'' and the [[operetta]] ''[[The Mikado]]''.

Miller drew upon his own experiences as a physician as writer and presenter of the BBC television series ''The Body in Question'' (1978), which caused some controversy for showing the dissection of a cadaver. For a time, he was a vice president of the [[Campaign for Homosexual Equality]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Allan Horsfall and Ray Gosling |title=History of the Campaign for Homosexual Equality |url=http://www.gaymonitor.co.uk/chehistory2.htm |work=Gay Monitor |date=14 March 2006 |accessdate=2008-09-02}}</ref>

===1980s: Shakespeare and neuropsychology===
[[Image:Jonathan Miller, 1986.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Jonathan Miller at the 1986 [[Miami Book Fair International]].]]
Miller was persuaded to join the troubled ''[[BBC Television Shakespeare]]'' project (1978–85) in 1980. He became producer (1980–82) and directed six of the plays himself, beginning with a well received ''[[Taming of the Shrew]]'' starring [[John Cleese]]. In the early 1980s, Miller was a popular and frequent guest on [[PBS]]' ''[[Dick Cavett Show]]''.

Miller wrote and presented the BBC television series ''States of Mind'' in 1983. In 1984, he studied [[neuropsychology]] with Dr. Sandra Witelson at [[McMaster University]] in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada before becoming a neuropsychology research fellow at [[University of Sussex|Sussex University]] the following year.

===1990s===
In the 1990s, Miller wrote and presented the television series ''Madness'' (1991) and ''Jonathan Miller on Reflection'' (1998). The five-part ''Madness'' series ran on [[PBS]] in 1991. It featured a brief history of madness and interviews with psychiatric researchers, clinical psychiatrists, and patients in therapy sessions.
{{Expand section|date=October 2008}}

===2000s: Atheism and return to directing===
In 2004, Miller wrote and presented a TV series on [[atheism]] entitled ''[[Atheism: A Rough History of Disbelief]]'' (more commonly referred to as ''Jonathan Miller's Brief History of Disbelief'') for [[BBC Four]], exploring the roots of his own atheism and investigating the history of atheism in the world. Individual conversations, debates and discussions for the series that could not be included due to time constraints were aired in a six-part series entitled ''[[The Atheism Tapes]]''. He also appeared on a BBC Two programme in February 2004, called ''What the World Thinks of God'' appearing from New York. The original three-part series was slated to air on [[Public Television]] in the United States, starting May 4, 2007, cosponsored by the [[American Ethical Union]], [[American Humanist Association]], [[Centre for Inquiry]], the [[HKH Foundation]], and the [[Institute for Humanist Studies]].

In 2007, Miller directed ''[[The Cherry Orchard]]'' at [[Crucible Theatre|The Crucible, Sheffield]], his first work on the British stage for ten years. He also directed [[Claudio Monteverdi|Monteverdi's]] ''[[L'Orfeo]]'' in Manchester and Bristol, and ''[[Der Rosenkavalier]]'' in Tokyo and gave talks throughout Britain during 2007 called ''An Audience with Jonathan Miller'' in which he spoke about his life for an hour and then fielded questions from the audience. He also curated an exhibition on camouflage at the [[Imperial War Museum]]. He has appeared at the Royal Society of the Arts in London discussing humour (4 July 2007) and at the British Library on religion (3 September 2007).

In January 2009, after a break of twelve years, Miller returned to the [[English National Opera]] to direct his own production of ''[[La Bohème]]'', notable for its 1930s setting. This same production will run at the [[Cincinnati Opera]] in July 2010, also directed by Miller.

Miller lives in [[London Borough of Camden|Camden]], North London.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

On 15 September 2010, Miller, along with 54 other public figures, signed an open letter published in [[The Guardian]], stating their opposition to [[Pope Benedict XVI]]'s state visit to the UK.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/sep/15/harsh-judgments-on-pope-religion|title=Letters: Harsh judgments on the pope and religion|work=The Guardian|accessdate=16 September 2010 | location=London | date=15 September 2010}}</ref>

==Honours and accolades==
*Distinguished Supporter, [[British Humanist Association]].
*Honorary Associate, [[National Secular Society]].
*Honorary Fellow, [[St John's College, Cambridge]] (1982).
*[[Order of the British Empire|Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] (CBE; 1983).
*Knighted for his services to the arts (2003).
*Nominated artist of honour at Bornholm thanks to his instruction in Rønne Theater (Opera Island Bornholm; 2003).
*Fellow of the [[Royal College of Physicians]] (London and [[Edinburgh]]).
*Foreign Member, [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]].
*President, [[Rationalist Association]] (2006–present)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Editors |title=Viva el Presidente |journal=New Humanist Newsletter |issue= #72 |date=5 September 2006 |url=http://newhumanist.org.uk/1373 |accessdate=2008-09-02}}</ref>

==Parodies and representations==
*''[[Private Eye (magazine)|Private Eye]]'' (which had a falling-out with Miller) occasionally lampooned him under the name 'Dr Jonathan', depicting him as a [[Dr Johnson]]-like self-important man of learning.
*The satirical television puppet show ''[[Spitting Image]]'' portrayed Miller as an anteater (lampooning his large nose), as well as featuring a segment entitled "Talking Bollocks" (the 'A' in 'Talking' combining with the 'ollo' in "Bollocks" below to create a penis), in which he discussed, with [[Bernard Levin]], various cultural matters in a ridiculously pretentious way.
* In the film for television ''Not Only But Always'' about the careers of [[Peter Cook]] and [[Dudley Moore]], [[Jonathan Aris]] played Jonathan Miller as a young man; Aris reprised the role in the BBC Radio 4 play ''Good Evening'' (2008) by Roy Smiles.
* Along with the other members of Beyond the Fringe, he is portrayed in the play ''[[Pete and Dud: Come Again]]'', by Chris Bartlett and [[Nick Awde]].

==Bibliography==
;Books
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=McLuhan | isbn= | year=1970 | publisher=Fontana Modern Masters series}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Censorship and the Limits of Personal Freedom | isbn= | year=1971 | publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Freud: The Man, His World and His Influence | isbn= | year=1972 | publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=The Uses of Pain (Conway memorial lecture) | isbn= | year=1974 | publisher=South Place Ethical Society}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=The Body in Question | isbn= | year=1978 | publisher=Jonathan Cape}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Darwin for Beginners | isbn=0375714588 | year=1982 | publisher=Writers and Readers Comic Book/2003 Pantheon Books (USA)}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=The Human Body | isbn= | year=1983 | publisher=Viking Press }} (1994 Jonathan Cape [pop-up book])
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=States of Mind. Conversations with Psychological Investigators | isbn= | year=1983 | publisher=BBC/Random House}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=The Facts of Life | isbn= | year=1984 | publisher=Jonathan Cape}} (pop-up book intended for children)
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Subsequent Performances | isbn= | year=1986 | publisher=Faber}}
* {{cite book | last=Miller, Jonathan & John Durrant | title=Laughing Matters: A Serious Look at Humour| isbn= | year=1989 | publisher=Longman}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Acting in Opera | isbn= | year=1990 | publisher=Applause Theatre & Cinema Books}} (The Applause Acting Series)
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=The Afterlife of Plays | isbn= | year=1992 | publisher=San Diego State Univ Press}} (University Research Lecture Series No. 5)
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Dimensional Man | isbn= | year=1998 | publisher=Jonathan Cape}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=On Reflection | isbn=0300077130 | year=1998 | publisher=National Gallery Publications/Yale University Press (USA)}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Nowhere in Particular | isbn=184000150X | year=1999 | publisher=Mitchell Beazley}} [collection of his photographs]

;Editor
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Harvey and the Circulation of Blood: A Collection of Contemporary Documents | isbn= | year=1968 | publisher=Jackdaw Publications}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=The Don Giovanni Book: Myths of Seduction and Betrayal | isbn= | year=1990 | publisher=Faber}}

;Contributor
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | coauthors=[[Alan Bennett]]; [[Peter Cook]]; [[Dudley Moore]] | title=Beyond the Fringe. A Revue | isbn= | year=1963 | publisher=Souvenir Press/Samuel French}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | coauthors=[[Margaret Drabble]]; [[Richard Hoggart]]; [[Adrian Mitchell]] ''et al.''| title=The Permissive Society | isbn= | year=1969 | publisher=Panther}}

* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | coauthors=Alan Bennett; Peter Cook; Dudley Moore | title=The Complete Beyond the Fringe | isbn=0413146707 | year=1987 | publisher=Methuen}}
* {{cite book | first=B.J. (ed.) | last=Sokol| title=The undiscover'd country: New Essays on Psychoanalysis and Shakespeare | isbn=185343 1974| year=1993 | publisher=[[Free Association Books]]}} — Jonathan Miller: '''King Lear'' in Rehearsal: A Talk' and seven other essays
* {{cite book | first=Robert B. (ed.)| last=Silvers| coauthors=Jonathan Miller; [[Stephen Jay Gould]]; [[Daniel Kevles|Daniel J Kevles]]; [[Lewontin|RC Lewontin]]; [[Oliver Sacks]] | title=Hidden Histories of Science | isbn= | year=1997 | publisher=Granta Books}}
* {{cite book | first=Robert B. (ed.) | last=Silvers | title=Doing It : Five Performing Arts | isbn=0940322757 | year=2000 | publisher=New York Review of Books (USA)}} Essays by Jonathan Miller [[Geoffrey O'Brien]], [[Charles Rosen]], [[Tom Stoppard]] and [[Garry Wills]]

;Introductions and forewords
* {{cite book | first=Robert | last=Lowell | title=Old Glory, The: Endecott and the Red Cross; My Kinsman, Major Molineux; and Benito Cereno | isbn=| year=1966 | publisher=}} (directors note)
* {{cite book | first=Jim | last=Biz |coauthors=''et al.'' | title=More Viz Crap Jokes | isbn=1902212169 | year=1999 | publisher=John Brown Publishing}} (introduction)
* {{cite book | first=Julian | last=Rothenstein | title=The Paradox Box: Optical Illusions, Puzzling Pictures, Verbal Diversions | isbn=| year=2000 | publisher=Redstons Press / Shambhala Publications (USA)}}
* {{cite book | first=Linda | last=Scotson | title=Doran: Child of Courage | isbn=| year=2000 | publisher=Macmillan}}

==Filmography==
{{Expand list|date=January 2009}}
===Presenter===
*''[[Monitor (arts programme)|Monitor]]'' (1962; also editor).
*''[[The Body in Question]]'' (1978).
*''[[Born Talking: A Personal Inquiry into Language]]'' (1990).
*''[[Madness (TV series)|Madness]]'' (1991).
*''[[Jonathan Miller on Reflection]]'' (1998).
*''[[Atheism: A Rough History of Disbelief]]'' (2004).
*''[[The Atheism Tapes]]'' (2004).

===Director===
*''[[Alice in Wonderland (1966 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' (1966; BBC television drama; Also writer and producer; Provides commentary track on DVD version)
*''[[Whistle and I'll Come to You]]'' (1968; BBC television drama).
*''[[BBC Television Shakespeare]]'' (1978–85):
**''[[The Taming of the Shrew]]'' (1980), starring [[John Cleese]].
**''[[Timon of Athens]]'' (1981), starring [[Jonathan Pryce]].
**''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]'' (1981), starring [[Colin Blakely]].
**''[[Othello]]'' (1981), starring [[Anthony Hopkins]] and [[Bob Hoskins]].
**''[[Troilus and Cressida]]'' (1981) .
**''[[King Lear]]'' (1982), starring [[Michael Hordern]].

===Interviewer===
*''[[The Atheism Tapes]]'' (2004).

===Interviewee===
*{{cite book | author = BBC | title = Great Composers of the World}} Miller appears on the Puccini and Bach DVDs of this BBC series. In the Bach episode, he discusses his affection for the famous "Erbarme Dich" aria of the ''[[St Matthew Passion (Bach)|St Matthew Passion]]''.
*{{cite book | author = PBS | title = Vermeer: Master of Light}} Miller appears in this one-hour program on the painter.

==Stage productions==
{{Expand list|date=January 2009}}
===Musical revue===
*''[[Beyond the Fringe]]'' (performer, writer, producer; [[Edinburgh Festival]], 1960).
*''[[Beyond the Fringe]]'' (performer, writer; [[John Golden Theatre]], 27 October 1962 to 30 May 1964; 667 performances).<ref>Title changed to ''Beyond The Fringe 1964'' on 8 January 1964 (a "new edition" of the show). By then Miller had long since left the production.</ref>

===Oratorium===
*''[[St Matthew Passion (Bach)|St. Matthew's Passion]]'' (Director; [[St. George's Theatre, London]], February 1994) with [[Paul Goodwin]]. A dramatized production of [[J. S. Bach|J.S. Bach]]'s masterpiece, recorded for BBC Television.

===Drama===
*''[[The Merchant of Venice]]'' (Director; [[Cambridge Theatre]], 1970) starring [[Laurence Olivier]].
*''[[Danton's Death]]'' (Director; 1972) starring [[Christopher Plummer]].
*''[[Long Day's Journey Into Night]]'' (Director; [[Broadhurst Theatre]], 28 April to 29 June 1986; 54 performances).
*''[[King Lear]]'' (Director; [[Vivian Beaumont Theatre]] 4 March to 18 April 2004; 33 performances).
*''[[The Cherry Orchard]]'' (Director; [[Crucible Theatre]], 2007). Miller's return to the English stage after a ten-year absence.

===Opera===
*''[[Così fan tutte]]'' (Stage director; [[Kent Opera]], 1974). The first of seven operas Miller directed for Kent Opera.
*''[[Rigoletto]]'' (Stage director; 1975). Set in the 19th century.
*''[[Le nozze di Figaro]]'' (Stage director; [[English National Opera]], 1978). A televised version was made in 1991.
*''[[Rigoletto]]'' (Stage and video director; English National Opera, 1982). Set in 1950s [[Little Italy, Manhattan]].
*''[[La traviata]]'' (Stage director; [[Glimmerglass Opera]], 1989).
*''[[La fanciulla del West]]'' (Stage and video director; 1991).
*''[[The Mikado]]'' (Stage and video director; English National Opera, 1987) starring [[Eric Idle]].
*''[[Le nozze di Figaro]]'' (Stage director and producer; [[Metropolitan Opera]], 1998)
*''[[Die Zauberflöte]]'' (Stage and video director; 2000).
*''[[Tamerlano]]'' (Stage and video director; 2001).
*''[[Die Entführung aus dem Serail]]'' (Stage and video director; 2003).
*''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]'' (Stage director; [[New National Theatre Tokyo]], 2004).
*''[[Jenůfa]]'' (Stage director; Glimmerglass Opera with [[New York City Opera]] in [[Cooperstown, New York]], 29 July to 29 August 2006).
*''[[L'Orfeo]]'' (Stage director; [[Manchester]] and [[Bristol]] productions, 200?).
*''[[Der Rosenkavalier]]'' (Stage director; New National Theatre Tokyo, 2007).
*''[[La traviata]]'' (Stage director; Glimmerglass Opera, 2009).
*''[[La bohème]]'' (Stage director; Cincinnati Opera, 2010).

==Further reading==
Miller is the subject of a forthcoming biography, ''In Two Minds'' by ''[[The Independent on Sunday]]'''s theatre critic [[Kate Bassett]], due to be published in November 2010. The title refers to Miller's career which has embraced both medicine and the arts, and to his riven feelings and deep regrets about having given up working as a doctor to become an internationally renowned drama and opera director.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

'''Books about Miller'''
*{{cite book | author = Kate Bassett | title = In Two Minds | id = | year = November 2010 forthcoming | publisher = Methuen}}
*{{cite book | author = Ronald Bergan | title = Beyond the Fringe...and Beyond: A Critical Biography of Alan Bennett, Peter Cook, Jonathan Miller, Dudley Moore | isbn = 1-85227-175-2 | year = 1990 | publisher = Virgin Books}}
*{{cite book | author = Michael Romain (Ed) | title = A Profile of Jonathan Miller | isbn = 0-521-40953-5 | year = 1992 | publisher = Cambridge University Press}}

'''On Miller and the satire boom'''
*{{cite book | author = Humphrey Carpenter | title = That Was Satire, That Was: Beyond the Fringe, the Establishment Club, "Private Eye" and "That Was the Week That Was" | isbn = 0-575-06588-5 | year = 2000 | publisher = Weidenfeld & Nicolson}}
*{{cite book | author = Robert Hewison | title = Footlights! - A Hundred Years of Cambridge Comedy | isbn = 0-413-51150-2 | year = 1983 | publisher = Methuen}}
*{{cite book | author = Roger Wilmut | title = From Fringe to Flying Circus - Celebrating a Unique Generation of Comedy 1960-1980 | isbn = 0-413-46950-6 | year = 1980 | publisher = Eyre Methuen}}

== See also==
* [[National Secular Society]]
* [[Rationalist Press Association|Rationalist Association]]
* [[Las Meninas]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/search/people_sub_plays_all?forename=Jonathan&surname=MILLER&job=Director&pid=360&image_view=Yesamp;x=19amp;y=17 Production details, Theatre Archive, University of Bristol]
* {{ibdb|6928}}
* {{imdb|588664}}
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20041012212809/http://www.petercook.net/articles/Jonathan-Miller.htm Can English Satire Draw Blood?]
* [http://roycecarlton.com/admin/speakers/fileuploads/Miller_Info-Kit.pdf Jonathan Miller bio. - Miller's agents]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/documentaries/2009/03/090323_theforum_080309.shtml Audio: Jonathan Miller in conversation on the BBC World Service discussion show] [[The Forum (BBC World Service)|''The Forum'']]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/ What the World Thinks of God]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/selfmadethings_20050727.shtml Jonathan Miller radio series on the origin of life - "Self Made Things"]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/nationshealth.shtml A six-part history of Public Health in England (includes a spill-over interview series)]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/factual/desertislanddiscs_20050123.shtml Jonathan Miller's choices on "Desert Island Discs"]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/features/atheism.shtml Jonathan Miller's Brief History of Disbelief]

{{OlivierAward Director}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Miller, Jonathan
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =21 July 1934
| PLACE OF BIRTH =London, England
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Miller, Jonathan}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from London]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Sussex]]
[[Category:Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Alumni of University College London]]
[[Category:Atheism activists]]
[[Category:British television presenters]]
[[Category:British theatre directors]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:English atheists]]
[[Category:English humanists]]
[[Category:English Jews]]
[[Category:English satirists]]
[[Category:English writers]]
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]
[[Category:Jewish atheists]]
[[Category:Materialists]]
[[Category:Olivier Award winners]]
[[Category:Opera directors]]
[[Category:Tony Award winners]]

[[es:Jonathan Miller]]
[[he:ג'ונתן מילר]]

Jeannette Altwegg

2010-02-23T15:25:58Z

Lessogg: weblink

{| class="toccolours float-right" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: 30%; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
!colspan=3 align=center | [[Bild:Olympic rings.svg|center|80px|Olympische Ringe]]
|- align=center
|colspan=3 | [[Eiskunstlaufen]]
|- align=center
|bgcolor="#cc9966"| Bronze || [[Olympische Winterspiele 1948/Eiskunstlauf|1948]] || [[Einzellauf|Damen]]
|- align=center
|bgcolor="gold"| Gold || [[Olympische Winterspiele 1952/Eiskunstlauf|1952]] || [[Einzellauf|Damen]]
|}

'''Jeannette Eleanor Altwegg''' (* [[8. September]] [[1930]] in [[Mumbai|Bombay]], [[Indien]]) ist eine ehemalige [[Vereinigtes Königreich|britische]] [[Eiskunstlauf|Eiskunstläuferin]].

Sie wurde 1930 in Indien als Tochter einer Engländerin und eines Schweizer Vaters geboren. Zwei Jahre später zog die Familie nach [[England]]. Mit sechs Jahren begann sich Altwegg dem Eislauf zu widmen und erhielt Privatunterricht. Ihr Vater fuhr oft mit ihr in den Ferien in die [[Schweiz]]. Dort wurde sie von [[Jacques Gerschwiler]] ausgebildet, dem Onkel des mehrfachen Weltmeisters [[Hans Gerschwiler]].<ref name="sonntag">Artikel im ''[[Sonntag (Zeitung)|Sonntag]]'' vom 29. März 2009: ''Das Märchen von der Prinzessin, die keine sein wollte''</ref>

Altwegg hatte jedoch auch Talent im Tennis. Als 1947 in [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] erstmals auch ein Juniorenturnier ausgetragen wurde, nahm sie daran teil und erreichte die Finalspiele. Im selben Jahr wurde sie britische Juniorenmeisterin in Eiskunstlaufen und beendete die [[Eiskunstlauf-Weltmeisterschaft|Weltmeisterschaft]] auf dem fünften Platz. Nach diesen Erfolgen gab sie das Tennis auf und konzentrierte sich einzig noch aufs Einskunstlaufen. 1947 zog sie mit ihrer Familie in die Schweiz.

Bei den [[Olympische Winterspiele 1948|Olympischen Winterspielen 1948]] in [[St. Moritz]] gewann Altwegg im Eiskunstlauf die Bronzemedaille. 1951 wurde sie Welt- und Europameisterin in dieser Disziplin und wiederholte ihren Erfolg bei den Europameisterschaften im Jahr darauf. Den größten Erfolg ihrer Laufbahn errang sie 1952, als sie in [[Oslo]] bei den [[Olympische Winterspiele 1952|Olympischen Spielen]] die Goldmedaille gewann. Nach diesem Erfolg gab sie im Alter von 21 Jahren ihren Rücktritt bekannt. An den bevorstehenden Weltmeisterschaften in Paris, wo sie als Titelverteidigerin hätte starten können, nahm sie bereits nicht mehr teil.

Anders als etwa ihre berühmte Vorgängerin [[Sonja Henie]] gab Altwegg ihren Amateurstatus nicht auf, um dann als professionelle Läuferin an Exhibitions und Gala-Abenden aufzutreten. Sie schlug zahlreiche sehr lukrative Angebote aus und nahm stattdessen eine Stelle als Betreuerin im [[Kinderdorf Pestalozzi|Pestalozzi-Kinderdorf]] in [[Trogen AR|Trogen]] an, um Kriegswaisen zu betreuen. 1953 erhielt sie von Königin [[Elisabeth II.]] einen [[Order of the British Empire]] (CBE) verliehen.<ref name="sonntag" />

Sie heiratete Marc Wirz, den Bruder der Schweizer Eiskunstläuferin [[Susi Wirz]]. Sie haben vier Kinder und liessen sich 1973 scheiden. Tochter [[Cristina Wirz]] wurde 1983 Curling-Weltmeisterin und gewann die Bronzemedaille an den Europameisterschaften.<ref>[http://www.ecf-web.org/ecc_winners.html European Curling Federation: Sieger der Europameisterschaften]</ref>

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Olympic-Athletes/All-Athletes/Athletes-AA-to-AM/-Jeannette-Altwegg-/ Biographie (auf Englisch)]
* {{SportsReference|al/jeannette-altwegg-1}}

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

{{NaviBlock
|Navigationsleiste Olympiasiegerinnen im Eiskunstlauf
|Navigationsleiste Weltmeisterinnen im Eiskunstlauf
|Navigationsleiste Europameisterinnen im Eiskunstlauf
}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Altwegg, Jeannette}}
[[Kategorie:Eiskunstläufer (Vereinigtes Königreich)]]
[[Kategorie:Olympiasieger (Eiskunstlauf)]]
[[Kategorie:Weltmeister (Eiskunstlauf)]]
[[Kategorie:Olympiateilnehmer (Vereinigtes Königreich)]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1930]]
[[Kategorie:Frau]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Altwegg, Jeannette
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Altwegg, Jeannette Eleanor (vollständiger Name)
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=britische Eiskunstläuferin
|GEBURTSDATUM=8. September 1930
|GEBURTSORT=[[Mumbai|Bombay]], Indien
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[en:Jeannette Altwegg]]
[[fi:Jeannette Altwegg]]
[[fr:Jeannette Altwegg]]
[[it:Jeannette Altwegg]]
[[ja:ジャネット・アルウェッグ]]
[[nl:Jeannette Altwegg]]
[[no:Jeannette Altwegg]]
[[ru:Альтвегг, Жанетт]]

King’s Lock

2009-05-02T12:33:19Z

Lessogg: doesn't need stub warning

{{Infobox Waterlock
|lock_name = King's Lock<ref>[http://www.visitthames.co.uk/uploads/a_users_guide_to_the_River_thames.pdf Statistics from Environment Agency ''A User's Guide to the River Thames:Part II'']</ref>
|image= King's Lock - geograph.org.uk - 909039.jpg
|caption=
|waterway = [[River Thames]]
|county = [[Oxfordshire]]
|maint = [[Environment Agency]]
|operation = Manual
|first = 1928
|latest =
|length = 113’ 1” (34.46m)
|width = 16’ 4” (4.97m)
|fall = 2’ 6” (0.77m)
|sealevel = 192'
|enda = [[Teddington Lock]]
|distenda = 97 miles
|endb =
|distendb =
| map_cue=
| map_image=
| map_text=
| map_width=
| coordinates=
| lat=
| long=
| extra=
}}
{{Kings Lock map|King's Lock}}
'''King's Lock''' is a [[lock (water transport)|lock]] on the [[River Thames]] in England. It is in open country to the north of [[Oxford]], [[Oxfordshire]], on the southern bank of the river.

The lock was one of the last pound locks built on the Thames being built by the [[Thames Conservancy]] in 1928.

At the lock there is a large island. Behind this is the start of the Duke's Cut which connects the Thames to the [[Oxford Canal]] and to a back stream that used to serve the University papermills at [[Wolvercote]] and which rejoins the Thames at Godstow Lock.

The weir is on the other side of the island.

==History==

There was a weir recorded at King's as far back as the 16th century. A pound lock was first proposed in 1817, but never built. A further proposal was made in 1845. The weir had a history of complaints about the water level and lack of attendance for the [[flash lock]]. Around 1872 a boatslide was built for the portage of small boats.<ref>Fred. S. Thacker ''The Thames Highway: Volume II Locks and Weirs'' 1920 - republished 1968 David & Charles</ref> The weir was rebuilt in 1885 but its replacement by a pound lock did not happen until 1928.

==Access to the lock==
The lock can be reached down a long track which leads from the Godstow road just where it passes under the A34 Oxford by-pass.

==Reach above the lock==

Above the lock is the connection with Dukes Cut on the northern side and further on on the southerm bank the Seacourt Stream separates off to rejoin at [[Osney Lock]]. The river runs through completely open country and halfway along the [[River Evenlode]] joins from the northern side. Wharf Stream also joins on the same side just before Eynsham Lock.

The '''[[Thames Path]]''' follows the southern bank to Eynsham Lock.

== See also ==

* [[Locks on the River Thames]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.fellwalk.co.uk/thame822.htm King's Lock] at fellwalk.co.uk
* [http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/429205 Photograph of King's Lock] at geograph.org.uk

{{Start box}}
{{River lock start|River=[[River Thames]]}}
{{River lock line|upstream=[[Eynsham Lock]] 3.71 miles|downstream=[[Godstow Lock]] 1.13 miles|location=SP478102}}
{{End box}}

{{coord|51.78842|-1.30840|type:landmark_region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(SP478102)|display=title}}

[[Category:Locks on the River Thames]]
[[Category:Locks of Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Thames Path]]