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Benutzer:Saehrimnir/Blue-ice area

2019-11-07T07:01:24Z

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[[File:Miller Range, Antarctica - Meteorite (2).jpg|400px|thumb|A blue-ice area in the [[Miller Range]] with a meteorite]]
A '''blue-ice area''' is an [[ice]]-covered area of [[Antarctica]] where wind-driven snow transport and [[sublimation (phase transition)|sublimation]] result in net mass loss from the ice surface in the absence of [[melting]], forming a blue-coloured surface that contrasts with the white colour of the Antarctic surface. Such blue-ice areas typically form when the movement of both air and ice are obstructed by topographic obstacles such as [[mountain]]s that emerge from the [[ice sheet]], generating particular climatic conditions where the net snow accumulation is exceeded by wind-driven sublimation and snow transports.

Only about 1% of Antarctic ice area can be considered to be blue-ice area, but they have attracted scientific interest due to the large numbers of [[meteorite]]s that accumulate on them; these meteorites either fall directly on the blue-ice area and remain there or they fall elsewhere into the ice sheet and are transported to the blue-ice area by [[ice flow]]. Additionally, ice up to 2.7 million years old has been obtained from blue-ice areas. Blue-ice areas are sometimes used as [[runway]]s for aircraft.

== Appearance ==

Blue-ice areas have a generally smooth and often{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=338}} rippled appearance, a blue colour{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=337}} and a lack of bubbles in the ice.{{sfn|Harvey|2003|p=100}} This light blue colour is a consequence of the [[Colour of water|absorption of light by ice and air bubbles encased within it]] and the source of the name "blue-ice area". It contrasts markedly with the white colour of Antarctic plains{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=340}} and can be seen from space and from aerial images{{sfn|Harvey|2003|p=100}} while the density of the blue ice makes it appear on [[radar]] images as a dark ice form.{{sfn|Harvey|Meibom|Haack|2001|p=809}} Scalloped or rippled surfaces have almost regular surface patterns, although wholly smooth blue-ice areas exist as well{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=353}} and the terrain even of rippled surfaces features very low aerodynamic roughness, perhaps among the lowest of all permanent natural surfaces.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=352}} This is because most [[aerodynamic drag]] is caused by surface anomalies less than a centimetre long, not larger uneven forms.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=353}}

The occurrence of supraglacial [[moraine]]s at blue-ice areas has been reported,{{sfn|Hättestrand|Johansen|2005|p=228}} these form when debris contained withina glacier accumulates at the surface due to melting or sublimation.{{sfn|Hättestrand|Johansen|2005|p=231}} Small depressions in the ice known as [[cryoconite]] holes are common and are formed where rocks got embedded in the ice,{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=340}} but are absent on more mountainous blue-ice areas.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=341}}

Typical blue-ice areas often feature intense [[katabatic wind]]s, with average winds reaching {{convert|80|km/h}} and gusts of up to {{convert|200|km/h}}; such winds can remove and take up large amounts of snow.{{sfn|Harvey|2003|p=103}} They are usually warmer than comparable snow-covered areas, sometimes by up to {{convert|6|C-change}}, which makes them identifiable from [[brightness temperature]] imaging. This warming is due to the lower [[albedo]] of the blue ice compared to snow, which results in them absorbing more sunlight and warming more.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=351}} Blue-ice areas also alter the climate above them.{{sfn|Wang|Jin|Zhao|Wang|2014|p=129}}

As commonly defined, blue-ice areas display little or no evidence of melting,{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=338}} thus excluding glaciers and frozen lakes in the [[Antarctic Dry Valleys]] where sublimation-dominated ice also occurs but which may be more comparable to the ablation areas of regular [[glacier]]s.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=340}}

== Occurrence ==
[[File:Antarctic blueice hg.jpg|thumb|400px|Occurrence of blue-ice areas in Antarctica]]
Blue-ice areas are known only from [[Antarctica]]{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=340}} although similar ice patches on [[Greenland]] have been reported{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=340}} and [[blue ice (glacial)|blue ice]] is widespread at glaciers worldwide.{{sfn|Harvey|Meibom|Haack|2001|p=808}} Blue-ice areas make up only about 1% of the Antarctic surface ice;{{sfn|Harvey|2003|p=100}} however, they are locally common{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=341}} and scattered across the continent, especially in coastal or mountainous areas,{{sfn|Wang|Jin|Zhao|Wang|2014|p=129}} but not directly beside the coastline.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=356}}

They have been found in [[Dronning Maud Land]], the catchment of the [[Lambert Glacier]], the [[Transantarctic Mountains]] and [[Victoria Land]].{{sfn|Wang|Jin|Zhao|Wang|2014|p=135}} Individual locations in Antarctica include areas of the [[Allan Hills]],{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=341}} the [[Queen Fabiola Mountains]] (the Yamato ice field there covers an area of {{convert|4000|km2}} and is the largest such structure),{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=343}} [[Scharffenberg-Botnen]]{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=345}} and the [[Sør Rondane Mountains]].{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=340}}

== Origin and processes ==

Blue-ice areas are regions where more snow is removed by [[sublimation (phase transition)|sublimation]] or by wind than accumulates by precipitation or wind-driven transport,{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=337}} leading to the emergence of (blue) ice. In most of Antarctica, the net tendency is for snow to accumulate except in coastal Antarctica where melting occurs and blue-ice areas where sublimation dominates.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=338}} This sublimation occurs at rates of {{convert|3|-|350|cm/year|in/year}} [[snow water equivalent]] and is balanced by ice flow, with the sublimation rate decreasing with elevation{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=345}} and increasing with temperature. Summer also increases the sublimation rate, although it still occurs during winter.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=346}} Winds remove snow that rest on the surface and could even scour exposed ice away, although the occurrence of scouring is not established without doubt{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=347}} and the role of [[abrasion (geology)|abrasion]] is also unclear.{{sfn|Harvey|2003|p=103}}

Such areas exist even in the coldest parts of Antarctica,{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=337}} and they are characterized by high mean wind speeds and low precipitation.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=343}} Once they have formed, the smooth surface prevents snow from accumulating as it is quickly blown away by the wind, and the blue colour increases the absorption of [[sunlight]] and thus sublimation; both these phenomena act to maintain the blue ice area, and wind-driven transport of warm air can cause the blue-ice area to expand downwind.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=344}}

Blue-ice areas are common in mountainous regions. Presumably, irregular surface topography obstructs ice flow and locally creates atmospheric conditions suitable for the development of blue-ice areas. Irregular topography does not need to be exposed to the surface in order to generate blue-ice areas,{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=341}} although they must have an effect on the ice surface topography to induce the formation of blue-ice areas. Consequently, many blue-ice areas form when ice thicknesses decrease, which has been postulated to happen during [[interglacial]]s{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=344}} although in general the past history of blue-ice areas is poorly known. Such areas may not have existed at all during glacial times when the ice sheet was thicker.{{sfn|Hättestrand|Johansen|2005|p=228}} Changes in mean wind speeds cause short-term fluctuations in the land covered by blue-ice areas. [[Global warming]] is predicted to decrease wind speeds across Antarctica causing a small decrease in the land surface covered by blue-ice areas.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=355}}

=== Age ===

Ages of particular blue-ice areas have been inferred from the ages of the meteorites there discovered, although redistribution of meteorites between various areas through ice flow can cause this procedure to yield erroneous age estimates. The oldest blue-ice areas may be up to 2.5 million years old{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=344}} and the ice in them can be quite old as well, with ages of several hundred thousand years estimated on the basis of ice flow dynamics and [[radiometric dating]] and the development of a horizontal [[stratigraphy]]. This occurs because ice blocked by obstacles stagnates and moves at a rate commensurate with the [[ablation]] rate.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=345}} Younger ages have been found as well however, such as 250,000 years old at the [[Allan Hills]] and 75,000 years old at the [[Yamato Mountains]].{{sfn|Hättestrand|Johansen|2005|p=228}}

=== Types ===

Several subtypes have been defined,{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=341}} which encompass most blue-ice areas.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=343}}
* Type I form in the [[lee side|lee]] of an obstacle and are the most common type of blue-ice area{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=341}} although they usually cover only a small surface area, compared to the other three types.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=343}} They are often 50 - 100 times as long as the obstacle is high, which is often a mountain.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=341}}
* Type II form where [[katabatic wind]]s clear snow from the surface{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=341}} until ice appears.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=343}} They form on valley glaciers.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=341}}
* Type III form where winds blowing on steep slopes - or even over flat terrain - remove snow from the surface.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=343}}
* Type IV form by wind removing snow from the lowest part of a glacier basin.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=343}}

== Meteorites ==
[[File:Icemvmt.gif|thumb|Pathways of meteorites in ice]]
Blue-ice areas are known primarily for the meteorites that accumulate there. They originally fell on ice elsewhere and were transported by ice flows to the blue-ice area, where they accumulate{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=337}} when the ice they were encased in ablates away; this mechanism has been compared to a [[conveyor belt]] that transports meteorites to blue-ice areas.{{sfn|Harvey|2003|p=102}} Additionally, meteorites that fell directly on the blue-ice areas are represented; because of the often great age of the surface a number of meteorites can accumulate even without ice-driven transport.{{sfn|Harvey|2003|pp=104-105}} Over 20,000 meteorites from blue-ice areas were known by 1999, a large share of all known meteorites on Earth.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=337}}

Meteorite findings occur only on a minority of all blue-ice areas{{sfn|Harvey|Meibom|Haack|2001|p=808}} and are mostly limited to inland blue-ice areas whereas coastal ones tend to be lacking in meteorites.{{sfn|Harvey|2003|p=100}} This might reflect the fact that at low altitude the ice surrounding the meteorites can melt due to solar heating of the meteorite, thus removing it from view.{{sfn|Harvey|2003|p=111}}

== Research history ==

The earliest research in blue-ice areas occurred during the [[Norwegian–British–Swedish Antarctic Expedition]] in 1949 - 1952, and was followed by two decades of mostly geological and geomorphological research. The discovery of meteorites in a blue-ice area of the [[Yamato Mountains]] led to an uptick in scientific interest; a number of programs to collect meteorites began. This also led to increased research in the glaciological{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=337}} and dynamical properties of blue-ice areas, and later to their [[meteorological]] and climatological implications.{{sfn|Bintanja|1999|p=338}}

== Use ==

The hard, flat and smooth surfaces of blue-ice areas have been used as [[Runway|aircraft runways]] ([[Blue ice runway|blue ice runways]]) in parts of Antarctica.{{sfn|Wang|Jin|Zhao|Wang|2014|p=129}} The very old ice in blue-ice areas has been used to reconstruct past [[climate]], and the temporal resolution may be larger than in deep [[ice core]]s.{{sfn|Wang|Jin|Zhao|Wang|2014|p=129}} Blue-ice areas are candidate sites for ice core drilling aimed at recovering 1.5 million year old ice,<ref name="Kurbatov2016" /> and 2.7 million year old ice has been recovered from such areas.<ref name="Voosen2017" />

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Voosen2017">{{cite journal |last1=Voosen |first1=Paul |title=2.7-million-year-old ice opens window on past |journal=Science |date=18 August 2017 |volume=357 |issue=6352 |page=630 |doi=10.1126/science.357.6352.630 |url=https://science.sciencemag.org/content/357/6352/630 |language=en |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>
<ref name="Kurbatov2016">{{cite web |last1=Kurbatov |first1=A. |last2=Brook |first2=E. |last3=Campbell |first3=S. W. |last4=Conway |first4=H. |last5=Dunbar |first5=N. W. |last6=Higgins |first6=J. A. |last7=Iverson |first7=N. A. |last8=Kehrl |first8=L. M. |last9=McIntosh |first9=W. C. |last10=Spaulding |first10=N. E. |last11=Yan |first11=Y. |last12=Mayewski |first12=P. A. |title=Allan Hills Pleistocene Ice Project (PIP) |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016AGUFMPP31B2272K |website=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts |date=1 December 2016}}</ref>
}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bintanja |first1=Richard |title=On the glaciological, meteorological, and climatological significance of Antarctic blue ice areas |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |date=1999 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=337–359 |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/1999RG900007|doi=10.1029/1999RG900007 |ref=harv |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harvey |first1=Ralph P. |last2=Meibom |first2=Anders |last3=Haack |first3=Henning |title=Meteorite stranding surfaces and the Greenland icesheet |journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science |date=June 2001 |volume=36 |issue=6 |pages=807–816 |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2001.tb01918.x |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2001M%26PS...36..807H|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harvey |first1=Ralph |title=The Origin and Significance of Antarctic Meteorites |journal=Geochemistry |date=1 January 2003 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=93–147 |doi=10.1078/0009-2819-00031 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009281904700215 |ref=harv |issn=0009-2819}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hättestrand |first1=Clas |last2=Johansen |first2=Nina |title=Supraglacial moraines in Scharffenbergbotnen, Heimefrontfjella, Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica – significance for reconstructing former blue ice areas |journal=Antarctic Science |date=2005 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=225–236 |doi=10.1017/S0954102005002634 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antarctic-science/article/supraglacial-moraines-in-scharffenbergbotnen-heimefrontfjella-dronning-maud-land-antarctica-significance-for-reconstructing-former-blue-ice-areas/66A787610547EB61C190ACAE33F1A862 |ref=harv |language=en |issn=1365-2079}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Kun |last2=Jin |first2=Zhenyu |last3=Zhao |first3=Chen |last4=Wang |first4=Fang |last5=Wang |first5=Xianwei |last6=Huang |first6=Huabing |last7=Chi |first7=Zhaohui |last8=Zhang |first8=Yanmei |last9=Liu |first9=Yan |last10=Scambo |first10=Ted A. |last11=Cheng |first11=Xiao |last12=Ci |first12=Tianyu |last13=Hui |first13=Fengming |title=Mapping blue-ice areas in Antarctica using ETM+ and MODIS data |journal=Annals of Glaciology |date=2014 |volume=55 |issue=66 |pages=129–137 |doi=10.3189/2014AoG66A069 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/mapping-blueice-areas-in-antarctica-using-etm-and-modis-data/9E90F1F5FECE2542EEA9AB125A1A67B2 |ref=harv |language=en |issn=0260-3055}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Glacial erosion landforms]]
[[Category:Antarctica]]
[[Category:Geomorphology]]
[[Category:Ice]]

Silver Star Mountain (Skamania County, Washington)

2019-01-07T20:21:41Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

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{{About||the ski resort of the same name|Silver Star Mountain Resort|other mountains of the same name|Silver Star Mountain (disambiguation)}}

{{Infobox mountain
| name = Silver Star Mountain
| photo = SILVERSTARSUMMIT.JPG
| photo_caption = Summit of Silver Star with [[Mount St. Helens]] in the background
| elevation_ft = 4364
| elevation_ref = {{NAVD88}}<ref name="ngs">{{cite ngs |id=RD2246 |designation=Silver Star Mountain LO |accessdate=July 9, 2018}}</ref>
| listing =
| location = [[Skamania County, Washington]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| range = [[Cascade Range]]
| coordinates = {{coord|45|44|51.8|N|122|14|20.5|W|type:mountain_region:US-WA_source:ngs|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref = <ref name="ngs"/>
| topo = [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] Bobs Mountain
| type =
| age =
| volcanic_arc = [[Cascade Volcanoes|Cascade Volcanic Arc]]
| first_ascent =
| easiest_route =
}}

'''Silver Star Mountain''' is an [[extinct volcano]] of the [[Cascade Range]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. Consisting of late [[Eocene]] to [[Oligocene]] epoch rock, it lies within the [[Gifford Pinchot National Forest]]. Long inactive, the volcano sits over three [[lithology|lithologic]] units (distinct units of rock, each with different physical characteristics), including the large Silver Star [[Granodiorite]] unit.

Silver Star Mountain and the surrounding area, in contrast to the rest of the local backcountry, has a ridge-like appearance, creating a striking skyline similar to mountains further north in the Cascade Range. The area lacks trees, and comprises steep cliffs, [[scree|talus]] slopes, and meadows filled with wildflowers. The volcano can be hiked and has been noted for its trails by local mountaineers.

== Geography ==
Silver Star Mountain lies in [[Skamania County, Washington|Skamania County]], in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington]].<ref name=gnis>{{cite gnis|id=1525797|name=Silver Star Mountain|entrydate=1979-09-10|accessdate=July 20, 2018}}</ref> According to the [[North American Vertical Datum of 1988]], it reaches an elevation of {{convert|4364|ft|m}},<ref name="ngs"/> though the [[Geographic Names Information System]] database lists its elevation at {{convert|4377|ft|m}},<ref name=gnis/> and ''[[The Columbian]]'' gives its height as {{convert|4382|ft|m}}.<ref name=columbian/> The volcano lies in the western segment of the Middle [[Cascade Range|Cascades]].{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=298}} It is about {{convert|12|mi|km}} north of the western edge of the [[Columbia River]] [[Columbia River Gorge|Gorge]] and is accessible from the city of [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] via [[United States Forest Service]] roads connected to Washington state highways.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=298}} The volcano sits in the southwestern corner of the [[Gifford Pinchot National Forest]], which encompasses an area of {{convert|1300000|acre|km2}} in southwestern Washington state.<ref name=columbian/>

=== Physical geography ===
The Silver Star Mountain area consists of an eroded plateau, largely made up of lava, with an average [[Terrain#relief|relief]] of about {{convert|2000|ft|m}} and reaching a local maximum elevation of {{convert|3000|ft|m}}.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=299}} Unlike the rest of the western Cascade backcountry,<ref name=columbian/> it has a ridge-like appearance, creating a striking skyline similar to mountains further north in the Cascade Range.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=300}} The area lacks trees and comprises steep cliffs, [[scree|talus]] slopes, and meadows filled with wildflowers.<ref name=columbian/>

The locale drains into the [[Washougal River]] and the [[Lewis River (Washington)|Lewis River]]'s South Fork, which flow to the south and west respectively. [[Erosion]] by these rivers has dissected the land, producing a relief of {{convert|2500|to|3000|ft|m}}.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=298}} Precipitation reaches a peak during the winter season, usually deposited as snow that produces [[snowdrift|drifts]], especially in deep canyons in the area. These drifts often remain until the summer, feeding small streams in the vicinity. [[Surface runoff]] has increased due to the removal of forest cover by historical fires, including large fires in 1902 and 1929. As a result, runoff has eroded gullies on local slopes and increased removal of soil.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=298}} Moreover, there are talus slopes with heights up to {{convert|1200|ft|m}}, which cover a large amount of the granodiorite deposit.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=299}} Small [[cirque]]-like basins, likely carved out by small [[glacier]]s, occur in a few of the larger canyons, with depressions up to {{convert|75|ft|m}} in depth. These often host [[tarn (lake)|tarn]] lakes, and some support snowdrifts.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=300}}

Soil on and around the mountain has been eroded by repeated fires, including the [[Yacolt Burn]] in 1902 and 16 additional fires through 1929. Slow regrowth motivated the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] to plant more trees during the 1930s,<ref name=fire>{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MEDIA/stelprdb5160934.pdf|title=Fire created the open hillsides of Silver Star|publisher=[[United States Forest Service]]|accessdate=August 14, 2018}}</ref> and terracing was also used during the 1960s to facilitate better vegetation regrowth.<ref name=bluff/>

== Ecology ==
Wildflowers grow at unusually low elevations at Silver Star Mountain, as a result of fires, wind, and rocky [[subsoil]].<ref name=EarthWindFire/> There are more than 100 types of wildflowers and flowering shrubs on the volcano, such as [[Ericaceae|heather]], [[Calochortus elegans|star tulip]], [[Lilium columbianum|tiger lily]], [[Ligusticum grayi|Grey's loveage]], [[Dierama|hairbell]], [[Xerophyllum tenax|bear grass]], [[Bistorta bistortoides|western bistort]], [[Aquilegia|columbine]], [[Erythronium montanum|Avalanche lily]], [[Lupinus latifolius|broadleaf lupine]], [[Eriophyllum|wooly sunflower]], Cardwell's [[penstemon]], [[Castilleja|Indian paintbrush]],<ref name=EarthWindFire>{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MEDIA/stelprdb5160930.pdf|title=Earth, Wind & Fire have brought wildflowers to Silver Star|publisher=[[United States Forest Service]]|accessdate=August 14, 2018}}</ref> [[phlox]], [[Balsamorhiza|balsamroot]], and [[Erythronium grandiflorum|glacier lilies]].<ref name=columbian>{{cite news|url=http://www.columbian.com/news/2013/feb/24/silver-star-mountain-loowit-falls-trails-among-for/|title=Silver Star Mountain, Loowit Falls trails among forest highlights|last=Thomas|first=A.|date=February 23, 2013|accessdate=August 14, 2018|work=[[The Columbian]]|publisher=Columbian Publishing Co.}}</ref> Trails around the volcano, in addition to offering views of wildflower-cover slopes, pass through thickets of [[huckleberry]],<ref name=180summit/> as well as forests with [[Abies procera|noble fir]].<ref name=bluff/>

== Geology ==

In the area surrounding Silver Star Mountain, rocks forms three discrete [[Lithology|lithologic]] units (characterized by visible physical characteristics or the gross physical character of the rock). The Eagle Creek rock formation is the oldest, likely dating to the [[Oligocene]] epoch (or the lower [[Miocene]]).{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=300}} The rock consists mostly of cream-colored, [[Volcanic glass|vitric]] [[tuff]]s, which have undergone [[weathering]] that has converted them to a yellow or white colored soil, though there are also multicolored tuffs, which vary from red to green and purple [[breccia]]s.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=301}} Often their color depends on the extent of inner iron compounds.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=304}} They display little assortment or bedding, indicating that they likely accumulated subaerially.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=301}} Rocks from the formation form outcrops on the eastern part of the Silver Star Mountain locale, and are exposed in central parts of the Columbia River Gorge.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=300}} Other exposures from the Eagle Creek formation can be observed in Silver, Bluebird, and Bear creeks, where they occur in canyons along the eastern part of the locale.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=301}} The second, younger unit is the Skamania Andesites, which sit atop the Eagle Creek deposits and consist of thick layers of andesite interbedded with minor inclusions of breccia and pyroclastic material. Less exposed than the Eagle Creek deposits, they are often detectable within {{convert|5|ft|m}} of the surface, sitting disconformably over the Eagle Creek rock layers as a result of thorough erosion. At other points, including the eastern border of the Silver Star area, they occur between layers of the Eagle Creek tuffs, possibly due to partially overlapping deposition times or the combination of the tuff deposition and andesite extrusion.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=301}} The Skamania Andesites encompass the largest distribution of the three lithologic formations in the area, forming thin lava flows that suggest extrusion as highly fluid lava.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=301}} Andesites located higher on the Silver Star Mountain edifice have undergone less erosion than deposits at lower elevations.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=302}} The age of the Skamania Andesites is not known, though Felts (1939) hypothesized that they were formed during the pre-middle Miocene epoch.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=302}} They have a gray to green-gray color and are [[porphyritic]], containing smaller amounts of breccia and tuff, as well as [[phenocryst]]s with [[plagioclase]], augite, and magnetite. The phenocrysts range from {{convert|1|to|6|mm|in|disp=flip}} in size, with an average diameter of {{convert|3|mm|in|disp=flip}}. Sometimes, they contain chlorite or similar minerals.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=304}} Rocks from the upper third of the Skamania Andesites have a similar composition, but they are more vesicular in texture.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=305}}

The third unit is called the Silver Star Granodiorite,{{sfn|Felts|1939|pp=302–303}} which is made up of augite diorite and quartz diorite.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=303}} [[Dike (geology)|Dikes]] with quartz, tourmaline, and sericite occur within the mass, which has a light color aggregated from white to pink plagioclase with orthoclase, clear quartz, and black to green biotite and hornblende crystals.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=306}} About {{convert|10|mi|km}} in length and ranging from {{convert|1.5|to|2.5|mi|km}} in width, it lies along a long axis angled at twenty degrees to the east. It has steep walls which have not been excavated by local canyons that cut into nearby rock.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=303}} Felts (1939) suggested that the stock intruded at an angle of 20 degrees east of north.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=316}} The stock cuts through the Eagle Creek formation and the lower two-thirds of the Skamania Andesites, forming metamorphic rock and small dikes of [[granodiorite]] and aplite into their tuff and andesite deposits. The absence of dikes or intrusions in the upper third of the Skamania Andesites formation suggests a time gap between the extrusion of the lower and upper segments, during which the granodiorite intrusion occurred.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=303}} The granodiorite has been altered to create talus, and there are few outcrops, which only occur at stream bottoms and rarely at cliffs that have not been covered with talus.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=303}} Lava flows, likely produced during the Pleistocene epoch, were deposited in the Lewis River canyon {{convert|4|mi|km}} to the west of the Silver Star Mountain and in the Wind River canyon to the east.{{sfn|Felts|1939|p=302}}

Silver Star Mountain consists of late Eocene epoch to Oligocene epoch rock, particularly [[Calc-alkaline magma series|calc-alkaline]] volcaniclastic sediment. These rock formations were [[Intrusive rock|intruded]] on the mountain's eastern side by the Silver Star intrusion, a deep stock of granodiorite and [[quartz diorite]] that also formed small deposits of [[copper]] in the area. Calc-alkaline volcaniclastic sediments, referred to as the Skamania Volcanics, lie nearby and are overlapped by the Troutdale Formation. During the Miocene epoch, these deposits formed hills to the north of the major Columbia River valley, with sufficient height to prevent flooding.{{sfn|Wegmann|Pringle|2004|p=12}}

Silver Star Mountain is the center of a [[intrusion|pluton]] of magma that was injected into the area 20 million years ago and cooled to solid rock under the surface, producing small deposits of [[gold]], [[zinc]], copper, [[zeolites]], [[quartz]] and [[calcite]]. Small abandoned gold mines can be found in creek bottoms throughout the area. E.A. Dole, an early settler, struck silver on the mountain in 1874. He named the mine Silver Star Quartz Ledge. The ore gathered was assayed at 41.17 silver and 63.72 lead per ton.{{sfn|Jolotta|1993|p=50}} [[Granite]] has been documented near the foot of the mountain on the Columbia River, about {{convert|15|mi|km}} northeast of the city of [[Washougal, Washington|Washougal]].{{sfn|Washington Public Documents|1902|p=22}} The volcano produced a [[dike (geology)|dike]] made of granodiorite, which sits nearby.{{sfn|Skamania County Soil Survey|1990|p=233}} Much of the local soil formed from granodiorite deposits and volcanic ash.{{sfn|Skamania County Soil Survey|1990|pp=202–203}}

== Human history ==
A number of ditches near Silver Star Mountain known as the Indian Pits can be seen on one of the trails, which is known as the Indian Pits Trail #180E. These ditches also occur in other parts of the Columbia River Gorge area. Archaeologists debate the purpose of these pits, though three prominent hypotheses have emerged. One states that the pits were built by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] to seek spiritual visions, while another claims that the pits served as [[hunting blind|blinds]] for hunting mountain sheep and goats fleeing cougars or wolves down local talus slopes or other hunters in brush below. The third hypothesis theorizes that the pits were used to store food.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/giffordpinchot/recarea/?recid=31560|title=Trail #180E Indian Pits|date=August 6, 2018|accessdate=August 14, 2018|publisher=[[United States Forest Service]]}}</ref>

The September 1902<ref name=yacolt>{{cite web|url=https://www.dnr.wa.gov/Yacolt|title=Yacolt Burn State Forest|date=2018|accessdate=August 14, 2018|publisher=[[Washington State Department of Natural Resources]]}}</ref> Yacolt Burn started as a [[Slash-and-burn|slash]] fire near the city of [[Stevenson, Washington|Stevenson]]. Spread by a strong, eastward blowing wind, it burned forest for {{convert|30|mi|km}}, reaching the town of [[Yacolt, Washington|Yacolt]] and killing 38 people.<ref name=fire/> The fire encompassed close to {{convert|239000|acre|km2}} of land across southwest Washington state, including parts of [[Clark County, Washington|Clark]], [[Cowlitz County, Washington|Cowlitz]], and Skamania counties.<ref name=yacolt/> 16 smaller fires followed in the next few decades, prompting government agencies to build a [[fire lookout]] on Silver Star,<ref name=fire/> on the higher north peak known as "Star Lo", which was installed in 1952, but was removed by 1969.<ref name="ngs"/> The Yacolt Burn State Forest was named after the 1902 fire.<ref name=yacolt/>

== Recreation ==
The Silver Star Mountain area is lightly used for hiking.<ref name=trailhead>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/giffordpinchot/recarea/?recid=32122|title=Trailhead: Silver Star|date=July 28, 2018|accessdate=August 9, 2018|publisher=[[United States Forest Service]]}}</ref> The Silver Star trail runs {{convert|5|mi|km}} to an old roadbed located west of Silver Star Mountain, while the Silver Star Summit Trail #180D, {{convert|0.25|mi|km}} long, reaches the summit of Silver Star Mountain. Indian Pits Trail #180E and Pyramid Rock Trail #180F branch off the Silver Star Trail to the south of Silver Star Mountain.<ref name=180summit>{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/giffordpinchot/recarea/?recid=31634|title=Trails #180 & #180D Silver Star & Summit|publisher=[[United States Forest Service]]|date=August 2, 2018|accessdate=August 14, 2018}}</ref> From Ed's Trail #180A,<ref name=ed/> named after Edward Robinson, one of the pioneers of the Chinook Trail Association,{{sfn|Romano|2011|p=78}} hikers can see views of nearby volcanoes, including [[Mount Saint Helens]], [[Mount Rainier]], [[Mount Adams (Washington)|Mount Adams]], [[Mount Hood]], and [[Mount Jefferson (Oregon)|Mount Jefferson]] on particularly clear days.<ref name=ed>{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/giffordpinchot/recarea/?recid=31534|title=Trail #180A Ed's|date=August 6, 2018|accessdate=August 14, 2018|publisher=[[United States Forest Service]]}}</ref> This has been described by local hikers as one of the best hikes in Washington state,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/destinations/explore-the-pnw/2015/06/26/explore-pnw-silver-start-mountain/29351759/|title=Explore the PNW: Silver Star Mountain|last=Russell|first=K.|publisher=[[USA Today]]|date=June 26, 2015|accessdate=August 14, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://tdn.com/lifestyles/big-views-lots-of-wildflowers-at-silver-star-mountain/article_88f3c15e-e275-11e1-b747-001a4bcf887a.html|title=Big views, lots of wildflowers at Silver Star Mountain|last=Thomas|first=A.|date=August 9, 2012|accessdate=August 15, 2018|work=The Daily News}}</ref> only gaining about {{convert|1200|ft|m}} in elevation between the Silver Star and Ed's Trails.<ref name=columbian/> Trail #172 Bluff Mountain offers views of the Vancouver and Portland metropolitan area.<ref name=bluff>{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/giffordpinchot/recarea/?recid=31490|title=Trail #172 Bluff Mountain|date=August 6, 2018|accessdate=August 14, 2018|publisher=[[United States Forest Service]]}}</ref>

The trail area is administered by the United States Forest Service, and the Mount Adams Ranger District serves as its information center.<ref name=trailhead/> A number of the trails were built by and are still maintained by the Chinook Trails Association.<ref name=ed/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/giffordpinchot/recarea/?recid=31510|title=Trail #180B Chinook|date=August 6, 2018|accessdate=August 14, 2018|publisher=[[United States Forest Service]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}

* {{citation|date=1902|title=An Outline of the Geology of Washington|publisher=Washington Geological Survey|work=Washington Public Documents|volume=3|ref={{sfnRef|Washington Public Documents|1902}}}}.
* {{cite journal|last=Felts|first=W. M.|url=https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1811/3048/1/V39N06_297.pdf|title=A Granodiorite Stock in the Cascade Mountains of South-western Washington|volume=39|year=1939|issue=6|pages=297–316|ref=harv}}
* {{citation|last=Jolotta|first=P.|title=Naming Clark County|location=Vancouver|publisher=Fort Vancouver Historical Society|date=1993|ref=harv}}.
* {{cite book|last=Romano|first=C.|title=Day Hiking Columbia River Gorge: National Scenic Area/Silver Star Scenic Area/Portland--Vancouver to The Dalles|year=2011|publisher=The Mountaineers Books|ref=harv}}
* {{citation|publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]]|work=Soil Conservation Service|year=1990|title=Soil Survey of Skamania County Area, Washington|ref={{sfnRef|Skamania County Soil Survey|1990}}}}.
* {{cite journal|last1=Wegmann|first1=K. W.|last2=Pringle|first2=P. T.|url=http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_misc_field_trip_stevenson_castle_rock.pdf|title=Geologic Field Trip to the Aldercrest–Banyon Landslide and Mount St. Helens,Washington, Part I—Stevenson to Castle Rock|year=2004|publisher=[[Washington State Department of Natural Resources]]|work=Division of Geology and Earth Resources|ref=harv}}

{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{commonscat-inline|Silver Star Mountain (Skamania County, Wash.)}}

[[Category:Volcanoes of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Cascade Volcanoes]]
[[Category:Extinct volcanoes]]
[[Category:Subduction volcanoes]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Skamania County, Washington]]
[[Category:Gifford Pinchot National Forest]]
[[Category:Columbia River]]
[[Category:Columbia River Gorge]]

Thronhalle von Dunqula

2018-11-15T22:21:55Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{short description|A 9th century, largely extant, building in northern Sudan}}
{{Infobox Historic building
|image=Dongola Throne Hall.jpg
|caption=The Throne Hall of Dongola from the north
|alt=Photo shot from below the rocky hill the building is located on.
|name=Dongola Throne Hall
|location_town=[[Old Dongola]]
|location_country=[[Sudan]]
|coordinates = {{coord|18|13|N|30|45|E|display=inline,title}}
|map_type=Sudan
|architect=
|client=
|engineer=
|construction_start_date=
|completion_date=9th century
|date_demolished=
|cost=
|structural_system=
|style=[[Nubian architecture#Christian Nubia|Nubian]]-[[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]]
|size=12m (39ft) height, 28m (92ft) width, 18m (59ft) depth
}}

The '''Throne Hall of Dongola''', also known as the '''Mosque Building''', is an archaeological site in [[Old Dongola]], [[Sudan]]. It is a two-storey [[brick]] building situated on a rocky hill, overlooking the town and the [[Nile]] valley. It was originally built in the 9th century, serving as the richly adorned representative building of the [[Makuria]]n kings. In 1317, during the period of Makurian decline, it was converted into a [[mosque]], serving this puprose until it was closed and turned into a historic monument in 1969. Shortly afterwards [[Poland|Polish]] archaeologists began to excavate the building. It has been described as possibly "the most important, symbolic edifice in the [[History of Sudan#Medieval Nubia (c. 350–1500)|medieval history of Sudan]]".{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=248}} It is also the oldest Sudanese mosque still standing.

==History==
===Makurian Throne Hall (9th century–1317)===
[[File:Mary, Christ Child and date tree (Old Dongola).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|left|Worn out painting from the central hall on the upper floor, showing Virgin Mary and the Christ Child. The latter is reaching out towards a date tree.]]
From the late 5th century [[Old Dongola]] ([[Old Nubian]]: ''Tungul'') was to be the capital of the [[Nubians|Nubian]] kingdom of [[Makuria]], which converted to [[Christianity]] in the mid-6th century{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=7}} and successfully defended its independence from the [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic onslaught]] in the 7th century.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=68–70}} Between the 9th and 11th centuries the town enjoyed a [[golden age]]. In the 9th century, several representative buildings were constructed, among them the Throne Hall.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|pp=11–12}} It was probably built in the first half of the century, during the reign of King [[Georgios I of Makuria|Georgios I]] ({{reign|835|887}}){{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=252}} and his father [[Zakharias II of Makuria|Zakharias II]] ({{reign|835|857}}).{{efn|name=fn1|Zakharias II had seized the throne in 835. In the same year he crowned his son Georgios I king before dispatching him on a diplomatic mission to [[Baghdad]], probably to increase his prestige. After the death of Zakharias II in 857 his son became the sole ruler.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=89–92}}}} It was located on a rocky outcrop{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=12}} in the eastern part of the city. From this prominence the two-storey{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=257}} building enjoyed an extensive view of the town and the [[Nile]].{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=12}} Its purpose has been interpreted differently over the years, ranging from church, monastery and royal castle. However, its internal design suggests that the building had an official, non-residential purpose, and that it was intended to impress visitors.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=47}} The actual throne hall was on the upper floor,{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=12}} which official delegations and processions reached by ascending a monumental staircase.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=43}} Both the throne hall and the staircase were adorned with wall paintings.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=12}} During the 11th–12th centuries they were altered.{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=252}}

From 1265 Makuria endured repeated invasions by the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk sultanate]], which, from 1276, usually installed a puppet king on the Makurian throne.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=243–247}} At the end of the 13th century, after yet another confrontation with the Mamluks, the most prestigious buildings of Old Dongola, among them the Throne Hall, lay in ruins and the population had dropped drastically due to deportations.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=135}} The Throne Hall in particular had both its south and northwest devastated. Shortly after the damage was inflicted, at the turn of the 13th century, the building was repaired, although not in its entirety and with various modifications.{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=252}}


===Mosque (1317–1969)===
In 1316 the Mamluks intervended into the Makurian affairs once more, intending to install prince [[Barshambu of Makuria|Barshambu]] on the throne. In contrast to the kings before him, he was a Muslim.{{sfn|Hasan|1967|pp=118–119}} On May 29, 1317 he converted the Throne Hall into a [[mosque]], as is confirmed by a marble inscription.{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=138}} Alterations to the building, especially in the central hall on the upper floor, were made according to its new function, such as the inclusion of a [[mihrab]] and the application of plaster over the Christian wall paintings.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=137}} Barshambu was not popular among his subjects due to his attitude and his reforms.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=247}} It is possible that the decision to transform the Throne Hall into a mosque cost him his life.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=137}} After his death Makuria was ruled by both Muslim and Christian kings.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=138–141}} None of them dared to restore the former function of the building, as the Mamluk sultans supported its new function.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=137}}
[[File:Throne Hall of Dongola, 1821.jpg|thumb|The mosque in 1821]]

A civil war caused the destruction of Old Dongola in 1365. The Makurian kings fled to [[Lower Nubia]] in the north, where they would maintain themselves for approximately 150 years. Old Dongola, abandoned by Makuria, came under the control of the Arabic [[Banu Ja'd]] tribe{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=143–145}} and eventually a new political entity, the so-called "[[Kingdom of Dongola Town]]",{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=135}} which was incorporated into the [[Funj sultanate]] during the early-16th century.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=26–28}} The building is recorded to have served as a residence for [[Hajj|Mecca pilgrims]].{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=137}} However, during the 17th–19th centuries the ground floor was probably inacessable.
In the second half of the 18th century a local [[sheikh]] is recorded to have renovated the mosque extensively.{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=263}}

From the early 19th century the building was repeatedly described by western travellers and researchers.{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=250}} In the late-19th century Old Dongola was abandoned, probably for economic reasons, but the mosque remained in use.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=13}} In 1906 it was extensively documented for the first time. One year later it received another restoration; numerous others conducted by the [[Sudan Antiquities Service]] and various museums followed in the mid-20th century.{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=263}} It was the oldest Sudanese mosque still standing{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=248}} and was finally closed as a place of worship in 1969.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=13}}

===Historic site (1969–present)===
After the salvage excavation of [[Faras Cathedral]], [[Poland|Polish]] archaeologists turned their attention to Old Dongola, where they started digging from 1964.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=14}} Between 1970 and 1983 they excavated the Throne Hall and documented its architecture and wall paintings.{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=251}}

It is intended that the Old Dongola site be transformed into an archaeological park. The construction of a steel roof is planned, providing protection and forming a stabilizing framework.{{sfn|Tarczewski|Dziedzic|2015|pp=230–231}} From 2018 to 2023 Old Dongola will be the subject of a large, multidisciplinary project researching the transformations that occurred between the 14th and early-19th centuries.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/212336_de.html |year=2017 |title=Urban Metamorphosis of the community of a Medieval African capital city |access-date=2018-11-12}}</ref>

==Architecture==
The Throne Hall was inspired by [[Byzantine architecture]], providing a testament to the Makurian attachment to [[Byzantine culture]].{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=12}} Very similar audience halls are known from the [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]], imitating, albeit on a smaller scale, those of [[Constantinople]].{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=47}} The Throne Hall, measuring 12m (39ft) in height, 28m (92ft) in length and 18m (59ft) in width,{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=248}} was built of mud bricks, red (fired) bricks and sandstone.{{sfn|Godlewski|2013|p=43}}

==Wall paintings==
[[File:Magi, Dongola Throne Hall (Sudan).jpg|thumb|Detail of a painting from the central hall, showing a [[Biblical Magi|Magi]] on horseback.]]
The wall paintings in the Throne Hall have suffered damage from rain water, termites and bats.{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=257}} They are located at the staircase and in the central hall and show influences by Byzantine models.{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|p=270}} The walls of the staircase had two layers of painted plaster, showing [[Archangel Michael]] wielding a spear, two warrior saints (one on foot and one on horseback) as well as several unidentifiable standing figures.{{sfn|Obłuski|Godlewski|Kołątaj|Medeksza|2013|pp=257, 259}}

The central hall also had multiple layers of painted plaster, the amount varying from wall to wall.{{sfn|Zielinska|2015|p=25}} Its east wall housed a large nativity scene featuring the [[Virgin Mary]] lying on a mattress, a crib with the [[Christ Child]], angels and, on the left side of the painting, the three [[Biblical Magi]]. The colour scheme is mostly limited to yellows, oranges, reds and violets.{{sfn|Zielinska|2015|pp=26–27}} The eastern part of the south wall features a fragmentary depiction of Archangel Michael and the [[Holy Trinity]], while the western part was divided into two scenes, one showing Mary holding the Christ Child, who reaches out for a palm tree. Again the colours are mostly limited to violet, yellow and red.{{sfn|Zielinska|2015|pp=29–30}} The iconography of this last scene is unique in a Makurian context.{{sf|Godlewski|2013|p=45}} The other scene from the western part of the south wall initially featured the [[Transfiguration of Jesus|Transfiguration]], but was later painted over with the Holy Trinity and a (barely preserved) king wearing a horned crown.{{sfn|Zielinska|2015|pp=30–31}} On the west wall a king with a [[scepter]] and a [[Imperial crown#Byzantine Imperial Crowns|Byzantine crown]], as well as two standing figures with halos, can be seen. The north wall features a large cross, a priest and a king, who wears a crown, a blue veil and a white robe. A later layer of painted plaster added the twenty-four elders from the [[Book of Revelation]], depicted wearing white robes and wielding palm leaves, while sitting on thrones.{{sfn|Zielinska|2015|pp=33–35}}

==See also==
* [[Alodia]]
* [[Nobatia]]
* [[Islam in Sudan]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==Annotations==
{{notelist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last=Godlewski |first=Włodzimierz |year=2013 |title=Dongola-ancient Tungul. Archaeological guide |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw |url=https://pcma.uw.edu.pl/wp-content/uploads/template/main/file/Dongola_guide/Dongola_guide_book.pdf |isbn=978-83-903796-6-1 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Hasan |first=Yusuf Fadl| title=The Arabs and the Sudan. From the seventh to the early sixteenth century |year=1967 |publisher=Edinburgh University |oclc=33206034 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Obłuski |first1=Artur |last2=Godlewski |first2=Włodzimierz |last3=Kołątaj |first3=Wojciech |last4=Medeksza |first4=Stanisław |title=The Mosque Building in Old Dongola. Conservation and revitalization project |year=2013 |pages=248—272 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw |issn=2083-537X |journal=Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean |volume=22|display-authors=3 |url=https://www.pcma.uw.edu.pl/wp-content/uploads/pam/PAM_2010_XXII/PAM_22_Dongola_Obluski_Godlewski_et_alii.pdf |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Fahey |first1=R.S. |last2=Spaulding |first2=Jay L. |title=Kingdoms of the Sudan |year=1974 |publisher=Methuen Young Books |isbn=978-0416774504 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tarczewski |first1=Romuald |last2=Dziedzic |first2=Teresa |editors=Włodzimierz Godlewski, Dorota Dzierzbicka |chapter=Dongola Site Presentation Project: Progress in the 2013 Season |title=Dongola 2012-2014. Fieldwork, conservation and site management |year=2015 |pages=325–331 |isbn=978-83-903796-8-5 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Welsby |first=Derek |title=The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the Middle Nile|year=2002 |publisher=British Museum |isbn=978-0714119472 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Werner |first=Roland |language=German |title=Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche |trans-title=Christianity in Nubia. History and shape of an African church |year=2013 |publisher=Lit |isbn=978-3-643-12196-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Zielinska |first=Dobrochna |editors=Włodzimierz Godlewski, Dorota Dzierzbicka |chapter=Painted decoration of the Central Hall: preliminary inventory |title=Dongola 2012-2014. Fieldwork, conservation and site management |year=2015 |pages=25—36 |isbn=978-83-903796-8-5 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/32459247/Title_Painted_decoration_of_the_Central_Hall_preliminary_inventory_in_Dongola_2012_2014._Fieldwork_conservation_and_site_management_edited_by_W%C5%82odzimierz_Godlewski_Dorota_Dzierzbicka_PCMA_Excavation_Series_3_ |ref=harv}}


[[Category:History of Nubia]]
[[Category:History of Sudan]]
[[Category:Nubian architecture in Sudan]]
[[Category:Mosques]]
[[Category:Islam in Africa]]

Titanfall 2

2018-06-29T12:02:05Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2015}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox video game
| title = Titanfall 2
| image = Titanfall 2 box art.jpeg
| caption = Cover art showing protagonist Jack Cooper and his Titan BT-7274
| developer = [[Respawn Entertainment]]
| publisher = [[Electronic Arts]]
| director = Steve Fukuda
| producer = Drew McCoy
| designer = {{ubl|Todd Alderman |Mackey McCandlish}}
| programmer = Richard A. Baker
| artist = Joel Emslie
| writer = {{ubl|Steve Fukuda |Manny Hagopian |Jesse Stern}}
| composer = [[Stephen Barton]]
| engine = [[Source (game engine)|Source]]
| platforms = {{ubl|[[Microsoft Windows]]|[[PlayStation 4]]|[[Xbox One]]}}
| released = October 28, 2016
| genre = [[First-person shooter]]
| modes = [[Single-player video game|Single-player]], [[Multiplayer video game|multiplayer]]
}}

'''''Titanfall 2''''' is a [[first-person shooter]] [[video game]], developed by [[Respawn Entertainment]] and published by [[Electronic Arts]]. It is the sequel to 2014's ''[[Titanfall]]''. It was released worldwide on October 28, 2016, for [[Microsoft Windows]], [[PlayStation 4]] and [[Xbox One]]. In ''Titanfall 2'', players control Titans, [[mecha]]-style exoskeletons and their pilots, who are agile and equipped with an arsenal of skills ranging from wall-running to [[cloaking]]. Set in a [[science fiction]] universe, the single-player campaign follows the story of Jack Cooper, a [[rifleman]] from Frontier Militia, who bonds with his Titan BT-7274 after an accident. Together, they embark on a quest to stop the Interstellar Manufacturing Corporation (IMC) from launching a [[superweapon]].

The game's development began in mid-2014, and the title had a two-year development cycle. The decision to add a single-player campaign to the game came about because the team wanted to expand the game's player base. They came up with different ideas and prototypes, and integrated them to form a single coherent campaign. ''[[Gargantia on the Verdurous Planet]]'' and [[buddy cop film]]s, as well as the video game ''[[Half-Life (series)|Half-Life]]'' inspired the game's campaign and narrative. The team also overhauled the progression system and made subtle changes to the multiplayer to make the game fairer to players. [[Valve Corporation]]'s [[Source (engine)|Source]] engine powers the game. [[Stephen Barton]] returned to compose the game's music.

Upon release, the game received critical acclaim. The single-player campaign was praised for its design and execution, and the multiplayer modes for building on the foundation of the original game. Despite the positive reception, ''Titanfall 2'' underperformed commercially, with most attributing its underwhelming performance to it going on sale in a crowded release window. It was nominated for multiple year-end accolades including [[List of Game of the Year awards|Game of the Year]] and Best Shooter awards, by several [[Video game journalism|gaming publications]]. Respawn continued to support the game after its release, providing several updates and free [[downloadable content]].

==Gameplay==
[[File:Titanfall 2 gameplay screenshot.png|thumb|left|256px|In this gameplay screenshot, the player attaches the player character to a Titan using a [[grappling hook]].]]
Similar to its predecessor, ''Titanfall 2'' is a [[first-person shooter]] game where players can control both a pilot and their Titans—mecha-style exoskeletons. The pilot has an large variety of abilities that enhance their efficiency during combat. These include [[cloaking device|cloaking]], [[Grappling hook|grappling]], and [[parkour]]—such as double-jumping and wall-running—with the aid of a [[jetpack|jump kit]].<ref name="PolyPre">{{cite web|url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/8/11/12439628/titanfall-2-single-player-campaign-revealed|title=Titanfall 2: First single-player campaign details|first=Michael|last=McWhertor|work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]|date=August 11, 2016|accessdate=August 12, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812003524/http://www.polygon.com/2016/8/11/12439628/titanfall-2-single-player-campaign-revealed|archivedate=August 12, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> These movements can be [[combo (gaming)|chained]] together to travel between locations quickly.<ref name="samediff">{{cite web|url=http://www.gameinformer.com/games/titanfall_2/b/playstation4/archive/2016/06/20/whats-the-same-whats-different-in-titanfall-2-multiplayer.aspx|title=What's the Same, What's Different in Titanfall 2 Multiplayer|first=Matt|last=Bertz|work=[[Game Informer]]|date=June 20, 2016|accessdate=June 12, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623073011/http://www.gameinformer.com/games/titanfall_2/b/playstation4/archive/2016/06/20/whats-the-same-whats-different-in-titanfall-2-multiplayer.aspx|archivedate=June 23, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnet.com/news/titanfall-2/|title=Titanfall 2's grappling hook is unreal (hands-on)|first=Sean|last=Hollister|work=[[CNet]]|date=June 12, 2016|accessdate=August 12, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817080321/http://www.cnet.com/news/titanfall-2/|archivedate=August 17, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The game introduces several new gameplay mechanics. These include: a movement system that allows players to [[Sliding (motion)|slide]] on the ground, the pulse blade (which is a [[throwing knife]] that reveals the location of any nearby enemy), the holo-pilot, (a holographic pilot that mimics players' action to confuse enemies), and a [[grappling hook]], which can be used to slingshot players to a building or an enemy it attaches to. The pilots have a large arsenal of gadgets and weapons, such as [[shotgun]]s, [[submachine gun]]s, [[pistol]]s and [[grenades]] to fight their enemies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcgamer.com/best-titanfall-2-guns/|title=The best guns in Titanfall 2|first=James|last=Busby|work=[[PC Gamer]]|date=January 16, 2017|accessdate=May 28, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525003852/http://www.pcgamer.com/best-titanfall-2-guns/|archivedate=May 25, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> At close range, players can execute their opponents from behind with a [[Melee (gaming)|melee attack]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vg247.com/2016/06/20/heres-four-minutes-of-titanfall-2-gameplay/|title=Here's four minutes of Titanfall 2 gameplay|first=Sherif|last=Saed|work=[[VG247]]|date=June 20, 2016|accessdate=August 12, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820025323/http://www.vg247.com/2016/06/20/heres-four-minutes-of-titanfall-2-gameplay/|archivedate=August 20, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Titans are significantly less mobile than the pilots, but they have stronger firearms and armor. Replacing the three classes featured in the first ''Titanfall'', six Titans are introduced—Ion, Scorch, Northstar, Ronin, Tone and Legion. Ion uses a directed-energy arsenal. Scorch engages in combat using area-denial incendiary weaponry, Northstar excels in long-range precision attacks and setting traps, and is the only Titan with the ability to hover. Ronin specializes in close quarters combat, using a shotgun and a sword. Tone focuses on mid-range combat with its target locking weapons. Legion uses a minigun designed for defense and controlling combat zones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamespot.com/gallery/titanfall-2-every-single-titan-and-what-they-do/2900-959/4/|title=Titanfall 2: Every Single Titan and What They Do|first=Matt|last=Espineli|work=[[GameSpot]]|date=October 28, 2016|accessdate=May 28, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010055348/https://www.gamespot.com/gallery/titanfall-2-every-single-titan-and-what-they-do/2900-959/4/|archivedate=October 10, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Finally, Monarch—added post-release via downloadable content (DLC)—is a Vanguard-class chassis that can steal power from other Titans to power up its own defensive shield.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.destructoid.com/monarch-s-reign-brings-another-titan-and-map-to-titanfall-2-today-438862.phtml|title=Monarch's Reign brings another Titan and map to Titanfall 2 today|first=Jordan|last=Devore|work=[[Destructoid]]|date=May 30, 2017|accessdate=June 29, 2018}}</ref> The Titans have their own move sets which are different from those of the pilots—for instance, they can dodge quickly to evade attacks.<ref name="tips"/>

===Single-player===
Unlike its predecessor, ''Titanfall 2'' has a single-player story campaign with gameplay split between commanding the Titan and controlling the pilot.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.polygon.com/e3/2016/6/12/11913270/titanfall-2-interview-e3-2016|title=Titanfall 2 Brings Personality To Its Messive Mechs, And A Story For The Fans|first=Brian|last=Crecente|work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]|date=June 12, 2016|accessdate=August 12, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812183825/http://www.polygon.com/e3/2016/6/12/11913270/titanfall-2-interview-e3-2016|archivedate=August 12, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> It features a linear story, but levels offer players multiple paths to explore.<ref name="GSpotPre">{{cite web|url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-single-player-campaign-revealed-shows-/1100-6442525/|title=Titanfall 2 Single-Player Campaign Revealed, Shows New Details|first=Mike|last=Mahardy|work=[[GameSpot]]|date=August 12, 2016|accessdate=August 12, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813210215/http://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-single-player-campaign-revealed-shows-/1100-6442525/|archivedate=August 13, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> For most parts of the game the Titan BT-7274 accompanies players. It can change its weapon loadouts under players' command to maximize its efficiency when combating different Titan variants. These loadouts are unlocked after players defeat an enemy [[boss (gaming)|boss]].<ref name="IGNRev"/> Players are allowed to use multiple ways to complete objectives and attack enemies, such as utilizing [[stealth game|stealth]], or using firearms provided in the game. [[Level (gaming)|Level]]s are large, and there are multiple paths for players to choose from to reach their destination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/09/29/titanfall-2-campaign-hands-on-preview-the-first-3-hours-are-intense|title=Titanfall 2 Campaign Hand-On Preview: The First 3 Hours Are Intense|first=Brian|last=Albert|work=[[IGN]]|date=September 29, 2016|accessdate=May 27, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806035343/http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/09/29/titanfall-2-campaign-hands-on-preview-the-first-3-hours-are-intense|archivedate=August 6, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The game also features [[platform game|platform]] elements, which task players to make use of Cooper's parkour abilities to solve environmental puzzles, and travel to previously inaccessible areas. Some weapons are level-specific and can only be used in certain regions.<ref name="PolyPre"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/08/11/titanfall-2-single-player-campaign-is-surprising|title=Titanfall 2 Single Player Is Surprising|first=Brandin|last=Tyrrel|work=[[IGN]]|date=August 11, 2016|accessdate=August 12, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812204727/http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/08/11/titanfall-2-single-player-campaign-is-surprising|archivedate=August 12, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> There are also level-specific gameplay mechanics. For instance, in the "Effect and Cause" level, players are required to shift between modern times and the past with a temporal device.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kotaku.com/let-s-talk-about-titanfall-2-s-best-mission-1788777731|title=The Mission That Proved Titanfall 2 Was Something Special|first=Kirk|last=Hamilton|work=[[Kotaku]]|date=November 25, 2016|accessdate=May 28, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615221529/http://kotaku.com/let-s-talk-about-titanfall-2-s-best-mission-1788777731|archivedate=June 15, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Players can also select dialogue options and talk to the Titan at certain points in the campaign.<ref name="EuroGPre">{{cite web|url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2016-08-11-you-can-talk-to-the-titans-in-titanfall-2s-campaign|title=You can talk to the Titans in Titanfall 2's campaign|first=Martin|last=Robinson|work=[[Eurogamer]]|date=August 11, 2016|accessdate=August 12, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811225443/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2016-08-11-you-can-talk-to-the-titans-in-titanfall-2s-campaign|archivedate=August 11, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The single-player also features a training gauntlet, which acts as a [[tutorial]] for players. The faster they complete the gauntlet, the higher their position will be on a [[Glossary of video game terms|leaderboard]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vg247.com/2016/11/03/watch-someone-clear-titanfall-2s-training-gauntlet-in-20-6-seconds/|title=Watch someone clear Titanfall 2’s training Gauntlet in 20.6 seconds|first=Sherif|last=Saed|work=[[VG 247]]|date=November 3, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025801/https://www.vg247.com/2016/11/03/watch-someone-clear-titanfall-2s-training-gauntlet-in-20-6-seconds/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Multiplayer===
The multiplayer mode introduces a Titan meter, which fills slowly when the player is playing the game. It fills faster when the player kills an opponent, inflicts damage on enemies, or completes certain objectives.<ref name="mashable"/><ref name="ignpre"/> When a certain percentage of the meter is filled, the player can summon a Titan, which descends from the sky.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://metro.co.uk/2016/06/20/titanfall-hands-on-preview-and-interview-its-very-different-to-anything-weve-done-in-the-past-5956319/|title=Titanfall 2 hands-on preview and interview – 'It's very different to anything we've done in the past'|work=[[Metro (magazine)|Metro]]|date=June 20, 2016|accessdate=August 12, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817060711/http://metro.co.uk/2016/06/20/titanfall-hands-on-preview-and-interview-its-very-different-to-anything-weve-done-in-the-past-5956319/|archivedate=August 17, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> A Titan can crush opponents if it lands on one when summoned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/06/13/e3-2016-titanfall-2-our-first-multiplayer-hands-on-is-fire|title=E3 2016: Titanfall 2: Our First Multiplayer Hand-On Is On Fire|first=Ryan|last=McCaffery|work=[[IGN]]|date=June 12, 2016|accessdate=May 28, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901205208/http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/06/13/e3-2016-titanfall-2-our-first-multiplayer-hands-on-is-fire|archivedate=September 1, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> When the Titan meter is filled completely while in a Titan, the Titan can use their core ability, which inflicts a lot more damage than typical attacks.<ref name="tips"/> Pilot players can steal a Titan battery, causing damage to it. The battery can also be taken and implemented on a friendly Titan, recharging its shield and filling the Titan meter.<ref name="ignpre">{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/10/12/7-big-differences-between-titanfall-and-titanfall-2|title=7 Big Differences Between Titanfall and Titanfall 2|first=Miranda|last=Sanchez|work=[[IGN]]|date=October 12, 2016|accessdate=May 28, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805145803/http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/10/12/7-big-differences-between-titanfall-and-titanfall-2|archivedate=August 5, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2016-10-21-be-advised-titanfall-2s-multiplayer-is-looking-amazing|title=Be advised: Titanfall 2's multiplayer runs much deeper than the original|first=Jon|last=Denton|work=[[Eurogamer]]|date=October 24, 2016|accessdate=May 28, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610191100/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2016-10-21-be-advised-titanfall-2s-multiplayer-is-looking-amazing|archivedate=June 10, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Players can disembark from their Titan at any time. It will continue attacking nearby opponents under "follow mode", where the Titan follows the pilot as closely as it can. Players can also set it to "guard mode" and it will stay put.<ref name="tips">{{cite web|url=http://kotaku.com/tips-for-playing-titanfall-2-1788446358|title=Tips For Playing Titanfall 2|first=Heather|last=Alexandra|work=[[Kotaku]]|date=November 1, 2016|accessdate=May 28, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607000957/http://kotaku.com/tips-for-playing-titanfall-2-1788446358|archivedate=June 7, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Players earn "merits" based on their performance in a multiplayer match whether their team wins or loses. Merits are [[experience (gaming)|experience points]] through participating in the match or getting access to unlocks. Players need to accumulate merits to level up, which unlocks additional weapons, abilities and more. There are also other ways to earn merits, like surviving the evacuation phase when the players' team loses a match. Players can also earn Credits, a form of currency used to buy weapons, boosts, Titans, or abilities before they are unlocked. These can be earned by gaining merits and completing challenges.<ref name="mashable">{{cite web|url=http://mashable.com/2016/10/31/titanfall-2-pvp-multiplayer-tips-tricks-guide/#hCm.GjG_i8qw|title=10 'Titanfall 2' tips for those who struggle with multiplayer|first=Adam|last=Rosenberg|work=[[Mashable]]|date=November 1, 2016|accessdate=May 28, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609092909/http://mashable.com/2016/10/31/titanfall-2-pvp-multiplayer-tips-tricks-guide/#hCm.GjG_i8qw|archivedate=June 9, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The game's customization options have expanded significantly compared to ''Titanfall''. Players' outfits and weapons, as well as Titans' appearances and combat efficiency, can be extensively customized.<ref name="ignpre"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.playstationlifestyle.net/2016/10/21/titanfall-2-titan-customization-blowout-full-list-of-pilot-boosts-executions/#/slide/39|title=Titanfall 2 – Full List of Pilot Boosts & Executions, Titan Customization Blowout|first=Alex|last=Co|work=PlayStation LifeStyle|date=October 21, 2016|accessdate=May 28, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521075853/http://www.playstationlifestyle.net/2016/10/21/titanfall-2-titan-customization-blowout-full-list-of-pilot-boosts-executions/#/slide/39|archivedate=May 21, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Boosts replace burn cards featured in the earlier game. They are tactical abilities that enhance the players' combat efficiency. Each boost has its own specific access requirement. Ticks, which are explosive mines that track enemies, for example, require 65% of the Titan meter filled. Amped Weapons, where players inflict more damage with their firearms, need 80%. Players must decide which boost they are going to use before a match begins; they cannot swap their boost during the game.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gameinformer.com/b/features/archive/2016/10/28/12-tips-to-help-you-master-titanfall-2s-multiplayer.aspx|title=12 Tips To Help You Master Titanfall 2's Multiplayer|first=Javy|last=Gwaltney|work=[[Game Informer]]|date=October 30, 2016|accessdate=May 28, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618100332/http://www.gameinformer.com/b/features/archive/2016/10/28/12-tips-to-help-you-master-titanfall-2s-multiplayer.aspx|archivedate=June 18, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

''Titanfall 2'' features several of multiplayer modes at launch. These modes include:<ref name="tips"/>
* '''Amped Hardpoint''': In this mode, teams receive points if they can hold control points for an extensive period. The team that accumulates more points wins.
* '''Bounty Hunt''': Players are rewarded with money if they kill enemies, opponents or [[artificial intelligence|AI]]-controlled grunts. Players need to return to specific points to deposit the money. Players can also steal opponents' money by killing them. The team that has the highest score wins.
* '''Pilot vs. Pilot''': A standard [[team deathmatch]] mode but players cannot summon any Titan.
* '''Capture the Flag''': Players are tasked to [[capture the flag]] of an enemy and bring it to their team's base, while preventing opponents from stealing the player's flag.
* '''Attrition''': A standard team deathmatch mode in which players can summon Titans. Points are rewarded to a player's team when they kill a human-controlled enemy or an AI-controlled grunt. When a team earns enough points, the game transitions into another phase. The losing team needs to reach the evacuation zone and escape, while the winning team needs to eliminate all opponents.
* '''Skirmish''': This mode is like Attrition, but there is no AI-controlled grunt and the score needed for phase transitioning is lower.
* '''Last Titan Standing''': A standard team deathmatch mode, but players cannot eject from their titan.
* '''Free for All''': Players are tasked to kill each other in this mode. All other players will be marked as their opponents.
* '''Coliseum''': This is a one-versus-one multiplayer mode where the player is tasked to eliminate the other player. Players can gain access to this mode through Coliseum tickets. These are earned by playing other multiplayer modes, buying them with credits or receiving them in gifts granted when the player levels up a faction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gamesradar.com/titanfall-2-has-a-1v1-me-bro-mode-brought-to-you-by-mtn-dew-and-doritos/|title=Titanfall 2 has a "1v1 me bro" mode brought to you by Mtn Dew and Doritos|first=Connor|last=Sheriden|work=[[GamesRadar]]|date=September 22, 2016|accessdate=May 28, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507122343/http://www.gamesradar.com/titanfall-2-has-a-1v1-me-bro-mode-brought-to-you-by-mtn-dew-and-doritos/|archivedate=May 7, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
* '''Titan Brawl''': A standard [[team deathmatch]] mode, but players spawn with their titans and cannot eject or disembark from their titans.
* '''Frontier Defense''': A [[player versus environment]] (PvE) multiplayer game mode where four players must face up to five waves of Enemies.

Matchmaking is also enhanced, with the game automatically helping players to find a new match after the end of every match.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/how-titanfall-2s-matchmaking-is-being-improved/1100-6442487/|title=How Titanfall 2's Matchmaking Is Being Improved|first=Chris|last=Pereira|date=August 9, 2016|accessdate=August 12, 2016|work=[[GameSpot]]|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813021516/http://www.gamespot.com/articles/how-titanfall-2s-matchmaking-is-being-improved/1100-6442487/|archivedate=August 13, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The game also introduces a new feature called "Networks", which allows players to form a group, similar to a [[Video gaming clan|guild]]. The game automatically groups both the player and other members of the network together in a match. Players can join more than one network and can switch between joined networks in-game.<ref name="CNET">{{cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/titanfall-2-networks-interview-e3-2016/|title=Titanfall 2 may fix one of the biggest problems with team-based multiplayer games|first=Sean|last=Hollister|work=[[CNET]]|date=June 24, 2016|accessdate=August 12, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807110648/http://www.cnet.com/news/titanfall-2-networks-interview-e3-2016/|archivedate=August 7, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Each network has its own "happy hour". If the player plays the game during this period, they gain extra merits.<ref name="mashable"/>

==Synopsis==
===Setting===
The game's conflict takes place in "The Frontier", a region of star systems far removed from the "Core Systems" where Earth is located. The Interstellar Manufacturing Corporation (IMC) and the Frontier Militia battle for control of the Frontier. The IMC seeks to exploit the Frontier's rich resources regardless of the consequences for planetary environments and civilian populations, while the Militia fight to expel the IMC and gain the Frontier's independence. In the wake of the [[Titanfall#Plot|Battle of Demeter]], the Militia is on the offensive, battling for resources and control of the Frontier planets. Though weakened by the lack of reinforcements from the core systems because of the destruction of the refueling facility by James MacAllan, IMC is still a dominant fighting force attempting to drive the Militia out and put down any resistance to their control of the Frontier.

In the singleplayer campaign the player assumes control of Jack Cooper, a rifleman from the Frontier Militia, sent to the alien planet of Typhon who must join his former squadmate's Titan—named BT-7274—to fight local alien creatures and human enemies from the IMC.<ref name="EuroGPre" />

===Plot===
Jack Cooper is a rifleman in the Militia. He aspires to become a Titan Pilot for the Militia and is receiving off-the-books training from Captain Tai Lastimosa to prepare for his candidacy. The two are part of a Militia force which attacks the IMC-held planet of Typhon. In the initial battle, the Apex Predators, a group of mercenaries contracted to the IMC and led by Blisk, mortally wound Lastimosa and incapacitate his Vanguard-class Titan, BT-7274. Lastimosa transfers control of BT to Cooper. BT explains that Cooper has also inherited Lastimosa's mission, Special Operation 217: to rendezvous with Major Anderson and assist in the completion of their original assignment. Anderson's last known position is at an IMC laboratory. BT and Cooper are forced to detour through a manufacturing plant where they are ambushed and separated. Cooper fights through the factory alone until he is trapped in a combat simulation being run by the mercenary Ash, who is using captured Militia soldiers as test subjects to test the potency of IMC machine units. Cooper escapes, and after being reunited with BT, defeats Ash.

BT and Cooper continue to the IMC laboratory only to find it destroyed, and corpses artificially aged due to time-travel distortion. Anderson is present, though also deceased from a time-travel mishap. Cooper learns Anderson was gathering intelligence on a new IMC device, the "Fold Weapon", which utilizes time-displacement technology to destroy entire planets. The planet Harmony, which houses the Militia headquarters, will be the first target. Fortunately for the Militia, the Fold Weapon is dependent upon a power source known as the Ark. Cooper and BT hijack an IMC communications array and broadcast a signal to the Militia fleet. The transmission contained sensor data on the Ark's electromagnetic signature so that the Militia could find and seize it.

After receiving the transmission, Militia's military unit, the Marauder Corps, leads an assault against the IMC-held installation where the Ark is being kept. Arriving too late to prevent it from being loaded onto an IMC transport, the Militia give chase in hijacked IMC ships. The mercenary Viper nearly kills BT and Cooper by throwing them off their transport, but freelance pilot Barker rescues them by catching them with his dropship. Cooper regroups with a friendly mercenary group called the Six Four, and the Pilots secure the IMC ship nearest to the Draconis, the transport carrying the Ark. Barker drops off BT and Cooper. They face off with Viper who falls out of the sky after a short skirmish. BT and Cooper attempt to board the Draconis but are again interrupted by Viper. BT loses an arm in the battle, but Cooper kills Viper by shooting his exposed body after his Titan's hatch is blown off.

Cooper and BT successfully board the Draconis holding the Ark, and they secure it before the ship crashes. BT becomes incapacitated from damage sustained in his fight with Viper, and the duo are captured by Blisk and his second-in-command, Slone. BT surrenders the Ark to save Cooper but is destroyed by Slone for trying to help Cooper escape. However, BT gives Cooper his data core before he dies, and Cooper uses it to revive BT by installing it in a Vanguard chassis provided by Briggs after he escapes captivity. Reunited, Cooper and BT fight their way to the base where the Fold Weapon is being prepared for use against Harmony. They kill Slone, earning Blisk's respect; Blisk spares Cooper because the IMC never included killing him in their contract and he does not work for free. He offers Cooper a place in the Apex Predators before departing. BT and Cooper then launch themselves into the Fold Weapon's superstructure where the Ark has already been installed. BT hurls Cooper free before sacrificing himself by killing himself, destroying the Ark and the Fold Weapon and the planet Complex.

The game ends with a monologue by Cooper, talking about having his status as a pilot affirmed and being inducted into the Marauder Corps, as well as reminiscing over his experiences with BT. The Titan neural link to Cooper's helmet flashes with the message "Jack?" encoded in binary.

==Development==
[[Respawn Entertainment]], founded by [[Vince Zampella]], and a team of ninety people developed the game.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mcvuk.com/development/divide-and-conquer-the-next-step-for-respawn|title=Divide and conquer: the next step for Respawn|first=Matthew|last=Jarvis|work=[[MCVUK]]|date=March 29, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624084253/https://www.mcvuk.com/development/divide-and-conquer-the-next-step-for-respawn|archivedate=June 24, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> ''[[Titanfall]]''{{'}}s original director, Steve Fukuda, producer Drew McCoy, and composer [[Stephen Barton]] returned for the sequel. Production of the title began in mid-2014 with a two-year development cycle.<ref name="VBInt"/> Publisher [[Electronic Arts]] provided funding and marketing support.<ref name="EdgeTheMakingOf"/> The game's development was completed on September 29, 2016, with Respawn confirming it had been declared [[Software release life cycle#Release to manufacturing (RTM)|gold]], indicating it was being prepared for duplication and release.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vg247.com/2016/09/29/titanfall-2-has-gone-gold/|title=Titanfall 2 has gone gold|first=Sherif|last=Saed|work=[[VG 247]]|date=September 29, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429030348/https://www.vg247.com/2016/09/29/titanfall-2-has-gone-gold/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Single-player===
''Titanfall'' had a low engagement with players post-release, despite huge initial sales. Fukuda believed the dwindling size of the community was due mainly to the game's lack of a single-player campaign.<ref name="EdgeTheMakingOf"/> Zampella confirmed the introduction of a single-player campaign was intended to expand the player base,<ref name="RollingStoneInt">{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/glixel/interviews/qa-titanfall-2-creator-on-what-makes-a-great-shooter-w450709|title=Q&A: 'Titanfall 2' Creator on What Makes a Great Shooter and Launching Against 'Call of Duty'|first=Chris|last=Suellentrop|work=[[Rolling Stone]]|date=November 16, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024852/https://www.rollingstone.com/glixel/interviews/qa-titanfall-2-creator-on-what-makes-a-great-shooter-w450709|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> and McCoy believed this could make the overall package more complete.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.polygon.com/2016/8/18/12533412/titanfall-2-single-player-demo-gamescom-2016|title=Titanfall 2's 'unexpected single-player' needs time to win over players|first=Allegra|last=Frank|work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]|date=August 18, 2016|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025200/https://www.polygon.com/2016/8/18/12533412/titanfall-2-single-player-demo-gamescom-2016|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The team's vision for the campaign was to make it different from other [[first-person shooter]]s, especially ''[[Call of Duty]]''.<ref name="EdgeTheMakingOf"/> This proved to be a challenge since many of them had worked at [[Infinity Ward]], the developer of ''Call of Duty'', before joining Respawn and had become accustomed to making a campaign in that style. According to McCoy, the team initially tried putting all the mechanics from the first ''Titanfall'' into the campaign, but it did not work out.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.engadget.com/2016/08/19/titanfall-2-gamescom-2016/|title=Crafting a story for 'Titanfall 2'|first=Nick|last=Summers|work=[[Engadget]]|date=August 19, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025336/https://www.engadget.com/2016/08/19/titanfall-2-gamescom-2016/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> As a result, the team decided to host many [[game jam]]s in the studio, where team members were free to create new designs and experiment with technology with few constraints other than adhering to ''Titanfall''{{'}}s existing mechanics. The team was tasked not to follow traditional shooter campaign's design conventions. Team members were free to build prototypes for it, which would then be integrated to form a coherent campaign. These prototypes were internally referred to as "action blocks". They allowed the team to introduce "ideas after ideas" in the full game since these blocks were often independent of each other and had unique gameplay features. For instance, players would be time traveling in one level and assaulting Titans in the next. These blocks enabled the team to discover new ideas and work out the structure of the overall campaign. Internally it was called "211" as every level consisted of two parts involving pilot combat, one part involving pilot movement and puzzle solving, and one part involving Titan combat.<ref name="EdgeTheMakingOf">{{cite web|url=https://www.gamesradar.com/the-making-of-titanfall-2-how-building-blocks-buddy-robots-and-half-life-led-to-one-of-the-freshest-fps-in-years/|title=The making of Titanfall 2: How building blocks, buddy robots, and Half-Life led to one of the freshest FPS in years|first=Alex|last=Wiltshire|date=October 13, 2017|accessdate=April 25, 2018|work=[[Edge (magazine)|Edge]]|publisher=[[GamesRadar]]|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025013/https://www.gamesradar.com/the-making-of-titanfall-2-how-building-blocks-buddy-robots-and-half-life-led-to-one-of-the-freshest-fps-in-years/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

[[File:AH-64D Apache Longbow.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Military technologies such as the [[Boeing AH-64 Apache]] helicopter inspired the look of BT-7274.]]
The "action blocks" approach meant ''Titanfall 2''{{'}}s gameplay was designed before the story. The team intended making the game similar to the ''[[Half-Life (series)|Half-Life]]'' series, where a mystery takes center stage in the story, hooking players to continue exploring it and completing the campaign. ''[[Portal (video game)|Portal]]'' also influenced the game's design.<ref name="RollingStoneInt"/> One of the major components of the campaign is the interactions between Cooper and his Titan BT-7274.<ref name="EdgeTheMakingOf"/> Fukuda described it as a "buddy" story, inspired by [[buddy cop film]]s like ''[[Lethal Weapon]]'' or ''[[Beverly Hills Cop]]'', as well as [[anime]] ''[[Gargantia on the Verdurous Planet]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/olliebarder/2017/04/19/respawn-finally-talks-about-the-obvious-mecha-anime-influences-in-titanfall-2/#3a5e99d42596|title=Respawn Finally Talks About The Obvious Mecha Anime Influences In 'Titanfall 2'|first=Ollie|last=Barder|work=[[Forbes]]|date=April 19, 2017|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025641/https://www.forbes.com/sites/olliebarder/2017/04/19/respawn-finally-talks-about-the-obvious-mecha-anime-influences-in-titanfall-2/#3a5e99d42596|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> "BT" stood for "Buddy Titan", a name the team hated, but Fukuda insisted on using. To increase the chemistry between the duo, the two characters have opposite personalities: Jack is enthusiastic, while BT is robotic and calm.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.redbull.com/au-en/titanfall-2-making-of-and-insight-news-red-bull-games|title=Titanfall 2’s Campaign is a Sci-Fi Buddy Cop Romp|first=Ben|last=Salter|work=[[Red Bull]]|date=September 14, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018}}</ref> Cooper was difficult for the team to write since his personality may not align with players' choices or vision for the character.<ref name="TelegraphInterview"/> While the team intentionally avoided making BT similar to characters like [[Optimus Prime]] or cute robots like [[Wall-E]], they found BT's personality difficult to write, as they had to find a balance between making it "a lovable partner and a 20-foot-tall war machine". Early drafts of BT's scripts were deemed too "bossy", and five writers took five months to rework them. To make BT more human, the team designed a large emotive eye, so players would know where the titan is looking, and a small pair of robotic arms that allow it to interact with other characters in a more natural way. The front of BT is filled with colored paints which inform players of the Titan's head movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/10/18/13256052/titanfall-2-bt-mech-design-interview-respawn-entertainment|title=How The Team Behind Titanfall 2 Built A Titan You'll Actually Care About|first=Andrew|last=Webster|work=[[The Verge]]|date=October 16, 2018|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024811/https://www.theverge.com/2016/10/18/13256052/titanfall-2-bt-mech-design-interview-respawn-entertainment|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The team added a design choice that let players communicate with BT enabling players to bond with the Titan without using any [[cutscene]].<ref name="EdgeTheMakingOf"/> This also provided players with more insights into the game's world,<ref name="RollingStoneInt"/> though some staff questioned the decision since ''Half-Life''<nowiki/>'s protagonist is silenced. To make players feel that Cooper and BT are separate entities even when they are controlling the Titan, the team included several small graphical hints to remind them that BT will still continue to talk to the player character.<ref name="TelegraphInterview"/> [[Akira Kurosawa]] films and [[Clint Eastwood]] and [[Sam Elliott]]'s cowboy roles inspired animator Shawn Lee Wilson creation of BT's unique physical appearance and expression. The [[Apache helicopter]] and other military technologies also inspired BT's design. Wilson provided motion capture for the Titan.<ref name="EdgeTheMakingOf"/>

While designing the game's single-player, one of the team's goals was to keep the energy present in ''Titanfall''{{'}}s multiplayer mode.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-single-player-campaign-revealed-shows-/1100-6442525/|title=Titanfall 2 Single-Player Campaign Revealed, Shows New Details|first=Mike|last=Mahardy|work=[[GameSpot]]|date=August 11, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829074259/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-single-player-campaign-revealed-shows-/1100-6442525/|archivedate=August 29, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The team wanted to make the campaign more creative instead of simply having robots in it. Both the unique traits of pilots and Titans had to be used and expanded upon. Therefore, the team decided to create both intricate environments for pilots' transversal and large open space for titan combat, instead of making it a [[linear gameplay|corridor shooter]]. According to gameplay designer Mohammed Alavi, this gave players greater control and freedom over the character's movement.<ref name="TelegraphInterview">{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gaming/what-to-play/titanfall-2-single-player-interview---you-are-going-to-be-doing/|title=Titanfall 2 interview - 'You are going to be doing things in our single-player that you have never done before'|first=Dan|last=Silver|work=[[The Telegraph (magazine)|The Telegraph]]|date=September 1, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429030108/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gaming/what-to-play/titanfall-2-single-player-interview---you-are-going-to-be-doing/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The team focused a great deal on [[platform game|platforming]] designed to further expand the use of the pilot movement sets. Many team members created action blocks dedicated to platforming, including ideas such as having players solve puzzles to find a new surface to wall-run on, and Titan being able to throw the pilot, so they could travel over long distances. The concept of Titan throwing pilots was ultimately discarded from the gameplay and became part of a cinematic cutscene because the team had trouble implementing it due to its lack of interactivity.<ref name="EdgeTheMakingOf"/> The game also features a variety of puzzles inspired by ''[[BioShock]]'' and ''Half-Life'', where players maintain "a certain level of speed" while solving puzzles.<ref name="biggest challenge yet"/> There are also puzzles which change the game's pace and require players to stop to think of a solution.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.polygon.com/2016/10/11/13243948/titanfall-2-single-player-adventure-video|title=Titanfall 2’s campaign makes time for slow moments|first=Samit|last=Sarker|work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]|date=October 11, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025202/https://www.polygon.com/2016/10/11/13243948/titanfall-2-single-player-adventure-video|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

''[[X2 (film)|X2]]''{{'}}s [[Nightcrawler (comics)|Nightcrawler]] and the documentary series ''[[Life After People]]'' inspired the most acclaimed level, "Effect and Cause", initially an action block created by designer Jake Keating involving time travel. He had the idea before the development of ''Titanfall''. He experimented with it with one of ''Titanfall''{{'}}s multiplayer maps. The action block was warmly welcomed by the entire development team, with some feeling that it had the potential to be the main feature through the entire game rather than being confined to one level. However, Keating insisted on limiting its use to one level so that the mechanic would not become boring for players.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://waypoint.vice.com/en_us/article/av3a7b/a-behind-the-scenes-look-at-the-best-mission-in-titanfall-2|title=A Behind-The-Scenes Look at the Best Mission in ‘Titanfall 2’|first=Patrick|last=Klepek|work=Waypoint|date=November 29, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025118/https://waypoint.vice.com/en_us/article/av3a7b/a-behind-the-scenes-look-at-the-best-mission-in-titanfall-2|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> To make the level, the team created two building [[computer model]]s with one on top of the other. As the player switches timelines, they are teleported from one building to the other. Fukuda added it was the landmark level the team was looking for and it did not need demanding technology. However, the added level created more work for the team since the two buildings, each with different features and characteristics, needed to be built twice.<ref name="EdgeTheMakingOf"/>

The game's single-player starts with simple missions before gradually introducing players to more complicated situations which demand more skills and precision.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://venturebeat.com/2016/10/27/titanfall-2-gradually-eases-players-into-grunt-combat/|title=Titanfall 2 gradually eases players into Grunt combat|first=Dean|last=Takahashi|work=[[VentureBeat]]|date=October 27, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024439/https://venturebeat.com/2016/10/27/titanfall-2-gradually-eases-players-into-grunt-combat/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The game story also supplements this, as Cooper transforms from a normal Frontier grunt to a skillful pilot at the end.<ref name="EdgeTheMakingOf"/> The campaign was created as a stepping stone for inexperienced players by providing a more "relaxing" environment that teaches players' the basic gameplay mechanics, training them before they join multiplayer matches.<ref name="can't get anywhere else">{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gaming/what-to-play/titanfall-2-interview---we-think-were-offering-something-that-pe/|title=Titanfall 2 interview - "We are offering something that people are not going to get anywhere else"|first=Tom|last=Hoggins|work=[[The Telegraph (magazine)|The Telegraph]]|date=October 24, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429104801/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gaming/what-to-play/titanfall-2-interview---we-think-were-offering-something-that-pe/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Multiplayer===
The team evaluated ''Titanfall'' and listened to both feedback and analytical research from gaming journalists and identified two major concerns: there was not enough content for players, and at times the game became too chaotic. The team slowed down the gameplay pace of ''Titanfall 2''{{'}}s multiplayer so that players could actively make decisions relying less on [[reflex]]. The team also improved the game's map design by introducing more verticality to each map. Fukuda described it as the [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[swiss cheese effect]]. The team also employed the strategy of "window pane", where each map has three obvious paths: left, middle and right. This helped make each map's environments more predictable to players.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shacknews.com/article/96446/titanfall-2-game-director-on-a-slower-paced-multiplayer|title=Titanfall 2 game director on a slower-paced multiplayer|first=Ozzie|last=Mejia|work=[[Shacknews]]|date=August 23, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025428/http://www.shacknews.com/article/96446/titanfall-2-game-director-on-a-slower-paced-multiplayer|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> ''Titanfall2'' features a brighter color pattern and environment compared to both the first game and other military shooters,<ref name="biggest challenge yet">{{cite web|url=https://www.redbull.com/int-en/titanfall-2-interview-red-bull-games|title=Titanfall 2’s biggest challenge yet|first=Benjamin|last=Kratsch|work=Red Bull|date=August 16, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018}}</ref> as the team aimed for graphical quality that is "postcard-worthy".<ref name="vg247interview">{{cite web|url=https://www.vg247.com/2016/09/06/titanfall-2-interview-respawn-talks-the-challenges-of-creating-a-campaign/|title=Titanfall 2 Interview: Respawn talks the challenges of creating a campaign|first=Alex|last=Donaldson|work=[[VG 247]]|date=September 6, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429030228/https://www.vg247.com/2016/09/06/titanfall-2-interview-respawn-talks-the-challenges-of-creating-a-campaign/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> There is also a greater variety of environments featured in the multiplayer maps, ranging from industrial centers to outdoor maps with more foliage.<ref name="engine improvement">{{cite web|url=https://www.hardcoregamer.com/2016/06/14/e3-2016-respawn-talks-content-variety-reworked-engine-in-titanfall-2/212196/|title=E3 2016: Respawn Talks Content Variety, Reworked Engine in Titanfall 2|first=Kevin|last=Dunsmore|work=[[Hardcore Gamer]]|date=June 14, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429091721/https://www.hardcoregamer.com/2016/06/14/e3-2016-respawn-talks-content-variety-reworked-engine-in-titanfall-2/212196/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

There are also various revisions to the game's multiplayer mode. McCoy described these changes as "subtle" as the team focused more on adding slight modifications to existing mechanics. The Titans were redesigned so that players can "tell at a glance everything that [they] need to know" and stay prepared for each combat encounter.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-interview-on-mechs-modes-and-the-new-campaign/|title=Titanfall 2 interview: on mechs, modes and the new campaign|first=Samuel|last=Roberts|work=[[PC Gamer]]|date=July 7, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024927/https://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-interview-on-mechs-modes-and-the-new-campaign/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> This enabled players to have a clearer picture of the combat situations and facilitated learning from each defeat.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2016-06-23-respawn-talks-titanfall-2-and-that-call-of-duty-remaster|title=Respawn talks Titanfall 2 and that Call of Duty remaster|first=Tom|last=Phillips|work=[[Eurogamer]]|date=June 23, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025305/https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2016-06-23-respawn-talks-titanfall-2-and-that-call-of-duty-remaster|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The team also introduced cosmetic changes to the pilots and the six Titan class giving them distinct visual characteristics so that players can easily identify an opponent.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.polygon.com/e3/2016/6/12/11913270/titanfall-2-interview-e3-2016|title=Titanfall 2 Brings Personality To Its Massive Mech, And A Story For Fans|first=Brian|last=Crecente|work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]|date=June 12, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829073642/https://www.polygon.com/e3/2016/6/12/11913270/titanfall-2-interview-e3-2016|archivedate=August 29, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The team attempted to add more depth to the gameplay by introducing more Titans, gadgets and pilot abilities, allowing players to play in accordance with their own playstyle. These added more variety to the game so there are more things for players to discover and master.<ref name="VBInt">{{cite web|url=https://venturebeat.com/2016/10/21/how-respawn-crafted-better-mech-combat-and-single-player-play-in-titanfall-2/view-all/|title=How Respawn crafted better mech combat and single-player play in Titanfall 2|first=Dean|last=Takahashi|work=[[VentureBeat]]|date=October 21, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025349/https://venturebeat.com/2016/10/21/how-respawn-crafted-better-mech-combat-and-single-player-play-in-titanfall-2/view-all/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The game's extensive customization options, and the class-based progression system, were designed to engage players, so they can "get the most out of the game".<ref name="can't get anywhere else"/> Unlike its predecessor, Titans need to be earned using certain gameplay actions. The principle behind the design was to make Titan gameplay more satisfying and rewarding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://metro.co.uk/2016/06/20/titanfall-hands-on-preview-and-interview-its-very-different-to-anything-weve-done-in-the-past-5956319/|title=Titanfall 2 hands-on preview and interview – ‘It’s very different to anything we’ve done in the past’|work=[[Metro (magazine)|Metro]]|date=June 20, 2016|accessdate=April 25, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817060711/http://metro.co.uk/2016/06/20/titanfall-hands-on-preview-and-interview-its-very-different-to-anything-weve-done-in-the-past-5956319/|archivedate=August 17, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Technology===
The game used a heavily modified version of [[Valve Corporation]]'s [[Source (engine)|Source]] as its [[video game engine|game engine]]. Many improvements were made to the engine's aspects such as [[physically based rendering]], a texture streaming system developed in house, [[high dynamic range]] and [[depth of field]]. The team also made changes to the audio, such as introducing [[Occlusion effect|sound occlusion]] and [[reverberation]].<ref name="engine improvement"/> According to John Haggerty, senior software engineer, the team broke part of the engine's code for level progression and saves when they were making the first game. The programming team found it a huge challenge to fix and reinstate these codes to accommodate the sequel's single-player campaign. The team also developed a scripting system from scratch, allowing designers to quickly assemble an action block.<ref name="EdgeTheMakingOf"/> The game's [[artificial intelligence]] was significantly enhanced, with new moveset and behaviors for pilots and titans in both single-player and multiplayer modes.<ref name="VBInt"/> As ''Titanfall 2'' was the first game Respawn developed for the [[PlayStation 4]], the engineering team spent a great deal of time and effort to get it running on the platform.<ref name="engine improvement"/> A [[virtual reality]] version of the game was prototyped but never went into full production because, according to Joe Emslie, the player would "vomit all over their controller."<ref name="CNET"/>

Combat [[animation]] can be interrupted by players' movement, which gives them more direct control instead of needing to wait for the animation to end.<ref name="RollingStoneInt"/> Most ''Titanfall''{{'}}s pilots' movesets returned in ''Titanfall 2'' but with some slight modifications. For instance, players no longer fall off as they are wall running near the tops of walls. Before players begin to wall run, the game's [[camera]] also tilts slightly so that players can anticipate the movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/293282/Designer_Interview_Getting_Titanfalls_controls_just_right.php|title=Designer Interview: Getting Titanfall's controls just right|first=Alex|last=Wiltshire|date=March 9, 2017|accessdate=April 25, 2018|work=[[Gamasutra]]|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429091849/https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/293282/Designer_Interview_Getting_Titanfalls_controls_just_right.php|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

==Release==
In May 2014, two months after the first game's release, publisher Electronic Arts announced they would collaborate with Respawn Entertainment for more experiences set within the ''Titanfall'' universe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2014/05/06/ea-and-respawn-partner-on-new-titanfall-experiences|title=EA and Respawn Partnered On New Titanfall Experiences|first=Mitch|last=Dyer|work=[[IGN]]|date=May 6, 2014|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025710/http://www.ign.com/articles/2014/05/06/ea-and-respawn-partner-on-new-titanfall-experiences|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> A sequel was officially confirmed on March 12, 2015, by Respawn's Vince Zampella at the [[12th British Academy Games Awards]]. He also confirmed the game would come to [[PlayStation 4]], unlike the first one.<ref name="DLC">{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2015/03/12/titanfall-2-confirmed-coming-to-xbox-one-ps4-and-pc|title=Titanfall 2 Confirmed, Coming to Xbox One, PS4 and PC|first=Luke|last=Karmali|work=[[IGN]]|date=March 12, 2015|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6Wyot9Erm?url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2015/03/12/titanfall-2-confirmed-coming-to-xbox-one-ps4-and-pc|archivedate=March 12, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref> EA opened their press conference at [[E3 2016|EA Play]] 2016 with ''Titanfall 2'', and announced that the game would be released worldwide on October 28, 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/06/12/e3-2016-titanfall-2-release-date-revealed|title=E3 2016: Titanfall 2 Release Date Revealed|first=Andrew|last=Goldfarb|work=[[IGN]]|date=June 12, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110142647/http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/06/12/e3-2016-titanfall-2-release-date-revealed|archivedate=November 10, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> This meant the title would have to compete with other [[AAA (video game industry)|triple-A]] [[first-person shooter]]s including ''[[Battlefield 1]]'', made by [[EA DICE|DICE]] (one of EA's studios), and [[Activision]]'s futuristic ''[[Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare]]'', developed by Zampella's old studio Infinity Ward.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gamerevolution.com/features/12644-battlefield-1-vs-infinite-warfare-vs-titanfall-2-which-fps-should-you-buy-this-year|title=Battlefield 1 vs Infinite Warfare vs Titanfall 2: Which FPS Should You Buy This Year?|first=Jonathon|last=Leack|work=[[Game Revolution]]|date=October 25, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121002822/http://www.gamerevolution.com/features/12644-battlefield-1-vs-infinite-warfare-vs-titanfall-2-which-fps-should-you-buy-this-year|archivedate=November 21, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> According to McCoy, EA confirmed the release date long before and the team could not change it.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vg247.com/2016/10/31/titanfall-2-release-date-was-locked-in-a-long-time-ago-no-changing-it-says-respawn/|title=Titanfall 2 release date was "locked in a long time ago, no changing it," says Respawn|first=Sherif|last=Saed|work=[[VG 247]]|date=October 31, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429030247/https://www.vg247.com/2016/10/31/titanfall-2-release-date-was-locked-in-a-long-time-ago-no-changing-it-says-respawn/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The game's Collector's Edition and Vanguard SRS Collector's Edition, which include additional content, were released on the same day as the standard edition.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vg247.com/2016/06/13/titanfall-2-deluxe-and-collectors-editions-now-available-for-preorder/|title=Titanfall 2: Deluxe and Collectors editions now available for preorder|first=James|last=O'Connor|work=[[VG 247]]|date=June 13, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429030139/https://www.vg247.com/2016/06/13/titanfall-2-deluxe-and-collectors-editions-now-available-for-preorder/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> ''Titanfall 2'' was added to [[EA Access]] and [[Origin Access]] on July 7, 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.destructoid.com/battlefield-1-and-titanfall-2-are-joining-ea-access-447562.phtml|title=Battlefield 1 and Titanfall 2 are joining EA Access|first=Jordon|last=Devore|work=[[Destructoid]]|date=July 7, 2017|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708230251/https://www.destructoid.com/battlefield-1-and-titanfall-2-are-joining-ea-access-447562.phtml|archivedate=July 8, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> An Ultimate Edition, which bundles the base game and all the updates as well as some bonus content, was released on the same day.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-ultimate-edition-includes-maps-modes-weapons-and-more-freebies/|title=Titanfall 2 Ultimate Edition includes maps, modes, weapons, and more freebies|first=Andy|last=Chalk|work=[[PC Gamer]]|date=August 1, 2017|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429092209/https://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-ultimate-edition-includes-maps-modes-weapons-and-more-freebies/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

EA partnered with a restaurant and a snack food company to promote the game. Players who purchased food or drink at any [[Buffalo Wild Wings]] restaurant received a free customization item and access to a multiplayer mode. Similarly, players who purchased [[Mountain Dew]] or [[Doritos]] were given a code granting them double XP, early access to a new multiplayer mode, a Titan, and Titan customization items.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/how-to-get-titanfall-2-dlc-by-eating-and-drinking/1100-6442755/?ftag=GSS-05-10aaa0b|title=How to Get Titanfall 2 DLC by Eating and Drinking|first=Eddie|last=Makuch|work=[[GameSpot]]|date=August 17, 2016|accessdate=August 18, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208004219/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/how-to-get-titanfall-2-dlc-by-eating-and-drinking/1100-6442755/?ftag=GSS-05-10aaa0b|archivedate=February 8, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> EA also partnered with toy manufacturer [[McFarlane Toys]] to produce a toyline for the game which includes a seven-inch tall Cooper figurine and a ten-inch tall BT-7274 figurine.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-figures-come-with-in-game-content-see-/1100-6440924/|title=Titanfall 2 Figures Come With In-Game Content, See Them Here|first=Mat|last=Paget|work=[[GameSpot]]|date=June 15, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429093433/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-figures-come-with-in-game-content-see-/1100-6440924/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Respawn prepared two technical tests for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One users in August 2016, allowing players to try some of the game's multiplayer modes and maps.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-beta-dates-and-details-confirmed/1100-6442675/|title=Titanfall 2 Beta Dates and Details Confirmed|first=Chris|last=Pereira|date=August 16, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429092038/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-beta-dates-and-details-confirmed/1100-6442675/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> They made several major gameplay adjustments after hearing feedback from players participating in these tests.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamezone.com/news/titanfall-2-technical-test-feedback-bringing-major-gameplay-changes-3442771/|title=Titanfall 2 Technical Test feedback bringing major gameplay changes|work=GameZone|date=August 24, 2016|first=Tom|last=Caswell|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429030217/https://www.gamezone.com/news/titanfall-2-technical-test-feedback-bringing-major-gameplay-changes-3442771/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The official ''Titanfall'' [[Twitter]] account, controlled by EA rather than Respawn, also helped promote the game by suggesting it to Twitter users who indicated they were looking for games to play.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kotaku.com/titanfall-twitter-spams-random-people-who-tweet-they-wa-1791116692|title=Titanfall Twitter Spams Random People Who Tweet They Want New Games|work=[[Kotaku]]|first=Heather|last=Alexandra|date=December 1, 2017|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024721/https://kotaku.com/titanfall-twitter-spams-random-people-who-tweet-they-wa-1791116692|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> It was also used to mock its competitors.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.polygon.com/2016/11/4/13529026/titanfall-2-twitter-beef-ea-battlefield-call-of-duty|title=Respawn publicly distances itself from Titanfall’s official Twitter account|first=Samit|last=Sarker|work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]|date=November 4, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024447/https://www.polygon.com/2016/11/4/13529026/titanfall-2-twitter-beef-ea-battlefield-call-of-duty|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Players who purchased ''Battlefield 1'' and this game also had exclusive access to a Titan skin inspired by [[World War One]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vg247.com/2016/10/24/this-cool-skin-will-be-waiting-for-you-in-titanfall-2-if-you-play-battlefield-1/|title=This cool skin will be waiting for you in Titanfall 2 if you play Battlefield 1|first=Sherif|last=Saed|work=[[VG 247]]|date=October 24, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429030353/https://www.vg247.com/2016/10/24/this-cool-skin-will-be-waiting-for-you-in-titanfall-2-if-you-play-battlefield-1/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

At [[E3 2016]], Respawn announced that all the updates and [[downloadable content]] would be free for all players. Inspired by ''[[Evolve (video game)|Evolve]]''{{'}}s free maps model, the team hoped this approach would make players more satisfied with the full-priced package.<ref name="DLC"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamesradar.com/titanfall-2s-free-dlc-is-about-making-sure-gamers-are-happy-with-their-60-game/|title=Titanfall 2’s free DLC is about making sure gamers are ‘happy with their $60 game’|first=Leon|last=Hurley|work=[[GamesRadar]]|date=June 20, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621121034/http://www.gamesradar.com/titanfall-2s-free-dlc-is-about-making-sure-gamers-are-happy-with-their-60-game/|archivedate=June 21, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Respawn supported the game with multiple pieces of downloadable content in the first year after the game's release, including:

{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|-
! colspan=4 | Downloadable content
|-
! style="width:23%;"| Name
! style="width:16%;"| Release date
! style="width:70%;"| Notes
|-
| ''Angel City’s Most Wanted''
| November 30, 2016
| The ''Angel City’s Most Wanted'' is ''Titanfall''{{'}}s first downloadable content, which remastered the map "Angel City" from the first game, as well as a weapon called Wingman Elite Pistol. Other content includes execution animations and Titan kits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/11/23/first-free-titanfall-2-dlc-arrives-next-week|title=First Titanfall 2 DLC Arrives Next Week|first=Luke|last=Reilly|work=[[IGN]]|date=November 22, 2016|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025722/http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/11/23/first-free-titanfall-2-dlc-arrives-next-week|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
| ''Colony Reborn''
| March 30, 2017
| ''Colony Reborn'' introduced a remastered version of a ''Titanfall'' map, "Colony", a weapon R-101 Carbine, execution animations as well as cosmetics for multiplayer Titans including Northstar and Legion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-free-dlc-colony-reborn-is-coming-at-the-end-of-the-month/|title=Titanfall 2 free DLC 'Colony Reborn' is coming at the end of the month|first=Andy|last=Chalk|work=[[PC Gamer]]|date=March 23, 2017|accessdate=April 26, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409211003/http://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-free-dlc-colony-reborn-is-coming-at-the-end-of-the-month/|archivedate=April 9, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
| ''A Glitch in the Frontier''
| April 25, 2017
| ''A Glitch in the Frontier'' introduced two maps named "Glitch", and "Deck", which is a map dedicated to the Live Fire mode. The DLC also included several gameplay adjustments, a faction named MRVN, and a menu overhaul.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-dlc-a-glitch-in-the-frontier-goes-live-next-week/|title=Titanfall 2 DLC 'A Glitch in the Frontier' goes live next week|first=Andy|last=Chalk|work=[[PC Gamer]]|date=April 18, 2017|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024641/https://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-dlc-a-glitch-in-the-frontier-goes-live-next-week/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
| ''Monarch's Reign''
| May 30, 2017
| ''Monarch's Reign'' introduced the Monarch Titan, which belonged to the Vanguard class, as well as new Titans skins. "Relic", a map from ''Titanfall'', was also remastered and included in the package.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2017-05-25-titanfall-2s-final-dlc-is-out-next-week|title=Titanfall 2's latest DLC is out next week, adds new Titan|first=Jeffery|last=Matulef|work=[[Eurogamer]]|date=May 25, 2017|accessdate=April 26, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525220650/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2017-05-25-titanfall-2s-final-dlc-is-out-next-week|archivedate=May 25, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
| ''Operation Frontier Shield''
| July 25, 2017
| ''Operation Frontier Shield'' introduced a [[cooperative gameplay|cooperative multiplayer]] mode named Frontier Defense, in which four players fight against waves of AI-controlled enemies. It also added new maps for the game, including the remastered "Rise" map from the first game and "Township", a map for both the Pilot vs. Pilot and Live Fire modes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/next-free-titanfall-2-dlc-includes-4-player-horde-/1100-6451785/|title=Next Free Titanfall 2 DLC Includes 4-Player Horde Mode, Two New Maps|first=Alex|last=Newhouse|work=[[GameSpot]]|date=July 18, 2017|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024937/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/next-free-titanfall-2-dlc-includes-4-player-horde-/1100-6451785/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
| ''Postcards from the Frontier''
| August 29, 2017
| ''Postcards from the Frontier'' added a Live Fire map named "Uma", three maps for the Frontier Defense mode, "Exoplanet", "Drydock" and "Angel City", as well as weapon cosmetics and warprints.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.videogamer.com/news/titanfall-2-receives-postcards-from-the-frontier-dlc|title=Titanfall 2 receives Postcards from the Frontier DLC|first=Chris|last=Hallam|work=VideoGamer.com|date=August 23, 2017|accessdate=April 26, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429091810/https://www.videogamer.com/news/titanfall-2-receives-postcards-from-the-frontier-dlc|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|}

== Reception ==
{{Video game reviews
| MC = (PC) 86/100<ref name="MCPC">{{cite web |url=http://www.metacritic.com/game/pc/titanfall-2 |title=Titanfall 2 for PC Reviews |publisher=[[Metacritic]] |accessdate=November 5, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107221756/http://www.metacritic.com/game/pc/titanfall-2 |archivedate=November 7, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> (PS4) 89/100<ref name="MCPS4">{{cite web |url=http://www.metacritic.com/game/playstation-4/titanfall-2 |title=Titanfall 2 for PlayStation 4 Reviews |publisher=[[Metacritic]] |accessdate=November 5, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107221407/http://www.metacritic.com/game/playstation-4/titanfall-2 |archivedate=November 7, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> (XONE) 87/100<ref name="MCXONE">{{cite web |url=http://www.metacritic.com/game/xbox-one/titanfall-2 |title=Titanfall 2 for Xbox One Reviews |publisher=[[Metacritic]] |accessdate=November 5, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101005923/http://www.metacritic.com/game/xbox-one/titanfall-2 |archivedate=November 1, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
| Destruct = 8.5/10<ref name="DestructRev">{{cite web |last=Rowen |first=Nic |date=November 1, 2016 |url=https://www.destructoid.com/review-titanfall-2-396814.phtml |title=Review: Titanfall 2 |publisher=[[Destructoid]] |accessdate=November 1, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104000431/https://www.destructoid.com/review-titanfall-2-396814.phtml |archivedate=November 4, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
| EuroG = Essential<ref name="EuroGRev">{{cite web|url=https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2016-10-28-titanfall-2-review|title=Titanfall 2 review|first=Jon|last=Denton|work=[[Eurogamer]]|date=October 28, 2016|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024743/https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2016-10-28-titanfall-2-review|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
| GI = 9.5/10<ref name="GIRev">{{cite web |last=Gwaltney |first=Javy |date=October 24, 2016 |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/games/titanfall_2/b/playstation4/archive/2016/10/24/striking-a-fine-balance.aspx |title=Striking A Fine Balance - Titanfall 2 - PlayStation 4 |publisher=[[Game Informer]] |accessdate=October 24, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161027140223/http://www.gameinformer.com/games/titanfall_2/b/playstation4/archive/2016/10/24/striking-a-fine-balance.aspx |archivedate=October 27, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
| GameRev = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref name="GameRevRev">{{cite web |last=Paras |first=Peter |date=October 24, 2016 |url=http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/titanfall-2 |title=Titanfall 2 Review |publisher=[[Game Revolution]] |accessdate=October 24, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024213045/http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/titanfall-2 |archivedate=October 24, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
| GSpot = 9/10<ref name="GSpotRev">{{cite web |last=Mahardy |first=Mike |date=October 24, 2016 |url=http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/titanfall-2-review/1900-6416561/ |title=Titanfall 2 Review |publisher=[[GameSpot]] |accessdate=October 24, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024171330/http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/titanfall-2-review/1900-6416561/ |archivedate=October 24, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
| GRadar = {{Rating|4.5|5}}<ref name="GRadarRev">{{cite web |last=Houghton |first=David |date=October 24, 2016 |url=http://www.gamesradar.com/titanfall-2-review/ |title=Titanfall 2 review: 'The campaign's craft and creativity will blindside you' |publisher=[[GamesRadar]] |accessdate=October 24, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025050141/http://www.gamesradar.com/titanfall-2-review/ |archivedate=October 25, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
| IGN = 9/10<ref name="IGNRev">{{cite web |last=Tyrrel |first=Brandin |date=October 28, 2016 |url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/10/28/titanfall-2-review |title=Titanfall 2 Review |publisher=[[IGN]] |accessdate=October 28, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029063542/http://www.ign.com/articles/2016/10/28/titanfall-2-review |archivedate=October 29, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
| PCGUS = 91/100<ref name="PCGRev">{{cite web |last=Thursten |first=Chris |date=October 31, 2016 |url=https://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-review/ |title=Titanfall 2 review |publisher=[[PC Gamer]] |accessdate=October 31, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031203009/http://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-review/ |archivedate=October 31, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
| Poly = 7/10<ref name="PolyRev">{{cite web |last=Gies |first=Arthur |date=October 24, 2016 |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/10/24/13377822/titanfall-2-review-xbox-one-PC-ps4-playstation-4 |title=Titanfall 2 review |publisher=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |accessdate=October 24, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024171415/http://www.polygon.com/2016/10/24/13377822/titanfall-2-review-xbox-one-PC-ps4-playstation-4 |archivedate=October 24, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
}}

===Critical reception===
The game's plot received mixed reviews. Nic Rowen of ''[[Destructoid]]'' found it had an unsurprising and "by the number" sci-fi plot. He was disappointed by the campaign's five-hour length and noted that the emotional core of the story lacked development.<ref name="DestructRev"/> ''[[Game Informer]]''[[']]s Javy Gwaltney compared the plot to a "buddy comedy" remarking positively that BT is a relatable character.<ref name="GIRev"/> Peter Paras of [[Game Revolution]] praised the interesting story, despite feeling the nine-chapter story is basic. He also liked BT's personality, calling it a "straight-laced 'I take what you say literally' thinking machine". He noted the interactions with the Titan successfully added more context to the game's world and setting.<ref name="GameRevRev"/> Jon Denton of [[Eurogamer]] praised BT's character, saying its lines were skillfully written.<ref name="EuroGRev"/> [[GameSpot]]'s Mike Mahardy felt the story was poorly written and that it ended abruptly.<ref name="GSpotRev"/> Arthur Gies of ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]'' felt the narrative was subpar, with mediocre voice acting, "corny names" for characters, and insufficient context for players to truly remember the story.<ref name="PolyRev"/>

''Titanfall 2''{{'s}} gameplay received critical acclaim. Rowen described it as "frantic and exhilarating", saying the fluidity of gameplay further enhanced the quality of the single-player campaign.<ref name="DestructRev"/> Gwaltney shared similar thoughts, saying that no matter how players chose to approach a mission, combat or stealth, it was satisfying. Furthermore, he found controlling the Titan an interesting experience that resembles ''[[MechWarrior]]'' and ''[[Star Fox]]''.<ref name="GIRev"/> Mahardy also felt that player movement controls remained "invigorating". He liked the Titan combat more for often presenting "David versus Goliath" scenarios. Mahardy and described the game as a "thinking man"{{'}}s shooter, adding it required players to think tactically instead of simply having good reflexes.<ref name="GSpotRev"/> David Houghton of [[GamesRadar]] praised the game's controls and movement options for turning many seemingly gameplay obstacles and barriers into opportunities for players to manipulate.<ref name="GRadarRev"/> Chris Thursten of ''[[PC Gamer]]'' praised the game's variety of weapons and their sounds and the "brilliant" freedom of movement.<ref name="PCGRev"/>

Rowen praised the level design, which he found one of the game's "real stars". He was impressed by the variety of settings and set pieces featured in each level and praised the design for having tricky environments for transversal encouraging free movements. He singled out "Effect and Cause" as one of the game's most imaginative levels, comparing it favorably with ''[[Portal (video game)|Portal]]''.<ref name="DestructRev"/> Paras remarked that two of the game's chapters were extremely impressive, and that they "[re-examine] level design in most action games". Thursten also enjoyed these levels but added that not all of them share this level of creativity. He wished some of the novel concepts introduced "stuck around longer" during his playtime.<ref name="PCGRev"/> Gwaltney liked the flexibility of the game's campaign, which provides players plenty of freedom to handle combat encounters. He also appreciated the inclusion of the game's puzzles, which requires players to "think outside the box".<ref name="GIRev"/> Both Paras and Houghton liked the levels for incorporating elements of Pilot and Titan gameplay. Paras said it added variety to the package,<ref name="GameRevRev"/> and Houghton felt it improved the game's pacing, making it very "exhilarating" to play.<ref name="GRadarRev"/> Mahardy admired the pacing, attributing its success to the fact that players can switch BT's loadouts to handle various combat situations, presenting a different dynamic from multiplayer.<ref name="GSpotRev"/> Brandin Tyrrel of [[IGN]] admired the game's sense of scale and map design, where each level stage felt large but at the same time linear enough to direct players' progression.<ref name="IGNRev"/>

The game's multiplayer was also acclaimed. Rowen described it as "more than solid" and praised the more complex and extended progression system for rectifying ''Titanfall''{{'}}s lack of long-term appeal. While Titan's customization became more limited, he felt this was a necessary change to make the Titan combat deeper and more rewarding. He noted there were many "smart" gameplay adjustments and design changes that emphasize players' skills, but he was disappointed there were not enough modes featuring AI opponents.<ref name="DestructRev"/> Gwaltney, however, felt there were no significant changes to the multiplayer, but there were sufficient subtle design adjustments making it more refined and improved than its predecessor. He still found the progression system lacking in substance. He appreciated the new gadgets, which make the game more tactical. He commented positively on the game modes' structure, which prompts all types of players to engage in teamwork.<ref name="GIRev"/> Paras criticized the multiplayer for being unforgiving, though he enjoyed some of the game modes, like Bounty Hunt.<ref name="GameRevRev"/> Mahardy praised the six new Titans types for being easy to learn and difficult to master. As the six Titan types have distinct controls and attack schemes, Mahardy noted that combat resembles that of a [[fighting game]] and [[multiplayer online battle arena]]s games.<ref name="GSpotRev"/> Tyrrel praised the overhauled rodeo mechanic, which promoted teamwork, and Boosts, which make the game more balanced.<ref name="IGNRev"/> Gies described some of the design changes as "odd" and "difficult to understand", including the rodeo mechanic which he found mostly useless. In addition, he criticized the maps for being too confined, and not fitting with the game's fast gameplay.<ref name="PolyRev"/>

Critics generally had a positive reception to the overall package. Rowen admired the game for being an imaginative and creative shooter, one that no other competitor in the market can achieve.<ref name="DestructRev"/> Gwaltney described the game as a "must-play" that unlike most other shooters offered a complete package with both a fully-fledged single-player campaign and a refined multiplayer.<ref name="GIRev"/> Paras felt that ''Titanfall 2'' successfully delivered on the promises made by the first game.<ref name="GameRevRev"/> Tyrrel also shared similar opinions, calling the game a rare and exceptional title that improved on every aspect of its predecessor.<ref name="IGNRev"/> Houghton called the game the year's surprise, describing it as one of the most "creative and rewarding FPS in recent memory".<ref name="GRadarRev"/> Thursten worried that ''Titanfall 2'' would suffer from a short lifespan like its predecessor due to the same poor release timing. He noted the single-player campaign was the game's true highlight.<ref name="PCGRev"/> Denton strongly recommended the game and gave it the highest possible rating, but he shared the same concern as Thursten.<ref name="EuroGRev"/>

The game received "generally positive reviews" upon release according to review aggregator [[Metacritic]], with the PlayStation 4 version attaining the highest score of 89 out of 100.<ref name="MCPS4"/> [[GamesRadar]] selected it as their [[game of the year]], while ''PC Gamer'' chose it as their shooter of the year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamesradar.com/best-games-2016/3/|title=GamesRadar+'s Game of the Year 2016|publisher=[[GamesRadar]]|date=December 30, 2016|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025231/https://www.gamesradar.com/best-games-2016/3/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcgamer.com/shooter-of-the-year-2016-titanfall-2/|title=Best Shooter 2016: Titanfall 2|work=[[PC Gamer]]|date=December 25, 2018|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024949/https://www.pcgamer.com/shooter-of-the-year-2016-titanfall-2/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Sales===
Electronic Arts expected the game to sell approximately nine to ten million units in its first year of release.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.videogamer.com/ps4/titanfall_2/news/titanfall_2_to_sell_9-10_million_units_battlefield_1_15_million_says_ea.html|title=Titanfall 2 to sell 9-10 million units, Battlefield 1 15 million, says EA|first=James|last=Orry|work=VideoGamer.com|date=August 3, 2016|accessdate=August 3, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807232604/http://www.videogamer.com/ps4/titanfall_2/news/titanfall_2_to_sell_9-10_million_units_battlefield_1_15_million_says_ea.html|archivedate=August 7, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> However, financial analysts predicted the game's sales would be substantially disappointing due to EA's decision to release the game in late October, a period between the launch of EA's own hugely popular ''[[Battlefield 1]]'', and Activision's ''[[Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare]]''. Despite that, EA expressed no concern about the release window, as they felt that the player base of ''Battlefield 1'' and ''Titanfall 2'' would not overlap.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-sales-will-be-substantially-disappoint/1100-6444884/|title=Titanfall 2 Sales Will Be "Substantially Disappointing," Analyst Says|first=Eddie|last=Makuch|work=[[GameSpot]]|date=October 28, 2016|accessdate=November 3, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031214937/http://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-sales-will-be-substantially-disappoint/1100-6444884/|archivedate=October 31, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

The game was the fourth best-selling retail game in the UK in its week of release, behind ''Battlefield 1'', ''[[The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim|The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim – Special Edition]]'', and ''[[FIFA 17]]''. Its first-week sales only reached a quarter of the launch-week sales of ''Titanfall'' despite ''Titanfall 2'' being a multi-platform release. Digital sales of the game were also down, only reaching a quarter of its predecessor's sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-tanks-on-uk-physical-sales-charts-despite-multiplatform-release/|title=Titanfall 2 tanks on UK physical sales charts, despite multiplatform release|first=Andy|last=Chalk|work=[[PC Gamer]]|date=November 3, 2016|accessdate=November 3, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103102531/http://www.pcgamer.com/titanfall-2-tanks-on-uk-physical-sales-charts-despite-multiplatform-release/|archivedate=November 3, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> According to the [[NPD Group]], the game was the ninth best-selling game in October 2016 and the fifth best-selling game in November 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://venturebeat.com/2016/12/15/november-2016-npd-pokemon-sun-and-moon-have-biggest-debut-in-franchise-history/|title=November 2016 NPD: Pokémon has its biggest debut in franchise history|first=Jeff|last=Grubb|work=[[VentureBeat]]|date=December 15, 2016|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025240/https://venturebeat.com/2016/12/15/november-2016-npd-pokemon-sun-and-moon-have-biggest-debut-in-franchise-history/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In their earnings call for the third quarter of the 2017 fiscal year, EA stated that the game's sales fell below expectations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://venturebeat.com/2017/01/31/ea-titanfall-2-didnt-meet-sales-expectations/|title=EA: Titanfall 2 didn’t meet sales expectations|first=Jeff|last=Grubb|work=[[VentureBeat]]|date=January 31, 2017|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025437/https://venturebeat.com/2017/01/31/ea-titanfall-2-didnt-meet-sales-expectations/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> However, EA CEO Blake Jorgensen went on to say the company was pleased with the positive reviews the game received and expected it to have strong sales into the next fiscal year.<ref>[http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/ERTS/4818588412x0x926062/D62107D7-CCA4-49A5-8D8D-87D0AFAE7A7E/EA_Transcript_Q317.pdf "Q3 2017 Electronic Arts Inc Earnings Call on January 31, 2017."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731145948/http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/ERTS/4818588412x0x926062/D62107D7-CCA4-49A5-8D8D-87D0AFAE7A7E/EA_Transcript_Q317.pdf |date=July 31, 2017 }}</ref> According to Zampella, ''Titanfall 2'' sold well and was successful, but it could have sold better.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-should-have-sold-better-dev-says/1100-6452273/|title=Titanfall 2 Should Have Sold Better, Dev Says|first=Eddie|last=Makuch|work=[[GameSpot]]|date=August 3, 2017|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429091743/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/titanfall-2-should-have-sold-better-dev-says/1100-6452273/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In January 2017, financial firm [[Morgan Stanley]] estimated that the game had sold 4 million units.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://venturebeat.com/2017/01/23/morgan-stanley-raises-battlefield-1-sales-estimate-to-15-million/|title=Morgan Stanley raises Battlefield 1 sales estimate to 15 million|first=Jeff|last=Grubb|work=[[VentureBeat]]|date=January 23, 2017|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025526/https://venturebeat.com/2017/01/23/morgan-stanley-raises-battlefield-1-sales-estimate-to-15-million/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

=== Accolades ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Award !! Category !! Result !! Ref
|-
| rowspan="8" style="text-align:center;" | 2016
| rowspan="3" | [[Game Critics Awards]] 2016
| Best of Show
| {{nom}}
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gamecriticsawards.com/nominees.html |title=Game Critics Awards 2016 Nominees |accessdate=October 25, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704063303/http://www.gamecriticsawards.com/nominees.html |archivedate=July 4, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gamecriticsawards.com/winners.html |title=Game Critics Awards 2016 Winners |accessdate=October 25, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6WcF9nnip?url=http://www.gamecriticsawards.com/winners.html |archivedate=February 25, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
|-
| Best Action Game
| {{nom}}
|-
| Best Online Multiplayer
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Golden Joystick Awards]] 2016
| Critics' Choice
| {{Won}}
| align="center"|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamesradar.com/overwatch-scoops-5-awards-firewatch-wins-best-indie-game-here-are-all-the-golden-joystick-2016-winners/|title=Overwatch scoops five awards, Firewatch wins Best Indie Game: Here are all the Golden Joystick 2016 winners|first=Connor|last=Sheridan|date=November 18, 2016|accessdate=April 28, 2018|work=[[GamesRadar]]|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024759/https://www.gamesradar.com/overwatch-scoops-5-awards-firewatch-wins-best-indie-game-here-are-all-the-golden-joystick-2016-winners/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | [[The Game Awards 2016]]
| Game of the Year
| {{nom}}
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/all-the-2016-game-awards-nominees/1100-6445481/| title=All the 2016 Game Awards Nominees| first=Eddie| last=Makuch| date=November 16, 2016| accessdate=November 18, 2016| work=[[GameSpot]]| deadurl=no| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118191246/http://www.gamespot.com/articles/all-the-2016-game-awards-nominees/1100-6445481/| archivedate=January 18, 2017| df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/12/1/13784410/the-game-awards-winners| title=The Game Awards: Here’s the full winners list| first=Chelsea| last=Stark| date=December 1, 2016| accessdate=December 1, 2016| work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]| publisher=[[Vox Media]]| deadurl=no| archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6mRfc8KHW?url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/12/1/13784410/the-game-awards-winners| archivedate=December 2, 2016| df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
| Best Game Direction
| {{nom}}
|-
| Best Multiplayer
| {{nom}}
|-
| Best Action Game
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="13"|2017
| [[Annie Awards]]
| Outstanding Achievement, Character Animation in a Video Game
| {{nom}}
| align="center"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Annie Awards Nominees|url=http://annieawards.org/nominees/|website=Annie Awards|accessdate=November 28, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214105919/http://annieawards.org/nominees/|archivedate=December 14, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4"|[[D.I.C.E. Awards]] 2017
| Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition
| {{nom}}
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2017/02/24/dice-2017-overwatch-wins-game-of-the-year-at-dice-awards-2017|title=DICE 2017: Overwatch Wins Game Of The Year At DICE 2017|first=Lucy|last=O'Brien|work=[[IGN]]|date=February 23, 2017|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218080720/http://www.ign.com/articles/2017/02/24/dice-2017-overwatch-wins-game-of-the-year-at-dice-awards-2017|archivedate=February 18, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
| Outstanding Technical Achievement
| {{nom}}
|-
| Action Game of the Year
| {{nom}}
|-
| Outstanding Achievement in Online Gameplay
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="5"|[[SXSW Gaming Awards]] 2017
| Video Game of the Year
| {{Nom}}
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/uncharted-4-wins-game-of-the-year-at-sxsw-awards/1100-6448819/|title=Uncharted 4 Wins Game Of The Year At SXSW Awards|first=Eddie|last=Makuch|work=[[GameSpot]]|date=March 19, 2017|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803052055/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/uncharted-4-wins-game-of-the-year-at-sxsw-awards/1100-6448819/|archivedate=August 3, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
| Most Memorable Character (for BT-7274)
| {{nom}}
|-
| Excellence in Multiplayer
| {{nom}}
|-
| Excellence in Visual Achievement
| {{nom}}
|-
| Excellence in SFX
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="3"| [[13th British Academy Games Awards]]
| Best Game
| {{nom}}
| rowspan="3"|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2017/04/07/bafta-games-awards-2017-winners-revealed|title=BAFTA Game Awards 2017 Winners Revealed|first=Joe|last=Skrebels|work=[[IGN]]|date=April 7, 2017|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420130044/http://www.ign.com/articles/2017/04/07/bafta-games-awards-2017-winners-revealed|archivedate=April 20, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
| Game Design
| {{nom}}
|-
| Multiplayer
| {{nom}}
|}

==Sequel==
In October 2016, Zampella said the team would like to deliver more experiences for the player set within the franchise, though a trilogy was not planned.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/more-titanfall-games-could-come-after-titanfall-2/1100-6444581/|title=More Titanfall Games Could Come After Titanfall 2|first=Eddie|last=Makuch|work=[[GameSpot]]|date=October 18, 2016|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429024515/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/more-titanfall-games-could-come-after-titanfall-2/1100-6444581/|archivedate=April 29, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> When publisher Electronic Arts acquired Respawn Entertainment, however, it was revealed that a new ''Titanfall'' title was in development.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2017/11/09/ea-buys-titanfall-developer-respawn|title=EA Buys Respawn For $455 Million, New Titanfall Confirmed|first=Seth|last=G. Macy|work=[[IGN]]|date=November 9, 2017|accessdate=April 28, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203082632/http://www.ign.com/articles/2017/11/09/ea-buys-titanfall-developer-respawn|archivedate=February 3, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Respawn}}
{{Portal bar|Video games}}

[[Category:2016 video games]]
[[Category:Corporate warfare in fiction]]
[[Category:Electronic Arts games]]
[[Category:First-person shooter multiplayer online games]]
[[Category:First-person shooters]]
[[Category:Mecha video games]]
[[Category:Parkour video games]]
[[Category:PlayStation 4 games]]
[[Category:PlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games]]
[[Category:Powered exoskeletons in video games]]
[[Category:Respawn games]]
[[Category:Science fiction video games]]
[[Category:Source (game engine) games]]
[[Category:Video games developed in the United States]]
[[Category:Video games with downloadable content]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Xbox One games]]

Konklave 1689

2018-04-15T19:42:31Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox papal conclave
| month = August–October
| year = 1689
| commonname = 
| dates = 23 August – 6 October 1689
| location = [[Apostolic Palace]], [[Papal States]]
| dean =
| subdean =
| camerlengo =
| protopriest =
| protodeacon =
| secretary = 
| candidates = 
| vetoed = 
| ballots = 
| pope_elected= [[Pope Alexander VIII|Pietro Vito Ottoboni]]
| nametaken = Alexander VIII
| image = Alexander VIII 1.jpg
| prevconclave_year= 1676
| prevconclave_link=Papal conclave, 1676
| nextconclave_year= 1691
| nextconclave_link=Papal conclave, 1691
}}
The '''papal conclave of 1689''' was convened after the death of [[Pope Innocent XI]]. It led to the election of Pietro Vito Ottoboni as [[Pope Alexander VIII]]. The conclave saw previous factions join together because they lacked numerical strength, and saw the rise of the ''[[zelanti]]'' as a political force in the election of the next pope. Ottoboni was eventually unanimously elected with the consent of the secular monarchs, becoming the first Venetian in over 200 years to be elected pope.

==Background==
The central political issue concerning the papacy during the pontificate of Innocent XI was the diplomatic tension between the papacy and the French monarchy over the ''[[droit de régale]]'', the claimed right of French monarchs to receive the income of dioceses during the ''interregnum'' between the death of one bishop and the instalation of a new one.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=162}} In response to a bull from Innocent condemning the practice, the French held a national synod in 1682, which upheld this right of the king. Innocent, in return, refused to confirm French bishops, causing there to be thirty-five vacancies by 1688. [[Louis XIV]] responded in kind, by seizing the papal territory [[Avignon]].{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=163}}

In ecclesiastical affairs, Innocent was slow in creating cardinals, waiting until 1681, five years after his election, for his first creations. At that time, he created sixteen cardinals, all of whom were Italian. This caused anger among Catholic monarchs, because there were few remaining non-Italians in the college at that time. At his next creation of cardinals in 1686 he created twenty-seven cardinals, including one French cardinal and eleven other non-Italians.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=163}} In total during Innocent's pontificate, he created a total of forty-three cardinals, while fifty-two had died.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=525}}

==Conclave==
Innocent XI died on 12 August 1689. At the time of his death, there were eight vacancies in the [[College of Cardinals]].{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=163}} The conclave to elect his successor opened on 23 August 1689, but due to the late arrival of the French cardinals, no significant voting occurred until a month later.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=164}} The French cardinals arrived to Rome on 23 September 1689, and entered the conclave on 27 September.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|pp=528–529}} [[Pope Gregory XV|Gregory XV]]'s 1621 bull ''[[Aeterni Patris Filius]]'' set the threshold for election by scrutiny at two-thirds of participating electors.{{sfn|Signorotto and Visceglia|2002|p=106}}

Fifty-three cardinals participated in the 1689 conclave, and seven of those were non-Italian.{{#tag:ref|Pastor notes the total of cardinals at fifty-two while Baumgartner lists it as fifty-three.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=163}}{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=525}}}} Of the Italian cardinals, seventeen were from the [[Papal States]]. Innocent XI's creations were generally not aligned with any of the secular rulers at the time, and this was reflected in the election with the French faction having only five members, while the cardinals aligned with the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburgs]], who ruled Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, only numbered seven. The ''[[Squadrone Volante]]'', which had been a presence at recent conclaves, was not a factor in the 1689 conclave, due to the recent deaths of [[Christina, Queen of Sweden]] and [[Decio Azzolino]].{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=163}} Instead, the college saw the rise of an influential ''[[zelanti]]'' faction with nine members who sought "[...] to elect the best pope, regardless of political ties." {{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=163}}

[[Francesco Maria de' Medici]] took charge of the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] contingent while [[Rinaldo d'Este (1618-1672)|Rinaldo d'Este]] led the [[Kingdom of France|French]] factions. [[Flavio Chigi (1631–1693)|Flavio Chigi]] and [[Paluzzo Paluzzi Altieri degli Albertoni]], who had previously led factions combined their forces due to their decreased number, and joined with [[Benedetto Pamphili]] and Medici. [[Charles d'Albert d'Ailly]], who was the [[Duke of Chaulnes]] served with d'Este and the Marquis de Tore as Louis XIV's advisors regarding the conclave. Medici was joined by [[Luis Francisco de la Cerda]] as the Spanish ambassador to the Holy See. The [[Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]], dispatched [[Anton Florian, Prince of Liechtenstein]] to the conclave as his representative, not being content to be represented by Medici.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=527}} Liechtenstein was received in audience at the doors of the conclave on 27 September and d'Ailly on 2 October.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=528}}

[[Raimondo Capizucchi]] and [[Gregorio Barbarigo]] were both considered early in the conclave, but neither was elected. There were rumours on 20 September that Barbarigo had been elected, but it was later reported that he had asked the cardinals not to vote for him.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=528}}

==Election of Alexander VIII==
Pietro Vito Ottoboni had been seen as the most qualified candidate since the opening of the conclave, but those supporting him moved circumspectly because it was anticipated that he would have enemies as a Venetian. He was supported by the ''zelanti'', as well as by Chigi. Chigi eventually convinced Medici and Altieri to also support Ottoboni. He was not Leopold I's favoured canddiate, and Louis XIV were initially opposed to his election, but both eventually consented.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=529}} His supporters also promised that he would confirm the French bishops that Innocent XI had refused to confirm, and this was the final step in securing his election. Ottoboni was 79 when the conclave opened, and this was also seen as a positive factor in his election.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=164}}

On 6 October 1689, Ottoboni was elected [[Pope Alexander VIII]] unanimously by forty-nine [[cardinal electors]].{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=164}} He was the first Venetian pope in over two centuries.{{sfn|Olszewski|2004|p=11}} Ottoboni decided to take the name of Alexander in honour of [[Flavio Chigi (1631–1693)|Flavio Chigi]]'s uncle, [[Alexander VII]], as Chigi had aided in his election, and he also respected [[Pope Alexander III]], who was popular among Venetians. He had originally considered taking the name Urban, in honour of [[Urban VIII]], who had helped start his career, before he settled on Alexander.{{sfn|Olszewski|2004|p=13}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Baumgartner|first1=Frederic J.|title=Behind Locked Doors|date=2003|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=0-312-29463-8}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Freiherr von Pastor|first1=Ludwig|editor1-last=Graf|year=1940|orig-year=1891|editor1-first=Ernest|title=The History of the Popes|volume=XXXII|publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Olszewski|first=Edward J.|title=Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni (1667–1740) and the Vatican Tomb of Pope Alexander VIII|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mxQimdgBw0gC&pg=PR6|year=2004|publisher=American Philosophical Society|isbn=978-0-87169-252-8}}
*{{cite book|last1=Signorotto|first1=Gianvittorio|last2=Visceglia|first2=Maria Antonietta| title=Court and Politics in Papal Rome, 1492–1700|date=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139431415|ref={{sfnref|Signorotto and Visceglia|2002}}}}
{{refend}}
{{Papal elections and conclaves from 1061|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Papal Conclave, 1689}}
[[Category:1689 in the Papal States]]
[[Category:17th-century elections]]
[[Category:1689 in politics]]
[[Category:Papal conclaves|1689]]
[[Category:17th-century Roman Catholicism]]
[[Category:1689 in Europe]]

Helicopter 66

2018-02-08T00:41:35Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{italic title}}
{| {{Infobox aircraft begin
| name = ''Helicopter 66''
| image = Helicopter_66,_portion_of_a_painting_by_Tom_O'Hara.png
| caption = Portion of the painting "Recovery Helicopter 66" by Tom O'Hara
| alt = Portion of the painting "Recovery Helicopter 66" by Tom O'Hara
}}
{{Infobox aircraft career
| other names = "Old 66", Helicopter 740
| type = helicopter
| manufacturer = [[Sikorsky Aircraft]]
| construction number = 61-377
| construction date = 
| civil registration = 
| military serial = BuNo 152711
| radio code = 
| first flight = 
| owners = [[U.S. Navy]]
| in service = 1967 - 1975
| last flight = June 4, 1975
| flights = 
| total hours = 
| total distance = 
| status = 
| aircraft carried = 
| fate = crashed and submerged
| preservation = 
}}
|}

'''''Helicopter 66''''' is the common name of a [[United States Navy]] [[Sikorsky Sea King]] [[helicopter]] used during the 1960s and 1970s for the water recovery of astronauts during the [[Apollo program]]. It has been called "one of the most famous, or at least most iconic, helicopters in history", was the subject of a song by [[Manuela (singer)|Manuela]] and was made into a die-cast model by [[Dinky Toys]]. In addition to its work in support of NASA, Helicopter 66 also transported the Shah of Iran during his 1973 visit to the aircraft carrier ''USS Kitty Hawk''.

Helicopter 66 is currently located underwater in the [[Pacific Ocean]], where it crashed in 1975 during a training exercise.

==Design==
Helicopter 66 is a [[Sikorsky Sea King]] SH-3D.<ref name="snews"/> The SH-3D model Sea Kings were designed for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) and were typically configured to carry a crew of four and up to three passengers.<ref name="Fas">{{cite web|title=H-3 Sea King|url=https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/h-3.htm|website=fas.org|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|archive-date=February 7, 2018|archive-url=https://perma.cc/3K4E-DWHH|accessdate=February 7, 2018}}</ref> Powered by two [[General Electric]] T58-GE-10 turboshaft engines, SH-3Ds had a maximum airspeed of 120 knots and a mission endurance averaging 4.5 hours.<ref name="Fas"/> They had a maximum allowable weight of {{convert|20,500|lbs|adj=off}} with the ability to carry an external payload of up to {{convert|6,000|lbs|adj=off}}.<ref name="Fas"/>
[[File:Apollo 10 Helicopter Recovery - GPN-2000-001143.jpg|thumb|alt=Helicopter 66 pictured during the Apollo 10 recovery|left|Helicopter 66 pictured during the Apollo 10 recovery.]]
During ASW missions, the Sea King SH-3D was typically armed with [[Mark 46 torpedo|MK-46/44]] torpedos.<ref name="Fas"/>

==History==
===Early history and Apollo missions===
Helicopter 66 was delivered to the U.S. Navy in 1967 and, in 1968, was added to the inventory of [[HSC-4|U.S. Navy Helicopter Anti-Submarine Squadron Four]] (HS-4).<ref name="snews"/> Its original tail number was NT-66/2711.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sikorsky UH-3H Sea King (S-61B) - USA - Navy|url=http://www.airliners.net/photo/USA-Navy/Sikorsky-UH-3H-Sea-King-S-61B/2276627|website=[[airliners.net]]|archive-date=February 7, 2017|archive-url=https://perma.cc/VM25-8ZXW|publisher=[[Leaf Group]]|accessdate=February 7, 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Helicopter_66_Apollo_8.jpg|thumb|right|alt=The Apollo 8 crew shown disembarking Helicopter 66 aboard USS Yorktown following their return to Earth|The Apollo 8 crew disembarks Helicopter 66 aboard ''USS Yorktown'' following their return to Earth.]]
Activated on June 30, 1952, Squadron Four - "the Black Knights" - was the first anti-submarine warfare helicopter squadron of the U.S. Navy to deploy aboard an aircraft carrier when, in 1953, it operated from ''[[USS Rendova]]''.<ref name="navymil"/> It began using the Sea King SH-3D in 1968, transitioning from the SH-3A model.<ref name="navymil"/> That year, the squadron was assigned to Carrier Anti-Submarine Air Group 59 and deployed aboard ''[[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS Yorktown]]'' to the [[Sea of Japan]] in response to the capture of the ''[[USS Pueblo (AGER-2)|USS Pueblo]]'' by the [[Korean People's Navy]].<ref name="navymil"/> Later that year, ''Yorktown'' - and Squadron Four - was tasked to support the U.S. [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) in the oceanic recovery of returning astronauts.<ref name="snews"/><ref name="navymil">{{cite web|title=HSC-4 Command History|url=http://www.public.navy.mil/AIRFOR/HSC4/Pages/COMMAND%20HISTORY.aspx|website=HELSEACOMBATRON FOUR|archive-date=February 7, 2018|archive-url=https://perma.cc/XMJ3-J6SY|publisher=[[U.S. Navy]]|accessdate=February 7, 2018}}</ref>

During the [[Apollo 8]], [[Apollo 10]], and [[Apollo 11]] missions, Helicopter 66 was the primary recovery vehicle which hoisted returning astronauts from the spacecraft command modules.<ref name="snews"/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Putnam|first1=Milt|title=Navy Photographer Tells the Story of Apollo 11 Recovery|url=http://www.navyhistory.org/2012/02/navy-photographer-apollo-11-recovery/|website=navyhistory.org|publisher=Naval Historical Foundation|archive-date=February 7, 2018|archive-url=https://perma.cc/PP89-FE4H|accessdate=November 3, 2017}}</ref> As a result, it was featured prominently in television news coverage and still photography, achieving - in the words of [[Dwayne A. Day]] - the status of "one of the most famous, or at least most iconic, helicopters in history".<ref name="snews"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Blair|first1=Don|title=Splashdown!: NASA and the Navy|date=2004|publisher=Turner Publishing Company|isbn=1563119854|page=43}}</ref> [[Donald S. Jones]], who would later command the [[United States Third Fleet]], piloted Helicopter 66 during its inaugural astronaut recovery mission following Apollo 8, and also took the stick during the Apollo 11 recovery.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Carmichael|first1=Scott|title=Moon Men Return: USS Hornet and the Recovery of the Apollo 11 Astronauts|date=2012|publisher=[[Naval Institute Press]]|isbn=1612512526|pages=121-122}}</ref>

Following the Apollo 11 mission, the Navy switched to a three-digit designation system and Helicopter 66 was retagged Helicopter 740.<ref name="snews"/> However, recognizing the fame Helicopter 66 had achieved, the Navy began the practice of repainting Helicopter 740 as Helicopter 66 for the subsequent recovery missions in which it participated: [[Apollo 12]] and [[Apollo 13]].<ref name="snews"/><ref>{{cite news|title=From One to Another|url=https://www.verticalmag.com/features/20256-from-one-to-another-html/|accessdate=November 3, 2017|archive-url=https://perma.cc/DAW3-YQVK|archive-date=February 7, 2018|work=Vertical Magazine|date=April 12, 2012}}</ref> During the period of its use for astronaut recovery, Helicopter 66 bore kill marks on its fuselage showing a space capsule silhouette, with one being added for each recovery in which it participated.<ref>{{cite news|title=Helicopter Unit Changes Command|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/122502453/|accessdate=February 7, 2018|work=Chula Vista Star-News|publisher=[[newspapers.com]]|date=September 26, 1971}}</ref> For the recovery of the Apollo 11 astronauts, the underside of the fuselage was emblazoned with the words "Hail, Columbia".<ref>{{cite AV media
| people = [[Ron Nessen]]
| date = July 24, 1969
| title = [[NBC News]]
| trans-title =
| medium = [[television]]
| language = English
| url =
| access-date =
| archive-url =
| archive-date =
| format =
| time =
| location =
| publisher = [[National Broadcasting Company]]
| id =
| isbn =
| oclc =
| quote = The President's applauding as they play "Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean." Columbia, of course, is the module out there ... We understand that President Nixon requested the band play "Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean". Written on the bottom of the helicopter is another welcome aboard for the astronauts, it says "Hail, Columbia".| ref =}}</ref>{{efn|The name of the Apollo 11 command capsule was "Columbia" and [[President of the United States]] [[Richard Nixon]], who was personally embarked aboard ''USS Hornet'' for the recovery, had ordered the Band of the [[COMNAVAIRPAC]] to perform "[[Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean]]" during the recovery.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nixon|first1=Richard|title=RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon|date=2013|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9781476731834}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Astronauts Aboard Carrier|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/140157017/|accessdate=September 27, 2017|work=[[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]]|date=July 24, 1969}}</ref>}}

====List of Helicopter 66 Apollo recovery flights====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Mission !! Flight date !! Base ship !! Pilot !! Reference
|-
| [[File:Apollo-8-patch.png|100px|alt=Apollo 8 mission badge]] [[Apollo 8]] || December 27, 1968 || ''[[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS Yorktown]]'' || [[Donald S. Jones]] || <ref name="snews"/>
|-
| [[File:Apollo-10-LOGO.png|100px|alt=Apollo 10 mission badge]] [[Apollo 10]] || May 29, 1969 || ''[[USS Princeton (LPH-5)|USS Princeton]]'' || Chuck B. Smiley ||<ref name="snews"/>
|-
| [[File:Apollo_11_insignia.png|100px|alt=Apollo 11 mission badge]] [[Apollo 11]]|| July 24, 1969 || ''[[USS Hornet (CVS-12)|USS Hornet]]'' || Donald S. Jones ||<ref name="snews"/>
|-
| [[File:Apollo_12_insignia.png|100px|alt=Apollo 12 mission badge]] [[Apollo 12]]|| November 24, 1969|| ''[[USS Hornet (CVS-12)|USS Hornet]]''|| Warren E. Aut ||<ref name="snews"/>
|-
| [[File:Apollo_13-insignia.png|100px|alt=Apollo 13 mission badge]] [[Apollo 13]]|| April 17, 1970|| ''[[USS Iwo Jima (LPH-2)|USS Iwo Jima]]'' || Chuck B. Smiley ||<ref name="snews"/>
|}

===Later history and crash===
[[File:Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King (6586631957).jpg|thumb|right|alt=A Sikorksy Sea King painted in Helicopter 66 livery shown at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in 2011|A Sikorksy Sea King painted in Helicopter 66 livery and owned by the [[National Museum of Naval Aviation]], on display at the [[Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum]] in 2011.]]
By 1973 Helicopter Squadron Four, and Helicopter 66 with it, were embarked aboard ''[[USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63)|USS Kitty Hawk]]''.<ref name="navymil"/> That year, Helicopter 66 transported the [[Shah of Iran]], [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], to ''Kitty Hawk'' for a shipboard visit while it transited the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name="navymil"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Kitty Hawk II (CVA-63)|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/k/kitty-hawk-cva-63-ii.html|website=Naval History and Heritage Command|archive-date=February 7, 2018|archive-url=https://perma.cc/8UHS-UUZ3|publisher=[[U.S. Navy]]|accessdate=February 7, 2018}}</ref>

At 7:00 p.m. on June 4, 1975, Helicopter 66 departed [[Naval Outlying Landing Field Imperial Beach]] near [[San Diego, California]] en route to the U.S. Navy's Helo Offshore Training Area to conduct a regularly scheduled, three-hour nighttime anti-submarine training exercise.<ref name="snews"/><ref name="report"/> During the operation, in which it was carrying a full complement of four crew, the helicopter crashed.<ref name="snews"/><ref name="report"/> Though the crew was subsequently rescued by the [[U.S. Coast Guard]], pilot Leo Rolek was critically injured and later died of injuries sustained in the crash.<ref name="snews"/><ref name="report"/> The exact cause of the downing of Helicopter 66 is unknown; as of 2017 the U.S. Navy incident report remains largely classified.<ref name="srd">{{cite news|last1=Day|first1=Dwayne|title=It’s time to recover Helo 66|archive-url=https://perma.cc/E7RS-6RDN|archive-date=February 7, 2018|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3326/1|accessdate=November 3, 2017|work=[[The Space Review]]|archive-date=|archive-url=|date=September 17, 2017}}</ref> The broken fuselage of the helicopter subsequently sank in {{convert|800|fathom|m}} of water.<ref name="report">{{cite web|title=Aircraft Accident Report|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/archive/895.pdf|website=thespacereview.com|publisher=[[U.S. Navy]]|archive-date=February 7, 2018|archive-url=https://perma.cc/L5XN-Y6WM|accessdate=November 3, 2017}}</ref>

The submerged helicopter remains under U.S. Navy ownership, and an abortive effort by private interests to surface it for preservation was not realized.<ref name="snews"/><ref name="srd"/>
[[File:""Helicopter_U.S._Navy_66".ogg|thumb|left|alt=Excerpt of the 1969 song "Helicopter U.S. Navy 66" by German singer Manuela|Excerpt of the 1969 song "Helicopter U.S. Navy 66" by German singer Manuela which features the sound of helicopter rotors]]

==Legacy==
In 1969 German singer Manuela released a [[Single (music)|single]] titled "Helicopter U.S. Navy 66" which features the sound of helicopter rotors.<ref>{{cite book|title=Helicopter US Navy 66|date=1969|publisher=Meisel GmbH|isbn=9783841836465|page=148}}</ref> During the early 1970s Dinky Toys released a die cast model of a Sea King helicopter in Helicopter 66 livery.<ref name="mm"/> The model included a working winch which could lift a plastic space capsule toy.<ref name="mm">{{cite news|title=Space Recovery Special|url=https://archive.org/details/meccano-magazine-1971-06|accessdate=February 7, 2018|work=[[Meccano Magazine]]|date=June 1971}}</ref>

A painting of Helicopter 66 was commissioned in 1969 from Tom O'Hara as part of a NASA art initiative.<ref name="si">{{cite web|title=Recovery Helicopter #66|url=https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/recovery-helicopter-66|website=airandspace.si.edu|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|accessdate=November 3, 2017}}</ref> It was subsequently placed in the custody of the [[National Air and Space Museum]].<ref name="si"/>

Replicas of Helicopter 66 are on display at the [[USS Hornet Museum]] and the [[USS Midway Museum]].<ref name="snews">{{cite news|last1=Day|first1=Dwayne|title=The last flight of Helo 66|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/895/1|accessdate=November 3, 2017|archive-date=February 7, 2018|archive-url=https://perma.cc/8LUX-UMHK|work=[[The Space Review]]|date=June 25, 2007}}</ref> In the case of the helicopter at the USS Hornet Museum, it is a retired Navy Sikorsky Sea King painted in Helicopter 66 markings, used to represent Helicopter 66 in the motion picture ''[[Apollo 13 (movie)|Apollo 13]]''.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Day|first1=Dwayne|title=Helo 66 revisited|archive-date=February 7, 2018|archive-url=https://perma.cc/8T8A-8XU8|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/903/1|accessdate=November 3, 2017|work=[[The Space Review]]|date=July 9, 2007}}</ref> A Sikorsky Sea King painted in Helicopter 66 livery is also held by the [[National Museum of Naval Aviation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Artifact Pick of the Week|url=https://www.evergreenmuseum.org/artifact-pick-of-the-week-sikorsky-uh-3h-sea-king-2|website=evergreenmuseum.org|publisher=Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum|archive-date=February 7, 2018|archive-url=https://perma.cc/7G9G-7QZL|accessdate=February 7, 2018}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Elvis (helicopter)|Elvis]] - another notable helicopter

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rl1k2WwX2sM&t=4m45s ABC News interview with HS-4 squadron commander Don Blair following Apollo 11 recovery]

[[Category:Individual aircraft]]
[[Category:Apollo 11]]
[[Category:Sikorsky aircraft]]
[[Category:United States military helicopters]]
[[Category:Search and rescue helicopters]]

Konklave 1667

2018-01-17T19:41:48Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox papal conclave
| month = June
| year = 1667
| commonname = 
| dates = 2–20 June 1667
| location = [[Apostolic Palace]], [[Papal States]]
| dean =
| subdean =
| camerlengo =
| protopriest =
| protodeacon =
| secretary = 
| candidates = 
| vetoed = 
| ballots = 
| pope_elected= [[Pope Clement IX|Giulio Rospigliosi]]
| nametaken = Clement IX
| image = Pope Clement IX.jpg
| prevconclave_year= 1655
| prevconclave_link=Papal conclave, 1655
| nextconclave_year=1669–70
| nextconclave_link=Papal conclave, 1669–70
}}
The '''papal conclave, 1667''' was convened on the death of [[Pope Alexander VII]] and ended with the election of Giulio Rospigliosi as [[Pope Clement IX]]. The conclave was dominated by factions loyal to the cardinal nephews of Alexander VII and [[Urban VIII]]. It saw the continued existence of the ''[[Squadrone Volante]]'', or ''Flying Squadron'', that had emerged in the [[Papal conclave, 1655|1655 conclave]]. The conclave also saw Spain and France, the two largest Catholic powers at the time, both support Rospigliosi's election as pope. Ultimately, Rospigliosi's election was achieved when the French ambassador bribed [[Flavio Chigi (1631–1693)|Flavio Chigi]], Alexander's nephew, to support Rospigliosi. Following the conclave all the parties believed they had elected the pope that they had wanted.

==Background==
After his election [[Alexander VII]] had initially been opposed to nepotism, refusing to name a [[cardinal nephew]]. Members of the [[College of Cardinals]] urged him to reconsider appointing members of his family to positions of power, and he eventually relented, naming fellow members of his Chigi family to the papal government and appointing a cardinal nephew.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=157}}

The diplomatic relationship between France and the [[Papal States]] became worse while Alexander was pope. France had invaded [[Avignon]] in 1664 after a confrontation between France's ambassador to the Holy See and papal troops. The French forces left Avignon only after an apology was rendered by Alexander. [[Cardinal Mazarin]], the leader of the French government, further urged Alexander to create more French cardinals, but he did not do so. During his pontificate Alexander created 40 new cardinals with 33 of them being Italians.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=157}}

Within the College of Cardinals a faction of cardinals that was not loyal to any of the Catholic monarchies were called the ''[[Squadrone Volante]]'', and had risen during the [[Papal conclave, 1655|conclave of 1655]]. The name, which translates as ''Flying Squadron'', was given because of their support of candidates who they believed had the best interest of the papacy in mind rather than candidates supported by the secular monarch.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=159}} [[Christina, Queen of Sweden]], who had abdicated the Swedish throne and moved to Rome before converting to the [[Catholic Church]], served as the secular supporter of the group, and became particularly close to [[Decio Azzolino]].{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=158}}

==Conclave==
When the conclave opened it had 64 cardinal electors present. At the time of Alexander's death, the College was at its then-maximum capacity of 70 members. Between the time of his death and the opening of the conclave on 2 June 1667, two of the cardinals had died, and four members had yet to arrive in Rome. Since the conclaves of 1605, the College had consistently maintained 60 or more members take place in the conclave, and crowding had become an issue. The College debated whether it would be appropriate to hold the conclave in the Vatican given concerns about crowding and deaths of cardinals in previous conclaves, but older cardinals insisted on holding the conclave there.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=157}}

Alexander VII had created 34 of the cardinals present during the 1667 conclave. Of that group, 10 did not accept [[Flavio Chigi (1631–1693)|Flavio Chigi]], Alexander's [[cardinal nephew]], as their leader because his lifestyle was considered unseemly.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=157}} Sixteen of the cardinals present in the conclave were creations of [[Urban VIII]], and they all agreed to follow the lead of [[Antonio Barberini]], one of Urban's nephew.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=157}} The conclave was dominated by the parties loyal to the cardinal nephews, and electors that were loyal to various monarchs or were members of the ''Flying Squadron'' remained divided, splitting evenly between the two larger parties headed by the nephews.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=317}} The French had eight electors who were loyal to them, and the Spanish had six, while the ''Flying Squadron'' had eleven.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|pp=157-158}}

From the beginning of the conclave, Giulio Rospigliosi was considered to be the ''[[papabile]]'' with the strongest chances. He was not opposed by any of the major factions at the conclave. Initially, the French sought to hide the fact that they supported Rospigliosi and promoted [[Scipione Pannocchieschi d’Elci]] for the papacy in order to allow the Spanish to support Rospigliosi, who was on good terms with the Spanish government. The Spanish,
however, initially preferred the election of [[Francesco Barberini (1597–1679)|Francesco Barberini]], another of Urban VIII's nephews.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=158}}

The other serious candidate at the beginning of the conclave was [[Girolamo Farnese]]. Farnese was not acceptable to the ''Flying Squadron'', which left the conclave with Rospigliosi and d’Elci as the only viable options. Flavio Chigi promoted d’Elci as a candidate, but he was considered too zealous by some of the electors.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=318}}

==Election of Clement IX==
On the morning of 20 June 1667 Rospigliosi received five votes during the first [[scrutiny]]. He had only received at most 10 votes during the scrutinies of the preceding weeks. Between the morning scrutiny and the one held in the evening [[Charles d'Albert d'Ailly]], the French ambassador in Rome, promised Flavio Chigi income from France. Chigi then agreed to convince the electors who were loyal to him to vote for Rospigliosi's election.
At the scrutiny that evening, Rospigliosi received 61 votes and was elected [[Pope Clement IX]].{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=158}} Rospigliosi was the last pope to come from [[Tuscany]].{{sfn|Carsten|1961|p=465}} At the conclusion of the conclave, both France and Spain believed that they had succeeded in electing the pope that they had wanted.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=158}}

== Notes ==

{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Baumgartner|first1=Frederic J.|title=Behind Locked Doors|date=2003|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=0-312-29463-8}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Carsten|first=F. L.|title=The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 5, The Ascendancy of France, 1648-88|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FzQ9AAAAIAAJ|year=1961|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-04544-5}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Freiherr von Pastor|first1=Ludwig|editor1-last=Graf|year=1940|orig-year=1891|editor1-first=Ernest|title=The History of the Popes|volume=XXXI|publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.}}
{{refend}}
{{Papal elections and conclaves from 1061|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Papal Conclave, 1667}}
[[Category:1667 in the Papal States]]
[[Category:Papal conclaves|1667]]
[[Category:17th-century elections]]
[[Category:1667 in politics]]
[[Category:17th-century Roman Catholicism]]
[[Category:1667 in Europe]]

Grizzly Flats Railroad

2018-01-05T19:02:08Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2017}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox rail
|railroad_name = Grizzly Flats Railroad
|image = [[File:Emma nevada.jpg|250px|alt=A gray steam locomotive with a 2-6-0 wheel arrangement (two leading wheels, six driving wheels, and no trailing wheels) and its tender]]
|image_size = 250px
|image_caption = The GFRR's ''Emma Nevada'' locomotive
|start_year = 1942
|end_year = 2006
|gauge = {{Track gauge|3ft|lk=on}}
|length = {{Convert|900|ft|m|1}}
|hq_city = [[San Gabriel, California]]
}}

The '''Grizzly Flats Railroad''' ('''GFRR''') was a 3-foot ({{Track gauge|3ft|first=met|disp=1}}) [[narrow-gauge railway|narrow-gauge]] [[heritage railway|heritage railroad]] owned by Disney animator [[Ward Kimball]] at his home in San Gabriel, California. The railroad had {{Convert|900|ft|m|1}} of track, and was operated from 1942 to 2006. It was the first full-size [[backyard railroad]] in the United States.

The GFRR's [[rolling stock]], including the two [[steam locomotive]]s owned by Kimball, are now on display at the [[Orange Empire Railway Museum]] in [[Perris, California]]. The railroad's [[train station|depot]] building and [[water tower]] are now located on the [[Lasseter Family Winery#Justi Creek Railway|Justi Creek Railway]], a private railroad owned by [[John Lasseter]].

The GFRR was notable for helping [[Walt Disney]] rediscover his childhood fascination with trains, which led him to build the [[Carolwood Pacific Railroad]], a [[ridable miniature railway|ridable miniature railroad]] in his backyard. The GFRR also influenced the design of the [[Disneyland Railroad]] within the [[Disneyland]] theme park in [[Anaheim, California]].

==History==
{{Grizzly Flats Railroad}}
In 1938, Disney animator Ward Kimball, a lifelong [[railfan]], purchased a [[passenger car (rail)|passenger coach]], built in 1881 by the [[Barney and Smith Car Company]], from the [[Carson and Colorado Railway|Carson and Colorado Railroad]].<ref name="Broggie2014p52">{{Harvp|Broggie|2014|p=52}}.</ref><ref name="Amendola2015p118">{{Harvp|Amendola|2015|p=118}}.</ref> The original intention was to use the coach to house his collection of [[Rail transport modelling|model trains]] at his home in San Gabriel, California; however, Kimball's wife, Betty Kimball, suggested that he should also have a locomotive to pull the coach.<ref name="Amendola2015p118"/><ref name="Amendola2015p119">{{Harvp|Amendola|2015|p=119}}.</ref> A suitable locomotive was purchased for $400 from the [[Nevada Central Railroad]], which was selling it for scrap.<ref name="Broggie2014p56">{{Harvp|Broggie|2014|p=56}}.</ref> The locomotive was the ''Sidney Dillon'', a [[2-6-0]] [[steam locomotive]] built by [[Baldwin Locomotive Works]] in 1881.<ref name="Amendola2015p119"/> Kimball renamed the locomotive ''Emma Nevada'', after [[Emma Nevada|a famous opera star of the late 1800s]].<ref name="Amendola2015p119"/> Over the course of several years, Kimball, his family, and his friends worked to restore the ''Emma Nevada'' to operating condition.<ref name="Broggie2014p56"/> Kimball's railroad became operational in 1942.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gross|first=Cory|date=April 9, 2011|title=The Madness of Ward Kimball|url=http://networkawesome.com/mag/article/the-madness-of-ward-kimball/|work=[[Network Awesome]]|accessdate=August 11, 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919050252/http://networkawesome.com/mag/article/the-madness-of-ward-kimball/|archivedate=September 19, 2015}}</ref> Kimball named his railroad ''Grizzly Flats Railroad'' (GFRR), and it would eventually consist of {{Convert|900|ft|m|1}} of {{Track gauge|3ft}} narrow-gauge track, including a {{Convert|500|ft|m|1|adj=on}} [[main line (railway)|main line]], in his backyard.<ref name="Broggie2014p56"/><ref name="OERM">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grizzly Flats (3-Foot Gauge)|url=http://www.oerm.org/3-foot-gauge-grizzly-flats/|publisher=Orange Empire Railway Museum|accessdate=August 12, 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318064848/http://www.oerm.org/3-foot-gauge-grizzly-flats/|archivedate=March 18, 2017}}</ref> The GFRR became the first full-size backyard railroad in the United States.<ref name="Broggie2014p53">{{Harvp|Broggie|2014|p=53}}.</ref>

In the years to follow, Kimball added a [[boxcar]], a [[stock car (rail)|cattle car]], a [[caboose]], and a second locomotive to the GFRR.<ref name="Broggie2014p52"/><ref name="Amendola2015p120">{{Harvp|Amendola|2015|p=120}}.</ref> The second locomotive was a [[0-4-2|0-4-2T]] steam locomotive built by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1907, and was originally run on the Wiamanalo Sugar Plantation in [[Hawaii]].<ref name="Broggie2014p52"/> Kimball renamed the locomotive from ''Pokaa'' to ''Chloe'', after one of his daughters.<ref name="Broggie2014p52"/><ref name="Broggie2014p57">{{Harvp|Broggie|2014|p=57}}.</ref> As opposed to the ''Emma Nevada'', which burned coal to generate steam, the ''Chloe'' burned wood.<ref name="Amendola2015p119"/> A set of train cars custom made by Kimball, consisting of a four-bench open car built around 1975 and two passenger-carrying [[Gondola (rail)|gondolas]] built around 1993, were pulled by the ''Chloe''.<ref name="OERM"/> Kimball gradually added several structures to the GFRR, as well, including a [[motive power depot|roundhouse]], a water tower, a [[windmill]], and a depot building.<ref name="Broggie2014p52"/><ref name="Broggie2014pp54–55">{{Harvp|Broggie|2014|pp=54–55}}.</ref> The depot building was given to him by his boss, Walt Disney, and was originally used as a set piece for the 1949 Disney film ''[[So Dear to My Heart]]''.<ref name="Broggie2014pp266–267">{{Harvp|Broggie|2014|pp=266–267}}.</ref> Ward Kimball died in 2002, but his family continued to operate the GFRR until 2006.<ref name="OERM"/>

{{Clear}}

==Inspiration and preservation==
[[File:OERM - Chloe Locomotive.jpg|thumb|left|The GFRR's ''Chloe'' locomotive on display at the Orange Empire Railroad Museum in 2009|alt=A red steam locomotive with a 0-4-2T wheel arrangement (no leading wheels, four driving wheels, and two trailing wheels) and no tender, coupled to a small train car]]
Ward Kimball shared his railroad hobby with fellow Disney animator [[Ollie Johnston]], who owned a ridable miniature railroad, and Walt Disney.<ref name="Broggie2014p17">{{Harvp|Broggie|2014|p=17}}.</ref><ref name="Broggie2014p100">{{Harvp|Broggie|2014|p=100}}.</ref> On October 20, 1945, Disney attended one of the Kimball's "steam-ups", which were parties hosted at their home when the Grizzly Flats Railroad was in operation.<ref name="Broggie2014p58">{{Harvp|Broggie|2014|p=58}}.</ref> During the party, Disney was given the opportunity to drive the GFRR's ''Emma Nevada'' locomotive, which was the first time since working as a teenager on the [[Missouri Pacific Railroad|Missouri Pacific Railway]] that he had been inside a [[cab (locomotive)|locomotive cab]].<ref name="Broggie2014p58"/> Disney eventually decided to have his own backyard railroad built, which he named ''Carolwood Pacific Railroad''.<ref name="Broggie2014p109">{{Harvp|Broggie|2014|p=109}}.</ref> Disney's ridable miniature backyard railroad, and the narrow-gauge GFRR, inspired Disney to create the Disneyland Railroad within the Disneyland theme park in Anaheim, California.<ref name="Amendola2015p118"/><ref name="Amendola2015pp138–139">{{Harvp|Amendola|2015|pp=138–139}}.</ref> The Disneyland Railroad's [[Frontierland#Disneyland|Frontierland]] Station depot building was built using the same [[blueprint]]s for the GFRR's depot building.<ref name="Broggie2014pp266–267"/>

In 1992, Kimball began to donate the GFRR's rolling stock to the Orange Empire Railway Museum in Perris, California.<ref name="Broggie2014p58"/> The last of the rolling stock remaining on the GFRR, including the ''Chloe'' locomotive, were put on display at the museum in 2007.<ref name="OERM"/> The GFRR's depot building and water tower were acquired by [[Pixar]] film director John Lasseter, who moved them to his private Justi Creek Railway.<ref name="Amendola2015p133">{{Harvp|Amendola|2015|p=133}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=McFarland|first=Kevin|date=June 23, 2015|title=Pixar's Best Director Is Also Its Most Underrated|url=https://www.wired.com/2015/06/pixar-directors-by-the-numbers/|work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|accessdate=February 8, 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223020057/https://www.wired.com/2015/06/pixar-directors-by-the-numbers/|archivedate=December 23, 2016}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

==See also==
*[[Olomana (locomotive)|''Olomana'' (locomotive)]]
*[[Rail transport in Walt Disney Parks and Resorts]]
{{Portal bar|Disney|Trains|Greater Los Angeles}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Cite book|last=Amendola|first=Dana|year=2015|title=All Aboard: The Wonderful World of Disney Trains|edition=1st|publisher=[[Disney Publishing Worldwide|Disney Editions]]|isbn=978-1-4231-1714-8|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book|last=Broggie|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Broggie|year=2014|title=Walt Disney's Railroad Story: The Small-Scale Fascination That Led to a Full-Scale Kingdom|edition=4th|publisher=[[The Donning Company|The Donning Company Publishers]]|isbn=978-1-57864-914-3|ref=harv}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Grizzly Flats Railroad}}
*[http://www.oerm.org/ Orange Empire Railway Museum]

{{Ward Kimball}}
{{Disney rail transport}}

{{Coord|34.118714|-118.074664|display=title}}

[[Category:3 ft gauge railways in the United States]]
[[Category:Amusement rides based on rail transport]]
[[Category:Backyard railroads in the United States]]
[[Category:Heritage railroads in California]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Walt Disney Parks and Resorts]]
[[Category:Railway lines opened in 1942]]
[[Category:Railway lines closed in 2006]]
[[Category:San Gabriel, California]]

Konklave 1655

2017-12-23T20:21:44Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox papal conclave
| month = January–April
| year = 1655
| commonname = 
| dates = 18 January – 7 April 1655
| location = [[Apostolic Palace]], [[Papal States]]
| dean =
| subdean =
| camerlengo =
| protopriest =
| protodeacon =
| secretary =
| candidates = 
| vetoed =
| ballots = 
| pope_elected= [[Pope Alexander VII|Fabio Chigi]]
| nametaken = Alexander VII
| image = Alexander VII.jpg
| prevconclave_year= 1644
| prevconclave_link=Papal conclave, 1644
| nextconclave_year= 1667
| nextconclave_link=Papal conclave, 1667
}}
The '''papal conclave of 1655''' was convened on the death of [[Pope Innocent X]] and ended with the election of Fabio Chigi as [[Alexander VII]]. The conclave quickly reached a deadlock, with [[Giulio Cesare Sacchetti]] receiving 33 votes throughout the conclave, but never securing enough for his own election. Chigi was eventually elected Pope when [[Cardinal Mazarin]], the leader of the French government, consented to his election at the request of Sacchetti.

==Background==
Innocent X created [[Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili]], his only nephew, a cardinal. Camillo would later renounce his status as a cardinal in order to marry. Instead, Innocent's sister-in-law [[Olimpia Maidalchini]] handled all of the functions that would ordinarily have been the realm of a [[cardinal nephew]].{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=154}}

During Innocent's papacy, the [[Peace of Westphalia]] brought an end to the [[Thirty Years' War]], and it was the most significant secular event that occurred during his reign. Innocent did not approve of the treaty because his representatives had not been a part of the discussions and he had not been consulted or asked to approve the recognition of the Protestant religion in Germany. He called upon secular Catholic leaders to renounce the peace,
but they did not do so. Innocent in return refrained from appointing cardinals outside of Italy during his reign. He only created six non-Italian cardinals during his pontificate, and five of those were [[Crown-cardinal]]s that Catholic monarchs insisted upon. Aside from these, the remainder of his 40 creations all came from Italy.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=155}}

== Conclave ==
The [[College of Cardinals]] at the time of Innocent X's death had 69 members, and the [[papal conclave|conclave]] that followed saw 66 electors participate. 32 of the cardinals had been created either by [[Urban VIII]] or Innocent X. Because Olimpia Maidalchini was not a cardinal, she was not allowed to participate in the conclave, even though she was the only woman to have been allowed to give a speech to the cardinals.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=155}} This left Innocent's creations without a natural leader during the process. There were 18 cardinals loyal to Spain in the conclave, and while the French had less loyalty, Urban VIII's nephew [[Francesco Barberini (1597–1679)|Francesco Barberini]] was a member of their faction.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=155}} Barberini's allegiance to France was due to the marriage of one of his nieces to the brother of [[Rinaldo d'Este (1618–1672)|Rinaldo d'Este]], the cardinal who led the French faction.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=2}} Barberini had the capacity to bring up to 20 additional cardinals to support a candidate he favoured.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=155}}

[[Giulio Cesare Sacchetti]], who had been considered the most likely to become pope in 1644, was the strongest candidate again, but some cardinals did not vote for him because he had been [[papal veto|vetoed]] in the previous conclave by the Spanish.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=155}} Sacchetti also was the favoured candidate of [[Cardinal Mazarin]], the leader of the French government at that time.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=2}} During the initial scrutiny Sacchetti received 33 votes, a number he consistently received throughout the conclave. The early scrutinies also were unique because there were a large amount of electors who wrote in ''no one'', peaking at 27 votes on 22 January. These votes came primarily from electors that had been created by Innocent X who did not want to vote for a cardinal who had been created by Urban VIII. 11 of the votes for no candidate came from the [[Squadrone Volante]], a group of cardinals who were willing to support a candidate for any faction that they thought would be beneficial to the office of pope.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|pp=155-156}}

The stalemate continued through February, and younger members of the College of Cardinals began to play [[pranks]] on older members of the College in order to entertain themselves. This supposedly led to one older cardinal dying from [[pneumonia]] after a younger cardinal had caused him to fall and lie on a cold floor by startling him dressed as a ghost.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=156}} There were also other illnesses amongst the cardinals that led several of them to leave the conclave.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=156}}

==Election of Alexander VII==
In mid-February, Sacchetti, recognizing that his own candidacy was lost, contacted Mazarin and requested that the French cardinals move their support to Fabio Chigi.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=156}} Chigi was initially speculated as a candidate for pope before the death of Innocent X. Contemporary accounts reported that he was held to be the best suited for the position if the human considerations of the elector were not taken into account.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|pp=3-4}} [[Cardinal Mazarin]] of France was convinced to support Chigi by the Squadrone, even though he did not like him.{{sfn|Vernon|2013|p=248}} Mazarin's hatred of Chigi dated to Mazarin's exile in Cologne during the [[Fronde]] while Chigi was serving as the [[papal nuncio]] in that city.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=156}}

In April 1655, Mazarin wrote back to Sacchetti agreeing to allow electors loyal to France to vote for Chigi should Sacchetti's own election become impossible. Sacchetti then proceeded to ask his supporters to transfer their support to Chigi. On the first scrutiny on 7 April 1655, 20 written ballots were cast for Chigi, before the other electors [[election by acclamation|acclaimed him pope]] after a conclave lasting 80 days. Upon his election, Chigi took the name [[Alexander VII]].{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=156}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}
==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Baumgartner|first1=Frederic J.|title=Behind Locked Doors|date=2003|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=0-312-29463-8}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Freiherr von Pastor|first1=Ludwig|editor1-last=Graf|year=1940|orig-year=1891|editor1-first=Ernest|title=The History of the Popes|volume=XXXI|publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Vernon|first=H. M.|title=Italy from 1494 to 1790|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QCvHkqzSQJ0C&pg=PA506|date=13 June 2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-69867-3|orig-year=1909}}
{{refend}}

{{Papal elections and conclaves from 1061|state=collapsed}}
[[Category:1655 in the Papal States]]
[[Category:17th-century elections]]
[[Category:1655 in politics]]
[[Category:Papal conclaves|1655]]
[[Category:17th-century Roman Catholicism]]
[[Category:1655 in Europe]]

Konklave 1691

2017-08-06T00:02:14Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox papal conclave
| month = February–July
| year = 1691
| commonname = 
| dates = 12 February – 12 July 1691
| location = [[Apostolic Palace]], [[Papal States]]
| dean =
| subdean =
| camerlengo =
| protopriest =
| protodeacon =
| secretary = 
| candidates = 
| vetoed = 
| ballots = 
| pope_elected= [[Pope Innocent XII|Antonio Pignatelli]]
| nametaken = Innocent XII
| image = Pope Innocent XII.PNG
| prevconclave_year= 1689
| prevconclave_link=Papal conclave, 1689
| nextconclave_year= 1700
| nextconclave_link=Papal conclave, 1700
}}
The '''papal conclave of 1691''' was convened on the death of [[Pope Alexander VIII]] and ended with the election of Antonio Pignatelli as [[Pope Innocent XII]].
It lasted for five months, from 12 February to 12 July 1691. The conclave became deadlocked after Catholic monarchs opposed the election of [[Gregorio Barbarigo]], who some members of the [[College of Cardinals]] also viewed as too strict. The conclave only ended in the July when cardinals started to become ill from the heat, and after French cardinals agreed to vote for Pignatelli despite him coming from Spanish-controlled Naples.

==Background==
Issues of [[Gallicanism]] were prominent in the [[Papal conclave, 1689|1689 conclave]] that had elected Alexander VIII. Alexander's predecessor, [[Innocent XI]], had refused to confirm new French bishops to the point where thirty-five dioceses lacked a bishop confirmed by Rome in 1688.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=163}} Alexander's election had been secured by promising that he would confirm the unconfirmed French bishops. Despite this, Alexander's last act as pope before he died was to condemn the [[Declaration of the Clergy of France]] on 1 February 1691.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=164}}

Alexander was also noted for his nepotism that was partially due to his advanced age and belief that his family would have little time to profit from his reign. This was in contrast to his predecessor [[Innocent XI]], who was known for being austere and had not caused any scandals through nepotism.{{sfn|Collins|2013|p=331}}

==Conclave==
The conclave began on 12 February 1691, and membership in the [[College of Cardinals]] was at its statutory maximum of 70 cardinals. Despite this, at the beginning of the conclave only 38 electors were present. The number rose to 44 electors present by 19 February 1691, and by the time of the election of Innocent XII in July, 61 electors were present.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=562}}

The curial cardinals entered the conclave seeking to elect [[Gregorio Barbarigo]] as pope. [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]], the Holy Roman Emperor, considered him to be an unacceptable choice because he was a Venetian.{{sfn|Walsh|2003|pp=130–131}} While Leopold did not formally [[papal veto|exclude]] Barbarigo, he did not wish for him to be elected. In addition to Leopold, the Spanish ambassador in Rome worked against Barbarigo's election, and [[Louis XIV of France]] opposed it because of the wishes of his allies.{{sfn|Jedin and Dolan|1981|p=331}}

[[Leandro Colloredo]], who was the leader of the '' [[zelanti]]'' faction within the college, initially suggested Barbarigo for the pontificate. Colloredo and his faction also had the backing of [[Flavio Chigi (1631–1693)|Flavio Chigi]], the [[cardinal nephew]] of [[Alexander VII]], in the conclave. Barbarigo was seen as an individual with a firm moral system, and it was thought that he might abolish nepotism if elected.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=563}}

Despite Leopold not formally excluding Barbarigo, a rumour spread that he had been excluded, and despite the protests of the [[zelanti]] faction of cardinals, enough members of the [[College of Cardinals]] recognized the Emperor's ability to exclude a candidate that it prevented his election.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=165}} Leopold had sent an envoy with two letters for his cardinals: the first public letter declared that he did not wish to see Barbarigo excluded, while the second letter, which was private, expressed his desire that Barbarigo not be elected, but that he did not want to take the blame for the exclusion, but rather wished for the Spanish to be the ones to do so.{{sfn|Freiherr von Pastor|1940|p=566}} Additionally, some of the more materialistic cardinals feared that Barbarigo would be similarly strict as [[Pope Innocent XI]], and this factored into his failure to win election.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=165}}

It was clear to the cardinals that Barbarigo would not be elected pope by the end of April, and the conclave entered a period where it had no clear direction. The daily scrutinies would return no successful candidates, and the afternoon scrutinies would often simply repeat the deadlock that had occurred in the morning. Votes even went to non-cardinals for the first time in a conclave since 1503.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=165}} There was no clear lead as to who might be elected pope, and at one point several cardinals started a fire in the living quarters by accidentally knocking over a lamp while playing cards.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=165}} While this caused some of the cells housing the cardinals to be unlivable, three cardinals had died by that point so there was room available to relocate the cardinals who had been put out of their previous housing.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=165}}

==Election of Innocent XII==
[[Federico Altieri]] began seeking to secure election to the papacy for himself. He had sought to both have a public persona favourable to Leopold I, while also working to curry the favour of Louis XIV. The zelanti faction and Flavio Chigi opposed him, which was enough to stop his victory.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=165}}

Altieri had positioned himself with his campaign as a credible faction leader within the conclave, and began working to elect his friend Antonio Pignatelli pope. Altieri worked to convince the French cardinals that Pignatelli would not work for the Spanish as pope even though he was from [[Naples]].{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=165}} Pignatelli had received some support in March, but fell short of the majority required for election. At the end of June, however, the heat was increasing and some cardinals became ill.{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|p=165}} This allowed his candidacy to gain traction, and he was elected pope on 12 July 1691, over the objections of the zelanti faction, and took the name [[Innocent XII]].{{sfn|Baumgartner|2003|pp=165–166}} The conclave was the longest papal election since 1305, having met for more than five months.{{sfn|Norwich|2012|p=347}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Baumgartner|first1=Frederic J.|title=Behind Locked Doors|date=2003|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=0-312-29463-8}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Collins|first1=Roger.|title=Keepers of the Keys of Heaven: A History of the Papacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OaMWBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=2013|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=9780465061822}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Freiherr von Pastor|first1=Ludwig|editor1-last=Graf|year=1940|orig-year=1891|editor1-first=Ernest|title=The History of the Popes|volume=XXXII|publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.}}
*{{cite book|ref={{sfnref|Jedin and Dolan|1981}}|editor1-last=Jedin|editor1-first=Hubert|editor2-last=Dolan|editor2-first=John Patrick|title=History of the Church: The church in the age of absolutism and enlightenment|date=1981|publisher=Crossroad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIcsAQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=Absolute Monarchs: A History of the Papacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OHfuVL-sDBQC|date=2012|publisher=Random House Trade Paperbacks|isbn=978-0-8129-7884-1}}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Walsh|first1=Michael J.|title=The Conclave: A Sometimes Secret and Occasionally Bloody History of Papal Elections|date=2003|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-58051-135-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yWeexR0b8zgC&printsec=frontcover}}
{{refend}}
{{Papal elections and conclaves from 1061|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:1691 in Europe]]
[[Category:Papal conclaves|1691]]
[[Category:17th-century Roman Catholicism]]
[[Category:1691 elections in Europe]]

Puddletown

2017-05-17T04:01:48Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2016}}
{{infobox UK place|
|country = England
|static_image_name = Puddletown 2015 (b).jpg
|static_image_caption = The Square, Puddletown
|coordinates = {{coord|50.748|-2.3455|display=inline,title}}
|official_name= Puddletown
|map_type = Dorset
|population = 1,450
|population_ref =<ref name=dcc>{{cite web|url=https://www.dorsetforyou.com/344882|title=Parish Population Data|date=20 January 2015|accessdate=1 March 2015|publisher=Dorset County Council}}</ref>
|shire_district= [[West Dorset]]
| shire_county = [[Dorset]]
|region= South West England
|constituency_westminster= [[West Dorset (UK Parliament constituency)|West Dorset]]
|post_town= Puddletown
|postcode_district = DT2
|postcode_area= DT
|dial_code= 01305
|os_grid_reference= SY758943
}}

'''Puddletown''' is a village and associated [[Civil parishes in England|civil parish]] in the [[West Dorset]] district of [[Dorset]], England. The village is situated about {{convert|4.5|mi|km|0}} northeast of the county town [[Dorchester, Dorset|Dorchester]] and is sited by the [[River Piddle]], from which it derives its name. It also used to be known as Piddletown, though this has fallen out of favour, possibly for reasons of social decorum. The name Puddletown rather than Piddletown was officially sanctioned in the late 1950s. Puddletown's civil parish covers {{convert|7185|acre|ha|disp=flip}} and extends to the neighbouring [[River Frome, Dorset|River Frome]] to the south. In 2013 the estimated population of the civil parish was 1,450.

Puddletown's parish church has significant architectural interest, particularly its furnishings and monuments. It has a 12th-century [[Baptismal font|font]] and well-preserved woodwork, including 17th-century [[box pew]]s. [[Thomas Hardy]] took an interest in the church, and the village provided the inspiration for the fictional settlement of Weatherbury in his novel ''[[Far from the Madding Crowd]]''; Weatherbury Farm, the home of principal character Bathsheba Everdene, is based on a [[manor house]] within the parish.

==Toponymy==
The name Puddletown means 'farmstead on the River Piddle'. It derives from the [[Old English]] ''pidele'', a river-name meaning fen or marsh, and ''tūn'', meaning farmstead.<ref name=Mills>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tXucAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA377&lpg=PA377&dq=puddletown+dictionary+place+names+mills&source=bl&ots=D1md71AtAL&sig=g50yocBqw6GKkyXJpDlHC959PUM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBGoVChMIodjE2d2-xwIVaETbCh2OwQ2D#v=onepage&q=puddletown%20dictionary%20place%20names%20mills&f=false |title=A Dictionary of British Place Names |first=David |last=Mills |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=377 |isbn=978-0-19-960908-6}}</ref> Several settlements along the river derive their names from it. In the river's upper reaches [[Piddletrenthide]] and [[Piddlehinton]] retain the piddle spelling, whereas downstream Puddletown, [[Tolpuddle]], [[Affpuddle]], [[Briantspuddle]] and [[Turners Puddle]] use puddle. Both piddle and puddle have been used in Puddletown's name over the years. In the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 it was recorded as Pitretone, and in 1212 it was Pideleton.<ref name=Mills/> [[John Speed]] used Puddletown for his county map of 1610.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.charmouthlocalhistorysociety.org.uk/john-speed-1610/ |title=John Speed’s Map of Dorset 1610 |publisher=Charmouth Local History Society |accessdate=13 May 2017}}</ref> In 1848 [[Samuel Lewis (publisher)|Samuel Lewis]] used Piddletown in his ''A Topographical Dictionary of England''.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/topographical-dict/england/pp567-571#h3-0006 |title=A Topographical Dictionary of England |first=Samuel |last=Lewis |year=1848 |publisher=British History Online |pages=567-571 |accessdate=13 May 2017}}</ref> In 1906 [[Sir Frederick Treves, 1st Baronet|Sir Frederick Treves]] used Puddletown in ''Highways & Byways in Dorset''—describing it as "the Town on the River Puddle" and a "curiously named place".<ref>{{cite book |title=Highways & Byways in Dorset |first=Sir Frederick |last=Treves |pages=365–6 |publisher=Macmillan and Co. Ltd |year=1906}}</ref> In 1946 Piddletown was the name used on the voters lists.{{sfn|Wightman|1983|p=70}} One explanation for the preference of using Puddletown over Piddletown is that Major-General Charles William Thompson, who lived at what was Ilsington Lodge after returning from the [[Great War]], pushed through the puddle variant because piddle had a particular meaning in army circles.<ref name=life/> The broadcaster and writer [[Ralph Wightman]] (1901–71), a native of the Piddle Valley and one-time Puddletown resident,<ref name=life>{{cite web |url=http://www.dorsetlife.co.uk/2006/09/puddletown/ |date=September 2006 |title=Puddletown |first1=Clive |last1=Hannay |first2=Rodney |last2=Legg |publisher=Dorset Life Magazine |accessdate=23 August 2015}}</ref> believed it was due to [[Victorian era|Victorian]] "refinement", as he recalled that in his youth elderly aunts referred to Piddletrenthide as just "Trenthide". The use of Puddletown rather than Piddletown was officially preserved in the late 1950s, when, according to Wightman, "a long County Council debate solemnly decided Piddletown should be Puddletown".{{sfn|Wightman|1983|p=70}}{{sfn|Gant|1980|p=188}}

The other rivers of the parish have names that derive from [[Celts|Celtic]] river-names: the Frome, which forms the parish's southern boundary, means "fair, fine or brisk",<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tXucAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA196&lpg=PA196&dq=river+frome+etymology+place+names+dictionary+mills&source=bl&ots=D1rh71vuyL&sig=7-aYIIOhRIwJS6riy54oenBFE4s&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjY3fOFmeLTAhXkJ8AKHeb_DSkQ6AEIQTAE#v=onepage&q=river%20frome%20etymology%20place%20names%20dictionary%20mills&f=false |title=A Dictionary of British Place Names |first=David |last=Mills |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=196 |isbn=978-0-19-960908-6}}</ref> and the Devil's Brook, which forms the north-eastern boundary, means "dark stream".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tXucAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=dewlish+british+place+names+dictionary+mills&source=bl&ots=D1rfa6DwCJ&sig=GuzyC7TfUMFByZiQANbxw4ElhtE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiqqoaBtbLTAhVQElAKHfr0DcIQ6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&q=dewlish%20british%20place%20names%20dictionary%20mills&f=false |title=A Dictionary of British Place Names |first=David |last=Mills |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=152 |isbn=978-0-19-960908-6}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:One of the Rainbarrows, Duddle Heath - geograph.org.uk - 395668.jpg|thumb|One of the prehistoric 'Rainbarrows' on Duddle Heath in the southwest of the parish]]
Evidence of prehistoric human occupation in the parish exists in the form of 30 [[tumulus|round barrows]], about half of which are sited over [[chalk]] and half over [[Lambeth Group|Reading Beds]]. Many of the barrows have been damaged by more recent activities. The remains of [[strip lynchet]]s of 'Celtic' fields have been found near a few of the barrows. One of the three 'Rainbarrows' on Duddle Heath has been excavated; bucket urns containing cremations from the site were taken to the [[Dorset County Museum]].<ref name=inventory>{{cite web |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/dorset/vol3/pp222-231 |title='Puddletown', in An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in Dorset, Volume 3, Central (London, 1970), pp. 222–231 |publisher=University of London |work=British History Online |accessdate=1 March 2015}}</ref>

The [[Roman road]] between [[Durnovaria]] (now Dorchester) and [[Badbury Rings]] passed through what is now Puddletown civil parish; it cut a WSW-ENE route through what is now Puddletown Heath, between Puddletown village and the River Frome.<ref name=inventory/> In the 21st century a section of the original road—which was {{convert|26|metre|ft}} wide—was discovered in Puddletown Forest.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dorsetecho.co.uk/news/8820585.Roman_road_found_in_Puddletown_Forest/ |publisher=Newsquest Media (Southern) Ltd |work=dorsetecho.co.uk |title=Roman road found in Puddletown Forest |first=Diarmuid |last=MacDonagh |date=29 January 2011 |accessdate=31 August 2015}}</ref>

Part of the arm of a 9th- or 10th-century stone cross was discovered when a house in the village—Styles House, near the River Piddle—was demolished. The cross might have been connected with a meeting place.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/33573297.pdf |first1=John |last1=Baker |first2=Stuart |last2=Brookes |year=2015 |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |pages=3-21 |volume=40 |issue=1 |publisher=University of Nottingham |title=Identifying outdoor assembly sites in early medieval England |issn=0093-4690}}</ref> The fragment was incorporated into the parish church's new [[chancel]] when it was rebuilt in 1911.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-aVLVsCybM0C&pg=PA108&lpg=PA108&dq=styles+house+cross+puddletown&source=bl&ots=hTm_E7mtnA&sig=E7xe5As_so6lLsCpx5IwLMDGKBM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjxyfP20PLTAhXsCcAKHbTMBUM4ChDoAQghMAA#v=onepage&q=styles%20house%20cross%20puddletown&f=false |title=Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture: South-West England |first=Rosemary |last=Cramp |publisher=British Academy |isbn=9780197263341 |page=108 |year=2006}}</ref>

At the time of the [[Domesday Book]] in 1086, Puddletown was a large and important [[manor]] that contained several villages, with 1,600 sheep recorded.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dorset |author=J H Bettey |publisher=David & Charles |series=City & County Histories |pages=34-39 |isbn=0-7153-6371-9 |year=1974}}</ref>

Except for Puddletown village, the several small settlements within Puddletown parish have all either diminished or disappeared. The other settlements were Cheselbourne Ford (beside the Devil's Brook in the northeast of the parish), Bardolfeston (about half a mile northeast of Puddletown village, just north of the River Piddle), Hyde (now Druce Farm), Waterston, South Louvard (now Higher Waterston), Little Piddle (now Little Puddle Farm in neighbouring Piddlehinton parish) and Ilsington (in the south of the parish, by the River Frome). Cheselbourne Ford and Bardolfeston are [[Abandoned village#United Kingdom|abandoned]]. Cheselbourne Ford had a population of six in 1086, four in 1327, and by the mid-seventeenth century was just one ruinous house. In 1970 its remains covered about {{convert|14|acre|ha}} and consisted of ten closes bounded by low banks, though the site is not shown on modern [[Ordnance Survey]] maps. Records indicate that Bardolfeston was declining by the 13th century and, though still occupied in the 16th, it was completely deserted by the 17th century. Its site covers about {{convert|15|acre|ha|disp=flip}} and is well-preserved, revealing a {{convert|40|ft|m|disp=flip}}-wide hollow way aligned southwest-northeast, with the sites of at least eleven houses alongside, though the southern end of the site was destroyed when [[watermeadow]]s were later created along the river.<ref name=inventory/><ref name=ordnance>Ordnance Survey (1978) 1:25,000 Second Series, Sheet SY 69/79 (Dorchester)</ref>

In the early 17th century Puddletown was one of the first places in Dorset where the use of watermeadows developed; the practice occurred at least as early as 1620, and in 1629 the [[manorial court]] decided to allow some tenants to continue making the necessary watercourses that would enable "the watering and Improvinge of theire groundes".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bahs.org.uk/AGHR/ARTICLES/25n1a5.pdf |accessdate=27 August 2015 |author=J H Bettey |publisher=bahs.org.uk (British Agricultural History Society) (scan) |title=The Development of Water Meadows in Dorset during the Seventeenth Century |pages=37–39}}</ref> Watermeadows are generally no longer used in southern England, though their physical remnants have persisted in many places;<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.salisburywatermeadows.org.uk/images/watermeadows/pub%20papers/betty.pdf |first=Joseph |last=Bettey |year= 1999 |title=Water Management in the English Landscape |pages=179-195 |isbn= |editor1=Hadrian Cook |editor2=Tom Williamson |accessdate=25 April 2017 |chapter=The Development of Water Meadows in the Southern Counties |publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}</ref> in Puddletown civil parish, several areas of watermeadow were shown by the Ordnance Survey as late as 1978, though none were shown in 2010.<ref name=ordnance/><ref>Ordnance Survey (2010) 1:25,000 Explorer Series, Sheet 117 (Cerne Abbas & Bere Regis), ISBN 978-0-319-24122-6</ref>

[[File:Puddletown reading rooms - geograph.org.uk - 474206.jpg|thumb|The reading room built by the Brymer family]]
Records from 1801 show that at that time agriculture was the main component of Puddletown's economy, though cottage industry and artisan crafts were also an important element: 596 people in the parish were primarily employed in agriculture, with 221 employed in handicrafts, manufacture and trade. Cottage industry, often undertaken by women and children, was used to supplement agricultural income, though there were fewer opportunities for this after the [[French Revolution]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hn3TdsCbmHgC&pg=PA191&lpg=PA191&dq=puddletown+economy&source=bl&ots=lm_jaLAx0o&sig=h4rEgHio23Y-pAvWHVXhNJmyOz4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CC0Q6AEwA2oVChMI0NP-gpO8xwIV6hHbCh32xQRZ#v=onepage&q=puddletown%20economy&f=false |title=The Decline of Life: Old Age in Eighteenth-Century England |first=Susannah R. |last=Ottaway | year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=191–192 |accessdate=22 August 2015 |isbn=}}</ref>

In 1830 Puddletown was one of the places in Dorset where agricultural labourers took part in the [[Swing Riots|Captain Swing riots]] of southern England, protesting against very low wages and long working hours. [[Threshing machine]]s were damaged and [[Hay#Haystacks|ricks]] burned. Wages were raised from about six or seven [[shilling]]s per week to ten as a result.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dorset |author=J H Bettey |publisher=David & Charles |series=City & County Histories |pages=136-137 |isbn=0-7153-6371-9 |year=1974}}</ref>

To the east of the church is Ilsington House, also known as the Old Manor, which was built in the late 17th to early 18th century.<ref name=listed>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-106269-ilsington-house-puddletown-dorset |title=Ilsington House, Puddletown |publisher=britishlistedbuildings.co.uk |work=British Listed Buildings |accessdate=1 March 2015}}</ref> It was originally owned by the [[Earls of Huntingdon|3rd Earl of Huntingdon]] and in 1724 by [[Robert Walpole]]. Between 1780 and 1830 it was leased to [[Thomas Garth (British Army officer)|General Thomas Garth]], principal equerry to [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]]. The General adopted King George III's illegitimate grandson by [[Princess Sophia of the United Kingdom|Princess Sophia]], and brought him up at the manor.<ref name=life/> In 1861 the house was acquired by John Brymer and remained in the possession of the [[William Ernest Brymer|Brymer family]] for the next century.<ref name=life/><ref name=echo>{{cite web |url=http://www.dorsetecho.co.uk/news/8258381.Dorset_s_Ilsington_Estate_on_sale_for___18million/ |title=Dorset's Ilsington Estate on sale for £18million |publisher=Newsquest Media (Southern) Ltd |work=dorsetecho.co.uk |date=7 July 2010 |first=Adrianne |last=Maslen |accessdate=26 August 2015}}</ref> The family built new cottages and a reading room in the village, and a new manor next to the church, which they restored.{{sfn|Wightman|1983|p=75}}

==Governance==
In the UK national parliament, Puddletown is within the [[West Dorset (UK Parliament constituency)|West Dorset parliamentary constituency]], which is currently [[Member of Parliament|represented]] by [[Oliver Letwin]] of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]. In local government, Puddletown is governed by [[Dorset County Council]] at the highest tier, [[West Dorset District Council]] at the second tier, and Puddletown Area Parish Council at the lowest tier.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.puddletownareaparishcouncil.co.uk/welcome/ |title=Welcome to the Puddletown Area Parish Council Website |publisher=Puddletown Area Parish Council |accessdate=24 August 2015}}</ref>

In national parliament and district council elections, West Dorset is divided into 24 [[Wards and electoral divisions of the United Kingdom|electoral wards]], with Puddletown lying within Puddletown ward.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2015/76/made |title=The West Dorset (Electoral Changes) Order 2015 |publisher= |work=legislation.gov.uk |accessdate=10 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.electoralcalculus.co.uk/cgi-bin/seatdetails.pl?seat=Dorset%20West |title=Dorset West: Seat, Ward and Prediction Details |publisher=electoralcalculus.co.uk |accessdate=10 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mapping.dorsetforyou.com/map?version=mylocal&lyrs=242 |title=Interactive map of District councillors |publisher=Dorset County Council |work=dorsetforyou.com |accessdate=10 August 2015}}</ref> In county council elections, Dorset is divided into 42 electoral divisions, with Puddletown being within Linden Lea Electoral Division.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dorsetforyou.com/390881 |title=Electoral division profiles 2013 |publisher=Dorset County Council |work=dorsetforyou.com |date= |accessdate=10 August 2015}}</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Water Meadows near Puddletown - geograph.org.uk - 1097771.jpg|thumb|Old watermeadows on the River Piddle northwest of Puddletown at Druce Farm]]
Puddletown civil parish extends between the [[flood plain]] and [[watermeadow]]s of the [[River Frome, Dorset|River Frome]] in the south to the chalk [[Drainage divide|watershed]] of Puddletown Down in the north.<ref name=ordnance/><ref name=geol>British Geological Survey (2000) 1:50,000 Series, Sheet 328 (Dorchester), ISBN 0-7518-3310-X</ref> It covers {{convert|7185|acre|ha|disp=flip}} and is bisected by the River Piddle, which crosses it from west to east.<ref name=inventory/> Measured directly, Puddletown village is about {{convert|4.5|mi|km}} northeast of Dorchester, {{convert|16|mi|km}} west of [[Poole, Dorset|Poole]] and {{convert|11|mi|km}} southwest of [[Blandford Forum]].<ref>Bartholomew (1980) 1:100,000 National Map Series, Sheet 4 (Dorset), ISBN 0-7028-0327-8</ref>

The bedrock geology of the parish comprises rocks formed in the [[Santonian]] and [[Campanian]] ages of the [[Cretaceous]] period and the [[Eocene]] age of the [[Palaeogene]] period. In places these are overlain by younger [[Quaternary]] drift material: [[river terrace]] and [[Head (geology)|head]] deposits, clay-with-[[flint]]s, and [[alluvium]]—the last found only in the valley floors of the larger watercourses.<ref name=geol/> On Puddletown Heath (now mostly covered by Puddletown Forest) are more than 370 solution hollows or [[sinkhole]]s; these constitute the largest concentration of hollows on the heathlands in the area.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IaPnCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA136&lpg=PA136&dq=puddletown+heath&source=bl&ots=dM-m6DpUzK&sig=MrouEmPVjQMYmTUMEn-4ArSXIe8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEUQ6AEwCTgKahUKEwj34bjyutPHAhVIVBQKHZ5vAnk#v=onepage&q=puddletown%20heath&f=false |title=Discovering Landscape in England & Wales |first1=A. S. |last1=Goudie |first2=R. |last2=Gardner |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |pages=136–7 |year=2013 |origyear=1992 |isbn=978-0-412-47850-5}}</ref>

The River Frome, which forms the southern boundary of the parish, is designated by [[Natural England]] as a [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sssi.naturalengland.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/2000220.pdf |title=COUNTY: DORSET. SITE NAME: RIVER FROME |publisher=naturalengland.org.uk |accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref> Southwest of the village and almost wholly within the parish is Puddletown Forest, which covers {{convert|301|ha|acre}} and is managed by the [[Forestry Commission]]. The forest is on the edge of the [[Dorset Heaths]] Natural Area and some of the forest is being restored to heathland; the heath flora consists of ''[[Calluna]]'', ''[[Ulex gallii]]'', ''[[Ulex minor]]'' and [[bilberry]]; fauna includes the rare [[Coronella austriaca|smooth snake]] and [[sand lizard]]. Close to Puddletown Forest are Yellowham Wood and Ilsington Wood, which are [[ancient woodland]] sites, though Ilsington Wood has significant conifer plantings.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/Puddletown.pdf/$file/Puddletown.pdf |title=Plan Name: Puddletown |publisher=Forestry Commission |accessdate=6 May 2017}}</ref>

==Demography==
In 2014 the estimated population of Puddletown civil parish was 1,452.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://apps.geowessex.com/stats/AreaProfiles/Parish/puddletown-and-athelhampton |publisher=Dorset County Council |work=geowessex.com |title=Area Profile for Puddletown & Athelhampton |accessdate=25 December 2016}}</ref> Figures from the [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011 census]] have been published for Puddletown parish combined with the small parish of [[Athelhampton]] to the east; in this area there were 663 dwellings,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=7&b=11127733&c=Puddletown&d=16&e=62&g=6418541&i=1001x1003x1032x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1425243616729&enc=1&dsFamilyId=2481 |title=Area: Puddletown (Parish). Dwellings, Household Spaces and Accommodation Type, 2011 (KS401EW) |publisher=Office for National Statistics |work=Neighbourhood Statistics |accessdate=1 March 2015}}</ref> 614 households and a population of 1,405.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadKeyFigures.do?a=7&b=11127733&c=Puddletown&d=16&e=62&g=6418541&i=1001x1003x1032x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1394958619541&enc=1|title=Area: Puddletown (Parish), Key Figures for 2011 Census: Key Statistics|publisher=Office for National Statistics|work=Neighbourhood Statistics|accessdate=16 March 2014}}</ref>

==Notable buildings==
Fifty-six structures within the parish are [[Listed building|listed]] by [[Historic England]] for their historic or architectural interest, including two (the parish church and Waterston Manor) that are listed as Grade I, and three (Ilsington House, The Old Vicarage, and 8 The Square) that are Grade II*.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/england/dorset/puddletown |title=Listed Buildings in Puddletown, Dorset, England |publisher=britishlistedbuildings.co.uk |accessdate=24 August 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Puddletown parish church 2015.JPG|thumb|Parish church of St Mary]]
Puddletown's parish church, dedicated to St Mary, has been described as being "of considerable architectural interest",<ref name=inventory/> "of exceptional interest for its furnishings and monuments"<ref name=churchlisting>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-106296-church-of-saint-mary-puddletown-dorset |title=Church of Saint Mary, Puddletown |publisher=britishlistedbuildings.co.uk |accessdate=26 August 2015}}</ref> and "one of the most exciting parish churches in the county".<ref name=trust>{{cite web |url=http://www.dorsethistoricchurchestrust.co.uk/puddletown.htm |title=Puddletown St Mary's |publisher=The Dorset Historic Churches Trust |accessdate=26 August 2015}}</ref> It has 12th-century origins—parts of the tower date from 1180–1200<ref name=trust/>—but was rebuilt and enlarged between the 13th and 16th centuries.<ref name=inventory/><ref name=churchlisting/> The 12th-century [[Baptismal font|font]] is particularly notable, being of a tapering beaker shape, with [[diapering]] depicting crossing stems and [[Acanthus (ornament)|''Acanthus'' leaves]]; its cover is an octagonal pyramid dating from about 1635, when the church interior was refitted.<ref name=life/><ref name=inventory/> There is a panelled roof in the [[nave]], and 17th-century [[box pew]]s, pulpit and gallery. There are also a number of 15th- and 16th-century monumental brasses and some stained glass by [[Ninian Comper]].<ref>Betjeman, John, ed. (1968) ''Collins Pocket Guide to English Parish Churches; the South''. London: Collins; p. 176</ref> The South or Martyn family chapel has three 16th century tombs with alabaster effigies. In 1910 the church was partially [[Victorian restoration|restored]] by [[Charles Ponting]].<ref name=inventory/><ref name=churchlisting/> Thomas Hardy led an unsuccessful campaign to prevent enlargement of the original [[chancel]].<ref name=trust/>

Waterston Manor, about {{convert|1.5|mi|km}} WNW of Puddletown village, is of early 17th-century origin, though it was largely rebuilt after a fire in 1863, and altered again in about 1911.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-106274-waterston-manor-puddletown-dorset |title=Waterston Manor, Puddletown |publisher=britishlistedbuildings.co.uk |accessdate=24 August 2015}}</ref>

Ilsington House dates from the late 17th to early 18th century, with alterations made in the late 18th to early 19th century and enlargement later in the 19th. It has [[plaster]]-covered brick walls, [[quoin]]s of [[ashlar]], and a [[hipped roof|hipped]] slate roof.<ref name=listed/> In 2000 it was presented with a "Dorset Architectural Heritage Award".<ref name=echo/>

The Old Vicarage, previously the east wing of the vicarage, was originally a [[timber-frame]]d building built about 1600. It was clad in brick in the 18th century (after the vicarage had been extended west in 1722) and a third storey added early in the 19th century. The 1722 west-wing extension became 8 The Square and is listed separately.<ref name=inventory/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-106257-the-old-vicarage-including-garden-walls- |title=The Old Vicarage Including Garden Walls Adjoining Islington House, Puddletown |publisher=britishlistedbuildings.co.uk |accessdate=26 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-106288-8-the-square-puddletown-dorset |title=8 the Square, Puddletown |publisher=britishlistedbuildings.co.uk |accessdate=26 August 2015}}</ref>
[[File:Thomas Hardy Locations Far from the Madding Crowd - geograph.org.uk - 1098183.jpg|thumb|Waterston Manor, the basis for Weatherbury Farm in ''Far from the Madding Crowd'']]

==Community facilities==
Puddletown has a [[village hall]], which has a kitchen and bar, full disabled facilities and access, and a capacity for between 100 and 160.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dorsethalls.net/content/puddletown-village-hall-0 |title=Puddletown Village Hall |publisher=Dorset Village Halls Association |accessdate=30 August 2015 |work=Dorset Halls Network |date=2012}}</ref> Since 2013 it has also housed Puddletown Community Library, which is operated solely by volunteers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.communitylibrarypuddletown.org/ |title=Welcome to Puddletown Community Library |publisher=communitylibrarypuddletown.org |accessdate=31 August 2015}}</ref> On Athelhampton Road there is a [[doctor's surgery]], which also treats patients who live in surrounding villages.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.puddletownsurgery.co.uk/ |title=Puddletown Surgery |publisher=puddletownsurgery.co.uk |accessdate=31 August 2015}}</ref> Puddletown has a [[recreation ground]] on Three Lanes Way; it has one grass cricket pitch and two grass football pitches (one junior, one full-size).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sports-facilities.co.uk/sites/view/6007693 |title=Puddletown Recreation Ground |publisher=sports-facilities.co.uk |work= |accessdate=30 August 2015}}</ref>

==Literary connections==
Puddletown is the basis for the village of "Weatherbury" in [[Thomas Hardy]]'s novel ''[[Far from the Madding Crowd]]''.<ref name=life/> Weatherbury Farm, the house of Bathsheba Everdene, is based on [[Waterston Manor]], between Puddletown and Piddlehinton.{{sfn|Gant|1980|p=190}} Hardy's cousin, [[Tryphena Sparks]], who was the inspiration for Hardy's poem ''Thoughts of Phena at News of Her Death'', lived in Puddletown.<ref>Millgate, Michael ''Thomas Hardy: a biography revisited'' (2004) Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-927566-1</ref>

==Notable people==
[[Reginald Pole|Cardinal Pole]], the last [[Roman Catholic]] [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], was vicar of the parish from 1532 to 1536.<ref name=trust/> The author and broadcaster [[Ralph Wightman]] (1901–1971) lived in Puddletown in the later years of his life; he lived in the 16th-century Tudor Cottage in The Square.<ref name=life/><ref name=inventory/> The writer [[Constantine Fitzgibbon]] (1919–1983) owned Waterston Manor for part of the 20th century.{{sfn|Gant|1980|p=190}}

==See also==
* [[Puddletown (hundred)|Puddletown Hundred]]

== References ==

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

===General references===
* {{cite book |title=Dorset Villages |first=Roland |last=Gant |publisher=Robert Hale Ltd |year=1980 |isbn=0-7091-8135-3 | ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Portrait of Dorset |first=Ralph |last=Wightman |year=1983 |edition=4 |publisher=Robert Hale Ltd |isbn=0-7090-0844-9 | ref = harv}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Puddletown}}
{{West Dorset}}

[[Category:Villages in Dorset]]

Marquesanischer Hund

2017-05-07T20:22:06Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox Dogbreed
|name= Marquesan Dog
|altname = Marquesas Islands Dog
|image= Dog relief from meʻae Iʻipona, Puamaʻu Village, Hiva Oa, Marquesas Islands, photograph by Moth Clark, 2009 (levels adjusted).jpg
|image_size=300px
|caption = Relief of Marquesan Dog on the Tiki Makiʻi Tauʻa Pepe, from the ''[[Marae|meʻae]]'' Iʻipona at Puamaʻu Village, [[Hiva Oa]]
|country= [[Marquesas Islands]] ([[French Polynesia]])
|extinct= yes
|}}

The '''Marquesan Dog''' or '''Marquesas Islands Dog''' is an [[List of extinct dog breeds|extinct breed]] of dog from the [[Marquesas Islands]]. Similar to other strains of [[Polynesian Dog|Polynesian dogs]], it was introduced to the Marquesas by the ancestors of the [[Polynesian people]] during their migrations. Serving as a tribal totems and religious symbols, they were sometimes [[dog meat|consumed as meat]] although less frequently than in other parts of the Pacific because of their scarcity. These native dogs are thought to have become extinct before the arrival of Europeans, who did not record their presence on the islands. Petroglyphic representations of dogs and the archaeological remains of dog bones and burials are the only evidence that the breed ever existed. Modern dog population on the island are the descendants of foreign breeds later reintroduced in the 19th century as companions for European settlers.

==Linguistic==
[[File:Karta FP Marquesa isl.PNG|thumb|250px|right|Map of the Marquesas Islands]]
There are two words in the [[Marquesan language]] for dog: ''peto'', used in the Northern Marquesas, and ''nuhe'', used in the Southern Marquesas. The former might have been an English loanword from ''pet'' or a Spanish loanword from ''perro'' (dog), although ''pero'' was an alternative for dog (''kurī'') in the related [[Māori language]]. According to another theory supporting its foreign origin, the name came from a [[New Haven]] dog named Pato left on [[Nuku Hiva]] by the American sea captain [[Edmund Fanning]] from 1798 to 1803.<ref name="Cablitz2006" /><ref name="Addison2008" /> The South Marquesan ''Nuhe'' is unique in the Polynesian languages, but may have some connection to ''wanuhe'', the word for dog in the [[Papuan languages|Papuan language]] of the [[Brumer Islands]].<ref name="Cablitz2006">{{cite book|last=Cablitz|first=Gabriele H.|title=Marquesan: A Grammar of Space|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_jssFh4GaZwC|year=2006|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-11-019775-4|oclc=290492499|pages=19, 41}}</ref><ref name="Crawfurd1852">{{cite book|last=Crawfurd|first=John|title=A Grammar Ad Dictionary of the Malay Language: With a Preliminary Dissertation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bKwTAAAAQAAJ|volume=I|year=1852|publisher=Smith, Elder and Co.|location=London|oclc=713118500|page=240}}</ref> French Catholic missionary René-Ildefonse Dordillon listed two other forms: ''mohoʻio'' and ''mohokio'' in his 1904 dictionary ''Grammaire et dictionnaire de la langue des iles Marquises''.<ref name="Addison2008">{{cite journal|last=Addison|first=David J.|title=Traditional Marquesan agriculture and subsistence: General ethnobotany, animal husbandry, the use of pork and European-introduced animals Part IV of V|journal=Rapa Nui Journal|url=http://islandheritage.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/RNJ_22_1_Addison.pdf|volume=22|issue=1|date=May 2008|publisher=The Easter Island Foundation|location=Los Ocos, CA|oclc=613638757|pages=30–39}}</ref><ref name="Christian1910">{{cite book|last=Christian|first=Frederick William|title=Eastern Pacific lands: Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands|url=https://archive.org/details/easternpacificla00chri|year=1910|publisher=R. Scott|location=London|oclc=|ref=harv|pages=82, 86}}</ref>

==History==
{{see also|History of the Marquesas}}
Little is known about the Marquesan Dog. They were introduced to the Marquesan Islands by the original Polynesian settlers along with domesticated chickens, pigs, and the [[Polynesian rat]]. The dog is thought to have become extinct prior to the arrival of Spanish explorers in 1595, although some might have survived beyond this point.<ref name="Millerstrom2003"/><ref name="Luomala1960">{{cite journal|last=Luomala|first=Katharine|authorlink=Katharine Luomala|title=A History of the Binomial Classification of the Polynesian Native Dog|journal=Pacific Science|url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/8347/1/vol14n3-193-223.pdf|volume=14|issue=13|date=July 1960|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]/[[Pacific Science Association]]|location=Honolulu|hdl=10125/8347|oclc=78130351|pages=193, 203, 221}}</ref><ref name="Titcomb1969">{{cite book|last1=Titcomb|first1=Margaret|last2=Pukui|first2=Mary Kawena|title=Dog and Man in the Ancient Pacific, with Special Attention to Hawaii|volume=59|year=1969|publisher=Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publications|location=Honolulu|oclc=925631874|pages=32–33}}</ref><ref name="Leach1961">{{cite book|last=Leach|first=Maria|title=God Had a Dog: Folklore of the Dog|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpkiAAAAMAAJ|year=1961|publisher=Rutgers University Press|location=New Brunswick, NJ|oclc=247920656|page=122}}</ref><ref name="Bay-Peterson1983">{{cite journal|last=Bay-Peterson|first=Jan|title=Competition for resources: The role of pig and dog in the Polynesian agricultural economy|url=http://www.persee.fr/doc/jso_0300-953x_1983_num_39_77_2793|journal=Journal de la Société des Océanistes|volume=39|issue=77|date=1983|publisher=Societe des Oceanistes|location=Paris|pages=121–129|oclc=883018929|ref=}}</ref>
No European accounts were ever written about them. They were thought to be fairly rare and "never numerous in the islands" even before the arrival of Europeans.<ref name="Millerstrom2003"/> Unlike in other parts of Polynesia, dogs were not considered an important food source, although they were sometimes eaten as shown by the presence of cut marks on dog bones found in archaeological excavations. Due to their rarity, they were venerated by the Marquesans and were closely associated with the high chiefs and priestly classes.<ref name="Millerstrom2003"/>

Many [[petroglyphs]] or carved images of dogs were found near religious centers and chiefly residential areas indicating their venerated status and importance in the culture. A survey by American archaeologist Sidsel N. Millerstrom noted that a majority of dog petroglyphs have been found in the valleys of [[ʻAʻakapa]], Haʻatuatua, and Hatiheu on the northern coast of Nuku Hiva, the ''meʻae'' Vaikivi on [[Ua Huka]], and the ''meʻae'' Iʻipona and Eiaone Valley on [[Hiva Oa]]. Their regional distributions possibly reflected the role of dogs as symbols of tribal/clan loyalty and identity in the islands. They were [[totem]] animals associated with the Nakiʻi tribe.<ref name="Millerstrom2003"/><ref name="LichtensteinSuggs2001">{{cite book|last1=Lichtenstein|first1=Burgl|last2=Suggs|first2=Robert C.|title=Manuiota'a: Journal of a Voyage to the Marquesas Islands|url=http://www.marquesas-brasilien.ch/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/manuiota_engl_book.pdf|year=2001|publisher=Pa'eke Press|location=Boise, ID|isbn=978-1-887747-38-7|oclc=49521848|pages=7–9, 121–136}}</ref>

==Characteristics==
[[Petroglyph]]s often depict the Marquesan Dog in exaggerated forms. Millerstrom noted that these representations deviated from the typical characteristics of the Polynesian dog and wondered if they were meant to be realistic. She stated:

<blockquote>The Marquesan dogs' images show that the necks and the bodies are exaggerated in length. The tails are long and curved over the back while the ears and muzzle may be pointed, square or rounded. The legs are short and in one case from Hatiheu Valley the paws were pointed in the wrong direction...The early post-contact dog is white or spotted, small to medium size, with pointed snout and ears, and a long tail. Could the Marquesans of the past have forgotten what the dog looked like or did it matter they depicted the dog?<ref name="Millerstrom2003"/></blockquote>

==Archaeological evidence==
===Stone carvings===
German archaeologist [[Karl von den Steinen]] was the first European visitor to observe evidence of ancient dogs in the Marquesas in 1897–98. In his excavation of ''[[Marae|meʻae]]'' Iʻipona, a temple complex near the village of Puamaʻu on the northeastern coast of the island of Hiva Oa, he uncovered several stone [[tiki]] including two with [[Zoomorphism|zoomorphic]] (animal shaped) [[quadruped]] figures carved on them.<ref name="Millerstrom2003"/> During this period, the property and temple site was owned by Reverend [[James Kekela]], a Hawaiian Protestant missionary, who von den Steinen befriended. He also relied on an elderly Marquesan named Pihua, who was the only living person who knew the names of the tiki at the site.<ref name="LichtensteinSuggs2001" />

[[File:K.v.d.Steinen, Marquesaner Bd3 head.jpg|thumb|200px|Opferkopf Manuiotaa, currently at the [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]]]]
[[File:Tiki Makiʻi Tauʻa Pepe or the Flying Tiki, at meʻae Iʻipona, Puamaʻu Village, Hiva Oa, Marquesas Islands, photograph by Moth Clark, 2009.jpg|thumb|200px|Tiki Makiʻi Tauʻa Pepe at Iʻipona]]
Measuring {{convert|82|cm|in}} high, and {{convert|90|cm|in}} in diameter, the first tiki was a megalithic stone head representing an unknown ''ʻupoko heʻaka'' [[Human sacrifice|"sacrificial victim"]]. Von den Steinen named it ''Opferkopf Manuiotaa'' ("Sacrificial Head Manuiotaa"), after the famous 18th-century Marquesan sculptor Manuiotaʻa from the Nakiʻi tribe, who is believed to have carved both statues and many other tikis on the site. The head bore totem motifs of quadrupeds and little stick figures representing the Marquesans ''etua'' (gods) tattooed on each side of its mouth.<ref name="LichtensteinSuggs2001"/> He was informed that the quadrupeds could depict either dogs, rats or pigs. However, he concluded they were rats since at the time, dogs were believed to have been introduced by Europeans.<ref name="Millerstrom2003"/> He transported the head back to Germany where it is now displayed at the [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]].<ref name="LichtensteinSuggs2001" /><ref name="Lichtenstein2016">{{cite book|last=Lichtenstein|first=Burgl|title=Die Welt der 'Enana: Eine Reise durch Geschichte und Gegenwart der Marquesas-Inseln|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mNPWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA128|year=2016|publisher=Norderstedt Books on Demand|location=|isbn=978-3-7392-2772-6|oclc=946132371|pages=128–130}}</ref>

The second statue was named ''Tiki Makiʻi Tauʻa Pepe'' after Manuiotaʻa's wife, known as ''Tauʻa Pepe'' (the "Butterfly Priestess"); she reportedly died in childbirth with ''Makiʻi'' meaning "writhing in agony". There are disagreements{{#tag:ref|Both Karl von den Steinen and German ethnographer [[Arthur Baessler]], who visited the site prior to him, described the statue in a reclining position.<ref name="LichtensteinSuggs2001" /><ref name="Baessler1900">{{cite book|last=Baessler|first=Arthur|title=Neue Südsee-Bilder|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bu8xAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA235|year=1900|publisher=G. Reimer|location=Berlin|oclc=254688157|pages=235–236}}</ref> Thor Heyerdahl argued that it was originally in the prone position and was later toppled at the time Christianity was introduced to the islands.<ref name="LichtensteinSuggs2001" />|group=note}} if the statue should be set in the reclining position as it was discovered or the prone position as it is currently displayed. It is believed to represent a female in a prone position, head and arms reaching skyward, giving birth, although it has also been interpreted as a female deity bearing the Marquesan people on its back. Images of quadrupeds were carved as [[relief|bas-reliefs]] on each side of the square base of this statue.<ref name="LichtensteinSuggs2001" /><ref name="Lichtenstein2016"/> This tiki remained in its original spot and is visible today at the site of Iʻipona.<ref name="BrashCarillet2009">{{cite book|last1=Brash|first1=Celeste|last2=Carillet|first2=Jean-Bernard|title=Tahiti & French Polynesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t8Uj6i5oDcgC&pg=PA222|year=2009|publisher=Lonely Planet|location=Footscray, Victoria|isbn=978-1-74104-316-7|oclc=312626589|page=222}}</ref><ref name="Troost2013">{{cite book|last=Troost|first=J. Maarten|title=Headhunters on My Doorstep: A True Treasure Island Ghost Story|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gTmTppzPS6EC&pg=PT63|year=2013|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|location=New York|isbn=978-1-101-62169-1|oclc=859199273|page=63}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=|first=|title=The art of buying tikis|magazine=[[Wanderlust (magazine)|Wanderlust]]|location=Windsor, Berkshire|date=11 August 2013|url=http://www.wanderlust.co.uk/magazine/blogs/wander-woman/the-art-of-buying-tikis|accessdate=15 March 2017}}</ref> Only one of the dog carving is discernible now; the other one has weathered away.<ref name="LichtensteinSuggs2001" />

In 1956, Norwegian adventurer and ethnographer [[Thor Heyerdahl]] later claimed the reliefs on Tiki Makiʻi Tauʻa Pepe were [[llama]]s or [[Cougar|pumas]] instead to bolster his theory that Polynesia was settled from South America.<ref name="Millerstrom2003" /><ref name="LichtensteinSuggs2001" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Heyerdahl|first=Thor|authorlink=Thor Heyerdahl|editor-last1=Heyerdahl|editor-first1=Thor|editor-last2=Ferdon|editor-first2=Edwin N. Jr.|chapter=The Statues of the Oipona Me'ae, with a Comparative Analysis of Possibly Related Stone Monuments|title=Reports of the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific|series=Monographs of the School of American Research and the Kon-Tiki Museum; no. 24, Part 2|year=1965|publisher=Forum Publishing House|location=Stockholm|oclc=901420992|pages=123–151}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Heyerdahl|first=Thor|title=The Art of Easter Island|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XJQOAQAAMAAJ|year=1975|publisher=Doubleday|location=Garden City, NY|isbn=978-0-385-04716-6|oclc=2034616|pages=141–142, 223, 234–235}}</ref> Later unidentified writers and rumors have insinuated that Heyerdahl deliberately altered and defaced the images in his process of restoring them.<ref name="LichtensteinSuggs2001" /><ref name="Troost2013" />
The modern consensus is that the carvings represent the extinct dog; they do not represent llamas, pumas or rats.<ref name="Millerstrom2003" /><ref name="LichtensteinSuggs2001" /><ref name="BrashCarillet2009" /><ref name="Chavaillon(illustrateur)2007">{{cite book|last1=Chavaillon|first1=Catherine|last2=Olivier|first2=Eric|last3=Marchesi|first3=Henri|chapter=Vallée de Puamau (B29)|title=Le patrimoine archéologique de l'île de Hiva Oa (archipel des Marquises)|series=Issue 5 of Dossier d'Archéologie Polynésienne|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWKrcQAACAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Service de la Culture et du Patrimoine|location=Tahiti|oclc=192107569|ref=|pages=117–130}}</ref>

===Bones and burials===
In 1956, [[Robert Carl Suggs]], with the [[American Museum of Natural History]], led the first [[Stratigraphy (archaeology)|stratigraphical]] excavation of the islands and uncovered many dog bone fragments and one dog burial across a few sites on the island of Nuku Hiva. Between 1964 and 1965, American archaeologist [[Yosihiko H. Sinoto]], with the [[Bishop Museum]], discovered a drilled dog canine used as a pendant, one pre-molar and two dog burials in the sand dunes at [[Hane, Marquesas Islands|Hane]] on the island of Ua Huka. In 1998, American archaeologist Barry Vladimir Rolett discovered dog bones in all levels of settlement at Hanamiai, on the island of [[Tahuata]], indicating that the breed may have continued to exist on this island until the mid-19th century. Some of these bones had visible cut marks. In 2000, French archaeologist Pascal Sellier discovered three dog skeletons alongside several human burials at Manihina, Ua Huka; one dog was buried in a coffin.<ref name="Millerstrom2003"/><ref name="OxenhamBuckley2015">{{cite book|last1=Greig|first1=Karen|last2=Walter|first2=Richard|last3=Matisoo-Smith|first3=Elizabeth A.|editor=M. Oxenham & H. Buckley|title=Dogs and people in Southeast Asia and the Pacific|journal=The Routledge Handbook of Bioarchaeology in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g8z4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA462|year=2015|publisher=Routledge|location=Abingdon, UK|isbn=978-1-317-53401-3|oclc=|pages=462–482}}</ref>

Millerstrom summarized these earlier findings and personally analyzed many of the petroglyphs of dogs left by the prehistoric Polynesians in her 2003 paper "Facts and Fantasies: the Archaeology of the Marquesan Dog". She noted that further research needs to be done on the linguistic evidence tracing the movement of dogs within Oceania, the socio-economic roles of dog in Marquesan and Oceanian cultures, and a study into the morphology of the bones and dog burials found in the Marquesan archaeology sites.<ref name="Millerstrom2003">{{cite book|last=Millerstrom|first=Sidsel N.|editor=Sharyn Jones O'Day; Wim Van Neer; A Ervynck|title=Facts and Fantasies: the Archaeology of the Marquesan Dog|work=Behaviour Behind Bones: The Zooarchaeology of Ritual, Religion, Status and Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ei9ADgAAQBAJ&pg=PA144|volume=1|year=2003|publisher=Oxbow Book|location=Oxford|isbn=978-1-78297-913-5|oclc=891457752|pages=144–152}}</ref>

==Reintroduction of dogs==
Dogs of different breeds were later reintroduced by European settlers and visitors to the Marquesas.<ref name="Millerstrom2003"/>
The first European dogs seen were those that accompanied Spanish explorers [[Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira]] and [[Pedro Fernandes de Queirós]] in 1595. While they were on Hiva Oa, the Marquesans attempted to steal one of the small dogs on their ships. Anthropologist Katharine Luomala noted that nothing suggested that these dogs were left by the Spanish.<ref name="Luomala1960b" /><ref name="Queirós1904">{{cite book|last=Queirós|first=Pedro Fernandes de|authorlink=Pedro Fernandes de Queirós|translator=Sir Clements Markham|title=Narrative of the Second Voyage of the Adelantado Alvaro de Mendaña, by the Chief Pilot|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CxY6AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA21|work=The Voyages of Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, 1595 to 1606|volume=I|year=1904|publisher=Hakluyt Society|location=London|pages=21, 24|oclc=36772565}}</ref>
Possibly the first dogs reintroduced were those left by American ships during the early 1800s in the care of early [[beachcombing|beachcombers]], missionaries and settlers who kept them as pets.<ref name="Luomala1960b" /> One of the first reported cases was a New Haven dog named Pato, who had been "found guilty of sheep stealing about the year 1797 and was banished for the above crime".<ref name="Robarts1974">{{cite book|last=Robarts|first=Edward|editor=Greg Dening|title=The Marquesan Journal of Edward Robarts, 1797–1824|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NAVzAAAAMAAJ|series=Pacific History Series, No. 6|year=1974|publisher=Australian National University Press|location=Canberra|isbn=978-0-7081-0635-8|oclc=470549807|pages=69, 124–125}}</ref> Around 1798, Captain Edmund Fanning left him on Nuku Hiva in the care of British missionary [[William Pascoe Crook]] who left him with a local ruler Keattonnue (i.e. King Cato), but on June 8, 1803, another American Captain Brinell recalled Pato and replaced him with two other dogs.<ref name="Addison2008" /><ref name="Robarts1974" />
During the [[Nuku Hiva Campaign]] of 1813, United States Naval Captain [[David Porter (naval officer)|David Porter]] reported a few dogs on the island and observed the islanders were afraid of the two [[mastiff]]s on board his ship.<ref name="Luomala1960b">{{cite journal|last=Luomala|first=Katharine|editor=Stanley Diamond|title=The Native Dog in the Polynesian System of Values|journal=Culture in History: Essays in Honor of Paul Radin|url=|edition=1st|year=1960|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|location=New York|oclc=16324448|pages=190–240|ref=}}</ref><ref name="Porter1815">{{cite book|last=Porter|first=David|authorlink=David Porter (naval officer)|title=Journal of a Cruise Made to the Pacific Ocean in the United States Frigate Essex, in the Years 1812, 1813, and 1814|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D18PAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA418|year=1815|publisher=Bradford and Inskeep|location=Philadelphia|oclc=62611110|page=418}}</ref>

[[File:Paul Gauguin - Le Sorcier d'Hiva Oa2.jpg|thumb|[[Paul Gauguin]]'s 1902 probable depiction of the [[Marquesan swamphen]] being killed by a dog.]]
By the 1890s, English traveler Frederick William Christian noted the ideological conflict over dog meat consumption as island populations increased. He noted how the Marquesans living in the eastern valleys of the island of Hiva Oa had resumed eating baked [[dog meat]] "with delight" while the inhabitants of the western valleys "will barely touch [dog meat] even in times of famine". Christian also observed dog being eaten on Tahuata and [[Fatu Hiva]].<ref name="Addison2008" />{{sfn|Christian|1910|pages=124, 127, 133, 142–144}} French artist [[Paul Gauguin]] depicted scenes including dogs in the Marquesas in [[List of paintings by Paul Gauguin|several works]] while he lived on Hiva Oa. His 1902 painting ''Le sorcier d'Hiva-Oa ou Le Marquisien à la cape rouge'' possibly depicts a dog killing the now-extinct [[Marquesas swamphen]] (''Porphyrio paepae'').<ref>{{cite web |publisher=The Ultimate Global Traveler |author=The Bark |url=http://thebark.com/content/paul-gauguin-mythic-life-painting |title=Paul Guaguin, Mythic Life Painting |accessdate=15 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="Turvey2009">{{cite book|last=Turvey|first=Samuel T.|title=Holocene Extinctions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mbU-F42JU1AC&pg=PA208|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxfor|isbn=978-0-19-157998-1|oclc=488939935|page=208}}</ref>

In [[Herman Melville]]'s 1846 semi-fictionalized work,{{#tag:ref|Leon Howard noted ''Typee'' is "in fact, neither literal autobiography nor pure fiction". Melville "drew his material from his experiences, from his imagination, and from a variety of travel books when the memory of his experiences were inadequate".<ref>{{cite book|last=Howard|first=Leon|chapter=Historical Notes|title=Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life|editor-last=Melville|editor-first=Herman|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4pQS7K_zSikC|year=1968|publisher=Northwestern University Press|location=Evanston, IL|isbn=978-0-8101-0159-3|oclc=2579802|pages=277–302}}</ref>|group=note}} ''[[Typee|Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life]]'', the narrator Tommo gives an unflattering account of dogs living in the valley of [[Tai Pī (province)|Tai Pī]] on Nuku Hiva:<ref name="Melville1846" /><ref name="Paliwoda2009">{{cite book|last=Paliwoda|first=Daniel|title=Melville and the Theme of Boredom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjd0BsTeKMwC&pg=PA49|year=2009|publisher=McFarland and Company, Inc.|location=Jefferson, NC|isbn=978-0-7864-5702-1|oclc=593239846|pages=49–50}}</ref>

<blockquote>I Think I must enlighten the reader a little about the natural history of the valley.

Whence, in the name of [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Count Buffon]] and [[Georges Cuvier|Baron Cuvier]], came those dogs that I saw in Typee? Dogs!—Big hairless rats rather; all with smooth, shining, speckled hides—fat sides, and very disagreeable faces. Whence could they have come? That they were not the indigenous production of the region, I am firmly convinced. Indeed they seemed aware of their being interlopers, looking fairly ashamed, and always trying to hide themselves in some dark corner. It was plain enough they did not feel at home in the vale—that they wished themselves well out of it, and back to the ugly country from which they must have come.

Scurvy curs! they were my abhorrence; I should have liked nothing better than to have been the death of every one of them. In fact, on one occasion, I intimated the propriety of a canine crusade to Mehevi; but the benevolent king would not consent to it. He heard me very patiently; but when I had finished, shook his head, and told me, in confidence, that they were "[[Tapu (Polynesian culture)|taboo]]".<ref name="Melville1846">{{cite book|last=Melville|first=Herman|authorlink=Herman Melville|title=Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life. During a Four Months' Residence in a Valley of the Marquesas|url=https://archive.org/details/typeepeep00melvrich|year=1846|publisher=Wiley and Putnam|location=New York|oclc=3212579|page=268}}</ref></blockquote>

==See also==
*[[Hawaiian Poi Dog]]
*[[Kurī]]
*[[Tahitian Dog]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last=Steinen|first=Karl von den|authorlink=|title=Die Marquesaner und ihre Kunst: Tatauierung|url=http://dbooks.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/books/PDFs/N10416421.pdf|volume=1|year=1928|publisher=Reimer|location=Berlin|oclc=272541341}}
*{{cite book|last=Steinen|first=Karl von den|authorlink=|title=Die Marquesaner und ihre Kunst: Plastik|url=http://dbooks.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/books/PDFs/N10416421.pdf|volume=2|year=1928|publisher=Reimer|location=Berlin|oclc=174014649}}
*{{cite book|last=Steinen|first=Karl von den|authorlink=|title=Die Marquesaner und ihre Kunst: Die Sammlungen|url=|volume=3|year=1928|publisher=Reimer|location=Berlin|oclc=314991454}}

{{Commons category|Opferkopf Manuiotaa}}
{{Commons category|Tiki Makiʻi Tauʻa Pepe}}

{{Primitive dogs}}
{{Extinct breeds of dog}}

[[Category:Dog meat]]
[[Category:Extinct dog breeds]]
[[Category:Extinct animals of Oceania]]
[[Category:History of the Marquesas Islands|Dogs]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Marquesas Islands]]

Plünderung von Şamaxı

2017-03-06T17:02:03Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
The '''Sack of Shamakhi''' took place in 1721,{{efn-ua|[[Michael Axworthy]] mentions that one of the gates of Shamakhi was opened to the rebels in August 1721,{{sfn|Axworthy|2010|page=42}} while Martin Sicker states that on 9 September 1721 the city of Shamakhi fell after a siege that had started on 15 August 1721.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|page=47}} The ''[[Cambridge History of Iran]]'' states that on 18 August 1721 the city was taken.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=316}}}} when rebellious [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Lezgins]], within the declining [[Safavid Empire]], attacked the capital of [[Shirvan Beylarbeylik|Shirvan province]], [[Shamakhi]] (in present-day [[Azerbaijan Republic]]).{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2011|page=761}} The initially successful counter-campaign was abandoned by the central government at a critical moment and with the threat then left unchecked, Shamakhi was taken by 15,000 Lezgin tribesmen, its Shia population massacred, and the city ransacked.

The deaths of Russian merchants within Shamakhi were subsequently used as a ''[[casus belli]]'' for the [[Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)|Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723]], leading to the cessation of trade between Iran and Russia and the designation of [[Astrakhan]] as the new terminus on the [[Volga Trade Route|Volga trade route]].

==Background==
[[File:Schamachia_1734.jpg|thumb|250px|A 1683 illustration of Shamakhi by [[Engelbert Kaempfer]] (published 1734 in the atlas of [[Johann Baptist Homann]])]]
By the first decade of the 18th century, the once-prosperous Safavid realm was in a state of heavy decline, with insurrections in numerous parts of its domains.{{sfn|Matthee|2005|page=27}} The king, Sultan Husayn, was a weak ruler, and although personally inclined to be more humane, flexible, and relaxed than his chief [[mullah]], he went along with the recommendations of his advisers regarding important state decisions.{{sfn|Axworthy|2010|page=42}} He reigned as a "stationary monarch", preferring, apart from the occasional [[hunting party]], to be inside or near the capital of [[Isfahan]] at all times, invisible to all "but the most intimate of courtiers".{{sfn|Matthee|2005|page=27}} Having seen not much more of the world than the [[harem]] walls, he had quickly fallen under the spell of the leading [[ulama]], most notably [[Muhammad Baqir Majlisi]].{{sfn|Matthee|2005|page=27}} Majlesi, who had already gained considerable political power during the reign of Sultan Husayn's predecessor [[Suleiman I of Persia|Suleiman{{nbsp}}I]] ({{Reign}} 1666–1694), instigated the persecutions directed towards Safavid Iran's Sunni and Sufi inhabitants, as well as its non-Muslim religious minorities, namely Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians.{{sfn|Matthee|2005|page=27}}{{sfn|Savory|2007|page=251}} Though the Christians, mainly represented by the [[Iranian Armenians|Armenians]], suffered less than other groups, they were also targeted from time to time.{{sfn|Savory|2007|page=251}} As Prof.{{nbsp}}[[Roger Savory]] states, even though Sultan Husayn did not show personal hostility towards Christians, he was persuaded by the clergy (Majlisi in particular), who had great influence over him, to issue "unjust and intolerant decrees".{{sfn|Savory|2007|page=251}} The tense religious atmosphere in the late Safavid era would prove to be a significant factor in the revolts by [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] adherents from various places within the empire.{{sfn|Axworthy|2010|page=42}} As Prof.{{nbsp}}[[Michael Axworthy]] notes: "The clearest example was the revolt in Shirvan, where Sunni religious men had been killed, religious books destroyed and Sunni mosques turned into [[stables]]".{{sfn|Axworthy|2010|page=42}}

The Sunni population in the northwestern domains of the [[Safavids]], comprising [[Shirvan Beylarbeylik|Shirvan]] and [[Dagestan]], felt the burden of the Shia persecution during Sultan Husayn's reign.{{sfn|Savory|2007|page=251}} Daud Beg, a rebel mountaineer chieftain of the [[Lezgins]] and a Sunni cleric who had been imprisoned in the Safavid city of [[Derbent]], was released shortly after the Afghan attack on Safavid Iran from within its far easternmost domains.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=316}}{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=223}}{{efn-ua|Daud Beg is also referred to in the sources as "Daud Khan", "Hajji Da'ud", and "Hajji Da'ud Beg".{{sfn|Matthee|1999|page=223}}}} Sultan Husayn was hoping that Daud Beg and his Dagestani allies would assist in countering the revolt on the eastern front, but Daud instead put himself at the head of a tribal coalition, and then launched a campaign against both the Safavid government forces and the empire's Shia population, eventually marching upon the provincial capital of Shamakhi.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=316}} 1718 saw an intensification of the Lezgin incursions into Shirvan,{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=223}} rumoured, according to Rudi Matthee, to have been incited by then [[List of Safavid Viziers|grand vizier]] [[Fath-Ali Khan Daghestani]] (1716–1720).{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=223}} Russia's ambassador to Safavid Iran, [[Artemy Volynsky]], who was in Shamakhi in 1718,{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=225}} reported that, because local officials considered the grand vizier "an infidel", they considered his orders invalid and even questioned the king's authority.{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=225}} Florio Beneveni, an Italian in the Russian diplomatic service, insisted that Shamakhi's inhabitants were ready to revolt against the government for "extorting large sums of money from them".{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=225}} The maurauding raids, incursions, and pillages nevertheless carried on; in April of the same year, the Lezgins took the village of Ak{{nbsp}}Tashi (located near Nizovoi), but not before abducting a number of its inhabitants and plundering a [[Convoy|caravan]] of 40{{nbsp}}people on the road to Shamakhi.{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=223}} After these events, numerous additional reports in relation to the rebels are reported.{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=223}}

==Attack and sack==
[[File:Schamachie.jpg|thumb|250px|Illustration entitled "La Ville de Schamachie en Perse", published in 1729 by [[Pieter van der Aa]]]]
By early May 1718 some 17,000 Lezgin tribesmen had reached a distance of {{convert|20|km}} from Shamakhi, occupying themselves with looting settlements in Shamakhi's surrounding areas.{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=223}} In 1719 the Iranian government decided to send the ''[[sepahsalar]]'' [[Vakhtang VI of Kartli|Hosayn-Qoli Khan]] (Vakhtang{{nbsp}}VI of Kartli) to Georgia with the task of confronting the Lezgin rebellion.{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=225}} Assisted by the ruler of neighboring Kakheti, as well as the beglarbeg of [[Shirvan Beylarbeylik|Shirvan]], Khan made significant progress in putting a halt to the Lezgins.{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=225}} However, in the winter of 1721, at a crucial moment in the campaign, he was recalled.{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=225}} The order, which came after the fall of grand vizier Fath-Ali Khan Daghestani, was made at the instigation of the eunuch faction within the royal court, who had persuaded the shah that a successful end of the campaign would do the Safavid realm more harm than good. In their view, it would enable Vakhtang, the Safavid ''[[Vali (governor)|wali]]'', to form an alliance with Russia with an eye to conquering Iran.{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=225}}

Shortly before the siege, the Sunnis of Shirvan province appealed for help from the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], their co-religionists{{sfn|Axworthy|2010|page=42}} and the arch-rivals of the Safavids.{{sfn|Rothman|2015|page=236}} The Lezgin "coalition", having mobilized some 15,000 tribesmen, and now assisted by Surkhay Khan of the [[Gazikumukh Khanate|Ghazikumukh]], laid siege to [[Shamakhi]] on 15{{nbsp}}August 1721.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|page=47}}{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=316}} Eventually, the Sunni inhabitants of Shamakhi opened one of the gates of the city, upon which thousands of Shia residents were massacred,{{efn-ua|Between 4,000–5,000 Shia's (which includes the city's officials) were killed.{{sfn|Atkin|1980|page=4}}{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=225}}}} while Christians and foreigners were "merely" robbed.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=316}}{{sfn|Axworthy|2010|page=42}} Several Russian merchants were killed as well.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=316}}{{sfn|Atkin|1980|page=4}} The stores of the many [[Imperial Russia|Russian]] merchants were looted, resulting in grave economic losses for them.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|page=48}}{{efn-ua|According to Atkin, "perhaps half a million rubles' worth of their property was seized".{{sfn|Atkin|1980|page=4}} According to Rudi Mathee, the merchants "are said to have lost 70,000–100,000 [[Iranian toman|tumans]]", citing "Bachoud, ''Lettre de Chamakié'', p. 99, for the 70,000 claim, and the Russian consul Avramov for the 100,000 claim.{{sfn|Matthee|1999|page=223}} He then later adds that the Russian sources speak of 400,000 tumans in lost merchandise, but that this is likely an exaggeration in an attempt to "bolster justification" for the Russian attack.{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=226}} The more realistic reports according to Matthee are the ones that state 60,000 tumans.{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=226}}}} Amongst the merchants was Matvei Evreinov, "reputedly the wealthiest merchant in Russia", who suffered huge losses.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=316}} The Shia Safavid governor of the city, his nephew, and the rest of his relatives were "cut to pieces by the mob, and their bodies thrown to the dogs".{{sfn|Axworthy|2010|page=42}} After the province was completely overrun by the rebels, Daud Beg appealed to the Russians for protection, declaring his loyalty to the Tsar.{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=226}} Upon being rebuffed, he appealed to the Ottomans, this time successfully; he was then designated by the Sultan as Ottoman governor of Shirvan.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|pages=47–48}}{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=316}}{{sfn|Matthee|2012|page=226}}

==Aftermath==
[[Artemy Volynsky]] reported to then Tsar [[Peter the Great]] ({{Reign}} 1682–1725) on the considerable harm done to the Russian merchants and their livelihoods.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|page=48}}{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=316}} The report stipulated that the 1721 event was a clear violation of the 1717 Russo–Iranian trade treaty, by which the latter had guaranteed to ensure the protection of Russian nationals within the Safavid domains.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|page=48}} With the Safavid realm in chaos, and the Safavid ruler unable to fulfill the provisions of the treaty, Volynsky urged Peter to take advantage of the situation and to invade Iran on the pretext of restoring order as an ally of the Safavid king.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|page=48}}{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=316}} Indeed, Russia shortly afterward used the attack on its merchants in Shamakhi as a pretext to launch the [[Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)|Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723]].{{sfn|Axworthy|2010|page=62}}{{sfn|Matthee|2005|page=28}}{{sfn|Matthee|1999|page=223}} The episode brought trade between Iran and Russia to a standstill, and made the city of [[Astrakhan]] the terminus for the [[Volga trade route]].{{sfn|Matthee|1999|page=223}}

==See also==
* [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam]]

==Notes==
{{notelist-ua}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book|last1=Atkin|first1=Muriel|title=Russia and Iran, 1780–1828|date=1980|publisher=U of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0-8166-5697-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Axworthy|first1=Michael|authorlink=Michael Axworthy|title=The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant|date=2010|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85772-193-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | article = MAJLESI, Moḥammad-Bāqer | last = Brunner | first = Rainer | authorlink = | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/majlesi-mohammad-baqer | editor-last = | editor-first = | editor-link = | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica | pages = | location = | publisher = | year = 2011 | isbn = |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Fisher | first1 = William Bayne | last2 = Avery | first2= P. | last3 = Hambly | first3 = G. R. G | last4 = Melville | first4 = C. | title = The Cambridge History of Iran | volume = 7 | url = https://books.google.nl/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC&dq=agha+muhammad+khan+invade+georgia&hl=nl&source=gbs_navlinks_s | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-521-20095-0 | ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Matthee|first1=Rudolph P.|title=The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600–1730|date=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-64131-9|page=120|url=https://books.google.nl/books?id=5U0yECMV--wC&dq=qazaq+khan+cherkes&hl=nl&source=gbs_navlinks_s|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Matthee|first1=Rudolph P.|title=The Pursuit of Pleasure: Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500–1900|date=2005|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-11855-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Matthee|first1=Rudi|title=Persia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan|date=2012|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-745-0|url=|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mikaberidze|first1=Alexander|authorlink1=Alexander Mikaberidze|title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1|date=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-336-1|chapter=Russo-Iranian Wars|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rothman|first1=E. Nathalie|title=Brokering Empire: Trans-Imperial Subjects between Venice and Istanbul|date=2015|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-6312-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | title = Iran Under the Safavids | year = 2007 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = | editor-last = | editor-first = | last = Savory | first = Roger | authorlink = Roger Savory | chapter = | pages = | isbn = 978-0-521-04251-2 | url = https://books.google.nl/books?id=v4Yr4foWFFgC&dq=shamkhal+sultan+safavid+executed&hl=nl&source=gbs_navlinks_s |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sicker|first1=Martin|title=The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire|date=2001|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-96891-5|ref=harv}}

[[Category:Massacres perpetrated by Muslims]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1721]]
[[Category:Shia–Sunni sectarian violence]]
[[Category:Rebellions against the Safavid Empire]]
[[Category:1720s in Iran]]
[[Category:18th century in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Shamakhi District]]
[[Category:Violence against Shia Muslims]]
[[Category:Lezgian people]]

George Naʻea

2017-02-23T02:21:37Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
'''George Naʻea''' (died 1854), was a high chief of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]], and father of [[Queen Emma of Hawaii]]. He became one of the first [[Native Hawaiians]] to contract [[leprosy]] and the disease became known as ''maʻi aliʻi'' (the "sickness of the chiefs") in the [[Hawaiian language]] because of this association.

==Life==
Born in the late 18th century, George Naʻea was the son of High Chief Kamaunu and High Chiefess Kukaeleiki.{{sfn| McKinzie|1983|pages=73}}
His father Kamaunu was descended from the high chiefs of the northern districts of the [[Hawaii (island)|island of Hawaii]].<ref name="BNamakeha"/>
His mother Kukaeleiki was the daughter of Kalauawa, a [[Kauai|Kauaʻi]] high chief, and she was also a cousin of Queen [[Keōpūolani]], the most sacred wife of [[Kamehameha I]]. Among Naʻea's more notable ancestors were Kalanawaʻa, a high chief of [[Oahu|Oʻahu]], and Kuaenaokalani, a [[Maui]] high chiefess who held the sacred ''[[kapu]]'' rank of ''Kekapupoʻohoʻolewaikala'' (the kapu of Poʻohoʻolewaikala, a rank so sacred that she could not be exposed to the sun except at dawn).{{sfn|Kanahele|1999|page=4}}
His brother was [[Bennett Nāmākēhā]], a member of the [[Legislature of the Kingdom of Hawaii|House of Nobles]], and Nāmākēhā's granddaughter Stella Keomailani (1866–1927) was the last of the Poʻohoʻolewaikala line.<ref name="BNamakeha">{{cite news|title=Death of the Hon. B. Namakeha|newspaper=The Polynesian|location=Honolulu|date=December 29, 1860|volume=XVII|issue=35|page=3|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82015408/1860-12-29/ed-1/seq-3/|accessdate=September 26, 2016}}</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Kanahele|1y=1999|1p=130|2a1=London|2y=1918|2p=301}}

[[File:Queen Emma of Hawaii (PP-96-3-015).jpg|thumb|George Naʻea's daughter [[Queen Emma of Hawaii]]]]
Naʻea served under [[Kamehameha III]] as a member of his [[Council of Chiefs (Hawaii)|Council of Chiefs]].{{sfn|Inglis|2013|pages=33–34}} He married [[Fanny Kekelaokalani|Fanny Kekelaokalani Young]], the ''hapa-haole'' (half-white) daughter of [[Kaoanaeha|Kaʻōanaʻeha]] and [[John Young (Hawaii)|John Young]], the British advisor of King Kamehameha I. The couple lived on the island of Maui, in [[Lahaina]], which was the capital of the Kingdom of Hawaii at the time.<ref name="Marriage"/>

They had three known children: Kahalaiʻa and Kekuaokalani (sometimes misspelled as Kakuaolani), who both died young, and Emma, the future [[Queen Emma of Hawaii]]. Emma was given at birth to be raised by Fanny's younger sister [[Grace Kamaikui|Grace Kamaʻikuʻi]] and her husband Dr. [[Thomas Charles Byde Rooke]] under the Hawaiian tradition of ''[[hānai]]'' (informal adoption).<ref name="Marriage">{{harvnb|Apple|1978|pages=39–41}}; {{harvnb|Kanahele|1999|pages=1–4, 8, 37}}; {{harvnb|Kaeo|Queen Emma|1976|pages=xiv–xv}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=John Young's Family|newspaper=The Daily Bulletin|location=Honolulu|date=March 2, 1891|volume=XV|issue=51|page=2|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82016412/1891-03-02/ed-1/seq-3/|accessdate=September 26, 2016}}; {{cite news|title=Obituary|newspaper=The Pacific Commercial Advertiser|location=Honolulu|date=September 11, 1880|volume=XXV|issue=11|page=2|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82015418/1880-09-11/ed-1/seq-2/|accessdate=September 26, 2016}}</ref> Naʻea played no role in his daughter's upbringing, and was not allowed contact with her due to his eventual illness. Historian and biographer of Queen Emma, [[George Kanahele]] wrote that "Emma never knew her natural father", and his relative anonymity prompted many to believe that Dr. Rooke was her biological father.{{sfn|Kanahele|1999|page=49}}

===Contracting leprosy===
Around 1838, Naʻea contracted [[leprosy]]. Many claimed that this was the first case of leprosy in Hawaii, even though the condition had been diagnosed earlier in the 1820s and 1830s.{{sfn|Mouritz|1916|pages=29–30}} Differing accounts exist as to how he contracted this disease.{{sfn|Inglis|2013|pages=33–34}}{{sfn|Kanahele|1999|page=49}}{{sfn|Law|2012|pages=15–17}} Writing in 1864, Reverend [[Dwight Baldwin (missionary)|Dwight Baldwin]] alleged that Naʻea had contracted the illness from a low-level royal who had returned from China with the leprosy infection.{{sfn|Tayman|2010|pages=21, 326}} In his unpublished memoirs written before his death in 1932, [[Ambrose K. Hutchison]], a resident superintendent of the leper settlement of [[Kalaupapa]], recounted oral traditions on the origin of leprosy in Hawaii. According to Hutchison, Naʻea had contracted the illness from his [[Chinese immigration to Hawaii|Chinese]] cook who had arrived in the islands during the early [[sandalwood]] trade. The illness was diagnosed by the royal physician Dr. [[William Hillebrand]], who recommended isolation for the incurable disease to the King and his Council of Chiefs. Thus Naʻea was banished to [[Wailuku]], [[Maui]] and not allowed to return or visit Lahaina.{{sfn|Inglis|2013|pages=33–34}}{{sfn|Law|2012|pages=15–17}} Kanahele stated that he may have continued living under the care of his wife Fanny (who did not contract the disease), and continued to lead a productive life since Minister [[Robert Crichton Wyllie]] described him as a "highly respectable Hawaiian".{{sfn|Kanahele|1999|page=49}}

Naʻea died on October 4, 1854.{{sfn|Kanahele|1999|page=49}}{{sfn|Apple|1978|pages=39–41}}{{sfn|Hawaii. Board of Health|1886|page=xxviii}} Hutchison claimed that after his death, the ''kahu'' or household attendants who had accompanied Naʻea during his isolation "scattered all over the Islands" and "that these attendants contracted the disease of their liege Lord and were the carriers that planted the disease on all the islands of Hawaii". From this association, leprosy became known as ''maʻi aliʻi'' (the "sickness of the chiefs").<ref>Citing Francis John Halford's ''Nine Doctors and God'' (1954), Kanahele claimed "The origin of the name had to do not with Naʻea but rather with a chief from the suite of [[Kekāuluohi]], the premier under Kamehameha III, who was first treated for leprosy by the missionary doctor, Dwight Baldwin". ({{harvnb|Kanahele|1999|page=386}}; {{harvnb|Halford|1954|pages=223–224}})</ref> The illness was also known as ''maʻi pake'' (the "Chinese sickness") after its place of origin.{{sfn|Inglis|2013|pages=33–34}}{{sfn|Kanahele|1999|page=49}}{{sfn|Law|2012|pages=15–17}} More than a decade after Naʻea's death, the Hawaiian government under [[Kamehameha V]] adopted a systematic policy of segregation for the afflicted, and established a leper settlement at Kalaupapa on the island of [[Molokai|Molokaʻi]], to which [[Peter Kaeo|Peter Kaʻeo]], a nephew of Fanny's and a cousin of Emma's, would be exiled in 1873.{{sfn|Law|2012|page=17}}{{sfn|Kaeo|Queen Emma|1976|page=xi}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book|last=Apple|first=Russel A.|chapter=Appendix A: Young Family {{sic|Gene|ology|hide=y}}|title=Pahukanilua: Homestead of John Young: Kawaihae, Kohala, Island of Hawaiʻi : Historical Data Section of the Historic Structure Report|url=https://archive.org/details/pahukaniluahomes00appl|year=1978|publisher=National Park Office, Hawaii State Office|location=Honolulu|oclc=4962701|pages=39–41|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Halford|first=Francis John|title=Nine Doctors and God|url=|year=1954|publisher=University of Hawaii|location=Honolulu|oclc=854244525|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|author=Hawaii. Board of Health|title=Appendix E: Report of Dr. G. L. Fitch, 1884|work=Report of the President of the Board of Health to the Legislative Assembly of 1886|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VTRDAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR28|year=1886|publisher=Daily Bulletin Steam Printing Office|location=Honolulu|oclc=29102438|pages=xviii–xxxvi|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Inglis|first=Kerri A.|title=Ma‘i Lepera: A History of Leprosy in Nineteenth-Century Hawai‘i|date=2013|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu, HI|isbn=978-0-8248-6579-5|via=[[Project MUSE]]|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/21541|subscription=yes|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Kaeo|first=Peter|authorlink1=Peter Kaeo|last2=Queen Emma|first2=|authorlink2=Queen Emma of Hawaii|editor-last=Korn|editor-first= Alfons L.|title=News from Molokai, Letters Between Peter Kaeo & Queen Emma, 1873–1876|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10125/39980|year=1976|publisher=The University Press of Hawaii|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0-8248-0399-5|oclc=2225064|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Kanahele|first=George S.|authorlink=George Kanahele|title=Emma: Hawaii's Remarkable Queen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WLtlBNRt_V4C|year=1999|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0-8248-2240-8|oclc=40890919|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Law|first=Anwei Skinsnes|title=Kalaupapa: A Collective Memory (Ka Hokuwelowelo)|year=2012|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0-8248-6580-1|via=[[Project MUSE]]|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/18945|subscription=yes|oclc=830023588|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=London|first=Charmian|title=Jack London and Hawaii|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Onc1V2uLQscC|year=1918|publisher=Mills & Boon|location=London|oclc=11750539|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=McKinzie|first1=Edith Kawelohea|editor-last=Stagner|editor-first=Ishmael W.|title=Hawaiian Genealogies: Extracted from Hawaiian Language Newspapers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-YPNBdfvmDUC|volume=1|year=1983|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=0-939154-28-5|oclc=12555087|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Mouritz|first=Arthur Albert St. M.|title="The Path of the Destroyer": A History of Leprosy in the Hawaiian Islands and Thirty Years Research Into the Means by which it Has Been Spread|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQ01AQAAMAAJ|year=1916|publisher=Press: Honolulu Star-Bulletin, Ltd|location=Honolulu|oclc=14801226|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Tayman|first=John|title=The Colony: The Harrowing True Story of the Exiles of Molokai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rKUaLE6s1lgC|year=2010|publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4165-5192-8|oclc=865230373|ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Naea, George}}

[[Category:1854 deaths]]
[[Category:Royalty of the Kingdom of Hawaii]]
[[Category:People from Maui]]
[[Category:Deaths from leprosy]]

Jean Tatlock

2017-01-11T01:21:30Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Jean Frances Tatlock
|image = Jean Tatlock.png
|image_size = 240px
|caption = Jean Talock in her 20s
|birth_name =
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1914|2|21}}
|birth_place = [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1944|1|4|1914|2|21}}
|death_place = [[San Francisco, California]]
|body_discovered =
|death_cause = suicide
|resting_place =
|resting_place_coordinates = 
|residence =
|nationality =
|ethnicity =
|citizenship =
|other_names =
|known_for =
|alma_mater = [[Vassar College]] [[University of California, Berkeley]] [[Stanford University]]
|employer =
|occupation = psychiatrist
|years_active =
|home_town =
|title =
|salary =
|networth =
|height =
|weight =
|term =
|predecessor =
|successor =
|party = [[Communist Party of America]]
|opponents =
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|children =
|parents = [[John Strong Perry Tatlock]] (father)
|signature =
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|footnotes =
}}
'''Jean Frances Tatlock''', M.D. (February 21, 1914 – January 4, 1944), was an [[United States|American]] [[psychiatrist]] and [[physician]]. She was a member of the [[Communist Party of America]] and was a reporter and writer for the ''Western Worker'', its organ on the [[West Coast of the United States]]. She is best known for her romantic relationship with [[Robert Oppenheimer]], the director of the [[Manhattan Project]]'s [[Los Alamos Laboratory]] during [[World War II]].

The daughter of [[John Strong Perry Tatlock]], a prominent Old English [[Philology|philologist]] and an expert on [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], Tatlock was a graduate of [[Vassar College]] and the [[Stanford Medical School]], where she studied to become a psychiatrist. Tatlock began seeing Oppenheimer in 1936, when she was a graduate student at Stanford and Oppenheimer was a professor of [[physics]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. As a result of their relationship and her membership of the Communist Party, she was placed under surveillance by the [[FBI]], and her phone was [[telephone tapping|tapped]].

She suffered from [[clinical depression]] and committed suicide on January 4, 1944.

==Early life==
Jean Frances Tatlock was born in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]], on February 21, 1914,<ref name=96-HC-1931-PLUS-1930USCensus>{{cite journal |url=https://archive.org/stream/1896report08harvuoft/1896report08harvuoft_djvu.txt |access-date=November 6, 2016 |title='96 Harvard College – Class 1896 |journal=Harvard College: Class of 1896 Thirty-fifth Anniversary Report |location=Norwood, Massachusetts |publisher=-Plimpton Press |issue=VIII |date=June 1931}}</ref> the second child of [[John Strong Perry Tatlock]] and his wife Marjorie {{nee}} Fenton. She had an older brother named Hugh, who became a [[physician]].<ref name="Streshinsky and Klaus, p. 7">Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', p. 7.</ref> Her father, who had a [[Ph.D.]] from [[Harvard University]], was a noted and acclaimed professor of English at the [[University of Michigan]]; an Old English [[Philology|philologist]]; an expert on [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] and English plays, poems, and Elizabethan era literature; and author of approximately 60 books on those subjects, including ''The Complete Poetical Works of Geoffrey Chaucer'' (1912) and ''The Mind and Art of Chaucer'' (1950).<ref name="Streshinsky and Klaus, p. 7" /><ref name = KashnerS-JM-p65>Kashner and MacNair, ''The Bad & the Beautiful'', p. 65.</ref> John Tatlock was a professor of English at Stanford from 1915 to 1925, and Harvard from 1925 to 1929,<ref name=96-HC-1931-PLUS-1930USCensus /> before returning to the [[Bay Area]] as a professor of English at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].<ref>"Between the wars: 1914–45". ''Sandstone & Tile''. Winter/Spring 2002. Stanford Historical Society. Volume 26, No. 1.</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hart |first=W. M. |first2=I. M. |last2=Linforth |last3=B. H. |first3=Lehman |year=1948 |url=http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=hb9p300969&doc.view=frames&chunk.id=div00023&toc.depth=1&toc.id= |title=John Strong Perry Tatlock, English: Berkeley |publisher=University of California |accessdate=November 4, 2016}}</ref><ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', pp. 23, 40–41, 51.</ref>

Tatlock attended [[Cambridge Rindge and Latin School]] in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]],<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', p. 39.</ref> and Williams College in Berkeley.<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', p. 60.</ref> In 1930, she entered [[Vassar College]].<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', p. 85.</ref> She graduated in 1935, and returned to Berkeley, where she took courses to complete the prerequisites for [[Stanford Medical School]], and was a reporter and writer for the ''Western Worker'', the [[Communist Party of America]]'s organ on the [[West Coast of the United States]].<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', p. 94.</ref> She was accepted into Stanford Medical School (then located in San Francisco), where she studied to become a psychiatrist.<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', p. 96.</ref> She graduated from the Stanford with the class of 1941,<ref>''Stanford University Yearbook — 1941'', School of Medicine, [[Stanford University]], p. 176.</ref> and completed her [[Internship (medicine)|internship]] at [[St. Elizabeths Hospital]] in [[Washington, D.C.]],<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', p. 140.</ref> and [[Residency (medicine)|residency]] the Department of Psychiatry at Mount Zion Hospital (now the [[University of California, San Francisco Medical Center]]) in San Francisco.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/article/8607 |title=Pulitzer Prize-Winning Authors to Discuss Oppenheimer |publisher=[[University of California]] |date=October 23, 2006 |access-date=November 4, 2016}}</ref>

==Romance with Oppenheimer==
Tatlock struggled with sexuality,<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', pp. 76, 104.</ref> at one point writing to a friend that "there was a period when I thought I was homosexual. I still am, in a way, forced to believe it, but really, logically, I am sure that I can't be because of my un-masculinity."<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', p. 68.</ref> She began seeing [[Robert Oppenheimer]] in 1936, when she was a graduate student there and Oppenheimer was a professor of [[physics]] at Berkeley.<ref>Bird and Sherwin, ''American Prometheus'', p. 105</ref> They met through his landlady, Mary Ellen Washburn, who was also a member of the Communist party, when Washburn held a fund raiser for communist-backed [[Second Spanish Republic|Spanish Republicans]]. The couple started dating and had a passionate relationship; he proposed to her twice, but she refused.<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', p. 118.</ref><ref name=Herken-P-29>Herken, ''Brotherhood of the Bomb'', p. 29.</ref> She is credited with introducing Oppenheimer to radical politics during the late 1930s,<ref>Bird and Sherwin, ''American Prometheus'', p. 114.</ref> and to people involved with, or sympathetic to the [[Communist Party]] or related groups, such as [[Rudy Lambert]] and [[Thomas Addis]].<ref name=Herken-P-29 /> They continued seeing each other after he became involved with Kitty Harrison, whom her married on November 1, 1940. Oppenheimer and Tatlock spent the New Year together in 1941, and once met at Mark Hopkins hotel in San Francisco.<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', pp. 131, 138.</ref>

Oppenheimer's association with her friends was used as evidence against him during his [[Oppenheimer security hearing|1954 security hearing]].<ref>Evans, Ward V. [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/opp01.asp "Findings and Recommendations of the Personnel Security Board in the Matter of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer"], United States Atomic Energy Commission (c/o Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law Library, Yale Law School). May 27, 1954.</ref><ref name = "Smyth">Smyth, Henry D. [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/opp06.asp "Decision and Opinions of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in the Matter of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer"] (c/o Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law Library, Yale Law School). June 29, 1954.</ref> In a letter to Major General [[Kenneth D. Nichols]], General Manager, [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]], dated March 4, 1954, Oppenheimer described their association as follows:
{{quote|In the spring of 1936, I had been introduced by friends to Jean Tatlock, the daughter of a noted professor of English at the university; and in the autumn, I began to court her, and we grew close to each other. We were at least twice close enough to marriage to think of ourselves as engaged. Between 1939 and her death in 1944 I saw her very rarely. She told me about her [[Communist Party]] memberships; they were on again, off again affairs, and never seemed to provide for her what she was seeking. I do not believe that her interests were really political. She loved this country and its people and its life. She was, as it turned out, a friend of many fellow travelers and Communists, with a number of whom I was later to become acquainted.

I should not give the impression that it was wholly because of Jean Tatlock that I made leftwing friends, or felt sympathy for causes which hitherto would have seemed so remote from me, like the Loyalist cause in Spain, and the organization of migratory workers. I have mentioned some of the other contributing causes. I liked the new sense of companionship, and at the time felt that I was coming to be part of the life of my time and country.<ref>Personal correspondence, J. Robert Oppenheimer to Kenneth D. Nichols, March 4, 1954, in: [https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesatom007206mbp ''United States Atomic Energy Commission In The Matter Of J.Robert Oppenheimer'']. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1954, p. 6.</ref>}}

While some historians believe that Oppenheimer had an extramarital affair with Tatlock while he was working on the [[Manhattan Project]],<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', pp. 143–144.</ref> others assert he met with Tatlock only once after he was picked to head the [[Los Alamos Laboratory]] in mid-June 1943.<ref name = Herken-P-101-102>Herken, ''Brotherhood of the Bomb'', pp. 101–102.</ref> At that meeting she told him that she still loved him and wanted to be with him.<ref>Smith, and Weiner, ''Robert Oppenheimer: Letters and Recollections'', p. 262.</ref><ref>Chafe, ''The Achievement of American Liberalism'', p. 141.</ref> They spent the night of June 14, 1943, together while U.S. Army agents, waiting in the street outside, had them under surveillance.<ref name= "Herken-P-101-102" /> He never saw her again.<ref>Bird and Sherwin, ''American Prometheus'', p. 232</ref><ref>Conant, ''109 East Palace'', pp. 193–194.</ref>

==Death==
Tatlock suffered from severe [[clinical depression]], and was being treated at Mount Zion.<ref name = "Herken-P-101-102" /> At around 1 pm on January 5, 1944, her father arrived at her San Francisco apartment at 1405 Montgomery Street. When there was no response to his ringing the doorbell, he climbed in through a window.<ref name = KashnerS-JM-p65 /><ref name="Bird and Sherwin, p. 250">Bird and Sherwin, ''American Prometheus'', p. 250.</ref> He found her dead, lying on a pile of cushions in the bathroom, with her head submerged in the partly-filled bathtub.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Letters to the Editor: "Comment on book review of: ''Brotherhood of the Bomb'' by Gregg Herken (2003)" |journal=American Journal of Physics |date=July 2003 |volume=71 |issue=7 |p=647 |doi=10.1119/1.1579499}}</ref><ref name = "Crease">Serber and Crease, ''Peace & War'', p. 86.</ref><ref name = "Pais">Pais and Crease, ''J. Robert Oppenheimer: A Life'', p. 36.</ref><ref name = "Thorpe">Thorpe, ''Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect'', p. 55.</ref> There was an unsigned [[suicide note]], which read:
{{quote|I am disgusted with everything... To those who loved me and helped me, all love and courage. I wanted to live and to give and I got paralyzed somehow. I tried like hell to understand and couldn't... I think I would have been a liability all my life—at least I could take away the burden of a paralyzed soul from a fighting world.<ref name="Restricted Data" /> }}
Her father found her correspondence and sifted through it, burning letters and photographs in the fireplace. At 5:10 pm he called the Halstead Funeral Home, who contacted the police. The police arrived at 5:30 pm, accompanied by the deputy coroner. At the time of her death she was under surveillance by the [[FBI]], and her phone had been [[telephone tapping|tapped]], so one of the first people informed about it was FBI director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], via a [[teletype]] link.<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', pp. 192–194, 198–199</ref> The news of her death was reported in Bay Area newspapers.<ref name="Bird and Sherwin, p. 252">Bird and Sherwin, ''American Prometheus'', p. 252.</ref>

Washburn cabled Charlotte Serber at Los Alamos.<ref name="Bird and Sherwin, p. 252" /> As the librarian, she had access to the Technical Area, and told her husband, physicist [[Robert Serber]], who then went to inform Oppenheimer. When he reached his office, he found that Oppenheimer already knew.<ref>Conant, ''109 East Place'', pp. 193–194.</ref> The security chief at Los Alamos, Captain [[Peer de Silva]], had received the news through the wiretap and Army Intelligence, and had broken it to Oppenheimer.<ref>Monk, ''Inside the Centre'', pp. 386–387.</ref> Tatlock had introduced Oppenheimer to the poetry of [[John Donne]], and he named the first [[nuclear testing|test of a nuclear weapon]] "[[Trinity site|Trinity]]" in reference to one of Donne's poems, as a tribute to her.<ref name=Herken-P-129>Herken, ''Brotherhood of the Bomb'', p. 129.</ref><ref>Rhodes, ''The Making of the Atomic Bomb'', pp. 571–572.</ref>

A formal inquest in February 1944 returned a verdict of "Suicide, motive unknown".<ref name="Bird and Sherwin, p. 251">Bird and Sherwin, ''American Prometheus'', p. 251.</ref> In his report, the coroner found that Tatlock had eaten a full meal shortly before her death. She had taken some [[barbiturates]], but not a fatal dose. Traces of [[chloral hydrate]] were found, a drug normally associated with a "[[Mickey Finn (drugs)|Mickey Finn]]" when combined with alcohol, but there was no alcohol in her blood, despite damage to her [[pancreas]] that indicated she was a heavy drinker. As a psychiatrist working in a hospital, she had access to sedatives such chloral hydrate.<ref>Bird and Sherwin, ''American Prometheus'', pp. 249–253.</ref> The coroner found that she had died at around 4:30 pm on January 4. The cause of death was recorded as "acute edema of the lungs with pulmonary congestion"<ref>Streshinsky and Klaus, ''An Atomic Love Story'', p. 192</ref> — drowning in the bathtub. It seems likely that she knelt over the bathtub, took chloral hydrate, and plunged her head in the water.<ref name="Bird and Sherwin, p. 253">Bird and Sherwin, ''American Prometheus'', p. 253.</ref>

There has been, at times, speculation by historians and her brother Hugh as to whether her death was truly a [[suicide]], as there were some suspicious circumstances. The [[conspiracy theory]] that she was murdered by intelligence agents working for Manhattan Project was bolstered by the 1975 [[Church Committee]], which revealed details of assassinations carried out by American intelligence agencies,<ref name="Bird and Sherwin, p. 253" /> and was depicted in the fictional TV series ''[[Manhattan (TV series)|Manhattan]]''.<ref name="Restricted Data">{{cite web |url=http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2015/12/11/the-curious-death-of-oppenheimers-mistress/ |title=The curious death of Oppenheimer’s mistress |first=Alex |last=Wellerstein |date=December 11, 2015 |access-date=January 10, 2017 |publisher=Restricted Data }}</ref> One doctor observed that: "If you were clever and wanted to kill someone, this is the way to do it."<ref name="Bird and Sherwin, p. 253">Bird and Sherwin, ''American Prometheus'', p. 253.</ref>

Her father had her remains cremated.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/find-a-grave-prod/photos/2014/212/133652819_1406920011.jpg |title=Death certificate – Jean Francis Tatlock |access-date=November 6, 2016 |publisher=Find a Grave }}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last=Bird |first=Kai |authorlink=Kai Bird|first2=Martin J. |last2=Sherwin |authorlink2=Martin J. Sherwin |title=[[American Prometheus]]: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer|location=New York|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=2005|isbn=0-375-41202-6 |oclc=56753298 }}
* {{cite book |last=Chafe |first=William Henry |title=The Achievement of American Liberalism: The New Deal and Its Legacies |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2002 |isbn=0-231-11212-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Conant |first=Jennet |authorlink=Jennet Conant |title=109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the Secret City of Los Alamos |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |year=2005 |isbn= 0-7432-5007-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Herken|first=Gregg |title=Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller|location=New York |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |year=2002 |isbn=0-8050-6588-1 }}
*{{cite book|last=Kashner |first=Sam |last2=MacNair |first2=Jennifer |title=The Bad & the Beautiful: Hollywood in the Fifties|year=2002|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-32436-5}}
* {{cite book | last = Monk | first = Ray | authorlink = Ray Monk | title = Robert Oppenheimer: A Life Inside the Center | year = 2012 | publisher = Doubleday | location = New York; Toronto | isbn = 978-0-385-50407-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Pais|first=Abraham |authorlink=Abraham Pais |title=J. Robert Oppenheimer: A Life|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-19-516673-6 |location=Oxford |oclc=65637244 }}
* {{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Rhodes |title=[[The Making of the Atomic Bomb]] |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1986 |isbn=0-671-44133-7|oclc=13793436 }}
*{{cite book|last1=Serber|first1=Robert |author-link=Robert Serber |last2= Crease|first2=Robert P. |author-link2=Robert P. Crease|title=Peace & War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science |year=1998 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-10546-0}}
* {{cite book |last= Smith|first=Alice Kimball|last2=Weiner |first2=Charles|title=Robert Oppenheimer: Letters and recollections|publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1980 |isbn= 0-8047-2620-5 |oclc=5946652 }}
* {{cite book |last=Streshinsky |first=Shirley |last2=Klaus |first2=Patricia |title=An Atomic Love Story: The Extraordinary Women in Robert Oppenheimer's Life |location=New York |publisher=Turner Publishing |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-61858-019-1 }}
* {{cite book | last=Thorpe |first=Charles |title=Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect| year=2006 | publisher=University of Chicago Press | isbn=0-226-79845-3 }}

{{portal bar|biography|communism|psychiatry|World War II}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tatlock, Jean}}
[[Category:1914 births]]
[[Category:1944 deaths]]
[[Category:Activists who committed suicide]]
[[Category:American women physicians]]
[[Category:Stanford Medical School alumni]]
[[Category:American communists]]

Gui Minhai

2016-11-26T16:21:42Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{EngvarB|date=November 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox Chinese-language singer and actor
| name = Gui Minhai
| gender =
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| chinesename = 桂民海
| tradchinesename =
| simpchinesename =
| pinyinchinesename = guì mín hǎi
| jyutpingchinesename =
| yalechinesename = gwái man hōi
| pojchinesename =
| vietnamesename =
| birth_name = 桂敏海
| ethnicity = [[Han Chinese]]
| origin =
| birth_date =5 May 1964
| birth_place = [[Ningbo]]
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| occupation = writer, publisher
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| alma mater =[[Peking University]] (bachelor 1985), [[University of Gothenburg]] (MA 1990, PhD 1996)<ref name=chinesepen/>
| website = {{URL|freeguiminhai.org}}
| alias = Michael Gui, Ah Hai (阿海)
}}
{{chinese name|Gui}}
'''Gui Minhai''' (Chinese:桂敏海 or 桂民海),<ref name="mingpao1453140356"/> also known as '''Michael Gui''',<ref name="scmp1922289"/> (born 5 May 1964 in [[Ningbo]], Zhejiang)<ref name=chinesepen/> is a Chinese-born Swedish scholar and book publisher. He is a prolific author on books about Chinese politics and political figures. Gui authored around 200 books during his ten-year career under the pen name Ah Hai (阿海).<ref name=chinesepen/><ref name=20151208guardian/><ref name=boxun/><ref name=" AutoAI-2 "/><ref name=20160118nytimes/> and is one of three shareholders of [[Causeway Bay Books]] in Hong Kong.

Gui went missing in Thailand in late 2015, one of five men who vanished in a string of incidents known as the [[Causeway Bay Books disappearances]]. The case ignited fears locally and in Britain over the collapse of "[[one country, two systems]]", over the possibility that people could be subject to [[extraordinary rendition|rendition]] from Hong Kong and from other countries by Chinese law enforcement.<ref name=nbcnews505046/><ref name=20160212theguardian/> The Chinese government was silent about holding him in custody for three months, at which point a controversial video confession was broadcast on mainland media.<ref name=latimes20160120/> In it, Gui said that he had returned to mainland China and surrendered to the authorities of his own volition. He appeared indicate that he was prepared to follow the course of justice in China, whilst waiving protection as a Swedish citizen.<ref name=latimes20160120/><ref name=20160121cpianalysis/><ref name="xinhuanet1117800737"/>

Many observers expressed doubts as to the sincerity and credibility of Gui's confession.<ref name=20160117hongkongfp/><ref name=scmp1902805/><ref name=australian/><ref name="201601asiancorrespondent"/> ''The Washington Post'' described the narrative as "messy and incoherent, blending possible fact with what seems like outright fiction".<ref name=20160118wapo/><ref name=qz596565/> Chinese state media said in late February 2016 that Gui was being held for "illegal business operations". He is alleged to have knowingly distributed books not approved by China's press and publication authority since October 2014.<ref name="20160229hongkongfp"/> Gui remains in detention in China one year after his disappearance.<ref name="AutoLM-1"/>

== Biography ==
=== Early life ===
Born in [[Ningbo]] in 1964, Gui graduated from [[Peking University]] with a bachelor's degree in History in 1985.<ref name=chinesepen/><ref name=scmp1902296/> Gui served as editor to the [[People's Education Press]] until 1988, when he departed for Sweden, and enrolled in a [[Ph.D|doctorate program]] at the [[University of Gothenburg]].<ref name=scmp1902296/> After the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], he obtained Swedish residency, and later naturalised as a citizen of Sweden, upon which he renounced his Chinese citizenship. According to his daughter, he was attracted to beauty of his adopted country and the freedom he felt living there.<ref name=201600903hongkongfp/> Upon obtaining his PhD in 1996,<ref name=scmp1902296/> Gui's wife is also a naturalised Swedish citizen. The couple's daughter was born in 1994.<ref name=scmp1902296/>

Gui returned to China in 2000 and started a company in Ningbo, offering environmental engineering services.<ref name="AutoAI-3"/> In 2003 he was known to be working for a German affiliate of Nordpool Consulting. Gui was allegedly involved in a drink-driving incident in Ningbo in December 2003 in which a 20-year-old girl died.<ref name=scmp1902296/><ref name=20160117hongkongfp/> The Ningbo Municipal Intermediate People's Court ruled the following August that Gui Minhai had committed a crime, for which Gui received a two-year suspended jail term.<ref name=20160118nytimes/><ref name=20160117hongkongfp/><ref name="AutoAI-4"/> He then departed for Germany.<ref name=scmp1902296/>

=== Publishing career ===
Beginning in 2006, he set up several publishing companies focused on Chinese politics.<ref name=scmp1902296/> He joined the Chinese chapter of [[PEN International]], through which he became acquainted with professionals in Hong Kong International PEN.<ref name="nextmedia19440544"/> In 2013, Gui, Lee Bo, and Lui Bo set up Mighty Current Media<ref name=scmp1902296/> (also referred to as Sage Communications)<ref name=20151208guardian/> – a Hong Kong company specialising in publishing and distributing books on political gossip about leaders in China.<ref name=scmp1902296/> Gui and Lee Bo both hold 34% of the company's shares (Lee Bo's shares are in the name of his wife, Sophie Choi), and Lui Bo holds the remaining 32%.<ref name="AutoMV-1"/> In 2014, the company acquired [[Causeway Bay Books]], an upstairs bookstore in the bustling part of Hong Kong.<ref name="nextmedia19440544"/>

Under the name "Ah Hai", Gui authored around 200 books during his ten-year career.<ref name=20151208guardian/><ref name=boxun/> The subjects of these books included [[Bo Xilai]], and [[Zhou Yongkang]], who are former members of the [[Politburo of the Communist Party of China]], and Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]].<ref name=20151208guardian/> The books have been described in the Western media as "thinly-sourced, tabloid-style political books ... which are outlawed in mainland China".<ref name=20151208guardian/> Gui's colleague, Lee Bo, acknowledged that Gui's books contained a lot of conjecture and gossip rather than actual fact, and described Gui as a businessman whose publishing was motivated by profit rather than ideology.<ref name=20151208guardian/>

Due to the fact that works critical of the leadership of the Chinese regime are considered sensitive, Gui always kept his work projects secret; he kept his movements to himself and his telephone calls were re-routed through foreign countries.<ref name=20151208guardian/> He went a long period without entering the PRC – he did not attend his father when the latter was ill, and did not return to China for his funeral, either.<ref name=nextmedia19458046/> Media sources reported that Gui had published approximately half of the popular books written on Bo Xilai. When Bo was caught in the political fallout from the [[Wang Lijun incident]] in 2013, Gui reaped a financial benefit of HK$10 million from the surge in sales.<ref name=scmp1902296/> Gui's publishing financed his property acquisitions in Hong Kong and Germany, including a seaside retreat in [[Pattaya]], Thailand.<ref name=scmp1902296/><ref name=20151208guardian/>

== Disappearance ==
Last heard from on 15 October according to his colleagues,<ref name="scmp1922289"/> Gui disappeared from his apartment in [[Pattaya]], Thailand on 17 October, apparently taken away by an unknown man.<ref name="time4184324"/> He was the second bookseller associated with Causeway Bay Books to apparently vanish without trace: Lui Bo had last been seen near his home in Shenzhen on 14 October 2015; three others would also disappear in the weeks that followed.<ref name="Initium"/> The three latter were reported missing in November.<ref name=scmp1897366/> Lee Bo had been in fact informing the media of the disappearances of his other four colleagues when he himself vanished from Hong Kong on 30 December.<ref name=bbc35219260/> Lee's disappearance, due to the improbability that Lee had gone to Shenzhen while his [[Mainland Travel Permit for Hong Kong and Macao Residents|mainland travel permit]] was left at home, crystallised a great deal of anxiety about the pattern of bookshop disappearances and of the possibility of [[extraordinary rendition|cross-border renditions]].<ref name="bbc35219260"/> Lee Bo's disappearance prompted Hong Kong Chief Executive [[CY Leung]] to hold a press conference on 4 January 2016 in which he stated that it would be "unacceptable" and a breach of the [[Basic Law]] if mainland Chinese law officials were operating in Hong Kong.<ref name="20160105nytimes"/><ref name="20160107guardianpull"/>

Two weeks after Gui's disappearance, four men came to search his apartment – ostensibly for his computer – but left without it.<ref name="AutoAI-5"/><ref name="AutoAI-6"/><ref name="time4184324"/> A manager from the estate where Gui lived attempted to contact Gui on the number of the person who called her last regarding Gui. A taxi driver answered, saying that four men had left the telephone in the taxi, and that they had wanted to go to [[Poipet]], a border town in Cambodia.<ref name=20151208guardian/> Gui was last heard from on 6 November when he called his wife to tell her that he was safe but was unwilling to reveal his whereabouts.<ref name=Sweden2/> The Thai authorities have no record of Gui leaving the country.<ref name=scmp1922289/> Gui's family contacted the Swedish embassy, and the Swedish police filed a report through Interpol. ''The Guardian'' observed that the Thai government had done little to advance the case, noting that the military junta was becoming increasingly accommodating to Chinese demands.<ref name=20151208guardian/>

=== Confirmation of detention ===
[[Xinhua News Agency]] published an article on 17 January 2016 stating that an individual by the name of Gui Minhai had been detained relating to a fatal traffic accident in December 2003 in which a school girl died.<ref name=20160118nytimes/><ref name="AutoAI-4"/> Xinhua alleged that Gui Minhai (桂敏海), with a different but identical-sounding middle character with respect to Gui Minhai the publisher, had fled abroad under the guise of a tourist in November 2004 using a borrowed [[People's Republic of China identity card|identity card]] following the court case; his stated age was 46 years in 2005 – a discrepancy of five years compared with the details in Gui's Swedish passport. The two discrepancies created doubts that there may have been a case of mistaken identity.<ref name="AutoAI-7"/><ref name=20160117hongkongfp/><ref name=20160121cpianalysis/> Xinhua claimed that Gui gave himself up to public security officials in October 2015.<ref name=latimes20160120/><ref name="xinhuanet1117800737"/>

A video confession which was released at the same time and broadcast on [[China Central Television]] confirmed his identity. A tearful Gui said that his return to mainland China and his surrender were "my personal choice and had nothing to do with anyone else. I should shoulder my responsibility and I don’t want any individual or institutions to interfere, or viciously hype up my return". Gui also said, “Although I have Swedish citizenship, I truly feel that I am still Chinese — my roots are in China. So I hope Sweden can respect my personal choice, respect my rights and privacy of my personal choice and allow me to resolve my own problems”. Criminal investigations on other charges were said to be in progress.<ref name=latimes20160120/><ref name=20160121cpianalysis/><ref name="xinhuanet1117800737"/> It was only on 19 January, when fellow Swedish citizen Peter Dahlin, cofounder of an NGO providing legal training for local lawyers in China, appeared on television, confessing to having violated Chinese law and "caused harm to the Chinese government [and] hurt the feelings of the Chinese people" that it came to international attention that Gui had also confessed on television. Dahlin was deported.<ref name=nbcnews505046/> [[Reporters Without Borders]] condemned China's [[forced confession]]s, and urged the EU to sanction CCTV and Xinhua for "knowingly peddling lies and statements presumably obtained under duress".<ref name=rthk/> Lee Bo's letter to his wife on 17 January said that he had voluntarily gone to the mainland to assist Chinese law enforcement in an investigation that involved Gui. He denounced Gui as "a morally unacceptable person" who had got him into trouble with the authorities.<ref name=20160119straitstimes/><ref name=20160121cpianalysis/>

[[File:Gui-minhai.jpg|thumb|Gui's video confession broadcast on [[China Central Television]] on 17 January 2016]]
Gui Minhai's confession was received with incredulity, and many of the facts surrounding his disappearance from Thailand, including the release of the video three months after his disappearance, were called into question.<ref name=20160117hongkongfp/><ref name=scmp1902805/> The president of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, [[Jasper Tsang]], said: "the China Central Television (CCTV) report [and broadcast of Gui Minghau's confession] did not seem to be able to calm the public. As the case drags on, there will be more speculation".<ref name=australian/> Human Rights Watch was quoted as saying: "Given that Gui has been held nearly three months incommunicado, in a secret location, and without a lawyer, his confession on state-controlled TV lacks credibility."<ref name="201601asiancorrespondent"/> ''The Washington Post'' said: "The narrative seems messy and incoherent, blending possible fact with what seems like outright fiction. It feels illogical, absurd even."<ref name=20160118wapo/><ref name=qz596565/> ''The Guardian'' drew a connection to Operation Fox Hunt, a Chinese government campaign launched by Xi Jinping in 2014 to repatriate corrupt officials or opponents of the regime who had fled abroad, and which may also have been responsible for the abduction of the other missing booksellers.<ref name=20151208guardian/> In mid-June 2016, his family had not yet received official confirmation that he was under detention, according to Gui's daughter.<ref name=scmp1976776/>

=== Reaction to detention ===
[[Bei Ling]], a personal friend of Gui and president of Independent Chinese PEN, said that Gui had not given himself up voluntarily but had in fact been abducted.<ref name="bbc160118"/> He confirmed that there had indeed been a drink-driving case involving Gui in which a young woman was killed but that the accident and his disappearance were unrelated.<ref name=20160119straitstimes/><ref name=20160121cpianalysis/> Bei asserted that there was no official record of Gui Minhai's departure from Thailand, and that international law had been violated by Gui's kidnapping.<ref name="bbc160118"/> He speculated that the abductors had returned to Gui's apartment to retrieve his passport, and that Gui may have been sent to China from Cambodia on a plane loaded with Chinese deportees.<ref name=20151208guardian/> Gui's daughter Angela had been notified of her father's disappearance in an email from Lee Bo dated 10 November in which Lee said he feared Gui had been taken to China "for political reasons".<ref name=scmp1922289/> Angela dismissed the assertion that her father had returned to the mainland voluntarily.<ref name=latimes20160120/><ref name=australian/>

Sweden has repeatedly requested transparency from China, and summoned the Thai ambassador for information in December.<ref name=latimes20160120/> After the appearance of the video confession, the Swedish foreign ministry reported that a Swedish envoy was finally allowed to visit Gui.<ref name=":0"/><ref name="scmp1966843"/> In January 2016, Swedish foreign minister [[Margot Wallström]] condemned the forced confessions of Dahlin and Gui (who are both Swedish citizens) on Chinese television, terming them "unacceptable". The Chinese government has said that Gui was first and foremost a Chinese subject, and the Swedish government seems to have quietly accepted this position. The Swedish diplomatic effort has been through consular channels and has been low profile.<ref name=20161017hongkongfp/> In late February 2016, state media appeared to clarify the charges against Gui, saying that Gui was being held for "illegal business operations". He is alleged to have knowingly distributed books not approved by China's press and publication authority – according to the charges, some 4,000 such books had been sent by post disguised as different books to 380 buyers in 28 cities in mainland China since October 2014.<ref name="20160229hongkongfp"/> Also in early February, the European Parliament issued a statement asking for the Gui, Lee Bo, and their three colleagues at Causeway Bay Books to be released immediately. In his report on Hong Kong for the second half of 2015, British Foreign Secretary Philip Hammond expressed concern about the Causeway Bay Books disappearances, and said in particular that the abduction of Gui's colleague Lee Bo, a British citizen, from Hong Kong was "a serious breach of the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]] on Hong Kong and undermines the principle of [[one country, two systems]]".<ref name="20160212theguardian"/>

Gui's detention was discussed at the US Congressional Executive Committee on China in May.<ref name=20161017hongkongfp/> In September, Angela spoke before the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]], and also made an emotional plea on behalf of her father on Swedish television, an appearance which prompted another public statement by Wallström on the detention. The Swedish Government, which said that they had been involved in "quiet diplomacy" with the Chinese regime, secured a second audience with Gui after 11 months of detention.<ref name="20161017hongkongfp"/>

A year after Gui's disappearance, there is a general consensus among commentators that the five booksellers were abducted by Chinese authorities.<ref name="AutoLM-1"/> As of October 2016, Gui has spent a year in detention, while the other four men were released in early March 2016.<ref name="20160304guardian"/><ref name="scmp1922757"/> Another colleague, Lam Wing-kee gave a detailed and highly-mediatised interview about his abduction and his months in detention by mainland law enforcement in Ningbo and subsequently Shaoguan. Their other colleagues have remained low profile and refused comment.<ref name="scmp1976598"/>

== Bibliography ==
*《二十世纪西方文化史掠影》Beijing Normal University Press, 1991 ISBN 7810141120
*《北欧的神话传说》Liaoning University Press, 1992 ISBN 7561017294
*《雍正十年: 那条瑞典船的故事》China Social Sciences Press, 2006 ISBN 7801064194<ref name="AutoAI-2"/>
*《我把黑森林留给你》香港文化艺术出版社, 2007

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<ref name=20160105nytimes>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/05/world/asia/mighty-current-media-hong-kong-lee-bo.html|title=Disappearance of 5 Tied to Publisher Prompts Broader Worries in Hong Kong|date=5 January 2016|first=Michael |last=Forsythe|work=The New York Times}}</ref>

<ref name=20160107guardianpull>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/07/hong-kong-bookshops-pull-politically-sensitive-titles-after-publishers-vanish|title=Hong Kong bookshops pull politically sensitive titles after publishers vanish|first=Ilaria Maria |last=Sala|work=The Guardian|date=7 January 2016}}</ref>

<ref name="AutoAI-5">{{cite news|title=桂民海發神秘訊息予女　員工料失蹤或因新書|trans-title=Gui Minhai's mysterious SMS to daughter; colleagues fear disappearance linked to new book|url=http://hk.on.cc/hk/bkn/cnt/news/20151114/bkn-20151114171043185-1114_00822_001.html|accessdate=6 January 2016|work=Oriental Daily News|date=14 November 2015|language=zh}}</ref>

<ref name="AutoAI-6">{{cite news|title=銅鑼灣書店東主失蹤後　曾有四人搜掠其住所　BBC：桂民海擬出版習近平內幕書|url=https://thestandnews.com/society/銅鑼灣書店東主失蹤後-曾有四人搜掠其住所-bbc-桂民海擬出版習近平內幕書/|language=zh|accessdate=6 January 2016|publisher=The Stand News|date=13 November 2015}}</ref>

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<ref name="AutoAI-7">{{cite news|title=[今日说法]本期话题：求证(2005年4月8日)
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<ref name=xinhuanet1117800737>{{cite news|title=香港铜锣湾书店老板桂敏海"失踪"事件调查|trans-title=Disappearance of Causeway Bay Books boss case under investigation|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/legal/2016-01/17/c_1117800737.htm|accessdate=17 January 2016|agency=[[Xinhua News Agency]]|language=zh|date=17 January 2016}}</ref>

<ref name=rthk>{{cite web|url=http://news.rthk.hk/rthk/en/component/k2/1237336-20160121.htm|title=Action against CCTV urged over 'forced confession'|date=21 January 2016|publisher=RTHK}}</ref>

<ref name=scmp1902805>{{cite web|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-crime/article/1902805/who-believes-chinas-narrative-hong-kongs-missing-bookseller|title=Who believes China's narrative on Hong Kong's missing bookseller mystery?|first=Laura |last=Ma|date=19 January 2016|work=South China Morning Post}}</ref>

<ref name=australian>{{cite web|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/latest-news/china-says-missing-bookseller-on-mainland/news-story/d3c914d45edf7825ca3f7b235fc40b76|title=Bookseller confession 'not enough'|date=19 January 2016|agency=AAP|work=The Australian}}</ref>

<ref name=201601asiancorrespondent>{{cite news|url=https://asiancorrespondent.com/2016/01/china-confirms-missing-hong-kong-publisher-in-mainland/|title=China says missing Hong Kong publisher Lee Bo is in mainland |work= Asian Correspondent |date= 19 January 2016}}</ref>

<ref name=20160118wapo>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/01/18/hong-kong-booksellers-televised-confession-was-absurd-and-incoherent-and-thats-the-point/|title=Hong Kong bookseller's televised 'confession' was absurd and incoherent – and that's the point|first=Emily |last=Rauhala|date=18 January 2016|work=The Washington Post}}</ref>

<ref name=qz596565>{{cite web|url=http://qz.com/596565/chinese-citizens-are-questioning-hong-kong-bookseller-gui-minhais-public-confession/|title=Chinese citizens don't believe Hong Kong bookseller Gui Minhai's public confession either|first=Zheping |last=Huang|work=Quartz|date=19 January 2016}}</ref>

<ref name=bbc160118>{{cite news|title=香港铜锣湾书店案：瑞典寻求中国澄清桂民海下落|trans-title=Causeway Bay Books case: Sweden seeks clarification on whereabouts of Gui Minhai|url=http://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/china/2016/01/160118_hongkong_bookstore_row|publisher=[[BBC]]|language=zh|date=18 January 2016}}</ref>

<ref name=":0">{{Cite web| url = http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-35685999| title = Missing Hong Kong booksellers paraded on Chinese TV | publisher = BBC News|date = 29 February 2016 }}</ref>

<ref name=scmp1966843>{{cite web|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/1966843/detained-causeway-bay-bookseller-gui-minhai-not-seen-swedish|title=Detained Causeway Bay bookseller Gui Minhai not seen by Swedish diplomats for more than three months, says consul general|first=Stuart |last=Lau|work=South China Morning Post|date=}}</ref>

<ref name=20161017hongkongfp>{{cite web|url=https://www.hongkongfp.com/2016/10/17/the-last-missing-bookseller-one-year-on-the-anniversary-of-gui-minhais-abduction-demands-action/|title=The last missing bookseller: One year on, the anniversary of Gui Minhai's abduction demands action|first=Michael|last=Caster|date=17 October 2016|work=Hong Kong Free Press}}</ref>

<ref name=20160229hongkongfp>{{cite web|url=https://www.hongkongfp.com/2016/02/29/58042/|title=Missing booksellers 'operated illegal business', but could return to HK soon – state media |first=Karen |last=Cheung|date=29 February 2016 |work=Hong Kong Free Press}}</ref>

<ref name=20160212theguardian>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/12/britain-accuses-china-of-serious-breach-of-treaty-over-removed-hong-kong-booksellers|first= Stuart |last=Leavenworth |title=Britain accuses China of serious breach of treaty over 'removed' Hong Kong booksellers|date=12 February 2016|work=The Guardian}}</ref>

<ref name="AutoLM-1">{{cite news|url=https://www.actualitte.com/article/monde-edition/depuis-plus-d-un-an-l-editeur-gui-minhai-est-detenu-en-chine/67558|title=Depuis plus d'un an, l'éditeur Gui Minhai est détenu en Chine|trans-title=For more than one year, publisher Gui Minhai remains under detention in China|first=Antoine |last=Oury |date=18 October 2016|work=ActuaLitté}}</ref>

<ref name="20160304guardian">{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/04/missing-bookseller-back-in-hong-kong-government-says|title=Missing bookseller Lui Por back in Hong Kong, government says|work=The Guardian|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=4 March 2016}}</ref>

<ref name=scmp1922757>{{cite web|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-crime/article/1922757/quick-turnabout-two-booksellers-hurried-back-across-border|title=Booksellers slipped back to mainland China after requesting Hong Kong police drop missing persons cases|first1=Phila |last1=Siu |first2=Oliver |last2=Chou |first3=Clifford |last3=Lo|date=9 March 2016|work=South China Morning Post}}</ref>

<ref name=scmp1976598>{{cite web|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-crime/article/1976598/full-transcript-lam-wing-kees-opening-statement-his-hong|title=Full transcript of Lam Wing-kee's opening statement at his Hong Kong press conference|first=Jennifer |last=Ngo|work=South China Morning Post|date=17 June 2016}}</ref>

<ref name="AutoAI-2">[http://www.amazon.cn/%E9%9B%8D%E6%AD%A3%E5%8D%81%E5%B9%B41732-%E9%82%A3%E6%9D%A1%E7%91%9E%E5%85%B8%E8%88%B9%E7%9A%84%E6%95%85%E4%BA%8B-%E9%98%BF%E6%B5%B7/dp/B00112ZYB6 雍正十年1732:那条瑞典船的故事平装 – 2006年1月1日] Amazon.com</ref>

}}

== External links ==
* [http://freeguiminhai.org/ Free Gui Minhai]
* Liu, Juliana (4 February 2016). [http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-35480229 "Hong Kong's missing booksellers and 'banned' Xi Jinping book"]. BBC News
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QxxY73pY6QE Gui Minhai's video confession], 17 January 2016, @YouTube
*[http://boxun.com/news/gb/pubvp/2016/01/201601181118.shtml#.VpzPTvl6-nQ 李方：中共编造弥天大谎]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gui, Minhai}}
[[Category:Peking University alumni]]
[[Category:University of Gothenburg alumni]]
[[Category:Writers from Ningbo]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1964 births]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of Sweden]]
[[Category:Chinese emigrants to Sweden]]
[[Category:Temporary disappearances]]
[[Category:Book publishers (people)]]
[[Category:Hong Kong writers]]

Albin Longren

2016-06-08T04:41:11Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2012}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Albin K. Longren
| residence =
| other_names =
| image = File:Longren sits in first plane (2553012566).jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Longren in the pilot's seat, 1911
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1882|01|18}}
| birth_place = [[Leonardville, Kansas]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1950|11|19|1882|01|18}}
| death_place =
| occupation = Aviator; aircraft designer; aviation entrepreneur
| known for = [[Longren Aircraft Corporation]] founder
| children =
}}

'''Albin Kasper Longren''' (January 18, 1882 – November 19, 1950) was an American [[aviation pioneer]] from the state of [[Kansas]]. Beginning in 1911, Longren successfully flew [[airplane]]s of his own [[Aircraft design process|design]] and construction. Fully self-taught as an [[aircraft designer]] and [[Pilot (aeronautics)|pilot]], he built a thriving career as a [[Barnstorming|barnstormer]] with his own craft, becoming known throughout the Midwest as the "Birdman".

He established his own aeronautics manufacturing company, [[Longren Aircraft Corporation]], which produced [[List of aircraft (L)#Longren|several models]] through the 1920s. The handcrafted Longren planes were well regarded by aviation professionals of the era. Longren created several innovations including the design for the first [[semi-monocoque]] airplane body. In addition to his own independent enterprises, he worked for many years with some of the best-known companies in the industry – [[Spartan Aircraft Company|Spartan]], [[Luscombe Aircraft|Luscombe]], and [[Cessna]] – until his retirement in 1945.

==Early life==
Albin K. Longren was born on January 18, 1882, in a rural cabin just outside [[Leonardville, Kansas]]. Known familiarly as "A.K.", he was one of the eight children of local farmers Charles and Emma Longren.<ref name=Bush2011>{{Cite news |last=Bush |first=Ann Marie |date=September 1, 2011 |title='Birdman' Took Flight 100 Years Ago |url=http://cjonline.com/news/2011-09-01/birdman-took-flight-100-years-ago |newspaper=[[Topeka Capital-Journal]] |location=Topeka, KS |publisher= |accessdate=January 23, 2016 }}</ref> As a young man he worked as a hardware dealer, but was also known as a [[handyman]] and an avid tinkerer who built his own automobiles and motorcycles out of spare parts.<ref name=KSHSakl>{{Cite web |url=https://www.kshs.org/kansapedia/albin-k-longren/12133 |title=Albin K. Longren |author= |authorlink= |year=2016 |publisher=[[Kansas Historical Society]] |work=Kshs.org |accessdate=January 23, 2016 }}</ref>

He served in the [[Clay Center, Kansas|Clay Center]] [[Kansas National Guard]] and in that capacity was called to assist in crowd safety at one of the popular flying demonstrations in [[Topeka]] in June 1910. Longren's interest in aircraft was ignited after he witnessed the featured airplane spin out shortly after takeoff and crash to the ground. The 28-year-old tinkerer immediately set upon building his own improved version of a flying machine.<ref name=Bush2011/>

==Aviation career==
===Topeka I===
Longren obtained space in Topeka for a small factory and enlisted the help of his brother Ereanius and his friend William Janicke, a fellow mechanic. Together the three men began working on Longren's design for a new airplane, despite having no prior aviation experience or professional assistance.<ref name=Lambertson2015/> The trio built the prototype in complete secrecy, wishing to forestall publicity of any potential failures; they even disassembled the craft and transported it discreetly in boxes to its first flight trial.<ref name=Bush2011/><ref name=KSHSlac>{{Cite web |url=https://www.kshs.org/kansapedia/longren-airplane-company/15156 |title=Longren Airplane Company |author= |authorlink= |year=2016 |publisher=Kansas Historical Society |work=Kshs.org |accessdate=January 23, 2016 }}</ref>

The new [[biplane]] was {{convert|39|ft|order=flip}} long with a {{convert|32|ft|order=flip}} wingspan, and weighed {{convert|625|lb|order=flip}}.<ref name=KSHSlac/> A [[pusher configuration]] with a 60-[[horsepower|hp]] [[V8 engine]] and two ribbed canvas wings, the debut Longren aircraft – eventually designated the Topeka I – flew for the first time in trials beginning on September 2, 1911.<ref name=Lambertson2015>{{Cite journal |last=Lambertson |first=Giles |authorlink= |date=July 22, 2015 |title=The Birdman of Topeka |journal=[[Air & Space]] |publisher=Smithsonian |volume= |issue= |page= |url=http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/birdman-topeka-180956005/?no-ist |accessdate=January 23, 2016 }}</ref> Three days later, in his first public demonstration, Longren piloted the plane through a brief but satisfying circular pattern at {{convert|200|ft|order=flip}} in the air, for a total distance of about {{convert|6|mi|km|order=flip}}. A beaming Longren told the local newspaper, "I’m glad now to let the people of Topeka know what I've built."<ref name=Bush2011/><ref name=KSHSlac/>
[[File:Longren and wife with airplane (2552191329).jpg|thumb|right|Dolly and A.K. Longren, {{circa|1912}}]]

===Longren Aircraft Company===
To pay for construction of new planes at his factory, Longren performed frequently at airshows. [[Barnstorming]] before crowds across the U.S., he became a popular attraction in his own right, nicknamed "Birdman". Longren, who had never had formal training as a pilot, ended up flying 1,372 demonstrations over the next few years.<ref name=Lambertson2015/>

Longren met his future wife Dolly Trent while performing in [[Minneapolis, Kansas|Minneapolis]] and married her soon thereafter.<ref name=Lambertson2015/> His wife quickly became an essential member of his small-scale airplane factory: admiringly he said, "she could repair a plane as well as any man."<ref name=Bush2011/> A Kansas [[beauty queen]],<ref name=Bush2011/> Dolly also helped Longren's cause in the arena of public relations. As one historian wrote, "she was a bubbly counterpart to her taciturn husband."<ref name=Lambertson2015/>

Longren established his own firm, the [[Longren Aircraft Corporation]] of Topeka, and began offering his airplanes via mail order. He designed and sold ten different models, all of which were acknowledged for their high quality and durability. The company, however, had only moderate sales and fluctuating commercial success.<ref name=Lambertson2015/> In late 1915, he was seriously injured in a mishap at a flying demonstration in [[Abilene, Texas]], and thereafter the barnstormer devoted most of his time to architecture and design.<ref name=Bush2011/> He also took some time off beginning in 1917 when America entered the First World War – for nearly two years, he served as chief inspector of aircraft at the nation's first military aviation research and development center, [[McCook Field]] in Ohio.<ref name=Lambertson2015/><ref name=Harris2011>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aahs-online.org/flightline/fl_177.pdf |title=100th Anniversary of Kansas Aviation |author=Harris, Richard |authorlink= |year=2011 |publisher=[[American Aviation Historical Society]] |work=Aahs-online.org |accessdate=January 26, 2016 }}</ref>

===Longren AK===
Returning to Topeka, he set upon constructing what he billed as "The New Longren Airplane", also known as the Longren AK. A small biplane powered by a 60-hp [[Anzani]] three-cylinder radial engine, the AK was sturdy, fast, and nimble. Its most arresting feature, however, was the folding set of wings which, when turned inward on the [[fuselage]], shrank the plane's width from {{convert|19|ft|order=flip}} to a mere {{convert|9|ft|order=flip}}. Longren hoped that buyers would keep the tidy craft in barns or car garages; it was thought that the AK could become "the [[Ford Model T|Ford]] of the air".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Staff writer |date=December 1921 |title=Farmer's Airplane Rises From Barnyard |journal=[[Popular Science]] |publisher=Modern Publishing Co. |volume=99 |issue=6 |page=47 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aSoDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA47 |accessdate=January 25, 2016 }}</ref> With its new products, the struggling company had achieved national stature by 1921, just a decade after Longren's first flight.<ref name=KSHSlac/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jane |first=Frederick Thomas |authorlink=Fred T. Jane |year=1934 |title=Jane's All the World's Aircraft |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5A7AAAAMAAJ&q=Albin+K.+Longren |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |page=cdlxxiv |isbn= }}</ref>

===Fuselage design===
The AK was not the commercial breakthrough that Longren would have liked, but it featured a design innovation that would burnish his reputation greatly. Improving upon the day's standard airplane bodyform – essentially a wooden frame with a fabric skin – Longren designed the first [[semi-monocoque]] fuselage. The AK body was formed by joining two mirroring halves into a simple but aerodynamic shape. The two halves formed a hard shell, made of strong vulcanized fibrous material and reinforced on both sides with wood veneer. The advanced design of the AK was remarkable for its day, and presents what ''[[Air & Space/Smithsonian]]'' calls "the world's first semi-monocoque, truly composite shell fuselage".<ref name=Lambertson2015/><ref name=Harris2011/>

The U.S. government showed interest in Longren's finely handcrafted airplanes. Karl Smith, a general inspector from the Navy, toured the Topeka factory and his report praised Longren's low-tech manufacturing skills: despite using "more or less unsatisfactory equipment", Longren was able to produce a first-rate fuselage which the inspector described as "phenomenal in its strength and particularly easy to build".<ref name=Lambertson2015/> The fuselage's three-ply bonded material particularly impressed the Navy, who found its resistance to bullets most intriguing. But the novice entrepreneur was unable to raise the necessary capital to begin production in the desired quantities, and the Navy took its business elsewhere.<ref name=Lambertson2015/>

===Later work===
Despite all his prowess in piloting and design work, Longren was unable to maintain the financial side of his business and in 1924 he declared bankruptcy. He sold most of the company's assets and designs to new investors who in turn founded the [[Alexander Aircraft Company]].<ref name=Harris2011/><ref name=Aerofiles>{{Cite web |url=http://aerofiles.com/_lo.html |title=American airplanes: Lo – Lu |publisher=Aerofiles |work=Aerofiles.com |date=2008 |accessdate=January 26, 2016 }}</ref> Longren went on to work as a prized consultant for several other aeronautics firms including [[Spartan Aircraft Company|Spartan]] and [[Luscombe Aircraft|Luscombe]].<ref name=Bush2011/>

He was responsible for numerous aviation-related [[patent]]s throughout his career.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.freepatentsonline.com/result.html?p=1&edit_alert=&srch=xprtsrch&query_txt=Albin+Longren |title=Patents by Albin K. Longren |author= |authorlink= |year=2016 |publisher=Free Patents Online |work=Freepatentsonline.com |accessdate=January 23, 2016 }}</ref> His most significant work concerned the process of "stretch-forming" metal into assembly-ready fuselage panels. Luscombe was the first of many manufacturers to benefit from this patent when it produced its [[Luscombe Phantom]], the first mass-produced airplane with an all-aluminum, semi-monocoque fuselage.<ref name=Lambertson2015/> Longren brought most of his patents over to [[Cessna]] in 1935 when he joined that company as Vice-President for the next three years.<ref name=Lambertson2015/>

Through the 1930s, new incarnations of Longren Aircraft appeared briefly, according to Longren's energies and financial state.<ref name=Lambertson2015/> The last and most substantial iteration was conceived in 1938 solely as a fuselage manufacturer, with headquarters in [[Torrance, California]].<ref name=Harris2011/> It persevered long after its founder's departure, until April 1959, when it was acquired by [[Aeronca]].<ref>{{Cite news |author=Staff writer(s) |agency=[[Associated Press|AP]] |date=April 14, 1959 |title=Other Sales, Mergers |url=http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1959/04/14/80769148.html?pageNumber=51 |newspaper=The New York Times |location=New York |publisher= |accessdate=January 23, 2016 }}</ref>

==Death and legacy==
After his 1945 retirement, Longren moved to a ranch in [[Adin, California]], where he stayed until his death in 1950.<ref name=AQ1979>{{Cite journal |last=Mace |first=Kenneth D. |authorlink= |date=1979 |title=Pioneer Airmen of Kansas |journal=Aviation Quarterly |publisher=Airtrails, Inc |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=152–163 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> His body was brought back to Kansas and buried near his birthplace in Leonardville.<ref name=Bush2011/>

He ranks as an [[Aviation pioneers|early pioneer of aviation]], having built and flown his own inventions at a time roughly contemporaneous with the [[Wright brothers]] during the heady, pre-WWI era of aeroplane vogue.<ref name=Lambertson2015/> He was accepted into the exclusive pioneers' club of [[Early Birds of Aviation]] soon after its foundation, and he was formally added to the [[Kansas Aviation Museum]]'s Hall of Fame in 1997.<ref name=Lambertson2015/><ref name=Grenz2003/><ref name="KAHF">{{Cite web |url=http://kansasaviationmuseum.org/kansas-aviation-hall-of-fame/ |title=Kansas Aviation Hall of Fame |author= |authorlink= |year=2016 |publisher=Kansas Aviation Museum |work=Kansasaviationmuseum.org |accessdate=January 23, 2016 }}</ref> A single example of Longren's aircraft – the 1914 pusher biplane that he crashed in Abilene – remains on permanent exhibit at the [[Kansas Museum of History]].<ref name=KSHScool>{{Cite web |url=https://www.kshs.org/kansapedia/cool-things-longren-s-biplane/10107 |title=Cool Things – Longren's Biplane |author= |authorlink= |year=2016 |publisher=Kansas Historical Society |work=Kshs.org |accessdate=January 23, 2016 }}</ref>

Longren remains a local Kansas hero: the Kansas Aviation Hall of Fame recognizes him for "outstanding aviation contributions" to the state, which is home to [[Amelia Earhart]] and [[Clyde Cessna]], and where the city of [[Wichita, Kansas|Wichita]] is celebrated as the "Air Capital of the World".<ref name="KAHF"/> For Kansas, Longren is both the first successful pilot and the first aircraft manufacturer in the state.<ref name=Bush2011/><ref name=KSHSakl/><ref name=AQ1979/><ref name=Grenz2003>{{Cite news |last=Grenz |first=Chris |date=August 31, 2003 |title=Topeka Flight History Rich |url=http://cjonline.com/stories/083103/our_pilot.shtml#.VqQLbyorKUk |newspaper=Topeka Capital-Journal |location=Topeka, KS |publisher= |accessdate=January 23, 2016 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gsr&GSfn=albin+&GSmn=&GSln=longren&GSbyrel=all&GSby=&GSdyrel=all&GSdy=&GScntry=0&GSst=0&GSgrid=&df=all&GSob=n findagrave, Albin K Longren and his nephew Albin N. Longren]
*[http://earlyaviators.com/elongren.htm Ralph Cooper's EarlyAviators website]
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Longren, Albin K.}}
[[Category:1882 births]]
[[Category:1950 deaths]]
[[Category:Aviators from Kansas]]
[[Category:Aviation pioneers]]
[[Category:People from Riley County, Kansas]]

Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele, BWV 143

2016-05-15T15:01:34Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox Bach composition
| title = {{lang|de|Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele}}
| bwv = 143
| type = [[Church cantata (Bach)|Church cantata]]
| image =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| occasion = New Year's Day
| movements = 7
| bible = {{Sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=Psalms|chapter=146|verse=1|range=,5,10}}
| chorale = {{based on|"{{lang|de|Du Friedefürst, Herr Jesu Christ}}"|[[Jakob Ebert]]}}
| vocal = {{plainlist|
* [[SATB|{{abbr|SATB|soprano, alto, tenor and bass}}]] choir
* soprano, tenor and bass
}}
| instrumental = {{hlist | 3 [[corno da caccia|corni da caccia]] | [[timpani]] | bassoon | 2 violins | viola | continuo }}
}}
'''''{{lang|de|Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele}}''''' (Praise the Lord, my soul),<ref name="Dellal">{{cite web| last = Dellal| first = Pamela| authorlink = Pamela Dellal| url = http://www.emmanuelmusic.org/notes_trans/transl_cantata/bwv143.htm| title = BWV 143 – Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele| publisher = [[Emmanuel Music]]| accessdate = 27 February 2014}}</ref> '''{{nowrap|BWV 143}}''',{{efn|"BWV" is [[Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis]], a thematic catalogue of Bach's works.}} is an [[Early cantata (Bach)|early cantata]] by [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]. It is not known if he composed the cantata for New Year's Day in [[Mühlhausen]] or [[Weimar]], as the date of composition is unclear.<ref name="Bach1985">{{cite book|last=Bach|first=Johann Sebastian|title=Cantata No. 143 – Lobe Den Herren, Meine Seele: Kalmus Edition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CPnduCFApi4C|year=1985|publisher=Alfred Music Publishing|isbn=978-0-7692-8376-0}}</ref>

An unknown [[librettist]] drew mainly from [[Psalm 146]] and from [[Jakob Ebert]]'s [[hymn]] "{{lang|de|Du Friedefürst, Herr Jesu Christ}}" to develop seven [[movement (music)|movements]], supplying only two of the movements himself. The text assembly is similar to Bach's early cantatas. Bach's authorship is doubted because the cantata has several features unusual for Bach's later cantatas: it is the only Bach cantata to combine three [[corno da caccia|corni da caccia]] with [[timpani]]. The cantata is in seven movements which combine the three major text sources: psalm, hymn and contemporary poetry. The opening chorus is based on a psalm verse, followed by the first hymn stanza and another psalm verse as a [[recitative]]. An [[aria]] on poetry is followed by a third psalm verse as an aria. It is followed by another aria on poetry, which simultaneously quotes the hymn tune instrumentally. The last movement combines elements of a [[chorale fantasia]] on the third stanza of the hymn, with vivid counterpoint of "Hallelujah" which closes the psalm.

== History and text ==
[[File:Young Bach2.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=disputed portrait of the young Bach, with brown curled hair, dressed festively|Portrait of the young Bach (disputed)<ref>{{cite web|last=Towe|first=Teri Noel|title=The Portrait in Erfurt Alleged to Depict Bach, the Weimar Concertmeister|work=The Face Of Bach|url=http://www.npj.com/thefaceofbach/09w624.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110716074347/http://www.npj.com/thefaceofbach/09w624.html|archivedate=14 July 2011|accessdate=28 April 2014}}</ref>]]
Bach wrote the cantata for [[Church cantata (Bach)#New Year's Day|New Year's Day]], which is also the [[Feast of the Circumcision of Christ]]. The prescribed readings for the day were from the [[Epistle to the Galatians]], "by faith we inherit" ({{Sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=Galatians|chapter=3|verse=23|range=–29}}), and from the [[Gospel of Luke]], the [[Circumcision of Jesus|circumcision and naming of Jesus]] eight days after his birth.<ref name="Oron">{{cite web| last = Oron| first = Aryeh| url = http://www.bach-cantatas.com/BWV143.htm| title = Cantata BWV 143 Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele (II)| publisher = Bach-Cantatas| accessdate = 27 May 2015}}</ref> However, most of the text for the cantata was taken by the unknown [[librettist]] from {{Sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=Psalms|chapter=146}}, and from [[Jakob Ebert]]'s [[hymn]] "{{lang|de|Du Friedefürst, Herr Jesu Christ}}", written in 1601.<ref name="Bischof" />

The text is compiled from psalm verses (verse 1 for movement 1, verse 5 for movement 3, and verse 10 for movement 5),<ref name="Wolff">{{cite book| last = Wolff| first = Christoph| authorlink = Christoph Wolff| url = http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Pic-Rec-BIG/Koopman-C21c%5BAM-3CD%5D.pdf| title = The transition between the second and the third yearly cycle of Bach's Leipzig cantatas (1725)| page = 24| year = 2003| accessdate = 28 February 2016}}</ref> and two stanzas from the hymn, the first as movement 2, the third as the final movement.<ref name="Dellal" /> Only movements 4 and 6 are free poetry, with the hymn tune sounding again instrumentally during movement 6.<ref name="Wolff" /> Due to its text structure, the Bach scholar [[Christoph Wolff]] dates the work to around 1710.<ref name="Wolff" />

The oldest (and also the only) manuscript was written in 1762, after Bach's death.<ref name="Wolff" /> The provenance of the cantata is disputed: some suggest that it may not be a Bach work because of its "unpretentious" nature and the lack of authoritative original music, or perhaps it was a transposition of an earlier work.<ref name=pom>Pommer, Max. Liner notes to ''Kantaten mit Corno da caccia'', Thomanerchor Leipzig / Neues Bachisches Collegium Musicum, Eterna, 1984</ref> Alternatively, part of the cantata may have been written by Bach, while other parts (likely the choruses and the bass aria) were added or amended by other composers.<ref name=min /> [[John Eliot Gardiner]], who conducted the [[Bach Cantata Pilgrimage]] in 2000, remarks on the stylistic similarity of the text structure to Bach's early cantatas written in [[Mühlhausen]]. He also sees similar musical expression to the cantata for the inauguration of a new town council there, [[Gott ist mein König, BWV 71|''Gott ist mein König'', BWV 71]], written in 1708. While some musicologists assume that it may have been composed for the same occasion one year later, Gardiner proposes that it could either be a still earlier work, or that it "was, at least in part, an apprentice piece written in Weimar under Bach's direct tutelage.<ref name="Gardiner">{{cite web| last = Gardiner| first = John Eliot| authorlink = John Eliot Gardiner| url = http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Pic-Rec-BIG/Gardiner-P17c%5Bsdg150_gb%5D.pdf| title = Cantatas for New Year's Day / Gethsemanekirche, Berlin| publisher = Bach-Cantatas| pages = 1–3| year = 2008| accessdate = 28 February 2011}}</ref>

Bach's biographer [[Philipp Spitta]] had written that the cantata was first performed on New Year's Day of 1735. However, according to more recent research, it was not performed at all that day, but rather [[Christmas Oratorio#Part IV|Part IV of the Christmas Oratorio]].<ref name="Isoyama">{{cite web| last = Isoyama| first = Tadashi| url = http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Pic-Rec-BIG/Suzuki-C05c%5BBIS-CD841%5D.pdf| title = BWV 143: Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele / (Praise the Lord, O my soul)| publisher = Bach-Cantatas| pages = 8| year = 1997| accessdate = 28 February 2016}}</ref>

== Scoring and structure ==
The cantata is scored festively for three vocal soloists ([[soprano]] (S), [[tenor]] (T), and [[Bass (voice type)|bass]] (B)), a [[SATB|four-part choir]], and a [[Baroque instruments|Baroque instrument]]al ensemble of three [[Corno da caccia|corni da caccia]] (Co), [[timpani]] (Ti, listed with the winds), [[bassoon]] (Fg), two [[violin]]s (Vl), [[viola]] (Va) and [[basso continuo]].<ref name="Bischof">{{cite web| last = Bischof| first = Walter F.| url = http://webdocs.cs.ualberta.ca/~wfb/cantatas/143.html| title = BWV 143 Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele| publisher = [[University of Alberta]] |accessdate = 27 May 2013}}</ref> It is the only Bach cantata to combine three corni da caccia with timpani.<ref name=em>{{cite web |last = Turner |first=Ryan |last2 = Smith |first2=Craig |url=http://www.emmanuelmusic.org/notes_translations/notes_cantata/n_bwv143.htm |accessdate=27 May 2013 |publisher=Emmanuel Music |title=Bach Cantata Notes / BWV 143}}</ref>

The cantata is structured in seven movements. It begins with a chorus on a verse from the psalm, followed by the first stanza from the hymn, sung by the soprano.<ref name="Dellal"/> Another psalm verse is rendered as a tenor recitative, followed by a tenor aria on free poetry.<ref name=min /> A third psalm verse is set as a bass aria, answered by another tenor aria on free poetry with an instrumental quotation of the hymn tune.<ref name="Dellal"/> The cantata is closed by a hybrid movement which combines like a [[chorale fantasia]] the third stanza of the hymn as [[cantus firmus]] with a vivid counterpoint of "Hallelujah" closing the psalm.<ref name="Isoyama" /><ref name=pom/>

In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the [[Neue Bach-Ausgabe]].<ref name="Bischof" /> The [[Key (music)|keys]] and [[time signature]]s are taken from [[Alfred Dürr]], using the symbol for common time (4/4). The continuo, playing throughout, is not shown.

{{Classical movement header | show_text_source = yes | work = ''Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele'', BWV 143 | instruments1 = Winds | instruments2 = Strings }}

{{Classical movement row
| id = m1
| number = [[#1|1]]
| title = ''{{lang|de|Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele}}''
| text_source = Ps. 146:1
| type = Chorus
| vocal = SATB
| instruments1 = {{nowrap|3Co Ti Fg}}
| instruments2 = 2Vl Va
| key = {{nowrap|[[B-flat major]]}}
| time = 3/4
}}
{{Classical movement row
| id = m2
| number = [[#2|2]]
| title = ''{{lang|de|Du Friedefürst, Herr Jesu Christ}}''
| text_source = Ebert
| type = Chorale
| vocal = S
| instruments1 =
| instruments2 = Vl
| key = B-flat major
| time = {{music|common-time}}
}}
{{Classical movement row
| id = m3
| number = [[#3|3]]
| title = ''{{lang|de|Wohl dem, des Hülfe der Gott Jakob ist}}''
| text_source = Ps. 146:5
| type = Recitative
| vocal = T
| instruments1 =
| instruments2 =
| key =
| time = {{music|common-time}}
}}
{{Classical movement row
| id = m4
| number = [[#4|4]]
| title = ''{{lang|de|Tausendfaches Unglück, Schrecken}}''
| text_source = anon.
| type = Aria
| vocal = T
| instruments1 = Fg
| instruments2 = 2Vl Va
| key = [[C minor]]
| time = {{music|common-time}}
}}
{{Classical movement row
| id = m5
| number = [[#5|5]]
| title = ''{{lang|de|Der Herr ist König ewiglich}}''
| text_source = {{nowrap|Ps. 146:10}}
| type = Aria
| vocal = B
| instruments1 = 3Co Ti Fg
| instruments2 =
| key = B-flat major
| time = 3/4
}}
{{Classical movement row
| id = m6
| number = [[#6|6]]
| title = ''{{lang|de|Jesu, Retter deiner Herde}}''
| text_source = anon.
| type = Aria + chorale (instrumental)
| vocal = T
| instruments1 = 3Co Ti Fg
| instruments2 = 2Vl Va
| key = [[G minor]]
| time = {{music|common-time}}
}}
{{Classical movement row
| id = m7
| number = [[#7|7]]
| title = {{plainlist|
* ''{{lang|de|Gedenk, Herr Jesu, an dein Amt}}''
* ''Halleluja''
}}
| text_source = {{plainlist|
* Ebert
* Ps. 146
}}
| type = Chorale fantasia
| vocal = SATB
| instruments1 = 3Co Ti Fg
| instruments2 = 2Vl Va
| key = B-flat major
| time = 6/8
}}

{{End}}

== Music ==
{{anchor|1}}
The opening chorus on the first verse of the psalm, "{{lang|de|Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele}}" (Praise the Lord, my soul.),<ref name="Dellal" /> is quite short, using imitative [[fanfare]] figures without much harmonic development.<ref name=em /> It employs a [[ritornello]] theme on the [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] and [[Dominant (music)|dominant]] chords, incorporating a descending-third sequence.<ref name=min>{{cite web|author=Mincham, Julian|url=http://www.jsbachcantatas.com/documents/chapter-65-bwv-143.htm|accessdate=27 May 2013|title=Chapter 65 BWV 143|website=The Cantatas of Johann Sebastian Bach}}</ref> The voices sing mostly in [[homophony]].<ref name="Isoyama" />

{{anchor|2}}
The soprano chorale, "{{lang|de|Du Friedefürst, Herr Jesu Christ}}" (O Prince of peace, Lord Jesus Christ),<ref name="Dellal" /> is accompanied by a violin [[obbligato]].<ref name=em /> Although the vocal line is mostly undecorated, it is accompanied by a rhythmically active violin [[counterpoint]] following the [[circle of fifths]]. The obbligato line reaches a double [[cadence (music)|cadence]] before the soprano entrance.<ref name=min />

{{anchor|3}}
The tenor [[recitative]] on another verse from the psalm, "{{lang|de|Wohl dem, des Hülfe der Gott Jakob ist}}" (It is fortunate for him, whose help the God of Jacob is),<ref name="Dellal" /> is quite short and is considered unremarkable.<ref name=min />

{{anchor|4}}
The fourth movement is a tenor [[aria]] in free verse, "{{lang|de|Tausendfaches Unglück, Schrecken}}" (Thousand-fold misfortune, terror).<ref name="Dellal" /><ref name=pom /> The vocal line is "convoluted and angular", reflecting the themes of misfortune, fear and death.<ref name=em /> The musicologist Julian Mincham suggests that these themes suggest that [[Salomon Franck]] may be the poet, as these were recurrent images in his texts, but also notes a lack of integration atypical of Franck's oeuvre.<ref name=min />

{{anchor|5}}
The bass aria on the tenth verse from the psalm, "{{lang|de|Der Herr ist König ewiglich}}" (The Lord is King eternally),<ref name="Dellal" /> employs a [[Triad (music)|triadic]] [[Motif (music)|motif]] similar to that of ''Gott ist mein König'', BWV 71.<ref name=pom /> It is short and has a limited range of tonal development or chromatic variation.<ref name=em /> The voice is accompanied by the horns and timpani, vithout strings, illustrating God's power.<ref name="Isoyama" />

{{anchor|6}}
The sixth movement is another tenor aria on free poetry, "{{lang|de|Jesu, Retter deiner Herde}}" (Jesus, saver of Your flock),<ref name="Dellal" /> characterized by the layered scale figuration in the instrumental accompaniment.<ref name=pom /> The voice, bassoon and continuo perform as a trio, while the chorale tune is heard in the violins and organ with the [[Vox humana]] stop.<ref name="Isoyama" />

{{anchor|7}}
The closing chorus employs the third stanza of the chorale, "{{lang|de|Gedenk, Herr, jetzund an dein Amt}}" (Think, Lord, at this time on Your office),<ref name="Dellal" /> as a [[cantus firmus]] in the soprano.<ref name=pom /> It is not composed as the typical four-part setting, but the lower voices sing lively contrasting [[Alleluia (chant)|Alleluia]], derived from the psalm.<ref name="Isoyama" />

== Recordings ==
*[[Frankfurter Kantorei]] / [[Bach-Collegium Stuttgart]]. ''Die Bach Kantate''. [[Hänssler]], 1975.
*[[Thomanerchor]] / Neues Bachisches Collegium Musicum. ''Kantaten Mit Corno da Caccia''. Eterna, 1984.
*[[Monteverdi Choir]] / [[English Baroque Soloists]]. ''Bach Cantatas vol. 17''. Soli deo Gloria, 2000.
*[[Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir]]. ''J.S. Bach: Complete Cantatas''. Antoine Marchand, 2001.

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist | 30em}}

== External links ==
* {{IMSLP2|work=Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele, BWV 143 (Bach, Johann Sebastian)|cname=Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele, BWV 143}}
* [http://www.bach-digital.de/receive/BachDigitalWork_work_00000175?lang=en Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele BWV 143; BC T 99 / Sacred cantata (New Year/Circumcision)] [[Leipzig University]] on Bach digital
* [http://www.uvm.edu/~classics/faculty/bach/BWV143.html BWV 143 Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele]: English translation, [[University of Vermont]]

{{Bach cantatas}}
{{authority control}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele'', BWV 143}}

[[Category:Cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach]]
[[Category:Psalm-related compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach]]

Hurst Castle

2016-04-23T08:21:09Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2013}}
:''Not to be confused with [[Hearst Castle]], a resort built in the US by wealthy newspaper magnate, [[William Randolph Hearst]].''
{{Infobox military structure
|name = Hurst Castle
|native_name =
|partof =
|location = [[Hurst Spit|Hurst Point]], [[Milford on Sea]], [[Hampshire]], [[England]]
|image = [[File:Hurst Castle, near Milford on Sea, Hampshire, England-2Oct2010 trimmmed.jpg|260px]]
|caption = The castle seen from the south-east
|map_type = United Kingdom Hampshire
|latitude = 50.7064
|longitude = -1.5512
|coord_format = dms
|map_size =
|map_alt =
|map_caption = Shown within Hampshire
|type = [[Device Forts|Device Fort]]
|coordinates = {{coord|50|42|23|N|1|33|04|W|display=title}}
|coord_region = GB-HAM
|code =
|built = 1541-44; 1861-74
|builder =
|materials = Stone, Brick
|height =
|used =
|demolished =
|condition = Intact
|ownership = [[English Heritage]]
|open_to_public = Yes
|controlledby =
|garrison =
|current_commander =
|commanders =
|occupants =
|battles =
|events =
}}
'''Hurst Castle''' is an [[List of medieval and early modern gunpowder artillery|artillery]] fort established by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] on the [[Hurst Spit]] in [[Hampshire]], between 1541 and 1544. It formed part of the King's [[Device Fort|Device programme]] to protect against invasion from France and the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and defended the western entrance to the [[Solent]] waterway. The early castle had a central keep and three bastions, and in 1547 was equipped with 26 guns. It was expensive to operate due to its size, but it formed one of the most powerful forts along the coast. During the [[English Civil War]] of the 1640s, Hurst was held by [[Roundheads|Parliament]] and was used briefly to detain King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] before his execution in 1648. It continued in use during the 18th century but fell into disrepair, the spit being frequented by [[smuggling|smugglers]].

Repairs were made during the [[Revolutionary Wars|Revolutionary]] and [[Napoleonic Wars]] with France, and the castle was modernised to enable it hold 24-pounder (10.8 kg) guns. Fresh fears of invasion followed in the 1850s, leading to heavier, 32-pounder (14.5 kg) armament being installed and new gun [[battery (artillery)|batteries]] being laid out on both sides of the castle. Technological developments rapidly made these defences obsolete, however, and a fresh phase of work between 1861 and 1874 created sixty-one gun positions in two long, [[granite]]-faced batteries alongside the older castle. These held very heavy weapons, including massive [[RML 12.5 inch 38 ton gun|12.5 inch, 38 ton]] (317 mm, 39,000 kg) [[rifled muzzle-loading]] guns. As the century progressed, these too became outdated and lighter, [[quick-firing gun]]s were installed at the castle to replace them.

The castle formed part of a network of defences around the entrance to the Solent during the [[First World War]], and was re-armed again during the [[Second World War]]. The military decommissioned the fort in 1956 and it passed into the control of the [[Ministry of Works (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Works]]. In the 21st century, it is run jointly by [[English Heritage]] and the Friends of Hurst Castle as a tourist attraction, receiving around 40,000 visitors during 2015. [[Coastal erosion]] has become a growing problem despite government intervention to protecting the spit. Four [[lighthouse]]s have been built at Hurst from the 18th century onwards, one of which, a high lighthouse first opened in 1867, remains in active service.

==History==

===16th century===
[[File:Hurst Castle keep 16th century labelled.png|thumb|Plan of the 16th-century castle. Key: A - north-west bastion; B - north-east bastion; C - keep; D - south bastion]]
Hurst Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England, [[Kingdom of France|France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the final years of the reign of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Traditionally [[the Crown]] had left coastal defences to local lords and communities, only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications, and while France and the Empire remained in conflict, maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=111}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}</ref> Modest defences based around simple [[blockhouse]]s and towers existed in the south-west and along the [[Sussex]] coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but in general the fortifications were limited in scale.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|pp=176–177}}</ref> Worsley's Tower, for example, built opposite the future site of Hurst Castle in the 1520s, was too small to hold powerful artillery and considered by surveyors in 1539 to be "one of the worst devised things" they had seen.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=15}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=39}}</ref>

In 1533, Henry broke with Pope [[Paul III]] over the annulment of his long-standing marriage to [[Catherine of Aragon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}</ref> Catherine was the aunt of [[Charles V of Spain|Charles V]], the Holy Roman Emperor, who took the annulment as a personal insult.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=5}}</ref> This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=63–64}}</ref> An invasion of England appeared certain.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=6}}</ref> In response, Henry issued an order, called a "[[Device Fort|device]]", in 1539, giving instructions for the "defence of the realm in time of invasion" and the construction of forts along the English coastline.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Walton|2010|p=70}}</ref>

Hurst Castle was designed to protect the western entrance to the [[Solent]], a body of water that led from the English Channel to the naval base at [[Portsmouth]] and, through [[Southampton Water]], to the important port of [[Southampton]].<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|2013|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=19}}</ref> The castle was one of four fortifications that [[William FitzWilliam, 1st Earl of Southampton|William Fitzwilliam]], the [[Lord Admiral]], and [[William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester|William Paulet]] recommended building to strengthen the defences along the Solent; the others were at [[East Cowes Castle (16th century)|East]] and [[West Cowes Castle|West Cowes]], and [[Calshot Castle|Calshot]].<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=19}}</ref> It was positioned on the [[Hurst Spit]], a strip of shingle sheltering saltmarsh and mud flats, only {{convert|0.75|mi}} across the water from the Isle of Wight.<ref name="gwc">{{cite web |url=http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~imw/Hurst-Castle-Spit.htm |title=Hurst Spit - Barrier Beach of the West Solent |author=Ian West | publisher=Southampton University | access-date=17 January 2016| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160117111938/http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~imw/Hurst-Castle-Spit.htm |archive-date=17 January 2016 |mode=cs2}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hants/vol5/pp110-115|title=Parishes: Hordle|author=William Page|publisher=British History Online|date=1912|accessdate=7 February 2016|mode=cs2}}</ref> Temporary earthwork fortifications were erected on the site and, after the other three castles had been completed, work then began on Hurst in 1541 under the direction of John Mille, the financial controller, and probably Thomas Bertie, a master mason.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=19}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=8}}</ref> Bertie was appointed as the castle's captain in 1542 and the work was completed by January 1544, at a cost of over £3,200.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=8}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC|Comparing early modern costs and prices with those of the modern period is challenging. £3,200 in 1544 could be equivalent to between £1.4 million and £609 million, depending on the price comparison used. For comparison, the total royal expenditure on all the Device Forts across England between 1539–47 came to £376,500, with Sandgate Castle, for example, costing £5,584.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=12}}; {{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson| mode = cs2|date = 2014| accessdate=29 May 2015 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}}

[[File:Hurst Castle , Castle Cannon - geograph.org.uk - 1721622.jpg|thumb|left|Gun embrasure in the 16th-century castle]]
The result was a stone artillery fort with a central keep and three bastions, surrounded by a moat, capable of holding up to 71 guns.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=39}}</ref> In 1547, however, Hurst was equipped with 26 [[List of medieval and early modern gunpowder artillery|artillery pieces]]–four made of brass and the remainder iron–comprising a two [[Saker (cannon)|sakers]], a [[culverin]], a [[demi-cannon]], a [[curtall cannon]], two [[demi-culverin]]s, six [[portpiece]]s, four [[sling (cannon)|slings]], two [[sling (cannon)|quarter-sling]]s, and seven [[base (cannon)|bases]], three of them inoperable.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=20}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1979|p=72}}</ref> A 1559 survey commented that Hurst Castle was essential for sending reinforcements from the mainland to the island, and noted that it was equipped with eleven brass and iron guns, with nine further broken guns, along with [[handgun]]s, [[bow and arrow|bows]] and arrows, [[Pike (weapon)|pike]]s and [[Bill (weapon)|bill]]s.<ref name="Kenyon 1979 72">{{harvnb|Kenyon|1979|p=72}}</ref> The survey observed that the castle was vulnerable to attack because it lacked flanking protection and had rounded walls, and that it was expensive to garrison because of its size, requiring a captain, his deputy, twelve gunners, nine soldiers and a porter.<ref name="Kenyon 1979 72"/> The historian [[John Philipps Kenyon|John Kenyon]] notes, however, that its considerable armament made it one of the most powerful forts in the south, even if it was equipped with lighter guns than would have been ideal for its "ship-killing" role.<ref>{{harvnb|Kenyon|1979|pp=72, 76}}</ref>

Meanwhile, the invasion threat from France had passed and a lasting peace was made in 1558; government concerns shifted away from the south coast towards the Spanish threat to the south-west of England.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=40}}</ref> By 1569, when Thomas Carew was serving as Hurst's captain, there were less than ten guns but the same size of garrison to that seven years before.<ref name="british-history20">{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=20}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hants/vol5/pp110-115|title=Parishes: Hordle|author=William Page|publisher=British History Online|date=1912|accessdate=7 February 2016|mode=cs2}}</ref> His son, Sir [[Thomas Gorges]], became captain in turn, and in 1593 he reported that the castle's gun platforms were in serious need of repair.<ref name="british-history110">{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hants/vol5/pp110-115|title=Parishes: Hordle|author=William Page|publisher=British History Online|date=1912|accessdate=7 February 2016|mode=cs2}}</ref>

===17th century===
[[File:Hurst Castle, 18th century.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Depiction of the 18th-century castle]]
In the early 1600s, England was at peace with France and Spain, and the country's coastal defences received little attention.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=49}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|pp=70–71}}</ref> The Gorges family continued as captains at Hurst, with Sir [[Baron Gorges of Dundalk|Edward Gorges]] taking up the post in 1610, but the castle was neglected.<ref name="british-history1912">{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hants/vol5/pp110-115|title=Parishes: Hordle|author=William Page|publisher=British History Online|date=1912|accessdate=7 February 2016|mode=cs2}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=20}}</ref> In 1628, the castle was unable to prevent [[Flemish]] ships from passing along the Solent, as only four or five of the castle's twenty-seven guns were functional, and the fort had no ammunition or powder for them.<ref name="Coad 1990 20">{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=20}}</ref> The government replaced all the brass ordnance in the castle, which were preferred, particularly on ships, as they could fire faster and more safely, with iron guns in 1635.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hants/vol5/pp110-115|title=Parishes: Hordle|author=William Page|publisher=British History Online|date=1912|accessdate=7 February 2016|mode=cs2}}; {{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=46}}</ref>

At the beginning of the [[English Civil War]] in 1642 between the supporters of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] and [[Roundheads|Parliament]], the castle was occupied by Captain Richard Swanley, a supporter of [[Roundhead|Parliament]].<ref name="british-history110"/> In December 1648 it was briefly used to detain the King before his trial and execution.<ref name="Coad 1990 20"/> During the interregum, it remained in use under the command of Colonel Thomas Eyre and was reinforced in 1650 to deal with the threat of a Royalist invasion.<ref name="british-history20"/>

After [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] was [[English Restoration|restored to the throne]] in 1660, Eyre was dismissed and replaced by Edward Strange.<ref name="british-history110"/> The future of the castle was uncertain; Charles gave orders to demobilise the garrison and briefly considered having the fortress demolished altogether.<ref name="british-history1912"/> Instead of maintaining a regular garrison, in 1666 it was decided to staff the castle using soldiers deployed from the Isle of Wight instead, from a unit belonging to Sir [[Robert Holmes (Royal Navy officer)|Robert Holmes]], the island's governor.<ref name="british-history110"/> Hurst had meanwhile fallen into disrepair, delaying the plans to deploy Holmes' men until 1671.<ref name="british-history110"/> Repairs were carried out and, by 1675, a conventional garrison and almost thirty guns were stationed at Hurst.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hants/vol5/pp110-115|title=Parishes: Hordle|author=William Page|publisher=British History Online|date=1912|accessdate=7 February 2016|mode=cs2}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=21}}</ref>

===18th century===
[[File:Hurst Castle, 1840.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Hurst Castle in 1840, with the Hurst Tower (centre) and High Lighthouse (right)]]
Hurst Castle continued to be used as a military base in the 18th century, but was also used to hold a Franciscan confessor, Father [[Paul Atkinson (confessor)|Paul Atkinson]].<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=20–21}}</ref> Amid concerns over the moral condition of England and a perceived threat to the established Church, an act for "further preventing the growth of popery" was passed in 1700; Hurst was chosen by the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] to house any priests convicted under this law.<ref>{{harvnb|Hayton|1990|pp=55–60}}; {{harvnb|Williams|1968|p=50}}</ref> Atkinson was probably the only person detained in this way, and he was held for 29 years from 1700 onwards, before finally dying at the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Williams|1968|p=51}}</ref>

There had been reported problems with smuggling around Hurst Castle since the 1670s, and these continued into the 18th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Chatterton|2008|pp=15–16}}</ref> In 1729, the Revenue service hired the ''Hurst'', a wide, heavy [[yacht]], to assist in anti-smuggling operations out of Southampton, arming its crew with muskets, pistols and swords.<ref>{{harvnb|Chatterton|2008|p=15}}</ref> The problems persisted and, later in the century, the site was used as a rendezvous for smugglers led by a notorious criminal called John Streeter.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1994|p=98}}</ref>

The castle fell into neglect, and reports from the 1770s through into the early 1790s noted extensive problems, complaining that the fort's guns could no longer be mounted on the dilapidated bastions and that water was seeping through the decaying walls.<ref name=Coard1985PP64>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=64–65}}</ref> By 1793, the castle was considered to be "in the worst condition" of all the forts along the coast, and all its guns were unusable.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=65–66}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=22}}</ref> Repairs were authorised, but little was actually done.<ref name=Coard1985PP64/> The spit around the castle began to be used by civilians, including fishermen and gardeners; a lighthouse, called the Hurst Tower, was built there in 1786, and the Shipwright's Arms inn was established alongside the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=22}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.hurstcastle.co.uk/alk/|title=Lighthouses at Hurst|publisher=Hurst Castle|mode=cs2|access-date=14 January 2016}}</ref>

The [[Revolutionary War]] with France broke out in 1793, leading to the extensive modernisation of the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=22–23}}</ref> Repairs were carried out in 1794 at a cost of £647, followed by a review of the defences the next year by the [[Master-General of the Ordnance]].<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=67}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money1819thC|Comparisons of 18th and 19th century costs and prices with those of the modern period vary considerably depending on the measure used. £647 in 1794 could be equivalent to between £68,000 in 2014, using a GDP Deflator, or £5.4 million, using a share of GDP measure. £4,122 in 1803 could be equivalent to between £335,000 and £21.7 million; £6,725 in 1856 to between £691,000 and £16.1 million; £211,000 in 1874 to between £19.2 million and £298.3 million.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson| mode = cs2|date = 2014| accessdate=29 May 2015 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}} The 16th-century castle was still strongly fortified by the standards of the time, but it could not support the heavier guns or batteries of artillery required to tackle enemy warships.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=67}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=23}}</ref> Instead, two new gun batteries, each armed with five 36-pounder (16.3 kg) guns, were built alongside the castle in 1795, with a further eighteen 9-pounder (4 kg) guns mounted in the old fort; the guns concerned had all been captured from the French.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=67–68}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=23}}</ref>

===19th century===

====1800–58====
[[File:The New Forest its history and its scenery - page 157 cropped.png|thumb|Hurst Castle, depicted in 1862, showing the new eastern gun battery (right) and redesigned 16th-century fortifications]]
In 1803, war with France appeared imminent once again.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=68}}</ref> After some discussions, it was agreed to adapt the 16th-century keep to enable it to hold six 24-pounder (10.8 kg) guns; the roof was [[Vault (architecture)|vaulted]] and a central stone pillar was installed to run up through the building, work estimated at the time to be likely to cost cost £4,122.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=68–69, 74–75}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=23}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money1819thC}} The historian Andrew Saunders likens the resulting building to the various [[Martello tower]]s being constructed along the south coast at this time.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=52}}</ref> It was proposed to build two temporary gun batteries to replace the 1795 emplacements, which had suffered from the salt air and decayed, but the plan was turned down in order to focus attention on the redevelopment of the keep.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=67, 69–71}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=24}}</ref> The work was carried out by a mixture of soldiers and civilian contractors and was completed by the end of 1806.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=23}}</ref>

The remodelled castle did not play an active part in the Napoleonic Wars, although it was used in 1809 as a hospital for injured soldiers returning from the [[Peninsula War|Peninsula Campaign]] in Spain.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=24}}</ref> A second lighthouse, known as the High Lighthouse, was constructed alongside the castle in 1812.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hurstcastle.co.uk/alk/|title=Lighthouses at Hurst|publisher=Hurst Castle|access-date=14 January 2016| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160117101450/http://www.hurstcastle.co.uk/alk/ |archive-date=17 January 2016 |mode=cs2}}</ref>

Official interest in Hurst Castle increased again in the 1840s, as the introduction of [[Shell (projectile)|shell guns]] and [[steam ships]] created a new risk that the French might successfully attack along the south coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=76}}</ref> Previously, sailing ships had been only able to pass the castle slowly when moving against the tide, making them vulnerable to its guns; steam ships threatened to cruise past at speed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fort.timclarkewebservices.co.uk/files/documents/report.PDF |title=Golden Hill Fort, Freshwater, Isle of Wight |publisher=Golden Hill Fort | author= R. S. J. Martin and A. H. Flatt |year = 2007| access-date=17 January 2016| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160117100645/http://fort.timclarkewebservices.co.uk/files/documents/report.PDF |archive-date=17 January 2016 |mode=cs2}}</ref> Military estimates and surveys in 1850 and 1851 suggested that the armament should therefore be significantly increased, to include more and much heavier guns.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=76–77}}</ref>

Improvements were carried out between 1852 and 1856 at a cost of over £6,725.<ref name=Coad1990P25>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=25}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money1819thC}} The keep was adapted to support 32-pounder (14.5 kg) guns, the seaward-facing bastions and curtain walls were reinforced with brick [[casemate]]s and new gun positions, and the moat was deepened to protect against any surprise attack.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=26}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=77}}</ref> Two batteries were built to the west and east of the castle, protected by shingle and earth and linked to the old castle by covered passageways called [[caponier]]s; a defensible barrack block was built beside the western battery, to provide further protection against any attack from the land.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=26–27}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=78–79}}</ref> The result was that Hurst was re-established as a powerful fortification, equipped with fourteen 32-pounder guns, fifteen 8-inch (203 mm) shell guns and two 32-pounder carronades; in wartime, these required a team of 440 men, with a peacetime garrison of 105 soldiers.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=26}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=79–80}}</ref> Fort Albert was built across the water on the Isle of Wight to provide supporting fire.<ref name=Coad1990P25/> The old inn was first reused as the garrison canteen and then demolished.<ref name="Coad 1990 22">{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=22}}</ref>

The 1852, the Isle of Wight Electric Company laid a specially-armoured [[telegraph cable]] to link the castle with [[Keyhaven]] on the mainland and [[Sconce Point]] on the island; two years later, the [[Electric Telegraph Company]] linked the castle to Southampton.<ref name=Roberts>{{cite web|url=http://www.webarchive.org.uk/wayback/archive/20140108090217/http://distantwriting.co.uk/electrictelegraphcompany.html|title=The Electric Telegraph Company|publisher=The British Library|author=Steven Roberts|date=2014|mode=cs2|access-date=7 January 2016}}</ref> Hurst used flags to pass on telegraphic messages to and from shipping entering the Solent.<ref name=Roberts/>

====1859–99====
[[File:38 ton gun 1 - Hurst Castle.jpg|thumb|left|[[RML 12.5 inch 38 ton gun|12.5 inch, 38 ton]] (317 mm, 39,000 kg) [[rifled muzzle-loading]] (RML) gun and shell in the West Wing]]
Rapid advances in military technology made the new defences became obsolete before the end of the decade.<ref name="autogenerated26">{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=26}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=83–84}}</ref> The introduction of rifled breech-loading guns, capable of firing explosive shells, and the construction of armour-plated warships left Hurst's guns and fortifications inadequate.<ref name="autogenerated26"/> Fears grew in 1859 that France might invade England, potentially in a surprise attack.<ref name="autogenerated26"/> A [[Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom|1859 Royal Commission]] recommended that Hurst, as one of the key forts protecting Portsmouth, should be upgraded as a matter of priority.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=26}}</ref>

Hurst was equipped with new heavy, RML guns in heavily protected casemated positions.<ref name=Coad1985PP85>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=85–87}}</ref> These weapons were slow to reload, so to ensure that the castle would have a good chance of hitting enemy ships passing at speed, two long batteries of weapons were built onto either side of the old castle, a west wing with 37 gun positions and an east wing with 24 positions.<ref name=Coad1985PP85/> These were built on top of the two gun batteries constructed there a few years before and also required the castle's moat to be filled in.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=88–89}}</ref> As work progressed, the decision was taken to reinforce the batteries with additional iron shields.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=26–27}}</ref>

The work eventually cost £211,000; it began in 1861, with the majority of the work being completed by 1870 and the additional iron shielding by 1874.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=90}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=27–28}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money1819thC}} In peacetime, the castle held around 131 officers and men but it would have needed to be substantially reinforced during wartime if all the weapons were to be manned.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=90–91}}</ref> Although the fort never received its full complement of guns, by 1881 it had ten [[RML 12.5 inch 38 ton gun|12.5 inch, 38 ton]] (317 mm, 39,000 kg) [[rifled muzzle-loading]] (RML) guns, fifteen [[RML 10 inch 18 ton gun|10 inch, 18 ton]] (254 mm, 18,000 kg) RML guns, five [[RML 9 inch 12 ton gun|9 inch, 12 ton]] (228 mm, 12,000 kg) RML guns, and 3 64-pounders (29 kg), together forming a powerful arsenal.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=95}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=28}}</ref>

Two new lighthouses were constructed in the 1860s.<ref name="pastscape1">{{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=459358|title=Hurst Castle|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=7 February 2015|mode=cs2}}</ref> The first was the "Low Light" built into the rear wall of the west wing of the castle.<ref name="pastscape1"/> The second lighthouse was the "High Light" – the free standing [[Hurst Point Lighthouse]] built on the end of Hurst Spit between 1865 and 1867.<ref name="pastscape1"/> A new public house, the Castle Inn, was established on the north end of the spit.<ref name="Coad 1990 22"/> A narrow-gauge railway was constructed in the 1880s to move supplies into the castle.<ref name=Coard1990P14>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=14}}</ref>

By the 1880s and 1890s, both the power of naval artillery and the speed of warships had further increased, leading to further investment in the castle between 1888 and 1893.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=96–97}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=28}}</ref> The keep's magazine, which could hold up to 2,250 shells, was reinforced with concrete and the south bastion of the old castle was filled in with shingle and concrete for additional protection.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=28}}</ref> New 6-pounder (2.7 kg) quick-firing guns were installed in a battery on the end of the east wing, supported by machine guns, to enable them to target fast moving vessels, particularly the new torpedo boats.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=97–98}} {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=28}}</ref> Further emplacements for 12-pounder (5.4 kg) guns followed, including one on the top of the keep.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=99}}</ref>

===20th-21st centuries===
[[File:Hurst castle theater.JPG|thumb|The theatre in the West Wing, with surviving original wall paintings from the [[Second World War]]]]
By the First World War, the guns installed at Hurst Castle in the 1870s were obsolete.<ref name=Coad1985P100>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=100}}</ref> The castle retained seventeen of them, as historian Coad states, wired up together "like a collection of elderly blunderbusses", but the fort depended on its newer quick-firing weapons.<ref name=Coad1985P100/> During the war, Hurst's armament was controlled from Needles Battery, where a Fire Command Post, equipped with telegraphy, had been established.<ref name="Coad 1990 29">{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=29}}</ref>{{efn|The other artillery positions controlled as part of the same network were the [[Cliff End Battery|Cliff End]], [[Warden Point Battery|Warden Point]], [[The Needles Battery|New Needles]] and [[Freshwater Redoubt]] batteries.<ref name=Coad1985P100/>}} After the war, the guns were removed from the 16th-century part of the castle, which was passed into the national collection of the Ministry of Works in 1933, although some modernisation of the rest of the fortification took place in the 1930s.<ref>{{harvnb|Fry|2014|p=85}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=29}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=100}}</ref> The "low light" was replaced by a new iron lighthouse in 1911.<ref name="pastscape1"/>

During the Second World War, Hurst was re-armed in 1940 with two 12-pounder (5.4 kg) guns and a unit of the [[Isle of Wight Rifles]] was stationed there, controlled from the Fire Control Needles.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=100–101}}</ref> Searchlights and two more 6-pounder (5.4 kg) guns followed the next year, when the 37-strong detachment was retitled the 129 Coastal Battery Royal Artillery, followed by the installation of [[Bofors 40 mm gun|Bofors anti-aircraft guns]].<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=100–101}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=29}}</ref> A tower, called the Director Tower, was built along the west wing.<ref name=Coad1985P100/> As the war progressed, the weapons were stood down and the battery finally closed in July 1945, with most of the weapons being removed after the war.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|p=101}}</ref>

In 1956 the whole of Hurst Castle was transferred to the guardianship of the Ministry of Works.<ref name="Coad 1990 29"/> During the 1970s, the additional concrete protection added to the south bastion in the 1880s was removed.<ref name=Coad1990P11>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=11}}</ref> When the government agency English Heritage was formed in 1983, it took over the control of the castle. In 1996 the Friends of Hurst Castle took on the day-to-day management of the castle, with English Heritage continuing to run other aspects of the site.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hurstcastle.co.uk/friends/ |title=Friends of Hurst |publisher=Friends of Hurst Castle |year = 2015| access-date=17 January 2016| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160117104549/http://www.hurstcastle.co.uk/friends/ |archive-date=17 January 2016 |mode=cs2}}</ref> As of 2015, the castle received around 40,000 visitors a year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hampshire-life.co.uk/out-about/places/visiting_hurst_castle_near_milford_on_sea_1_4233862?usurv=skip |title=Visiting Hurst Castle near Milford on Sea |publisher=Hampshire Life |year = 2015| access-date=17 January 2016| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160117104739/http://www.hampshire-life.co.uk/out-about/places/visiting_hurst_castle_near_milford_on_sea_1_4233862?usurv=skip |archive-date=17 January 2016 |mode=cs2}}</ref> The castle is protected under UK law as an ancient monument.<ref name=HistoricEnglandListing>{{cite web|url=https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1015699|title=Hurst Castle and Lighthouse|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|access-date=13 February 2016}}</ref> The High Lighthouse built in 1867 continues in use, and is protected as a grade II [[listed building]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/hurst-castle/history/description/ |title = Hurst Castle | publisher = English Heritage| mode = cs2| access-date = 16 January 2016}}; {{cite web|url=https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1015699|title=Hurst Castle and Lighthouse|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|access-date=13 February 2016}}</ref>

The spit is subject to coastal erosion which has gradually pushed the spit towards the shore, a process which has eaten away at the remnants of the 1852 west wing battery and barracks, and has exposed the foundations of the later fortress on occasions.<ref>{{harvnb|Hunt|2011|p=41}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.nfdc.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=17239&p=0 |title=Hurst Spit Stabilisation Scheme: Engineers Report |publisher=New Forest District Council | access-date=17 January 2016| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160117105811/http://www.nfdc.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=17239&p=0 |archive-date=17 January 2016 |mode=cs2}}</ref> This erosion has increased significantly since the 1940s, due to the construction of groyne barriers at nearby Bournemouth and Christchurch which prevented the natural renewing of the spit with pebbles washed from local cliffs.<ref name="gwc"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nfdc.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=17239&p=0 |title=Hurst Spit Stabilisation Scheme: Engineers Report |publisher=New Forest District Council | access-date=17 January 2016| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160117105811/http://www.nfdc.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=17239&p=0 |archive-date=17 January 2016 |mode=cs2}}</ref> Erosion caused fresh damage to the eastern end of the castle in early 2013, leading to renewed concerns.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailyecho.co.uk/news/10278526.Hampshire_castle_under_threat/ |title = Hampshire Castle Under Threat| publisher=Daily Echo | access-date=17 January 2016| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160117180921/http://www.dailyecho.co.uk/news/10278526.Hampshire_castle_under_threat/ | year = 2013 | author =
Christopher Yandell |archive-date=17 January 2016 |mode=cs2}}</ref> Government efforts began in the 1960s to try to stabilise the spit in its current position, both to protect the castle and neighbouring towns, with over {{convert|900,000|tonne}} of gravel being laid down in the 1990s, and is continuing in the 21st century.<ref>{{harvnb|Hunt|2011|p=42}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.nfdc.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=17239&p=0 |title=Hurst Spit Stabilisation Scheme: Engineers Report |publisher=New Forest District Council | access-date=17 January 2016| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160117105811/http://www.nfdc.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=17239&p=0 |archive-date=17 January 2016 |mode=cs2}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.dailyecho.co.uk/news/10278526.Hampshire_castle_under_threat/ |title = Hampshire Castle Under Threat| publisher=Daily Echo | access-date=17 January 2016| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160117180921/http://www.dailyecho.co.uk/news/10278526.Hampshire_castle_under_threat/ | year = 2013 | author =
Christopher Yandell |archive-date=17 January 2016 |mode=cs2}}</ref> The spit and the adjoining coastline is protected as an SSSI.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sssi.naturalengland.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/1001019.pdf |title=Hurst Castle and Lymington River Estuary SSSI |publisher=Natural England | access-date=17 January 2016| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160117130057/http://www.sssi.naturalengland.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/1001019.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2016 |mode=cs2}}</ref>

==Architecture==
[[File:Hurst Castle plan modern.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Modern plan; A - site of old battery; B - position finder cell / battery command post; C - 12-pounder QF emplacements, Bofors gun position and searchlight tower; D - West Wing; E - 6-pounder QF emplacement and the Director Tower; F - searchlight tower; G - Metal light and Low Light; H - ferry; I - railway line, actual and disused; J - High Light; K - 12-pounder battery; L - 16th-century castle; M - East Wing; N - 6-pounder QF emplacement; O - Bofors gun position; P - gun directing position]]

===Central castle===

The central castle was originally constructed in the 16th century, but heavily redeveloped in the early and middle years of the 19th century.<ref name=Coard1990P4>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=4}}</ref> It comprises a central tower with three bastions to its north-west, north-east and south, approximately {{convert|52|m}} across.<ref name=Coard1990P4/> A curtain wall with gun positions originally linked the three bastions, but this was substantially altered with the addition of walls and chambers to produce a deeper structure.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=4–9}}</ref> The central castle forms the entrance to the rest of the fortification and is accessed through a gateway dating from 1873.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=3}}</ref> The 16th-century moat that protected the castle was filled in during the 1860s.<ref name=Coard1990P4/>

The twelve-sided central tower, or keep, is approximately {{convert|20|m}} across; it has two storeys and a basement.<ref name=Coard1990P4/> The inside of the tower is circular, with a spiral staircase running up through a central pillar.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=4–5}}</ref> The ground floor and first floor rooms would have originally been sub-divided to form living quarters for the garrison, but are now open spaces.<ref name=Coad1990P5>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=5}}</ref> Both have eight embrasure windows, suitable for holding lighter weaponry; the first floor room was sufficiently elevated to have potentially fired out over the external walls.<ref name=Coad1990P5/> The roof has the remains of gun positions dating from the 1850s, and was originally topped by a look-out tower, removed in 1805.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=5, 7}}</ref> When first built, the keep was linked by three bridges to the outer bastions.<ref name=Coad1990P5/>

The two-storied north-west bastion protected the castle against attack along the spit from the mainland, and housed the castle's original portcullis as well as providing accommodation for the garrison.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=4, 7–9}}</ref> It had three levels of gun positions on its ground floor, first floor and roof, which were adapted in the 19th century to house heavier weapons and shelter riflemen.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=7–9}}</ref> The bastion links to an external caponier, a covered walkway with rifle loops for close defence, built in 1852.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=9}}</ref> The north-east and south-east bastions are only one storey tall, originally holding two levels of gun positions on the ground floor and roofs, again both adapted to support heavier guns in the 19th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=10–11}}</ref>

===West and East Wings===
{{double image|right|HurstCastle20090713Y146.jpg|217|Hurst Castle , East Wing and Lighthouse - geograph.org.uk - 1721711.jpg|190|The interior of the west and east wings (left and right) constructed between 1861 and 1874}}
The West and East Wing date from the 1860s and are built from brick and stone. They had a lines of gun positions, each designed to hold a heavy gun and a crew of up to 12 men.<ref name=Coard1990P12>{{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=12}}</ref> The positions were protected by granite-fronted casemates and wrought-iron shields, and, with removable window screens, doubled as living accommodation for the crews.<ref name=Coard1990P12/> Small magazines were positioned behind the lines of casemates.<ref name=Coard1990P14/>

The West Wing is approximately {{convert|215|m}} long, and has 37 heavy gun positions and two main magazines, along with various auxiliary buildings, including canteens, stores and detention facilities.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=85–87}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=14, 16–17}}</ref> It also has two of the castle's lighthouses, an 1865 tower, now disused, and an iron, gas-lit tower, still in use.<ref name=Coard1990P14/> The garden is a recreation of the garden in the Second World War.<ref name=Coard1990P14/> The late-19th century and early-20th guns at the castle were predominantly added to the West Wing, and it roof supports emplacements for 12- and 6-pounder (5.4 and 2.7 kg) quick-firing guns, a Bofors gun and associated directing positions.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=85–87}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=14}}</ref> A small theatrical theatre, built by gunners in the Second World War, survives in one of the gun positions, along with various wall paintings, possibly used in performances.<ref>{{harvnb|Manning|Stewart|1997|p=1}}</ref>

The East Wing is relatively unaltered since its construction.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=85–87}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|p=11}}</ref> It is approximately {{convert|150|m}} long, with 24 heavy gun positions and two main magazines; on the roof is the original gun directing position and a Bofors gun position added during the Second World War.<ref>{{harvnb|Coad|1985|pp=85–87}}; {{harvnb|Coad|1990|pp=11, 16–17}}</ref> It is reached through a gateway in the north-east bastion.<ref name=Coad1990P11/> Just beyond the East Wing are three 6-pounder quick-firing gun emplacements from 1893, which were fed ammunition from the wing through a hole in the outer wall.<ref name=Coard1990P14/>

[[File:Hurst Castle from East of Hurst Spit.jpg|thumb|center|550px|The castle seen from the east of Hurst Spit]]

==See also==

* [[British military narrow gauge railways#Fortifications|British narrow gauge military railways]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|notes=}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book
| last1= Biddle
| first1 = Martin
| last2= Hiller
| first2 = Jonathon
| last3= Scott
| first3 = Ian
| last4= Streeten
| first4 = Anthony
| title = Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological Structural and Historical Investigation
| date = 2001
| publisher = Oxbow Books
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 0904220230
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Chatterton
| first1 = E. Keble
| title = The Fine Art of Smuggling: King's Cutters Versus Smugglers, 1700-1855
| date = 2008
| orig-year= 1912
| publisher = Fireship Press
| location = Tucson, US
| isbn = 9781934757192
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Coad
| first1 = J. G.
| journal = Post-Medieval Archaeology
| volume = 19
| title = Hurst Castle: The Evolution of a Tudor Fortress 1790-1945
| date = 1985
| pages = 63–104
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Coad
| first1 = J. G.
| title = Hurst Castle, Hampshire
| date = 1990
| publisher = English Heritage
| edition = 2nd
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 1-85074-053-4
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Coad
| first1 = Jonathan
| title = Calshot Castle: Hampshire
| date = 2013
| edition = revised
| publisher = English Heritage
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 9781850741022
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Fry
| first1 = Sebastian
| title = 'Heritage Under Fire': Hadrian's Wall, Avebury and the Second World War
| date = 2014
| publisher = English Heritage
| location = Portsmouth, UK
| issn= 2046-9799
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Hale
| first1 = J. R.
| title = Renaissance War Studies
| date = 1983
| publisher = Hambledon Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0907628176
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Harrington
| first1 = Peter
| title = The Castles of Henry VIII
| date = 2007
| publisher = Osprey Publishing
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 9781472803801
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Hayton
| first1 = David
| journal = Past & Present
| number = 128
| title = Moral Reform and Country Politics in the Late Seventeenth-Century House of Commons
| date = 1990
| pages = 48–91
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Hunt
| first1 = Abbey
| title = English Heritage Coastal Estate: Risk Assessment
| date = 2011
| issn =1749-8775
| publisher= English Heritage
| location = Portsmouth, UK
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Kenyon
| first1 = J. R.
| journal = Post-Medieval Archaeology
| volume = 13
| title = An Aspect of the 1559 Survey of the Isle of Wight: ''The State of all the Quenes maties Fortresses and Castelles''
| date = 1979
| pages = 61–77
| issn = 0079-4236
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= King
| first1 = D. J. Cathcart
| title = The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History
| date = 1991
| publisher = Routledge Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 9780415003506
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Manning
| first1 = T.
| last2= Stewart
| first2 = S.
| title = Wall Painting Condition Audit, Hurst Castle Hampshire
| date = 1997
| publisher= English Heritage
| location = London, UK
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Morley
| first1 = B. M.
| title = Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defence
| date = 1976
| publisher = Her Majesty's Stationery Office
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0116707771
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Morley
| first1 = Geoffrey
| title = The Smuggling War: The Government's Fight Against Smuggling in the 18th and 19th Centuries
| date = 1994
| publisher = Alan Sutton
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 9780750903493
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Saunders
| first1 = Andrew
| title = Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland
| date = 1989
| publisher = Beaufort
| location = Liphook, UK
| isbn = 1855120003
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Thompson
| first1 = M. W.
| title = The Decline of the Castle
| date = 1987
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| isbn = 1854226088
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Walton
| first1 = Steven A.
| journal = Osiris
| volume = 25
| number = 1
| title = State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification
| date = 2010
| pages = 66–84
| ref= harv
| doi=10.1086/657263}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Williams
| first1 = John Anthony
| title = Catholic Recusancy in Wiltshire, 1660-1791
| date = 1968
| publisher = Catholic Record Society
| location = London, UK
| oclc= 61819
| ref= harv}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.hurstcastle.co.uk/ Friends of Hurst Castle site]
* [http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/hurst-castle/ English Heritage site]
* [http://www.vision-link.co.uk/hurst_castle.php Hurst Castle Solar Powered GSM Web Camera]

{{Device Forts}}

[[Category:Castles in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Device Forts]]
[[Category:Forts in Hampshire]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Museums in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Military and war museums in England]]
[[Category:New Forest (district)]]
[[Category:Lighthouse museums in England]]
[[Category:Palmerston Forts]]
[[Category:1544 establishments in England]]

Wressle Castle

2016-04-17T07:01:31Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
[[File:Wressle Castle, 2009.jpg|thumb|All the remains of the building is the south range]]
'''Wressle Castle''' is a ruined palace-fortress in the [[East Riding of Yorkshire]], England, built for [[Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester|Thomas Percy]] in the 1390s.<ref>{{harvnb|Emery|1996|p=417}}</ref> It is privately owned and not open to the public. Wressle Castle originally consisted of four ranges built around a central courtyard; there was a tower at each corner, and the structure was entered through a gatehouse in the east wall, facing the village.

After Thomas Percy was executed for rebelling against [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]], Wressle Castle passed into royal control. With occasional periods when it was granted to other people, the castle was mostly under royal control until 1471 when it was returned to the Percy family. [[Henry Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland]], refurbished the castle and gardens, bringing them to the standard of royal properties.

The castle was embedded within an ornamental landscape, with two gardens laid out at the same time as the castle was founded and a third created later. Wressle was intended as a high-status residence rather than a fortress and was never besieged. However, it was held by Parliament during the English Civil War and demolished in 1646–50. Nearly 150 years later, it was further damaged by fire and all that remains above ground of the building is the south range.

==History==
In the later Middle Ages, the Percy family was one of four major land-owning dynasties in Yorkshire. The 14th century saw their properties spread into Northumberland, though Yorkshire remained important. The Percys held the manor of Wressle from the early 14th century, and it was granted to [[Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester|Thomas Percy]] in 1364.<ref>{{harvnb|Emery|1996|pp=270, 414}}</ref> Wressle Castle was first documented in 1402, but was probably built in the 1390s.<ref name=EDAS7>{{harvnb|Richardson|Dennison|2015|pp=7–8}}</ref> By 1390, Thomas Percy had spent nearly ten years abroad as either a soldier or on diplomatic errands. From then on he was active in the royal sphere and friends of both [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] and [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]. According to archaeologist and architectural historian Anthony Emery Wressle Castle was built “as a residence reflecting [the Earl’s] pedigree and distinguished state service”.<ref>{{harvnb|Emery|1996|pp=417–418}}</ref>

[[File:Wressle-Castle-29042011.jpg|thumb|Ruins of Wressle Castle]]

Though Henry IV gave Thomas Percy influence in south Wales, relations between the two deteriorated due partly to delays in payment. Thomas’ nephew, Henry Percy, rose in armed rebellion in July 1403 and Thomas joined him. The rebellion culminated in the [[battle of Shrewsbury]] in which Thomas Percy was captured. Two days later, on 23 July, he was beheaded and his property – including Wressle Castle – was subsequently confiscated by the crown.<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2008}}</ref> Between 1403 and 1471 ownership of the castle swapped between the crown and those the reigning monarch chose to grant it to, though only for short periods. In 1471, Wressle Castle was given to [[Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland]], returning it to the Percy family. His son, [[Henry Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland|Henry Algernon Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland]], undertook an extensive programme of refurbishment at Wressle Castle, refurbishing the interior and updating the gardens.<ref name=EDAS7/> At the time he was one of the richest men in England.<ref>{{harvnb|Brears|2010|p=55}}</ref> ''The Northumberland Household Book'' was compiled around this time and details day-to-day domestic activities at the castles of Wressle and [[Leconfield]], and is used by historians to study the late [[medieval household]].<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|2002|p=90}}</ref>

Percy died at Wressle in 1527 and was succeeded by his son, [[Henry Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland|Henry Algernon Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hoyle|2008a}}</ref> The [[Pilgrimage of Grace]] was a popular revolt against the rule of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] in 1536 partly in response to the [[dissolution of the monasteries]]. The rebels in Yorkshire were led by [[Robert Aske (political leader)|Robert Aske]] and in October he sought the support of the Percy family. Aske travelled to Wressle Castle and tried to persuade Henry Algernon Percy, who at the time was suffering from illness, to join the rebellion. Though initially opposed to Aske, Percy eventually gave him control of Wressle Castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoyle|2001|pp=7, 17, 306–307}}</ref> Percy had fallen out with his younger brothers, and when he died in 1537 his one surviving brother did not inherit because he was imprisoned for his role in the Pilgrimage of Grace.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoyle|2008b}}</ref> In 1537, the crown again resumed control of Wressle Castle, and Henry VIII visited for three nights in 1541.<ref name=EDAS7/>

Antiquarian [[John Leland (antiquary)|John Leland]] visited Wressle Castle in about 1540. He wrote in his ''Itinerary'' that the castle was "one of the most proper beyond the Trent, and seemeth as newly made ...The castle is all of very fair and great squared stone, both within and without". He also gave the first surviving description of the castle gardens, noting that they were "exceedingly fair" and with orchards beyond the moat.<ref>Quoted in {{harvnb|Neave|1984|p=60}}; {{harvnb|Richardson|Dennison|2015|p=9}}</ref>

[[File:Algernon Percy.jpeg|thumb|left|upright|[[Algernon Percy, 10th Earl of Northumberland]] was ordered to complete demolition of Wressle Castle in 1650.]]

The castle was garrisoned by parliamentarians during the [[English Civil War]] during which time it was badly damaged. At the time it was estimated that the damaged to the castle and surrounding area would take £1,000 to repair.<ref>{{harvnb|Richardson|Dennison|2015|p=12}}</ref> Wressle Castle was [[slighting|slighted]] (partially demolished) on several occasions in 1646–50. The 1648 demolition work was focused on the castle’s battlements,<ref name=RD192>{{harvnb|Richardson|Dennison|2014–15|p=192}}, citing {{harvnb|Rakoczy|2007}}</ref> with a contemporary letter noting that “[Parliament’s] agents would show no care in preserving any of the materials, but pitched of[f] the stones from the battlements to the ground”<ref>Quoted in {{harvnb|Rakoczy|2007|p=101}}</ref> Destruction was more extensive two years later, when [[Algernon Percy, 10th Earl of Northumberland]], was ordered to demolish everything that remain except the south range of the castle. The earl would be allowed to used the surviving range as a manor house.<ref>{{harvnb|Richardson|Dennison|2015|p=12}}</ref> The damage was not confined to the castle buildings, and probably affected the ornamental landscape.<ref name=RD192/>

The castle remained with the Percy family until the mid-18th century when it passed to the [[Earl of Egremont|earls of Egremont]]. The lands and castle were then inherited by [[Elizabeth Percy, Duchess of Northumberland|Elizabeth Seymour]] who assumed the name Percy and was later Duchess of Northumberland. Wressle Castle was occupied by a [[tenant farmer]] who on 19 February 1796 caused a fire which gutted the castle’s remaining wing. He had had been trying to clear the chimney. A report three months later in ''[[The Gentleman's Magazine]]'' noted that “This loss was of truly national significance".<ref>{{harvnb|Brears|2010|pp=61–63}}</ref> The farm continued to be leased to tenants, and the farmhouse which still stands was built {{circa|1810}}. By 1880 the castle was partially covered in ivy. In 1957 the castle and farm were sold to the Falkingham family who own the site today.<ref>{{harvnb|Richardson|Dennison|2015|pp=14–15}}</ref>

Wressle Castle is now a [[Grade I listed]] ruin<ref>{{NHLE|num=1083170|desc=Ruins of Wressle Castle|accessdate=7 February 2013}}</ref> and a [[scheduled monument]].<ref>{{NHLE|num=1005210|desc=Wressle Castle|accessdate=23 March 2015}}</ref> remains include earthworks indicating the moat, and some parts of the castle: the remains of the two towers of the south range; and a building fragment, thought to have been a bakehouse.<ref name=PN768>{{harvnb|Pevsner|Neave|2002|p=768}}</ref><ref name=Pastscape>{{cite PastScape|mnumber = 59470|mname=Wressle Castle|accessdate=26 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{NHLE|num=1160652|desc=The bakehouse at Wressle castle approximately 30 metres north of ruins of Wressle castle|accessdate=5 January 2015}}</ref> According to [[Historic England]], the site was first investigated archaeologically in 1993, when Humberside Archaeology Unit held a [[watching brief]].<ref name=Pastscape/> The state of the site deteriorated to the point at which in 1999 Wressle Castle was included on the [[Heritage at Risk]] register. Historic England, [[Natural England]] and the [[Country_Houses_Association#Country_Houses_Foundation|Country Houses Foundation]] invested £500,000 in repairing the castle and in 2015 Wressle was no longer considered ‘at risk’ and was removed from the register.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://content.historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/har-2015-registers/yo-har-register2015.pdf/ |format=PDF |title=Heritage at Risk: Yorkshire Register 2015 |publisher=Historic England |accessdate=16 February 2016 |page=6}}</ref> This included architectural and landscape surveys carried out by Ed Dennison Archaeological Services, with funding from the Castle Studies Trust for the landscape survey.<ref>{{harvnb|Richardson|Dennison|2015|pp=1–2}}</ref>

==Architecture==
A [[quadrangular castle]], Wressle Castle was laid out with four ranges in a square around a courtyard. At each corner was a tower, and in the centre of the east side was a five-storey [[gatehouse]]. Clockwise from north east the corner towers were named the Constable Tower (where the constable who ran the castle on a daily basis lived), the Chapel Tower, the Lord’s Tower, and the Kitchen Tower.<ref>{{harvnb|Neave|1984|pp=58–59}}</ref><ref name=PN768/> Opposite the gatehouse, in the castle's west range, was the [[great hall]] and the Lord's Tower in the south west contained the owner's accommodation and private rooms.<ref>{{harvnb|Emery|1996|p=415}}</ref>

Based on architectural similarities with the castles of [[Sheriff Hutton Castle|Sheriff Hutton]], [[Bolton Castle|Bolton]], and [[Lumley Castle|Lumley]], historian Eric John Fisher suggested that Wressle Castle was built in the last quarter of the 14th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Fisher|1954|p=4}}, cited by {{harvnb|Richardson|Dennison|2014–15|p=191}}</ref> This coincides with the career of [[John Lewyn]], who designed the great tower at [[Warkworth Castle]] and worked at Lumley, both Percy properties. Archaeologist Malcolm Hislop suggests that Lewyn also designed Wressle, and that "it is difficult to believe that [Lumley and Wressle] were designed independently of each other."<ref>{{harvnb|Hislop|2007|p=46}}</ref>

==Landscape==
[[File:Wressle Castle, 1961.jpg|thumb|Wressle Castle from the south east in 1961. Between the camera and the castle lie the earthworks of what probably used to be part of the village. Beyond that would have been the outer garden.]]

The village of [[Wressle]] pre-dates the castle, and was recorded in the [[Domesday Book]]. The castle was built at the west end of the settlement on one of the two main roads through Wressle. It is unclear whether this was a manorial centre before the castle was built, or whether it was an entirely new site. The castle was given multiple gardens which likely resulted in some parts of the village being built over.<ref>{{harvnb|Richardson|Dennison|2015|pp=41–43}}</ref> The [[River Derwent, Yorkshire|River Derwent]] flows north–south about {{convert|180|m|order=flip}} west of the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Emery|1996|p=414}}</ref>

The gardens at Wressle Castle were probably created at the same time as the castle was built. Documentary evidence indicates that by the late-15th century Wressle Castle had two gardens, both located to the south of the castle. One was probably between the south moat and the castle (the Moat Garden) and the other was south of the moat (the Old Garden). A third garden (the New Garden) was laid out north of the castle around 1472–1517. The Old and New Gardens covered about {{convert|1|acre|m2}} each; the former had a brick wall while the later was enclosed by a wet moat. The Old Garden contained an orchard and alleys for bowling and walking, popular pastimes of the nobility from the 16th century onwards. It also contained a two-storey 15th-century building known as the ‘School House’ where [[Henry Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland]], would read.<ref>{{harvnb|Richardson|Dennison|2015|pp=20–21, 28, 43–45, 52, 56}}</ref>

A banqueting house was built just inside the south-west corner of the moat. Though it was probably built in the 16th century, it was in a dilapidated state by 1577. A base court (an enclosed area) was added in front of the castle’s gatehouse after the main complex was built, but it unclear when. Wetland areas south and east of the castle may have been used to emulate a [[Mere (lake)|mere]], a type of broad shallow lake. As well as this, there were two fishponds, but their dating is uncertain. During Wressle Castle’s heyday in the 16th century, the quality of the gardens and ornamental landscape would have paralleled the interior of the renovated buildings, possibly even rivalling gardens at royal properties.<ref>{{harvnb|Richardson|Dennison|2015|pp=17, 46, 50–54}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
*[[List of castles in England]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|35em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Brears |first=Peter |year=2010 |title=Wressle Castle: Functions, Fixtures and Furnishings for Henry Percy 'The Magnificent' fifth Earl of Northumberland, 1498–1527 |journal=The Archaeological Journal |volume=167 |pages=55–114}}
*{{citation |last=Brown |first=A. L. |contribution=Percy, Thomas, earl of Worcester (c.1343–1403) |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |edition=online |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/21955?docPos=2 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/21955 }}
*{{citation |last=Emery |first=Anthony |year=1996 |title=Greater Medieval Houses of England and Wales: Volume I Northern England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521497237}}
*{{citation |last=Fisher |first=Eric John |title=Some Yorkshire estates of the Percies, 1450–1650 |publisher=University of Leeds (PhD thesis) |year=1954 |url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/3261/ |ref=harv}} {{open access}}
*{{citation |last=Hislop |first=Malcolm J. B. |title=John Lewyn of Durham: A Medieval Mason in Practice |year=2007 |publisher=BAR British Series 438 |isbn=978-1-4073-0066-5}}
*{{citation |last=Hoyle |first=R. W. |title=The Pilgrimage of Grace and the Politics of the 1530s |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-820874-X}}
*{{citation |last=Hoyle |first=R. W. |contribution=Percy, Henry Algernon, fifth earl of Northumberland (1478–1527) |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008a |edition=online |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/21936 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/21936}}
*{{citation |last=Hoyle |first=R. W. |contribution=Percy, Henry Algernon, sixth earl of Northumberland (c.1502–1537) |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008b |edition=online |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/21937 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/21937}}
*{{citation |last=Johnson |first=Matthew |year=2002 |title=Behind the Castle Gate: From Medieval to Renaissance |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-25887-1}}
*{{citation |last=Neave |first=David |year=1984 |title=Wressle Castle |journal=The Archaeological Journal |volume=141 |pages=58–60}}
*{{cite book|title = Yorkshire: York and the East Riding|work=The Buildings of England| first1=Nikolaus |last1=Pevsner |first2= David |last2=Neave |year =2002|publisher=Yale University Press |ref=harv}}
*{{citation |last=Rakoczy |first=Lila |title=Archaeology of destruction: a reinterpretation of castle slightings in the English Civil War |publisher=University of York (PhD thesis) |year=2007 |url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/11092/ |ref=harv}} {{open access}}
*{{citation |last1=Richardson |first1=Shaun |last2=Dennison |first2=Ed |title=Wressle Castle, East Yorkshire: Gardens Survey Interim Summary |year=2014–15 |journal=The Castle Studies Group Journal |volume=28 |pages=190–198}}
*{{citation |last1=Richardson |first1=Shaun |last2=Dennison |first2=Ed |title=Garden and Other Earthworks, South of Wressle Castle, Wressle, East Yorkshire: Archaeological Survey |year=2015 |publisher=Ed Dennison Archaeological Services and the Castle Studies Trust |format=PDF |url=http://castlestudiestrust.org.uk/docs/Wressle-Castle-Garden-and-Surrounds-Survey-Report-Final.pdf}} {{open access}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Wressle Castle}}
*[http://www.gatehouse-gazetteer.info/English%20sites/1079.html Gatehouse Gazetteer]: a bibliography of sources related to Wressle Castle
*[http://castlestudiestrust.org/Wressle-Castle.html Details of the work by the Castle Studies Trust]
:*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hVGQ2wAYeNQ A tour round Wressle Castle's landscape]

{{coord|53.7755|-0.9287|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title|name = Wressle Castle}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 14th century]]
[[Category:Grade I listed castles]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in the East Riding of Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Castles in the East Riding of Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Ruins in the East Riding of Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in the East Riding of Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Percy family residences]]

Beckford’s Tower

2016-04-07T17:21:53Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2016}}

{{Infobox historic site
| name = Beckford's Tower
| other_name = Lansdown Tower
| image = Beckford's Tower - geograph.org.uk - 746959.jpg
| caption = Beckford's Tower with part of the surrounding cemetery
| type =
| locmapin = Somerset
| lat_degrees = 51
| lat_minutes = 24
| lat_seconds = 25
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 2
| long_minutes = 22
| long_seconds = 49
| long_direction = W
| location = [[Lansdown Hill]], [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]], [[Somerset]], England
| area =
| built = 1827
| architect = [[Henry Goodridge]]
| architecture =
| governing_body =
| owner = The Beckford Tower Trust ([[Bath Preservation Trust]])
| height ={{convert|154|ft}}
| built_for = [[William Thomas Beckford]]
| restored = 1972 (house), 1997-2000 (tower)
| restored_by = J. Owen Williams (house), [[Martin Caroe|Caroe & Partners]], Mann Williams Structural Engineers (tower)
| current_use =
| designation1 = Grade I listed building
| designation1_offname = Beckford's Tower, with attached wall and railings
| designation1_date = 11 August 1972<ref name=nhletower/>
| designation1_number = 1394133
| designation2 = National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens
| designation2_offname = Lansdown Cemetery and Beckford's Tower
| designation2_date = 30 April 1987<ref name=cemetery/>
| designation2_number = 1000563
| designation3 =
| designation3_offname =
| designation3_date =
| designation3_number =
}}

'''Beckford's Tower''', originally known as '''Lansdown Tower''', is an architectural [[folly]] built in [[Neoclassical architecture|neo-classical style]] on [[Lansdown Hill]], just outside [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]], [[Somerset]], England. The tower and its attached railings are designated as a Grade I [[listed building]].<ref name=nhletower>{{cite web|title=Beckford's Tower, with attached wall and railings|url=https://www.historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1394133|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=20 February 2016}}</ref> Along with the adjoining Landsown Cemetery it is Grade II listed on the [[Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England]].<ref name=cemetery>{{cite web|title=Lansdown Cemetery and Beckford's Tower|url=https://www.historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1000563|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=20 February 2016}}</ref>

The tower was built for [[William Thomas Beckford]], a rich [[novelist]], art collector and critic, to designs by [[Henry Goodridge]] and completed in 1827. Beckford used it as a library and a retreat, with the [[cupola]] at the top acting as a [[Belvedere (structure)|belvedere]] providing views over the surrounding countryside. The [[Italianate architecture|Italianate]] building at the base of the tower housed drawing rooms and a library. Extensive grounds between Beckford's house in [[Lansdown Crescent, Bath|Lansdown Crescent]] were landscaped and planted to create '''Beckford's Ride'''.

Following Beckford's death in 1844, the tower and lands were donated to [[Walcot, Bath|Walcot]] parish and a burial ground created, with the Scarlet Drawing Room being converted into a chapel. In 1931 the house and tower were damaged by a fire and a public appeal was made for funds for its restoration. The cemetery closed in 1992 and the next year the site was bought by the [[Bath Preservation Trust]] who have carried out extensive renovation. It is now home to a museum collection displaying furniture originally made for the tower and paintings, prints and objects illustrating Beckford’s life as a writer, collector and patron of the arts.

==History==
[[File:William Thomas Beckford (1 October 1760 – 2 May 1844).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[William Thomas Beckford]]]]
Beckford's Tower in [[Lansdown, Bath|Lansdown]] overlooking the city of [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]], was completed in 1827 for wealthy local resident [[William Thomas Beckford|William Beckford]], to a design by Bath architect [[Henry Goodridge]].{{sfn|Forsyth|2003|pp=271-272}} Beckford was an English [[novelist]], an art collector and patron of works of decorative art, a critic, travel writer and sometime [[politician]], reputed at one stage in his life to be the richest [[commoner]] in England. In 1822 he sold [[Fonthill Abbey]], and a large part of his art collection, to [[John Farquhar (gunpowder dealer)|John Farquhar]] for £330,000, and moved to Bath, where he bought No. 20 [[Lansdown Crescent, Bath|Lansdown Crescent]] and No. 1 Lansdown Place West, joining them with a one-storey arch thrown across a driveway. In 1836 he also bought Nos. 18 and 19 Lansdown Crescent.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archway, Lansdown Crescent|url=https://www.historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1394110|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=6 April 2016}}</ref>

Located at the end of pleasure gardens called Beckford's Ride which ran from his house in Lansdown Crescent all the way north to the tower at the top of Lansdown Hill, Beckford used the monument as both a library and a retreat.{{sfn|Crathorne|1998|pp=144-147}} He also made it his habit to ride up to the tower to view the progress of gardens and works then walk back down to Lansdown Crescent for breakfast. From the top of the tower, with a strong spyglass, Beckford could make out shipping in the [[Bristol Channel]].{{sfn|Benjamin|1910|p=324}} Beckford wished that he had built the tower forty feet higher and admitted: "such as it is, it is a famous landmark for drunken farmers on their way home from market".{{sfn|Benjamin|1910|p=324}}

Beckford's own choice of the best of works of art, ''[[virtu]]'', books and prints as well as the rich furnishings from Fonthill Abbey, which he had sold in 1822, were rehoused in his double adjoining houses in Lansdown Crescent, Bath and at the tower. One long narrow room in the tower was fitted out as an "oratory", where the paintings were all of devotional subjects and a marble ''Virgin and Child'' stood bathed in light from a hidden skylight. In 1841 some of the contents of the tower were sold during a two day sale and the rooms refurnished.{{sfn|Millington|2002|p=7}}

[[File:Crimson drawing room. Beckfords Tower 1844.JPG|thumb|left|A chromolith by Willlis Maddox of the Crimson Drawing Room at Beckford's Tower. First published in English's Views of Lansdown Tower (1844)]]
After Beckford's death on 2 May 1844 his younger daughter Susan Euphemia Beckford who was married to [[Alexander Hamilton, 10th Duke of Hamilton]] removed the books and greatest treasures to [[Hamilton Palace]] and the Tower was put up for sale, however it failed to reach its [[Reservation price|reserve]]. In 1847 the tower was sold for £1000 to a local publican who turned it into a beer garden.{{sfn|Millington|2002|p=8}} Eventually it was re-purchased by Beckford's daughter, who gave the surrounding land to [[Walcot, Bath|Walcot]] parish for consecration as a cemetery in 1848.<ref name=cemetery/> This enabled the return of Beckford's body from his tomb in [[Bath Abbey Cemetery]], Lyncombe Vale (off Ralph Allen Drive) for reburial near the tower as he had originally wished. His self-designed tomb — a massive sarcophagus of polished pink granite with bronze armorial plaques - stands on a hillock in the cemetery surrounded by an oval ditch and [[ha-ha]]. On one side is a quotation from his Gothic novel ''Vathek'': "Enjoying humbly the most precious gift of heaven to man — Hope"; and on another these lines from his poem, ''A Prayer'': "Eternal Power! Grant me, through obvious clouds one transient gleam Of thy bright essence in my dying hour."{{sfn|Haddon|1982|p=179}} The Scarlet Drawing Room was converted into a chapel in 1848 to serve the cemetery.<ref name=nhletower/> In 1864 the Rector of Walcot gave £100 for the repair of tower stonework and in 1884 a similar amount of money for further repairs to the upper part of the tower, however the condition of the stonework was deteriorating by 1898 and described in 1918 as "piteous and dilapidated".{{sfn|Millington|2002|p=9}}

In 1931 an unexplained fire destroyed much of the interior of the house, which had been turned into a cemetery chapel.<ref>{{cite news|title=Beckford Tower|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000514/19310228/080/0009|accessdate=21 February 2016|work=Bath Chronicle and Weekly Gazette|date=28 February 1931| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|subscription=yes}}</ref> The local [[Fire department|fire brigade]] managed to stop the fire reaching the wooden stairs to the top of the tower.<ref>{{cite news|title=Fire Destroys Cemetery Chapel|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000407/19310306/213/0016|accessdate=21 February 2016|work=Western Gazette|date=6 March 1931| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|subscription=yes}}</ref> [[Prebendary]] F. E. Murphy, the rector of Walcot, established an appeal for funds of £300 for the restoration.{{sfn|Haddon|1982|p=179}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Beckford Tower|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000514/19320702/119/0014|accessdate=21 February 2016|work=Bath Chronicle and Weekly Gazette|date=2 July 1932| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|subscription=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Beckford Tower|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000514/19310509/165/0021|accessdate=21 February 2016|work=Bath Chronicle and Weekly Gazette|date=9 May 1931| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|subscription=yes}}</ref> By 1954 the stairs up the tower had become unsafe and a further appeal for public funds for the restoration was started.{{sfn|Haddon|1982|p=179}} In 1970 the [[Church Commissioners]] declared the chapel [[Redundant church|redundant]] and plans drawn up by the new owners, Dr & Mrs Hilliard, to renovate the tower and create two flats. The Beckford Tower Trust and the museum were established in 1977.{{sfn|Millington|2002|p=10}}

Since 1993 the tower has been owned by the [[Bath Preservation Trust]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Beckford's Tower|url=http://pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=203819|website=Pastscape|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=20 February 2016}}</ref> and managed by its subsidiary, The Beckford Tower Trust.{{sfn|Millington|2002|p=13}} The tower was restored in 1995.{{sfn|Jenkins|2005|p=138}} In 1972 it was designated as a Grade I [[listed building]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Beckford's Tower & Mortuary Chapel, Lansdown Cemetery | work=Images of England | url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=442844 | accessdate=2 October 2007}}</ref> The ground floor of the tower is available to rent through the [[Landmark Trust]] as a holiday home.<ref>{{cite web|title=Beckford's Tower|url=http://www.landmarktrust.org.uk/search-and-book/properties/beckfords-tower-5040|publisher=Landmark Trust|accessdate=20 February 2016}}</ref>

==Architecture==
[[File:Beckford's Tower Lansdown 03.JPG|thumb|The spiral staircase]]
Standing {{convert|154|ft|m}} high,{{sfn|Forsyth|2003|p=271}} the tower is in three stages. The first stage of the tower is square with small windows and terminates in a [[Doric order|Doric]] [[entablature]] and [[cornice]]. The second stage has plain square [[Pier (architecture)|piers]] forming three openings with recessed arches.{{sfn|Forsyth|2003|p=271}} The tower is topped by a gilded lantern (or [[Belvedere (structure)|belvedere]]), based on the [[peripteral]] temple at [[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]] and the [[Tower of the Winds]] at Athens.{{sfn|Haddon|1982|pp=178-180}} The octagonal belvedere has a [[cast iron]] roof supported by eight columns.{{sfn|Haddon|1982|pp=178-179}} The stone spiral [[Cantilever|cantileveed]] staircase leads to the 53 wooden stairs leading into the [[cupola]] at the summit.{{sfn|Forsyth|2003|p=271}} At the base of the tower was a furnace and pump which sent warm air up through the structure.{{sfn|Haddon|1982|p=179}}

Below the tower is an [[Italianate architecture|Italianate]] building. On the ground floor was the Scarlet Drawing Room and a [[Vestibule (architecture)|vestibule]] with an annexe which housed a kitchen and offices. The first floor held the Crimson Drawing Room, sanctuary and library.{{sfn|Haddon|1982|p=179}}

==Cemetery and grounds==
[[File:Gateway and Beckfords Tower near Lansdown (geograph 3831784).jpg|thumb|left|The entrance gateway with the top of the tower in the background]]
From Beckford's house in Lansdown Crescent to the tower a series of interlinked gardens were laid out which became known as '''Beckford's Ride'''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Beckford's Ride, Bath, England|url=http://www.parksandgardens.org/places-and-people/site/332|website=Parks & Gardens UK|publisher=Parks and Gardens Data Services Ltd|accessdate=21 February 2016}}</ref> Nearest the crescent was a terraced Italianate garden and then a plantation of conifers. Above the plantation was a quarry garden and dyke garden before entering a grotto tunnel under a track. The tunnel lead into the tower garden. Specialist planting included: ''Pinus arborea'', Royal Fern (''[[Osmunda regalis]]'') and ''Cistus alpina''. These were to encourage bird species including [[Common nightingale|nightingales]], [[Common linnet|linnets]] and [[Thrush (bird)|thrushes]].{{sfn|Mowl|Mako|2010|pp=159-161}} The old quarry was made into a walled garden with fruit and vegetables.{{sfn|Bond|1998|p=109}}

Henry Goodridge designed a Byzantine entrance gateway to the grounds.<ref>{{cite web|title=Beckford's Gate|url=https://www.historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1394132|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=21 February 2016}}</ref> Bronze railings were later added which had surrounded Beckford's original tomb in Bath Abbey Cemetery.{{sfn|Ostergard|2001|p=275}} The railings were removed during [[World War II]] and replaced in 2000.{{sfn|Forsyth|2003|p=272}} The gardens were surrounding by stone walls around {{convert|2|m}} high.<ref>{{cite web|title=Walls enclosing nursery gardens (N and E sides) and ride to Beckford's Gate|url=https://www.historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1394472|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=21 February 2016}}</ref>

[[File:William Beckford's tomb at Beckfords Tower 04.JPG|thumb|upright|Beckford's tomb in front of the tower]]
Part of the grounds were donated to the local parish after Beckford's death and consecrated as a cemetery in 1848.<ref name=cemetery/> It became known as Lansdown Cemetery and burial plots were laid out in a grid pattern.<ref name=cemetery/> It was extended in 1947 and again in 1961.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lansdown Cemetery and Beckford's Tower|url=http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=1086894|website=Pastscape|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=21 February 2016}}</ref> In addition to Beckford's tomb, the cemetery is also the burial site for several notable people from Bath including: Henry Goodridge,<ref>{{cite web|title=Appendix 1: Ensleigh, Bath|url=http://www.bathnes.gov.uk/sites/default/files/sitedocuments/Planning-and-Building-Control/Planning-Policy/Evidence-Base/Urban-Design-Landscape-and-Heritage/heritage_asset_study_report_a1.pdf|publisher=Bath and North East Somerset Council|accessdate=7 March 2016}}</ref> Field Marshall [[William Rowan]], the Holburne family who founded the [[Holburne Museum]], Anne (the wife of [[Sir Richard Bickerton, 2nd Baronet]]) and the feminist writer [[Sarah Grand]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Frances Elizabeth Clarke (1854 - 1943)|url=http://www.newulsterbiography.co.uk/index.php/home/viewPerson/258|website=Dictionary of Ulster Biography|publisher=Ulster History Circle|accessdate=7 March 2016}}</ref>

The cemetery closed in 1992 and since then has been maintained by the local council and the Lansdown Cemetery Trust.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lansdown Cemetery|url=http://www.bathnes.gov.uk/services/births-marriages-and-deaths/burials-and-cremations/cemeteries/lansdown-cemetery|publisher=Bath and North East Somerset Council|accessdate=21 February 2016}}</ref>

==Museum==

The tower is home to a museum collection displaying furniture originally made for the tower,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Frost|first1=Amy|title=Cabinet Returns to Beckford's Tower|journal=The Furniture History Society Newsletter|date=November 2008|volume=172|pages=1-3|url=http://www.furniturehistorysociety.org/uploaded_resources/files/NL_172amended.pdf}}</ref> alongside paintings, prints and objects illustrating William Beckford’s life as a writer, collector and patron of the arts.<ref>{{cite web|title=Beckford cabinet is 'fine example'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/bristol/hi/newsid_7701000/7701475.stm|publisher=BBC|accessdate=21 February 2016}}</ref> Visitors can climb the spiral staircase to the restored belvedere below the lantern and experience panoramic views of the surrounding countryside.<ref>{{cite web|title=Beckford's Tower and Museum|url=http://www.artfund.org/what-to-see/museums-and-galleries/beckfords-tower-and-museum|publisher=ArtFund|accessdate=21 February 2016}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Sham Castle]], another folly overlooking Bath
*[[Brown's Folly (tower)|Brown's Folly]], another folly overlooking Bath

==References==
{{reflist |colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last1=Benjamin|first1=Lewis Saul|title=The life and letters of William Beckford of Fonthill|date=1910|publisher=Duffield|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aXcLAAAAIAAJ|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Bond |first=James |title=Somerset Parks and Gardens |publisher=Somerset Books |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-86183-465-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Crathorne|first1=James|title=The Royal Crescent Book of Bath|date=1998|publisher=Collins & Brown|isbn=978-1855854987|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Forsyth|first1=Michael|title=Pevsner Architectural Guides: Bath|date=2003|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300101775|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Haddon|first1=John|title=Portrait of Bath|date=1982|publisher=Robert Hale|isbn=978-0709198833|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jenkins|first1=Simon|title=Discover Britain's Historic Houses: West Country|date=2005|publisher=Reader's Digest|isbn=9780276440670|page=138|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Millington|first1=Jon|title=Beckford's Tower, Bath: An Illustrated Guide|date=2002|publisher=Bath Preservation Trust|isbn=978-1898954903|edition=7|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mowl|first1=Tomothy|authorlink=Timothy Mowl|last2=Mako|first2=Marion|title=Historic Gardens of Somerset|date=2010|publisher=Redcliffe|isbn=9781906593568|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ostergard|first1=Derek|title=William Beckford, 1760-1844: An Eye for the Magnificent|date=2001|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300090680|ref=harv}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Beckford's Tower}}
* [http://beckfordstower.org.uk/ Beckford's Tower and Museum]
* [http://www.flickr.com/search/?q=beckford%27s+tower= Beckford's Tower on Flickr]

[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Bath, Somerset]]
[[Category:Grade I listed towers]]
[[Category:Landmark Trust properties in England]]
[[Category:Museums in Bath, Somerset]]
[[Category:Art museums and galleries in Somerset]]
[[Category:Decorative arts museums in England]]
[[Category:Towers completed in 1827]]
[[Category:Towers in Somerset]]
[[Category:Folly towers in England]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Somerset]]
[[Category:Observation towers in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Grade II listed parks and gardens in Somerset]]
[[Category:Redundant churches]]
[[Category:Cemeteries in Bath, Somerset]]

Metallkorsett

2016-03-12T13:21:39Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
[[File:Fig9Corset en fer (Musee de Cluny).gif|thumb|Iron corset in the [[Musee de Cluny]]. Drawing made in 1893 by Saint-Elme Gautier.]]

'''Metal corsets''' (also known as '''iron corsets''') are a type of [[History of corsets|historical]] [[corset]] or [[bodice]] made entirely out of metal, usually [[iron]] or steel. The metal corset was popularly claimed to have been introduced to France by [[Catherine de' Medici]] in the 16th century, although this is now considered a myth. The idea that such garments were worn for fashionable purposes is debatable, with fashion historians now regarding such claims sceptically. Many of the original metal bodices that have survived are now believed to have been intended for medical purposes as [[Orthotics|orthopaedic]] support garments and back braces. Such garments were described by the French army surgeon [[Ambroise Paré]] in the sixteenth century as a remedy for the "crookednesse of the Bodie."

Some of the more extreme examples of metal corsets that have survived are now generally thought to be later reproductions designed to appeal to [[Sexual fetishism|fetishists]], rather than garments intended for fashionable wear.

Metal medical corsets were still being made in the twentieth century, whilst, since the late 20th century, fashion designers such as [[Alexander McQueen]] and [[Issey Miyake]] have made contemporary metal bodices and corsets from wire and [[aluminium]] coils.

==Origins==
[[File:Catherinedemedicishadow.jpg|thumb|upright|Catherine de' Medici, c.1555.]]
Early fashion historians and writers have often attributed the introduction of fashionable corset-wearing to [[Catherine de' Medici]], who is said to have brought metal corsets to France from Italy in the 16th century.<ref name=norris>{{cite book |last1=Norris |first1=Herbert |title=Tudor costume and fashion|date=1938|publisher=Dover Publications |location=Mineola, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-486-29845-0 |pages=222–223 |edition=1997 reprint |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yVdfZGj6NmkC&pg=PA222}}</ref><ref name=steele>{{cite book |last1=Steele |first1=Valerie |title=The Corset : a cultural history |date=2003 |publisher=Yale University |location=New Haven |isbn=978-0-300-09953-9 |page=5 |edition=2nd print. |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uk6I0-MDXVQC&pg=PA5}}</ref> The fashion historian [[Valerie Steele]] noted that after 19th-century writers catering to audiences for [[tightlacing]] and [[sexual fetishism]] played up the [[BDSM|sadomasochistic]] idea of a "cruel, tortuous fashion" enforced by a dominant queen who demanded unrealistically small waists from her subjects, this mythical royal connection captured public imagination and became part of fashion mythology.<ref name=steele/>

It is now widely believed that authentic metal corsets were intended as a form of [[orthotics|orthopaedic brace]] to address spinal issues such as [[scoliosis]].<ref name=steele/><ref name=fit/><ref name=ewing>{{cite book |last1=Ewing |first1=Elizabeth |title=Fashion in underwear : from Babylon to bikini briefs |date=2010 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=Mineola, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-486-47649-0 |page=28 |edition=Dover |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pX5r8p1dPjUC&pg=PA28}}</ref> The 16th-century French army surgeon [[Ambroise Paré]] described metal corsets as intended "to amend the crookednesse of the Bodie," recommending that the iron should be perforated in order to make the garments lighter, and that they be made to fit and padded for comfort.<ref name=steele/> Paré criticised the concept of corsetry as a waist-training device, warning that such a practice risked deforming the figure.<ref name=steele/>

==16th and 17th centuries==
[[File:York corset.png|thumb|left|upright|Hinged iron corset with back clasp opening. 1580–1599. York Castle Museum.]]
A steel corset in the [[Stibbert Museum]], Florence, Italy, is dated to the mid-16th century, and thought to be similar to the metal stays recorded as having been made by a ''corazzaio mastro'' (master armour-maker) for [[Eleanor of Toledo]] and delivered to her on 28 February 1549.<ref name=moda>{{cite book |last1=Landini |first1=Roberta Orsi |last2=Niccoli |first2=Bruna |title=Moda a Firenze 1540–1580 : lo stile di Eleonora di Toledo e la sua influenza |date=2005 |publisher=Pagliai Polistampa |page=132 |location=Firenze |isbn=978-88-8304-867-8 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=VZ_pAAAAMAAJ&q=corazzaio |language=Italian |quote=Tuttavia Eleonora possiede anche due busti di acciaio (62), consegnati il 28 febbraio 1549 dal corazzaio mastro}}</ref> However, as Eleanor's wardrobe records do not list any boned or stiffened corsets, it is thought that her steel bodice was designed for medical or therapeutic reasons rather than worn as a fashionable garment.<ref name=moda/>

[[File:Corset-cover of steel worn in the time of Catherine de Medici (1868 fantasy drawing).jpg|thumb | upright |1868 illustration claiming to show a 16th century steel corset-cover]]

Although surviving metal bodices are usually dated to the late 16th and early 17th century, Steele has stated that some of the more extreme and elaborate examples are fakes created from the 19th century onwards to cater to fetishistic "fantasies about women imprisoned in metal corsets."<ref name=steele/> For example, Herbert Norris claimed in ''Tudor Costume and Fashion'' (1938) that a misbehaving wife would be locked into a metal corset by her husband until she promised to behave.<ref name=norris/> One such iron corset, with a 14-inch waist, was acquired by the [[Fashion Institute of Technology|FIT]] Museum as dating from 1580–1600, but is now considered to be a forgery from the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref name=fit>{{cite web|last1=Staff writer|title=Iron corset 1875–1925|url=https://museum-at-fit.culturalspot.org/asset-viewer/iron-corset/fgHPM7b4_RZXRQ?hl=en |publisher=The Museum at FIT |accessdate=29 September 2015}}</ref> Steele noted suspicious similarities between this corset and an illustration first published in 1868 in ''The Corset and the Crinoline'', a "fetishistic" book claiming to offer a historical overview of fashion, and draws parallels between such suspicious corsets and fake medieval [[chastity belt]]s.<ref name=steele/> [[Harold Koda]], curator of the [[Costume Institute]], states that the excessive, mechanically-produced regularity of the garment's structure is evidence for its being a 19th-century fabrication.<ref name=koda>{{cite book |last1=Koda |first1=Harold |title=Extreme beauty : the body transformed |date=2003 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |location=New York |isbn=978-0-300-10312-0 |pages=75–76 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rL-19_S0-PMC&pg=PA75}}</ref> Koda's take on the significant percentage of extant nineteenth century metal corsets made in emulation of purported sixteenth-century models is that they were created to cater to a specialist market, perhaps for inclusion in [[Cabinet of curiosities|collector's cabinets]].<ref name=koda/>

The fashion historians C. Willett Cunnington and his wife Phillis also stated firmly that surviving "iron bodies," when not medical garments, were usually "fanciful 'reproductions'" with no proof of their having genuinely been worn.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cunnington |first1=C. Willett |last2=Cunnington |first2=Phillis |title=The history of underclothes |date=1951 |publisher=Dover Pub.|location=New York|isbn=978-0-486-31978-0|page=48|edition=1992 reprint |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PUXDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA48}}</ref> Despite the explicit scepticism of fashion historians such as Steele and the Cunningtons, scholars outside the field of dress history sometimes treat these corsets as legitimate fashion garments. The anthropologist Marianne Thesander concluded that because such bodices fit the fashionable silhouette of their alleged period, they were probably authentic, and served the same purpose as other corsets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thesander |first1=Marianne |title=The feminine ideal |date=1997 |publisher=Reaktion Books |location=London |isbn=978-1-86189-004-7 |page=62 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mo3shY_azw0C&pg=PA62}}</ref>

==18th and 19th century==
[[File:Orthopaedic corset, Europe, 1801-1880 Wellcome L0057511.jpg|thumb|upright|Orthopaedic corset for a child. Iron. Europe, 1801–1880.]]
In ''Fashion and Fetishism'', David Kunzle noted that in Peter Rondeau's 1739 French-German dictionary, the French term ''corps de fer'' is explained in German as "Schnürburst, mit kleinen eisernen blechen, für übel gewachsenes Frauenzimmer" (A bodice, with small iron plates, for badly-grown (i.e., deformed) girls).<ref name=kunzle108/> He reads this as implying that the iron plates would have been part of a fabric corset, rather than an all-metal garment.<ref name=kunzle108/>

Kunzle has noted the absence of literary evidence for showing that metal corsets were also worn for fashion purposes.<ref name=kunzle76>{{cite book |last1=Kunzle |first1=David |title=Fashion and fetishism : a social history of the corset, tight-lacing and other forms of body-sculpture in the West |date=1982 |publisher=Rowman and Littlefield|location=Totowa, N.J.|isbn=978-0-8476-6276-0|page=76}}</ref> He has suggested that surviving metal garments, if not specifically medical in purpose, might have served the same [[sadomasochism|masochistically]] gratifying purpose as the deliberately uncomfortable, tortuous [[cilice|hair shirt]], combining a fashionable silhouette with [[penance]], and as such, might have been worn in [[convent]]s.<ref name=kunzle76/> To support his "pure speculation", Kunzle cites a 1871 newspaper report from ''[[The Times]]'' reporting that during the [[Paris Commune]], the [[National Guard (France)|National Guard]] found two iron corsets, a [[rack (torture)|rack]], and other instruments in the Convent of the White Nuns in [[Picpus, Paris|Picpus]].<ref name=kunzle108>{{cite book |last1=Kunzle |first1=David |title=Fashion and fetishism : a social history of the corset, tight-lacing and other forms of body-sculpture in the West |date=1982 |publisher=Rowman and Littlefield |location=Totowa, N.J.|isbn=978-0-8476-6276-0|page=108}}</ref> The claim by the [[Abbess|Mother Superior]] that the instruments were for orthopaedic purposes was dismissed at the time as "a superficial falsehood."<ref name=kunzle108/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Special Correspondent |title=A Popular Fete at the Tulllieres |url=http://www.newspapers.com/clip/3325334/the_times/ |accessdate=30 September 2015|work=The Times |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |date=9 May 1871}}</ref>

Metal corsets for medical purposes continued to be used in the 18th and early 19th century, although equivalent garments made from canvas were increasingly used in their place.<ref name=steele/> In 1894, A.M. Phelps of the American Orthopaedic Association recommended an aluminium corset coated with waterproof enamel for sufferers of [[Pott disease]] or curvature of the spine.<ref name=phelps>{{cite journal |last1=Phelps |first1=A. M. |title=The Aluminium Corset |journal=Transactions of the American Orthopedic Association |date=16 September 1894 |volume=1 |page=236–237 }}</ref> Made from a cast of the patient's body, the advantages of such a garment were that aluminium was lightweight, durable, thin enough to be worn beneath clothing, and could be worn while bathing.<ref name=phelps/> Such corsets were still being recommended in the early 20th century as cheaper and more durable in the longer run than plaster moulds, although their initial expense was greater.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Unknown |title=Untitled section |journal=The Journal of the American Medical Association |date=1902 |page=1439 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mlYKAQAAMAAJ&q=%22aluminium+corset%22 |publisher=American Medical Association |quote=I always advise the aluminium corset, for, although the first cost is greater than for the plaster-of-paris support, yet, before treatment is ended, the metal appliance will have proved the cheaper.}}</ref>

==20th and 21st centuries==
Since the 20th century, actual metal corsets have occasionally been made for contemporary wear, although such instances are rare.<ref name=steele/> Steele notes that alongside a 1930s metal corset made for and worn by a fetish corsetiere called Cayne, the late 20th- and early 21st-century [[Tightlacing|tight-lacer]] [[Cathie Jung]] had a silver corset-cover made to wear over her actual laced corset.<ref name=steele/> Between 1933 and 1940 Mrs. Cayne advertised a booklet describing her 14-inch waistline and offered other services in the ''[[Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kunzle|first1=David|title=Fashion and fetishism: a social history of the corset, tight-lacing and other forms of body-sculpture in the West |date=1982 |publisher=Rowman and Littlefield |location=Totowa, NJ|isbn=978-0-8476-6276-0|page=333}} Plate 8 in the book is a photograph of Mrs. Cayne's corset.</ref>

As a medical garment, metal corsets endured well into the 20th century. The Mexican painter [[Frida Kahlo]] was a notable wearer of such medical corsets, following ongoing problems as a result of a serious road crash she experienced as a teenager.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Grosenick|editor1-first=Uta |title=Women artists in the 20th and 21st century |date=2001 |publisher=Taschen |location=Köln |isbn=978-3-8228-5854-7 |page=252 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZSvSfCmzo2wC&pg=PA252}}</ref> By 1944, Kahlo's doctors had recommended that she wear a steel corset instead of the plaster ones she had mainly worn since the accident; and Kahlo, whose paintings were heavily autobiographical, used the new corset as the basis for one of her best known self-portraits, ''[[The Broken Column]]''.<ref name=kettenmann>{{cite book |last1=Kettenmann |first1=Andrea |title=Frida Kahlo, 1907–1954 : pain and passion |date=2007 |publisher=Taschen |location=Köln |isbn=978-3-8228-5983-4 |pages=67–68 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_ZdPsktyjEC&pg=PA67}}</ref> In the painting, Kahlo portrays herself weeping with agony, her torso split open revealing that her spine is a crumbling [[Ionic order|Ionic column]], and her damaged body held together by the steel corset.<ref name=kettenmann/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Staff writer |title=Frida Kahlo: Room Guide: Room 11: Achieving Equilibrium|url=http://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-modern/exhibition/frida-kahlo/frida-kahlo-room-guide/frida-kahlo-room-guide-room-11|website=Tate Modern|publisher=Tate Modern|accessdate=1 October 2015}}</ref> A form of metal corset or orthopaedic brace used in the second half of the 20th century is called a Harris brace after its inventor, R.I. Harris.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Macnab|first1=Ian|title=A new spinal brace|journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal|date=4 July 1970 |volume=103 |page=53|url=http://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC1930323&blobtype=pdf}}</ref> Harris braces are designed to immobilise the waist whilst healing, and are made with two bendable metal bands worn above and below the waist, and connected with rigid metal supports.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farfan|first1=H.F. |last2=Hadjipavlou|first2=Alexander G.|editor1-last=Simmons |editor1-first=James W.|title=The Sciatic syndrome|date=1996|publisher=SLACK|location=Thorofare, N.J. |isbn=9781556422430 |page=212}}</ref>

20th and 21st century designers have sometimes offered metal corsets and bodices as part of their presentations, including [[Alexander McQueen]], [[Issey Miyake]], and [[Thierry Mugler]].<ref name=koda/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lauder |first1=Velda |title=Corsets : a modern guide|date=2010|publisher=A. & C. Black |location=London |isbn=978-1-4081-2755-1 |page=153 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CWFSV3G1M5AC&pg=PA153}}</ref> One of McQueen's most famous pieces was a 1999 aluminium corset, called the Coiled Corset, created in collaboration with the jeweller [[Shaun Leane (jeweller)|Shaun Leane]] and the artist [[Kees van der Graaf]].<ref name=koda/><ref name=coil/> Built around a cast of the model Laura Morgan's torso, the garment had a 15-inch waist and was composed of 97 stacked coils, which had to be screwed together onto Morgan's body.<ref name=coil>{{cite web |last1=Staff writer|title='Coiled corset', The Museum of Savage Beauty|url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/museumofsavagebeauty/mcq/coiled-corset/ |website=The Museum of Savage Beauty|publisher=Victoria and Albert Museum |accessdate=30 September 2015}}</ref> The Coiled Corset was inspired by the [[neck ring]]s worn by [[Southern Ndebele people|Ndebele women]], extended to encase the wearer's torso.<ref name=coil/> In 2001, the corset formed part of a live presentation at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] showcasing McQueen and Leane's collaborations.<ref name=coil/> Corsets and bustiers can also be made using wire, such as a 1983 aluminium wire bustier by Miyake which was cuffed around the torso over a feathered garment, offering a pun on the theme of birdcages.<ref name=koda/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lauder |first1=Velda |title=Corsets : a modern guide|date=2010|publisher=A. & C. Black |location=London |isbn=978-1-4081-2755-1 |page=194 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CWFSV3G1M5AC&pg=PA194}}</ref>

==In museums==
Metal corsets are found in a number of museum collections around the world. Some museums, including the Museo Stibbert, and the [[Kyoto]] Costume Institute in Japan, present their metal bodices as fashionable late 16th-century garments.<ref name=moda/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fukai |first1=Akiko |title=Fashion : the collection of the Kyoto Costume Institute : a history from the 18th to the 20th century |date=2002 |publisher=Taschen |location=Köln |isbn=978-3-8228-1206-8 |pages=13–15 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ARLmnMFZ9rcC&pg=PA13}}</ref> The [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] in London describes their iron corset (formerly owned by the painter [[Talbot Hughes]]) as dating from the 18th century and likely intended for orthopaedic purposes.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Staff writer |title=Corset, 18th century, iron. |url=http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O139315/corset-unknown/?print=1 |website=V&A Search the Collections |publisher=Victoria and Albert Museum |accessdate=1 October 2015}}</ref> Others, such as the iron corset in the Fashion Institute of Technology, are presented as fakes.<ref name=fit/>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Metal corsets}}

{{corsetry}}

[[Category:Corsetry]]
[[Category:Medical equipment]]
[[Category:Artworks in metal]]

Kunstraub von Boston

2016-02-20T10:41:53Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
[[File:Empty Frames at Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An empty frame remains where ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'' was once displayed|alt=An empty frame hanging on a wall in the museum]]
In the early hours of March 18, 1990, an '''[[art theft]] occurred at the [[Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum]]''' in [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]. A pair of men disguised as [[Boston Police Department|Boston police officers]] tricked the museum security guards into granting them access to the building. They proceeded to tie up the guards and loot the museum for over an hour before escaping in their vehicle. Thirteen works of art were stolen worth an estimated $500 million, making it the largest private property theft in history. Despite efforts by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] and multiple probes across the world, no arrests have been made and no artwork has yet been recovered. The case remains open and unsolved, with the museum offering a [[Bounty (reward)|reward]] of $5 million for information leading to recovery of the art.

The stolen works were originally purchased by art collector [[Isabella Stewart Gardner]] (1840–1924) and intended to be left on permanent display at the museum with the rest of her collection. Since the collection and its layout are permanent, empty frames remain hanging both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for when they are returned. The choice of paintings stolen puzzles experts, especially since more valuable artwork was untouched. Among the stolen works was ''[[The Concert (Vermeer)|The Concert]]'', one of only 34 known works by [[Johannes Vermeer|Vermeer]] and thought to be the most valuable unrecovered painting at over $200 million. Also missing is ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'', [[Rembrandt]]'s only known [[seascape]]. Other works by Rembrandt, [[Edgar Degas|Degas]], [[Édouard Manet|Manet]], and [[Govaert Flinck|Flinck]] were also stolen.

According to the FBI, the stolen artwork was moved through the region and offered for sale in [[Philadelphia]] during the early 2000s. They believe the thieves were members of a [[Organized crime|criminal organization]] based in the [[Mid-Atlantic states|mid-Atlantic]] and [[New England]]. They also claim to have identified two suspects, although they have not been publicly identified and are now deceased. Boston gangster Bobby Donati has been cited as a possible collaborator in the heist. He was murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars. Significant evidence suggests that [[Hartford]], [[Connecticut]] gangster Robert Gentile knows the location of the works, although he denies involvement.

== Robbery ==
[[File:ISGardnerMuseum.JPG|thumb|left|240px|The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum|alt=refer to caption]]
Around midnight on Sunday morning, March 18, 1990, a red [[Dodge Daytona]] pulled up near the side entrance of the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum along Palace Road.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /><ref name=searchcont /> Two men with fake police uniforms waited for at least an hour in the car, perhaps trying to avoid being noticed by people leaving a [[St. Patrick's Day]] party nearby.<ref name = abathstory>{{cite news |url= http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/10/guard-who-opened-door-robbers-notorious-gardner-museum-heist-under-suspicion-years-later/1TUiDyi1GbcnBgQT64oISP/story.html |title= Decades after the Gardner heist, police focus on guard |first= Stephen |last= Kurkjian |work= Boston Globe |date= March 2013}}</ref> Later at around 1:00{{nbsp}}a.m., security guard Richard Abath returned to the front desk after patrolling the museum to switch positions with the other security guard. The two guards were the only people in the building. At this time, Abath opened and quickly shut the Palace Road door, claiming he was trained to do this to ensure the door was locked. He claimed security logs from other nights would show that he had done this many times previously. The FBI has seized the logs, but has not commented on the issue further.<ref name = abathstory />

At 1:24{{nbsp}}a.m., one of the two men outside pushed the buzzer near the door and told Abath they were policemen that heard of a disturbance in the courtyard, and requested to be let inside. Abath knew he should not let uninvited guests inside, but he was unsure on whether the rule applied to police officers. He could see the men and believed them to be police officers based on their uniforms. With his partner on patrol, Abath decided to buzz in the men.<ref name = abathstory /> When the intruders arrived at the main security desk, one of them told Abath that he looked familiar and there was a default warrant out for his arrest. Abath stepped out from behind his desk, where the only alarm button to alert police could be accessed. He was quickly asked for his ID, ordered to face the wall, and then handcuffed. Abath believed the arrest was a misunderstanding, until he realized he hadn't been frisked before being cuffed, and one officer's mustache was made of wax.<ref name = abathstory /> The second security guard arrived minutes later and was also handcuffed, after which he asked the intruders why he was being arrested. The thieves explained that they were not being arrested, but rather this was a robbery, and proceeded to take the guards to the museum's basement. They handcuffed the guards to pipes and wrapped duct tape around their hands, feet, and heads.<ref name=insider>{{cite news |date= May 2009 |first= Milton |last= Esterow |title= Inside the Gardner Case |url= http://www.artnews.com/2009/05/01/inside-the-gardner-case/ |work= ArtNews}}</ref>

Since the museum was equipped with motion detectors, the thieves' movements throughout the museum were recorded. After tying up the guards, the thieves went upstairs to the Dutch Room. As one of them approached [[Rembrandt]]'s ''Self-Portrait'' (1629), a local alarm sounded, which they immediately smashed. They pulled the painting off the wall and attempted to take the wooden panel out of its heavy frame. Unsuccessful at the attempt, they left the painting on the floor. They cut Rembrandt's ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'' out of the frame, as well as ''[[A Lady and Gentleman in Black]]''. They also removed [[Vermeer]]'s ''[[The Concert (Vermeer)|The Concert]]'' and [[Govaert Flinck]]'s ''[[Landscape with an Obelisk]]'' from their frames. Additionally, they also took a Chinese bronze [[Gu (vessel)|gu]] from the [[Shang Dynasty]].<ref name=insider />

Elsewhere in the museum, they stole five [[Degas]] drawings and an eagle [[finial]]. The finial lay at the top of a [[Napoleon]]ic flag, which they attempted to unscrew from the wall, but failed.<ref name=livescience /> [[Manet]]'s ''[[Chez Tortoni]]'' was also stolen from its location in the Blue Room. Motion detector records show that the only footsteps detected in the Blue Room that night were at 12:27{{nbsp}}a.m. and again at 12:53{{nbsp}}a.m. These times match to when Abath said he passed through on patrol. The frame for the painting was found on security chief Lyle W. Grindle's chair near the front desk.<ref name = abathstory /> The thieves made two trips to their car with artwork during the theft, which lasted 81 minutes. Before leaving, they visited the guards once more, telling them "You’ll be hearing from us in about a year," although they were never heard from again.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The guards remained handcuffed until police arrived at 8:15{{nbsp}}a.m. later that morning.<ref name=insider />

== Stolen artwork ==
[[File:Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Vermeer 'The Concert'.jpg|thumb||Announcement on stolen artwork from the museum|alt=Paper document about the announcement of the robbery]]
Altogether, thirteen pieces were stolen at an estimated loss of $500 million, making the robbery the largest private property theft in history.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://harvardmagazine.com/2012/03/hot-canvases |title= Hot Canvases: A new book shatters myths about art theft |first= David |last= Menconi |work= Harvard Magazine |date= March–April 2012}}</ref> Empty frames remain hanging in the museum, both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for when they are returned.<ref name=McShane>{{cite book |last= McShane |first= Thomas |title= Stolen Masterpiece Tracker |year= 2006 |publisher= Barricade Books |isbn=978-1-56980-314-1 |first2= Dary |last2= Matera |chapter= 18. No Boston Tea Party at Isabella's |lastauthoramp= yes}}</ref> One of the paintings, ''The Concert'', was Gardner's first major acquisition and one of only 34 known Vermeer works in the world.<ref name=fbigallery /> It is thought to be the most valuable unrecovered stolen painting, with a value estimated at over $200 million.<ref name="stolen">{{cite web|title=PBS – Stolen|url=http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/stolen/index.html|website=PBS.org|accessdate=12 February 2016}}</ref> Another painting, ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee'', is Rembrandt's only known [[seascape]].<ref name ="Smithsonian">{{cite web | url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/ripped.html?c=y&page=1 | title =Ripped from the Walls (and the Headlines) | author =Robert M. Poole | work =[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] | date =July 2005}}</ref> The bronze finial was taken from the top of a [[Napoleon]]ic flag, possibly appearing like [[gold]] to the thieves.<ref name=fbigallery /> The museum is offering a $100,000 reward for this piece alone.<ref name=theftnews>{{cite web |title= Official Gardner Museum Site – Theft News|url=http://www.gardnermuseum.org/news/theft|publisher=Isabella Stewart Garndner Museum|accessdate= October 8, 2015}}</ref>

The museum stresses that the paintings be kept in good condition by whoever has them. Museum director, Anne Hawley has stated that the works should be kept in a stable environment of 50% humidity and 70°F. Additionally, they should be kept away from light and stored in acid-free paper. Hawley also noted to avoid rolling the paintings, which will crack the paint. If these guidelines are not followed, the paintings could be damaged and drop in value. More repainting would need to be done too, which hurts the paintings' integrity.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

The following are the thirteen stolen works, all of which are still missing.<ref>{{cite web |title= Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft |url= http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ |publisher= Federal Bureau of Investigation |accessdate= February 27, 2013}}</ref><ref name=fbigallery>{{cite web |title= FBI – Have You Seen These?|url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/march/reward-offered-for-return-of-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork/image/hi-res|publisher= Federal Bureau of Investigation |accessdate= September 8, 2015}}</ref><ref name=livescience>{{cite web |title= Lost Art: Photos of the Paintings Stolen from Gardner Museum|url=http://www.livescience.com/51808-photos-paintings-stolen-from-gardner-museum.html|publisher=LiveScience|accessdate= October 8, 2015}}</ref>
<gallery class="center" mode=nolines perrow=7>
File:Vermeer The concert.JPG|alt=refer to caption|[[The Concert (Vermeer)|''The Concert'']] by [[Vermeer]] ({{circa}} 1664–1666)
File:Rembrandt Christ in the Storm on the Lake of Galilee.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'' by [[Rembrandt]] (1633)
File:A lady and gentleman in black, by Rembrandt.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[A Lady and Gentleman in Black]]'' by Rembrandt{{efn|name=fn1|The museum believes ''A Lady and Gentleman in Black'' to be a Rembrandt; however some scholars, including the Rembrandt Research Project in Amsterdam, say it is not.<ref name=insider />}} (1633)
File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 076.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[Landscape with an Obelisk]]'' by [[Govert Flinck]]{{efn|name=fn2|''Landscape with an Obelisk'' was formerly attributed to Rembrandt until being associated with his pupil, Flinck.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vigderman|first=Patricia|title=The Memory Palace of Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_0f2uIlN0C&pg=PA151|publisher=Hol Art Books|isbn=978-1-936102-24-2|page=151}}</ref>}} (1638)
File:Édouard Manet Chez Tortoni.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[Chez Tortoni]]'' by [[Édouard Manet]] ({{circa}} 1878–1880)
File:La Sortie de Pesage by E Degas.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''La Sortie de Pesage'' by [[Degas]] (date unknown)
File:Rembrandt - Self portrait etching - ISGM.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Self-Portrait''{{efn|name=fn3|This ''Self-Portrait'' is postage-stamp sized. Not to be confused with Rembrandt's ''Self-Portrait'' (1629) oil painting also at the museum, which the thieves attempted to steal but did not take.<ref name=insider />}} by Rembrandt ({{circa}}1634)
File:Degas - Cortege aux Environs de Florence.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Cortege aux Environs de Florence'' by Degas ({{circa}} 1857–1860)
File:Degas - Program for an artistic soiree 1.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Program for an Artistic Soirée 1'' by Degas (1884)
File:Degas - Program for an artistic soiree 2.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Program for an Artistic Soirée 2'' by Degas (1884)
File:Degas Three Mounted Jockeys.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Three Mounted Jockeys'' by Degas ({{circa}} 1885–1888)
File:Ku robbed from Isabella Stewart Gardner Musuem.gif|alt=refer to caption|An ancient Chinese [[Gu (vessel)|gu]] ({{circa}} 1200-1100 BCE){{efn|name=fn4|The gu is dated during the [[Shang Dynasty]]}}
File:Finial robbed from Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.jpg|alt=refer to caption|A bronze eagle [[finial]] ({{circa}} 1813–1814)
</gallery>

;Notes
{{reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist}}

== Investigation ==
[[File:Sketches of Suspects Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Sketches of the suspects|alt=refer to caption]]
The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] took control of the case on the grounds that the artwork could likely cross state lines.<ref name=nydn /> They have conducted hundreds of interviews with probes stretching across the world involving [[Scotland Yard]], [[Japan]]ese and [[France|French]] authorities, private investigators, museum directors, and art dealers.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The FBI believes the thieves were members of a [[Organized crime|criminal organization]] based in the [[Mid-Atlantic states|mid-Atlantic]] and [[New England]], and that the stolen paintings were moved through [[Connecticut]] and the [[Philadelphia]] area in the years following the theft. Some of the art may have been offered for sale in Philadelphia in the early 2000s, including ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee''; however, their knowledge of what happened to the works after the attempted sale is limited.<ref>{{cite news |title= FBI Says It Has Clues in '90 Boston Art Heist |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/19/us/fbi-says-it-has-clues-in-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=0 |work= The New York Times |accessdate= March 18, 2013}}</ref><ref name=fbipress1>{{cite press release |url= http://www.fbi.gov/boston/press-releases/2013/fbi-provides-new-information-regarding-the-1990-isabella-steward-gardner-museum-art-heist |title= FBI Provides New Information Regarding the 1990 Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Art Heist: Information Sought from Those in Philadelphia and Connecticut Who May Have Knowledge of the Art's Location |publisher= Federal Bureau of Investigation, Boston Division |first= Greg |last= Comcowich |date= March 18, 2013 }}</ref><ref name=searchcont /> The FBI stated it believed to know the identity of the thieves in 2013, but in 2015 announced that they were now deceased. They have declined to identify the individuals.<ref>{{cite web|title=FBI says two suspects who stole $500m in art from Boston museum are dead|url=http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/aug/07/fbi-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-theft-suspects-dead|website=The Guardian|accessdate=12 August 2015}}</ref>

No single motive or pattern has emerged through the thousands of pages of evidence gathered.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The selection of works puzzles the experts, specifically since more valuable artworks were available.<ref name=McShane /> The FBI's lead agent assigned to the case, Geoffrey J. Kelly, finds it difficult to understand why this assortment of items was stolen despite the thieves being in the museum for enough time to take whatever they wished. On their way to the finial, the thieves passed by two [[Raphael]]s and a [[Botticelli]] painting.<ref name=insider /> [[Titian]]'s ''[[The Rape of Europa (Titian)|The Rape of Europa]]'', which is one of the museum's most well-known and valuable pieces, was not stolen.<ref name=insider /> Due to the brutish ways the criminals handled the robbery, cutting the painting from their frames and smashing frames for two Degas sketches, investigators believe the thieves were amateur criminals, not experts commissioned to steal particular works.<ref name = abathstory /> Some investigators believe the works were destroyed, explaining why they have not reappeared.<ref name="Smithsonian" /> Theories on the theft include that it was organized the [[Irish Republican Army]] in order to raise money or bargain for the release of imprisoned comrades. Another theory states [[Whitey Bulger]] as the ringleader of the theft. At the time of the heist, he was Boston's top crime boss and an FBI informant.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

The museum first offered a [[Bounty (reward)|reward]] of $1 million, but that was later increased to $5 million in 1997.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The reward is for "information that leads directly to the recovery of all of [their] items in good condition",<ref name=fbipress1 /> which remains on offer more than a quarter-century later.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> Federal authorities have stated they will not charge anyone who voluntarily turns in the artwork, but anyone caught knowingly in possession of stolen items could be prosecuted.<ref name=suffolk_globe /><ref name=searchcont /> The thieves cannot face charges because the five-year statute of limitations have expired.<ref name=searchcont>{{cite web|last1=Murphy|first1=Shelley|title=Search for artworks from Gardner heist continues 25 years later|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/03/17/gardner-museum-art-heist-one-boston-most-enduring-mysteries-years-later/9U3tp1kJMa4Zn4uClI1cdM/story.html|website=bostonglobe.com|accessdate=12 February 2016}}</ref>

=== Leads ===
In 1994, the museum director Anne Hawley received a letter that promised the return of the pieces for $2.6 million. If interested, the museum had to get the ''The Boston Globe'' to publish a coded message in a business story. The message was published, but the writer disappeared after law enforcement got involved.<ref name=nydn />

Late one night in 1997, ''[[Boston Herald]]'' reporter Tom Mashberg was driven to a warehouse in [[Red Hook, Brooklyn|Red Hook]] by William Youngworth to see what was purported to be ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee''. Youngworth was a career criminal and associate to New England art thief Myles Connor Jr.<ref name=nydn /> Mashberg had been investigating the theft and was briefly allowed to view the painting with a flashlight. He was given a vial of paint chips for authenticity. These were later confirmed by experts to be fragments of Dutch 17th century origin—but not from the stolen painting.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> It was never concretely determined to be real or fake, and the FBI quit speaking to Youngworth after not making any progress.<ref name=nydn /> The painting has since disappeared.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

On August 6, 2015, police released a video from the night before the theft, that is believed to show a dry run of the robbery. Two men appear on the tape; one of them remains unidentified, while the other has been confirmed as Richard Abath, a security guard on duty the night of the heist. The video appears to show Abath buzzing the unidentified man into the museum twice within a few minutes. The man stayed for about three minutes in the lobby, then returned to a car and drove off.<ref>{{cite web|title=New video shows possible dry run for Gardner Museum art Heist|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2015/08/06/new-video-shows-possible-dry-run-for-gardner-museum-art-heist/rxxqmXXfKI8ap180aT2BjL/story.html?p1=ClickedOnBreakingNewsBox|website=boston.com|accessdate=12 February 2016}}</ref> Police say the video opens new lines of investigation, and ''[[The New York Times]]'' points out that it draws new attention to Abath as a potential collaborator.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Jones|first1=Jonathan|title=Is America's greatest art heist about to be solved?|url=http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2015/aug/07/americas-greatest-art-heist-solved-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum|website=The Guardian|accessdate=12 February 2016}}</ref> However, the guards have previously been interviewed and deemed too unimaginative to have pulled off the heist.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

[[File:Suffolk Downs.jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[Suffolk Downs]] was searched in December 2015. No evidence was found.|alt=Suffolk Downs]]
In December 2015, over 20 FBI agents conducted a search of the [[Suffolk Downs]] [[horse racing]] track in [[East Boston]], acting on a tip that the stolen works were stashed there. Agents searched the horse stables, parts of the grandstand that have been closed since the early 1990s, and drilled open two stand-up safes. There were rumors among Suffolk Downs employees in the 1990s that the racetrack was a temporary hiding location for the paintings. The search at the racetrack did not reveal any of the stolen works.<ref name=suffolk_globe>{{cite web|last1=Kurkjian|first1=Stephen|title=Search of Suffolk Downs for Gardner Museum masterpieces came up empty – The Boston Globe|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/12/27/search-suffolk-downs-for-gardner-museum-masterpieces-came-empty/H1iiRlZopLFfxOkM9Nm41J/story.html|website=BostonGlobe.com|publisher=The Boston Globe|accessdate=7 January 2016}}</ref>

=== Potential collaborators ===
Boston [[gangster]] Bobby Donati may have been involved in the heist. New England art thief Myles J. Connor Jr., in prison at the time of the robbery, has stated that he and associate Bobby Donati eyed the museum in the 1980s and Donati oversaw the operation.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> Shortly before the robbery, Donati was seen at a night club with a sack of police uniforms.<ref name=nydn /> Donati worked under Boston crime boss Vincent Ferrara, and visited him in prison in the early 1990s. When Ferrara asked about the robbery, Donati said he "buried the stuff" and will find a way to negotiate his release. Donati was murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars.<ref name=nydn />

[[Hartford]], [[Connecticut]] gangster Robert "Bobby the Cook" Gentile has been suggested on multiple occasions as knowing the location of the Gardner works.<ref name=suffolk_globe /><ref name=courant /> In May 2012, FBI agents searched Gentile's home in [[Manchester, Connecticut|Manchester]], Connecticut. They did not find any stolen works, despite searching his preferred hiding spot beneath a false floor with the help of his son. However, in the basement, they found a sheet of paper listing what each stolen piece might draw on the [[black market]].<ref name=suffolk_globe /> In January 2016, the FBI contrived gun charges against Gentile to force him to reveal the location of the missing works. During a hearing, a federal prosecutor revealed significant evidence tying Gentile to the crime. The prosecutor stated that Gentile and mob partner Robert Guarente attempted to use the return of two stolen pieces to reduce a prison sentence for one of their associates. Guarente's wife told investigators in early 2015 that her husband once had possession of some of the art, and gave two paintings to Gentile before Guarente died of cancer in 2004. Also, while in federal prison during 2013–2014, Gentile told at least three people he had knowledge of the stolen art. In 2015, Gentile submitted to a [[polygraph|lie detector]] test, denying advanced knowledge of the heist or ever possessing any paintings. The result showed a 0.1% chance that he was truthful.<ref name=courant>{{cite web|last1=Mahoney|first1=Edmund H.|title=Prosecutors Reveal More Evidence They Say Ties Robert Gentile To Gardner Museum Robbery|url=http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-art-heist-0107-20160106-story.html|website=courant.com|publisher=Hartford Courant|accessdate=7 January 2016}}</ref> According to Gentile's lawyer, federal agents are convinced that Gentile has the stolen works.<ref name=suffolk_globe />

When the museum raised its bounty in 1997, Myles J Connor Jr. said he could locate the missing artwork in exchange for [[legal immunity]]. Authorities rejected his offer. Connor now believes that the Gardner works have passed into other, unknown hands. “I was probably told, but I don’t remember,” he said, blaming a heart attack that affected his memory.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> Louis Royce, another Boston area gangster, claims he is still owed 15% for devising the plan for two fake policemen to request access to the museum at night.<ref name=nydn>{{cite web|last1=Connelly|first1=Sherryl|title=Possible leads in $500M Boston museum robbery in 1990|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/leads-500m-boston-museum-robbery-1990-article-1.2115903|website=NY Daily News|publisher=NY Daily News|accessdate=8 January 2016}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
Due to the high profile of the museum theft, it has been referenced and parodied in many different works. The theft was the subject of the 2005 documentary ''Stolen'', which first appeared in a slightly different version on [[Court TV]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.internationalfilmcircuit.com/stolen/pressbook_stolen.pdf |title=Stolen: Is it still a masterpiece if no one can find it? |first=Rebecca |last= Dreyfus |date= April 13, 2006 |work=Stolen pressbook |publisher=International Film Circuit|accessdate=June 24, 2010}}</ref> The more well-known paintings have been referenced in multiple TV shows, including ''[[The Blacklist (TV series)|The Blacklist]]'' episode "The Courier",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2013/10/starring_role_for_boston_on_new_hit_blacklist |title=Starring role for Boston on new hit Blacklist |first=Mark |last=Perigard |date= October 30, 2013 |publisher=Boston Herald|accessdate=December 9, 2015}}</ref> ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode "[[American History X-cellent]]",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2010/04/%E2%80%98simpsons%E2%80%99_cracks_case_gardner_heist |title='Simpsons' crack case of Gardner heist |date= April 13, 2010 |publisher=Boston Herald|accessdate=December 9, 2015}}</ref> ''[[Drunk History]]'' episode "Boston",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cc.com/video-clips/uo66zq/drunk-history-art-heist---uncensored|title=Art Heist – Uncensored Drunk History Video Clip – Comedy Central |first=Mark |last=Perigard |date= July 30, 2013 |publisher=Comedy Central|accessdate=December 1, 2015}}</ref> and ''[[American Greed]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnbc.com/id/100000093|title=American Greed – Unsolved $300 Million Art Heist |date= October 14, 2012 |publisher=CNBC|accessdate=December 11, 2015}}</ref> Two books were written by former investigators including ''Artful Deception'' (2012) by James J McGovern and ''Stolen Masterpiece Tracker'' (2006) by Thomas McShane.<ref name=globe_mar2013>{{cite web|last1=Valencia|first1=Milton|title=Observers, investigators say now is time to find Gardner art before it is lost – The Boston Globe|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/24/observers-investigators-say-now-time-find-gardner-art-before-lost/Z4HQc74zz6ek7QWOcZvNsO/story.html|website=BostonGlobe.com|publisher=The Boston Globe|accessdate=8 January 2016}}</ref> Stephen Kurkjian, a recurrent Boston Globe reporter on the case has written a book about his experience titled ''Master Thieves: The Boston Gangsters Who Pulled Off the World’s Greatest Art Heist''.<ref name=nydn />

== See also ==
*[[List of stolen paintings]]
*[[Great Brink's Robbery]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum}}
*[http://www.gardnermuseum.org/ Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum website]
*[http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ FBI theft page] and [http://www.fbi.gov/gardner/ Mar 2013 update]
*{{IMDb title|0453552|Stolen}}

[[Category:Stolen works of art]]
[[Category:Unsolved crimes in the United States]]
[[Category:Crime in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:1990 crimes in the United States]]
[[Category:1990 in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:20th century in Boston, Massachusetts]]

Sandgate Castle

2016-01-24T00:41:29Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
|name=Sandgate Castle
|partof=
|location=[[Sandgate, Kent|Sandgate]], [[England]]
|coordinates=
|image= [[File:Sandgate Castle September 2013 ED04.JPG|250px]]
|caption= Castle seen from the beach
|image2=
|caption2=
|map_type= Kent
|latitude= 51.073444
|longitude= 1.148889
|type= [[Device Fort]]
|code=
|built= 1539–40
|builder=
|materials=
|height=
|used=
|demolished=
|condition= Restored
|ownership= Private
|open_to_public= No
|controlledby=
|garrison=
|current_commander=
|commanders=
|occupants=
|battles=
|events= [[English Civil War]] [[Napoleonic Wars]]
}}

'''Sandgate Castle''' is an artillery fort originally constructed by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] in [[Sandgate, Kent|Sandgate]] in Kent, between 1539 and 1540. It formed part of the King's [[Device Fort|Device programme]] to protect against invasion from France and the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and defended vulnerable point along the coast. It comprised a central stone [[keep]], with three towers and a [[gatehouse]]. It could hold four tiers of [[List of medieval and early modern gunpowder artillery|artillery]], and was fitted with a total of 142 firing points for [[cannon]] and [[handgun]]s.

Sandgate was taken by [[Roundheads|Parliament]] in 1642 at the start of the [[first English Civil War]], and was seized by [[Cavaliers|Royalist]] rebels in the [[Second English Civil War|second civil war]] of 1648. The castle was extensively redesigned between 1805 and 1808 during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. The height of the castle was significantly reduced and the keep was turned into a [[Martello tower]]; when the work was completed, it was armed with ten 24-pounder (11 kg) guns and could hold a garrison of 40 men.

The castle had begun to suffer [[coastal erosion|damage from the sea]] by the early 17th century, and by the middle of the 19th century, the receding coastline had reached the edge of the castle walls. The high costs of repair contributed to the government's decision to sell the site off in 1888. It was initially bought by a [[South Eastern Railway, UK|railway company]] and then passed into private ownership. Coastal erosion continued and by the 1950s, the southern part of the castle had been destroyed by the sea. The remaining castle was restored between 1975 and 1979 by Peter and Barbara McGregor, who turned the keep into a private residence. In the 21st century, Sandgate remains in private ownership, and is protected under UK law as a [[grade I listed building]].

==History==

===16th century===
[[File:Sandgate Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1412667.jpg|thumb|The keep (left) and gatehouse (right) in 2009]]
Sandgate Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England, [[Kingdom of France|France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the final years of the reign of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Traditionally [[the Crown]] had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities, only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications, and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another, maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=111}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}</ref> Modest defences, based around simple [[blockhouse]]s and towers, existed in the south-west and along the [[Sussex]] coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|pp=176–177}}</ref>

In 1533, Henry broke with Pope [[Paul III]] in order to annul the long-standing marriage to his wife, [[Catherine of Aragon]] and remarry.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}</ref> Catherine was the aunt of [[Charles V of Spain|Charles V]], the Holy Roman Emperor, and he took the annulment as a personal insult.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=5}}</ref> This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=63–64}}</ref> An invasion of England appeared certain.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=6}}</ref> In response, Henry issued an order, called a "[[Device Fort|device]]", in 1539, giving instructions for the "defence of the realm in time of invasion" and the construction of forts along the English coastline.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Walton|2010|p=70}}</ref>

Sandgate was intended to defend a vulnerable point along the [[Kent]] cliffs, just west of [[Folkestone]], where an enemy force could potentially land and make their way easily further inland.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=54–55}}; {{harvnb|Rutton|1893|p=229}}</ref> Sandgate's construction was supervised by the Moravian engineer [[Stefan von Haschenperg]], and Thomas Cockys and Richard Keys acted as commissioners for the project.<ref>{{harvnb|Walton|2010|p=71}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=18}}</ref> In the initial stages of the work in 1539, a team of 237 men were employed, with masons, quarrymen, limeburners and wood fellers preparing the site; the masons were drawn from as far away as [[Somerset]] and [[Gloucestershire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Rutton|1893|p=235}}</ref> By the summer, over 500 were at work, including labourers, bricklayers, carpenters and sawyers.<ref name=Saunders1989P46>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=46}}</ref> After a pause during the winter months, work picked up again in the summer of the next year, with 630 working on the castle that July.<ref name=Saunders1989P46/>

The castle's foundations rested on the underlying [[shingle beach|shingle]] of the beach.<ref name="Harris 1980 81">{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=81}}</ref> The walls were made from [[Kentish ragstone]], mostly roughly laid, with some work using finer [[ashlar]], with [[Caen stone]] used in the detailing.<ref name="Harris 1980 81"/> Most of the ragstone was collected from the local beaches, where there were suitable outcrops to the west and east of the site.<ref name="rutton234">{{harvnb|Rutton|1893|pp=234–235}}; {{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=55}}</ref> 459 tons of Caen stone was recycled from the priories of [[Christ Church Priory|Christ Church]] and [[Horton Priory|Horton]], which had recently been [[dissolution of the monasteries|dissolved]] by Henry.<ref name="rutton234"/> In total, 147,000 bricks were used, produced at 13 different brickyards, and 44,000 tiles, mostly manufactured in [[Wye, Kent|Wye]], along with 1,829 loads of [[lime (material)|lime]], 110 tons of [[coal]] and 979 tons of [[timber]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rutton|1893|pp=235–237}}; {{harvnb|Darvill|McWhirr|1984|p=250}}</ref> The total cost of the project came to £5,584.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=8}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC|Comparing early modern costs and prices with those of the modern period is challenging. £5,584 in 1540 could be equivalent to between £3.1 and £1,500 million in 2014, depending on the price comparison used. £260 in 1616 could equate to between £44,000 and £13.6 million; £560 in 123 to between £93,000 and £27.7 million; and £200 in 1663 to between £26,800 and £6 million. For comparison, the total royal expenditure on all the Device Forts across England between 1539 and 1547 came to £376,500, with [[St Mawes Castle|St Mawes]], for example, costing £5,018.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=12}}; {{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson| mode = cs2|date = 2014| accessdate=29 May 2015 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}}

At the centre of the new castle was a circular [[keep]], with three ovoid towers and [[bastion]]s around it on the north-west, north-east and south sides, and a [[gatehouse]] to the north.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1061237|title=Sandgate Castle|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 November 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=74}}</ref> These were surrounded by two [[curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]]s, forming a triangular [[inner ward|inner]] and [[outer ward]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1061237|title=Sandgate Castle|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 November 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> Covered stone passageways, three storeys high, linked the towers, the keep and the gatehouse.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=72–73}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1061237|title=Sandgate Castle|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 November 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> The outer ward was grassed over, with a stone [[cesspool]] by the side of the north-east tower, linked by sewers to the inside of the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=68}}</ref> The castle was entered through a doorway in the rear of the gatehouse, originally called the "Half Moon", linked by a stairway in the covered passageway to the keep.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=54}}</ref> There were four tiers of guns in the finished castle, from the ground level up to the roof of the keep, and a total of 142 firing points for [[cannon]] and [[handgun]]s; their design closely resembling those at nearby [[Walmer Castle|Walmer]] and [[Deal castle]]s.<ref name="Harris 1980 81-82">{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=81–82}}</ref>

Sandgate was completed by the autumn of 1540; Henry may have come to the castle when he was visiting Folkestone in May 1542.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=80}}; {{harvnb|Rutton|1895|p=244}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=46}}</ref> [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] visited the fortification in 1573, and also used it to imprison the courtier [[Thomas Keyes]] for a period, after he married [[Lady Mary Grey]] against the Queen's wishes.<ref>{{harvnb|Rutton|1895|pp=244–246}}</ref> In 1593, the castle was reported to be equipped with seven artillery pieces - one [[culverin]], two [[demi-culverin]]s, three [[Saker (cannon)|saker]]s and one [[Minion (cannon)|minion]] - along with [[musket]]s, [[bow and arrow|bows and arrows]].<ref name=Rutton1895P248>{{harvnb|Rutton|1895|p=248}}</ref>

===17th–18th centuries===
[[File:Sandgate Castle, 1762.jpg|thumb|Depiction of the castle in 1762]]
In 1609, the garrison comprised a captain and his lieutenant, five soldiers, two porters and ten gunners.<ref name="Rutton 1895 247">{{harvnb|Rutton|1895|p=247}}</ref> The [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] used in the castle was particularly poor, and had begun to seriously decay by 1616.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=81}}; {{harvnb|Rutton|1895|pp=248–249}}</ref> A survey that year showed the castle to be substantially dilapidated, with the cost of the proposed repairs estimated at £260, and noted that a {{convert|100|ft}} gun platform for ten weapons had been built along the southern walls to replace the original southern battery.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=81}}; {{harvnb|Rutton|1895|p=249}}</ref> A 1623 report echoed the same problems, noting that the sea had caused a third of the southern wall to collapse; the necessary repairs, including strengthening the walls, were projected at £560.<ref>{{harvnb|Rutton|1895|p=249}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC}}

Four years later, amid fears of war with France and Spain, the castle's captain, Richard Chalcroft, reported that the fortification was in such a poor condition that "neither habitable or defensible against any assault, nor any way fit to command the roads".<ref name=Rutton1895PP249>{{harvnb|Rutton|1895|pp=249–250}}</ref> An inspection team observed that it was straightforward to climb over the castle's ruined walls and rotten timbers, and that as a result its artillery had been dismounted and placed along the beach instead.<ref name=Rutton1895PP249/> The castle was probably not repaired, however, until after 1638.<ref>{{harvnb|Rutton|1895|p=250}}</ref>

Sandgate Castle was seized in 1642 by Parliamentary forces at the start of the first [[English Civil War]] between the supporters of King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] and [[Parliament]], although its captain, Richard Hippesley, remained in post.<ref>{{harvnb|Rutton|1895|pp=250–251}}</ref> The war ended in 1646 but, after the few years of unsteady peace, the [[Second English Civil War|Second Civil War]] broke out in 1648. The Parliamentary navy was based in Kent, protected by the other Henrician castles of Walmer, Deal and [[Sandown Castle, Kent|Sandown]], but by May a Royalist insurrection was under way across the county, and the fleet joined the rebellion.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=50}}; {{harvnb|Kennedy|1962|pp=248-–252}}</ref> Sandgate and its sister castles were occupied by the Royalists.<ref>{{harvnb|Rutton|1895|p=250}}; {{harvnb|Kennedy|1962|pp=251–252}}</ref> Parliament defeated the wider insurgency at the [[Battle of Maidstone]] at the start of June, however, and then sent a force under the command of Colonel Rich to deal with the Kentish castles.<ref>{{harvnb|Ashton|1994|p=440}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=51}}</ref> Sandgate was still occupied by the Royalists that August, when Rich sent forces to prevent its garrison intervening to disrupt his assault on Deal and Sandown, but was recaptured soon after.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Ashton|1994|p=442}}; {{harvnb|Elvin|1894|pp=110–111}}; {{harvnb|Rutton|1895|p=250}}</ref>

During the interregnum, Hippesley initially continued as captain of Sandgate, until he was replaced in 1653, resulting in complaints from him that he had been unfairly treated and that he was owed money by Parliament.<ref>{{harvnb|Rutton|1895|p=251}}</ref> During this period the garrison was increased to include a governor, two corporals, twenty soldiers and three gunners.<ref name="Rutton 1895 247"/> When Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, Sandgate and the other Device Forts initially remained at the heart of the south coast defences, but by now their design was antiquated.<ref>{{harvnb|Rutton|1895|p=248}}; {{harvnb|Tomlinson|1973|p=6}}</ref> The garrison was cut back to its pre-war levels, and then reduced further in 1682 to only ten men.<ref name=Rutton1895P248/> Sandgate had fallen into a poor condition, and £200 was assigned in 1663 for the repair of the castle, to be met partially from the proceeds of lands around Sandgate confiscated from former supporters of Parliament.<ref>{{harvnb|Rutton|1895|p=251}}; {{harvnb|Tomlinson|1973|p=6}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC}}

===19th century===
[[File:Sandgate Castle plan 1867 crop.jpg|thumb|1867 plan of the castle; north-west and north-east towers and gatehouse at the top]]
Sandgate Castle was still in use during the [[Napoleonic Wars]] at the start of the 19th century, but was heavily rebuilt. Brigadier-General [[William Twiss]] surveyed the south coast in 1804, and proposed building a series of 58 new defensive towers along it, as part of which he proposed converted Sandgate into a "secure sea battery".<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=81}}; {{harvnb|Sutcliffe|1973|p=55}}</ref> After some opposition, and many delays within the [[War Office]], the work on the castle finally began in 1805.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=81}}; {{harvnb|Sutcliffe|1973|p=58}}</ref>

The project lowered the height of the castle considerably, destroying much of the fortification in the process.<ref name="Harris 1980 81-82"/> The upper storeys of the keep, the towers, the covered passageways and the gatehouse were all demolished, along with some of the buildings in the inner ward.<ref name=Harris1980PP72>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=72, 81}}</ref> The resulting rubble was used to backfill the outer ward, raising its height and effectively turning the inner ward into a dry [[moat]].<ref name=Harris1980PP72/> The inner curtain wall was reduced to one storey in height, and the outer curtain wall was refaced.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=65, 68}}</ref> An [[esplanade]] and [[wall-walk]] were built around the remaining outer walls, which supported at least eight gun emplacements.<ref name=Harris1980P66>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=66}}</ref>

The circular keep was turned into a [[Martello tower]], a type of Napoleonic artillery fortification.<ref name="Harris 1980 81-82"/> It was now only two storeys tall, although remaining original interior walls and doorways largely survived untouched.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=73, 77}}</ref> It was accessed on the first floor via an unusual sliding [[drawbridge]], which was supported on rails and could retract into the floor, and the different storeys were linked by a spiral staircase.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=77}}</ref> The ground floor of the keep included a brick-built [[Magazine (artillery)|magazine]], and the roof, supported by a central pillar running up through the building, held a single, large gun emplacement.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=73, 77, 81–82}}</ref>

The north-east and north-west towers, now only one-storey tall, were covered with turf, turning the rear of the outer ward into a flat, grassed esplanade.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=56}}</ref> The southern tower was reduced in height to two storeys, but remained in use as a gun platform.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=84–85}}</ref> The covered corridors between the keep and the towers were now one-storey high as well, linking to the buried towers in the north-east and north-west bastions.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=73}}</ref> The upper storeys of the gatehouse were rebuilt, although the ground floor remained in its 16th-century condition.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=54, 60, 6}}</ref>

The modified castle was completed by 1808, and held eight 24-pounder (11 kg) guns along the outer wall, a gun on the roof of the southern bastion, and another on top of the keep itself.<ref name=HarrisP82>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=82}}</ref> The new castle could hold a garrison of 40 men.<ref name=HarrisP82/>

In 1859, the castle was re-equipped with heavier artillery, a combination of 32-pounder (15 kg) and 68-pounder (31 kg) guns.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=82, 86}}</ref> A new magazine was constructed, comprising a large, brick-built building divided into three rooms for storing [[gunpowder]], specially designed to keep the powder dry.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=70–72}}</ref> The exterior gun emplacements were also redesigned, reusing the 1806 foundations; the two surviving emplacements, in the north-east and north-west bastions, date from 1859.<ref name=Harris1980P66/>

Coastal erosion remained a problem. By the middle of the century, the tides had reached the southern edge of the castle, and a 1866 report stated that the walls had been undermined by the sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Tapete|Bromhead|Ibsen|Casagli|2013|p=456}}; {{harvnb|Rutton|1893|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=54}}</ref> Despite protective [[deep foundation|piles]] being driven around the castle, it was badly affected by flooding in 1875 and 1878, creating serious fissures in the stonework.<ref name="rutton253">{{harvnb|Rutton|1893|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=54}}</ref> The high costs of maintaining the property, combined with its dwindling utility, encouraged the government to sell the castle to the [[South Eastern Railway, UK|South Eastern Railway company]] in 1888, who intended to turn it into a [[railway station]].<ref name="rutton253"/> It was then sold to private owners and a small museum was created in the castle, which was sometimes opened to the public for an entry price of one penny.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=54}}; {{harvnb|Harper|1914|pp=316-217}}</ref>{{efn|One penny in 1900 would be equivalent to £0.48 in 2014.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson| mode = cs2|date = 2014| accessdate=29 May 2015 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}}

<gallery mode=packed heights=140px>
File:Sandgate Castle - Sandgate NE.jpg|Sketches of Sandgate Castle in 1893 by E. Kennett, from the north-east...
File:Sandgate Castle - Sandgate SE.jpg|...and the south-east
File:Sandgate Castle - Entrance door 2.jpg|The main doorway into the gatehouse...
File:Sandgate Castle - Entrance door.jpg|...and interior...
File:Sandgate Castle - Keep from north.jpg|and the keep.
</gallery>

===20th–21st centuries===
[[File:Plan of modern Sandgate Castle.png|thumb|Plan of Sandgate Castle in the 21st century; A - gatehouse; B - north-west bastion, covered; C - magazine, covered; D - north-east bastion, exposed; E - keep; F - beach and sea-wall]]
The receding coast line continued to threaten Sandgate Castle, and severe storms in 1927 and 1950 undermined large parts of the castle.<ref name="tapete456">{{harvnb|Tapete|Bromhead|Ibsen|Casagli|2013|p=456}}; {{harvnb|Harris|1980|p=54}}</ref> By the time that a new seawall was built in the early 1950s, the southern third of the castle had been entirely destroyed.<ref name="tapete456"/>

In 1975, Peter and Barbara McGregor began to restore the ruins of the castle, with the support of the [[Secretary of State for the Environment|Department of the Environment]], [[Kent County Council]] and the [[British Army]].<ref name=Harris1980PP53>{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=53, 86}}</ref> As part of the project, archaeological investigations were carried out between 1975 and 1979 by [[Edward Harris (archaeologist)|Edward Harris]].<ref name=Harris1980PP53/> The part of the 1806 esplanade around the north-east bastion was excavated, revealing the lower 16th-century stonework of the tower and the east side of the 1859 magazine, and a [[retaining wall]] was built to support the newly exposed walls.<ref name="harris53">{{harvnb|Harris|1980|pp=53, 56, 86}}</ref> This created two levels in the outer bailey: a higher level on the western side, which still covered the north-west tower, and a lower one on the eastern.<ref name="harris53"/> The keep was turned into a private residence, with a new [[sun room]] built on top of the gun platform.<ref>{{harvnb|Clements|2011|p=55}}</ref> In 2000, [[Geoffrey Boot]] and his wife acquired the castle, which is now used by Boot's company, AMT South Eastern Ltd.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dover-express.co.uk/Burglar-fails-break-Geoffrey-Boot-s-Sandgate/story-11997199-detail/story.html |title=Burglar Fails to Break into Geoffrey Boot's Sandgate Castle Home|publisher=Dover Express |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119182920/http://www.dover-express.co.uk/Burglar-fails-break-Geoffrey-Boot-s-Sandgate/story-11997199-detail/story.html |archive-date=19 November 2015 |mode=cs2}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.chad.co.uk/news/local/colourful-past-of-new-mhk-baron-boot-1-7462204#axzz3qtBJz2s6 |title=Colourful Past of new MKH Baron Boot|publisher=Chad |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119183246/http://www.chad.co.uk/news/local/colourful-past-of-new-mhk-baron-boot-1-7462204 |archive-date=19 November 2015 |mode=cs2}}</ref>

The castle is protected under UK law as a [[grade I listed building]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-175279-sandgate-castle-sandgate-kent#.VkYJmHbhCUk|title=Sandgate Castle, Sandgate|access-date=19 November 2015|publisher=British Listed Buildings|author=English Heritage|mode=cs2}}</ref> The two 16th-century ledger books from the original construction, written by the project clerk Thomas Busshe, survive in the [[British Library]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rutton|1893|p=228}}</ref> They are 350 pages long, and form what the historian Peter Harrington has described as the "most complete building account of any Tudor fortification".<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=18}}; {{harvnb|Rutton|1893|p=228}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|notes=}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book
| last1= Ashton
| first1 = Robert
| title = Counter-revolution: The Second Civil War and Its Origins, 1646–8
| date = 1994
| publisher = The Bath Press
| location = Avon, UK
| isbn = 9780300061147
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Biddle
| first1 = Martin
| last2= Hiller
| first2 = Jonathon
| last3= Scott
| first3 = Ian
| last4= Streeten
| first4 = Anthony
| title = Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological Structural and Historical Investigation
| date = 2001
| publisher = Oxbow Books
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 0904220230
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Clements
| first1 = Bill
| title = Martello Towers Worldwide
| date = 2011
| publisher = Sword and Pen
| location = Barnsley, UK
| isbn= 9781848845350
| ref= harv}}
*{{cite journal
| last1= Darvill
| first1 = Tim
| last2= McWhirr
| first2 = Alan
| title = Brick and Tile Production in Roman Britain: Models of Economic Organisation
| journal= World Archaeology
| volume = 15
| number = 3
| year = 1984
| pages= 239–261
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Elvin
| first1 = Charles R. S.
| title = The History of Walmer and Walmer Castle
| date = 1894
| publisher = Cross and Jackman
| location = Canterbury, UK
| oclc = 23374336
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Harper
| first1 = Charles G.
| title = The Kentish Coast
| date = 1914
| publisher = Chapman and Hall
| location = London, UK
| oclc= 1319228
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Harrington
| first1 = Peter
| title = The Castles of Henry VIII
| date = 2007
| publisher = Osprey Publishing
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 9781472803801
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Hale
| first1 = John R.
| title = Renaissance War Studies
| date = 1983
| publisher = Hambledon Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0907628176
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Harris
| first1 = Edward C.
| journal = Post-Medieval Archaeology
| volume = 14
| title = Archaeological Investigations at Sandgate Castle, Kent, 1976-9
| date = 1980
| pages = 53–88
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Kennedy
| first1 = D. E.
| journal = The English Historical Review
| volume = 77
| number = 303
| title = The English Naval Revolt of 1648
| date = 1962
| pages = 247–256
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= King
| first1 = D. J. Cathcart
| title = The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History
| date = 1991
| publisher = Routledge Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 9780415003506
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Morley
| first1 = B. M.
| title = Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defence
| date = 1976
| publisher = Her Majesty's Stationery Office
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0116707771
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Rutton
| first1 = W. L.
| volume = 20
| title = Sandgate Castle, AD 1539–40
| journal = Archaeologia Cantiana
| date = 1893
| pages = 228–257
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Rutton
| first1 = W. L.
| volume = 21
| title = Sandgate Castle
| journal = Archaeologia Cantiana
| date = 1895
| pages = 244–259
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Saunders
| first1 = Andrew
| title = Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland
| date = 1989
| publisher = Beaufort
| location = Liphook, UK
| isbn = 1855120003
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Sutcliffe
| first1 = Sheila
| title = Martello Towers
| date = 1973
| publisher = Fairleigh Dickinson University Press
| location = Rutherford, US
| isbn = 9780838613139
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Tapete
| first1 = Deodato
| last2= Bromhead
| first2 = Edward
| last3= Ibsen
| first3 = Maia
| last4= Casagli
| first4 = Nicola
| editor-last1 = Margottini
| editor-first1= Claudio
| editor-last2 = Canuti
| editor-first2=Paolo
| editor-last3 = Sassa
| editor-first3=Kyoji
| chapter= Coastal Erosion and Landsliding Impact on Historic Sites in SE Britain
| title= Landslide Science and Practice: Volume 6, Risk Assessment, Management and Migitation edited by Claudio Margottini, Paolo Canuti, Kyoji Sassa
| date = 2013
| publisher = Springer
| location = Heidelberg, Germany
| pages = 451–458
| isbn = 9783642313196
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Thompson
| first1 = M. W.
| title = The Decline of the Castle
| date = 1987
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| isbn = 1854226088
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Tomlinson
| first1 = Howard
| journal = Architectural History
| volume = 1
| title = The Ordnance Office and the King's Forts, 1660–1714
| date = 1973
| pages = 5–25
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Walton
| first1 = Steven A.
| journal = Osiris
| volume = 25
| number = 1
| title = State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification
| date = 2010
| pages = 66–84
| ref= harv}}

{{Commons category|Sandgate Castle}}

{{Device Forts}}

{{coord |51|4|24.4|N|1|8|56|E|type:landmark_region:GB-KEN|display=title}}

[[Category:Castles in Kent]]
[[Category:Forts in Kent]]
[[Category:Device Forts]]
[[Category:Shepway]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Kent]]

Der Kuss (Munch)

2015-09-22T00:41:11Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox artwork
| title = The Kiss
| image_file = Edvard Munch - The Kiss - Google Art Project.jpg
| painting_alignment = right
| image_size = 300px
| alt = A depiction of two people kissing
| other_language_1 =
| other_title_1 =
| type = [[Oil painting|Oil on canvas]]
| artist = [[Edvard Munch]]
| year = {{Start date|1897}}
| catalogue =
| height_metric = 99
| width_metric = 81
| condition =
| city = [[Oslo]], Norway
| museum = [[Munch Museum]]
| coordinates =
| owner =
| accession = M0059
| url =
}}
'''''The Kiss''''' is an [[oil painting]] on [[canvas]] completed by the Norwegian [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolist]] artist [[Edvard Munch]] in 1897. Part of his ''[[Frieze of Life]]'', which depicts the stages of a relationship between men and women, ''The Kiss'' is a realization of a [[Motif (visual arts)|motif]] with which he had experimented since 1888/89: a couple kissing, their faces fusing as one in a symbolic representation of their unity. Exhibited as early as 1903, this work is held at the [[Munch Museum]] in [[Oslo]].

==Description==
''The Kiss'' is an [[oil painting]] on canvas, measuring {{convert|81|x|99|cm}}.{{sfn|Google, The Kiss}} It depicts a couple surrounded by darkness, with only a sliver of daylight showing through a window which is mostly covered by a curtain.{{sfn|MoMA, Edvard Munch|loc=0:28–0:33}} They hold an embrace as they seemingly merge into one, their faces a single, featureless shape.{{sfn|MoMA, Edvard Munch|loc=0:55–1:12}} Art critic [[Roberta Smith]] notes that Munch favored "long, somewhat slurpy brush strokes that were more stained than painted".{{Sfn|Smith|2009}}

The painting is similar to, though simpler than, another work with the same theme Munch produced in the same period.{{sfn|Bischoff|2000|p=39}}

==Background==
[[File:Edvard Munch - Kiss by the window (1892).jpg|left|thumbnail|''Kiss by the Window'' (1892), an earlier realization of the "kiss" motif ]]
The Norwegian [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolist]] artist [[Edvard Munch]] (1863–1944) had to cope with disease, [[mental illness]], and death in his family, as well as a strict and strongly religious father. During his lifetime he experienced disappointment in love and feeble health, causing him fits of [[melancholia]]; Munch also became an alcoholic.{{Sfn|Smith|2009}} The artist never married.{{sfn|Henning|2009}} This influenced his artistic production and the emotional states of his paintings. "Most of Munch’s figures," writes Roberta Smith, "are not mad, but paralyzed by oceanic feelings of grief, jealousy, desire or despair that many people found shocking either for their eroticism, crude style or intimations of mental instability."{{sfn|Smith|2009}} Though shocking, his paintings are characterized by an emotional honesty and integrity that makes them thrilling.{{sfn|Smith|2009}}{{sfn|NGA, 2010}}

Munch experimented with the [[Motif (visual arts)|motif]] of a couple kissing, both in painting and woodcuts, as early as 1888–89. In the numerous realizations of this motif there is a contrast between the world inside and outside of the room in which the couple is situated. The outside world appears vibrant and lively, whereas the interior of the room is timeless, with the couple frozen in their embrace. In this motif, the couple's abstract form, in which the faces of the two appear to be merged as one, indicates their sense of belongingness and togetherness.{{sfn|Google, The Kiss}} Later versions of the motif not only merged their faces, but also their bodies.{{sfn|Cordulack|2002|p=84}}
The motif was part of a series Munch called the ''[[Frieze of Life]]'', on which he spent more than 30 years of his career. The cycle depicts stages of a relationship between men and women and is part of what Munch called "the battle between men and women that is called love".{{sfn|MoMA, Edvard Munch|loc=0:02–0:26}} It includes portrayals of attraction, courtship, realization, and disappointment.{{sfn|MoMA, Edvard Munch|loc=0:02–0:26}}

==Analysis==
[[File:Edvard Munch - Night in Saint-Cloud (1890), NG.M.01111.jpg|thumbnail|''Night in Saint-Cloud'' (1890) ]]
According to the [[Museum of Modern Art]], the dark ambiance of ''The Kiss'' is representative of Munch's ambivalence regarding romance.{{sfn|MoMA, Edvard Munch|loc=0:34–0:39}} In the 1897 painting, art historian [[Reinhold Heller]] finds it "virtually impossible" to separate the two figures, particularly where their faces meet and become one.{{sfn|MoMA, Edvard Munch|loc=0:55–1:12}} He considers the depiction of the lovers to represent their unity while at the same time representing a threatening "loss of individuality, a loss of one's own existence and identity" which hints at death.{{sfn|MoMA, Edvard Munch|loc=1:25–1:46}}

The author [[Stanisław Przybyszewski]] (1868–1927) was critical of the fused faces, finding them "look[ing] like a gigantic ear ... deaf in the ecstasy of the blood".<ref name="Q1">quoted in {{harvnb|Cordulack|2002|p=84}}</ref> The writer [[August Strindberg]] (1849–1912) gave a similar opinion, writing that the couple becomes "a fusion of two beings, of which the smaller, in the form of a carp, seems ready to devour the larger".<ref name="Q1"/>

Owing to the similarity of the room in ''The Kiss'' to Munch's own, as represented in ''Night in Saint-Cloud'', art critic [[Ulrich Bischoff]] considers the painting to have an autobiographical element.{{sfn|Bischoff|2000|p=39}}

==Provenance==
''The Kiss'' was exhibited in 1903 at Munch's show ''Love's Awakening'', paired with a copy of his ''[[Madonna (Edvard Munch)|Madonna]]''.{{sfn|Bischoff|2000|p=39}} The painting is now part of the collection of the [[Munch Museum]] in [[Oslo]], Norway; the museum is dedicated to Munch and his works.{{sfn|Google, The Kiss}}

==References==
{{refs|20em}}

==Works cited==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite book
|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ETahibk334cC
|first=Ulrich
|last=Bischoff
|title=Edvard Munch: 1863–1944
|location=Köln
|year=2000
|ref=harv
|publisher=Taschen
|isbn=978-3-8228-5971-1
}}
*{{Cite book
|title=Edvard Munch and the Physiology of Symbolism
|first=Shelley Wood
|last=Cordulack
|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=DzgM3BGcMTsC
|location=Madison, New Jersey
|publisher= Fairleigh Dickinson University Press
|year=2002
|ref=harv
|isbn=978-0-8386-3891-0
}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/exhibitions/2010/edvard-munch-master-prints.html|title=Edvard Munch Master Prints|publisher=National Gallery of Art|location=Washington, D.C.|accessdate=25 July 2015 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6aIaYKRMk |ref={{SfnRef|NGA, 2010}} |date=2010 |archivedate=26 July 2015}}
*{{Cite web
|title=Edvard Munch. The Kiss. 1897
|url=http://www.moma.org/explore/multimedia/audios/26/596
|publisher=Museum of Modern Art
|ref={{SfnRef|MoMA, Edvard Munch}}
|accessdate=25 July 2015
}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123551676156263849 |title=So Typecast You Could Scream |last=Henning |first=Joel |work=The Wall Street Journal |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6aIaz3jHI |archivedate=26 July 2015 |ref=harv |date=25 February 2009 |accessdate=25 July 2015}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/13/arts/design/13munc.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|title=So Typecast You Could Scream |last=Smith |first=Roberta |work=The New York Times |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6aIaqMVIH |archivedate=26 July 2015 |page=C27 |ref=harv |date=12 February 2009 |accessdate=25 July 2015}}
*{{Cite web
|title=The Kiss
|publisher=[[Google]]
|website=[[Google Cultural Institute]]
|ref={{sfnRef|Google, The Kiss}}
|url=https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/u/0/asset-viewer/the-kiss/nAFSClcBbcUm-w?projectId=art-project
|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6aHhE0gUZ
|archivedate=25 July 2015
|accessdate=25 July 2015
}}
{{refend}}
{{Edvard Munch}}

[[Category:Paintings by Edvard Munch]]
[[Category:1897 paintings]]
[[Category:Expressionist paintings]]

Netley Castle

2015-09-12T19:41:17Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
|name=Netley Castle
|partof=
|location=[[Hamble-le-Rice]], [[Hampshire]]
|map_type=Hampshire
|map_alt=
|latitude=50.878
|longitude=-1.36
|coordinates=
|image=File:Netley Castle, 2008, 1.jpg
|caption=North wing of the castle in 2008
|built= 1542 or 1544
|builder=
|materials= Stone
|height=
|used=
|demolished=
|condition=Intact
|ownership= Private
|open_to_public= No
|controlledby=
|garrison=
|current_commander=
|commanders=
|occupants=
|battles=
|events= [[English Civil War]]}}
'''Netley Castle''' is a former artillery fort constructed in either 1542 or 1544 by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] in the village of [[Netley]], [[Hampshire]]. It formed part of the King's [[Device Fort|Device programme]] to protect against invasion from France and the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and it defended [[Southampton Water]] near [[the Solent]]. The castle included a central, stone [[keep]] with two flanking gun platforms and was garrisoned by ten men. It was decommissioned during the [[English Civil War]] and by 1743 it was overgrown and in ruins. In the 19th century the property was gradually converted into a private house, being extended in a [[Gothic architecture|Gothic style]], complete with octagonal towers. Between 1939 and 1998 it was used as a [[nursing home]], until the high costs of maintenance led to its closure. Following an [[archaeological survey]], it was then converted into nine residential flats. It is protected under UK law as a Grade II* [[listed building]].

==History==
===16th–17th centuries===
Netley Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England, [[Kingdom of France|France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the final years of the reign of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Traditionally [[the Crown]] had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities, only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications, and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another, maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=111}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}</ref> Modest defences, based around simple [[blockhouse]]s and towers, existed in the south-west and along the [[Sussex]] coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|pp=176–177}}</ref>

[[File:Plan of Netley Castle.png|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Plan of the upper levels of the 16th-century castle, showing the [[keep]] (centre) and the two adjacent firing platforms]]
In 1533, Henry then broke with Pope [[Paul III]] in order to annul the long-standing marriage to his wife, [[Catherine of Aragon]] and remarry.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}</ref> Catherine was the aunt of [[Charles V of Spain|Charles V]], the Holy Roman Emperor, and he took the annulment as a personal insult.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=5}}</ref> This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=63–64}}</ref> An invasion of England appeared certain.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=6}}</ref> In response, Henry issued an order, called a "[[Device Fort|device]]", in 1539, giving instructions for the "defence of the realm in time of invasion" and the construction of forts along the English coastline.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Walton|2010|p=70}}</ref>

Netley Castle was built next to [[Southampton Water]] between the mouths of the [[River Hamble|Hamble]] and [[River Itchen, Hampshire|Itchen]] rivers, {{convert|250|m}} south-west of the remains of [[Netley Abbey]].<ref name="demon2006">{{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm |title=Netley Castle, Hampshire | author=Michael Heaton|publisher=Michael Heaton Heritage Consultants |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060925012850/http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm| archive-date =25 September 2006|mode = cs2}}</ref> Netley Abbey had been recently [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|dissolved]] by Henry, and material from the site was reused to built the castle.<ref name="demon2006"/> [[William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester|William Paulet]], later the [[Marquess of Winchester]], was in charge of the construction, which took place in either 1542 or 1544 and Henry granted him various estates to pay for the support of the fort and its garrison.<ref name="british-history472">{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hants/vol3/pp472-478|title=Parishes: Hound with Netley|publisher=British History Online|editor=William Page|date=1908|access-date=18 August 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm |title=Netley Castle, Hampshire | author=Michael Heaton|publisher=Michael Heaton Heritage Consultants |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060925012850/http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm| archive-date =25 September 2006|mode = cs2}}</ref> The castle took the form of a central [[keep]], {{convert|19.5|by|14|m}} across with deep [[embrasure]]s along the [[battlement]]s, and a gun platform on either side; its design resembled that at nearby [[Southsea Castle|Southsea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=50}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm |title=Netley Castle, Hampshire | author=Michael Heaton|publisher=Michael Heaton Heritage Consultants |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060925012850/http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm| archive-date =25 September 2006|mode = cs2}}</ref> It was initially garrisoned with two soldiers, six gunners and a porter, under the command of a captain.<ref name="british-history472"/>

It was still garrisoned in the mid-1620s and was probably still in active service at the start of the [[English Civil War]] between the supporters of King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] and [[Roundheads|Parliament]] in 1642.<ref name="demon2006"/> Captain Swaley, a Parliamentary naval commander, seized Netley at the end of that year and decommissioned it as a fortification.<ref name="demon2006"/> During the [[Interregnum]], the castle was restored to use, due to to concerns about a potential Royalist invasion, but was abandoned as obsolete after the [[English restoration|restoration]] of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] to the throne.<ref name="demon2006"/> By the time that [[Alexander Pope]] visited in 1734, the castle was overgrown and in ruins.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |url=http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/ |title=Netley Castle|publisher=Hampshire Garden Trust |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818105334/http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/| archive-date =18 August 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref>

===18th–20th centuries===
{{double image|right|View of Netley Castle, 1844.jpg|220|Picnic at Netley Castle, 1840s.jpg|200|Netley in the 1840s, showing the exterior facing the sea (left) and a social gathering on the inside of the ruins (right)}}
William Chamberlayne inherited the castle in 1826 and built a crenellated tower on the south-east end of the property the following year, inspired by a proposal by the [[antiquarian]] [[Horace Walpole]] that the castle be made habitable.<ref>{{harvnb|Bullar|1840|pp=9–10}}; {{harvnb|Guillame|1848|p=24}}; {{cite web |url=http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/ |title=Netley Castle|publisher=Hampshire Garden Trust |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818105334/http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/| archive-date =18 August 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/turner-netley-castle-hampshire-d23540|title=Netley Castle, Hampshire|author=John Chu|publisher=Tate|access-date=18 August 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> A description of the castle around this time suggested it stood "in the midst of a thicket of trees, on a little hill close to the beach" and formed "a striking object seen from the water".<ref>{{harvnb|Beattie|1844|p=239}}</ref> It became popular with artists, and [[J. M. W. Turner]] visited and sketched the castle and its new tower, probably in 1832.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/turner-netley-castle-hampshire-d23540|title=Netley Castle, Hampshire|author=John Chu|publisher=Tate|access-date=18 August 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm |title=Netley Castle, Hampshire | author=Michael Heaton|publisher=Michael Heaton Heritage Consultants |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060925012850/http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm| archive-date =25 September 2006|mode = cs2}}</ref>

George Hunt leased the castle in 1841 and it was turned into a private house under the supervision of the architect George Guillame.<ref>{{harvnb|Guillame|1848|p=4}}</ref> Hunt remained at Netley until 1857, by when the castle had an [[oriel window]] overlooking the sea, and the battlements had been blocked in to allow the construction of a second storey to the building.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/ |title=Netley Castle|publisher=Hampshire Garden Trust |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818105334/http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/| archive-date =18 August 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{harvnb|Pevsner|Lloyd|1967|pp=348–350}}</ref> George Sherriff leased the castle between 1868 and 1873, building a stone wall around the front of property.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

Sir Henry Crichton bought the castle in 1881, along with the surrounding gardens, orchards, pond and a [[boat house]].<ref name="autogenerated1"/> The architect [[J.D. Sedding|John Sedding]] remodelled the castle between approximately 1885 and 1890, creating a Gothic styled house, adding another storey and a new wing.<ref>{{harvnb|Pevsner|Lloyd|1967|pp=348–350}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1336957|publisher=Historic England|title=List Entry|access-date=18 August 2015|mode=cs2}}</ref> After Crichton's death in 1922 his wife remained in the house until her death in 1936, when the property and the surrounding grounds were sold at auction.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/ |title=Netley Castle|publisher=Hampshire Garden Trust |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818105334/http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/| archive-date =18 August 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm |title=Netley Castle, Hampshire | author=Michael Heaton|publisher=Michael Heaton Heritage Consultants |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060925012850/http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm| archive-date =25 September 2006|mode = cs2}}</ref>

[[Middlesex County Council]] bought the castle in 1939 and converted it into a [[nursing home]] for elderly men; it passed into the control of the [[National Health Service]] in 1948 and continued to be used as a nursing home.<ref name="demon2006"/> It proved expensive to maintain and the surrounding land was gradually sold off, until the Southampton University Hospital NHS Trust finally decided to close it in 1998.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm |title=Netley Castle, Hampshire | author=Michael Heaton|publisher=Michael Heaton Heritage Consultants |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060925012850/http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm| archive-date =25 September 2006|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web |url=http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/ |title=Netley Castle|publisher=Hampshire Garden Trust |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818105334/http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/| archive-date =18 August 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref>

===21st century===
[[File:Netley Castle 1.jpg|thumb|The castle in 2011]]
Fairmist Limited, a firm of property developers, purchased Netley Castle in 2000 and converted it into nine private residential flats, at a cost of £1.7 million, during which process an [[archaeological survey]] was made of the property.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.halsteads.co.uk/project_pages/netley.html |title=Projects: Netley Castle, Netley, Hampshire|publisher=Halstead Associates|access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150818181556/http://www.halsteads.co.uk/project_pages/netley.html| archive-date =18 August 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web |url=http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/ |title=Netley Castle|publisher=Hampshire Garden Trust |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818105334/http://research.hgt.org.uk/item/netley-castle/| archive-date =18 August 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm |title=Netley Castle, Hampshire | author=Michael Heaton|publisher=Michael Heaton Heritage Consultants |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060925012850/http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm| archive-date =25 September 2006|mode = cs2}}</ref> It is protected under UK law as a [[Scheduled Monument]] and a Grade II* [[listed building]].<ref name="historicengland1">{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1336957|publisher=Historic England|title=List Entry|access-date=18 August 2015|mode=cs2}}</ref>

The castle is now approximately {{convert|62|by|14|m}} across and {{convert|13.5|m}} tall, surrounded by {{convert|1.54|ha}} of land.<ref name="demon2006"/> The castle comprises three wings, with the original 16th-century fort incorporated into the centre of the property.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1336957|publisher=Historic England|title=List Entry|access-date=18 August 2015|mode=cs2}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm |title=Netley Castle, Hampshire | author=Michael Heaton|publisher=Michael Heaton Heritage Consultants |access-date=18 August 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060925012850/http://www.archaeology.demon.co.uk/3132.htm| archive-date =25 September 2006|mode = cs2}}</ref> The north wing is three storeys tall, decorated in a restrained [[Gothic architecture|Gothic style]] and has an octagonal turret on one corner.<ref name="historicengland1"/> The central range is two storeys tall, with round corner turrets and battlements.<ref name="historicengland1"/> The southern wing is two storeys in height, with elaborate Gothic detailing and another, larger octagonal tower.<ref name="historicengland1"/> The castle features a substantial staircase, fitted with a [[Organ (music)|musical organ]], and a wood-panelled [[billiard room]].<ref name="historicengland1"/> Other buildings around the main castle include the converted boat house and a former [[Ice house (building)|ice house]].<ref name="demon2006"/>

==See also==
* [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
* [[List of castles in England]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book
| last1= Beattie
| first1 = William
| title = The Castles and Abbeys of England
| date = 1844
| publisher = George Virtue
| location = London, UK
| oclc = 7370166
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Bullar
| first1 = John
| title = A Companion in a Visit to Netley Abbey
| date = 1840
| edition = 8th
| publisher = T. Baker
| location = London, UK
| oclc = 235756496
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Guillame
| first1 = William
| title = Architectural Views and Details of Netley Abbey
| date = 1848
| publisher = Forbes and Knibbs
| location = Southampton, UK
| oclc = 7881011
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Hale
| first1 = John R.
| title = Renaissance War Studies
| date = 1983
| publisher = Hambledon Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0907628176
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Harrington
| first1 = Peter
| title = The Castles of Henry VIII
| date = 2007
| publisher = Osprey Publishing
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 9781472803801
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= King
| first1 = D. J. Cathcart
| title = The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History
| date = 1991
| publisher = Routledge Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 9780415003506
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Morley
| first1 = B. M.
| title = Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defence
| date = 1976
| publisher = Her Majesty's Stationery Office
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0116707771
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Pevsner
| first1 = Nikolaus
| last2 = Lloyd
| first2 = David
| title = The Buildings of England Hampshire and the Isle of Wight
| date = 1967
| publisher = Penguin Books
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0140710329
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Saunders
| first1 = Andrew
| title = Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland
| date = 1989
| publisher = Beaufort
| location = Liphook, UK
| isbn = 1855120003
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Thompson
| first1 = M. W.
| title = The Decline of the Castle
| date = 1987
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| isbn = 1854226088
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Walton
| first1 = Steven A.
| journal = Osiris
| volume = 25
| number = 1
| title = State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification
| date = 2010
| pages = 66–84
| ref= harv}}

{{commons category|Netley Castle}}

{{Device Forts}}
{{Eastleigh borough}}

[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Device Forts]]
[[Category:Grade II* listed buildings in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Castles in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Forts in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Netley]]

Hogwarts Express (Universal Orlando Resort)

2015-09-10T22:01:23Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{ Infobox attraction

| name = Hogwarts Express
| logo =
| logo_width =
| image = Image:Hogwarts Express Hogsmeade.jpg
| imagedimensions = 250px
| caption = A Hogwarts Express train arriving at Hogsmeade station in [[Islands of Adventure]]
| location = Universal Orlando Resort
| section = [[The Wizarding World of Harry Potter (Universal Orlando Resort)|The Wizarding World of Harry Potter]]
| coordinates = {{plainlist|
* {{coord|28.47407|N|81.47266|W|dim:50|display=inline|name=Hogsmeade station}}
* {{coord|28.47943|N|81.47034|W|dim:50|display=inline|name=King's Cross station}}
}}
| status = Operating
| cost =
| soft_opened = 1 July 2014
| opened = 8 July 2014
| closed =
| previousattraction =
| replacement = 

| type = [[Funicular]] attraction
| manufacturer = Doppelmayr Garaventa Group
| designer = [[CWA Constructions]] and [[Universal Creative]]
| sponsor =
| model =
| theme = [[Hogwarts Express]] ([[Harry Potter]])
| music = [[London Symphony Orchestra]]
| height_ft = 
| height_m = 
| drop_ft = 
| drop_m = 
| length_ft =
| length_m = 676
| speed_mph = 
| speed_km/h = 12.2
| sitearea_sqft = 
| sitearea_sqm = 
| gforce =
| capacity =

| vehicle_type = [[Cable car (railway)]]
| vehicles = {{plainlist|
*2 replica [[GWR 4900 Class 5972 Olton Hall|5972 ''Hogwarts Castle'']]
*6 [[Passenger coach|coaches]]}}
| riders_per_vehicle = 168
| rows =
| riders_per_row = 

| audience_capacity = 
| duration = About 4:00
| restriction_ft = 
| restriction_in = 
| restriction_cm = 
| virtual_queue_name =
| virtual_queue_image = 
| virtual_queue_status= 
| single_rider = 
| pay_per_use = 
| custom_label_1 = No. of Tracks
| custom_value_1 = [[Single track (rail)|Single]] (with [[passing loop]])
| custom_label_2 = Track gauge
| custom_value_2 = {{RailGauge|1800mm|lk=on}}
| custom_label_3 =
| custom_value_3 =
| custom_label_4 =
| custom_value_4 =
| custom_label_5 =
| custom_value_5 =
| custom_label_6 =
| custom_value_6 =
| custom_label_7 =
| custom_value_7 =
| custom_label_8 =
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| accessible = yes
| transfer_accessible =
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| cc =
| small = yes
}}

The '''Hogwarts Express''' is an {{RailGauge|1800mm}} [[broad gauge]] [[funicular]] railway [[people mover]] and attraction within the [[Universal Orlando Resort]] in Florida, United States.
Manufactured by the [[Doppelmayr Garaventa Group]], the route runs {{convert|676|m|ft}} between '''Hogsmeade station''' in the [[Islands of Adventure]] theme park and '''King's Cross station''' in the London area of the [[Universal Studios Florida]] theme park and is operated with two replicas of the [[Hogwarts Express]]. It provides a Hogwarts Express-themed connection between the Diagon Alley and Hogsmeade areas which jointly form [[the Wizarding World of Harry Potter (Universal Orlando Resort)|The Wizarding World of Harry Potter]] themed area, based on the [[Harry Potter (film series)|Harry Potter film series]]. There are two different experiences depending on the destination and direction of the train journey. Because the trains transport guests between stations in two separate theme parks, riders must have an admission pass valid for both theme parks, with [[ticket inspector]]s checking prior to boarding.

The Hogwarts Express [[Soft launch|soft-opened]] to the public on 1 July 2014 before officially opening seven days later along with the rest of the [[The Wizarding World of Harry Potter (Universal Orlando Resort)#Phase 2: Universal Studios Florida|Diagon Alley expansion]] on 8 July 2014. Within one month of its opening, one million riders had travelled on the trains.

==History==
The idea of creating a Hogwarts Express-related attraction came from Mark Woodbury, president of [[Universal Creative]].<ref name="bevil-20140702"/><ref name=weshtrack>{{cite news|title=What is Universal planning for Wizarding World of Harry Potter expansion?|url=http://www.wesh.com/themeparks/other/universal-orlando-harry-potter-wizarding-world-construction/19978360|accessdate=13 July 2015|publisher=WESH|date=3 May 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713014427/http://www.wesh.com/themeparks/other/universal-orlando-harry-potter-wizarding-world-construction/19978360|archivedate=13 July 2015|quote=proves the permits clear the way for a track that connects the current Wizarding World at Islands of Adenture {{sic}} to the 8-acre corner of Universal Studios, … The track gives major traction to a rumored Hogwarts Express attraction.}}</ref> After the opening of Hogsmeade at Islands of Adventure in 2010, Universal began considering how to keep attendance balanced between the adjacent parks.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/travel/attractions/universal-orlando/diagon-alley-harry-potter-park/os-universal-harry-potter-20101215-story.html|title=Universal Orlando ponders how to take full advantage of Wizarding World's popularity|first=Jason|last=Garcia|work=Orlando Sentinel|date=10 December 2010|accessdate=22 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722183004/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/travel/attractions/universal-orlando/diagon-alley-harry-potter-park/os-universal-harry-potter-20101215-story.html|archivedate=22 July 2015|quote=executives are wrestling with questions such as when to expand Wizarding World and how to keep business balanced between Islands and Universal Studios Florida — the park without Potter.}}</ref> At first, the creative team was considering putting Diagon Alley within Islands of Adventure. Eventually they decided that the London and Hogsmeade environments should not be visible between one another. As a result, Woodbury proposed building Diagon Alley in Universal Studios Florida and then to connect the two Harry Potter-themed lands with the Hogwarts Express train.<ref name="bevil-20140702">{{cite news|last1=Bevil|first1=Dewayne|title=How Universal came up with Hogwarts Express and said goodbye to Jaws|url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/travel/attractions/theme-park-rangers-blog/os-universal-hogwarts-express-jaws-20140702-post.html|accessdate=5 July 2015|newspaper=Orlando Sentinel|date=2 July 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150606192134/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/travel/attractions/theme-park-rangers-blog/os-universal-hogwarts-express-jaws-20140702-post.html|archivedate=6 June 2015|quote=Thierry Coup … “created the whole idea of the Hogwarts Express. … everyone can ride the train, which we thought “This is fantastic.” There’s no limitation, no ride-height limitation. You get on the train, and it’s a train except the journey is magical. … we worked on that and created the layout, the path. Where would the train go? Of course, it will go backstage, but the guests will never know because we’re going to take them on the actual journey.”}}</ref>

Rumours that Universal Orlando was planning to expand [[The Wizarding World of Harry Potter (Universal Orlando Resort)|The Wizarding World of Harry Potter]] began in early 2011 after [[construction surveying]] was spotted in the [[Islands of Adventure#Lost Continent|Lost Continent section of Islands of Adventure]] and the resort began asking visitors about a possible expansion.<ref>{{cite news|last1=MacDonald|first1=Brady|title=Universal Studios wonders how and when to expand Wizarding World of Harry Potter|url=http://www.latimes.com/travel/deals/la-trb-wizarding-world-harry-potter-expansion-04201101-story.html|accessdate=2 July 2015|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=6 April 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729005940/http://articles.latimes.com/2011/apr/06/news/la-trb-wizarding-world-harry-potter-expansion-04201101|archivedate=29 July 2014}}</ref> On 2 December 2011, the resort announced the [[Jaws (ride)|Jaws attraction]] would close on 2 January 2012 to make way for a future attraction.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Garcia|first1=Jason|last2=Bevil|first2=Dewayne|title=Universal Studios to close Jaws to make way for new attraction|url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2011-12-02/business/universal-to-close-jaws-20111202_1_wizarding-world-new-attraction-kongfrontation|accessdate=24 July 2015|newspaper=Orlando Sentinel|date=2 December 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710174252/http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2011-12-02/business/universal-to-close-jaws-20111202_1_wizarding-world-new-attraction-kongfrontation|archivedate=10 July 2015}}</ref> In the same month, speculation arose that an expansion would include the Hogwarts Express to connect [[The Wizarding World of Harry Potter (Universal Orlando Resort)#Hogsmeade|Hogsmeade]] in Islands of Adventure and [[The Wizarding World of Harry Potter (Universal Orlando Resort)#Diagon Alley|Diagon Alley]] in Universal Studios Florida.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hart|first1=Lance|title=Universal Studios Florida|url=http://www.screamscape.com/html/universal_studios_florida.htm|website=Screamscape|accessdate=2 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220083210/http://www.screamscape.com/html/universal_studios_florida.htm|archivedate=20 December 2011}}</ref> In June 2012, theme park enthusiasts discovered that applications for permits had been submitted to the [[South Florida Water Management District]] and the [[City of Orlando]] suggesting that the resort was planning to build a track connecting the two theme parks, as well as one station building in each park.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hogwarts Express Speculation 6/21/12|url=http://www.parkscope.net/2012/06/hogwarts-express-speculation-62112.html|website=Parkscope|publisher=Blogger|accessdate=13 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109015316/http://www.parkscope.net/2012/06/hogwarts-express-speculation-62112.html|archivedate=9 November 2013|date=21 June 2012}}</ref> Almost a year later, [[WESH]], a local news channel, reported that an elevated track system had been installed at Universal Orlando and that the track ran between Hogsmeade in Islands of Adventure and a construction area in Universal Studios Florida; suggesting the rumours were true.<ref name=weshtrack/>

On 8 May 2013, Universal Orlando announced the expansion of Wizarding World of Harry Potter, Diagon Alley, along with the Hogwarts Express attraction, to be located on the former site of the Jaws attraction.<ref>{{cite news|title=Universal Orlando announces expansion of ‘Wizarding World of Harry Potter’|url=http://myfox8.com/2013/05/08/universal-orlando-announces-diagon-alley-an-expansion-of-wizarding-world-of-harry-potter/|accessdate=2 July 2015|publisher=Fox 8|date=8 May 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114165225/http://myfox8.com/2013/05/08/universal-orlando-announces-diagon-alley-an-expansion-of-wizarding-world-of-harry-potter|archivedate=14 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Thurston|first1=Susan|title=Universal Studios to add Harry Potter Diagon Alley theme area|url=http://www.tampabay.com/features/travel/attractions/universal-studios-to-add-harry-potter-diagon-alley-theme-area/2119834|accessdate=2 July 2015|newspaper=Tampa Bay Times|date=8 May 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228103313/http://www.tampabay.com/features/travel/attractions/universal-studios-to-add-harry-potter-diagon-alley-theme-area/2119834|archivedate=28 February 2014}}</ref><ref name=wheretofindjaws>{{cite news|last1=Bevil|first1=Dewayne|title=Universal Studios: Where to find 'Jaws' references in Diagon Alley|url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/travel/attractions/theme-park-rangers-blog/os-universal-studios-jaws-diagon-alley-20140709-post.html|accessdate=24 July 2015|newspaper=Orlando Sentinel|date=9 July 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608215029/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/travel/attractions/theme-park-rangers-blog/os-universal-studios-jaws-diagon-alley-20140709-post.html|archivedate=8 June 2015}}</ref> By the end of August 2013, all six passenger cars and both [[Tender (rail)|tenders]] were spotted in the backstage area, waiting to be assembled on the track.<ref>{{cite web|title=New photos of Hogwarts Express train at Universal Orlando – Wizarding World expansion updatef|url=http://attractionsmagazine.com/new-photos-of-hogwarts-express-train-at-universal-orlando-wizarding-world-expansion-update/|website=Orlando Attractions Magazine|publisher=Dream Together Media|accessdate=8 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702232453/http://attractionsmagazine.com/new-photos-of-hogwarts-express-train-at-universal-orlando-wizarding-world-expansion-update/|archivedate=2 July 2014|date=26 August 2013}}</ref> The first of the two trains were installed on the track on 24 October 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hogwarts Express placed on tracks at Universal|url=http://www.wesh.com/themeparks/other/hogwarts-express-placed-on-tracks-at-universal/22626852|accessdate=7 July 2015|publisher=WESH|date=25 October 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228162942/http://www.wesh.com/themeparks/other/hogwarts-express-placed-on-tracks-at-universal/22626852|archivedate=28 February 2014}}</ref> By the beginning of December 2013, the second train was placed on the track.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Allison Walker|author2=Scott Fais|author3=Mike Westfall|title=Diagon Alley grand opening: Photos, tweets at Universal Orlando|url=http://mynews13.com/content/news/cfnews13/on-the-town/article.html/content/news/articles/cfn/2014/7/8/diagon_alley_opening.html|accessdate=16 July 2015|publisher=News 13|date=9 July 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404031624/http://www.mynews13.com/content/news/cfnews13/on-the-town/article.html/content/news/articles/cfn/2014/7/8/diagon_alley_opening.html|archivedate=4 April 2015}}</ref> In January, the resort previewed the interior of the Hogwarts Express through a [[Lifecasting (video stream)|live cast]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Meredith|first1=Michelle|title=Knockturn Alley, Escape from Gringotts announced in Universal Harry Potter expansion|url=http://www.wesh.com/themeparks/other/knockturn-alley-escape-from-gringotts-announced-in-universal-harry-potter-expansion/24074114|accessdate=7 July 2015|publisher=WESH|date=23 January 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529044349/http://www.wesh.com/themeparks/other/knockturn-alley-escape-from-gringotts-announced-in-universal-harry-potter-expansion/24074114|archivedate=29 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Clay|first1=Kevin|title=New details on Universal's Hogwarts Express to be announced|url=http://www.wesh.com/orlandomyway/orlando-theme-parks/new-details-on-universals-hogwarts-express-to-be-announced/24898836|accessdate=7 July 2015|publisher=WESH|date=10 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140420021206/http://www.wesh.com/orlandomyway/orlando-theme-parks/new-details-on-universals-hogwarts-express-to-be-announced/24898836|archivedate=20 April 2014}}</ref> On 2 December 2013, amusement park website ''Orlando Attractions Magazine'' spotted one of the trains being tested for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hogwarts Express begins testing at Universal Studios – Wizarding World: Diagon Alley update|url=http://attractionsmagazine.com/hogwarts-express-begins-testing-universal-studios-wizarding-world-diagon-alley-update/|website=Orlando Attractions Magazine|publisher=Dream Together Media|accessdate=8 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322075553/http://attractionsmagazine.com/hogwarts-express-begins-testing-universal-studios-wizarding-world-diagon-alley-update/|archivedate=22 March 2015|date=3 December 2013}}</ref> In mid-March 2014 Universal Orlando Resort released further information about the ride, including concept animations.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Becker|first1=Kayla|title=New details on Hogwarts Express coming to The Wizarding World of Harry Potter|url=http://www.wesh.com/orlandomyway/orlando-theme-parks/new-details-on-hogwarts-express-coming-to-the-wizarding-world-of-harry-potter/24975658|accessdate=7 July 2015|publisher=WESH|date=14 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503041030/http://www.wesh.com/orlandomyway/orlando-theme-parks/new-details-on-hogwarts-express-coming-to-the-wizarding-world-of-harry-potter/24975658|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> On 24 June 2014, the resort announced that the Diagon Alley expansion, including the Hogwarts Express, would officially open to the public on 8 July 2014.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dennis|first1=Andrea|title=Wizarding World of Harry Potter - Diagon Alley at Universal set to open on July 8|url=http://www.wesh.com/orlandomyway/orlando-theme-parks/wizarding-world-of-harry-potter-diagon-alley-at-universal-set-to-open-on-july-8/26546642|accessdate=16 July 2015|publisher=WESH|date=24 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812083125/http://www.wesh.com/orlandomyway/orlando-theme-parks/wizarding-world-of-harry-potter-diagon-alley-at-universal-set-to-open-on-july-8/26546642|archivedate=12 August 2014}}</ref> A week later, Universal Orlando [[Soft launch|soft-opened]] the Hogwarts Express, unannounced.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Becker|first1=Kayla|title=Some parkgoers get a chance to ride Hogwarts Express|url=http://www.wesh.com/orlandomyway/orlando-theme-parks/some-parkgoers-get-a-chance-to-ride-hogwarts-express/26759030|accessdate=16 July 2015|publisher=WESH|date=2 July 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810114212/http://www.wesh.com/orlandomyway/orlando-theme-parks/some-parkgoers-get-a-chance-to-ride-hogwarts-express/26759030|archivedate=10 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Bevil|first1=Dewayne|title=Universal Studios visitors get early Hogwarts Express ride|url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/travel/attractions/theme-park-rangers-blog/os-universal-diagon-alley-hogwarts-express-20140701-post.html|accessdate=16 July 2015|newspaper=Orlando Sentinel|date=1 July 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716123426/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/travel/attractions/theme-park-rangers-blog/os-universal-diagon-alley-hogwarts-express-20140701-post.html|archivedate=16 July 2015}}</ref> Within a month of the Hogwarts Express' opening, one million riders had ridden the attraction.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bevil|first1=Dewayne|title=Universal Orlando marks 1 million riders on Hogwarts Express|url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/travel/attractions/theme-park-rangers-blog/os-universal-hogwarts-express-million-riders20140807-post.html|accessdate=12 July 2015|newspaper=Orlando Sentinel|date=7 August 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204023637/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/travel/attractions/theme-park-rangers-blog/os-universal-hogwarts-express-million-riders20140807-post.html|archivedate=4 December 2014}}</ref> Overall, the attraction took approximately two and a half years to develop.<ref name="sbc">{{cite news|url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/multimedia/secret-harry-potter-theme-park-train-unveiled/40510978|title=Secret Harry Potter theme park train unveiled|date=18 July 2014|work=Swiss Info|publisher=[[Swiss Broadcasting Corporation]]|format=video|accessdate=30 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701160153/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/multimedia/secret-harry-potter-theme-park-train-unveiled/40510978|archivedate=1 July 2015}}</ref>

==Ride experience==
[[File:Orlando-hogwarts-express-inside-cabin-with-window-view-15988152016.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Passengers are seated eight per compartment, and view the journey through the window]]
Theme park guests may use the Hogwarts Express to travel between Hogsmeade and King's Cross in London, close to Diagon Alley, in either direction as long as the guest has purchased a Park-to-Park ticket, which gives guests access to both of Universal Orlando's theme parks within the same day.<ref>{{cite web|title=Theme Park Tickets|url=https://www.universalorlando.com/Theme-Park-Tickets/General-Admission.aspx|publisher=Universal Orlando|accessdate=25 July 2015|archivedate=25 July 2015}}</ref> Two different experiences are provided depending on the destination of the train, both approximately four minutes long.<ref name="dailymail-20140316">{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2582149/All-aboard-Hogwarts-Express-Harry-Potter-theme-park-recreates-train-ride-English-countryside-without-leaving-U-S.html|title=All aboard the Hogwart's Express! Harry Potter theme park recreates train ride through English countryside...all without leaving the U.S.|work=Daily Mail|date=16 March 2014|accessdate=30 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820220636/http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2582149/All-aboard-Hogwarts-Express-Harry-Potter-theme-park-recreates-train-ride-English-countryside-without-leaving-U-S.html|archivedate=20 August 2014|quote=Riders will have two different experiences — one on the way to the new London-themed area at Universal Studios Park and another on the way to the original Wizarding World of Harry Potter area.}}</ref><ref name=doppelmayrPressRelease>{{cite news|title=Doppelmayr/Garaventa built the Hogwarts Express|url=http://newsroom.doppelmayr.com/en/doppelmayr/news/doppelmayr-garaventa-built-the-hogwarts-express-2/|accessdate=18 July 2015|publisher=Doppelmayr Seilbahnen GmbH|date=25 July 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718132016/http://newsroom.doppelmayr.com/en/doppelmayr/news/doppelmayr-garaventa-built-the-hogwarts-express-2/|archivedate=18 July 2015}}</ref>

===Hogsmeade to King's Cross===
At the entrance of the queue passengers get their admission ticket checked. Then, the queue leads into a forested area which later leads into the Hogsmeade station building. Upon climbing a flight of steps, travellers reach the Hogsmeade station platform. Once the arriving passengers on the Hogwarts Express have left the platform, passengers waiting may then board the train and enter one of the twenty-one passenger compartments within the train.

As the train departs towards King's Cross, [[Rubeus Hagrid]] waves riders goodbye outside of the window. Shadows of [[Harry Potter]], [[Ron Weasley]], and [[Hermione Granger]] can also been seen walking down the train corridor, looking for an empty compartment. Following this, [[Hippogriff|Buckbeak]] flies outside the window while [[Hogwarts]] can be seen in the background. Shortly after, the train enters a forest where [[centaur]]s are running through. Upon exiting the forest, Hogwarts can be seen once again in the background. Fred and George Weasley appear on flying broomsticks playing with fireworks. Afterwards, the Hogwarts Express enters a tunnel. When the train exits, riders find themselves in the middle of a storm and pass by [[Malfoy Manor]]. The journey then enters a second tunnel where Harry, Ron, and Hermione appear again in the train corridor. As a spider crawls up the compartment door, Ron eats it and the trio continue to walk on down the corridor. After the tunnel the journey continues into [[London]] passing by an industrial factory and then a residential area. The [[Magical objects in Harry Potter#Transportation|Knight Bus]] then appears; squeezing between buildings and shrinking to pass under a bridge. As the bus drives away, the train enters King's Cross station where [[Alastor Moody]] greets passengers.

Passengers then disembark on to King's Cross Platform 9¾ train, and proceed down some stairs into a 2010-era King's Cross station before arriving at the London waterfront area, adjacent to Diagon Alley.<ref name=pov2>{{cite web|title=Hogwarts Express Complete Experience (Hogsmeade To Diagon Alley) - Universal Orlando|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-oeHJmwD-sQ|website=YouTube|publisher=Theme Park Worldwide|accessdate=2 July 2015|date=16 December 2014}}</ref>

===King's Cross to Hogsmeade===
[[File:Universal Orlando King's Cross at Night.jpg|thumb|right|King's Cross station Platform 9¾ at Diagon Alley has a large roof based on the real [[King's Cross railway station]]]]
Built on the former site of the Jaws attraction, the entrance to the one-quarter scale replica of the [[London King's Cross railway station]], King's Cross, is located in the London area, close to Diagon Alley.<ref name=wheretofindjaws/><ref>{{cite web|title=Universal Studios Florida Park Map|url=https://www.universalorlando.com/Images/USF_ParkMap_tcm13-48044.pdf|date=25 February 2015|publisher=Universal Orlando Resort|accessdate=2 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704200534/https://www.universalorlando.com/Images/USF_ParkMap_tcm13-48044.pdf|archivedate=4 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="veness-2015-06-19">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/northamerica/usa/10903335/Inside-Harry-Potters-Diagon-Alley-Universal-Studios.html|title=Inside Harry Potter's Diagon Alley, Universal Studios|work=The Telegraph|location=London|first=Simon|last=Veness|date=19 June 2014|accessdate=2 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150727143552/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/northamerica/usa/10903335/Inside-Harry-Potters-Diagon-Alley-Universal-Studios.html|archivedate=27 July 2015|quote=a one-fourth scale replica of King’s Cross station}}</ref> Passengers enter the station building and get their admission ticket checked. After this they enter a queue which takes them farther into the station building passing below a [[split-flap display|split-flap department board]], past London-related advertisements, as well as several stacks of suitcases and a shop selling food. After ascending a flight of stairs, passengers find themselves located between signs for King's Cross Platform 9 and Platform 10. At this point, passengers can see fellow passengers ahead of them walk through the "wall" forming the entrance to Platform 9¾. This effect uses the [[Pepper's ghost]] illusion. After continuing around several corners, guests arrive onto Platform 9¾ itself to wait for the next train to arrive. After the Hogwarts Express has reversed into Platform 9¾ and the arriving passengers have disembarked, the next passengers enter one of the twenty-one compartments in the three passenger carriages.

As the train departs King's Cross Platform 9¾, [[Magical creatures in Harry Potter#Hedwig|Hedwig the owl]] flies alongside while passing through the outskirts of London. As Hedwig flies away, [[Magical creatures in Harry Potter#Dementors|Dementors]] arrive from over the nearby buildings. At the same time Harry, Ron, and Hermione pass along the corridor side of the carriage looking for food. The journey enters a tunnel; upon its exit, it passes by Malfoy Manor during a stormy night. Next, the train passes through a second tunnel and the lights in the compartments go out as Dementor enters the train and passes along the corridor; Harry Potter uses his magic to defeat the Dementor. After exiting the tunnel, riders are greeted by Hagrid flying on a motorbike with [[Hogwarts]] in the background. As the train enters a forest, the flying [[Ford Anglia]] appears and starts driving through the terrain. The car crashes soon after and the journey exits the forest, passing by Hogwarts once again before arriving at Hogsmeade Station with Hagrid greeting passengers.

Passengers then disembark the train, walk down a ramp past the front of the Hogwarts Express, before following a path leading to Hogsmeade.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hogwarts Express Complete Experience (Diagon Alley To Hogsmeade) - Universal Orlando|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u16kKribb_4|website=YouTube|publisher=Theme Park Worldwide|accessdate=2 July 2015|date=16 December 2014}}</ref><ref name=pov1>{{cite web|title=Hogwarts Express Train Ride Full POV from Kings Cross Station to Hogsmeade at Universal Orlando|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hQdReb_tMWg|website=YouTube|accessdate=2 July 2015|date=6 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="levine-20150611"/>

==Characteristics==
{{Hogwarts Express (Universal Orlando Resort)}}
[[File:Hogwarts Express Backlot.jpg|250px|thumbnail|right|Trains transit above the Orlando Studios [[backlot]] between stations]]

===Track===
The track of the Hogwarts Express is a single-track [[funicular]] [[elevated railway]] running over the [[backlot]] between the two theme parks, with a two-track [[passing loop]] at the midpoint.<ref name="bevil-20140702"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://attractionsmagazine.com/construction-update-wizarding-worlds-hogwarts-express-track-and-diagon-alley-expansion-from-above/|title=Construction Update: Wizarding World’s Hogwarts Express track and Diagon Alley expansion from above|website=Orlando Attraction Magazine|publisher=Dream Together Media|date=18 May 2013|accessdate=30 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525212929/http://attractionsmagazine.com/construction-update-wizarding-worlds-hogwarts-express-track-and-diagon-alley-expansion-from-above/|archivedate=25 May 2015}}</ref> It is {{Convert|676|m|ft}} long and has a track gauge of {{RailGauge|1800mm|lk=on}}. On the track, there is a haul rope and counter rope, both with a diameter of {{Convert|46|mm|in}}. The cable winding motor is located at the Kings Cross station and has a [[rated capacity|rated load]] of {{convert|215|kW|hp|sigfig=1}}, and peak [[power rating]] of {{convert|636|kW|hp|sigfig=1}}.<ref name=doppelmayrPressRelease/>

===Trains===
The Hogwarts Express uses two trains that can transport 168 passengers each, for a total of 336 passengers per cycle.<ref>{{cite web|title=168-FUL Hogwarts Express|url=http://www.doppelmayr.com/en/products/references/168-ful-hogwarts-express/|publisher=Doppelmayr Seilbahnen GmbH|accessdate=18 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718135701/http://www.doppelmayr.com/en/products/references/168-ful-hogwarts-express/|archivedate=18 July 2015}}</ref> Each train is an articulated [[cable car (railway)|cable car]] formed of five sections: a replica of steam-locomotive and its [[tender (rail)|tender]] plus a set of three passenger vehicles. Originally each train was planned to have only two passenger carriages—this was increased following a survey that suggested potential passengers saw the connecting Hogwarts Express as an attraction instead of transportation between the parks.<ref name="sehlinger-jenkins-2013">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDMuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT317|title=Beyond Disney: The Unofficial Guide to Universal Orlando, SeaWorld & the Best of Central Florida|first1=Bob|last1=Sehlinger|first2=Robert|last2=Jenkins|isbn=9781628090109|publisher=Unofficial Guides|year=2013|page=317|quote=Universal was somehow surprised by a survey that showed guests considered the Hogwarts Express an attraction rather than merely transportation connecting the two parks. … the stations and track were already under construction and designed to handle only two cars carrying guests.}}</ref> The locomotive on the {{Convert|70|m|ft|adj=mid|-long}} trains weigh {{convert|13|t|lb}}, the tenders weigh {{convert|15|t|lb}}, and each passenger carriage weighs {{convert|27|t|lb}}. Since the attraction is setup with a funicular track system, both trains depart and arrive at the end stations at the same time and travel at the same speed of {{Convert|3.4|m/s|km/h mph}}.<ref name=doppelmayrPressRelease/>

The locomotive on both trains faces towards Hogsmeade station, meaning that it is not possible for the trains to face Kings Cross, the Hogwarts Express always enters Kings Cross in reverse but forwards at Hogsmeade; the train departs Kings Cross forward and in reverse at Hogsmeade.<ref name="levine-20150611"/> As a result, the trains are only designed to be seen from one side as the locomotives' false driving wheels and specific detailing only exist on one side.<ref name=pov2/><ref name=pov1/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Waddington|first1=Bob|title=Universal Orlando Resort Diagon Alley Aerial Photos from 05/24/14|url=http://www.pixelsattheparks.com/2014/05/24/universal-orlando-resort-diagon-alley-aerial-photos-from-052414/|publisher=Pixels at the Park|accessdate=25 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140806230523/http://www.pixelsattheparks.com/2014/05/24/universal-orlando-resort-diagon-alley-aerial-photos-from-052414/|archivedate=6 August 2014|date=24 May 2014}}</ref>

Built in [[Goldau]], Switzerland, [[Doppelmayr Garaventa Group#CWA Constructions|CWA Constructions]] designed both the exterior and interiors of the trains to make them look as realistic as possible to the Hogwarts Express seen in the Harry Potter film franchise.<ref name="sbc"/><ref name=doppelmayrPressRelease/> They are based on the [[steam locomotive]] [[GWR 4900 Class 5972 Olton Hall|GWR 4900 Class 5972 ''Olton Hall'']] (as 5972 ''Hogwarts Castle'') and were built from aluminum and glass reinforced plastics. Afterwards, an artificial [[Rail transport modelling#Weathering|weathering]] process was applied to give the appearance of a historic train.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Geiger|first1=Christophe|title=Constructing European Intellectual Property: Achievements and New Perspectives|date=2013|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|location=Cheltenham|isbn=1781001634|page=356|accessdate=23 July 2015|quote=The design of GWR 4900 Class 5972 Olton Hall locomotive is highly functional, built for a specific purpose in 1937. The artistic need to make an authentic visual representation of J.K. Rowling's Hogwarts Express in the visionary world of Harry Potter has, however shifted this utilitarian product into a highly stylistic and lucrative merchandising world.}}</ref><ref name="isr-20140915">{{cite web|title=Funicular with a difference for Harry Potter fans|url=http://www.isr.at/Funicular-with-a-difference-for-Harry-Potter-fans.1106+M52087573ab0.0.html|publisher=Internationale Seilbahn-Rundschau|date=15 September 2014|accessdate=12 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712182754/http://www.isr.at/Funicular-with-a-difference-for-Harry-Potter-fans.1106+M52087573ab0.0.html|archivedate=12 July 2015|quote=a special aging process to achieve a realistic effect for a historical train.}}</ref><ref name="making-of-diagon-alley">{{cite episode|title=Harry Potter: The Making of Diagon Alley|minutes=10:00 & 24:00|publisher=Peacock Productions|network=NBC|series=Specials|date=30 June 2014|accessdate=3 July 2015|url=http://www.peacockproductions.tv/specials/harry-potter-the-making-of-diagon-alley/|first=Meredith|last=Vieira|authorlink=Meredith Vieira}}</ref>

Frey AG was responsible for wiring the trains; specifically for the video and sounds components. The company also installed other technical equipment that allow the trains to be controlled by a computer system.<ref name=doppelmayrPressRelease/>

====Media====

Each compartment has a curved screen where the window would be. There are two different experiences; depending on the destination of the train. The special effects in both video components were designed by [[Double Negative (VFX)|Double Negative]].<ref name=pov2/><ref name=pov1/><ref name="failes-20150329">{{cite web|url=http://www.fxguide.com/featured/innovation-and-immersion-escape-from-gringotts/|title=Innovation and immersion: Escape from Gringotts|first=Ian|last=Failes|date=29 March 2015|accessdate=2 July 2015|website=[[Fxguide]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703114144/http://www.fxguide.com/featured/innovation-and-immersion-escape-from-gringotts/|archivedate=3 July 2015|quote=Double Negative also contributed to the Hogwarts Express - a transporter that takes guests between the two theme parks of Islands of Adventure and Universal Studios Florida at the Universal Orlando Resort. The Wizarding World of Harry Potter spans both parks. Guests on the Hogwarts Express have views showing them leaving London and arriving at Hogsmeade … projected onto curved screens outside the train windows.}}</ref>

The [[London Symphony Orchestra]] recorded the music played throughout the journey at Abbey Road Studios on 25 March 2014.<ref name="making-of-diagon-alley"/> The music for the northbound journey is called "Connector Train – Hogsmeade to London".<ref name="making-of-diagon-alley"/>

==Reception==

After the Hogwarts Express opened in July 2014, the ride received mostly positive reviews. Lance Hart from ''Screamscape'' was impressed with the fact that the King's Cross entrance was hidden from the rest of the Diagon Alley area. He also credited Universal for making the train look as realistic as possible, "Clearly they went to great lengths to create these cars to be replicas of what you see in the films, both on the outside as well as on the inside as you move down the hallway towards your cabin to take your seat". In terms of the overall experience Hart said, "Universal has managed to turn what would simply be a method of transporting guests between their two parks into yet another must-see attraction… tying together the overall story and theme of visiting Hogwarts at Islands of Adventure and Diagon Alley inside Universal Studios Florida".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hart|first1=Lance|title=The Wizarding World of Harry Potter: Part 3 - The Hogwarts Express|url=http://www.screamscape.com/features/html/hogwarts_express.html|publisher=Screamscape|accessdate=3 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317032515/http://www.screamscape.com/features/html/hogwarts_express.html|archivedate=17 March 2015|date=25 June 2014}}</ref>

Robert Niles from ''Theme Park Insider'' mentioned how the attraction "broke walls"; including the separation of the Wizarding and [[Muggle]] worlds, how Universal made the audience the performers (in the part of the King's Cross queue where guests walk through the wall leading to Platform 9¾), and how, "It's become convention for theme park attractions to drop you off at or very near the same point where you boarded the ride, so it's a bit disorienting when you exit the Hogwarts Express and find that you're not only in a different train station — you're in a different theme park."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Niles|first1=Robert|title=Ride Review: The Hogwarts Express at Universal Orlando Resort|url=http://www.themeparkinsider.com/flume/201406/4084/|publisher=Theme Park Insider|accessdate=3 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530224245/http://www.themeparkinsider.com/flume/201406/4084/|archivedate=30 May 2015|date=21 June 2014}}</ref>

Arthur Levine from ''[[About.com]]'' was disappointed that Universal had not tried to re-create the magical aspect of guests entering Platform 9¾, "When it's time to make their own way to the platform, however, it appears to would-be wizards that they are merely entering a darkened corridor. Aside from an audible "whoosh" sound, there is, regrettably, no attempt to reproduce the magical, molecule-shifting phenomenon". He also found it awkward that the Hogwarts Express reverses into Platform 9¾ at King's Cross—although in Hogsmeade the train arrives facing forwards. Overall Levine said that the attraction does more than just making it a ride, "By making it an integral and compelling part of The Wizarding World, most guests would want to ride it to get the complete Potter experience. By making it an inter-park ride and requiring a two-park ticket to board it, Universal will surely help [[upselling|up-sell]] a lot more more customers to higher-priced passes, encourage multi-day visits, increase demand for its on-property hotels, and drive business at its CityWalk dining/shopping/entertainment district".<ref name="levine-20150611">{{cite web|last1=Levine|first1=Arthur|title=Hogwarts Express|url=http://themeparks.about.com/od/Wizarding-World-of-Harry-Potter/fl/Hogwarts-Express.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=4 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611121421/http://themeparks.about.com/od/Wizarding-World-of-Harry-Potter/fl/Hogwarts-Express.htm|archivedate=11 June 2015|date=June 2014}}</ref>

In 2014, attendance at Universal Studios Florida increased to 8.3 million visitors, compared to 7.1 million in the previous year. However, attendance at Islands of Adventure did not change. According to vice president of [[AECOM]]'s economics, Brian Sands, the attendance increase at the Studios was likely due to the Diagon Alley expansion. Sands also mentioned attendance at Islands of Adventure remained the same since, "visitors go to the new thing", though the Hogwarts Express likely prevented attendance from decreasing at the park.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Pedicini|first1=Sandra|title=Universal Orlando's visitation spikes, SeaWorld's plunges, report says|url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/business/os-theme-park-attendance-2014-20150603-story.html|accessdate=12 July 2015|newspaper=Orlando Sentinel|date=3 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603153747/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/business/os-theme-park-attendance-2014-20150603-story.html|archivedate=3 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=2014 Global Attractions Attendance Report|url=http://www.teaconnect.org/images/files/TEA_103_49736_150603.pdf|publisher=Themed Entertainment Association|accessdate=12 July 2015|page=31|format=PDF|date=2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626102318/http://www.teaconnect.org/images/files/TEA_103_49736_150603.pdf|archivedate=26 June 2015}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Hogwarts Express (funicular)|Hogwarts Express (people mover)}}
{{GeoGroup}}
* {{official website|https://www.universalorlando.com/Theme-Parks/Wizarding-World-Of-Harry-Potter-Hogwarts-Express.aspx}}
* {{IMDb title|3638848| ''Hogwarts Express window sequences'' }}
* {{OSM relation|5422083}}

{{The Wizarding World of Harry Potter}}
{{Harry Potter}}
{{IOA Attractions}}
{{Universal Studios Florida}}
{{USpplmver}}

{{coord|28.47655|N|81.47061|W|dim:800_region:US-FL_type:landmark|display=title|name=Hogwarts Express}} 
{{Use British English|date=August 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}

[[Category:Funicular railways in the United States]]
[[Category:People mover systems in the United States]]
[[Category:2014 introductions]]
[[Category:2014 in rail transport]]
[[Category:Passenger rail transportation in Florida]]
[[Category:Railways of amusement parks]]
[[Category:Amusement rides introduced in 2014]]
[[Category:Harry Potter in amusement parks]]
[[Category:Universal Parks & Resorts attractions by name]]
[[Category:Islands of Adventure]]

Upnor Castle

2015-09-10T14:01:21Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}
{{Infobox Historic Site
| name = Upnor Castle
| image =File:Upnor Castle, Kent riverside view.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =Upnor Castle on the River Medway
| locmapin = Kent
| map_width = 250
| map_caption = Upnor Castle location within Kent
| alt =
| latitude = 51.406907
| longitude = 0.527114
| coordinates =
| coord_parameters = | coord_display = title| coord_format = | location =
| gbgridref = TQ7585670574
| area =
| elevation =
| formed =
| founded =
| built = 1559–67
| built_for = Royal Navy
| demolished =
| rebuilt =
| restored =
| restored_by =
| architect = [[Sir Richard Lee]]
| architecture =
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body = English Heritage
| designation1 = Listed building
| designation1_offname =
| designation1_type = Ancient Monument
| designation1_date = 28 January 1960
| designation1_number = 1012980
}}
'''Upnor Castle''' is an Elizabethan artillery fort located on the west bank of the [[River Medway]] in [[Kent]]. It is situated at the village of [[Upnor]] opposite and a short distance downriver from the [[Chatham Dockyard]], at the time a key naval facility, and was intended to protect both the dockyard and ships of the [[Royal Navy]] anchored in the Medway. It was constructed between 1559–67 on the orders of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] during a period of tension with [[Spain]] and other European powers. The castle consists of a two-storeyed main building protected by a [[curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] and towers, with a triangular gun platform projecting into the river. It was garrisoned by about 80 men with a peak armament of around 20 cannon of various calibres.

Despite its strategic importance the castle, and the defences of the Thames and Medway more generally, were badly neglected during the 17th century. When the [[Dutch Republic]] mounted an unexpected naval raid in June 1667, the Dutch fleet was able to breach the English defences, captured two warships and burned others at anchor in the river at Chatham in what was one of the worst defeats ever suffered by the Royal Navy. Upnor Castle acquitted itself better than many of the other defensive sites along the upper Medway despite its lack of provisioning. The fire from its guns and those of adjoining emplacements forced the Dutch to retreat after a couple of days, before they were able to burn the dockyard itself.

The raid exposed the weaknesses of the Medway defences and led to the castle soon losing its role as an artillery fortification. New and stronger forts were built further downriver over the following two centuries, culminating in the construction of massive [[casemate]]d forts such as [[Garrison Point Fort]] and [[Fort Hoo|Hoo]] and [[Fort Darnet|Darnet Fort]]s. Upnor Castle became a naval ammunition depot, storing great quantities of gunpowder, ammunition and cannon to replenish the warships that came to Chatham for repair and resupply. It remained in military use until as late as 1945. The castle was subsequently opened to the public and is now an [[English Heritage]] property.

==History==
===Strategic context===
[[File:Thames and Medway fortifications.svg|thumb|right|300px|Map of fortifications on the Rivers Thames and Medway]]
The River Medway is a major tributary of the Thames, merging with the latter's estuary about {{convert|35|mi|km}} east of [[London]]. Its upper reaches from [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] to the confluence with the Thames at [[Sheerness]] meander between sand and mudbanks for a distance of about {{convert|10|mi|km}}. The water flows slowly, without strong currents, and is free of rocks, while the surrounding hills provide shelter from the south-west wind. These characteristics made the section of the river below [[Rochester Bridge]] a desirable anchorage for large ships, as they could be anchored safely and grounded for repairs. The complexity of the channel's navigation also provided it with defensive advantages.<ref name="HeritageSaunders1985">{{cite book|last1=Heritage|first1=English|last2=Saunders|first2=A. D.|title=Upnor Castle: Kent|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0R6FPwAACAAJ|date=1 January 1985|publisher=English Heritage|isbn=978-1-85074-039-1|page=5}}</ref>

During [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]'s reign, the upper Medway gradually became the principal anchorage for ships of the [[Royal Navy]] while they were "[[in ordinary]]," or out of commission. They were usually stripped of their sails and rigging while in this state and the opportunity was taken to refit and repair them. Storehouses and servicing facilities were built in the Medway towns of [[Gillingham, Kent|Gillingham]] and [[Chatham, Kent|Chatham]] which eventually became the nucleus of the Chatham Dockyard. By the time Elizabeth I came to the throne in 1558, most of the royal fleet used this section of the Medway, known as Chatham and Gillingham Reaches, as an anchorage.<ref name="Saunders-p6">Saunders, p. 6</ref>

Although the Thames had been defended from naval attack since Henry VIII's time, when five [[blockhouse]]s were built as part of the [[Device Forts]] chain of coastal defences, there were no equivalent defences on the Medway. Two medieval castles – [[Rochester Castle]] and [[Queenborough Castle]] – existed along the river's south bank, but both of these had been intended to defend landward approaches and were of little use for coastal defence. There was thus a pressing need for proper defences to protect the vulnerable ships and shore facilities on the upper Medway.<ref name="Saunders-p6" />

===Construction===
Upnor Castle was commissioned in 1559 by order of Queen Elizabeth and her [[Privy Council]]. Six "indifferent persons" chose a site opposite St Mary's Creek in Chatham, on {{convert|6|acre|m2}} of land belonging to a Thomas Devinisshe of [[Frindsbury]]. It was acquired – possibly compulsorily purchased<ref name="Reynolds2010">{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Susan|title=Before Eminent Domain: Toward a History of Expropriation of Land for the Common Good|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4BiVKkb1yfYC|date=1 March 2010|publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-8078-9586-3|page=43}}</ref> – by the Crown for the sum of £25. The military engineer Sir [[Richard Lee (engineer)|Richard Lee]] was tasked with designing the new fortification, but as he appears to have been fully occupied with working on the defences of [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] the project was carried on, to his designs, by others. His deputy Humphrey Locke took the role of overseer, surveyor and chief carpenter, while the former Rochester mayor and victualler to the navy [[Richard Watts]] managed the project on a day-to-day basis and handled the accountancy.<ref name="Saunders-p6" />

The castle's original appearance differed significantly from that of today. The arrow-shaped Water Bastion facing out into the Medway and the main block behind it were part of the original design. There were also towers at either end of the water frontage, though these were subsequently replaced by towers of a different design. The gatehouse and moat were later additions. A number of derelict buildings in Rochester Castle, [[Aylesford]] and [[Bopley]] were pulled down to provide stone for the castle. The main structure had been completed by 1564 but it took another three years, and an infusion of extra funds, to finish the project. The total cost came to £4,349.<ref name="Saunders-p7">Saunders, p. 7</ref>

===Improvements and repairs===

During the late 16th century tensions grew between Protestant England and Catholic Spain, leading ultimately to the undeclared [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604]]. Spain was in a strong position to attack the south of England from its possessions in the [[Spanish Netherlands]]. New fortifications were erected along the Medway, including a chain stretched across the width of the river below Upnor Castle. The castle itself was poorly manned until the Lord High Admiral, [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham]], highlighted this and recommended that the garrison should be increased. By 1596 it consisted of eighty men who were each paid eight pence per day (equivalent to £6 today).<ref name="Saunders-p10">Saunders, p. 10</ref>

Continued fears of a Spanish incursion led to the castle's defences being strengthened between 1599–1601 at the instigation of Sir John Leveson. An arrowhead-shaped timber palisade was erected in front of the Water Bastion to block any attempted landings there. An enclosing ditch some {{convert|5.5|m|ft}} deep and {{convert|9.8|m|ft}} wide was dug around the castle. Flanking turrets, on the site of the present north and south towers, were constructed to protect the bastion. The bastion itself was raised and a high parapet was added to its edge. A gatehouse and drawbridge were also built to protect the castle's landward side.<ref>Saunders, pp. 10–11</ref>

A survey conducted in 1603 recorded that Upnor Castle had 20 guns of various calibres, plus another 11 guns split between two [[Sconce (fortification)|sconces]] or outworks, known as Bay and Warham Sconces. The castle's armament consisted of a demi-cannon, 7 [[culverin]], 5 [[demi-culverin]], a [[minion (cannon)|minion]], a [[falconet (cannon)|falconet]], a [[saker (cannon)|saker]] and four [[veuglaire|fowlers]] with two chambers each. Bay Sconce was armed with 4 demi-culverin, while Warham Sconce had 2 culverin and 5 demi-culverin.<ref>Saunders, p. 11</ref> 18 guns were recorded as being mounted in the castle twenty years later. The garrison's armament included 34 [[longbow]]s – an indication that even at this late date, archery was still of military value. By this time, however, the castle was in a state of disrepair. The drawbridge and its raising mechanism were broken, the gun platforms needed repairs and the courtyard wall had collapsed. A new curtain wall had to be built to protect the landward side of the castle.<ref name="Saunders-p13">Saunders, p. 13</ref> The foundations of Warham Sconce were reported to have been washed away by the tide and it appears that both sconces were allowed to fall into ruin.<ref name="Rogers1970">{{cite book|last=Rogers|first=Philip George|title=The Dutch in the Medway|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=np-ZAAAAIAAJ|year=1970|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=56}}</ref>

Upnor Castle fell into Parliamentary hands without a fight when the [[English Civil War]] broke out in 1642, and was subsequently used to intern Royalist officers. In May 1648 a Royalist uprising took place in Kent and Essex, with the royalists seizing a number of towns including [[Gravesend]], [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]], [[Dover]] and [[Maidstone]]. The Royalists were soon defeated in the [[Battle of Maidstone]] on 1 June and the castle was restored to Parliamentary hands. The Parliamentary commander-in-chief, [[Thomas Fairfax]], inspected the castle and ordered further repairs and strengthening the gun platforms. It appears that the height of the gatehouse was also increased at this time and the north and south towers were built up. They appear to have been left open at the back (on the landward side) but this was remedied in 1653 in the course of further repairs, making them usable for troop accommodation.<ref name="Saunders-p13" />

===Raid on the Medway===
[[Image:RaidMedwayPic1.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A picture by Willem Schellincks of the raid. The view is from the south. On the left Upnor Castle is silhouetted against the flames; on the opposite side of the river more to the front the burning dockyard of Chatham. To the north the conflagration near the chain is shown and on the horizon the ruins of Sheerness Fort are still smoking.]]
The castle only saw action once in its history in the Dutch [[Raid on the Medway]] in June 1667 during the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]]. The Dutch, under the nominal command of Lieutenant-Admiral [[Michiel de Ruyter]], bombarded and captured the town of [[Sheerness]], sailed up the Thames to [[Gravesend]], then up the Medway to Chatham.<ref name="Saunders-p13" /> They made their way past the chain that was supposed to block the river, past the castle and towed away [[HMS Royal Charles (1655)|HMS ''Royal Charles'']] and [[HMS Unity (1665)|''Unity'']] as well as burning other ships at anchor.<ref name="Saunders-p14">Saunders, p. 14</ref> While the Dutch were anchored in the Medway overnight on 12 June, the [[George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle|Duke of Albemarle]] took charge of the defences and ordered the hasty construction of an eight-gun battery next to Upnor Castle, using guns taken from Chatham. The castle's guns, the garrison's muskets and the new battery were all used to bombard the Dutch ships when they attempted a second time to sail past Upnor to Chatham. Although the Dutch were able to burn some more ships in the anchorage, they were unable to make further progress and had to withdraw.<ref name="Saunders-p14" />

The castle had acquitted itself well in the eyes of contemporary observers, despite its inability to prevent the raid, and the dedication of its garrison was praised.<ref name="Saunders-p14" /> The pro-government ''[[London Gazette]]'' reported "they were so warmly entertained by Major Scot, who commanded there [at Upnor], and on the other side by Sir Edward Spragg, from the Battery at the Shoare, that after very much Dammage received by them in the shattering of their ships, in sinking severall of their Long Boats manned out by them, in the great number of their Men kill'd, and some Prisoners taken, they were at the last forced to retire."<ref>''The London Gazette'', 13–17 June 1667, no. 165, p. 2</ref> The military historian [[Norman Longmate]] observes tartly that "in presenting damning facts in the most favourable light Charles [II's] ministers were unsurpassed."<ref name="Longmate2011">{{cite book|last=Longmate|first=Norman|title=Island Fortress: The Defence of Great Britain 1606–1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4QH2bPHyyvsC|date=30 September 2011|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1-4464-7577-5|page=81}}</ref> [[Samuel Pepys]], the then secretary of the [[Navy Board]], got closer to the truth when he noted in his diary that the castle's garrison were poorly provisioned: "I do not see that Upnor Castle hath received any hurt by them though they played long against it; and they themselves shot till they had hardly a gun left upon the carriages, so badly provided they were."<ref name="Saunders-p14">Saunders, p. 14</ref>

===Usage as a magazine and naval facility===
[[File:Upnor Castle 1845 Dugdale print.jpg|right|thumb|View of Upnor Castle from the Medway in 1845]]
The Dutch attack prompted the government to order belatedly that Upnor Castle, which had hitherto been neglected, should be maintained "as a fort and place of strength".<ref name="Saunders-p14" /> In the end, however, the raid proved to be the end of the castle's career as a fortress. New and more powerful forts were built further down the Medway and on the [[Isle of Grain]] with the aim of preventing enemies reaching Chatham, thus making the castle redundant. It was converted into "a Place of Stores and Magazines" in 1668 with a new purpose of supplying munitions to naval warships anchored in the Medway or the Swale. Guns, gun carriages, shot and gunpowder was stored in great quantities within the main building of the castle, which had to be increased in height and its floors reinforced to accommodate the weight. By 1691 it was England's leading magazine, with 164 iron guns, 62 standing carriages, 100 ships' carriages, 7,125 pieces of iron shot, over 200 muskets of various types, 77 pikes and 5,206 barrels of powder. This was considerably more than was held at the next largest magazine, the [[Tower of London]].<ref name="Saunders-p15">Saunders, p. 15</ref>

Upnor Castle ceased to be used as a magazine after 1827 and was converted into an Ordnance Magazine. No gunpowder or explosives were stored there after 1840, though other magazines continued to be built nearby. It was linked to [[Chattenden Barracks]], originally the School of Military Railways, via a 2 ft 6in (76 cm) narrow-gauge line built for steam locomotives.<ref name="Saunders-p21">Saunders, p. 21</ref> In 1891 the castle and its associated depot came under the full control of the Admiralty, ending an arrangement in which the War Office had managed the site with the Admiralty providing the funding. It became a [[Royal Naval Armament Depot]] (RNAD), one of a group of such facilities around the country. The castle and magazine were used for a time as a proofyard for testing firearms and explosives.<ref name="Saunders-p21" />

Although the castle remained in military ownership, it came to be treated more as a museum from the 1920s onwards.<ref name="ArcCant">{{cite journal|title=Upnor Castle, Kent|journal=Archaeologia Cantiana|volume=65|year=1952|pages=1–11|last1=O’Neil|first1=B. H. St. J.|last2=Evans|first2=S.}}</ref> During the [[Second World War]] the castle was still in service as part of the Magazine Establishment and was damaged by two enemy bombs which fell in 1941.<ref name="Saunders-p21" /> The bombing dislodged pieces of plaster in the castle's south tower and gatehouse, under which were discovered old graffiti including a drawing of a ship that has been dated to around 1700.<ref name="ArcCant" />

===The castle today===

Following the end of the war in 1945, the Admiralty gave approval for Upnor Castle to be used as a Departmental Museum and to be opened to the public.<ref name="ArcCant" /> It subsequently underwent a degree of restoration.<ref name="Saunders-p21" /> The castle was scheduled as an [[Ancient Monument]] in January 1960 and is currently managed by English Heritage. It remains part of the [[Crown Estate]].<ref name="List" />

==Description==
[[File:Upnor Castle OS map annotated.png|right|thumb|300px|Annotated map of Upnor Castle]]
Upnor Castle's buildings were constructed from a combination of [[Kentish ragstone]] and [[ashlar]] blocks, plus red bricks and timber. Its main building is a two-storeyed rectangular block that measures {{convert|41|m|ft|abbr=on}} by {{convert|21|m|ft|abbr=on}}, aligned in a north-east/south-west direction on the west bank of the Medway.<ref name="List">{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1012980|title=Heritage List for England – Upnor Castle|publisher=English Heritage|accessdate=2 August 2015}}</ref> Later known as the Magazine, it has been changed considerably since its original construction. It would have included limited barrack accommodation, possibly in a small second storey placed behind gun platforms on the roof. After the building was converted into a magazine in 1668 many changes were made which have obscured the earlier design.<ref name="Saunders-30">Saunders, p. 30</ref> The second storey appears to have been extended across the full length of the building, covering over the earlier rooftop gun platforms. This gave more room for storage in the interior. The ground floor was divided into three compartments with a woodblock floor and copper-sheeted doors to reduce the risk of sparks.<ref name="Saunders-31">Saunders, p. 31</ref> Further stores were housed on the first floor, with a [[windlass]] to raise stores from the waterside.<ref name="Saunders-30" />

A circular staircase within the building gives access to the castle's main gun platform or water bastion, a low triangular structure projecting into the river. The castle's main armament was mounted here in the open air; this is now represented by six mid-19th century guns that are still on their original carriages.<ref name="List" /> There are nine embrasures in the bastion, six facing downstream and three upstream, with a rounded parapet designed to deflect shot.<ref name="Saunders-33">Saunders, p. 33</ref> The water bastion was additionally protected by a wooden palisade that follows its triangular course a few metres further out in the river. The present palisade is a modern recreation of the original structure.<ref name="List" />

A pair of towers stand on the river's edge a short distance on either side from the main building. They were originally two-storyed open-backed structures with gun platforms situated on their first floors, providing flanking fire down the line of the ditch around the castle's perimeter. They were later adapted for use as accommodation, with their backs closed with bricks and the towers increased in height to provide a third storey. Traces of the gun embrasures can still be seen at the point where the original roofline was.<ref name="Saunders-27">Saunders, p. 27</ref> The South Tower was said to have been for the use of the castle's governor, though their lack of comfort meant that successive governors declined to live there. The two towers are linked to the main building by a [[crenellation|crenallated]] curtain wall where additional cannon were emplaced in two embrasures on the north parapet and one on the south.<ref name="Saunders-29">Saunders, p. 29</ref>

The castle's principal buildings are situated on the east side of a rectangular courtyard within which stand two large [[Quercus cerris|Turkey oaks]], said to have been grown from acorns brought from [[Crimea]] after the [[Crimean War]].<ref name="Saunders-27" /> A stone curtain wall topped with brick surrounds the courtyard, standing about {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}} thick and {{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on}} high. The courtyard is entered on the north-western side through a four-storeyed gatehouse with gun embasures for additional defensive strength.<ref name="List" /> It was substantially rebuilt in the 1650s after being badly damaged in a 1653 fire, traces of which can still be seen in the form of scorched stones on the first floor walls.<ref name="Saunders-27" /> A central gateway with a round arch leads into a passage that gives access to the courtyard. Above the gateway is a late 18th century clock that was inserted into the existing structure. A wooden [[Bell-cot|bellcote]] was added in the early 19th century and a modern flagpole surmounts the building.<ref name="List" />

The curtain wall is surrounded by a dry ditch which was originally nearly {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} wide by {{convert|5.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} deep, though it has since been partially infilled. Visitors to the castle crossed a drawbridge, which is no longer extant, to reach the gatehouse. A secondary entrance to the castle is provided by a [[sally port]] in the north wall. On the inside of the curtain wall the brick foundations of buildings can still be seen. These were originally lean-to structures, constructed in the 17th century to provide storage facilities for the garrison.<ref name="List" />

{{Gallery
|title=
|width=150 |height=120
|align=center
|footer=
|File:Upnor Castle north side.jpg
|alt1=
|North side of the curtain wall
|width1=180
|File:Upnor Castle water bastion.jpg
|alt2=
|Water bastion, main building and north tower
|File:Upnor Castle west side.jpg
|alt3=
|West side showing the gatehouse
|width3=180
}}
A short distance to the south-west of the castle is a barracks block and associated storage buildings, constructed soon after 1718. Built to replace the original barrack accommodation within the castle when it was redeveloped to convert it into a magazine, it has changed little externally in the last 300 years. It is a rare surviving example of an 18th-century building of this type and was one of the first distinct barracks to be built in England.<ref name="Saunders-22">Saunders, p. 22</ref>

Depot buildings formerly associated with the castle still survive in the area immediately to the north-east and remain in Ministry of Defence hands. They were constructed on top of earlier gun emplacements, of which earthwork traces can still be seen in the form of a broad bank running north-east from the castle towards the depot.<ref name="List" />

==References==

{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Upnor Castle}}
*[http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/upnor-castle/ Upnor Castle – page at English Heritage]
*[http://www.theheritagetrail.co.uk/castles/upnor%20castle.htm Information about the castle]
*[http://www.fortified-places.com/upnor.html History of Upnor Castle]
*[http://www.chathamworldheritage.co.uk Chatham's World Heritage Site application – including Upnor Castle]

{{Defences of medway}}

[[Category:Castles in Kent]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in Kent]]
[[Category:Forts in Medway]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Kent]]
[[Category:Military and war museums in England]]
[[Category:Museums in Medway]]

Steep Holm

2015-09-03T17:01:38Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox Islands
| name = Steep Holm
| image name = stholm2.jpg
| image caption =
| locator map = Bristol Channel map.svg
| map_custom = no
| native name =
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| location = [[Bristol Channel]]
| coordinates = {{coord|51|20|23|N|3|06|35|W|display=inline,title}}
| archipelago =
| total islands =
| major islands =
| area_km2 =
| length_km = 1 
| width_m = 400 
| coastline_km =
| highest mount = {{convert|78|m|ft|abbr=on}}
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| country = England
| country admin divisions title = Unitary Authority
| country admin divisions = [[North Somerset]]
| country admin divisions title 1 = Ceremonial County
| country admin divisions 1 = [[Somerset]]
| country admin divisions title 2 = Civil Parish
| country admin divisions 2 = [[Weston-super-Mare]]
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'''Steep Holm''' ({{lang-cy|Ynys Rhonech}}, [[Old English]]: ''Ronech'' and later ''Steopanreolice'') is an English island lying in the [[Bristol Channel]]. The island covers {{convert|48.87|acre}} at high tide, expanding to {{convert|63.26|acre|abbr=on}} at mean low water.{{sfn|Legg|1995}} At its highest point it is {{convert|78|m}} above mean sea level. It lies within the [[Historic counties of England|historic boundaries]] of [[Somerset]] and administratively, it forms part of [[North Somerset]].<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm70/7032/7032_iv.pdf | format=PDF | page= 7 | publisher= [[Boundary Commissions (United Kingdom)|The Boundary Commission for England]] | title= Fifth periodical report – Volume 4 Mapping for the Non-Metropolitan Counties and the Unitary Authorities | date= 26 February 2007 | accessdate= 6 September 2007 }}</ref> Between 1 April 1974 and 1 April 1996 it was administered as part of [[Avon (county)|Avon]].{{sfn|Legg|1995}} Nearby is [[Flat Holm]] island ({{lang-cy|Ynys Echni}}), part of [[Wales]].

The [[Carboniferous Limestone]] island rises to about {{convert|200|ft}} and serves as a wind and wave break, sheltering the upper reaches of the Bristol Channel. The island is now uninhabited, with the exception of the wardens. It is protected as a [[nature reserve]] and [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] (SSSI) with a large bird population and plants including [[Paeonia mascula|wild peonies]]. There was a signal station or watchtower on the island in Roman times, but there may have been human habitation as early as the [[Iron Age]]. In the 6th century it was home to [[Gildas|St Gildas]] and to a small [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] priory in the 12th and 13th centuries. An inn was built in 1832 and used for holidays in the 19th century. A [[Animal sanctuary|bird sanctuary]] was established in 1931 and since 1951 has been leased to charitable trusts. It is now owned by the Kenneth Allsop Memorial Trust.

In the 1860s the island was fortified with ten [[RML 7 inch gun|7-inch rifled muzzle loaders]] as one of the [[Palmerston Forts]] for the coastal defence of the Bristol Channel until it was abandoned in 1898. The infrastructure was reused in World War I and II when [[BL 6 inch gun Mk II – VI|Mark VII 6'' breech-loading guns]] and search lights were installed. To enable the movement of materials, soldiers from the [[Indian Army Service Corps]] initially used mules and then installed a cable-operated winched switchback railway.

==Geology and ecology==
[[File:Calf Rock (geograph 2679396).jpg|thumb|left|Calf rock]]
The island is formed of [[Carboniferous Limestone]] and is often described as geologically a continuation of the [[Mendip Hills]] at [[Brean Down]],{{sfn|Coysh|Mason|Waite|1977|p=2}} however the [[Strike and dip|dip]] is at a different angle to that on Brean Down. On Steep Holm the dip is about 30 degrees to the north whereas at Brean Down it is 30 degrees to the south. There are some [[Fold (geology)|folds]] and [[Fracture (geology)|fractures]] with dip angles up to 75 degrees created during the final phases of the [[Variscan orogeny]] near the end of the [[Carboniferous|Carboniferous Period]], 300 million years ago.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=4175&block=102|title=GCR block — Variscan Structures of South-West England|publisher=Joint Nature Conservation Committee |accessdate=3 May 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Legg|1993|pp=24-25}}

The island rises to about {{convert|200|ft}} from the surrounding sea and covers {{convert|49|acre}} at high tide, whereas at low tide it expands to {{convert|63|acre}} due to the [[tidal range]] of {{convert|43|ft|m}},<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/commondata/acrobat/severnpositionmay2006_1508223.pd | format= PDF | work= UK Environment Agency | title= Severn Estuary Barrage | date= 31 May 2006 | accessdate= 3 September 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070930155720/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/commondata/acrobat/severnpositionmay2006_1508223.pd |archivedate = 30 September 2007}}</ref> second only to [[Bay of Fundy]] in [[Eastern Canada]].{{sfn|Chan|Archer|2003|p=151}}<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/bristol/content/articles/2005/07/04/bristolchannel_feature.shtml | title= Coast: Bristol Channel | work= BBC | accessdate= 27 August 2007 }}</ref>{{sfn|Legg|1993|p=24}}<ref name=victorianforts>{{cite web|title=Steep Holm Island|url=http://www.victorianforts.co.uk/pdf/datasheets/steepholm.pdf|publisher=Victorian Forts|accessdate=11 July 2015}}</ref> There are many caves on the island,{{sfn|Coysh|Mason|Waite|1977|pp=75–76}} and pot holes, up to {{convert|60|m}} deep, in the surrounding sea bed which are believed to be the remnants of collapsed cave systems.{{sfn|Legg|1993|p=25}} The caves on the islands cliffs are at two different levels, those in the current inter-tidal zone are below the water table and are producing [[stalactite]]s, however many of the caves are situated high up on the cliffs which were on the water line many thousands of years ago.{{sfn|Legg|1993|p=29}}

Steep Holm is protected as a [[nature reserve]] and [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] (SSSI), notification having taken place in 1952.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.english-nature.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/1002935.pdf | format= PDF | work= English Nature | title= Citation – Steep Holm | accessdate= 6 September 2007}}</ref> There is a large bird population, particularly [[European herring gull]]s ''(Larus argentatus)'' and [[Lesser black-backed gull]]s ''(Larus fuscus)''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lewis|first1=Stanley|title=Birds of the Island of Steep Holm|journal=British Birds|date=1936|volume=xxx|pages=219–223|url=http://britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V30/V30_N07/V30_N07_P219_223_A038.pdf}}</ref> There has also been a small population of [[muntjac]] deer.{{sfn|Smith|2006|p=4}} The plateau at the top of the island has a layer of soil between {{convert|6|in}} and {{convert|12|in}} deep. It has a red colour from veins of iron in the rock and has arrived as sand particles less than {{convert|0.0039|in}} in diameter.{{sfn|Legg|1993|p=33}} The island is the only site in the UK on which [[Paeonia mascula|wild peonies]] ''(Paeonia mascula)'' grow,<ref>{{cite web|title=Steep Holm Island, Somerset|url=http://www.wildlifetrusts.org/who-we-are/history/rothschild-reserves/steep-holm-island-somerset|publisher=The Wildlife Trusts|accessdate=11 July 2015}}</ref> although these have been damaged by the fungus [[Botrytis (fungus)|botrytis]].<ref name=westerndailypress2014/> The wild peony was [[introduced species|introduced]] to the island of Steep Holm, possibly by monks,{{sfn|Payne|2011}} or brought from the Mediterranean by the Romans.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|p=15}}<ref>{{cite web|title=The Steep Holm Peony|url=http://www.wanhs.org/SteepholmePeony.html|publisher=Weston-super-Mare Archaeological and Natural History Society|accessdate=12 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Steep Holm: A peony mystery|url=http://www.martin-page.com/thepeonysociety.org/Steep_Holm.html|publisher=Peony Society|accessdate=12 July 2015}}</ref> [[Smyrnium olusatrum|Alexanders]] ''(Smyrnium olusatrum)'' are also common along with [[golden samphire]], [[Plantago coronopus|buck's-horn plantain]] ''(Plantago coronopus)'' and [[Allium ampeloprasum|wild leeks]] ''(Allium ampeloprasum)''.{{sfn|Atthill|1976|p=44}}{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|p=39}} The only reptiles on the island are [[Anguis fragilis|slow worms]] ''(Anguis fragilis)''.{{sfn|Toulson|1984|p=127}}

==History==
===Prehistoric to Roman===
[[File:Aerial view of Steep Holm.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the island]]
The earliest sign of human activity on the island are prehistoric vertebrae of red deer discovered in Five Johns' Cave during an exploration in 1975.{{sfn|Legg|1993|p=35}} Worked flints from the [[Mesolithic]] and scrapers from the [[Neolithic]] were uncovered as part of the Priory excavations carried out between 1977 and 1992.{{sfn|Legg|1993|pp=35-36}}

Roman remains, possibly a signal station or watchtower, have been identified on the island by [[electrical resistance survey]].<ref name=westerndailypress2014>{{cite news|title=Discover Steep Holm and its history|url=http://www.westerndailypress.co.uk/Discover-Steep-Holm-history/story-21082702-detail/story.html|accessdate=11 July 2015|work=Western Daily Press|date=10 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Roman watchtower on Steep Holm discovered by Bristol University archaeologists |url=http://www.westerndailypress.co.uk/Holm-sweet-home-Romans-island/story-21011217-detail/story.html|accessdate=12 July 2015|work=Western Daily Press|date=25 April 2014}}</ref> Accurate exploration and interpretation of the site is difficult as it was reused by builders in both the [[Victorian era]] and during World War II.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=18-21}} A carved stone head found on the island in 1991 is likely to be a Celtic head from the [[Romano-British culture|Romano-British]] era,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Green|first1=Miranda|title=Notes|journal=Britania|date=1993|volume=24|pages=241–242|doi=10.2307/526730|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8283215}}</ref> but may be from the [[Iron Age]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Monument No. 1456111|url=http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=1456111|website=Pastscape|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=12 July 2015}}</ref> In addition to shards of cooking pots from the Roman era, some luxury items have been identified including [[Terra sigillata#Arretine ware|Arretine ware]], [[Celtic art#La Tène style|La Tène style]] broaches and an [[amphora]] dating from between 90 and 140 AD which was made in southern Spain. There have also been shards of [[Nene Valley Colour Coated Ware|Castor ware]].{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=12-14}} Fragments of pottery roofing and box flue tiles have been identified signifying the presence of a heating system and possibly a bath house.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=15-16}} Roman coins from the reigns of [[Claudius Gothicus]] (268-270) and [[Tetricus I]] (271-273) have also been found.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|p=17}}

===Religious foundations===
[[File:The western plateau, Steep Holm (geograph 2106905).jpg|thumb|left|The western plateau]]
According to legend, first recorded by [[John Leland (antiquary)|John Leland]] in the 16th century, [[Gildas|Saint Gildas]], the author of ''[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]'', lived on Steep Holm during the 6th century. He arrived on Steep Holm after visiting his friend [[Cadoc|Saint Cadoc]], who lived on Flat Holm as a hermit.{{sfn|Rutter|1829|p=95}} Gildas supposedly left the island, after pirates from the [[Orkney]]s carried off his servant and furniture, to become [[Abbot of Glastonbury]].{{sfn|Clay|1914|p=9}}{{sfn|Toulson|1984|p=64}} The [[Vikings]] took refuge on Steep Holm during the summer of 914 and then carried out raids on the coast of Somerset at [[Watchet]] and [[Porlock]] according to the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]].{{sfn|Legg|1993|pp=54-55}} At the end of the `12th century there was a small [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] [[Priory]] of St Michael on the island.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Bleadon Hills, Brean Down and Steep Holm|url=http://m.mendip.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=1883&p=0|publisher=Mendip Council|accessdate=12 July 2015}}</ref> The only priory building fully excavated measured {{convert|73|ft}} long and {{convert|15|ft}} wide, with the cloisters and other structures still to be identified.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|p=37}} The date of the original foundation of the priory is unclear, however in the early 13th century the patron was [[William I de Cantilupe]]. His family were also patrons of [[Studley Priory, Warwickshire|Studley Priory]] in [[Warwickshire]]. His grand-daughter married Lord Robert de Tregoz who acquired the freehold of the whole island, however endowments for the upkeep of the priory were declining, which led to it being abandoned between 1260 and 1265, the monks returning to Studley Priory.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=54-57}} A [[Blue Lias]] memorial stone from the abbey, which has a [[Cross of Lorraine]], was found in 1867 during the fortification of the island. It was incorporated into an armoury leading to the naming of the "tombstone battery".{{sfn|Legg|1993|pp=63-64}}

===Manorial ownership===
[[File:Steepholm, old inn from path - geograph.org.uk - 93819.jpg|thumb|upright|The ruins of the old inn.]]
The island seems to have been held, in association with the local manors of [[Uphill]] and [[Christon]], by the [[Bek family]] who granted it to [[Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln]]. Although the mechanism is unclear it next passed to the [[Berkeley family]] with [[Maurice de Berkeley, 2nd Baron Berkeley|Maurice de Berkeley]], the second Baron Berkeley, holding it in 1315.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=58-59}} The site was used again by [[Warren (domestic)|warreners]] in the 14th and 15th centuries. They lived one of the ruined priory buildings which was rebuilt.{{sfn|Murphy|2009|p=174}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Steepholme Priory|url=http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=191342|website=Pastscape|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=12 July 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=60-61}} By 1453 the overlordship of the island was held by [[James Butler, 4th Earl of Ormond]], and in 1460 the [[advowson]] was exercised by [[Margaret Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury]]. In the years following the ownership of a variety of estates, including Norton Beauchamp to which Steep Holm was attached, was disputed. In the 16th century [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset]] took over, and then lost, large estates including [[Brean]] to which Steep Holm was allied. The Seymour descendants recovered the estates, owning them into the 17th century, although the only activity on Steep Holm seems to have been the employment of gull watchers and fishermen.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=67-71}} In 1684 the Norton Beauchamp estate was sold to Edward Ryder. It appears to have been auctioned by decree of the [[Court of Chancery]] 11 years later in 1695, possibly because of difficulties in maintaining sea defenses along the Somerset coast, however this seems to have been disputed in the light of outstanding mortgages. In 1699 the estates, including Steep Holm, were sold to Philip Freke of Bristol, whose descendants held it for the next 130 years.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=76-79}} Freke's granddaughter married into the family of [[John Willes (judge)|John Willes]] who was [[Chief Justice of the Common Pleas|Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas]] and [[Member of Parliament]]. During their ownership, probably around 1776, a new cottage was built on Steep Holm for fishermen. It was built using stones from the ruined priory. In 1830 the island was sold again, according to some sources this was to a cousin of John Freke Willes named William Willes, however other suggest it was a solicitor in Weston-super-Mare named John Baker.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=85-94}}

In 1832 the island was leased to Colonel Tynte of [[Halswell House]] who established an inn for sailors. The inn was run by the Harris family, using rum and tobacco bought from ships. They claimed that the island was outside the jurisdiction of the [[Tax collector|excise men]] until a court case in 1884. After the Harris family the inn was run by Mr W. L. Davies who offered fishing, shooting and boating holidays.{{sfn|Coysh|Mason|Waite|1977|pp=69–70}} To make landing on the island easier a new pier was built close to the inn.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=95-96}} In 1835, clergyman [[John Ashley (clergyman)|John Ashley]] from [[Clevedon]], voluntarily ministered to the population of the island and the neighbouring Flat Holm. Ashley created the Bristol Channel Mission in order to serve seafarers on the 400 sailing vessels which used the Bristol Channel.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=99-100}} The mission would later become the [[Mission to Seafarers]], which still provides ministerial services to sailors in over 300 ports.{{sfn|Farr|1954|p=49}}

===Palmerston Fort===
[[File:Split Rock Battery, Steep Holm (geograph 2105599).jpg|thumb|left|Split Rock Battery]]
Both Steep Holm and Flat Holm were fortified in the 1860s as a defence against invasion. They form part of a [[Palmerston Forts, Bristol Channel|line of defences]], known as [[Palmerston Forts]], built across the channel to protect the approaches to [[Bristol]] and [[Cardiff]]. The island was fortified following a visit by [[Queen Victoria]] and [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]] to France, where they had been concerned at the strength of the French Navy. The [[Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom]], under direction of [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]], recommended fortification of the coast and the island formed part of this strategic coastal defence system. Construction began in 1865 and was completed in 1869 by John Perry of [[Weston-super-Mare]].<ref>{{Cite document | last1 = Worrall | first1 = D. H. | last2 = Surtees | first2 = P. R. | title = Flat Holm  – an account of its history and ecology | publisher = South Glamorgan County Council | pages = 18–19 | year = 1984}}</ref>{{sfn|Saunders|2000|p=19}} The work involved the creation of a perimeter road around the summit plateau and a [[lime kiln]] for the manufacture of [[lime mortar]] to build the barracks and gun emplacements with their ammunition stores.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=123-127}}

The concrete gun emplacements were called: Summit Battery, Laboratory Battery, Garden Battery and Tombstone Battery. Along with the barracks they have been designated as Grade II [[listed building]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tombstone Battery|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1320678|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=24 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Garden Battery|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1137955|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=24 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Laboratory Battery|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1137930|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=24 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Summit Battery|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1129739|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=24 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Two Palmerstonian gun batteries on Steep Holm|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1005415|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=24 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Barracks|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1320677|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=24 July 2015}}</ref> The facilities installed included a master-gunners house, small inn and a water tank holding {{convert|49,000|impgal}} of rainwater.{{sfn|van der Bijl|2000|pp=41–42}} The water tank is beneath the [[barracks]] and collects rainwater from its roof. The brick tank is {{convert|16.7|m}} long, {{convert|4.8|m}} wide and {{convert|4.5|m}} high with a vaulted roof.{{sfn|Legg|1991|p=32}} Armaments included ten [[RML 7 inch gun|7-inch rifled muzzle loaders]] Mk III spread between six batteries.<ref name=victorianforts/>{{sfn|Saunders|2000|p=14}} These were later replaced with [[Armstrong Gun|Armstrong]] 6-inch RML guns.{{sfn|Phillips|2013}} Some of the gun batteries are [[scheduled monument]]s,<ref>{{cite web|title=Steep Holm|url=http://www.severnestuary.net/sep/pdfs/steep%20holm.pdf|publisher=Severn Estuary Partnership|accessdate=11 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Two Palmerstonian gun batteries on Steep Holm|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1005415|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=12 July 2015}}</ref> and a there are the remains of a centralised group of brick-built barrack blocks. In 1898 test firing by [[HMS Arrogant (1896)|HMS ''Arrogant'']], an [[Arrogant-class cruiser|''Arrogant''-class cruiser]], on Rudder Rock battery showed that the fixed gun emplacements used on Steep Holm and other sites were susceptible to attack by modern warships and the site was no longer active.{{sfn|van der Bijl|2000|pp=42–43}}<ref>{{cite news|title=The Bombardment of the Steep Holm|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000526/18980824/045/0007|accessdate=12 July 2015|work=Taunton Courier, and Western Advertiser|date=24 August 1898| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|subscription=yes}}</ref> The military control on the island was maintained until 1908 when it was then leased to James Sleeman and his family.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=159-163}} In 1927 the first test of the [[RAE Larynx]] (from "Long Range Gun with Lynx engine") an early pilotless aircraft, to be used as a guided anti-ship weapon, took place just off Steep Holm.{{sfn|Legg|1991|pp=69-70}}

===World wars===
[[File:WWII observation post, Rudder Rock (geograph 2105766).jpg|thumb|World War II observation post at Rudder Rock]]
These facilities were updated in both [[World War I]] and [[World War II]]. From 1915 to 1919 the island was requisitioned by the [[Admiralty]] as a coastguard station. After the war the Sleemans returned to carry out farming and fishing and played host to occasional tourists.{{sfn|Rendell|Rendell|1993|pp=163-167}} In World War II, search light batteries were built on Steep Holm. In 1940 the island's warden Harry Cox, who had developed the island into a [[Animal sanctuary|bird sanctuary]] since 1931,{{sfn|Coysh|Mason|Waite|1977|p=71}} was appointed as a coastguard and was supported by [[Home Guard (United Kingdom)|Local Defence Volunteers]] from Weston-super-Mare. In 1940 and 1941 the battery was refortified by soldiers from the [[Indian Army Service Corps]] using mules to transport guns and equipment up the steep cliffs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Steep Holm|url=http://www.willys-mb.co.uk/steep-holm.htm|publisher=Willys-MB WW2 Transport|accessdate=12 July 2015}}</ref> The armament included [[BL 6 inch gun Mk II – VI|Mark VII 6'' breech-loading guns]] taken from World War I naval vessels which had been scrapped and [[Lewis gun]]s against air attack. The Garden Battery was built over two Victorian stone gun emplacements.<ref>{{cite web|title=Garden Battery (Steep Holm South)|url=http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=1456114|website=Pastscape|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=12 July 2015}}</ref> Engineers from the [[Royal Pioneer Corps]] improved the infrastructure including importing sheep to feed the soldiers and, after a case of [[typhoid fever]], shipping drinking water from south Wales.{{sfn|Brown|1999|pp=23–31}} To enable the movement of equipment the engineers built a new jetty. This was linked this to the plateau with a cable-operated winched switchback railway using prefabricated {{convert|60|cm}} gauge lines which had been captured from the Germans in World War I.{{sfn|Holland|2010|p=100}} The Steep Holm batteries were also connected, by underwater [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] cable, to the [[Brean Down Fort]] batteries, but parts of the cable were stolen for scrap after the end of World War II.{{sfn|van der Bijl|2000|p=101}}

===Post war===
[[File:Steepholm, the old barracks. m.v. Balmoral at anchor - geograph.org.uk - 93821.jpg|thumb|left|{{MV|Balmoral||6}} in front of the old barracks.]]
In 1953 the island was leased by the Steep Holm Trust supported by four local organisations: the [[Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society]], Bristol Naturalists Society, Mid-Somerset Naturalists and the Bristol Folk House Archaeological Club. They repaired some the buildings and established a bird ringing programme. In 1974 their lease expired and was taken over by the Kenneth Allsop Memorial Trust,{{sfn|Coysh|Mason|Waite|1977|p=76}} a charity formed in memory of the broadcaster and naturalist [[Kenneth Allsop]]. The Trust purchased the island in 1976.{{sfn|Legg|1995}} The mission statement of the Trust is: "To protect, preserve and enhance for the benefit of the public the landscape, antiquities, flora, fauna, natural beauty and scientific interest of the island of Steep Holm in the County of North Somerset and to advance the education of the public in the natural sciences."<ref>{{cite web|title=Steep Holm|url=http://www.steepholm.org.uk/|publisher=The Kenneth Allsop Memorial Trust|accessdate=12 July 2015}}</ref>

Visits can be made to the island.<ref>{{cite web|title=Explore the Bristol Channel's Holm Islands|url=http://mwmarine.org/index.php/services|publisher=M W Marine|accessdate=11 July 2015}}</ref> The trust runs day-long boat trips from Weston-super-Mare.<ref>{{cite web|title=Getting to Steep Holm|url=http://www.steepholm.org.uk/getting_to_steep_holm.html|publisher=Steep Holm|accessdate=11 July 2015}}</ref> One barrack block is in use to provide visitor facilities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Welcome|url=http://www.steepholm.org.uk/|publisher=Steep Holm|accessdate=11 July 2015}}</ref> In 1980 the [[Bollywood]] film [[Shaan (film)|Shaan]] was set and partially filmed on the island.{{sfn|Legg|1993|pp=140-141}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |last=Atthill |first=Robin |title=Mendip: A new study |year=1976 |publisher=[[F&W Media International|David & Charles]] |isbn= 978-0715372975|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Donald|title=Somerset v Hitler: Secret Operations in the Mendips, 1939–45|date=1999|publisher=Countryside Books|isbn=978-1853065903|ref=harv}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.historyfish.net/anchorites/clay_anchorites_one.pdf|title=The Hermits and Anchorites of England. |last=Clay|first=Rotha Mary |year=1914|publisher=Methuen & Co. London|page=9|accessdate=23 January 2010|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book | title= Extreme Depositional Environments: Mega End Members in Geologic Time
| first1= Marjorie A.| last1= Chan |last2=Archer|first2= Allen William | location= [[Boulder, Colorado]] | isbn= 978-0813723709 | publisher= [[Geological Society of America]] | year= 2003 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=b3_1Ry0gDqEC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=bristol+channel|ref=harv }}
* {{cite book|last1=Coysh|first1=A. W.|last2=Mason|first2=E. J.|last3=Waite|first3=V.|title=The Mendips|date=1977|publisher=Robert Hale|edition=4|ref=harv|asin=B00AXGVL1I}}
*{{cite book |title=Somerset Harbours |last=Farr |first=Grahame |year=1954 |publisher=Christopher Johnson |location=London |isbn= |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book|last1=Holland|first1=Julian|title=Amazing & Extraordinary Railway Facts|date=2010|publisher=[[F&W Media International|David & Charles]]|isbn=9780715334294|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fSxxhsVVuiIC&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Steep+Holm+world+war+I&source=bl&ots=lFP7kKG_cf&sig=dQT5Wby9IrOpI1qFtmCc-vNTIjE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=0WOiVc25C4e9UdCPiqgN&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=Steep%20Holm%20world%20war%20I&f=false|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Payne|first1=John|title=The West Country: A Cultural History|date=2011|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=9781908493514|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4MC_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT146&lpg=PT146&dq=Steep+Holm+world+war+I&source=bl&ots=HeMT4nyq-t&sig=T494TpoPhVZ2-_y2R1sj0mSUjpA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=0WOiVc25C4e9UdCPiqgN&ved=0CFQQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&q=Steep%20Holm%20world%20war%20I&f=false|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Phillips|first1=Alan|title=Castles and Fortifications of Wales|date=2013|publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited|isbn=9781445624846|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kEeIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT110&lpg=PT110&dq=Steep+Holm+world+war+I&source=bl&ots=WjRltcB5bn&sig=pi_jSgIgjhNVpjudFj_6fsLLu7U&hl=en&sa=X&ei=0WOiVc25C4e9UdCPiqgN&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=Steep%20Holm%20world%20war%20I&f=false|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Legg|first1=Rodney|title=Steep Holm Wild Life|date=1989|publisher=Dorset Publishing Company|isbn=978-0948699115}}
* {{cite book|last1=Legg|first1=Rodney|title=Steep Holm at War|date=1991|publisher=Dorset Publishing Company|isbn=978-0948699603|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Legg|first1=Rodney|title=Steep holm Allsop Island|date=1992|publisher=Wincanton Press|isbn=978-0948699610}}
* {{cite book|last1=Legg|first1=Rodney|title=Steep Holm Legends and History|date=1993|publisher=Dorset Publishing Company|isbn=978-0948699597|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Legg|first1=Rodney|title=Steep Holm Guide|date=1995|publisher=Dorset Publishing Company|isbn=978-0948699498|edition=2|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Murphy|first1=Peter|title=The English Coast: A History and a Prospect|date=2009|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=9781847251435|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DeW9hRZ_yPUC&pg=PA174&lpg=PA174&dq=Priory+of+St.+Michael+of+Steepholm&source=bl&ots=5phP3XvIuD&sig=BOpON51LEaUNhkY_Nw6iIOkn6Lk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=tE6iVY2nHMGyUa_IoogN&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Priory%20of%20St.%20Michael%20of%20Steepholm&f=false|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rendell|first1=Stan|last2=Rendell|first2=Joan|title=Steep Holm: The Story of A Small Island|date=1993|publisher=Sutton Publishing Ltd|isbn=978-0750903233|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Rutter|first=John|title=Delineations of the north western division of the county of Somerset.|publisher=G. Olms|year=1829|url=http://books.google.com/?id=V6wHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA95&lpg=PA95&dq=flat+holm+saint+cadoc|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Saunders|first1=A.|title=Guns Across the Severn|date=2000|publisher=Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales|isbn=9781871184259|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=Howard|title=Steep Holm Diary|date=2006|publisher=Garret Press Somerset|isbn=978-0954154660|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Toulson|first=Shirley|title=The Mendip Hills: A Threatened Landscape|year=1984|publisher=[[Victor Gollancz Ltd]]|isbn=978-0-575-03453-2|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last=van der Bijl | first=Nicholas |year=2000 | title=Brean Down Fort: Its History and the Defences of the Bristol Channel|location= Cossington|publisher=Hawk Editions | isbn=978-0-9529081-7-3|ref=harv}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.steepholm.org.uk: Steep Holm Island and the Kenneth Allsop Memorial Trust]
*[http://www.victorianforts.co.uk/pdf/datasheets/steepholm.pdf Victorian Forts data sheet]

{{SSSIs Avon biological}}

[[Category:Islands of the Bristol Channel]]
[[Category:Islands of England]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest in North Somerset]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest notified in 1952]]
[[Category:Hills of Somerset]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in North Somerset]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of the Bristol Channel]]
[[Category:Coastal artillery]]
[[Category:Palmerston Forts]]
[[Category:Weston-super-Mare]]

Sand Point and Middle Hope

2015-09-01T07:21:30Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2014}}
{{Infobox SSSI
|image=[[Image:Middle Hope - geograph.org.uk - 63208.jpg|200px]]
|name=Middle Hope
|aos=Avon
|interest=Biological
|gridref={{gbmappingsmall|ST325662}}
|latitude= 51.39081
|longitude=-2.97150
|displaymap=Somerset
|area={{convert|84.1|ha}}
|notifydate={{Start date|1952}}
|enref=1002814
}}
'''Sand Point''' in [[Somerset]], England, is the peninsula stretching out from '''Middle Hope''', an {{convert|84.1|ha|adj=on}} [[biological and geological Site of Special Scientific Interest]]. It lies to the north of the village of [[Kewstoke]], and the stretch of coastline called [[Sand Bay]] north of the town of [[Weston-super-Mare]]. On a clear day it commands views over [[Flat Holm]], of the [[Bristol Channel]], [[South Wales]], [[Clevedon]], the [[Second Severn Crossing]] and the [[Severn Bridge]]. A line drawn between Sand Point and [[Lavernock#Lavernock Point|Lavernock Point]] in South [[Wales]] marks the lower limit of the [[Severn Estuary]] and the start of the Bristol Channel.

Middle Hope is a sequence of [[carboniferous]] [[limestone]] with unusual geological features including a [[Pleistocene]]-aged fossil cliff and as a result has been designated as a [[regionally important geological site]]. The underlying geology and soil types support scarce plants such as the [[Ranunculus parviflorus|smallflower buttercup]], [[Trinia glauca|honewort]], [[Dianthus gratianopolitanus|Cheddar pink]] and [[Koeleria vallesiana|Somerset hair grass]]. Human use of the sites is shown by a [[bowl barrow]] and [[disc barrow]] from late [[Neolithic]] or [[Bronze Age]] and the site of a likely [[motte-and-bailey castle]]. [[Woodspring Priory]], a former [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] [[priory]] which was founded in the early 13th century, sits just inland of the rocky promontory. The priory and surrounding land is owned by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] and is a popular place for walking.

==Geology==
[[File:Sand Point and Middle Hope 14.JPG|thumb|left|The cliffs and rocky beach at Middle Hope]]
At Middle Hope a sequence of [[carboniferous]] [[limestone]] is exposed, which includes thick [[Volcano|volcanic]] [[tuff]]s and [[lava]]s, demonstrating [[Tournaisian]] carbonate sections.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Prudden|first1=Hugh|title=Somerset Geology — A Good Rock Guide|url=http://people.bath.ac.uk/exxbgs/Somerset_Good_Rock_Guide.pdf|website=University of Bath|publisher=Bath Geological Society|accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref> The site contains a [[Pleistocene]]-aged fossil cliff and shore platform.<ref name="sssicitation">{{cite web|url=http://www.english-nature.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/1002814.pdf|format=PDF|title=Middle Hope|work=SSSI citation sheet|publisher=English Nature|accessdate=31 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Faulkner|first1=T.J.|title=The early Carboniferous (Courceyan) Middle Hope volcanics of Weston-super-Mare: development and demise of an offshore volcanic high|journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association|date=1989|volume=100|issue=1|pages=93–106|doi=10.1016/S0016-7878(89)80068-9|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016787889800689}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=North Somerset Landscape Character Assessment|url=https://www.n-somerset.gov.uk/Environment/Planning_policy_and-research/Documents/Supplementary%20planning%20documents/North%20Somerset%20landscape%20character%20assessment%20supplementary%20planning%20document%20(pdf).pdf|publisher=North Somerset Council|accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref> These features have led to the designation of Middle Hope as a [[regionally important geological site]] (RIGS).<ref name=RIGS/>

The raised beach of wave-cut platforms has been created by changes in sea level of the [[Bristol Channel]] since the [[Quaternary|Quaternary period]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Severn Estuary|url=http://www.severn-boating.co.uk/estuary.htm|publisher=Severn Boating|accessdate=15 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=North Somerset Landscape Character Assessment|url=https://www.n-somerset.gov.uk/Environment/Planning_policy_and-research/Documents/Supplementary%20planning%20documents/North%20Somerset%20landscape%20character%20assessment%20supplementary%20planning%20document%20(pdf).pdf|format=PDF|publisher=North Somerset Council|accessdate=14 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Somerset|url=http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/geodiversity/englands/counties/area_ID30.aspx|publisher=Natural England|accessdate=14 July 2014}}</ref> The arrangement of volcanic and sedimentary rocks, including the [[Black Rock Limestone]], illustrates the events of 350 million years ago.<ref>{{cite web|title=Middle Hope, Kewstoke, Somerset|url=http://avonrigsoutcrop.blogspot.co.uk/2013/03/rigs-of-month-march-middle-hope.html|publisher=Avon RIGS Group|accessdate=14 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=OGU fieldtrip to Middle Hope|url=http://www.bris.ac.uk/chemistry/research/ogu/news/2013/23.html|publisher=University of Bristol|accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref> The [[Stratum|strata]] have been tilted and compressed during the [[variscan orogeny]].<ref name=RIGS>{{cite web|title=RIGS of the Month — March Middle Hope, Kewstoke, Somerset|url=http://avonrigsoutcrop.blogspot.co.uk/2013/03/rigs-of-month-march-middle-hope.html|publisher=Avon RIGS group|accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref>

==Flora==
Among scarce plants found on Sand Point are [[Ranunculus parviflorus|smallflower buttercup]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Green|first1=Ian P.|last2=Higgins|first2=Rupert J.|last3=Kitchen|first3=Mark A R.|last4=Kitchen|first4=C.|editor-last=Myles|editor-first=Sarah L.|title=The Flora of the Bristol Region|date=2000|publisher=Pisces Publications|isbn=978-1874357186|page=66}}</ref> and [[Trinia glauca|honewort]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Green|first1=Ian P.|last2=Higgins|first2=Rupert J.|last3=Kitchen|first3=Mark A R.|last4=Kitchen|first4=C.|editor-last=Myles|editor-first=Sarah L.|title=The Flora of the Bristol Region|date=2000|publisher=Pisces Publications|isbn=978-1874357186|page=161}}</ref> The range of soils at the site support various flora and fauna. The calcareous grassland is dominated by [[Festuca]] species and [[Dactylis glomerata]], while the scrub towards the west of the site is dominated by [[Crataegus monogyna|hawthorn]] ''(Crataegus monogyna)'' and [[Prunus spinosa|blackthorn]] ''(Prunus spinosa)'', while that to the east consists of [[Ulex europaeus|common gorse]] ''(Ulex europaeus)'' and [[Blackberry|bramble]] ''(Rubus fruticosus agg)''.<ref name="sssicitation"/> Less common plants include the [[Dianthus gratianopolitanus|cheddar pink]] ''(Dianthus gratianopolitanus)'' and [[Koeleria vallesiana|Somerset hair grass]] ''(Koeleria vallesiana)''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Search engine Bing uses Somerset’s iconic Sandpoint on homepage |url=http://www.cheddarvalleygazette.co.uk/Search-engine-Bing-uses-Somerset-8217-s-iconic/story-19922497-detail/story.html |accessdate=8 March 2015|work=Cheddar Valley Gazette|date=12 October 2013}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Sand Point and Middle Hope 17.JPG|thumb|The [[triangulation station]] and site of the [[bowl barrow]] and [[disc barrow]]]]
Evidence of early human occupation if provided by a [[bowl barrow]] and [[disc barrow]] from the late [[Neolithic]] or [[Bronze Age]] have been identified on the higher ground. The bowl barrow is {{convert|10|m}} in diameter and approximately {{convert|0.5|m}} high. Slightly west of the bowl barrow is a disc barrow surrounded by a bank and ditch which enclose an area about {{convert|8|m}} across. These are situated at the highest point where the [[Ordnance Survey]] have constructed a [[triangulation station]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Bowl barrow and disc barrow 600 m NNW of Sandpoint Farm|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1008115|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=English Heritage|accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref>

A [[motte-and-bailey castle]] may have been constructed after the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Motte and bailey castle 650 m NNW of Sandpoint Farm|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1008114|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=English Heritage|accessdate=16 September 2014}}</ref> The site is known as Castle Mound or Castle Batch and can be seen as a {{convert|2|m}} high mound which is approximately {{convert|30|m}} in diameter and marked by a ditch on the landward eastern edge.<ref>{{cite web|title=Monument No. 192646|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=192646|website=Pastscape|publisher=English Heritage|accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref> The mound was damaged by the construction of a building during [[World War II]]. The medieval date for the construction is in doubt with some sources suggesting that the mound may have been a watchtower constructed in the 16th century.<ref>{{cite web|title=Castle Mound ( Castle Batch), Sand Point and Middle Hope|url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archsearch/record.jsf?titleId=1786937|publisher=Archaeology Data Service|accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref><ref name=NTwalk>{{cite web|title=Sand Point & Middlehope, Somerset|url=http://www.walk4life.info/sites/default/files/walkdocs/walkdoc-5289.pdf|publisher=National Trust|format=PDF|accessdate=14 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=ntinfo>{{cite web|title=Sand Point and Middle Hope|url=http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/article-1356396397972/|publisher=National Trust|accessdate=14 July 2014}}</ref> The walls of the sheep fold were built by prisoners from the [[Napoleonic Wars]].<ref name=NTwalk/> Hope Cove on the northern coast had a reputation for smuggling as it was "well away from the men of [[HM Customs and Excise]]".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Body|first1=Geoff|last2=Gallop|first2=Roy|title=Any Muddy Bottom: A History of Somerset's Waterborne Trade|date=2015|publisher=History Press|isbn=978-0750961639|page=85}}</ref>

[[Woodspring Priory]] was an [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] [[priory]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Woodspring Priory and associated fishponds and field system|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1012722|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=English Heritage|accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref> It was founded by William de Courtney, in the early 13th century, and dedicated to [[Thomas Becket]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Local History|url=http://kewstokevillage.com/?page_id=52|publisher=Kewstoke Village|accessdate=16 July 2014}}</ref> The small community built a church and monastic lodgings during the next hundred years. They were [[Canons Regular#Victorine Canons and the Gallican Congregation|Victorine Canons]] who were influenced by the [[Cistercians]] emphasis on manual labour and self-sufficiency. As a result the clerks who had taken holy orders worked on the farm, as well as providing clergy for surrounding churches.<ref>{{cite book|last=Greenwood|first=Charles|title=Famous Houses of the West Country|year=1977|publisher=Kingsmead Press|location=Bath|isbn=978-0901571878|pages=109–111}}</ref> Despite endowments of land the priory was not wealthy until the 15th century when further building work, including the current priory church, infirmary and barn was undertaken. It was [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|dissolved]] in 1536 and then owned by local noblemen and leased to local farmers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dickens|first=Arthur Geoffrey|authorlink=Arthur Geoffrey Dickens|title=The English Reformation|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=B. T. Batsford|year=1989|isbn=978-0271028682}}</ref> In 1969 the priory was taken over by the [[Landmark Trust]] who spent 20 years on restoration work, and since the 1990s have rented out the farmhouse as holiday accommodation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Woodspring Priory — Restoration|url=http://www.landmarktrust.org.uk/our-landmarks/properties/woodspring-priory-13260/#tabs=2|publisher=Landmark Trust|accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref> The surviving buildings include the priory church, which was a 15th-century replacement for the earlier 13th century structure, infirmary, barn and 16th century prior's lodging which was converted into a farmhouse. The whole site was arranged around a central [[cloister]] from which only the east wall and west wall of the [[chapter house]] remain, the [[sacristy]], refectory, chapter house, lady chapel and parlour having been demolished.<ref>{{cite web|title=East Cloister Wall|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1302945|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=English Heritage|accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=West Wall of Chapter House Range|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1320653|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=English Heritage|accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Infirmary|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1156326|website=National Heritage List for England|publisher=English Heritage|accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref>

Because of the biological and geological interest the site was designated as a [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] in 1952.<ref name="sssicitation"/> In 1968 the priory and adjoining land of Middle Hope was purchased by the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty as part of [[Project Neptune]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tomalin|first1=David John|last2=Crook|first2=Christopher|title=Woodspring Priory|date=2007|publisher=The Landmark Trust}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Longman|first1=Tim|title=Archaeological Watching Brief at Woodspring Priory|url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archiveDS/archiveDownload?t=arch-918-1/dissemination/pdf/bristola1-68934_1.pdf|website=Archaeology Data Services|publisher=Bristol and Region Archaeological Services|date=16 March 2010|format=PDF|accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref>

During World War II weapons were tested at Sand Point,<ref name=ntinfo/> in association with the base at [[Birnbeck Pier]] which was commissioned as "HMS ''Birnbeck''" by the [[Admiralty]] as part of the [[Department of Miscellaneous Weapons Development]] (DMWD) for research into new weapons.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Johnson|first1=Ted|title=Weston Super Mare & The Aeroplane|date=2013|publisher=Amberley Publishing|isbn=978-1445632148|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TJOIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1988-IA88&lpg=PA1988-IA88&dq=Admiralty+st+thomas+head&source=bl&ots=ozX5odW1QO&sig=aIYLvNmSo0fe2ewpSQEFDDnOTZQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBmoVChMIu8L_9dbTxwIVBZ3bCh2B6AI6#v=onepage&q=Admiralty%20st%20thomas%20head&f=false}}</ref> To support this buildings were constructed at St Thomas Head, east of Middle Hope. Some of these have since been removed and the site is now used by [[QinetiQ]] as an explosives and shock test facility.<ref>{{cite web|title=St Thomas Head Weapons Testing Site|url=http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=1460835|website=Pastscape|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=31 August 2015}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Sand Point and Middle Hope}}
*[http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/article-1356396397972/ National Trust information on Sand Point and Middle Hope]

{{SSSIs Avon biological}}
{{SSSIs Avon geological}}

[[Category:North Somerset]]
[[Category:National Trust properties in Somerset]]
[[Category:Bristol Channel]]
[[Category:Headlands of Somerset]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest in North Somerset]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest notified in 1952]]
[[Category:Geology of Somerset]]

St Andrew’s Castle

2015-08-25T07:41:21Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Hatnote|For the castle of the same name in Scotland, see [[St Andrews Castle]]}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
|name=St Andrew's Castle
|partof=
|location=[[Hamble-le-Rice]], [[Hampshire]]
|map_type=Hampshire
|map_alt=
|latitude=50.8515
|longitude=-1.3172
|coordinates={{gbmapping|SU482061}}
|image= St Andrew's Castle, Hamble.jpg
|caption= The remains of the castle at high tide
|built= 1542-43
|builder=
|materials= Stone
|height=
|used=
|demolished=
|type = [[Device Fort]]
|condition=Fragments only remain
|ownership=
|open_to_public= Yes
|controlledby=
|garrison=
|current_commander=
|commanders=
|occupants=
|battles=
|events= [[English Civil War]]}}
'''St Andrew's Castle''' was an artillery fort constructed by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] near [[Hamble-le-Rice]], [[Hampshire]], between 1542 and 1543. It formed part of the King's [[Device Fort|Device programme]] to protect against invasion from France and the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and defended [[Southampton Water]] near [[the Solent]]. St Andrew's comprised a [[keep]] and a gun platform, protected by a [[moat]]. The castle was decommissioned in 1642 during the [[English Civil War]] and has been largely destroyed through [[coastal erosion]].

==History==

St Andrew's Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England, [[Kingdom of France|France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the final years of the reign of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Traditionally [[the Crown]] had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities, only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications, and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another, maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=111}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}</ref> Basic defences, based around simple [[blockhouse]]s and towers, existed in the south-west and along the [[Sussex]] coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|pp=176–177}}</ref>

In 1533, Henry then broke with Pope [[Paul III]] in order to annul the long-standing marriage to his wife, [[Catherine of Aragon]] and remarry.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}</ref> Catherine was the aunt of [[Charles V of Spain|Charles V]], the Holy Roman Emperor, and he took the annulment as a personal insult.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=5}}</ref> This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=63–64}}</ref> An invasion of England appeared certain.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=6}}</ref> In response, Henry issued an order, called a "[[Device Fort|device]]", in 1539, giving instructions for the "defence of the realm in time of invasion" and the construction of forts along the English coastline.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Walton|2010|p=70}}</ref>

[[File:William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester from NPG.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester|William Paulet]], an early captain of the castle]]
St Andrew's Castle was built to defend [[Southampton Water]], a body of water which linked [[the Solent]] to the important port of [[Southampton]].<ref name="pastscape1">{{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=229676|title=St Andrew's Castle|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|accessdate = 2 August 2015}}</ref> It was positioned by the shore, on what is now Hamble Common, to the south of the village of [[Hamble-le-Rice]]. It was located at one end of an old Iron Age ditch—the area had previously been occupied during the this period, when a promontory [[hillfort]], [[Hamble Common Camp]], was built just along the coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://magic.defra.gov.uk/Metadata_for_magic/rsm/24323.pdf|title=Extract from English Heritage's Record of Scheduled Monuments|publisher=DEFRA|mode=cs2|accessdate=2 August 2015}}</ref> Construction took place between 1542 and 1543, but the fortification may not have been fully completed until after Henry's death in 1547.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=229676|title=St Andrew's Castle|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|accessdate = 2 August 2015}}; {{harvnb|Kenyon|1979|p=75}}</ref>

The castle comprised a tall, square [[keep]] made from stone, with a semi-circular gun platform on the seaward side, protected by a {{convert|25|m|ft|adj=mid|-wide}} [[moat]] and a wooden [[breakwater (structure)|breakwater]]; it would have been similar in design to the contemporary fortification of [[West Cowes Castle]].<ref name=Kenyon1979P75>{{harvnb|Kenyon|1979|p=75}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=50}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=229676|title=St Andrew's Castle|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|accessdate = 2 August 2015}}</ref> A survey in 1559 reported that the castle was heavily armed, with its artillery comprising two iron [[culverin]]s, an iron [[demi-culverin]], two iron [[saker (cannon)|saker]]s, two [[base (cannon)|bases]], an iron [[Falconet (cannon)|falcon]], an iron [[Falconet (cannon)|falconet]] and a quarter [[Sling (cannon)|sling]].<ref name=Kenyon1979P75/> The lighter guns would probably have been placed on the roof of the keep, with two heavy weapons lower down and the remainder on the external gun platform.<ref name="pastscape1"/> It also held [[handgun]]s, [[bow and arrow|bows]] and hand weapons for close defence.<ref name=Kenyon1979P75/>

[[William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester|William Paulet]], later the [[Marquess of Winchester]], was appointed as Keeper and Captain of the castle in 1547, being paid £19 each year to perform the role; his garrison included a master gunner, a porter and six soldiers.<ref name="Scard 2014 130">{{harvnb|Scard|2014|p=130}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC|Comparing early modern costs and prices with those of the modern period is challenging. £19 in 1547 could be equivalent to between £9,900 and £4 million in 2014, depending on the price comparison used. For comparison, the total royal expenditure on all the Device Forts across England between 1539–47 came to £376,500, with [[St Mawes Castle|St Mawes]], for example, costing £5,018, and [[Sandgate Castle|Sandgate]] £5,584.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=12}}; {{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson| mode = cs2|date = 2014| accessdate=29 May 2015 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}} Paulet also controlled [[Netley Castle]], just along the coast.<ref name="Scard 2014 130"/> By 1559 the garrison had decreased slightly, comprising a captain, two gunners and four soldiers.<ref name=Kenyon1979P75/>

The castle was still operational in 1623, but it was decommissioned by [[Roundheads|Parliamentary forces]] in 1642 during the [[English Civil War]].<ref name="pastscape1"/> The site has been heavily affected by [[coastal erosion]]—the local shoreline was retreating by {{convert|0.5|m}} a year during the 1990s—and only a few parts of the masonry and earthworks can still be seen in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=229676|title=St Andrew's Castle|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|accessdate = 2 August 2015}}; {{harvnb|Spurgeon|Brooke|1996|p=122}}</ref> The remains of castle and the surrounding common land are protected under UK law as a [[scheduled monument]].<ref>{{harvnb|Spurgeon|Brooke|1996|p=122}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
* [[List of castles in England]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|notes=}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book
| last1= Biddle
| first1 = Martin
| last2= Hiller
| first2 = Jonathon
| last3= Scott
| first3 = Ian
| last4= Streeten
| first4 = Anthony
| title = Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological Structural and Historical Investigation
| date = 2001
| publisher = Oxbow Books
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 0904220230
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Kenyon
| first1 = J. R.
| journal = Post-Medieval Archaeology
| volume = 13
| title = An Aspect of the 1559 Survey of the Isle of Wight: ''The State of all the Quenes maties Fortresses and Castelles''
| date = 1979
| pages = 61–77
| issn = 0079-4236
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= King
| first1 = D. J. Cathcart
| title = The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History
| date = 1991
| publisher = Routledge Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 9780415003506
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Hale
| first1 = John R.
| title = Renaissance War Studies
| date = 1983
| publisher = Hambledon Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0907628176
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Harrington
| first1 = Peter
| title = The Castles of Henry VIII
| date = 2007
| publisher = Osprey Publishing
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 9781472803801
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Morley
| first1 = B. M.
| title = Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defence
| date = 1976
| publisher = Her Majesty's Stationery Office
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0116707771
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Scard
| first1 = Margaret
| title = Tudor Survivor: The Life and Times of Courtier William Paulet
| date = 2014
| publisher = The History Press
| location = Stroud, UK
| isbn= 9780752469256
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1=Spurgeon
| first1=J. P. G.
| last2=Brooke
| first2=J.
| editor-last=Fleming
| editor-first=C. A.
| year=1996
| title=Topographical Writers in South-West England
| chapter= Use of the Contingent Evaluation Method to Quantify Some Aspects of the Environmental Effects of Coastal Defence Schemes
| pages = 118–131
| location = London, UK
| publisher = Thomas Telford Publishing
| isbn = 9780859894241
| ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Saunders
| first1 = Andrew
| title = Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland
| date = 1989
| publisher = Beaufort
| location = Liphook, UK
| isbn = 1855120003
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Thompson
| first1 = M. W.
| title = The Decline of the Castle
| date = 1987
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| isbn = 1854226088
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Walton
| first1 = Steven A.
| journal = [[Osiris (journal)|Osiris]]
| volume = 25
| number = 1
| title = State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification
| date = 2010
| pages = 66–84
| issn = 0369-7827
| ref= harv}}

{{Device Forts}}

{{coord|50.8524|N|1.3166|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

[[Category:Castles in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Ruins in Hampshire]]

Geist und Seele wird verwirret

2015-08-21T18:01:22Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox Bach composition
| image = File:Galante Poetinnen 0001.png
| caption = [[Georg Christian Lehms]], author of the cantata text
| title = {{lang|de|Geist und Seele wird verwirret}}
| bwv = 35
| type = Solo [[List of Bach cantatas by liturgical function|church cantata]] for alto
| occasion = Twelfth Sunday after [[Trinity Sunday|Trinity]]
| performed = {{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|1726}}|location=[[Leipzig]]}}}}
'''''{{lang|de|Geist und Seele wird verwirret}}''''' (Spirit and soul become confused),<ref name="Dellal">{{cite web| last = Dellal | first = Pamela| authorlink = Pamela Dellal| url = http://www.emmanuelmusic.org/notes_trans/transl_cantata/bwv035.htm| title = BWV 35 – Geist und Seele wird verwirret| publisher = [[Emmanuel Music]]| accessdate = 11 August 2015}}</ref> '''{{nowrap|BWV 35}}''', is a [[Bach cantata|church cantata]] by [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]. He composed the solo cantata for [[alto]] in [[Leipzig]] for the twelfth Sunday after [[Trinity Sunday|Trinity]] and first performed it on 8 September 1726.

Bach composed the cantata in his fourth year as ''[[Thomaskantor]]'' in Leipzig. It is counted as part of his third annual cantata cycle. The topic is based on the prescribed reading from the [[Gospel of Mark]], the [[Healing the deaf mute of Decapolis|healing of a deaf mute man]]. The librettist is [[Georg Christian Lehms]], whose poetry Bach had used already in [[Weimar]] as the basis for solo cantatas. The text quotes ideas from the gospel and derives from these the analogy that as the tongue of the deaf mute man was opened, the believer should be open to admire God's miraculous deeds.

The cantata is structured in seven movements in two parts, to be performed before and after the sermon. Both parts are opened by an instrumental [[sinfonia]] with an [[obbligato]] solo [[Organ (music)|organ]], probably derived from concerto music composed earlier in Weimar or [[Köthen]]. The alto singer performs a sequence of alternating [[aria]]s and [[recitative]]s, accompanied in all three arias by the organ as an equal partner. The orchestra is formed by two [[oboe]]s, [[taille (instrument)|taille]], strings and [[basso continuo]]. The alto part is demanding and was probably written with a specific singer in mind, as with the two other solo cantatas composed in the same period.
{{TOC limit|2}}

== History and words ==
[[File:Bartholomeus Breenbergh 003.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|The topic of the gospel, ''Christ healing the deaf mute man'', by [[Bartholomeus Breenbergh]], 1635]]
Bach composed the cantata in his fourth year as ''{{lang|de|[[Thomaskantor]]}}'' in Leipzig for the [[Church cantata (Bach)#Trinity XII|twelfth Sunday after Trinity]].<ref name="min">{{cite web| last = Mincham| first = Julian| url = http://www.jsbachcantatas.com/documents/chapter-23-bwv-35.htm| title = Chapter 23 BWV 35 Geist und Seele sind verwirret / Soul and Spirit are bewildered| year = 2010
| website = jsbachcantatas.com| accessdate = 11 August 2015}}</ref> It is regarded as part of his third annual cantata cycle.<ref name="Gardiner">{{cite web| last = Gardiner| first = John Eliot| authorlink = John Eliot Gardiner| url = http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Pic-Rec-BIG/Gardiner-P06c%5Bsdg134_gb%5D.pdf| title = Cantatas for the Twelfth Sunday after Trinity / Jakobskirche, Köthen| publisher = Bach Cantatas| year = 2007| pages = 6–9| accessdate = 11 August 2015}}</ref> The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the [[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]], the ministry of the Spirit ({{Sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=2 Corinthians|chapter=3|verse=4|range=–11}}), and from the [[Gospel of Mark]], the [[Healing the deaf mute of Decapolis|healing of a deaf mute man]] ({{Sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=Mark|chapter=7|verse=31|range=–37}}). The cantata text was written by [[Georg Christian Lehms]] and published in ''{{lang|de|Gottgefälliges Kirchen-Opffer}}'' (1711).<ref name="Hofmann">{{cite web| last = Hofmann| first = Klaus| authorlink = Klaus Hofmann| url = http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Pic-Rec-BIG/Suzuki-C37c%5BBIS-SACD1621%5D.pdf| title = Geist und Seele sind verwirret, BWV 35 / Spirit and soul become confused | publisher = Bach Cantatas| pages = 6–7| year = 2007| accessdate = 11 August 2015}}</ref> The text connects the healing of the deaf man to the thoughts of the believer who is left deaf and mute in awe looking at the healing of Jesus and God's creation. The text of the second aria is almost a quote of the gospel's last verse.<ref name="Hofmann" />

Because of the requirements that "new music" be composed as often as possible, Bach seldom chose older poems for his cantatas;<ref name="Irving">{{cite journal| last = Irving| first = David | url = | title = Bach cantata cycles| journal = Early Music| year = 2008
| volume = 36|issue=1|pages=150–152}}</ref> consequently, the conductor [[Craig Smith (conductor)|Craig Smith]] has suggested that parts of this work may have been composed earlier than the first recorded Leipzig performance.<ref name="Smith">{{cite web| last = Smith| first = Craig| url = http://www.emmanuelmusic.org/notes_trans/notes_cantata/bwv035.htm| title = Bach Cantata Notes BWV 35| publisher = [[Emmanuel Music]]| accessdate = 11 August 2015}}</ref> Bach had already composed his first solo cantata on a text by Lehms, {{lang|de|[[Widerstehe doch der Sünde, BWV 54|''Widerstehe doch der Sünde'', BWV 54]]}}, composed during his tenure in [[Weimar]], also for an alto soloist.

The cantata is one of three Bach cantatas written in Leipzig in 1726 in which an alto is the only vocal soloist, the others being {{lang|de|[[Vergnügte Ruh, beliebte Seelenlust, BWV 170|''Vergnügte Ruh, beliebte Seelenlust'', BWV 170]]}}, and {{lang|de|[[Gott soll allein mein Herze haben, BWV 169|''Gott soll allein mein Herze haben'', BWV 169]]}}. It seems likely that Bach had a capable alto singer at his disposal during this period.<ref name="Dürr">{{cite book| last = Dürr| first = Alfred| authorlink = Alfred Dürr | title = Die Kantaten von Johann Sebastian Bach| year = 1981| publisher = Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag| isbn = 3-423-04080-7| volume = 1 | edition = 4th| pages = 420–422 | language = German}}</ref>

Furthermore, the work has two large concerto movements for organ and orchestra, probably from a lost concerto for keyboard, oboe or violin,<ref name="Dreyfus">{{cite journal| last = Dreyfus| first = Laurence| authorlink = Laurence Dreyfus| url = | title = The metaphorical soloist: Concerted organ parts in Bach's cantatas| journal = Early Music| year = 1985| volume = 13|issue=2|pages=237–247}}</ref> perhaps indicating that the cantata was composed for a seasonal choral ''absentia'' at Thomaskirche.<ref name="Fuchs">{{cite journal| last = Fuchs| first = Robert| last2 = Hahn| first2 = Oliver| last3 = Oltrogge| first3 = Doris| url = | title = "Geist und Seele sind verwirret...". Die Tintenfraß-Problematik der Autographen Johann Sebastian Bachs| journal = Restauro| year = 2000| issue = 2|pages=116–121}}</ref> The first nine bars of the opening sinfonia are practically identical to the fragment [[BWV 1059]].<ref name="Gardiner" />

Bach led the first performance on 8 September 1726,<ref name="digital">{{cite web| url = http://www.bach-digital.de/receive/BachDigitalWork_work_00000046;jsessionid=E8F579A10BEDAB14A39ADC2EF80D9F09?lang=en| title = Geist und Seele wird verwirret BWV 35; BC A 125 / Sacred cantata (12th Sunday after Trinity)| publisher = bach-digital.de| accessdate = 11 August 2015}}</ref> and probably played the organ part himself.<ref name="Gardiner" />

== Scoring and structure ==

Bach structured the cantata in two parts, four movements to be performed before the sermon, three after the sermon.<ref name="Dürr" /> Both parts begin with a [[sinfonia]]. Bach scored it for an alto soloist (A), two [[oboe]]s (Ob), [[taille (instrument)|taille]] (Ot), [[obbligato]] solo [[organ (music)|organ]] (Org), two [[violin]]s (Vl), [[viola]] (Va), and [[basso continuo]] (Bc).<ref name="Bischof">{{cite web| last = Bischof| first = Walter F.| url = http://webdocs.cs.ualberta.ca/~wfb/cantatas/35.html| title = BWV 35 Geist und Seele wird verwirret| publisher = University of Alberta| accessdate = 11 August 2015}}</ref><ref name="Oron">{{cite web| last = Oron| first = Aryeh| url = http://www.bach-cantatas.com/BWV35.htm| title = Cantata BWV 35 Geist und Seele sind verwirret| publisher = Bach Cantatas| accessdate = 11 August 2015}}</ref>

In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the ''[[Neue Bach-Ausgabe]]''. The [[Key (music)|keys]] and [[time signature]]s are taken from [[Alfred Dürr]], using the symbol for common time (4/4). The instruments are shown separately for winds, strings and keyboard, while the continuo, playing throughout, is not shown.

{{Classical movement header | show_text_source = yes | show_keyboard = yes | keyboard = Keyboard | work = ''Geist und Seele wird verwirret'', BWV 35 – Part 1}}
{{Classical movement row
| number = [[#1|1]]
| title = ''Sinfonia''
| text_source =
| type =
| vocal = A
| winds = 2Ob Ot
| strings = 2Vl Va
| keyboard = Org
| key =
| time =
}}
{{Classical movement row
| number = [[#2|2]]
| title = ''{{lang|de|Geist und Seele wird verwirret}}''
| text_source = [[Georg Christian Lehms|Lehms]]
| type = Aria
| vocal = A
| winds = 2Ob Ot
| strings = 2Vl Va
| keyboard = Org
| key = {{nowrap|[[A minor]]}}
| time = 6/8
}}
{{Classical movement row
| number = [[#3|3]]
| title = ''{{lang|de|Ich wundre mich}}''
| text_source = [[Georg Christian Lehms|Lehms]]
| type = Recitative
| vocal = A
| winds =
| strings =
| keyboard =
| key =
| time = {{music|common-time}}
}}
{{Classical movement row
| number = [[#4|4]]
| title = ''{{lang|de|Gott hat alles wohlgemacht}}''
| text_source = [[Georg Christian Lehms|Lehms]]
| type = Aria
| vocal = A
| winds =
| strings =
| keyboard = Org
| key = [[F major]]
| time = {{music|common-time}}
}}

{{End}}

{{Classical movement header | show_text_source = yes | show_keyboard = yes | keyboard = Keyboard | work = ''Geist und Seele wird verwirret'', BWV 35 – Part 2}}
{{Classical movement row
| number = [[#5|5]]
| title = ''Sinfonia''
| text_source =
| type =
| vocal = A
| winds = 2Ob Ot
| strings = 2Vl Va
| keyboard = Org
| key =
| time = 3/8
}}
{{Classical movement row
| number = [[#6|6]]
| title = ''{{lang|de|Ach, starker Gott}}''
| text_source = [[Georg Christian Lehms|Lehms]]
| type = Recitative
| vocal = A
| winds =
| strings =
| keyboard =
| key =
| time = {{music|common-time}}
}}
{{Classical movement row
| number = [[#7|7]]
| title = ''{{lang|de|Ich wünsche nur bei Gott zu leben}}''
| text_source = [[Georg Christian Lehms|Lehms]]
| type = Aria
| vocal = A
| winds = 2Ob Ot
| strings = 2Vl Va
| keyboard = Org
| key = [[C major]]
| time = 3/8
}}

{{End}}

== Music ==
[[File:John Eliot Gardiner at rehearsal in Wroclaw cropped portrait.jpeg|thumb|upright|alt=conductor John Eliot Gardiner with his baton, facing to the left|[[John Eliot Gardiner]] in 2007, who conducted the [[Bach Cantata Pilgrimage]]]]
[[John Eliot Gardiner]], who conducted this work on the twelfth Sunday after Trinity in {{ill|de|St. Jakob, Köthen|St. Jakob (Köthen)}} as part of the [[Bach Cantata Pilgrimage]] with the [[Monteverdi Choir]] in 2000, calls the occasion "one of the most cheerful programmes of the whole Trinity season", leading Bach to compose "celebratory pieces", two with trumpets and timpani, and finally this one with an obbligato organ.<ref name="Gardiner" /> In an expanded two-part structure, the organ is both an instrumental soloist in the two sinfonias and a partner for the singer in all three arias.<ref name="Hofmann" /> The musicologist [[Laurence Dreyfus]] distinguished Bach's use of the organ as "sacred icon" versus "galant conversationalist", writing on Bach's "assimilation of the secular solo concerto into his church cantatas and his adjustment of the normal concerto principle, that of soloist-versus-orchestra, through subtle shifts in role playing, the instrument now posing as a soloist, now retreating into the background."<ref name="Gardiner" />

=== 1 ===
The opening ''allegro'' sinfonia incorporates [[concerto]] techniques, suggesting an origin in a pre-existing concerto. The organ performs both the solo melody and the continuo line, punctuated by quasi-[[cadenza]] passages and interspersed ten-measure [[ritornello]]s.<ref name="min" /> The musicologist [[Klaus Hofmann]] notes that in the movement in Italian style, the [[Theme (music)|theme]] is "subjected to intensive thematic working-out in the dialogue between solo instrument and orchestra".<ref name="Hofmann" />

=== 2 ===
The first aria in [[da capo]] form, "'''{{lang|de|Geist und Seele wird verwirret}}'''" (Spirit and soul become confused),<ref name="Dellal" /> is characterized by a broken ritornello and a sense of confusion and uncertainty.<ref name="min" /> The rhythm is [[siciliano]], a frequent feature in slow concerto movements by Bach and others. Hofmann concludes from many corrections in Bach's autograph that the aria is a new composition. He sees the "agility of the organ part which does not follow the siciliano pattern" as an image of the "confusion" mentioned in the text.<ref name="Hofmann" />

=== 3 ===
A [[recitative#Secco|secco recitative]], "'''{{lang|de|Ich wundre mich}}'''" (I am amazed),<ref name="Dellal" /> expresses awe at the creation.<ref name="min" />

=== 4 ===
An aria with obbligato organ, "'''{{lang|de|Gott hat alles wohlgemacht}}'''" (God has made everything well),<ref name="Dellal" /> is the first movement in a major mode, expressing pleasure with God's creation. It has a dominating two-part ritornello.<ref name="min" /> Hofmann observes that the organ, this time the only partner of the voice, is "rich in coloratura" and has a theme, "heard throughout the movement, sometimes in the manner of an ostinato, sometimes freely developed; in its figuration and motoric drive it is stylized just like Bach’s writing for the [[violoncello piccolo]]".<ref name="Hofmann" /> Gardiner notes that not only the [[tessitura]] but also "characteristic string-crossing patterns" are reminiscent of violoncello piccolo use.<ref name="Gardiner" />

=== 5 ===
Part 2 begins with another sinfonia, this time in [[binary form]].<ref name="min" /> Hofmann describes it as "an engaging [[perpetuum mobile]] introduced by the keyboard".<ref name="Hofmann" />

=== 6 ===
Another secco recitative, "'''{{lang|de|Ach, starker Gott, laß mich}}'''" (Ah, powerful God, let me [think upon this continually]),<ref name="Dellal" /> is a prayer for the ability to always reflect on the miracle of creation.<ref name="min" /> It quotes Jesus saying "Hephata" (Be opened) to the deaf mute man, and turns it to "the believer's heart would open up and his tongue would be loosened so that he might perceive and praise the divine miracles".<ref name="Hofmann" />

=== 7 ===
The cantata concludes with an aria with the complete orchestra, "'''{{lang|de|Ich wünsche nur bei Gott zu leben}}'''" (I wish to live with God alone).<ref name="Dellal" /> It expresses the wish to dwell with God forever in a [[minuet]] of positive character. The movement again uses a two-part ritornello.<ref name="min" /> When contrasting aspects of life on earth are mentioned, such as "jammerreichen Schmerzensjoch" (sorrowful yoke of pain) and "martervollen Leben" (tormented life), the music darkens to minor keys.<ref name="Hofmann" /> The organ supplies triplet figures, which the voice also uses to express "ein fröhliches Halleluja" (a joyful hallelujah).<ref name="Hofmann" />

== Selected recordings ==

The sortable table is based on the listing on the Bach-Cantatas website.<ref name="Oron" />

{{Cantata discography header|work=''Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen'', BWV 12 |show_orchestra_type=yes }}
{{Cantata discography row
| id = Scherchen
| title = ''J. S. Bach: Cantatas No. 42, No. 35''
| conductor = {{sortname|Hermann|Scherchen}}
| orchestra = [[Vienna Radio Symphony Orchestra]]
| soloists = [[Maureen Forrester]]
| label = Westminster / Baroque Music Club
| year = {{Start date|1964}}
| orchestra_type = Radio
}}
{{Cantata discography row
| id = Harnoncourt
| title = ''J. S. Bach: {{lang|de|Das Kantatenwerk}} – Sacred Cantatas Vol. 2''
| conductor = {{sortname|Nikolaus|Harnoncourt}}
| orchestra = [[Concentus Musicus Wien]]
| soloists = [[Paul Esswood]]
| label = [[Teldec]]
| year = {{Start date|1974}}
| orchestra_type = Period
}}
{{Cantata discography row
| id = Rilling
| title = ''{{lang|de|Die Bach Kantate Vol.}} 49''
| conductor = {{sortname|Helmuth|Rilling}}
| orchestra = [[Bach-Collegium Stuttgart]]
| soloists = [[Julia Hamari]]
| label = [[Hänssler Classic|Hänssler]]
| year = {{Start date|1984}}
| orchestra_type = Bach
}}
{{Cantata discography row
| id = Haenchen
| title = ''Bach Kantaten BWV 35, BWV 169, BWV 49 (Sinfonia)''
| conductor = {{sortname|Hartmut|Haenchen}}
| orchestra = [[Kammerorchester Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]]
| soloists = [[Jochen Kowalski]]
| label = Berlin Classics
| year = {{Start date|1994}}
| orchestra_type = Period
}}
{{Cantata discography row
| id = Herreweghe
| title = ''J. S. Bach: {{lang|fr|Cantates pour alto}} ...''
| conductor = {{sortname|Philippe|Herreweghe}}
| orchestra = [[Collegium Vocale Gent]]
| soloists = [[Andreas Scholl]]
| label = [[Harmonia Mundi|Harmonia Mundi France]]
| year = {{Start date|1997}}
| orchestra_type = Period
}}
{{Cantata discography row
| id = Leusink
| title = ''Bach Edition Vol. 8 – Cantatas Vol. 3''
| conductor = {{sortname|Pieter Jan|Leusink}}
| orchestra = [[Netherlands Bach Collegium]]
| soloists = [[Sytse Buwalda]]
| label = [[Brilliant Classics]]
| year = {{Start date|1999}}
| orchestra_type = Period
}}
{{Cantata discography row
| id = Gardiner
| title = ''Bach Cantatas Vol. 6: Köthen/Frankfurt''
| conductor = {{sortname|John Eliot|Gardiner}}
| orchestra = [[English Baroque Soloists]]
| soloists = [[Robin Tyson]]
| label = [[Soli Deo Gloria (record label)|Soli Deo Gloria]]
| year = {{Start date|2000}}
| orchestra_type = Period
}}
{{Cantata discography row
| id = Koopman
| title = ''J. S. Bach: Complete Cantatas Vol. 3''
| conductor = {{sortname|Ton|Koopman}}
| orchestra = [[Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir|Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra]]
| soloists = {{nowrap|[[Nathalie Stutzmann]]}}
| label = Antoine Marchand
| year = {{Start date|2001}}
| orchestra_type = Period
}}
{{Cantata discography row
| id = Kuijken
| title = ''J. S. Bach: Cantatas for the Complete Liturgical Year Vol. 5''
| conductor = {{sortname|Sigiswald|Kuijken}}
| orchestra = [[La Petite Bande]]
| soloists = [[Petra Noskaiová]]
| label = [[Accent Records|Accent]]
| year = {{Start date|2006}}
| orchestra_type = Period
}}
{{Cantata discography row
| id = Suzuki
| title = ''J.S. Bach: Cantatas Vol. 37 – Leipzig Cantatas''
| conductor = {{sortname|Masaaki|Suzuki}}
| orchestra = [[Bach Collegium Japan]]
| soloists = [[Robin Blaze]]
| label = [[BIS Records|BIS]]
| year = {{Start date|2006}}
| orchestra_type = Period
}}

{{End}}

== References ==
{{reflist | 30em}}

== External links ==
* {{IMSLP2|id=Geist und Seele wird verwirret, BWV 35 (Bach, Johann Sebastian)|cname=Geist und Seele wird verwirret, BWV 35}}
* [http://www.bach.de/werk/bwv/035.html Geist und Seele wird verwirret] (in German) on the Bach website

{{Bach cantatas}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Geist und Seele wird verwirret'', BWV 35}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Geist Und Seele Wird Verwirret Bwv 35}}
[[Category:Cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach]]
[[Category:1726 compositions]]

Brownsea Castle

2015-08-11T19:01:32Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
|name=Brownsea Castle
|partof=
|location=[[Brownsea Island]], [[Dorset]], [[England]]
|coordinates=
|image= [[File:Brownsea Castle seen from sea.jpg|250px]]
|caption= Castle seen from the sea
|image2=
|caption2=
|map_type= Dorset
|latitude= 50.68834
|longitude= -1.95826
|type= Former [[Device Fort]]
|code=
|built= 1545-47
|builder=
|materials=
|height=
|used=
|demolished=
|condition= Restored after 1962
|ownership= [[National Trust]]
|open_to_public= No
|controlledby= [[John Lewis Partnership]]
|garrison=
|current_commander=
|commanders=
|occupants=
|battles=
|events=
}}
'''Brownsea Castle''', also known historically as '''Branksea Castle''', was originally a [[Device Fort]] constructed by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] between 1545 and 1547 to protect [[Poole Harbour]] in [[Dorset]], England, from the threat of French attack. Comprising a stone [[blockhouse]] with a hexagonal gun platform, it was garrisoned by the local town with six soldiers and armed with eight [[List of medieval and early modern gunpowder artillery|artillery pieces]]. It remained in use after the original invasion scare had passed and was occupied by [[Roundheads|Parliament]] during the [[English Civil War]] of the 1640s. By the end of the century, however, it had fallen into disuse.

In 1726 the castle was converted into a private residence by [[William Benson (architect)|William Benson]], despite complaints from the town of [[Poole]]. Benson and the subsequent owners extended the original blockhouse to form a [[country house]], [[landscaping]] the surrounding island to create ornamental gardens and lakes. The 19th century saw continued building work by the castle's occupants, including the entrepreneur Colonel William Waugh, who erected various [[Jacobethan]]-styled extensions. A serious fire in 1896 gutted the castle, which was restored by Major William Kenneth Balfour. The wealthy stockbroker Charles Van Raalte led a lavish lifestyle at Brownsea at the start of the 20th century, using it to house his collection of antique [[musical instrument]]s.

Brownsea Castle was purchased by Mary Bonham-Christie in 1927. She allowed the property to fall into disrepair and by the time of her death in 1961 it was in a very poor condition. It was then purchased by the [[National Trust]] and leased to the [[John Lewis Partnership]], who restored it over many years. In the 21st century it is still used by the Partnership as a corporate hotel for their employees and former staff.

==History==
===16th century===
Brownsea Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England, [[Kingdom of France|France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the final years of the reign of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Traditionally [[the Crown]] had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities, only taking a small role in building and maintaining fortifications, and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another, maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=111}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}</ref> Modest defences, based around simple [[blockhouse]]s and towers, existed in the south-west and along the [[Sussex]] coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|pp=176–177}}</ref>

[[File:Map of Brownsea Castle.png|thumb|left|Plan of the 16th-century [[blockhouse]]]]
In 1533, Henry then broke with Pope [[Paul III]] in order to annul the long-standing marriage to his wife, [[Catherine of Aragon]] and remarry.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}</ref> This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=63–64}}</ref> Henry responded in 1539 by ordering, through an instruction called a "[[Device Fort|device]]", the construction of fortifications along the most vulnerable parts of the coast. The immediate threat passed, but resurfaced in 1544, with France threatening an invasion across the Channel, backed by her allies in Scotland.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=80}}</ref> Henry therefore issued another device in 1544 to further improve the country's defences, particularly along the south coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=29–30}}</ref>

The castle was built on the south-east corner of Brownsea Island between 1545 and 1547 to protect the entrance of the busy [[Poole Harbour]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=8}}; {{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=5}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/dorset/vol2/pp276-283|accessdate = 13 July 2015|title=Studland|date=1970|publisher=British History Online|author=Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England)|mode=cs2}}</ref> The island belonged to the Crown, having been confiscated from [[Cerne Abbey]] during the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] a few years before.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=5}}</ref> It was a conservative design, being a one-storey, square [[blockhouse]], reported in 1552 to be {{convert|44|ft}} across, able to support [[List of medieval and early modern gunpowder artillery|guns]] on its roof and sub-divided into three rooms; the blockhouse was originally intended to have been two storeys in height, but this was not achieved.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Sydenham|1839|p=388}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=51}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/dorset/vol2/pp276-283|accessdate = 13 July 2015|title=Studland|date=1970|publisher=British History Online|author=Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England)|mode=cs2}}</ref> The blockhouse was surrounded on the seaward side by a hexagonal gun platform, with a [[moat]] around the other three sides and a {{convert|24|ft|m|adj=mid|-long|1}} [[drawbridge]] on the south-west side to allow access.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Sydenham|1839|p=389}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/dorset/vol2/pp276-283|accessdate = 13 July 2015|title=Studland|date=1970|publisher=British History Online|author=Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England)|mode=cs2}}</ref>

The construction was paid for by a combination of the Crown and the local town of [[Poole]], who took on the responsibility of garrisoning and maintaining it; in the early years of Elizabeth's reign, the normal garrison was described as comprising six men and was equipped with eight artillery pieces.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Sydenham|1839|pp=387, 390}}</ref>

Additional work on the gun platform costing £56 was carried out in 1548, and further work was carried out in 1552 to develop the castle's defences, at the cost to Poole of £133.<ref name="british-history389">{{harvnb|Sydenham|1839|pp=389–390}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/dorset/vol2/pp276-283|accessdate = 13 July 2015|title=Studland|date=1970|publisher=British History Online|author=Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England)|mode=cs2}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC|Comparing early modern costs and prices with those of the modern period is challenging. £56 in 1548 could be equivalent to between £27,000 and £12 million in 2014, depending on the price comparison used. £133 in 1552 could be equivalent to between £43,000 and £21 million, and £520 in 1571 between £158,000 and £62 million. For comparison, the total royal expenditure on all the Device Forts across England between 1539–47 came to £376,500, with [[St Mawes Castle|St Mawes]], for example, costing £5,018, and [[Sandgate Castle|Sandgate]] £5,584.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=12}}; {{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson | mode = cs2|date = 2014| accessdate=29 May 2015 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}} The castle needed regular investment: 101 [[Deep foundation|piles]] were driven in during 1551, probably to combat [[coastal erosion]], and in 1561 the town petitioned the Crown for help with further repairs and the provision of new cannons.<ref name="british-history389"/> Another petition was made for similar help in 1571, resulting in repairs two years later costing £520 and requiring {{convert|4000|t}} of stone.<ref name="british-history389"/>{{efn|name=Money16thC}} More work followed in 1585, including building an additional {{convert|4|ft|m|adj=mid|-high|1}} wall around the castle.<ref name="british-history276">{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/dorset/vol2/pp276-283|accessdate = 13 July 2015|title=Studland|date=1970|publisher=British History Online|author=Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England)|mode=cs2}}</ref>

In 1576, [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] granted the castles of Brownsea and [[Corfe Castle|Corfe]] for life to Sir [[Christopher Hatton]], making him the Admiral of Purbeck.<ref>{{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=189}}; {{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=8}}</ref> Hatton argued with the town of Poole, claiming that he had the right to search and inspect ships going into Poole Harbour, as well as the rights to the revenues from the local ferry service; he lost his legal case around the ferrying rights in 1581.<ref>{{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|pp=189–190}}; {{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=5}}; {{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=8}}</ref> In 1589, the ''Bountiful Gift'' refused to pull in for inspection, arguing that it had had a valid pass to leave, and Brownsea Castle fired on the vessel, killing two of the crew.<ref name=Raalte1905P190>{{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=8}}</ref> The castle's captain, Walter Partridge, was tried and conflicted of manslaughter, but ultimately pardoned.<ref>{{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=9}}</ref> The rest of the island, but not the castle, was leased out to various landowners over the next few years.<ref name=Raalte1905P190>{{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=190}}</ref>

===17th - 18th centuries===
[[File:Neale(1818) p1.236 - Brownsea Castle, Dorsetshire - trimmed.jpg|thumb|1818 view of the castle, showing the [[Palladian]] development of the original blockhouse by Sir [[Humphrey Sturt]]]]
The castle was garrisoned throughout most of the 17th century.<ref name="british-history276"/> In the civil war of the 1640s between the supporters of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] and [[Roundheads|Parliament]], the castle was held for Parliament, under the control of the Governor of Poole.<ref>{{harvnb|Sydenham|1839|p=391}}</ref> The castle was refortified and in 1644, Parliament ordered that four pieces of artillery and four chests of [[musket]]s be sent to the castle, which by 1646 had a garrison of 20 men.<ref>{{harvnb|Sydenham|1839|p=391}}; {{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=190}}</ref> During the [[Interregnum]], the wealthy merchant Sir [[Robert Clayton (Lord Mayor)|Robert Clayton]] bought the surrounding island.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=190}}</ref> Clayton probably did not live in the castle, however, and it fell into disrepair; by the end of the century the town of Poole refused to garrison the decaying defences.<ref>{{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|pp=190–191}}</ref>

The amateur architect [[William Benson (architect)|William Benson]] bought the island from Clayton's heirs in 1726 for £300.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=7}}; {{cite web|url= http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/brownsea-island/history/view-page/item484979/| title =A History of Brownsea Island| publisher=National Trust|date=2015|mode=cs2|access-date=14 July 2015}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money18thC|Comparing early modern costs and prices with those of the modern period is challenging. £300 in 1726 could be worth between £40,000 and £5.4 million in 2014 terms, depending on the measure used. £50,000 in 1765 could be worth between £6.3 million and £657 million.<ref name="measuringworth1">{{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson | mode = cs2|date = 2014| accessdate=29 May 2015 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}} Benson set about converting the castle into a private residence, amid complaints from the authorities in Poole.<ref name="garnett7">{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=191}}; {{harvnb|Sydenham|1839|pp=393–394}}</ref> The town took the matter to the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]], where they argued that Benson had not bought the rights to the castle itself, only the island, and that the castle was a national fortification, originally built by Henry VIII and owned by Poole.<ref name="garnett7"/> Benson argued that the building had not originally been a castle but rather a lodging house; it had not been built by Henry and therefore the Crown had no particular rights over it - rather, the previous owners of the island had simply allowed the town and the government to place artillery there.<ref name="garnett7"/> The matter was eventually dropped and Benson demolished the external fortifications, created a Great Hall and planted trees and rare plants around the island.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=191}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/dorset/vol2/pp276-283|accessdate = 13 July 2015|title=Studland|date=1970|publisher=British History Online|author=Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England)|mode=cs2}}; {{cite web|url= http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/brownsea-island/history/view-page/item484979/| title =A History of Brownsea Island| publisher=National Trust|date=2015|mode=cs2|access-date=14 July 2015}}</ref>

The castle was sold to a Mr Chamberlayne and then onto Sir Gerard Sturt in 1762 and Gerard's cousin, Sir [[Humphrey Sturt]], in 1765.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=192}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/dorset/vol2/pp276-283|accessdate = 13 July 2015|title=Studland|date=1970|publisher=British History Online|author=Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England)|mode=cs2}}</ref> Humphrey extended the castle around its 16th century core to form a [[Palladian]] styled, four-storey tower with [[battlements]], with new wings stretching away on three sides.<ref name="british-history276"/> He also built a walled courtyard with [[Greenhouse|hot houses]] beside the castle, and [[landscaping|landscaped]] the island with two lakes and a large number of [[fir tree]]s at a cost of £50,000.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=7}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/dorset/vol2/pp276-283|accessdate = 13 July 2015|title=Studland|date=1970|publisher=British History Online|author=Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England)|mode=cs2}}; {{cite web|url= http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/brownsea-island/history/view-page/item484979/| title =A History of Brownsea Island| publisher=National Trust|date=2015|mode=cs2|access-date=14 July 2015}}</ref> His son, Charles Sturt, made the castle his primary home, although he was often living elsewhere as a result of his involvement in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].<ref>{{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=192}}; {{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=7}}</ref>

===19th - 21st centuries===

[[File:Brownsea Island, entrance to Branksea Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1446282.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[gatehouse]] and [[clocktower]], built in 1852]]
Charles Sturt's son, also called Charles, inherited the property and sold it to Sir Charles Chad in 1817.<ref name=Raalte1905P192>{{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=192}}</ref> Chad invested significantly in the castle and [[George IV of England|Prince George]] visited in 1818, arriving to a salute from the castle guns.<ref name=Raalte1905P192/> The diplomat Sir Augustus Foster acquired the castle in 1840 on his retirement; he committed suicide at the castle 1848, having been in what his inquest termed a state of [[temporary insanity]] following a "disease of the heart and lungs".<ref>{{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=192}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/9956|title=Foster, Sir Augustus John, First Baronet (1780–1848)|publisher=Oxford University Press|author=H. C. G. Matthew|mode=cs2|accessdate=13 July 2015|date=2008}}; {{harvnb|Urban|1848|p=317}}</ref>

A retired Indian Amy officer, Colonel William Waugh, bought the island in 1852, hoping to turn it into a profitable pottery works.<ref name=Garnett2005P9>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=9}}</ref> He carried out restoration work on the castle and built up a new Jacobethan-styled range around the south and east sides of the castle.<ref name=Raalte1905P192/> Waugh also constructed the crenelated [[gatehouse]] and [[clocktower]] at the entrance to the courtyard, and the Jacobethan-styled family pier by the sea below the castle.<ref name="british-history276"/> The commercial venture was a failure and Waugh fled his creditors to Spain in 1857.<ref name=Garnett2005P9/>

After a period of ownership by a Mr Faulkner, who continued the pottery scheme, the property was eventually resold in 1873 to the politician and lawyer [[George Cavendish-Bentinck]] for £30,000, who furnished the castle with an extensive collection of [[Italian Renaissance sculpture]].<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Van Raalte|1905|p=193}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money20thC}} Cavendish-Bentinck closed the pottery works and gave the island as a family home to his son, William, paying for the castle to be extensively renovated; William and his wife Ruth moved into it in 1888.<ref>{{harvnb|Graubard|2008|p=156}}; {{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=42}}</ref> Cavendish-Bentinck died in 1891 with extensive debts, forcing William to sell the castle and island to Major William Kenneth Balfour.<ref>{{harvnb|Graubard|2008|p=157}}; {{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=9}}</ref>

The castle caught fire on 26 January 1896 and the interiors were gutted by the blaze.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=50}}</ref> Balfour rebuilt the property with the services of the architect Philip Brown, softening the more complex aspects of the castle's design.<ref>{{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=50}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1120277|title=Listing|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=13 July 2015|mode=cs2}}</ref> Balfour's wife, Margaret Anne, fell ill and he decided to sell the island in 1901 to the stockbroker Charles van Raalte.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=50}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1120277|title=Listing|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=13 July 2015|mode=cs2}}</ref>

[[File:Brownsea Island, Family Pier catches the sun - geograph.org.uk - 1445831.jpg|thumb|The Family Pier, also dating from 1852]]
Van Raalte maintained a lavish lifestyle at the castle, which by now had 38 bedrooms, holding grand [[house party|house-parties]] during the summer months, complete with servants and a part-time musical band and assembling a rare collection of around 250 historical [[musical instrument]]s from Europe, Asia and Africa at the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=62}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.poole.gov.uk/your-council/how-the-council-works/council-history/charles-van-raalte/|title=Charles Van Raalte|publisher=Borough of Poole|date=2015|mode=cs2|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150511055121/http://poole.gov.uk/your-council/how-the-council-works/council-history/charles-van-raalte/| archive-date =11 May 2015}}; {{harvnb|Anonymous|1927|p=162}}; {{harvnb|Van der Straeten|1927|p=712}}</ref> Charles died in 1908 but his wife Florence stayed until 1925.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Van der Straeten|1927|p=712}}</ref> On Florence's death in 1927 the castle was sold to Sir Arthur Wheeler, who promptly decided to auction off the remaining contents with the intent of demolishing the property.<ref>{{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=60}}</ref> The sale, which included some of Van Raalte's collection of instruments, paintings and a 5,000 book library, produced £22,300.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=62}}; {{harvnb|Van der Straeten|1927|p=712}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money20thC}}

The castle was not demolished as planned and instead was purchased by Mary Bonham-Christie for £125,000 later that year.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=13}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money20thC|£30,000 in 1873 could be worth between £2.6 million and £42 million in 2014 terms, depending on the measure used. £125,000 in 1927 could be worth between £6.7 million and £50 million in 2014 terms, depending on the measure used, £22,000 between £1.2 million and £8.9 million.<ref name="measuringworth1"/>}} She decided to live in a nearby house rather than the castle itself, allowing the island to return to nature and the castle to fall into disrepair.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=13}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-22539019|title=Brownsea Island's Half Century Haven Marked|publisher=BBC News|date=17 May 2013|mode=cs2|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20130727060358/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-22539019| archive-date =27 July 2013}}</ref> By the time of Bonham-Christie's death in 1961 the roof had partially collapsed and a tree was growing up through the centre of the building.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-22539019|title=Brownsea Island's Half Century Haven Marked|publisher=BBC News|date=17 May 2013|mode=cs2|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20130727060358/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-22539019| archive-date =27 July 2013}}</ref> Facing large [[death duty|death duties]], Bonham-Christie's grandson put the island up for sale, before agreeing to donate it to the state in lieu of taxes.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=23}}</ref>

The [[National Trust]] took on ownership of the castle and island in 1962 but considered the castle to be of "little antiquity or architectural interest".<ref>{{harvnb|Legg|1986|p=68}}</ref> The [[John Lewis Partnership]] leased the castle from the Trust for use as a corporate hotel by their employees, gradually restoring the buildings in stages and they remain the current tenants.<ref>{{harvnb|Garnett|2005|p=23}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-22539019|title=Brownsea Island's Half Century Haven Marked|publisher=BBC News|date=17 May 2013|mode=cs2|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20130727060358/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-22539019| archive-date =27 July 2013}}</ref> Some of the 19th century interior features still survive, including [[wood panelling]] and ornamental ceilings, with some carved stone fireplaces from [[Venice]]; the castle also has four [[cannons]], probably dating from the 17th or early 18th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-22539019|title=Brownsea Island's Half Century Haven Marked|publisher=BBC News|date=17 May 2013|mode=cs2|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20130727060358/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-22539019| archive-date =27 July 2013}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1120277|title=Listing|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=13 July 2015|mode=cs2}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/dorset/vol2/pp276-283|accessdate = 13 July 2015|title=Studland|date=1970|publisher=British History Online|author=Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England)|mode=cs2}}</ref> The castle is protected under UK law as a Grade II [[listed building]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1120277|title=Listing|publisher=Historic England|accessdate=13 July 2015|mode=cs2}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist|notes=}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite journal
| last1= Anonymous
| journal =The Musical Times
| volume = 68
| number =1008
| title = A Musician's Paradise
| date = 1927
| page = 162
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Biddle
| first1 = Martin
| last2= Hiller
| first2 = Jonathon
| last3= Scott
| first3 = Ian
| last4= Streeten
| first4 = Anthony
| title = Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological Structural and Historical Investigation
| date = 2001
| publisher = Oxbow Books
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 0904220230
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Garnett
| first1 = Oliver
| title = Brownsea Castle
| date = 2005
| orig-year=1993
| edition = corrected
| publisher = The National Trust
| location = Swindon, UK
| isbn= 978-1-84359-110-8
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Graubard
| first1 = Margaret E. M.
| title = In the Best Society
| date = 2008
| publisher = iUniverse
| location = Bloomington, US
| isbn = 9780595498314
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Hale
| first1 = John R.
| title = Renaissance War Studies
| date = 1983
| publisher = Hambledon Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0907628176
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Harrington
| first1 = Peter
| title = The Castles of Henry VIII
| date = 2007
| publisher = Osprey Publishing
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 9781472803801
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= King
| first1 = D. J. Cathcart
| title = The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History
| date = 1991
| publisher = Routledge Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 9780415003506
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Legg
| first1 = Rodney
| title = Brownsea: Dorset's Fantasy Island
| date = 1986
|publisher = The Dorset Publishing Company
| location = Sherborne, UK
| isbn= 0902129740
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Morley
| first1 = B. M.
| title = Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defence
| date = 1976
| publisher = Her Majesty's Stationery Office
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0116707771
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Sydenham
| first1 = John
| title = History of the Town and Country of Poole
| date = 1839
| publisher = Sydenham
| location = Poole, UK
| oclc= 5842224
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Saunders
| first1 = Andrew
| title = Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland
| date = 1989
| publisher = Beaufort
| location = Liphook, UK
| isbn = 1855120003
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* {{cite book
| last1= Thompson
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| title = The Decline of the Castle
| date = 1987
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
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| ref= harv}}
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| last1= Urban
| first1 = Sylvanus
| title = The Gentleman's Magazine
| date = 1848
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| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Van der Straeten
| first1= E.
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* {{cite journal
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| date = 1905
| pages = 187-194
| ref= harv}}

{{Device Forts}}
{{commonscat|Branksea Castle}}

{{coord|50.68834|-1.95826|type:landmark_region:GB|format=dms|display=title}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Poole]]
[[Category:Castles in Dorset]]

Dazzle camouflage

2015-07-27T18:41:22Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Redirect|Dazzle Ships|the Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark album|Dazzle Ships (album)}}
[[File:USS West Mahomet (ID-3681) cropped.jpg|237px|thumb|[[SS West Mahomet|USS ''West Mahomet'']] in dazzle camouflage, 1918]]
{{Use British English|date=October 2013}}

'''Dazzle camouflage''', also known as '''razzle dazzle''' or '''dazzle painting''', was a family of [[ship camouflage]] used extensively in [[World War I]] and to a lesser extent in [[World War II]] and afterwards. Credited to artist [[Norman Wilkinson (artist)|Norman Wilkinson]], though with a prior claim by the [[zoology|zoologist]] [[John Graham Kerr]], it consisted of complex patterns of geometric shapes in contrasting colours, interrupting and intersecting each other.

Unlike some other forms of [[camouflage]], dazzle works, if at all, not by offering [[crypsis|concealment]] but by making it difficult to estimate a target's range, speed and heading. Norman Wilkinson explained in 1919 that dazzle was intended more to mislead the enemy as to the correct position to take up than actually to miss his shot when firing.

Dazzle was adopted by the [[British Admiralty]] and the [[United States Navy]] with little evaluation. Each ship's dazzle pattern was unique to avoid making classes of ships instantly recognisable to the enemy. The result was that a profusion of dazzle schemes were tried, and the evidence for their success was at best mixed. So many factors were involved that it was impossible to determine which were important, and whether any of the colour schemes were effective.

Dazzle attracted the notice of artists such as [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]], who claimed that [[cubism|cubists]] had invented it. The [[Vorticism|vorticist]] artist [[Edward Wadsworth]], who supervised the camouflaging of over 2,000 ships during the First World War, painted a series of canvases of dazzle ships after the war, based on his wartime work.

== Intended purposes ==
[[File:HMS Argus (1917) cropped.jpg|thumb|{{HMS|Argus|I49|6}} displaying a coat of dazzle camouflage in 1918]]
[[File:Olympic WWI.jpg|thumb| {{HMT|Olympic}}, [[Titanic]]'s sister ship, in dazzle camouflage while in service as a [[troopship]] during World War I.]]

At first glance, dazzle seems an unlikely form of [[camouflage]], drawing attention to the ship rather than hiding it. The approach was developed after Allied navies were unable to develop effective means to hide ships in all weather conditions. The British [[zoology|zoologist]] [[John Graham Kerr]], who first applied dazzle camouflage to British warships in the First World War, outlined the principle in a letter to [[Winston Churchill]] in 1914 explaining that disruptive camouflage sought to confuse, not to conceal, "It is essential to break up the regularity of outline and this can be easily effected by strongly contrasting shades … a [[giraffe]] or [[zebra]] or [[jaguar]] looks extraordinarily conspicuous in a museum but in nature, especially when moving, is wonderfully difficult to pick up."<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.cnrs-scrn.org/northern_mariner/vol19/tnm_19_171-192.pdf | title=The Dazzling Zoologist: John Graham Kerr and the Early Development of Ship Camouflage | author=Murphy, Hugh and Martin Bellamy | journal=[[The Northern Mariner]] |date=April 2009 | volume=XIX | issue=2 | page=177}}</ref>

Dazzle attempted to make it difficult for an enemy to estimate a ship's type, size, speed, and heading. Its purpose was confusion rather than concealment.<ref>"Camouflage , Norman Wilkinson", Letters, ''The Times'', Apr 04, 1939</ref> An observer would find it difficult to know exactly whether the stern or the bow was in view; and it would be equally difficult to estimate whether the observed vessel was moving towards or away from the observer's position.<ref name="glover">Glover, Michael. [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article1479657.ece "Now you see it... Now you don't,"] ''The Times.'' 10 March 2007.</ref>

[[Rangefinder]]s used for [[naval artillery]] were based on the [[Coincidence rangefinder|coincidence principle]] with an [[optics|optical mechanism]], operated by a human to compute the range. The operator adjusted the mechanism until the two half-images of the target lined up in a complete picture. Dazzle was intended to make that hard because clashing patterns looked abnormal even when the two halves were aligned. This became more important when [[submarine]] [[periscope]]s included similar rangefinders. Patterns sometimes also included a false [[bow wave]] intended to make it difficult to estimate the ship's speed.<ref>{{cite book | author=Sumrall, Robert F. | title=Ship Camouflage (WWII): Deceptive Art | work=United States Naval Institute Proceedings | date=February 1973 | pages=67–81}}</ref>

Dazzle camouflage was accepted by the Admiralty, even without practical visual assessment protocols for improving performance by modifying designs and colours.<ref>Williams, 2001. p. 35</ref> The dazzle camouflage strategy was adopted by other navies. This led to more scientific studies of colour options which might enhance camouflage effectiveness. Broken colour systems which present units so small as to be invisible as such at the distances considered are neither advantageous nor detrimental to the ''dazzle effect''; the ''visibility'' of the camouflaged vessel at a given distance would depend entirely upon such scientifically measurable factors as the mean effective [[Reflectivity|reflection]] factor, [[hue]] and [[Colorfulness|saturation]] of the surface when considered at various distances.<ref>Williams, 2001. p. 40</ref>

== Camoufleurs ==
[[File:Dazzle-ships in Drydock at Liverpool.jpg|thumb|upright|''Painting of Dazzle-ships in Drydock at Liverpool'', by [[Edward Wadsworth]], 1919]]
{{further|Camoufleurs}}

In 1914, Kerr persuaded the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, to adopt a form of [[military camouflage]] which he called "parti-colouring". He argued both for [[countershading]] (following the American artist [[Abbott Thayer]]), and for [[disruptive patterning]].<ref>Forbes, 2009. p. 87</ref> A general order to the British fleet issued on November 10, 1914 advocated use of Kerr's approach. It was applied in various ways to British warships such as [[HMS Implacable (1899)|HMS ''Implacable'']], where officers noted approvingly that the pattern "increased difficulty of accurate range finding". However, following Churchill's departure from the Admiralty, the [[Royal Navy]] reverted to plain grey paint schemes,<ref>[http://www.cnrs-scrn.org/northern_mariner/vol19/tnm_19_171-192.pdf Murphy and Bellamy, p. 178]</ref> informing Kerr in July 1915 that "various trials had been undertaken and that the range of conditions of light and surroundings rendered it necessary to modify considerably any theory based upon the analogy of [the coloration of] animals".<ref>Forbes, 2009. p. 88</ref>

[[File:'Dazzle-painting' was a form of camouflage, and was particularly effective in moonlight. Wilkinson was responsible for the introduction of the 'dazzle' painted effect. As is evident in this image, the paint des Art.IWMART4029.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|A painting by [[Norman Wilkinson (artist)|Norman Wilkinson]] of a convoy wearing his dazzle camouflage, 1918]]
The [[British Army]] inaugurated its Camouflage Section for land use at the end of 1916. At sea in 1917, heavy losses of merchant ships to Germany's [[unrestricted submarine warfare]] campaign led to new desire for camouflage. The marine painter [[Norman Wilkinson (artist)|Norman Wilkinson]] promoted a system of stripes and broken lines "to distort the external shape by violent colour contrasts" and confuse the enemy about the speed and dimensions of a ship.<ref>Fisher, Mark. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article785672.ece "Secret history: how surrealism can win a war,"] ''The Times.'' January 8, 2006.</ref> Wilkinson, then a lieutenant commander on Royal Navy patrol duty, implemented the precursor of "dazzle" beginning with the merchantman SS ''Industry''. Wilkinson was put in charge of a camouflage unit which used the technique on large groups of merchant ships. Over 4000 British merchant ships were painted in what came to be known as "dazzle camouflage"; dazzle was also applied to some 400 naval vessels, starting in August 1917.<ref>{{cite journal| url=http://www.cnrs-scrn.org/northern_mariner/vol19/tnm_19_171-192.pdf | author=Murphy, Hugh; Bellamy, Martin | title=The Dazzling Zoologist: John graham Kerr and the Early Development of Ship Camouflage | journal=The Northern Mariner | volume=19 | issue=2 | date=April 2009 | pages=182–183}}</ref>{{efn|In August 1917, [[HMS Alsatian |HMS ''Alsatian'']] was painted in a dazzle pattern, perhaps the first Royal Navy vessel to be camouflaged in this way.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Raven |first1=Alan |title=The Development of Naval Camouflage 1914–1945 Part I |url=http://www.shipcamouflage.com/1_4.htm |website=Ship Camouflage |accessdate=22 May 2015}}</ref>}}

All British patterns were different, first tested on small wooden models viewed through a periscope in a studio. Most of the model designs were painted by women from London's [[Royal Academy of Arts]]. A foreman then scaled up their designs for the real thing. Painters, however, were not alone in the project. Creative people including sculptors, artists, and set designers designed camouflage.<ref>{{ cite journal |last=Paulk |first=Ann Bronwyn |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/modernism-modernity/v010/10.2bronwyn.html |title=False Colors: Art, Design, and Modern Camouflage (review) |journal=[[Modernism/modernity]] |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=402–404 |date=April 2003 |doi=10.1353/mod.2003.0035}}</ref>

== World War I ==
[[File:SS Empress of Russia 1918 cropped.jpg|thumb|[[RMS Empress of Russia|RMS ''Empress of Russia'']] as a troopship, wearing dazzle camouflage]]

Dazzle's effectiveness was highly uncertain at the time of the [[First World War]], but it was nonetheless adopted both in Britain and America. In 1918, the British Admiralty analysed shipping losses, but was unable to draw clear conclusions;<ref>Forbes, 2009, "Dazzled and Deceived". p. 96</ref><ref name="Hartcup">{{cite book | title=Camouflage: the history of concealment and deception in war | publisher=[[Pen & Sword]] | author=Hartcup, Guy | authorlink=Guy Hartcup| year=1979}}</ref> with hindsight, too many factors (choice of colour scheme; size and speed of ships; tactics used) had been too varied for it to be possible to determine which factors were significant or which schemes worked best.<ref name="Scott-Samuel">{{cite journal | url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0020233 | title=Dazzle Camouflage Affects Speed Perception | author=Scott-Samuel, Nicholas E; Baddeley, Roland; Palmer, Chloe E; Cuthill, Innes C | journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |date=June 2011 | volume=6 | issue=6 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0020233 | pages=e20233}}</ref> Thayer did carry out an experiment on dazzle camouflage, but it failed to show any reliable advantage of dazzle over plain paintwork.<ref name="StevensDazzle">{{cite journal | title=Dazzle coloration and prey movement | author=Stevens M; Yule, DH; Ruxton, GD | journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] | year=2008 | volume=275 | issue=1651 | pages=2639–2643 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2008.0877}}</ref>

In a 1919 lecture, Norman Wilkinson explained:

<blockquote>The primary object of this scheme was not so much to cause the enemy to miss his shot when actually in firing position, but to mislead him, when the ship was first sighted, as to the correct position to take up. Dazzle was a method to produce an effect by paint in such a way that all accepted forms of a ship are broken up by masses of strongly contrasted colour, consequently making it a matter of difficulty for a submarine to decide on the exact course of the vessel to be attacked.<ref>{{cite web | title=Camouflage | publisher=Thames and Hudson / Imperial War Museum | year=2007 | author=Newark, Tim | page=74}}</ref></blockquote>

== World War II ==
{{further2|[[Ship camouflage#Second World War|Ship camouflage in World War II]]|[[World War II ship camouflage measures of the United States Navy]]}}

[[File:Dazzle camo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|An experimental scheme for merchant marine shipping]]

However effective dazzle camouflage may have been in World War I, it became less useful as rangefinders and especially aircraft became more advanced, and, by the time it was put to use again in [[World War II]], [[radar]] further reduced its effectiveness. However, it may still have confounded enemy submarines. The US Navy implemented a camouflage painting program in World War II, and applied it to many ship classes, from patrol craft and auxiliaries to [[battleships]] and some [[Essex class aircraft carrier|''Essex''-class aircraft carriers]]. The designs (known as Measures, each identified with a number) were not arbitrary, but were standardised in a process which involved a planning stage, then a review, and then fleet-wide implementation.<ref name="proceedings">Sumrall, Robert F. "Ship Camouflage (WWII): Deceptive Art" ''United States Naval Institute Proceedings'' February 1973 pp. 67-81</ref>

Not all United States Navy measures involved dazzle patterns; some were simple or even totally unsophisticated, such as a false bow wave on traditional Haze Grey, or Deck Blue replacing grey over part or all of the ship (the latter being utilized to counter the [[kamikaze]] threat).<ref>{{cite web |author=Short, Randy |url=http://www.shipcamouflage.com/measures.htm |title=USN Camouflage Measures |publisher=Snyder and Short Enterprises |accessdate=27 July 2015}}</ref> Dazzle measures were used until 1945; in February 1945 the United States Navy's Pacific Fleet decided to repaint its ships in non-dazzle measures against the kamikaze threat, while the Atlantic Fleet continued to use dazzle, ships being repainted if transferred to the Pacific.<ref name="brand">{{cite web |url=http://www.researcheratlarge.com/Ships/S19-7/1945_S19_631Application.html| title=Camouflage Instructions – Carriers, Cruisers, Destroyers, Destroyer Escorts, Assigned to the Pacific Fleet | publisher=Navy Department Bureau of Ships | date=February 26, 1945 | accessdate=April 8, 2013 | author=Brand, C. L.}}</ref>

[[File:The Outside Viewing-tank Directorate of Camouflage Naval Section (1943) (Art. IWM ART LD 2759).jpg|thumb|upright|Dazzle under development: the "Outside Viewing-tank" on the roof of the Directorate of Camouflage Naval Section. James Yunge-Bateman, 1943]]
In the [[Royal Navy]], dazzle paint schemes reappeared in January 1940; these were unofficial and competitions were often held between ships for the best camouflage patterns. The Royal Navy's Camouflage Department came up with a scheme devised by a young naval officer, [[Peter Scott]], a wildlife artist, which were developed into the ''[[Western Approaches Command|Western Approaches]] Schemes''. In 1942 the ''Admiralty Intermediate Disruptive Pattern'' came into use, followed in 1944 by the ''Admiralty Standard Schemes''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Warneke |first=Jon |last2=Herne |first2=Jeff |url=http://www.steelnavy.com/rnchips.htm |title=Royal Navy Colour Chips |publisher=Steelnavy.com |date= |accessdate=January 7, 2012}}</ref>

Nazi Germany's ''[[Kriegsmarine]]'' first used camouflage in the 1940 [[Norwegian campaign]]. A wide range of patterns were authorised, but most commonly black and white diagonal stripes were used. Most patterns were designed to hide ships in harbour or near the coast; they were often painted over with plain grey when operating in the Atlantic.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Asmussen |first1=John |title=Bismarck Paint Schemes |url=http://www.bismarck-class.dk/bismarck/paint_schemes/paintbism1941rheinubung.html |accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Asmussen |first=John; Leon, Eric |title=German Naval Camouflage Volume One 1939-1941 |date=2012 |publisher=Seaforth Publishing |isbn=978-1-84832-142-7}}</ref>

== Arts ==
[[File:Arthur Lismer - Olympic with Returned Soldiers.jpg|thumb|left|[[RMS Olympic|RMS ''Olympic'']] in dazzle at [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax, Nova Scotia]] painted by [[Arthur Lismer]], 1919]]

The abstract patterns in dazzle camouflage inspired artists including [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]]. He claimed credit for camouflage experiments which seemed to him a quintessentially [[cubism|Cubist]] technique.<ref>{{cite web | author=Campbell-Johnson, Rachel |url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article1543756.ece |title=Camouflage at IWM | publisher=The Times | date=21 March 2007}}</ref> in a conversation with [[Gertrude Stein]] shortly after he first saw a painted cannon trundling through the streets of Paris.<ref name="glover" /> [[Edward Wadsworth]], who supervised dazzle camouflage painting in the war, created a series of canvases after the war based on his dazzle work on ships. In Canada, [[Arthur Lismer]] used dazzle ships in some of his wartime compositions.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kelly |first1=Gemey|title=The Group of Seven and the Halifax Harbour Explosion: Focus on Arthur Lismer |url=http://www.cbc.ca/halifaxexplosion/he7_teachers/focus_arthur_lismer.pdf |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|accessdate=10 June 2015}}</ref>

[[File:HMS President Dazzle 2.jpg|right|upright=1.3|thumb|[[HMS President (1918)|HMS ''President'']] painted by [[Tobias Rehberger]] in 2014 to commemorate the use of dazzle camouflage in World War I.]]
In 2007, the art of concealment, including the evolution of dazzle, was featured as the theme for a show at the [[Imperial War Museum]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Camouflage | publisher=Thames & Hudson with Imperial War Museum | author=Newark, Tim | year=2007 | pages=Inside cover}}</ref> In 2009, the Fleet Library at the [[Rhode Island School of Design]] exhibited its rediscovered collection of lithographic printed plans for the camouflage of World War I US merchant ships, in an exhibition titled "Bedazzled".<ref>{{cite web |title=Fleet Library Special Collections: Dazzle Camouflage |url=http://dazzle.risd.edu/}}</ref>

In 2014, the Centenary Art Commission backed two dazzle camouflage installations in the UK:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.1418now.org.uk/whats-on/dazzle-ships |title=Dazzle Ships – 14-18 Now}}</ref> Venezuelan kinetic artist [[Carlos Cruz-Diez]] covered the pilot ship ''Edmund Gardner'' in Liverpool's Canning Dock with bright multi-coloured dazzle artwork, as part of the city's 2014 [[Liverpool Biennial]] art festival;<ref name="dazzlecarlos">{{cite web |url=http://www.biennial.com/collaborations/carlos-cruz-diez-dazzle-ship |accessdate=January 7, 2015 |title=Liverpool Biennial – 2014 – Carlos Cruz-Diez}}</ref> and [[Tobias Rehberger]] painted [[HMS President (1918)|HMS ''President'']], anchored since 1922 at [[Blackfriars Bridge]] in [[London]], to commemorate the use of dazzle, a century on.<ref>{{cite web | author=Brown, Mark | url=http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/jul/14/dazzle-ships-recreated-first-world-war-centenary | title=First world war dazzle painting revived on ships in Liverpool and London | publisher=The Guardian | date=14 July 2014| accessdate=14 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.hmspresident.com/dazzle-ship-london/ | title=HMS President Dazzle Ship London | accessdate=22 May 2015}}</ref>


== Other uses ==

Patterns reminiscent of dazzle camouflage are sometimes used to mask test cars during trials.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rabe |first1=Mattias|title=Lamborghini kör med vidvinkel-extraljus i Norrland |url=http://teknikensvarld.se/lamborghini-kor-med-vidvinkel-extraljus-i-norrland-177292/ |publisher=Teknikens Värld |accessdate=9 March 2015 |date=9 March 2015 |language=Swedish}}</ref> During the 2015 [[Formula 1]] testing period, the [[Red Bull Racing|Red Bull]] [[Red Bull RB11|RB-11]] car was painted in a scheme intended to confound rival teams' ability to analyse its aerodynamics.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/31142004 |accessdate=22 February 2015 |work=BBC Sports |agency=BBC News |publisher=BBC |title=Formula One Testing:Tom Clarkson's Jerez Round-Up |author=Clarkson, Tom}}</ref> Dazzle camouflage is recalled in makeup and hairstyle patterns intended to confound facial-recognition software.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cvdazzle.com/ |title=CV Dazzle: Camouflage from Face Detection |author=Harvey, Adam |accessdate=8 April 2015 |date=8 April 2015 }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[William Mackay]]
* [[Nelson Chequer]]
* [[Abbott Handerson Thayer]]
* [[Maximilian Toch]]
* [[Everett Warner]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|28em}}

== Sources ==
* Behrens, Roy R. (2003). [http://books.google.com/books?id=s9C2AAAACAAJ&dq=False+Colors:+Art,+Design,+and+Modern+Camouflage&client=firefox-a ''False Colors: Art, Design, and Modern Camouflage.''] Bobolink Books. ISBN 978-0-9713244-0-4.]
* Behrens, Roy R. (2009). ''Camoupedia: A Compendium of Research on Art, Architecture and Camouflage''. Bobolink Books. ISBN 978-0-9713244-6-6.
* Behrens, Roy R. (2009b), "Camouflage" in E. Bruce Goldstein, ed., ''Encyclopedia of Perception''. [[Sage Publications]], pages 233–236. ISBN 978-1-4129-4081-8.
* Behrens, Roy R., ed. (2012). ''Ship Shape: A Dazzle Camouflage Sourcebook''. Bobolink Books. ISBN 978-0-9713244-7-3.
* Elliot, Peter. (1974). [http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/1254543 ''American Destroyer Escorts of WW2.''] Almark Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85524-160-5.
* Forbes, Peter (2009). ''Dazzled and Deceived: Mimicry and Camouflage''. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17896-8.
* [[Jon Latimer|Latimer, Jon]]. (2003). [http://books.google.com/books?id=bJECAAAACAAJ&dq=Deception+in+War&client=firefox-a ''Deception in War: The Art of the Bluff, the Value of Deceit, and the Most Thrilling Episodes of Cunning in Military History, from the Trojan Horse to the Gulf War.''] Penguin. ISBN 978-1-58567-381-0.
* {{cite journal | url=http://www.cnrs-scrn.org/northern_mariner/vol19/tnm_19_171-192.pdf | title=The Dazzling Zoologist: John Graham Kerr and the Early Development of Ship Camouflage | author=Murphy, Hugh and Martin Bellamy | journal=[[The Northern Mariner]] |date=April 2009 | volume=XIX | issue=2 | pages=171–192 |issn=1183-112X}}
* Williams, David. (2001). [http://books.google.com/books?id=0vomT0cjY9IC&dq=Naval+camouflage,+1914-1945+:+a+complete+visual+reference&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''Naval camouflage, 1914–1945 : a complete visual reference.''] [[Naval Institute Press]]. ISBN 978-1-55750-496-8.]

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://dazzle.risd.edu/ Newly discovered dazzle plans at Rhode Island School of Design]
* [http://www.shipcamouflage.com/1_4.htm The development of naval camouflage 1914–1945]
* [http://www.bobolinkbooks.com/Camoupedia/CamouflageArtists.html Artists and other contributors to camouflage in the 20th century]
* [http://www.bobolinkbooks.com/Camoupedia/DazzleCamouflage.html Camoupedia: dazzle camouflage]
* [http://www.gotouring.com/razzledazzle/articles/dazzle.html Razzle dazzle camouflage]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=7igDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA55 "She's All Dressed Up For Peace", ''Popular Science'' (February 1919), p.55.]
* [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_CgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA17 "Fighting the U-Boat with Paint", ''Popular Science'' (April 1919), p.17-19.]


{{Camouflage}}

[[Category:Military camouflage]]
[[Category:Naval warfare]]

Schlacht von Sant Esteve d’en Bas

2015-07-23T20:01:29Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Sant Esteve d'en Bas
| partof = the [[Nine Years' War]]
| image =
| caption =
| date = 10 March 1695
| place = [[La Vall d'en Bas]] and [[Olot]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]
| result = Spanish victory
| combatant1 = {{flagcountry|Kingdom of France}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|Spanish Empire}}
| commander1 = [[Urbain Le Clerc de Juigné]]{{DOW}}
| commander2 = [[Ramon de Sala i Saçala]]
| strength1 = 1,300 regular infantry
| strength2 = 650 militia
| casualties1 = 1,086 killed or captured
| casualties2 = 7 killed and 5 wounded
| campaignbox =
{{Campaignbox Theatres of the War of the Grand Alliance}}
{{Campaignbox War of the Grand Alliance}}
}}

The '''Battle of Sant Esteve d'en Bas''' took place on 10 March 1695 in the [[Catalonia|Catalan]] front of the [[War of the Grand Alliance]]. It was fought between a column of French regular infantry under [[Brigadier]] Urbain Le Clerc de Juigné, governor of the nearby French-occupied [[Castellfollit de la Roca]], and 16 companies of Catalan ''[[miquelets]]'' and several armed peasants at the orders of Ramon de Sala i Saçala, the [[veguer]] of the town of [[Vic]]. Juigné's force was in a punitive expedition to burn the village of [[La Vall d'en Bas|Sant Esteve d'en Bas]], whose inhabitants had refused to pay war contributions to the French army, when it was attacked by the Catalan militia and nearly destroyed in two separate engagements.

The first and more bloody fight took place at the wood of Malatosquera and the bridge of Sant Roc, where the French lost 500 men killed or wounded. Defeated, Juigné and his remaining troops fled to [[Olot]], where they entrenched themselves in a convent. The Catalans forced the French to surrender by setting the building on fire. At the slight cost of 7 men killed and 5 wounded, the miquelets and peasants under Sala i Saçala killed 260 French soldiers and took 826 prisoners. Juigné was among the first. This French defeat was followed, just a month later, by the blockade by Spanish troops, ''miquelets'' and armed peasants, of the French garrisons of Castellfollit and [[Hostalric]], which the French command decided to demolish and evacuate on July under the impossibility of keeping both positions.

==Background==
{{Main|Nine Years' War}}
[[File:Noailles Grenoble.jpg|thumbnail|150px|Portrait of Anne Jules de Noailles by [[Hyacinthe Rigaud]], 1691. Grenoble, musée des Beaux-arts]]
Catalonia was one of the main fronts of the Nine Years' War. However, lack of means and poor relations with the peasantry due to the [[Revolt of the Barretinas]] marked for the [[List of viceroys of Catalonia|Spanish Viceroy of Catalonia]], the [[Carlos de Aragón de Gurrea, 9th Duke of Villahermosa|Duke of Villahermosa]], the early stage of the conflict.<ref>Espino, p. 569</ref> In 1689 the [[Admiral of Castile]], [[Juan Gaspar Enríquez de Cabrera]], said to the [[Spanish Council of State]] that "the best relief that Catalonia can have are the outer capabilities, what would be done from Flanders, from Milan and from Navarre".<ref>Espino, p. 580</ref> The French army under the [[Anne Jules de Noailles|Duke of Noailles]], however, was also short of resources, and [[attrition warfare]] prevailed on the first four years of the war.<ref>Espino, p. 617</ref><ref>Young, p. 232</ref> In 1694, [[Louis XIV]] committed more resources to his army in Catalonia, and Noailles managed to break the Spanish defenses, defeating the Spanish army at the [[battle of Torroella]], on the banks of the [[Ter river]], and seizing the ports of [[Roses]], [[Palamós]] and [[Cadaqués]], and the important city of [[Girona]].<ref>Espino, p. 681</ref><ref>Young, p. 233</ref>

In 1695 the French command found that the inhabitants of the areas occupied by the French army were reluctant to pay war contributions and started to oppose an organized and growingly successful resistance.<ref name="Espino 694">Espino, p. 694</ref> During the winter of 1694-1695, the inhabitants of [[Calella]] repelled a punishment force of 800 or 1,000 French soldiers from the [[Blanes]] garrison and killed between 60 or 100 of them.<ref name="Espino 694"/> French troops were also harassed by Catalan militia forces, the ''miquelets'', who laid ambushes to Noailles' forces from woods and heights.<ref name="Espino 698">Espino, p. 698</ref> One of the most effective leaders of the ''miquelets'' was Captain Ramon de Sala i Saçala, the veguer of Vic, who achieved two victories over the French during the winter: on late December he overran a convoy on way to Hostalric, killing 25 French soldiers and taking 25 prisoners, and on 24 February he defeated a company of French [[dragoons]] at [[Navata]], killing 7 of them and taking 28 prisoners and 32 horses.<ref>Espino, p. 695</ref>

One of the villages that refused to pay the French was Sant Esteve d'en Bas. Despite a French party looted the place in punishment, the villagers still refused to obey. A force of 700 soldiers was dispatched on 28 December to arrest the aldermen, but they found the village abandoned and sacked it again, taking with them two priests as hostages.<ref>Espino, p. 696–697</ref> On March 1695, as the locals were still rebellious, [[Monsieur de Saint-Sylvestre]], the French governor of Girona, ordered Brigadier Juigné, commander of the garrison of Castellfollit, to punish the village for the third time in command of 1,300 chosen men from his own garrison and those of [[Figueres]], [[Banyoles]] and [[Besalú]].<ref name="Paluzie 92">Paluzie, p. 92</ref> These troops were taken from the German Alsace regiment, the Swiss Manuel and Schellenberg regiments, and the French Royal-Artillery regiment.<ref>Monsalvatje, p. 72</ref> [[Philippe de Courcillon]], a famous French diarist, labeled them as "of the best troops of that country".<ref>Courcillon, p. 329</ref>

==Battle==
[[File:Fusilier de Montagne.jpg|thumbnail|left|150px|A ''miquelet'' by [[Philibert-Benoist de La Rue]]]]
The French force left Castellfollit 9 March on the evening, passed at some distance from Olot and spent the night at the ''palanca de Cudella'', a ford on the [[Fluvià|Fluvià river]]. At dawn, some peasants and ''miquelets'' discovered them and sent a warning to Sant Esteve d'en Bas. Women and children sought shelter in the surrounding mountains, while the men prepared to fight off the French column.<ref name="Paluzie 92"/> They also called for help Ramon de Sala i Saçala, who was at the nearby village of [[Sant Feliu de Pallerols]], with Captains Josep Mas de Roda and Pere Baliart i Teula, recruiting men to raise three new companies of ''miquelets''.<ref>Monsalvatje, p. 67</ref> In the meantime, Juigné reached la Vall d'en Bas –the Bas valley–, leaving a rearguard at El Mallol, and took positions on the hill of Puigpardines. From there, he dispatched a third of his force to burn Sant Esteve. The French troops had burned 16 buildings when Ramon de Sala ahead 8 companies of ''miquelets'' and Pere Baliart leading 8 others arrived to the village and forced them to flee to Juigné's position.<ref name="Paluzie 92"/><ref name="Monsalvatje 68">Monsalvatje, p. 68</ref>

At the hill of Puigpardines, Juigné was being already harassed by 80 armed peasants of the local [[somatent]] –a type of militia–, when the arrival of Sala's, Mas' and Baliart's ''miquelets'' convinced him to withdraw. When they tried to cross back the Fluvià, however, they found the way blocked.<ref name="Paluzie 92"/> Juigné decided then attempting to escape to Olot across the wood of Malatosquera and through the bridge of Sant Roc, but the Catalans anticipated him. Sala divided his ''miquelets'' in two groups of 300 men each one, and while Josep Mas de Roda, leading the first one, pursued and attacked the French troops across the wood, he blocked the bridge of Sant Roc ahead the second group.<ref name="Monsalvatje 68"/> During the running fight under the trees Juigné's force lost 25 men and abandoned part of its ammunitions.<ref name="Paluzie 93">Paluzie, p. 93</ref>

[[File:Régiment d'Alsace, 1696.jpg|thumbnail|150px|Grenadier, sergeant, officer and drummer of the régiment d'Alsace in 1696, by [[Alfred Touchemolin]]]]
The French column, despite the harassment, managed to take control of the bridge and started to cross to the opposite bank of the Fluvià. The ''miquelets'' and armed peasants, however, fired on them from the south and killed up to 70 French soldiers.<ref name="Paluzie 93"/> According to [[Charles Sévin, marquis de Quincy]], a contemporary French artillery general and military historian of Louis XIV's reign, Juigné's corps was able to retreat to Olot in good order.<ref>Sévin, p. 169</ref> On the other hand, the local 19th-century Catalan historian [[Esteve Paluzie i Cantalozella]] claimed that the French troops fled in disarray, leaving 150 prisoners to the Catalans, which they carried to Sant Esteve d'en Bas under a heavy escort.<ref name="Paluzie 93"/>

Arriving to Olot, most of Juigné's force took positions inside the convent of El Carme, while 90 Swiss soldiers of the rear entrenched themselves inside the hospital of the village.<ref name="Monsalvatje 69">Monsalvatje, p. 69</ref> While the Swiss troops promptly surrendered, the bulk of the French column, with Juigné himself, still held for two hours. The ''miquelets'' and peasants encircled the building and managed to open a gap in its walls, only to be repelled in the hand-to-hand fight, losing two men killed and one wounded.<ref name="Monsalvatje 69"/> Sala's men then breached the wall of a chapel and stormed the convent again, but as the French were well clustered within, the assault was as well repelled. Sala ordered to set on fire the gates of the building, but the French walled the gap using stones and [[bricks]].<ref name="Monsalvatje 70">Monsalvatje, p. 70</ref> The Catalans managed to enter the building by setting on fire large amounts of [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] and [[sulfur]] on the two breaches they had opened. The fire and the smoke blinded and choked the French soldiers, which retreated to the convent's [[cloister]]. After that, Juigné, seriously wounded during the fight, requested terms and surrendered.<ref name="Monsalvatje 70"/>

==Aftermath==
The French column surrenderd on the promise that the officers would not be stripped, but they all remained as prisoners of war and surrendered their weapons and money to the Catalans.<ref name="Monsalvatje 70"/> Juigné, with 136 other wounded soldiers and a German captain, remained in Olot to receive medical treatment, but he died shortly after.<ref name="Monsalvatje 70"/><ref name="Sévin 170">Sévin, p. 170</ref> French losses amounted to 251 or 260 men killed –32 of them officers– and 826 prisoners, as opposed to 7 men killed and 5 wounded on the ''miquelets'' side. The figures are well known, as the French intendant of Girona, René Desgrigny, wrote a letter to Olot's aldermen asking for the number and rank of the prisoners to exchange them when possible.<ref>Paluzie, p. 94</ref> In this letter, Desgrigny noted that Monsieur Juigné was lucky to be dead, as the defeat would probably have cost him dearly.<ref>Paluzie, p. 108</ref> The 690 unscathed French prisoners were brought first to Vic and later to [[Barcelona]], where they arrived on 15 March. Their entrance was seen by a large crowd and the Spanish Viceroy, the [[Francisco Antonio de Agurto, Marquis of Gastañaga|Marquis of Gastañaga]].<ref>Monsalvatje, p. 71</ref>

[[File:Castellfollit de la Roca in November.jpg|thumbnail|300px|View of Castellfollit de la Roca in 2014]]
In the weeks that followed the battle, the Spanish troops and local militia increased their pressure on Castellfollit's garrison.<ref name="Sévin 170"/> On 5 April, the Catalan ''miquelets'', supported by five companies of [[dragoons]] and several peasants, defeated a party of French troops from [[Berga]] and Castellfollit, killing 60 soldiers and taking 200 prisoners.<ref>Espino, p. 697</ref> Noailles, then ill of [[rheumatism]], ordered Lieutenant-general Saint-Sylvestre to assemble a supply convoy to relieve Castellfollit, which he put under an escort of 2,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. A corps of ''miquelets'', Spanish dragoons and peasants led by Blai de Trinxeria attacked and defeated the convoy on 15 April.<ref name="Espino 698"/> After that, the French garrisons of Castellfollit and Hostalric fell under an effective blockade. On 19 May, Saint-Sylvestre assembled an army of 8,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry and relieved Hostalric, but Castellfollit remained blockaded. Noailles and his second in command were not in good terms: if Saint-Sylvestre advocated for demolishing and abandoning both Hostalric and Castellfollit, Noailles was not willing to give ground.<ref>Espino, p. 707</ref>

On late June, Louis XIV replaced Noailles for [[Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme]]. Noailles charged Saint-Sylvestre of incompetence and, as did with other high officers, of looting the country on his own benefit, which had put on arms the peasantry against the French army.<ref>Espino, p. 711</ref> On 8 July Vendôme led his troops before Castellfollit. Having expelled its population and eaten horses and mules, the French garrison, diminished by desertions, was in an unsustainable position, and Vendôme came to evacuate and demolish the fortress.<ref>Espino, p. 712</ref> After that, the French army took the way to Hostalric and demolished its defenses, returning to Girona on 28 July.<ref>Espino, p. 714</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|3}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book
| last = Courcillon
| first = Philippe de
| year = 1830
| title = Mémoires et journal du Marquis De Dangeau: publiés pour la première fois sur les manuscrits originaux, Vol. 3
| publisher = Mame et Delaunay-Vallée
| location = Paris
| oclc = 10400729
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Espino López
| first = Antonio
| year = 1994
| title = El frente catalán en la Guerra de los Nueve Años, 1689-1697
| publisher = Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
| location = Belaterra
| isbn = 9788469202272
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Monsalvatje y Fossas
| first = Francisco
| year = 1893
| title = Noticias históricas. El vizcondado de Bas
| publisher = Juan Bonet
| location = Olot
| oclc = 78776781
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Paluzie i Cantalozella
| first = Esteve
| year = 1860
| title = Olot: su comarca, sus extinguidos volcanes, su historia civil, religiosa y local
| publisher = Establ. Tip. de Jaime Jepús
| location = Barcelona
| oclc = 802870905
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Sévin
| first = Charles
| year = 1726
| title = Histoire militaire du regne de Louis le Grand, roy de France, Vol. 3
| publisher = D. Mariette
| location = Paris
| oclc = 832529040
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Young
| first = William
| year = 2004
| title = International Politics and Warfare in the Age of Louis XIV and Peter the Great
| publisher = iUniverse
| location = Lincoln
| isbn = 0595329926
}}

{{coord missing}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sant Esteve d'en Bas, Battle of}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1695]]
[[Category:1695 in Spain]]
[[Category:Battles of the Nine Years' War]]
[[Category:Battles involving France]]
[[Category:Battles involving Spain]]

Cowes Castle

2015-07-23T09:21:22Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{About|the former artillery fort in the centre of Cowes|the stately home built by John Nash|East Cowes Castle}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
|name=Cowes Castle
|partof=
|location=[[Isle of Wight]], [[England]]
|coordinates=
|image= [[File:West Cowes Castle.jpg|250px]]
|caption=
|image2=
|caption2=
|map_type= Hampshire
|latitude= 50.76653
|longitude= -1.30111
|type= [[Device Fort]]
|code=
|built= 1539
|builder=
|materials=
|height=
|used=
|demolished=
|condition=
|ownership= [[Royal Yacht Squadron]]
|open_to_public= No
|controlledby=
|garrison=
|current_commander=
|commanders=
|occupants=
|battles=
|events= [[English Civil War]]
}}

'''Cowes Castle''', also known as '''West Cowes Castle''', is a [[Device Fort]] in [[Cowes]] on the [[Isle of Wight]]. Originally built by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] in 1539 to protect England against the threat of invasion from France and the [[Holy Roman Empire]], it comprised a circular [[bastion]], flanking wings and a [[keep]], and in 1547 it housed 17 pieces of [[List of medieval and early modern gunpowder artillery|artillery]]. With its companion fortification at [[East Cowes Castle (16th century)|East Cowes]], the castle overlooked the entrance to the [[River Medina]], an important [[anchorage]]. The invasion threat passed but the fortification continued in use until the middle of the 19th century, very briefly seeing action in 1642 during the [[English Civil War]].

Decommissioned in 1854, the castle was first leased, and later bought outright, by the [[Royal Yacht Squadron]] to form their new clubhouse. The Squadron then employed the architect [[Anthony Salvin]] to rebuild large parts of it between 1856 and 1858. It became the headquarters for part of the [[D-Day]] invasion force during the [[Second World War]], but has otherwise remained in use by the Squadron and is a distinctive landmark in [[Yacht racing|yacht races]] along the Isle of Wight.

==History==

===16th century===
Cowes Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England, [[Kingdom of France|France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the final years of the reign of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Traditionally [[the Crown]] had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities, only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications, and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another, maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=111}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}</ref> Modest defences, based around simple [[blockhouse]]s and towers, existed in the south-west and along the [[Sussex]] coast, augmented by a few more impressive works in the north of England, but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|pp=176–177}}</ref>

In 1533, Henry broke with [[Pope Paul III]] in order to annul the long-standing marriage to his wife, [[Catherine of Aragon]], and remarry.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}</ref> Catherine was the aunt of [[Charles V of Spain|Charles V]], the Holy Roman Emperor, and he took the annulment as a personal insult.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=5}}</ref> This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=63–64}}</ref> An invasion of England appeared certain.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=6}}</ref> In response, Henry issued an order, called a "[[Device Fort|device]]", in 1539, giving instructions for the "defence of the realm in time of invasion" and the construction of forts along the English coastline.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Walton|2010|p=70}}</ref>

[[The Solent]], a stretch of water that gave access to the ports of [[Southampton]] and [[Portsmouth]], was considered vulnerable to attack. Two castles were built on the west and east sides of the [[River Medina]], the entrance to the principal harbour of the adjacent [[Isle of Wight]], and were intended to attack any enemy ships that might approach.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1267310|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=40}}</ref> The castles took their names from the traditional term for this location, "the Cowes".<ref>{{harvnb|Hopkins|2004|p=2}}</ref> Constructed in 1539, the western fortification, which became known as West Cowes Castle, had a D-shaped [[bastion]] at the front, a round, two-storey [[keep]] at the rear and two low buildings on either side, all of which mounted [[List of medieval and early modern gunpowder artillery|artillery]] guns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1267310|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/|title=Cowes Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406233416/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/| archive-date =9 April 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=41}}</ref> The landward side was protected by a {{convert|4|m}} wide ditch and a stone wall, the latter at least {{convert|2.4|m}} wide at the top.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=41}};
{{cite web|url=http://www.maritimearchaeology.co.uk/west-cowes-castle-discoveries/|title=West Cowes Castle Discoveries|publisher=Maritime Archaeology|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109193345/http://www.maritimearchaeology.co.uk/west-cowes-castle-discoveries/| archive-date =9 January 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> It was built from [[limestone]] [[ashlar]] stone, which may have been recycled from the demolition of nearby [[Beaulieu Abbey]], a consequence of Henry's recent [[dissolution of the monasteries]].<ref name="historicengland1">{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1267310|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref>

Settlements grew up around both castles on the Medina, but East Cowes Castle was rapidly abandoned and ultimately destroyed by coastal erosion; as a result, today West Cowes Castle is often simply referred to as Cowes Castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1989|pp=40–41}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=461607|title=East Cowes Castle|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|accessdate = 26 May 2015}}</ref> Inspections in 1547 showed that there were 17 [[iron]] and [[brass]] artillery pieces at the fort, but that nine of these were inoperable; nonetheless it continued in use as a fortification after the original invasion scare had ended, staffed with a garrison of a captain, [[porter (doorkeeper)|porter]] and three [[gunner (artillery)|gunner]]s during Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]]'s reign.<ref>{{harvnb|Woolnoth|1825|at=Cowes Castle}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/|title=Cowes Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406233416/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/| archive-date =9 April 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref>

===17th–19th centuries===
[[File:West Cowes Castle 1725.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|1725 plan of the castle]]
Cowes Castle was used to house important visitors to the Isle of Wight and also as a prison; the captain of the castle had further responsibilities for managing the arrival of foreign vessels.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/|title=Cowes Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406233416/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/| archive-date =9 April 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> When the [[English Civil War]] broke out in 1642 between the supporters of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] and [[Parliament]], the castle was initially held for the King by its captain, Humphrey Turney.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> On 12 August, as tensions between the rival factions on the island increased, Turney personally fired one of the castle's guns at the nearby Parliamentary naval vessel ''[[English ship Lion (1557)|Lion]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-castle/|title=The Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406184048/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-castle/| archive-date =6 April 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{harvnb|Godwin|1904|pp=26–27}}</ref> An unidentified Scottish naval captain then came ashore on 16 August and captured Turney, before landing more men and taking the castle itself for Parliament, who held it for the rest of the war.<ref>{{harvnb|Godwin|1904|p=27}}</ref>

During the [[Interregnum]], the castle continued to be used as a prison.<ref name="historicengland2">{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1267310|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/|title=Cowes Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406233416/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/| archive-date =9 April 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> Charles I could not be housed in the castle while en route to his imprisonment by Parliament at [[Carisbrooke Castle]] in 1647 because the facility was full, and he stayed at a local [[alehouse]] instead.<ref name="historicengland2"/> The Royalist Sir [[William Davenant]] was imprisoned in Cowes during 1650, writing the poem ''[[Gondibert]]'' while incarcerated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1267310|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-castle/|title=The Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406184048/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-castle/| archive-date =6 April 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> As with East Cowes Castle, coastal erosion proved a particular problem for the fortification.<ref name="grose181">{{harvnb|Grose|1785|p=181}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/|title=Cowes Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406233416/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/| archive-date =9 April 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> An inspection in 1692 reported that the walls were cracked and at risk of collapse, and the [[antiquarian]] [[Francis Grose]] observed in 1785 that the castle was "strongly fenced with piles and planks" to prevent erosion from the sea.<ref name="grose181"/>

During the course of the 18th century, Cowes became a fashionable location for visitors, with several [[bathhouse]]s, one of them located beside the castle, and by the early 19th century the town had become a noted resort.<ref>{{harvnb|Woolnoth|1825|at=Cowes Castle}}; {{harvnb|Hopkins|2004|p=3}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/|title=Cowes Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406233416/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/| archive-date =9 April 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> Cowes Castle was partially rebuilt in 1716 to modernise its accommodation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=460628&sort=2&type=&rational=a&class1=|title=West Cowes Castle|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> Most of the front of the keep was demolished and rebuilt with new windows, a turret for a [[spiral staircase]] was erected, new three- and two-storey residential wings were added, and a garden was created over the landward defences.<ref name="historicengland2"/> In 1795, the writer Richard Warner noted that the garrison consisted of the captain, a porter, two soldiers, a master gunner and five regular gunners, their wages coming to £103 a year.<ref>{{harvnb|Warner|1795|p=67}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money19thC|Comparing 18th century costs and prices with those of the modern period depends on the price comparison used. £103 in 1795 could be worth between £9,700 and £690,000 in 2014 terms, depending on the measure used.<ref name=MeasuringWorth>{{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson | separator = ,| postscript =none | mode = cs2|date = 2014| accessdate=29 May 2015 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}} The castle remained in use during the Napoleonic Wars, and in 1825 was equipped with 11 {{convert|9|lb|adj=on}} guns.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/|title=Cowes Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406233416/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/| archive-date =9 April 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{harvnb|Woolnoth|1825|at=Cowes Castle}}</ref> Warner had already complained, though, that the castle was "utterly useless" in military terms and a guidebook in 1824 echoed this judgement, describing Cowes as "useless as a place of defence" and ridiculing the sentries on duty there.<ref>{{harvnb|Warner|1795|p=67}}; {{harvnb|Anonymous|1824|p=137}}</ref>

[[File:West Cowes Castle, 1796.png|thumb|left|An engraving of the castle in 1796]]
[[Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey|Lord Anglesey]] became the captain of Cowes Castle in 1826, by now a [[sinecure]] rather than a regular military appointment, and spent part of each year at the castle, making further, lavish improvements to the interiors.<ref>{{harvnb|Marquess of Anglesey|1996|p=376}}</ref> Anglesey was also a member of the [[Royal Yacht Squadron]], first established in 1815, which then operated from the Gloster Hotel in Cowes.<ref>{{harvnb|Hopkins|2004|p=3}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/|title=Cowes Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406233416/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/| archive-date =9 April 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> By this time yachting had become a prestigious local event, and the painter [[J. M. W. Turner]] sketched the yachts sailing off the castle when he visited in 1827.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/turner-yachts-off-cowes-castle-d20706|title=Yachts off Cowes Castle c.1827|publisher=Tate|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-rys-yachting/|title=The RYS & Yachting|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630184034/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-rys-yachting/| archive-date =30 June 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> When Anglesey died in 1854 the government decommissioned the castle and leased the property initially to Anglesey's son-in-law [[Francis Conyngham, 2nd Marquess Conyngham|Lord Conyngham]], and then to the Squadron in 1855.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/|title=Cowes Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406233416/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/| archive-date =9 April 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-castle/|title=The Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406184048/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-castle/| archive-date =6 April 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref>

The architect [[Anthony Salvin]], an expert on adapting medieval buildings, was employed by the Squadron to remodel the building between 1856 and 1858. He enlarged the house, altered its profile and built a new tower, platform and a [[gatehouse]], along with a service wing, a [[ballroom]] and more accommodation for the members, at a cost of around £6,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1267310|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/|title=Cowes Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406233416/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/| archive-date =9 April 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{harvnb|Clark|1904|p=243}}</ref> [[Prince Albert]] and [[Edward VII|Edward]], the Prince of Wales, visited the castle before it was formally reopened in 1858; the work received mixed reviews, one local newspaper likening the result to "a discipline establishment".<ref name="autogenerated1"/> Cowes became a major centre for yachting.<ref>{{harvnb|Hopkins|2004|p=3}}</ref> After the destruction of [[William IV of England|William IV]]'s miniature [[frigate]] the ''[[Royal Adelaide (1833)|Royal Adelaide]]'' in 1877, its 21 brass cannons were donated to the castle by the Prince of Wales.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/66170.html|title=Miniature Frigate Royal Adelaine|publisher=Royal Museums Greenwich|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/66170.html| archive-date =30 June 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref>

===20th–21st centuries===
[[File:Cowles Castle cannon.jpg|thumb|[[William IV of England|William IV]]'s [[brass]] cannon at the castle in 2012]]
Cowes Castle was bought outright from the Crown by the Royal Yacht Squadron in 1917.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/kinggeorge/p/003ktop00000015u026a0000.html|title=Plan of Cowes Castle in the Isle of Wight, 1725|publisher=British Library|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> Further development work was carried out on the property in the 1920s, and an ballroom in an adjacent hotel was purchased for use as an annex for female members.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

In the [[Second World War]], the Isle of Wight became an important staging location for the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] efforts to invade France. By October 1942, the castle was occupied by the British [[Admiralty]] and became the senior officer's headquarters of the HQ Naval Commander Force "J" Landing Craft base, known as [[MS Vectis (shore establishment)|HMS Vectis]].<ref>{{harvnb|Finley|1994|p=1}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/~/media/royal%20navy%20responsive/documents/events/d%20day%2070/13_472%20nhb%20operation%20neptune%20d_day%20book.pdf|title=Operation Neptune|publisher=NHB|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150630185110/http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/~/media/royal%20navy%20responsive/documents/events/d%20day%2070/13_472%20nhb%20operation%20neptune%20d_day%20book.pdf| archive-date =30 June 2015|pages=7–8|mode = cs2}}</ref> The force's vessels docked in the nearby Solent, and took part in the [[Operation Overlord|D-Day landings]].<ref>{{harvnb|Finley|1994|p=1}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/~/media/royal%20navy%20responsive/documents/events/d%20day%2070/13_472%20nhb%20operation%20neptune%20d_day%20book.pdf|title=Operation Neptune|publisher=NHB|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150630185110/http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/~/media/royal%20navy%20responsive/documents/events/d%20day%2070/13_472%20nhb%20operation%20neptune%20d_day%20book.pdf| archive-date =30 June 2015|pages=7–10|mode = cs2}}</ref> The castle was damaged during the [[The Blitz|German bombing raids]] on the island.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-rys-yachting/|title=The RYS & Yachting|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630184034/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-rys-yachting/| archive-date =30 June 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref>

After the war, the architect A. G. Biggs carried out substantial additions to the castle between 1962 and 1968, including remodelling the western range to provide for more female accommodation, using stone from the second [[East Cowes Castle]], an 18th and 19th century stately home, which had been demolished the previous year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/|title=Cowes Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406233416/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/cowes-castle/| archive-date =9 April 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1267310|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> A prefabricated conservatory extension followed in 1988, and a new pavilion designed by Sir [[Thomas Croft (architect)|Thomas Croft]] was added in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-castle/|title=The Castle|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150406184048/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-castle/| archive-date =6 April 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1267310|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref>

[[Archaeological excavation]]s in the winter of 2010-11 rediscovered the remains of the old castle wall and ditch, and over 400 artefacts were removed for storage at the Isle of Wight County Museum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maritimearchaeology.co.uk/west-cowes-castle-discoveries/|title=West Cowes Castle Discoveries|publisher=Maritime Archaeology|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109193345/http://www.maritimearchaeology.co.uk/west-cowes-castle-discoveries/| archive-date =9 January 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> Cowes Castle is a distinctive landmark in yachting and powerboat events, particularly at the start and finish of local races.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1267310|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|access-date=26 June 2015|mode = cs2}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-rys-yachting/|title=The RYS & Yachting|publisher=Royal Yacht Squadron|access-date=26 June 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630184034/https://www.rys.org.uk/about/the-rys-yachting/| archive-date =30 June 2015|mode = cs2}}</ref> It is protected under UK law as a 2* [[Listed Building]].<ref name="historicengland1"/>

==Notes==
{{notelist|notes=}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

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| date = 1996
| orig-year=1961
| publisher = Leo Cooper
| location = London, UK
| isbn= 9781783837571
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Morley
| first1 = B. M.
| title = Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defence
| date = 1976
| publisher = Her Majesty's Stationery Office
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0116707771
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Saunders
| first1 = Andrew
| title = Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland
| date = 1989
| publisher = Beaufort
| location = Liphook, UK
| isbn = 1855120003
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Thompson
| first1 = M. W.
| title = The Decline of the Castle
| date = 1987
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| isbn = 1854226088
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Walton
| first1 = Steven A.
| journal = Osiris
| volume = 25
| number = 1
| title = State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification
| date = 2010
| pages = 66–84
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Warner
| first1 = Richard
| title = The History of the Isle of Wight
| date = 1795
| publisher = T. Cadell, W. Davies and T. Baker
| location = Southampton, UK
| oclc= 606282339
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Woolnoth
| first1 = William
| title = The Ancient Castles of England and Wales
| date = 1825
| volume = 1
| publisher = Longman, Hurst and Company
| location = London, UK
| oclc= 13310887
| ref= harv}}

{{Device Forts}}

{{Coord|51.2384|1.4022|display=title|region:GB|format=dms}}

[[Category:Castles on the Isle of Wight]]
[[Category:Forts on the Isle of Wight]]
[[Category:Device Forts]]

Sandown Castle (Isle of Wight)

2015-07-15T18:41:21Z

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{{Distinguish|Sandown Castle, Kent}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
|name=Sandown Castle
|partof=
|location=[[Sandown]], [[Isle of Wight]], [[England]]
|coordinates=
|image= [[File:Sandown castle plan 1559.jpg|250px]]
|caption= 1559 plan of Sandown Castle
|image2=
|caption2=
|map_type= Isle of Wight
|latitude= 50.65669
|longitude= -1.14691
|type= [[Henrician castle]]
|code=
|built= 1545
|builder=
|materials=
|height=
|used=
|demolished= 1631
|condition=Destroyed
|ownership=
|open_to_public=
|controlledby=
|garrison=
|current_commander=
|commanders=
|occupants=
|battles=
|events=
}}
'''Sandown Castle''' was a [[Device Fort]] built at [[Sandown]] on the [[Isle of Wight]] by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] in 1545 to protect against the threat of French attack. Constructed from stone with angular [[bastion]]s, its design was a hybrid of Italian [[military architecture|military architectural]] thinking with traditional English military design. The site was raided by a French force that summer while the fortification was still being constructed. The site suffered from [[coastal erosion]] and the castle was demolished in 1631.

==History==
===16th century===
====Background====
Sandown Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England, [[Kingdom of France|France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the final years of the reign of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Traditionally [[the Crown]] had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities, only taking a small role in building and maintaining fortifications, and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another, maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1987|p=111}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=63}}</ref> Modest defences, based around simple [[blockhouse]]s and towers, existed in the south-west and along the [[Sussex]] coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1991|pp=176–177}}</ref>

In 1533, Henry then broke with Pope [[Paul III]] in order to annul the long-standing marriage to his wife, [[Catherine of Aragon]] and remarry.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}</ref> This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England.<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=63–64}}</ref> Henry responded in 1539 by ordering, through an instruction called a "[[Device Fort|device]]", the construction of fortifications along the most vulnerable parts of the coast. The immediate threat passed, but resurfaced in 1544, with France threatening an invasion across the Channel, backed by her allies in Scotland.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=80}}</ref> Henry therefore issued another device in 1544 to further improve the country's defences, particularly along the south coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=29–30}}</ref>

====Construction====
Built between April and September 1545 to protect the south-east coast of the Isle of Wight, Sandown Castle overlooked [[Sandown Bay]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=8, 31-32}}</ref> It was constructed by the Italian engineer Giovanni Portinari, the surveyor William Ridgeway and the captain of labourers, John Portinar, at a cost of £2,400.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=8, 31-32}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=51}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=461937|title=Sandown Castle|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|accessdate = 20 June 2015}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC|Comparing early modern costs and prices with those of the modern period is challenging. £2,400 in 1545 could be equivalent to between £1.03 million and £474.3 million in 2014, depending on the price comparison used. For comparison, the total royal expenditure on all the Device Forts across England between 1539–47 came to £376,500, with St Mawes, for example, costing £5,018, and Sandgate £5,584.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=12}}; {{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson | separator = ,| postscript =none | mode = cs2|date = 2014| accessdate=29 May 2015 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}} Designed around a central courtyard, it had a square tower and two angular [[bastion]]s on one side, and a circular bastion looking out to sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=32}}</ref> The rear of the stone defences was protected by a [[moat]], and the castle had a wooden [[pier]] for boats to dock at.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=32}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hants/vol5/pp156-170|editor=William Page|date=1912|title=Parishes: Brading|publisher=British History Online|mode=cs2|accessdate = 20 June 2015}}</ref>

The angular bastions echoed contemporary Italian thinking on [[military architecture]], and may have been influenced by [[Richard Lee (engineer)|Richard Lee]], the King's Surveyor of Works, as well as by Portinari's own continental background.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=15–16, 32}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=90}}</ref> Despite being relatively advanced for an English fortification, the castle did not feature the more fashionable Italianate "[[Star fort|arrow-head]]" bastion design used at nearby [[Yarmouth Castle]] and has been critiqued by historians: Andrew Saunders describes it as an imperfect "hybrid" of English and continental ideas, [[John Rigby Hale|John Hale]] as a timid, confused flirtation with modern designs.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|pp=89–90}}; {{harvnb|Saunders|1989|p=51}}</ref>

Before the castle could be completed, however, the French attacked. Admiral [[Claude d'Annebault]] crossed the Channel and arrived off the Solent with 200 ships on 19 July, where the local authorities feared Sandown Castle might be the target of a night attack.<ref>{{harvnb|Potter|2011|p=376}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=86}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|pp=45–46}}</ref> 2,000 French soldiers men landed on the Isle of Wight and attacked Sandown, where labourers were still present.<ref name=Harrington2007P46/> Their advance soon stalled, however, and the French retreated back to their fleet, bringing the invasion threat to an end; the castle was finally completed after their departure.<ref name=Harrington2007P46>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=46}}</ref>

===17th century===
By the 17th century, [[coastal erosion]] had undermined the castle's walls.<ref name="british-history156">{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hants/vol5/pp156-170|editor=William Page|date=1912|title=Parishes: Brading|publisher=British History Online|mode=cs2|accessdate = 20 June 2015}}</ref> In 1627, [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] announced that he would repair the fortification but instead the ruins were dismantled in 1631 by Sir [[John Oglander]].<ref name="british-history156"/> A new fortification, Sandown Fort was built in its place, positioned further inland, but the possible remains of the foundations of the original castle are still visible along the shore at low tide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hants/vol5/pp156-170|editor=William Page|date=1912|title=Parishes: Brading|publisher=British History Online|mode=cs2|accessdate = 20 June 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=461937|title=Sandown Castle|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|accessdate = 20 June 2015}}; {{harvnb|Adams|1884|p=200}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|notes=}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book
| last1= Adams
| first1 = W. H. Davenport
| title = Isle of Wight: Its History, Topography and Antiquities
| date = 1884
| edition = new and revised
| publisher = T. Nelson and Sons
| location = London, UK
| oclc= 264864979
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Biddle
| first1 = Martin
| last2= Hiller
| first2 = Jonathon
| last3= Scott
| first3 = Ian
| last4= Streeten
| first4 = Anthony
| title = Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological Structural and Historical Investigation
| date = 2001
| publisher = Oxbow Books
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 0904220230
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Hale
| first1 = J. R.
| title = Renaissance War Studies
| date = 1983
| publisher = Hambledon Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0907628176
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Harrington
| first1 = Peter
| title = The Castles of Henry VIII
| date = 2007
| publisher = Osprey Publishing
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 9781472803801
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= King
| first1 = D. J. Cathcart
| title = The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History
| date = 1991
| publisher = Routledge Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 9780415003506
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Morley
| first1 = B. M.
| title = Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defence
| date = 1976
| publisher = Her Majesty's Stationery Office
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0116707771
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Potter
| first1 = Henry
| title = Henry VIII and Francis I: The Final Conflict, 1540-47
| date = 2011
| publisher = Koninklijke Brill NV
| location = Leiden, the Netherlands
| isbn = 9789004204317
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Saunders
| first1 = Andrew
| title = Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland
| date = 1989
| publisher = Beaufort
| location = Liphook, UK
| isbn = 1855120003
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Thompson
| first1 = M. W.
| title = The Decline of the Castle
| date = 1987
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| isbn = 1854226088
| ref= harv}}

{{Device Forts}}

{{Coord|50|39|26|N|1|08|51|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

[[Category:Forts on the Isle of Wight]]

Lahore Fort

2015-05-26T04:41:39Z

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{{coord|31|35|25|N|74|18|35|E|display=title}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Infobox World Heritage Site
|WHS = Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore
|Image = [[File:Lahore Fort view from Baradari.jpg|270px]]
|State Party = [[Pakistan]]
|location = {{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Iqbal Park]], [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]]
|Type = Cultural
|Criteria = i, ii, iii
|ID = 171
|Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
|Year = 1981
|Session = 5th
|Danger = 2000–2012
|Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/171
}}
The '''Lahore Fort''', locally referred to as '''Shahi Qila''' ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], {{lang-ur|{{Nastaliq|شاہی قلعہ}}}}) is a [[citadel]] in the city of [[Lahore]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]].<ref name="Location of Lahore Fort">{{cite web|last=Google maps|title=Location of Lahore Fort|url=https://maps.google.com/maps?ie=UTF8&q=shahi+qila+lahore&fb=1&hq=lahore+fort&cid=3872470187115328748&hnear=&t=m&z=16&vpsrc=0&iwloc=A|publisher=Google maps|accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref> It is located in the northwestern corner of the [[Walled City of Lahore]] in [[Iqbal Park]], which is one of the largest urban parks in Pakistan. The [[trapezoidal]] composition is spread over 20 [[hectare]]s.<ref name="Unesco"/>

Origins of the fort extend far into antiquity but the existing base structure was built during the reign of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Emperor [[Akbar]] between 1556–1605 and was regularly upgraded by subsequent [[List of Mughal emperors|Mughal]], [[Sikh Empire|Sikh]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] rulers. It has two gates. One of the gates built by [[Aurangzeb]] is called Alamgiri gate that opens towards [[Badshahi mosque]] and another older gate built by [[Akbar]] is called Maseeti{{refn|group=note|Maseeti is a Punjabi word meaning mosque}} or Masjidi gate that opens towards Maseeti area of Walled city. Currently Alamgiri Gate is used as the principal entrance while Maseeti Gate is permanently closed. The fort manifests the rich traditions of [[Mughal architecture]].<ref>M Taher (1997). ''Encyclopaedic Survey of Islamic Culture''. Anmol Publications. ISBN 81-7488-487-4</ref> Some of the famous sites inside the fort include [[Sheesh Mahal Lahore|Sheesh Mahal]], Alamgiri Gate, [[Naulakha Pavilion]], and [[Moti Masjid (Lahore Fort)|Moti Masjid]].

In 1981, the fort was inscribed as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] along with the [[Shalimar Gardens, Lahore|Shalimar Gardens]]. The [[Expo 2010#National pavilions|Pakistan Pavilion]] at [[Expo 2010]] is designed as a replica of the fort.<ref name=PakistanPavilion1>{{cite news|first=|last=|title=Pakistan Pavilion preview|url=http://en.expo2010.cn/c/en_gj_tpl_7.htm|work=Pavilion Archive|publisher= |date=17 April 2010||archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120224153521/http://en.expo2010.cn/c/en_gj_tpl_7.htm|archivedate=24 February 2012|deadurl=y|accessdate=17 May 2015}}</ref>

==History==

===Mughal and pre-Mughal era===
[[File:The Hazuri Bagh Pavilion(1870).jpg|thumb|A picture showing the Lahore Fort and Hazuri Bagh Pavilion in 1870.]]
[[File:Plan map of Lahore Fort 1911.jpg|thumb|Plan map of Lahore Fort, 1911]]
The origins of Lahore Fort are obscure and traditionally based on various myths<ref>G. Johnson, [[Christopher Bayly|C. A. Bayly]], and J F Richards (1988). The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-40027-9</ref> Its foundation is attributed to [[Loh (Ramayana)|Loh]], the mythical son of Lord [[Rama]].<ref name="Unesco"/> It is unknown when and who constructed the fort. The earliest reference about this fort is that in 1240s, it was destroyed by [[Mongols]]. After nearly 50 years, it was reconstructed by [[Ghiyas ud din Balban|Balban]] of [[Mamluk dynasty of Delhi|Mamluk dynasty]].<ref>Hamadani, p.103</ref> It was destroyed again around 1399 by the invading forces of Timur only to be rebuilt by Sultan Mubarak Shah Syed after 20 years.<ref>Khan, p.10</ref> In 1430s, the fort was occupied by Shaikh Ali of [[Kabul]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Punjab (India)|title=Punjab District Gazetteers, Volume 13|publisher=Controller of Print. and Stationery, 2002|page=26}}</ref> In 1575, [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor Akbar occupied the fort, which was used to guard the northwest frontier of the kingdom.<ref name="LF">Asher, p.47</ref> He rebuilt the fort with solid bricks and lime and over time lofty palaces were built to which additional beauty was lent by luxuriant gardens.<ref>Neville, p.xiv</ref> The other structures built by him included the ''Doulat Khana-e-Khas-o-Am'', ''Jharoka-e-Darshan'', and ''Masjidi Gate''. On the other hand, his structures were replaced by subsequent rulers.<ref>Chaudhry, p.258</ref> However the structures built by him "were replaced by subsequent rulers".<ref name="LF"/> [[Shah Jahan]] built the Shah Burj, the Sheesh Mahal and the Naulakha Pavilion. His son [[Aurangzeb]] built the entrance, Alamgiri Gate, which is flanked by semi-circular towers with domes pavilions.<ref>Bhalla, p.81</ref>

=== Sikh era ===
The fort was captured by the Maratha forces under Raghunathrao in 1758.<ref name="Emotional Literacy"/> Then the Bhangi Sikh Dynasty (1716–1810), one of the 12 Sikh Kingdoms of the Punjab ruled the city of Lahore from 1760 until 1799 and expanded the city. When [[Ranjit Singh]], another Sikh chief from the Gujranwala area, took Lahore from the Bhangi Misl the Lahore Fort fell to Ranjit Singh and in 1801 he was crowned as the emperor of all of the [[Punjab]].<ref name="Lulu"/> The fort and the city from 1799–1849 remained under the control of Ranjit Singh and his sons, grandsons, and wives until the fall of the last Sikh empire in 1849.<ref name="Abhinav Publications"/>

===Recent times===
Excavations in 1959 in front of Diwan-i-Am led to the discovery of a gold coin dated 1025 AD belonging to Mahmud of Ghazvani. The coin was unearthed at the depth of {{convert|25|ft|m}} from the lawn. The cultural layers were continuous to the depth of {{convert|15|ft|m|}} indicating that the fort was inhabited by people even before his conquest.

While relaying the deteriorated floor of Akbari Gate in April 2007, three floors in the fort were unearthed belonging to the British, Sikh and Mughal period. The floor of the British, Sikh and Mughal periods were constructed with bricks, burnt bricks and pebbles respectively. The latter either built during Jahangir’s or Shah Jahan’s era was the hallmark of Mughals.<ref name="Pak">{{cite web|title=Three floors revealed at Lahore Fort|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/244473/three-floors-revealed-at-lahore-fort|publisher=Dawn|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref>

In April 2006, it was reported that officials had urged [[UNESCO]] to remove the name of the fort from the list of endangered World Heritage Sites because of extensive restoration work funded by [[Norway]], [[Hong Kong]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Unesco urged to delist Lahore Fort|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/186988/unesco-urged-to-delist-lahore-fort|publisher=Dawn|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref>

Though in 1990, UNESCO had ordered the Punjab Archaeological Department to bar the use of the Fort for state or private functions on account of historical significance, a wedding reception was held in violation on December 23, 2010. The Antiquities Act of 1975, which prohibits the use of historical places to protect them from damage, was violated in the following month by hosting a dinner in the Diwan-i-Khas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Another function at Lahore Fort in violation of rules|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/601831/another-function-at-lahore-fort-in-violation-of-rules|publisher=Dawn|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref>

In April 2013 an exhibition of Sikh artefacts took place at the fort premises. It was titled Glorious Sikh Heritage under One Roof. Rare artefacts belonging to [[Ranjit Singh]]'s reign, agreement documents between the British and the Sikh, weapons, and jewellery were amongst the exhibits.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sikh artefacts on display at Lahore Fort|url=http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2013/04/19/city/lahore/sikh-artefacts-on-display-at-lahore-fort/|publisher=Pakistan Today|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref>

== Structures ==
The strategic location of Lahore city between the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal territories]] and the strongholds of [[Kabul]], [[Multan]], and [[Kashmir]] necessitated the dismantling of the old mud-fort and fortification with solid brick masonry.<ref>[http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=3991 Lahore Fort Complex]. Archnet Digital Library. Retrieved 7 March 2008</ref> The structure is dominated by [[Persian gardens]] influence that deepened with the successive refurbishments by subsequent [[Mughal era|emperors]].<ref>N A Chaudhry (1999). Lahore Fort: A Witness to History. Sang-e-Meel Publications. ISBN 969-35-1040-2</ref> The fort is divided into two sections: first the administrative section, which is well connected with main entrances, and includes gardens and ''Diwan-e-khas'' for royal audiences. The second, a private and concealed residential section is divided into courts in the north and accessible through elephant gate. It also contains Sheesh Mahal, spacious bedrooms and small gardens.<ref>Catherine E G Asher (1993) Architecture of Mughal India. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-26728-5</ref> The exterior walls are decorated with blue Persian Kashi tiles. The original entrance faces the [[Maryam Zamani Mosque]] and the larger Alamgiri gate opens towards Hazuri Bagh through the majestic [[Badshahi mosque]].<ref>A N Khan (1997). Studies in Islamic Archaeology of Pakistan Sang-e-Meel Publications</ref> Influence of Hindu architecture is seen in the zoomorphic corbels which does not show Mughal ones.<ref name="Unesco"/>

=== Diwan-i-Aam ===
The Diwan-i-Aam was the Hall of commons. It was built by [[Shah Jahan]] in 1628. The kings regularly had meetings with the common people in this hall. Its design is similar to the Diwan-i-Aam at the Agra Fort. The hall has forty pillars and was built in front of a balcony.<ref>Chaudhry p.181</ref> It was destroyed when a Sikh ruler [[Sher Singh]] bombarded the fort in his fight against Maharani [[Chand Kaur]], the wife of Mahraja Kharak Singh. It was later restored by the British in 1849.<ref name="Lahore"/>

=== Sheesh Mahal ===
[[File:July 9 2005 - The Lahore Fort-Close up of front of the Shish Mahal.jpg|thumbnail|Sheesh Mahal]]
The Sheesh Mahal{{refn|group=note|Sheesh Mahal is of Arabic origins meaning Hall of Mirrors.}} is the palace of mirrors and was built by Mirza Ghiyas Begh, the father of [[Mumtaz Mahal]] around 1631 during the rule of [[Shah Jahan]]. It consists of a spacious hall with several halls behind. This was the harem of the fort. There is a marble perforated screen in the rear chamber which is carved of tendril, floral and geometrical patterns. Pietra dura work can be seen on its walls.<ref name="Lahore"/>

=== Jahangir's Quandrangle ===
It is a quadrangle consisting of royal ladies quarters and harem. Its construction was started by [[Akbar]] and was ended by [[Jahangir]] in 1618. The buildings were constructed over subterranean chambers especially those in the northern, western and eastern borders. Its iwans typically represents the architecture during Akbar reign. The quadrangle measures 372 x 245 metres. The quadrangle has a garden called Chahar Bagh bordered by walkways and fountains. During the British period the quadrangle was modified to accommodate the officers according to requirements of the army.<ref name="LFF"/>

=== ''Khwabgah'' ===
Khwabgah was the bedroom of Shah Jahan. It was built by Shah Jahan under the supervision of Wazir Khan in 1634 during his first visit to the city.<ref name="Lahore"/> It is the first building built by Shah Jahan in the fort. At present its decorations have vanished except for a trace of the marble which once might have beautified the façade.<ref name="LFF"/>

=== Naulakha Pavilion ===
[[File:July 9 2005 - The Lahore Fort-Frontview of Naulakha pavallion.jpg|thumbnail|Naulakha Pavilion]]
The pavilion was built during the reign of Shah Jahan for a cost of 9 lakh rupees.<ref>{{cite book|author1=AB Rajput|title=Architecture in Pakistan|publisher=Pakistan Publications|page=9}}</ref> Situated in the west of Sheesh Mahal, the pavilion is rectangular in shape and prominent owing to its centrally arched and extraordinarily curved roof representing the unique feature of architecture during Shah Jahan reign.<ref>Koch, p.93</ref> It reflects a mixture of contemporary traditions at the time of its construction of sloping-roof from Bengal and Baldachin from Europe, which makes evident the imperial as well as religious image of the pavilion.<ref>Asher, p.180</ref> The marble shades of the pavilion are capped with merlons to hide view from the grounds.<ref>Nabi Khan, p.117</ref>

=== Moti Masjid ===
[[File:Moti Masjid.jpg|thumbnail|Moti Masjid]]
Moti Masjid{{refn|group=note|Moti Masjid is a word of Arabic origins meaning Pearl mosque}} is a 17th-century mosque built inside the fort during the reign of Shah Jahan. It is constructed of white marble brought from Makrana. The facade is composed of cusped arches and engaged baluster columns, which has smooth and fine contours. It has three domes, a raised central pishtaq and two aisles of five bays.Unlike other contemporary mosques, which have three arches, this mosque has five arches in the facade. During the rule of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, it was forcibly converted into a Sikh temple called Moti Mandir.<ref>{{cite web|title=Historical mosques of Lahore|url=http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2015/01/03/comment/historical-mosques-of-lahore/|publisher=Pakistan Today|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref>

=== Gates ===
[[File:Akbari-Gate-Lahore-Fort.jpg|thumbnail|Akbari Gate]]
[[File:Alamgiri Gate2.jpg|thumbnail|Alamgiri Gate]]

Mughal Emperor [[Akbar]] built two gates. Akbari Gate was built in 1566 and now called Masti Gate. One of Akbar's wives built a mosque outside the gate around 1614.<ref name="Lahore">{{cite web|title=Notable Buildings and Structures of Lahore Fort:|url=http://www.pakistantoursguide.com/lahore-fort.html|publisher=Pakistan Tourist Guide|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref> The other gate was replaced later by the Alamgiri Gate. The Alamgiri Gate is the entrance of the fort. It was built by Mughal emperor [[Aurangzeb]] in 1674.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mohammad Abdulhai Qureshi|title=Muslim Rule in Spain, Muslim Rule in India, Memories of Two Failures|publisher=Author House|isbn=9781456776152|page=58}}</ref> It has two semi-circular bastions where lotus petal design adorns at the base of it.<ref>Ancient India by Daud Ali, p.5</ref>

=== Sikh buildings ===
The Naag temple is a Sikh temple built by [[Chand Kaur]], the wife of [[Kharak Singh]] who was the son of the then ruling Maharaja [[Ranjit Singh]]. The temple is square in plan and built on a raised platform. Its exterior walls are covered with fresco paintings. The temple also has a water-melon shaped dome. As of September 2011, it is a no-go area for the public as officials consider that they can vandalize it by graffiti. It also required more security, which the government was unable to afford.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lahore Fort’s Naag Temple – a no-go area for public|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/657902/lahore-forts-naag-temple-a-no-go-area-for-public|publisher=Dawn|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref>

''Mai Jindan Haveli'' is of unknown origins and believed to be a Mughal structure but attributed to the Mai Jindan, Chand Kaur because of the extensive additions by the Sikhs. It is a two storied building where she is alleged to be murdered. Presently this building serves as a museum.<ref name="LFF"/> Kharak Singh Haveli was the ''haveli'' of Kharak Singh, the heir to Ranjit Singh. It lies in the south-east of the Jahangir's Quadrangle. It was later occupied by the British where the first and the ground floor were used as a Commandant's Quarters and godown and servants house respectively. Currently it houses the archaeological survey office.<ref name="LFF">{{cite web|title=Lahore Fort|url=http://www.ualberta.ca/~rnoor/lahore_fort.html|publisher=University of Alberta|accessdate=12 May 2015}}</ref>

=== Others ===
[[File:July 9 2005 - The Lahore Fort-Khilwat Khana close up.jpg|thumbnail|Khilwat Khana]]
Khilwat Khana was built by Shah Jahan in 1633 in the north of the Paen Bagh. It was the residence of the royal ladies of the court.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Camerapix|title=Spectrum guide to Pakistan|publisher=University of Michigan|isbn=9780816021260|page=259}}</ref> The plinth and door frames are made of marble with a curvilinear roof.<ref name="Lahore"/> In the northwest of Khilwat Khana, lies a watch tower called Kala Burj. It was used as a summer pavilion. The topmost storey was built and used as bar during the British era. Its eave is interlocked with brick work.<ref name="Lahore"/>
[[File:Kala Burj.jpg|thumbnail|Kala Burj]]

[[File:Makatib Khana (Secretariat), built by Jahangir in Lahore Fort.jpg|thumbnail|Maktib Khana]]
Maktib Khana was constructed under the supervision of Mamur Khan during the reign of Mughal Emperor Jahangir. It was used as the entrance gate to the fort by the clerks.<ref name="Lahore"/> Besides, the fort also houses separate bath for royal men and women.<ref name="LFF"/>

== World Heritage status ==
In 1980, Government of Pakistan nominated the fort for inclusion in [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] based on the criteria i, ii, and iii together with the [[Shalimar Gardens, Lahore|Shalimar]].<ref name="Unesco">{{cite web|title=International council on monuments and sites|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/171.pdf|publisher=UNESCO|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref> In the fifth meeting session held in [[Sydney]] in October 1981, the World Heritage Site committee added both the monuments to the list.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Heritage Committee Fifth session|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/repcom81.htm#171|publisher=UNESCO|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref> However in 2000, Pakistan sent a letter to the organization to include both the sites in List of World Heritage in Danger and sought help to restore the damaged part of the outer walls and hydraulic works of Shalamar Gardens.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Heritage Committee Twenty Fourth session|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/repcom00.htm#shalamar|publisher=UNESCO|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=Committee Decisions|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/2422|publisher=UNESCO|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref> After years of extensive renovation and restoration work, they were removed from the list in June 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=Establishment of the World Heritage List in Danger (Removed Properties)|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/4839|publisher=UNESCO|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Shalimar Garden, Lahore Fort not in danger anymore|url=http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2012/06/29/city/lahore/shalimar-garden-lahore-fort-not-in-danger-anymore/|publisher=Pakistan Today|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Pakistan]]
*[[ List of forts in Pakistan]]

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist|group=note|2}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Notes ==
*{{cite book|title = The Frontier Policy of the Delhi Sultans | publisher = Atlantic Publishers | author = Agha Hussain Hamadani | ISBN = 9694150035}}
*{{cite book|title = Lahore Fort | publisher = Department of Archaeology & Museums, Government of Pakistan, 1974 | author = Muhammad Ishtiaq Khan }}
*{{cite book|title = Architecture of Mughal India| publisher = Cambridge University Press | author = Catherine Blanshard Asher | ISBN = 9780521267281}}
*{{cite book|title = Lahore Fort: A Witness to History| publisher = Sang-e-Meel Publications| author = Nazir Ahmad Chaudhry| ISBN = 9789693510409}}
*{{cite book|title = Monuments, Power and Poverty in India: From Ashoka to the Raj| publisher = I.B.Tauris|author=A. S. Bhalla|ISBN=9781784530877}}
*{{cite book|title = Mughal Architecture: An Outline of Its History and Development| publisher =Prestel| author = [[Ebba Koch]] | ISBN = 3-7913-1070-4}}
*{{cite book|title = Studies in Islamic Archaeology of Pakistan| publisher =Sang-e-Meel Publications| author = Ahmed Nabi Khan | ISBN = 969-35-0717-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Pran Neville|title=Lahore : A Sentimental Journey|ISBN=9780143061977|publisher=Penguin Books}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Lahore Fort}}

{{Lahore Fort Complex}}
{{Walled City of Lahore}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Pakistan}}
{{Mughal Empire|state=collapsed}}
{{Cultural heritage sites in Punjab, Pakistan |state=autocollapse}}

[[Category:Lahore Fort| ]]
[[Category:Architecture of Lahore]]
[[Category:Defunct prisons in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Forts in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Islamic architecture]]
[[Category:Lahore]]
[[Category:Mughal fortress gardens in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Mughal architecture]]
[[Category:Royal residences in Pakistan]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Lahore]]
[[Category:Palaces in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Persian gardens in Pakistan]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Danger]]

Sex on the Beach 2

2015-05-20T08:21:55Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = The Inbetweeners 2
| image = Inbetweeners_2_Movie_Poster.jpg
| alt = Four young men in summer clothes strolling casually together in a desert
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = {{Plainlist|
* [[Damon Beesley]]
* [[Iain Morris]]}}
| producer = Spencer Millman
| writer = {{Plainlist|
* Damon Beesley
* Iain Morris}}
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Simon Bird]]
* [[James Buckley (actor)|James Buckley]]
* [[Blake Harrison]]
* [[Joe Thomas (actor)|Joe Thomas]]}}
| narrator = Simon Bird
| music = {{Plainlist|
* [[David Arnold]]
* [[Michael Price (composer)|Michael Price]]}}
| cinematography = Ben Wheeler
| editing = William Webb
| production companies = {{Plainlist|
* [[Film4 Productions]]
* [[Bwark Productions]]}}
| distributor = [[Entertainment Film Distributors]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2014|08|06}}
| runtime = 96 minutes<ref>{{cite web | url=http://bbfc.co.uk/releases/inbetweeners-2-film | title=''THE INBETWEENERS 2'' (15) | work=[[British Board of Film Classification]] | date=22 July 2014 | accessdate=24 January 2015}}</ref>
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| gross = $63.8 million<ref name=mojo>{{cite web|title=THE INBETWEENERS 2|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=intl&id=inbetweeners2.htm|publisher=[[Box Office Mojo]]|accessdate=1 October 2014}}</ref>
}}
'''''The Inbetweeners 2''''' is a 2014 British [[comedy film]] and [[sequel]] to ''[[The Inbetweeners Movie]]'' (2011), which is based on the [[E4 (TV channel)|E4]] sitcom ''[[The Inbetweeners]]''. It was written and directed by series creators [[Damon Beesley]] and [[Iain Morris]].

The film involves four school friends who meet up again for a holiday in [[Australia]], and stars [[Simon Bird]], [[Joe Thomas (actor)|Joe Thomas]], [[James Buckley (actor)|James Buckley]] and [[Blake Harrison]]. In media interviews, the film's writers and actors stated that it was to be an end to the series.

''The Inbetweeners 2'' was released on 6 August 2014 in the United Kingdom and the [[Republic of Ireland]],<ref name=facebook>{{cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/e4inbetweeners/photos/a.400883526036.174485.338950451036/10152253230136037/?type=1&stream_ref=10 |title=UK and Ireland Release Date |publisher=E4 Inbetweeners, Facebook Page |accessdate=15 March 2014}}</ref> to positive reception from critics. It surpassed the record of its predecessor for the highest gross on the opening day of a comedy in the UK, with £2.75 million,<ref name=telegraph>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/film-news/11018261/The-Inbetweeners-2-smashes-UK-box-office-records.html|title=The Inbetweeners 2 smashes UK box office records|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=7 August 2014|first=Jacob|last=Stolworthy}}</ref> and ended its first weekend with a gross of £12.5 million, the largest opening of any film in 2014,<ref name=biggest>{{cite news|title=The Inbetweeners 2 becomes UK's biggest film hit of 2014|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-28738708|accessdate=11 August 2014|work=[[BBC News]]|date=11 August 2014}}</ref> then remained on top for a second week.<ref name=carry/> With an overall gross of £33.3 million, it was the highest-grossing British film in the domestic market in 2014.<ref name=film2014>{{cite news|title=Lego Movie was top UK and Ireland film of 2014|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-30694365|accessdate=6 January 2015|work=[[BBC News]]|date=6 January 2015}}</ref> On 21 August, it was released in Australia, to a mixed reception, and topped the box office in its opening weekend.

==Plot==

[[Will McKenzie|Will]], [[Neil Sutherland|Neil]] and [[Jay Cartwright|Jay]]'s girlfriends have all broken up with them since the events of [[The Inbetweeners Movie|the last film]], and [[Simon Cooper (The Inbetweeners)|Simon]] is unhappy with his girlfriend Lucy, who has become [[stalking|obsessive]] and [[verbal abuse|abusive]]. Simon and Will are depressed and ostracised at university; Neil is working in a bank; and Jay is taking a gap year in [[Australia]]. He emails Neil when he and Simon visit Will, claiming that he is now a top DJ, owns a popular night club, lives in a luxury mansion, and has daily sex with multiple partners, convincing them to visit him in Australia for their Easter holidays.

Once they arrive at the club they find that Jay in fact only works as a toilet attendant. While at the club, Will meets Katie, an old friend from his private school days, who is [[Backpacking (travel)|backpacking]], and she convinces him to join her. It also emerges that Jay actually lives in a tent in the front garden of his uncle Bryan's house. Whilst there, Simon attempts to break-up with Lucy via a [[Skype]] call, but, to his horror, Bryan interferes and tricks Lucy into thinking Simon asked her to marry him, to which she accepts.

[[File:Byron Lighthouse looking south 2004-28-12.JPG|thumb|The four main characters drive to [[Byron Bay]], along with the backpackers]]
The next day, the four travel to a youth hostel in [[Byron Bay]] in a [[Peter Andre]]-themed car, as Will wants to follow Katie there. He attempts to become friends with one of the backpackers, Ben, but is unsuccessful when the backpackers quickly deduce that he is a tourist, rather than a "traveller". After arriving, Will [[Videotelephony|video chats]] his mother and notices that someone else is staying at their house, which she denies and subsequently hangs up.

The following day, the boys and the backpackers visit a water park, where Jay intends to find his ex-girlfriend, Jane. The park staff tell Jay that Jane has found a new job in the vast outback, but they don't know specifically where he can find her. Lucy tells Simon via Skype that Jane is working on a [[stud farm]] in the remote settlement of [[Birdsville]], and the boys intend to drive there. Will, however, decides to follow Katie instead. He struggles to fit in with the 'spiritual' activities of the travellers and discovers that Katie is seeing multiple people at once, launching him into one of his foul-mouthed tirades towards them, which leads Katie into having sex with Ben.

The next day, Will leaves the hostel and travels by plane to reunite with his friends. While driving to Jane's workplace, their car runs out of petrol in the middle of the desert and the four unsuccessfully attempt to find a source of water or help. Desperately thirsty, Simon resorts to [[urophagia|drinking Neil's urine]], but Neil is too [[dehydration|dehydrated]]. The group hold hands together as they realise that they will most likely die, but are rescued by Jane and her co-workers. It is revealed they have only been stranded for two hours. Jane realises how far Jay came to win her over again, and although she is touched by the gesture, she does not take him back.

Back at Jay's uncle's house, the boys find that their parents have travelled to find them after hearing of their 'near-death' experience. The boys are shocked to find Mr Gilbert (their old head of [[sixth form]] and Will's nemesis) there too, and Will's mother announces that she and Gilbert are in a relationship, to the abject horror of Will and amusement of the other three friends. Meanwhile, Jay finally shows some backbone and slaps his uncle for insulting Jane's weight, instigating a fight between his uncle and father. Over Skype, Lucy breaks-up with Simon because she is now in a relationship with his university 'best friend' Pete, which Simon responds to by cheering and abruptly hanging-up on her.

The four boys decide to travel to [[Vietnam]] in a montage during the film's credits. As they return to England, Neil begins a relationship with one of the travellers while Will's mother reveals that she and Gilbert are engaged. Will attempts to run back to the plane, but is wrestled to the ground by security.

==Cast==
[[File:The Inbetweeners Cast.jpg|thumb|From left to right: [[Joe Thomas (actor)|Joe Thomas]], [[Simon Bird]], [[James Buckley (actor)|James Buckley]] and [[Blake Harrison]]]]
{{Div col}}
* [[Simon Bird]] as [[Will McKenzie]]<ref name="cast">{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/movies/s121/the-inbetweeners/news/a536848/the-inbetweeners-movie-2-reveals-first-picture-from-australia.html|title=The Inbetweeners Movie 2 reveals first picture from Australia|last=Reynolds|first=Simon|work=[[Digital Spy]]|date=9 December 2013|publisher=[[Hearst Magazines UK]]|accessdate=20 January 2014}}</ref>
* [[James Buckley (actor)|James Buckley]] as [[Jay Cartwright]]<ref name="cast"/>
* [[Blake Harrison]] as [[Neil Sutherland]]<ref name="cast"/>
* [[Joe Thomas (actor)|Joe Thomas]] as [[Simon Cooper (The Inbetweeners)|Simon Cooper]]<ref name="cast"/>
* [[Emily Berrington]] as Katie Evans
* [[Belinda Stewart-Wilson]] as Polly McKenzie<ref name="cast"/>
* [[Tamla Kari]] as Lucy
* [[Freddie Stroma]] as Ben Thornton-Wild
* [[Lydia Rose Bewley]] as Jane
* [[David Schaal (actor)|David Schaal]] as Terry Cartwright
* [[Alex MacQueen]] as Kevin Sutherland
* [[Martin Trenaman]] as Alan Cooper
* [[Robin Weaver]] as Pamela Cooper
* [[Greg Davies]] as Mr. Phil Gilbert
* Oliver Johnstone as Kristian
* [[Susan Wokoma]] as Della
* Brad Kannegiesser as Jasper
* [[David Field (actor)|David Field]] as Uncle Bryan (''uncredited'')<ref name=keller/>
{{Div col end}}

[[Daisy Ridley]]'s scenes were cut from the final version.<ref name=telegraph/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/star-wars-7s-daisy-ridley-cut-inbetweeners-2-1459295/|title=Star Wars 7's Daisy Ridley cut from Invetweeners 2|last=Skipper|first=Ben|date=1 August 2014|work=[[International Business Times]]}}</ref>

==Production==
===Origin===
Although originally intended as an unambiguous ending to the television series, the unexpected popularity and box office success of ''The Inbetweeners Movie'' led to speculation over the possibility of a sequel. These rumours began in early September 2011, while the film was still in cinemas, and were denied by its writers and actors.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Inbetweeners deny a film sequel is already planned|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/14793923|accessdate=11 August 2014|work=[[BBC News]]|date=5 September 2011}}</ref> Around the same time, producer [[Christopher Young (producer)|Christopher Young]] openly recognised the possibility of another film based on the series, claiming that "if there is a sequel it will come from the creative elements ... We've talked about it. In the short term people are dispersing and doing other things but I'm sure in the medium term a sequel is very possible. It won't be immediate but it's definitely not closed."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.screendaily.com/news/uk-ireland/the-inbetweeners-movie-anatomy-of-a-uk-hit/5032152.article|title=The Inbetweeners Movie: Anatomy of a UK hit|last=Wiseman|first=Andreas|date=15 September 2011|publisher=Screendaily.com|accessdate=20 January 2014}}</ref> Co-writer [[Damon Beesley]] later admitted "we didn't know how successful it would be and that it would have a life on screen. But they did translate to big-screen characters, people did care about them and did go back and see it more than once – and that's very rare in cinema. The idea of not following that up seemed insane to most people".<ref name=keily>{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Keily|title=The Inbetweeners end their journey Down Under|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-28605945|accessdate=11 August 2014|work=[[BBC News]]|date=6 August 2014}}</ref> The actors had mixed emotions on making a sequel. Although Buckley and Thomas felt put off by the success of the first film, Harrison and Bird became convinced on reading the script.<ref name=keily/>

Iain Morris received inspiration for the film from his own experiences as a high school exchange student on Australia's [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]], describing it as "a place where people go to get drunk, pick some fruit and get drunk again".<ref name=Toomey>{{cite news|last1=Toomey|first1=Matthew|title=INTERVIEW – MEETING THE INBETWEENERS!|url=http://www.thefilmpie.com/index.php/blog-2/3263-interview-meeting-the-inbetweeners|accessdate=15 August 2014|work=The Film Pie|date=13 August 2014}}</ref>

===Development===
On 21 August 2012, it was announced that a sequel was in early stages of pre-production.<ref>{{cite web|title='Inbetweeners' movie sequel confirmed to be in the works|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/movies/s121/the-inbetweeners/news/a400709/inbetweeners-movie-sequel-confirmed-to-be-in-the-works.html|last=Eames|first=Tom|work=[[Digital Spy]]|date=21 August 2012|accessdate=4 August 2013}}</ref> On 8 November, it was announced by series creators Morris and Beesley that a script was being written and it was at "version 0.5"<ref>{{cite web|last=Lazarus |first=Susanna |url=http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2012-11-08/the-inbetweeners-movie-2-were-getting-close |title=The Inbetweeners Movie 2: "we're getting close..." |publisher=Radio Times |date=8 November 2012 |accessdate=20 January 2014}}</ref> On 1 May 2013, it was announced that, although nothing had been signed, a sequel was in the planning stage possibly set in [[Australia]] and to be released sometime in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en-gb.facebook.com/e4inbetweeners |title=The Inbetweeners | Facebook |publisher=En-gb.facebook.com |date= |accessdate=20 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=GORDON SMART, Showbiz Editor |url=http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/showbiz/bizarre/4909806/inbetweeners-movie-sequel.html |title=The Inbetweeners Movie 2: Boys go backpacking in Australia in sequel|publisher=The Sun|date=1 May 2013|accessdate=20 January 2014}}</ref>

On 2 August 2013, the sequel was officially confirmed for release in August 2014.<ref>{{cite news|title='The Inbetweeners Movie 2' officially confirmed for August 2014 release|url=http://www.nme.com/filmandtv/news/the-inbetweeners-movie-2-officially-confirmed-for/315278|accessdate=3 August 2013|newspaper=nme.com|date=2 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The Inbetweeners Movie 2 officially confirmed for August 2014 release|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/movies/s121/the-inbetweeners/news/a503482/the-inbetweeners-movie-2-officially-confirmed-for-august-2014-release.html|accessdate=3 August 2013|newspaper=digitalspy.co.uk|date=2 August 2013}}</ref> The series' [[Facebook]] page revealed on 15 March 2014 that the sequel would be released on 6 August 2014.<ref name=facebook/>

On 9 May 2014, a teaser trailer was released, in which the characters drive through the [[Outback]] and call an [[Aboriginal Australians|Aborigine]] a "fire [[wanker]]".<ref>{{cite news|last=Reynolds|first=Simon|title=The Inbetweeners 2 trailer is here: The gang go Down Under|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/movies/s121/the-inbetweeners/news/a569853/the-inbetweeners-2-trailer-is-here-the-gang-go-down-under.html#~oDSNrc9rCkDl7R|accessdate=10 May 2014|newspaper=[[Digital Spy]]|date=9 May 2014}}</ref> A second trailer, this time full length, was released on ''The Inbetweeners'' official Facebook page on 18 June, showing more of the storyline.<ref>{{cite news|title=Dear Facebook friends, Here's a little taste of what's to come on August 6th when we release The Inbetweeners 2.|url=https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?v=10152479332931037|accessdate=19 June 2014|work=[[Facebook]]|date=18 June 2014}}</ref>

===Filming===
[[File:Marree water tower.jpg|thumb|Parts of the film were shot in the isolated [[Outback]] settlement of [[Marree, South Australia]]<ref name=palmer/>]]
Filming began in [[Australia]] on 7 December 2013,<ref>{{cite news|title=What to expect from the Inbetweeners Movie 2.|url=http://entertainment.ie/cinema/news/What-to-expect-from-the-Inbetweeners-Movie-2/232329.htm|accessdate=7 December 2013|newspaper=entertainment.ie|date=2 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Production Starts Next Week On ‘The Inbetweeners Movie 2′|url=http://www.deadline.com/2013/12/global-showbiz-briefs-production-starts-next-week-on-the-inbetweeners-movie-2-tribeca-film-picks-up-palo-alto-more/|accessdate=7 December 2013|newspaper=deadline.com|date=3 December 2013}}</ref> before moving to the UK in January 2014.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Inbetweeners Movie 2 starts filming in Australia and creators reveal there will be 'kangaroos and possibly koalas' involved|url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/inbetweeners-movie-2-starts-filming-2875361|accessdate=7 December 2013|newspaper=mirror.co.uk|date=2 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.filmink.com.au/news/lsquothe-inbetweeners-movie-2rsquo-shooting-in-australia/ | work=[[Filmink]] | first=Eden | last=Caceda | title=‘The Inbetweeners Movie 2’ Shooting In Australia | date=10 December 2013}}</ref> Part of the film was shot in [[Marree, South Australia]], an isolated [[Outback]] settlement without mobile reception or Internet.<ref name=palmer>{{cite news|last1=Palmer|first1=Alun|title=The Inbetweeners 2 cast on getting back together: We don't have any other pals|url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/inbetweeners-2-cast-getting-back-3939604#.U-YUtuNdVrI|accessdate=9 August 2014|work=[[Daily Mirror]]|date=30 July 2014}}</ref>

[[Ben Palmer]], the director of the first ''Inbetweeners'' film, was involved with [[Simon Pegg]]'s film ''[[Man Up (film)|Man Up]]'', so Morris and Beesley directed ''The Inbetweeners 2''.<ref name=young/> Bird said that the actors were initially disheartened by the absence of Palmer, and nervous about the direction of Morris and Beesley due to their lack of experience in the position.<ref name=keily/>

Morris had considered filming the Australian scenes in [[South Africa]] due to the comparatively high costs in Australia, which despite a higher budget caused the sequel to have fewer resources than its predecessor.<ref name=keily/> While all locations for the first film had been within 10 minutes of the hotel, locations in the second were separated by a three-hour flight and nine-hour car journey.<ref name=keily/> During filming in the Outback, the Australian crew provided two doctors and 40 litres of IV fluid, although the only point in which a doctor was called was when Buckley thought that he was having a [[heart attack]], which was in reality [[indigestion]] from chips and [[lager]].<ref name=keily/> Beesley considered it "the maniac's choice of a film to be your first film".<ref name=keily/> The water park scenes were filmed at [[Wet'n'Wild Gold Coast]], which Thomas described as "some quite challenging scenes".<ref name=Toomey/>

When asked whether he ever felt averse to any material in the film due to perceived offence, Morris said that the crew's attitude was “let’s shoot everything, push it, and then if it feels like too much when we’re watching it, we can always pull it back in the editing room”.<ref name=Toomey/>

==Release==
The film [[premiere]]d at [[Leicester Square]], [[London]], on 5 August 2014. In attendance were guests including [[Beverley Knight]], [[Union J]] and [[Alex Zane]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Shenton|first1=Zoe|title=The Inbetweeners 2 premiere: Emily Berrington dazzles alongside co-stars on the red carpet|url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity-news/inbetweeners-2-premiere-emily-berrington-3995566#.U-YT1uNdVrI|accessdate=9 August 2014|work=[[Daily Mirror]]|date=5 August 2014}}</ref> In Australia it was distributed by [[Roadshow Entertainment]]<ref name=mojo/> and released on 21 August.<ref name=brisbane/> The same company took the film to [[New Zealand]] a week later.<ref name=mojo/>

===Box office===
''The Inbetweeners 2'' grossed £2.75 million on its opening day of 6 August 2014, surpassing its predecessor as the top grossing opening day in the UK for a comedy film.<ref name=telegraph/> By the end of its first weekend, it topped the UK box office with a gross of £12.5 million, surpassing ''[[Transformers: Age of Extinction]]'' (£11.7 million) as the largest UK opening in 2014; this, however, was less than the £13.2 million opening of ''The Inbetweeners Movie'' in 2011.<ref name=biggest/> It topped the box office for a second week, in which it grossed £9.83 million.<ref name="carry">{{cite news|title=Carry on in Oz: Inbetweeners 2 still at the top of UK box office|url=http://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2014/aug/19/inbetweeners-2-expendables-3-hector-happiness-uk-box-office|date=19 August 2014|work=[[The Guardian]]|accessdate=19 August 2014}}</ref> In its third week, it fell to second spot behind new release ''[[Lucy (2014 film)|Lucy]]''.<ref name=lucy>{{cite news|last1=Reynolds|first1=Simon|title=Scarlett Johansson's Lucy beats The Inbetweeners 2 to top UK box office|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/movies/news/a592674/scarlett-johanssons-lucy-beats-the-inbetweeners-2-to-top-uk-box-office.html|accessdate=26 August 2014|work=[[Digital Spy]]|date=26 August 2014}}</ref>

In its opening week in Australia, the film grossed $3.155 million in [[Australian dollars]], topping the box office and pushing ''[[Guardians of the Galaxy (film)|Guardians of the Galaxy]]'' into second place.<ref>{{cite news|title=Inbetweeners 2 pushes Guardians into No.2|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/latest-news/inbetweeners-2-pushes-guardians-into-no2/story-fn3dxiwe-1227036443016?nk=83b5842a52b75cdcf2ceee5440749eb2|accessdate=26 August 2014|work=[[The Australian]]|date=25 August 2014}}</ref> It fell to second place in its second week, with ''Guardians of the Galaxy'' returning to top spot.<ref>{{cite web|title=Box Office|url=http://www.urbancinefile.com/home/boxoffice.asp|publisher=Urban Cinefile|accessdate=9 September 2014}}</ref>

As of 12 October 2014, the film had made $55,652,783 in the United Kingdom, $6,598,273 in Australia, and $473,316 in New Zealand.<ref name=mojo/>

With an overall gross of £33.3 million, ''The Inbetweeners 2'' was the highest grossing British or Irish film in the domestic market in 2014, ahead of [[Paddington (2014 film)|''Paddington'']] (£27.9 million).<ref name=film2014/> It was the third highest grossing of any film in the UK and Ireland in 2014, after ''[[The Lego Movie]]'' and ''[[The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies]]''.<ref name=film2014/>

===Critical reception===
Of the thirty-four reviews surveyed by [[review aggregator]] [[Rotten Tomatoes]], 71% of reviews were positive.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/the_inbetweeners_movie_2/ | title=The Inbetweeners Movie 2 (2014) | work=[[Rotten Tomatoes]] | publisher=[[Flixster]]}}</ref> On [[Metacritic]], the film has a 55/100 rating based on 7 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.metacritic.com/movie/the-inbetweeners-2 | title=The Inbetweeners 2 | work=[[Metacritic]] | publisher=[[CBS Interactive]]}}</ref>

====United Kingdom====
{{Album reviews
| rev1 = ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''
| rev1Score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref name=collin>{{cite web|last=Collin|first=Robbie|title=The Inbetweeners 2, review: 'hysterically funny'|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/filmreviews/11013760/The-Inbetweeners-2-review-hysterically-funny.html|website=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=8 August 2014}}</ref>
| rev2 = ''[[Digital Spy]]''
| rev2Score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref name=digitalspy>{{cite web|last=Rawson-Jones|first=Ben|title=The Inbetweeners 2 review: It's knee-deep in hilarity|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/movies/s121/the-inbetweeners/review/a588824/the-inbetweeners-2-review-its-knee-deep-in-hilarity.html#~oMnfogadXbVcaD|website=Digital Spy|accessdate=8 August 2014}}</ref>
| rev3 = ''[[The Guardian]]''
| rev3Score = {{Rating|3|5}}<ref name=guardian>{{cite web|last=McCahill|first=Mike|title=The Inbetweeners 2 review – never quite shakes a resemblance to primetime E4|url=http://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/aug/06/inbetweeners-2-review-film|website=The Guardian|accessdate=8 August 2014}}</ref>
| rev4 = ''[[Daily Mirror]]''
| rev4Score = {{rating|4|5}}<ref name=mirror>{{cite web|last=Edwards|first=David|title=Inbetweeners 2 review: More of the foulest, filthiest and funniest jokes you'll ever witness|url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/inbetweeners-2-review-more-foulest-3997490#.U-UOAvldVyU|website=The Mirror|accessdate=8 August 2014}}</ref>
| rev5 = ''[[Daily Express]]''
| rev5Score = {{rating|2|5}}<ref name=express>{{cite web|last=Hunter|first=Allan|title=The Inbetweeners 2 review: Thinly plotted vehicle for bodily fluids and toilet humour|url=http://www.express.co.uk/entertainment/films/496337/The-Inbetweeners-2-film-review-and-trailer|website=Express|accessdate=8 August 2014}}</ref>
| rev6 = [[Empire (magazine)|''Empire'']]
| rev6Score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref name=empire>{{cite web|last1=Hewitt|first1=Chris|title=The Inbetweeners 2 Fwends reunited|url=http://www.empireonline.com/reviews/cinema/|website=Empire}}</ref>
| rev7 = ''[[Total Film]]''
| rev7Score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mottram|first1=James|title=The Inbetweeners 2 : Rhymes with 'there will be poo'|url=http://www.totalfilm.com/reviews/cinema/the-inbetweeners-2|website=Total Film}}</ref>
| rev8 = ''[[The Observer]]''
| rev8score = {{Rating|2|5}}<ref name=observer>{{cite news|last1=Romney|first1=Jonathan|title=The Inbetweeners 2 review – sequel to the box office smash|url=http://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/aug/10/the-inbetweeners-2-review-sequel-box-office-smash|accessdate=10 August 2014|work=[[The Observer]]|date=10 August 2014}}</ref>
| rev9 = [[Time Out (magazine)|''Time Out'']]
| rev9score = {{rating|1|5}}<ref name=time>{{cite news|last1=Huddleston|first1=Tom|title=The Inbetweeners 2|url=http://www.timeout.com/london/film/the-inbetweeners-2|accessdate=11 August 2014|work=[[Time Out (magazine)|Time Out]]|date=8 August 2014}}</ref>
}}
[[Robbie Collin]] of ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' gave the film four stars out of five, saying "Perhaps the biggest compliment you could pay the film, apart from that it’s by and large hysterically funny, is that it is unmistakably film-like, with a smoothly arcing plot and gross-out moments staged with the verve and ceremony of an action-movie set-piece."<ref name=collin/> In ''[[The Guardian]]'', Mike McCahill gave the film three stars. He found fault in its treatment of female characters, saying "Some of the abundant thought channelled into knob gags could have been diverted towards developing the boys' female counterparts beyond harpies and lust objects". Unlike Collin, he found ''The Inbetweeners 2'' to resemble a television show more than a film: "as with the first film, number 2 never quite shakes its resemblance to primetime E4, complete with ad-ready fadeouts and Walkabout interiors...couldn't the vehicles transporting them to the wider world display slightly more ambition?".<ref name=guardian/> Chris Hewitt of [[Empire (magazine)|''Empire'']] magazine gave the film four stars out of five, summing it up as "[[The Fantastic Four|The Fannytastic Four]] leave us on a poo-flecked, piss-soaked, sun-burned high that more than overcomes its familiar flaws to become a real contender for the year’s funniest film. Four star wankers".<ref name=empire/>

A negative review came from Graham Young of the ''[[Birmingham Mail]]'', who found the film's humour to be repetitive: "Damon Beesley and Iain Morris have both directed this sequel which lacks an emotional arc to create momentum...Yes, it can be funny, and you’d have to be a prude not to laugh...But the endless, alliterative phrases for sex and countless in-your-face sight gags dilute the characters and turn the mood wearingly lewd. Like [[Nick Frost]]’s ''[[Cuban Fury|The Cuban Fury]]'' [''sic''] earlier this year, ''The Inbetweeners 2'' takes a funny premise – and then ruins it."<ref name=young>{{cite news|last1=Young|first1=Graham|title=Film Review: The Inbetweeners 2 (15)|url=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/whats-on/film-news/film-review-inbetweeners-2-15-7573562|accessdate=8 August 2014|work=[[Birmingham Mail]]|date=6 August 2014}}</ref> Writing in ''[[The Observer]]'', Jonathan Romney gave the film two stars out of five, summing it up as "British TV comedy's favourite [[The Three Stooges|Four Stooges]] take another holiday, resulting in fountainous poo, pee and puke, rampant [[misogyny]], "ironic" rampant misogyny, rampant "irony", and that old ''[[Carry On (franchise)|Carry On]]'' staple, horror of sex (especially among the over-25s)". He however predicted that on the record of the first film, ''The Inbetweeners 2'' would be a financial success.<ref name=observer/> In [[Time Out (magazine)|''Time Out'']], Tom Huddleston gave the film one star out of five, saying "‘The Inbetweeners 2’ is riddled with contempt: for its characters, for its audience and most notably for the entire female gender. That a film in 2014 can still get away with depicting all women as either dumb, hapless sluts or ball-busting harridans is frankly unbelievable."<ref name=time/>

====Australia====
{{Album reviews
| rev1 = [[612 ABC Brisbane]]
| rev1Score = B+<ref name=brisbane/>
| rev2 = Urban Cinefile
| rev2Score = Mixed<ref name=keller/>
| rev3 = ''[[Herald Sun]]''
| rev3Score = {{Rating|1|5}}<ref name=herald/>
| rev4 = [[Quickflix]]
| rev4Score = {{rating|3|5}}<ref name=quick/>
| rev5 = FILMINK
| rev5Score = {{rating|3.5|5}}<ref name=filmink>{{cite news|last1=Esposito Doolan|first1=Ella|title=The Inbetweeners 2|url=http://www.filmink.com.au/reviews/the-inbetweeners-2-film/|accessdate=22 August 2014|work=FILMINK|date=19 August 2014}}</ref>
| rev6 = ''The Standard''
| rev6Score = {{rating|3|5}}<ref name=neal>{{cite news|last1=Neal|first1=Matt|title=Film review: The Inbetweeners 2|url=http://www.standard.net.au/story/2506283/film-review-the-inbetweeners-2/?cs=73|accessdate=22 August 2014|work=The Standard|date=22 August 2014}}</ref>
| rev7 = ''[[Sydney Morning Herald]]''
| rev7Score = {{rating|2.5|5}}<ref name=smh>{{cite news|last1=Hawker|first1=Philippa|title=The Inbetweeners 2 review: Foursome live the gap-year dream in Australia|url=http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/movies/the-inbetweeners-2-review-foursome-live-the-gapyear-dream-in-australia-20140820-1063zi.html|accessdate=22 August 2014|work=[[Sydney Morning Herald]]|date=20 August 2014}}</ref>
}}
In Australia, Matthew Toomey, a film critic for [[612 ABC Brisbane]], gave ''The Inbetweeners 2'' a B+. He said "Don’t expect a deep, underlying narrative. This is just a bunch of horny teenagers doing really dumb things. To each their own... but I was entertained. First and foremost, it shocked me – and that’s not easy given how many movies I watch. It pushes the envelope a lot further than I expected and I'd highly recommend seeing the film in a packed cinema. The audience reactions would be hilarious."<ref name=brisbane>{{cite news|last1=Toomey|first1=Matthew|title=REVIEW: THE INBETWEENRS 2|url=http://www.thefilmpie.com/index.php/review/3261-review-the-inbetweeners-2|accessdate=15 August 2014|work=The Film Pie|date=12 August 2014}}</ref> Louise Keller of Urban Cinefile wrote a mixed review, stating that the film takes a long time to "get going" due to a "silly establishment skit". However, she concluded that "there is genuine affection with which the filmmakers portray their characters and as a consequence, the level of offence is lessened to some degree".<ref name=keller>{{cite news|last1=Keller|first1=Louise|title=INBETWEENERS 2, THE|url=http://www.urbancinefile.com.au/home/view.asp?a=20555&s=Reviews|accessdate=17 August 2014|work=Urban Cinefile|date=16 August 2014}}</ref> Simon Miraudo of [[Quickflix]] gave the film three stars out of five, calling it "the biggest ribbing since ''[[The Simpsons]]'' invaded [Australia's] shores". Although opining that the film was "slightly more insensitive to its female leads than previous efforts", he concluded that a scene in which [[faeces]] chase Will down a waterslide "challenges ''[[Caddyshack]]'' for the mantle of 'Best Ever S*** in Water' gag".<ref name=quick>{{cite news|last1=Miraudo|first1=Simon|title=Unlucky country – 'The Inbetweeners 2' Review|url=http://www.quickflix.com.au/news/reviews/TheInbetweeners2|accessdate=22 August 2014|work=[[Quickflix]]|date=21 August 2014}}</ref>

In the ''[[Herald Sun]]'', Leigh Paatsch gave the film one star. He criticised the casting, describing the main characters as "supposed to be aged about 20 [but] played by blokes who all look as if they’re 30-plus, and carry on as if they’re not yet 10", and also found the film misogynistic, saying "the derogatory manner in which women are spoken of (and often depicted) is relentlessly, callously crass. Sometimes even hateful".<ref name=herald>{{cite news|last1=Paatsch|first1=Leigh|title=Small, grotty universe of the Inbetweeners lands in Australia for smutty, unfunny sequel|url=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/entertainment/movies/small-grotty-universe-of-the-inbetweeners-lands-in-australia-for-smutty-unfunny-sequel/story-fni0bv7o-1227031131370|accessdate=22 August 2014|work=[[Herald Sun]]|date=20 August 2014}}</ref> A mixed review from Philippa Hawker of the ''[[Sydney Morning Herald]]'' concluded "The Australian elements seem hastily inserted and incidental: the movie could have been set in any country that had a water park and a place to get lost. But as a hymn to male bonding, and an exploration of the comic possibilities of what happens when a turd hits a water slide, The Inbetweeners 2 is a precisely crafted, assured piece of work".<ref name=smh/>

===Home media===
''The Inbetweeners 2'' was released on [[DVD]] and [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]] in the United Kingdom on 1 December 2014.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Walsh|first1=Ben|title=DVD and Blue-ray film reviews: From Peaky Blinders to The Inbetweeners 2|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/reviews/dvd-and-blueray-film-reviews-from-peaky-blinders-to-the-inbetweeners-2-9889671.html|accessdate=1 December 2014|work=[[The Independent]]|date=28 November 2014}}</ref> A DVD edition also including the first film was released at the same time.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Inbetweeners Movie 1 & 2 [DVD]|url=http://www.amazon.co.uk/The-Inbetweeners-Movie-Simon-Bird/dp/B00O58MD4E|publisher=[[Amazon.com]]|accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref>

The DVD featured two [[Audio commentary|audio commentaries]] — one with Morris and Beesley and the other by the four lead actors — in addition to a behind-the-scenes featurette, [[deleted scene]]s, and a [[blooper]] reel.<ref>{{cite web|title=the inbetweeners 2|url=http://www.channel4store.co.uk/films/the-inbetweeners-2/17015#.VL7RM0esUQU|publisher=[[Channel 4]]|accessdate=20 January 2015}}</ref> The film's release on home media was sponsored by [[STA Travel]], who offered a prize of a holiday to the Australian state of [[Queensland]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Win An Epic Adventure to Queensland!|url=http://www.statravel.co.uk/the-inbetweeners-2.htm|publisher=[[STA Travel]]|accessdate=20 January 2015}}</ref>

==Legacy==
At its premiere on 5 August 2014, Bird said of the film:<ref name=telegraph/>

{{cquote|Once you see the film you'll see it feels like they've all moved on with their lives, so unfortunately this is it. It's a great way to say goodbye.}}

In an interview with the BBC, Thomas said that Morris and Beesley had been "very adamant" that the series had finished. On his co-stars, he added "There is a bond there that I think would be a stupid thing to waste. You don't get that bond very often with other performers and we do have it and it's a valuable thing".<ref name=keily/>

In the same interview, when asked whether the series had finished, both co-creators answered with a simultaneous "Yes!". Morris expressed that "I think the time is right. After the first film, I wanted to hear more from Jay, Will, Neil and Simon. But this time I feel there is enough. There is more than enough Jay in this world", and Beesley added "The end of the story has always felt like the time where they go off and start living their adult life. And I think this film takes us up to that point".<ref name=keily/>

''The Inbetweeners 2'' was blamed for an increase in a craze known as "logging", deliberate [[defecation]] in swimming pools to distress other guests.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Falk|first1=Ben|title=INBETWEENERS 2 INSPIRES DISGUSTING 'LOGGING' CRAZE|url=https://au.movies.yahoo.com/on-show/article/-/24759872/inbetweeners-2-inspires-disgusting-logging-craze/|accessdate=26 August 2014|publisher=Yahoo|date=20 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Disgusting Inbetweeners movie stunt sees 'logging' craze feature at holiday resorts|url=http://www.bathchronicle.co.uk/Disgusting-Inbetweeners-stunt-begins-logging/story-22718625-detail/story.html|accessdate=26 August 2014|work=[[Bath Chronicle]]|date=13 August 2014}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Film|Comedy|Australia}}
* [[List of films based on British sitcoms]]
* [[List of 2014 box office number-one films in the United Kingdom]]
* [[List of 2014 box office number-one films in Australia]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|3097204|The Inbetweeners 2}}
* {{mojo title|inbetweeners2|The Inbetweeners 2}}
* {{rotten-tomatoes|the_inbetweeners_movie_2|The Inbetweeners 2}}
* {{metacritic film|the-inbetweeners-2|The Inbetweeners 2}}

{{The Inbetweeners}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Inbetweeners Movie 2, The}}
[[Category:The Inbetweeners]]
[[Category:2014 films]]
[[Category:2010s comedy films]]
[[Category:2010s teen films]]
[[Category:British films]]
[[Category:British comedy films]]
[[Category:British independent films]]
[[Category:British teen films]]
[[Category:English-language films]]
[[Category:Films based on television series]]
[[Category:Films set in Bristol]]
[[Category:Films set in Australia]] 
[[Category:Films set in Sydney]]
[[Category:Films set in Vietnam]]
[[Category:Films shot in Australia]]
[[Category:Films shot in London]]
[[Category:Road movies]]
[[Category:Teen comedy films]]
[[Category:Film4 Productions films]]
[[Category:Sequel films]]

Camber Castle

2015-05-19T16:42:11Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2013}}

{{Infobox military structure
|name = Camber Castle
|location = [[East Sussex]], [[England]]
|coordinates =
|image = [[File:Camber Castle, seen from the north-west.jpg|250px]]
|caption = Camber Castle, seen from the north-west
|map_type = East Sussex
|latitude = 50.93305
|longitude = 0.73248
|map_size = 250
|map_alt =
|map_caption = Shown within [[East Sussex]]
|type = [[Device Fort]]
|materials = Yellow and grey [[sandstone]], [[brick]]
|height = {{convert|18|m}}
|condition = Ruined
|ownership = [[English Heritage]]
|open_to_public = Yes
|controlledby =
|battles =
|events =
}}

'''Camber Castle''', also known formerly as '''Winchelsea Castle''', is a 16th-century [[Device Fort]], built near [[Rye, East Sussex|Rye]] by King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] to protect the [[Sussex]] coast of England against French attack. The first fortification on the site was a small, round [[artillery tower]], constructed by Henry between 1512 and 1514, overlooking [[the Camber]] [[Anchorage (shipping)|anchorage]] and the entrance to [[Rye Harbour]]. In 1539, increasing tensions with France encouraged Henry to rethink his coastal defence plans, and Camber Castle was rebuilt and extended over the next year under the direction of the [[Moravia]]n engineer, [[Stefan von Haschenperg]]. The results were considered unsatisfactory and further work was carried out from 1542 to 1543, at great expense, to rectify the problems. The result was a large, [[concentric castle|concentric]] artillery fort, with a central [[keep]], surrounded by four circular [[bastion]]s and a circular entrance bastion, built from stone and brick.

The finished castle was initially equipped with 28 [[brass]] and iron [[artillery]] guns and a garrison of 28 men, commanded by a captain. It may have seen service in 1545 when a French fleet attacked the coast, but its operational value was short lived. The Camber and the surrounding harbours began to [[Siltation|silt up]], becoming unusable by shipping, and the coastline receded away from the fort, eventually placing it well in-land. Furthermore, the fort had been superseded by newer European military designs even before it had been completed, and peace with France later in the century removed much of the requirement for the fort. The castle still remained operational up until 1637, when it was closed by King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]. With the outbreak of [[English Civil War|civil war]] in 1642, much of the fortification was dismantled by [[Roundheads|Parliamentary forces]] to prevent it being used by the [[Cavaliers|Royalists]].

The ruins became a popular spot for picnics in the 18th and 19th centuries, and was painted by [[J. M. W. Turner]]. Plans to redevelop the castle as a [[Martello tower]] or as a clubhouse for a local [[golf course]] came to nothing, although the property was used in the [[Second World War]], probably as an early warning site. Archaeological interest in the fort increased after the war and in 1967 it was taken into the guardianship of the state, the property being bought from the private owners in 1977. It is now operated by [[English Heritage]], who reopened it to visitors after an extensive programme of conservation between 1968 and 1994. The fort is an unusual example of an unmodified Device Fort and is protected under UK law as a [[Grade I listed building]].

==History==
===16th – 17th centuries===
====Initial tower, 1512–14====
[[File:Camber Castle and environment in the late medieval period.png|thumb|300px|[[The Camber]] in the late medieval period. Key: A – Rye; B – the Camber anchorage: C – Camber Castle on Kevill Point; D – Winchelsea; dotted areas – sand dunes and banks ]]
Camber Castle was built approximately {{convert|1.5|km}} between the ports of [[Rye]] and [[Winchelsea]] on the south coast of England, overlooking a body of water called [[the Camber]], at the mouth of the [[River Brede|Brede]], [[River Rother, East Sussex|Rother]] and [[River Tillingham|Tillingham]] rivers.<ref name="biddle1">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=1}}</ref> The two towns were part of the [[Cinque Ports]], a strategic chain of maritime towns responsible for providing ships to the king's navy, although Winchelsea's harbour had [[Siltation|silted up]] by the 16th century, limiting its utility, and similar problems were beginning to impact the port of Rye.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=4–5, 7–8, 333}}</ref> The mouth of the Camber had also begun to silt up in the late medieval period, although in this case the process had created an important new [[Anchorage (shipping)|anchorage]] for ships.<ref name="biddle1"/>

The first fortification at Camber may have been built shortly after 1486 by Sir [[Richard Guildford|Richard Guldeford]], the [[Master-General of the Ordnance|Master of the Ordnance]], who was given the manor of [[Higham, Kent|Higham]] by King [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] in exchange for Richard constructing a tower to protect the anchorage.<ref name="biddle21">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=21}}</ref> There is no surviving evidence, however, to show if a tower was in fact built as Guldeford had promised, and Henry VII did not invest much in his coastal defences during the rest of his reign.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=11, 21}}</ref> Many castles across England were left in poor repair, often considered to be outdated and too expensive to maintain.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=333}}</ref>

[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] became king in 1509 and began to follow a more aggressive policy towards neighbouring France than his father.<ref name="biddle11">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=11}}</ref> Tensions increased and in 1512 Henry ordered the construction of an [[artillery tower]] and a new bridge at Camber.<ref name="biddle21"/> The work was carried out by Edward Guldeford, Richard's son, and cost £1,309 over the next two years.<ref name="biddle21"/>{{efn|name=Money16thC|Comparing 16th century costs and prices with those of the modern period is challenging. £1,309 in 1512 could be equivalent to between £863,000 and £355 million in 2013 prices, depending on the price comparison used, £5,660 in 1539 to between £3.33 million and £1,080 million, and £10,000 in 1542 to between £5.27 million and £1,730 million. The £171 repairs in 1584 could equate to between £44,400 and £11.9 million. For comparison, the total royal expenditure on all the Device Forts across England between 1539–47 came to £376,500, with St Mawes, for example, costing £5,018, and Sandgate £5,584.<ref name="biddle12">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=12}}</ref>}} The resulting circular stone tower was {{convert|64|ft}} across and around {{convert|30|ft}} high, occupying the shingle spit of Kevill Point and controlling the Camber and the port of Rye.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=1, 9, 21}}</ref> It would have provided relatively limited facilities and living accommodation, and was probably not permanently garrisoned.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=336}}</ref>

Despite being an artillery tower with a flat roof to carry heavy guns, the tower was not initially supplied with any artillery and was therefore unable to protect Rye against the hostile naval expeditions which attacked the coast in the 1520s.<ref name="biddle2001">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=21, 32, 52, 336}}</ref> After many letters to from Guldeford to the [[Lord Chancellor]], Cardinal [[Thomas Wolsey]], some guns finally arrived around 1536 in the form of [[wrought iron]] [[Serpentine (cannon)|serpentines]].<ref name="biddle2001"/> Prescient concerns began to be raised in the mid-1530s about whether the Camber might silt up further and ultimately become unusable as an anchorage.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=22}}</ref>

====Concentric design, 1539–40====
[[File:Inner Tower, Camber Castle - geograph.org.uk - 361150.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[keep]], based on the original artillery tower]]
In 1539 the threat of invasion from France and Spain grew and Henry issued orders for his coastal defences to be improved, creating a sequence of fortifications called the [[Device Forts]] across England.<ref name="biddle11"/> These were intended to carry artillery pieces able to engage enemy naval vessels should they approach the coast, and to deter any enemy landings.<ref>{{harvnb|Lowry|2006|p=12}}</ref> As part of this programme of work, Camber Castle was considerably expanded at a cost of £5,660.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=12, 22}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC}}

The first phase of this work took place from 1539 until autumn 1540.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=11, 22, 89}}</ref> The [[Moravia]]n engineer [[Stefan von Haschenperg]] was responsible for the design of the fort, being paid the substantial salary of £75 a year for his work on this and other similar projects, including [[Calshot Castle|Calshot]], [[Hurst Castle|Hurst]], [[Sandgate Castle|Sandgate]] and [[Sandown Castle, Kent|Sandown]].<ref>{{harvnb|Walton|2010|pp=68, 71}}; {{harvnb|Lowry|2006|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=25}}</ref> Philip Chute, John Fletcher and William Oxenbridge, all prominent local men, served as the commissioners for the project, Oxenbridge becoming the pay master.<ref name="biddle25">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=25}}</ref> Finding sufficient numbers of workmen was difficult and some had to be pressed into service unwillingly.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=28}}</ref> More artillery pieces were sent to the castle ahead of the work being completed, and were probably installed in temporary battery positions around the castle site.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=32}}</ref>

Initially the old tower was converted into a stronger [[keep]] which was able to support artillery guns on its roof, a [[gatehouse]] was built alongside it, four stirrup towers – so-called because of their shape – a curtain wall was constructed around the outside of the castle, and [[bastion]]s erected around the wall.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=55–56, 344}}</ref> Towards the end of this phase of work the castle was altered in a frantic burst of work, possibly driven on by pressure from the King himself.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=31, 60, 337}}</ref> The height of the curtain wall was increased, the gatehouse extended into an entrance bastion, a new network of underground passages installed, and foreworks added around the outside of the bastions.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=31, 60}}</ref> By the end of 1540 the castle was garrisoned with 17 men and equipped with artillery, with Chute appointed as its captain.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=32, 34, 89}}</ref>

The result was a [[Concentric castle|concentric fortress]], which von Haschenperg had hoped would combine the best of Italian military architecture, able to carry heavy guns but with a low profile to protect against any incoming artillery fire.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=31}}</ref> Various flaws rapidly became apparent. The castle's design had focused on defence, with the result that the guns could not easily be brought to bear on enemy vessels, which had been the original intent of building the fortification by the Camber; some of the angles of fire from the defences were blocked by the entrance and the high [[water table]] may have caused serious [[Damp (structural)|damp problems]] on the ground floor.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=333, 336, 344}}</ref> Furthermore, the design was different from the other Device Forts constructed across the region and would have stood out as unusual and not in keeping with the King's general intent for the chain of forts.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=333, 336}}</ref>

====Redeveloped concentric design, 1542–43====
[[File:Camber Castle from the air.jpg|thumb|250px|The castle's [[Concentric castle|concentric design]] seen from the air]]
As a result of the problems with the original design, in summer 1542 work recommenced on the castle, well after the initial invasion scare was over, lasting until August 1543.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=11, 22, 32, 89}}</ref> The decision to rectify the problems with the castle may have been taken by King Henry himself.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=33}}</ref> Oxenbridge appears to have stayed on as the pay master and acted as the master of the works, with von Haschenperg remaining in his role as engineer almost until the end of the project, despite the difficulties with his earlier work.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=32–33}}</ref> The cost of the second phase of work was much higher than the first, around £10,000.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=12, 25}}</ref>{{efn|name=Money16thC}}

The design was rather different to von Haschenperg's first castle.<ref name="biddle1"/> The keep and the stirrup towers were raised in height, the level of the floors elevated, the curtain wall was strengthened, the old bastions entirely removed and four new, larger bastions added in their place, while the older foreworks around the castle were demolished.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=29, 89}}</ref> The keep's flat roof was altered to a pitched design, and the guns that it had supported moved into the outlying bastions.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=344}}</ref> Although the size of the castle had slightly decreased, the new design had much more domestic space available for the garrison.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=338}}</ref>

In practice, even the revised design ignored the acute-angled bastions which had been introduced in Europe, the round towers creating numerous patches of dead ground around the castle into which its guns could not fire; the high walls presented a greater target, the internal design was complicated and it remained difficult to move around inside the fort.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=40}}; {{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=22}}</ref> Indeed, the historian Peter Harrington describes the final design as even "more archaic than its predecessor".<ref>{{harvnb|Harrington|2007|p=22}}</ref> Chute's role was extended to become the Keeper and Captain of Camber, and the Keeper of the Waters of Camber and Puddle in January 1544, for which he was paid two [[shilling]]s a day.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=34}}</ref> Haschenperg left England in disgrace in 1544, facing complaints that he was "a man who will pretend more knowledge than he hath indeed".<ref>{{harvnb|Walton|2010|pp=71, 84}}; {{harvnb|Hale|1983|p=74}}</ref>

The bulk of the stone for the two phases of the project was acquired by [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|demolishing monastic buildings]] in Winchelsea, and by purchases it from the nearby [[Fairlight, East Sussex|Fairlight]] and [[Hastings]] quarries.<ref name="biddle25"/> Higher quality stone was bought from [[Mersham]] in [[Hampshire]], and from various suppliers in [[Normandy]].<ref name="biddle25"/> Timber was acquired from [[Udimore]], [[Appledore, Kent|Appledore]] and [[Knell]], the latter two lumber-felling operations being run directly by the Camber project team.<ref name="biddle26">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=26}}</ref> [[Chalk]] was brought from [[Dover]] to manufacture [[Hydraulic lime|lime]], and at least 16,000 bricks initially purchased to make the necessary [[kiln]]s, with possibly over 500,000 further bricks being manufactured locally as the work progressed.<ref name="biddle26"/> Steel, iron and tiles were bought locally in Sussex, along with a {{convert|10|MT}} crane for the project's quay.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=26, 28}}</ref>

====Operational use====
[[File:Mary Rose Guns ForeBronzeCulverin RearWroughtIronCannon.png|thumb|left|A replica 16th-century English bronze [[culverin]] (near) and an iron [[portpiece]]]]
The castle was already obsolete by the time it had been completed, as European military design had moved beyond curved bastions, embracing the angular designs seen in the later [[star forts]].<ref name="biddle1"/> Nonetheless, it remained operational as an artillery fort for the rest of the century, with an initial garrison in 1540 of 24 men under the command of Chute, rising to 28 men and the captain after 1542.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=1, 35}}</ref> Although it had been fitted with [[gunloop]]s for [[handgun]]s from the very start, the castle initially relied heavily on archers for its own protection against attack from the land.<ref name="biddle345">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=345}}</ref> It had stocks of 140 [[longbow]]s and 560 sheaves of arrows in 1568, for example, probably for use by the local militia in the event of a war.<ref name="biddle345"/> [[Polearm]]s were also stored there in considerable numbers, again probably for use by the militia.<ref name="biddle345"/>

Initially the fort was equipped with between 26 and 28 artillery pieces, including brass [[demi-cannon]]s, [[culverin]]s, [[demi-culverin]]s and a [[falcon]], and wrought-iron guns, such as [[portpiece]]s, [[Base (cannon)|bases]] and [[Sling (cannon)|sling]]s.<ref name="biddle42">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=42}}</ref> After 1568, the castle typically held around nine or ten guns for most of the 16th century, including cannons, demi-cannons, culverins and demi-culverins.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=3, 42}}</ref> Brass guns could fire more quickly, up to eight times an hour, and were safer to use than their iron equivalents.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=46}}</ref> It is uncertain how far the castle's guns could have reached; analysis carried out in the 16th and 17th century on the ranges of artillery suggested that a culverin, for example, could hit at a target up to between {{convert|1600|m}} and {{convert|2743|m}} away.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=44–46}}</ref>

In July 1545, the French carried out a raid at nearby [[Seaford, East Sussex|Seaford]], and the castle may have seen action against the French fleet.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=33, 35}}</ref> Soon, however, silt began to block the entrance to the Camber, threatening its use as an anchorage.<ref name="biddle39">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=39}}</ref> Complaints were made to [[Parliament]] about the situation in 1548, and the authorities in Rye expressed fears in 1573 that the Camber was damaged beyond repair.<ref name="biddle39"/> By the end of the century, the reclamation of the surrounding marshes and the dumping of ballast by passing ships had accelerated the natural processes and the anchorage was ruined.<ref name="biddle39"/> The surrounding region was also less strategically important than it had once been: towns like Winchelsea and Rye were in decline, peace had been made with France in 1558 and military attention shifted towards the Spanish threat to the south-west of England.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=40}}</ref>{{efn|Some historians have been critical of Henry's expenditure on forts such as Camber, R. Allen Brown, for example, arguing that "the whole thing, was characteristically, a waste of money".<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|1989|p=71}}</ref>}}

The castle was garrisoned from 1553 onwards by between 26 to 27 men, including 17 gunners; they were led by a captain, Thomas Wilford having taken over this role by 1570.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=35–36}}</ref> As the century went on, the castle became difficult to maintain.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=121}}</ref> By 1568 the gun platforms were reported to be in "utter Ruing and decay", with repairs projected to be likely to cost around £60, although it is unclear whether the repairs were carried out.<ref name="biddle35">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=35}}</ref> Tensions between Spain and England rose, and in 1584 Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] spent £171 on repairs to the castle amid fresh fears of an invasion.<ref name="biddle35"/>{{efn|name=Money16thC}} [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|War broke out]] the next year, and in 1588, the year of the [[Spanish Armada]], a [[Jesuit priest]] called Father Darbysher, and Roger Walton, a spy in the pay of the Spanish, made plans to hand over the castle to an invading force of French and Spanish soldiers, although the conspiracy never came to fruition.<ref name="biddle35"/>

In 1593 there was a fresh crisis with Spain and the brass guns needed for the English navy were in short supply.<ref name="biddle5">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=39, 44}}</ref> Brass artillery pieces were therefore rounded up from the forts along the south coast, including Camber.<ref name="biddle5"/> The number of guns at the castle remained around the same, but the larger, brass culverins and demi-cannon were removed, being replaced with smaller iron demi-culverins, [[saker (cannon)|saker]]s and a [[Minion (cannon)|minion]].<ref name="biddle5"/> In 1594 another royal survey suggested that £95 of repair work was needed on the fortifications.<ref name="biddle35"/>

===17th – 19th centuries===
====Closure and English Civil War====
Camber Castle went through several changes at the start of the 17th century. In 1610, Peter Temple was appointed as captain of the castle, and between 1610 and 1614 the garrison was reduced to 14 soldiers, including only 4 gunners, either as an effort to reduce costs or as a result of the changing types of artillery kept at the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=35, 345}}</ref> The north and south bastions were filled in to form solid gun platforms around approximately 1613 and 1615, and an earth [[rampart (fortification)|rampart]] called the Rampire was built up against the south corner of the castle.<ref name="biddle6">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=35, 37, 123}}</ref> These solid bastions would have sacrificed living space, less in demand with a smaller garrison, but been much cheaper to maintain.<ref name="biddle6"/>{{efn|The dating of the infilling of the bastions is uncertain from the documentary sources, although the archaeological deposits, combined with the documentary sources, has led English Heritage to propose the 1613–15 date range for the work.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=35, 37}}</ref>}} Longbows fell out of use in warfare as archery in England declined, and were replaced by [[arquebuse]]s and [[musket]]s, 46 of which were kept at the castle in 1614.<ref name="biddle345"/>

Sir John Temple took over as captain in 1615, being replaced by Robert Bacon by 1618.<ref name="biddle35"/> The fortification was now both antiquated and too far from the receding sea to be useful.<ref name="biddle1"/> In 1623 it was suggested that the castle should be closed, and King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] was briefed on the dilapidated condition of the fortification, which was now reportedly around {{convert|2|miles}} from the sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=40–41}}</ref> The local towns campaigned to keep the castle operational but in 1636 Charles issued an instruction to demolish it; the garrison, by now led by Captain Thomas Porter, left the next year, followed by the artillery.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=35, 41}}</ref>

When [[English Civil War|civil war]] broke out in 1642 between the supporters of Charles and those of Parliament, Camber Castle had not been entirely closed and was being used as a royal munitions store.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=41}}</ref> The citizens of Rye sided with Parliament, which agreed that the weapons and stores in the castle should be removed and taken to the town for safe-keeping.<ref name="biddle42"/> Concerned that it might be seized by Royalist forces, Parliament went on to dismantle the castle over the next year, stripping the [[lead]] from the roof, blocking up the gunports and demolishing the living accommodation.<ref name="biddle42"/> As a result, Camber Castle was not used by the Royalists during the [[Second English Civil War]] in 1648, despite several other of the Device Forts along the south coast being occupied.<ref name="biddle42"/>

====Ruins====
[[File:Camber Castle, 1785.png|thumb|Engraving of the castle ruins in 1785]]
After the [[Restoration (England)|Restoration]] of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] to the throne in 1660, a royal survey of the castle found the fortification to be in ruins.<ref name="biddle42"/> An increasing number of visitors came to see the castle in the 18th and 19th centuries, with the north-east corner becoming a popular site for picnics.<ref name="biddle133">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=133}}</ref> Writing in 1785, the [[antiquarian]] [[Francis Grose]] attributed the decline of the fortification to the changes in the local harbours and the superiority of the [[British Navy]] in protecting the coasts, observing that the castle's architecture "clearly shew the low state of military architecture" during the 16th century in England.<ref>{{harnvb|Grose|1785|p=190}}</ref>

In response to the threat posed by France during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], Lieutenant Colonel John Brown surveyed the castle in 1804 to examine whether the central keep could be turned into a [[Martello tower]], a type of circular gun tower popular during this period.<ref name="biddle7">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Shanes|2008|pp=162–163}}</ref> The scheme was not taken forward, although the defences of the surrounding coast line were much improved by the government.<ref name="biddle7"/> The painter [[J. M. W. Turner]] visited between 1805 and 1807 during the middle of this work, later depicting the castle in landscape paintings and sketches of the area.<ref>{{harvnb|Shanes|2008|pp=162–163}}</ref>

===20th – 21st centuries===
[[File:Camber Castle - geograph.org.uk - 363508.jpg|thumb|left|An aerial view of the castle (centre), with the [[River Brede]] (left), the modern Castle Water (right) and Rye Harbour (top right)]]
At the start of the 20th century Camber Castle and the surrounding farmland remained in private ownership and open to visitors.<ref name="biddle12"/> In the 1931 there was a proposal to turn the keep into a golf clubhouse but the project was not taken forward and the facility was built at the nearby Castle Farm instead.<ref name="biddle8">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=12–13}}</ref> A research team from the [[Victoria County History]] project visited the castle in 1935, resulting in the first – albeit cursory – historical analysis and survey of the fortification being published two years later.<ref name="biddle8"/>

By the 1940s, the castle structures were mostly covered with rubble and debris, interwoven with pathways created by the movement of visitors over the years.<ref name="biddle9">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=13}}</ref> During the [[Second World War]], the castle was used by the [[British Army]], possibly as an early warning site fitted with [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft]] [[searchlight]]s.<ref name="biddle133"/> In an area just to the north of the castle, the [[Starfish site|Starfish]] and Naval decoy sites were created to distract incoming [[Luftwaffe|German bombers]] from the town of Rye itself.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=MES2299&resourceID=1026|title=Camber Castle|publisher=Heritage Gateway|mode=cs2|accessdate=9 April 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=419206|title=Camber Castle|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|accessdate=9 April 2015}}</ref> Trenches were dug in the north bastion, and military training may have been conducted around the outskirts of the castle.<ref name=ListEntry>{{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1014632|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|accessdate=9 April 2015}}</ref>

In the post-war years, [[archaeology|archaeological]] interest in the castle grew. From 1951 onwards the [[Ministry of Works (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Works]] carried out a long-running research project into the Device Forts, the section on Camber being written by the historian [[Martin Biddle]] and finally published in 1982.<ref name="biddle12"/> Biddle carried out an exploratory archaeological survey of the site in 1962 and the following year the ruins were closed to allow more extensive archaeological excavation by the Ministry.<ref name="biddle9"/> These were initially carried out by Biddle and Alan Cook, with support from local school children and from young offenders from the [[Borstal]] institution in Dover.<ref name="biddle9"/>

The state took Camber Castle into guardianship in 1967, and the next year the government began a slow process of restoring the castle with the intention of eventually reopening it to the public, their efforts largely focusing on protecting the internal brick walls and wall-cores.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=14, 135}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1014632|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|accessdate=9 April 2015}}</ref> Further excavations followed in the 1970s and early 1980s.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=14}}</ref>

In 1977, the [[Department of National Heritage]] bought the castle from its owners.<ref name=ListEntry/> The government agency [[English Heritage]] took control of the castle in 1984 and a scheme to reopen the property to visitors was put forward in 1993.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=16}}</ref> This included a final assessment of the archaeological work of the previous decades, and the castle finally opened to the public again in 1994.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=16}}; {{cite news|title=A flawed bastion against the Armada reopens: Camber Castle was preserved because the sea left it behind. Oliver Gillie reports |author=Oliver Gillie |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/a-flawed-bastion-against-the-armada-reopens-camber-castle-was-preserved-because-the-sea-left-it-behind-oliver-gillie-reports-1367443.html |publisher=The Independent |date=2 April 1994|mode=cs2|accessdate=9 April 2015}}</ref> As of 2015, the castle is open to visitors through guided tours organised by the [[Rye Harbour SSSI|Rye Harbour Nature Reserve]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/camber-castle/|title=Camber Castle|publisher=English Heritage|mode=cs2|accessdate=9 April 2015}}</ref> The site is protected under UK law as a [[Grade I listed building]].<ref name=ListEntry/>

==Architecture and landscape==
===Landscape===
Camber Castle now lies on the Brede Level, a wide, reclaimed area of land between the modern towns of Rye and Winchelsea, about {{convert|1.5|km}} from the sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=1–2}}</ref> The surrounding [[pasture]] land is flat and only just above at sea-level, marked with numerous ridges formed by the retreating coastline over the centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=9–10}}</ref> On the eastern side of the fortification is Castle Water, a large, 20th-century [[gravel pit]] that is now flooded to form a wetland nature reserve.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildrye.info/reserve/explore/castle_water.php|title=Castle Water|publisher=Wild Rye|mode=cs2|accessdate=9 April 2015}}</ref>

A {{convert|1.8|m|adj=on}} defensive earthwork runs around the south and east sides of the castle; this was probably originally topped by a stone wall and designed to protect the castle from the sea, which would have then been much closer.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=10, 118}}</ref> The remains of a raised causeway, which once linked the isolated castle to the mainland, leads away for a short distance to the south-west from the earthwork before petering out.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=10}}</ref> Marks from the holes that were dug to provide the materials for the infilling of the bastions in the early 17th century also survive around the outside of the castle.<ref name=ListEntry/>

===Architecture===
[[File:Camber Castle labelled plan.png|thumb|300px|Plan of the castle: A – entrance basion; B – bastion; C – stirrup tower; D – keep; E – courtyard; F – gallery and octagonal wall; G – vaulted ring passage. Black – initial 1512–14 work; grey – 1539–40 extensions; light grey – 1543–44 redevelopment]]
The three-storey castle itself has changed little since its completion in 1544, an incorporates elements from all of the three phases of building work in 1512–14, 1539–40 and 1543–44. It is now roofless but still standing up to {{convert|18|m|1}} tall, and covers {{convert|0.73|acre}}, almost as big as the largest of the Device Forts at [[Deal Castle|Deal]] in Kent.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=338}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.historicengland.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1014632|title=List Entry|publisher=Historic England|mode=cs2|accessdate=9 April 2015}}</ref> The first tower on the site was built from fine-grained yellow sandstone, with the later expansion making use of both yellow and grey sandstone, with imported Caen stone being used for the finer detailing.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=137}}</ref> [[Ironstone]], [[siltstone]] and brown sandstone rubble and boulders was used for the core of the castle walls, some of it taken from the local cliffs.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=138}}</ref>

The castle would have been entered through the entrance bastion. The core of this building was constructed in the second phase of work on the castle and was initially a square one-storey construct, {{convert|15|by|10.5|m|1}} across, before being extended forward by an additional {{convert|9|m|1}} to form a circular bastion; an additional floor was then added on top in the third phase.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=56, 60, 107}}</ref> The internal walls have mostly been destroyed, but the ground floor chambers would have been used for administration, and possibly as living rooms for the deputy captain.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=340–341}}</ref> The first floor would have formed a high-status set of chambers for the use of the captain, and included large windows, fireplaces and a private [[garderobe]], but most of this storey has been destroyed.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=107, 340}}</ref> A special German tile-stove was probably fitted into the chambers for the use of Philip Chute, the first captain of the castle, and was illustrated with pictures of [[Landsknecht]] soldiers and Protestant German leaders; only fragments of the stove have survived.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=117–118}}</ref>

In the centre of the fortification was the keep, built up from the round tower of 1512–14, and {{convert|6.7|m}} of the original building's walls were incorporated into the new design.<ref name=BiddleP51>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=51}}</ref> The original tower had ten gunports embedded at ground level in its {{convert|3.05|m|ft|adj=mid|-thick}} walls, but these were blocked up in the second phase of building.<ref name=BiddleP51/> The keep would originally had a parapet running around its roof, which was initially flat but converted to a ridged design in the third phase of work.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=111}}</ref> The ground floor was laid in brick and had a brick and stone-lined well to supply it with water.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=51, 112}}</ref> The keep had two fireplaces, but these were small and not intended for cooking – indeed, the final version of the keep was probably never used as a living space.<ref name="biddle113">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=113}}</ref> The first floor windows were added in the final phase of work; they were not intended for use as gunports, but they had bars and shutters, so could have been easily secured in the event of an attack.<ref name="biddle113"/>

An underground vaulted ring passageway, only {{convert|1.9|m}} high ran around the outside of the keep, with similar covered radial passageways leading off to each of the bastions; the passageways are now ruined.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=60, 115}}</ref> A cobbled courtyard surrounded the keep, separating it from the external defences, and containing a well in the north-west corner.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=116}}</ref> Underground passageways led from the entrance bastion to outside the castle walls, either to allow the garrison to escape in an emergency or to assault a besieging force.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=156}}</ref>

The outer part of the castle was defended by an octagonal wall, which linked the four stirrup turrets and bastions that formed the main defences for the castle. This wall had initially been built in the second phase of work on the castle, but was then supplemented in the final phase with an additional {{convert|2.4|m|ft|adj=mid|-thick}} exterior facing, and was originally finished with a gun embrasure along each section, and parapets.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=100}}</ref> A two-storey gallery, which provided relatively spacious barrack accommodation for the garrison, ran all the way around the inside of the wall, although only the ground floor of the gallery now survives.<ref name="biddle100">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=100–102}}</ref> The gallery would have been lit by windows facing into the courtyard.<ref name="biddle100"/> The Rampire earthwork built in the early 17th century lies across the south and south-east parts of the defences, where the gunports were blocked up with stone when the earth was piled up along the inside of the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=121–124}}</ref>

The four stirrup towers are two storeys tall, {{convert|6|by|6.2|m|1}} across internally, with {{convert|0.8|m|ft|adj=mid|-thick}} walls, flat at the front and curved at the back.<ref name="biddle75">{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=75, 77, 105–106}}</ref> They would originally have been topped by firing platforms, with gunloops around the inside of the fortification enabling their occupants to fire into the courtyard if necessary.<ref name="biddle75"/> The bastions built around the outside of the towers in the third phase of work are {{convert|19|m|1}} wide internally and each extend {{convert|12|m|1}} from their respective stirrup tower, with {{convert|3.6|m|ft|adj=mid|-thick}} walls.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=89–90}}</ref> Most of the bastions had a single internal gun room with a robust gun deck on top, but the West Bastion was used as a kitchen and the interior was fitted with two circular ovens and a range for cooking.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|pp=89–91, 341}}</ref> The bastions would have been connected by a wall-walk and parapets, but these have since been lost.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=90}}</ref> The south stirrup tower and bastion remains partially buried as a result of the construction of the Rampire.<ref>{{harvnb|Biddle|Hiller|Scott|Streeten|2001|p=75}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
*[[List of castles in England]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|notes=}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==

* {{cite book
| last1= Biddle
| first1 = Martin
| last2= Hiller
| first2 = Jonathon
| last3= Scott
| first3 = Ian
| last4= Streeten
| first4 = Anthony
| title = Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological Structural and Historical Investigation
| date = 2001
| publisher = Oxbow Books
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 0904220230
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Brown
| first1 = R. Allen
| title = Castles From the Air
| date = 1989
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| isbn = 0521329329
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Grose
| first1 = Francis
| title = The Antiquities of England and Wales, Volume 5
| date = 1785
| publisher = S. Hooper
| location = London, UK
| oclc= 699066348
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Hale
| first1 = J. R.
| title = Renaissance War Studies
| date = 1983
| publisher = Hambledon Press
| location = London, UK
| isbn = 0907628176
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Harrington
| first1 = Peter
| title = The Castles of Henry VIII
| date = 2007
| publisher = Osprey Publishing
| location = Oxford, UK
| isbn = 9781472803801
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Lowry
| first1 = Bernard
| title = Discovering Fortifications: From the Tudors to the Cold War
| date = 2006
| publisher = Shire Publications
| location = Princes Risborough, UK
| isbn = 9780747806516
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite book
| last1= Shanes
| first1 = Eric
| title = The Life and Masterworks of J. M. W. Turner
| date = 2008
| publisher = Parkstone Press
| location = New York, US
| isbn = 9781859956816
| ref= harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last1= Walton
| first1 = Steven A.
| journal = Osiris
| volume = 25
| number = 1
| title = State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification
| date = 2010
| pages = 66–84
| ref= harv}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Camber Castle}}
*[http://www.wildrye.info/reserve/cambercastle/ Rye Harbour Nature Reserve's page on the castle]
*[http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/camber-castle/ English Heritage's visitor page for the castle]

{{Device Forts}}

{{coord|50.93305|N|0.73248|E|region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(TQ921184)|display=title}}

[[Category:Rother]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in East Sussex]]
[[Category:Castles in East Sussex]]
[[Category:Forts in East Sussex]]
[[Category:Device Forts]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in East Sussex]]

Skipsea Castle

2015-02-26T21:21:18Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
| name = Skipsea Castle
| image = Skipsea Castle 1.jpg
| caption = The castle's [[motte]]
|map_type = East Riding of Yorkshire
|map_alt = Located in the East Riding of Yorkshire
|map_caption = in the East Riding of Yorkshire
| latitude = 53.975
| longitude = -0.233333
| location = [[Skipsea]], [[East Riding of Yorkshire]], [[England]]
| built = c. 1086
| builder = Drogo de Beavriere
|condition = Earthworks only remain
| events= Rebellion of [[William de Forz, 3rd Earl of Albemarle|William de Forz]]
| owner = [[English Heritage]]
| open_to_public = Yes
}}

'''Skipsea Castle''' is a [[Normans|Norman]] [[motte and bailey]] castle near the village of [[Skipsea]], [[East Riding of Yorkshire]], [[England]]. Built around 1086 by Drogo de Beavriere, it was designed to secure the newly conquered region, defend against any potential [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danish invasion]] and control the trade route across the region leading to the [[North Sea]]. The motte and the bailey were separated by Skipsea Mere, an [[Mere (lake)|artificial lake]] that was linked to the sea during the [[medieval]] period via a navigable channel. The village of Skipsea grew up beside the castle church, and the fortified town of [[Skipsea Brough]] was built alongside the castle around 1160 to capitalise on the potential trade.

In 1221 the castle's owner, [[William de Forz, 3rd Earl of Albemarle|William de Forz]], the [[Count of Aumale]], rebelled against [[Henry III of England|Henry III]]; the fortification was captured by royalist forces and the King ordered it to be [[Slighting|destroyed]]. The remains of the castle had little value by the end of the 14th century and Skipsea Brough failed to attract many inhabitants. The castle passed into the control of the state in the early 20th century and various [[Archaeology|archaeological investigations]] were carried out between 1987 and 2001. In the 21st century, Skipsea Castle is managed by [[English Heritage]] and open to visitors.

==History==
===11th – 12th centuries===
Skipsea Castle was built around 1086 by Drogo de Beavriere, a [[Flemish people|Flemish]] [[mercenary]] and the first Lord of Holderness, following the [[Norman conquest of England]] and the [[Harrying of the North]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{harvnb|Wessex Archaeology|2005|pp=5–6}}</ref> The region was on the frontier of Norman power and the lordship was intended to protect central Yorkshire against potential [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danish]] raids across the [[North Sea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=40}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> Skipsea formed the administrative centre of Drogo's huge estates, which stretched from the [[Humber]] to [[Bridlington]], as well as serving as his ''[[caput]]'', or principal residence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1011212|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=40}}</ref>

[[File:Aerial photograph of Skipsea Castle, labelled.png|thumb|left|Aerial photograph of Skipsea Castle from the west in 1979; A – village of [[Skipsea]]; B and C – castle motte and bailey; D – [[Skipsea Brough]]]]
The name "Skipsea" has [[North Germanic languages|Scandinavian]] roots and meant a lake that was navigable by ships.<ref name=BritishHistory>{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/yorks/east/vol7/pp374-405|title=North division: Skipsea|publisher=British History Online|mode=cs2| last1=Allison|first1=K. J.|last2=Baggs|first2=A. P.|last3=Cooper|first3=T.N.|last4=Davidson-Cragoe|first4=C.|last5=Walker|first5=J.||editor-last=Kent|editor-first=G. H. R.|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> In the medieval period the site was an [[inland harbour]], connected via a navigable channel to the North Sea, which in the 21st century is only around {{convert|2|km}} away.<ref>{{harvnb|Creighton|2002|p=42}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/yorks/east/vol7/pp374-405|title=North division: Skipsea|publisher=British History Online|mode=cs2| last1=Allison|first1=K. J.|last2=Baggs|first2=A. P.|last3=Cooper|first3=T.N.|last4=Davidson-Cragoe|first4=C.|last5=Walker|first5=J.||editor-last=Kent|editor-first=G. H. R.|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1011212|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> The surrounding region was referred to as an "island" during this period, due to the surrounding [[estuary]] and [[flood plain]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Creighton|2002|p=104}}</ref> The site of the castle was strategically important, as it lay on the main trading route through the marshes and was accessible by the sea; the castle had military and economic functions, being designed both to control the newly conquered Norman lands and to manage trade in and out of the inland harbour.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1011212|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{harvnb|Dalton|1994|p=77}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{harvnb|Creighton|2002|pp=104–105}}</ref>

The castle took the form of a [[motte and bailey]] design, and a [[dam]] was probably constructed to turn the surrounding marshy, low-lying land into an [[Mere (lake)|artificial lake]], called Skipsea Mere, in turn connected the channel leading to the sea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1011212|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> The complex had its own private [[harbour]], and probably a [[boat yard]] and a fresh-water [[fishery]].<ref name=ListEntry>{{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1011212|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> By the end of the 11th century a church had been built to the east of the castle across the mere, and the village of [[Skipsea]] soon grew up alongside the church.<ref name=BritishHistory/> Drogo settled 10 knights on lands near the castle in an arrangement known as a castlery or [[castle-guard]] system, under which the knights helped to guard the castle in return for their estates, and one of them probably built his own smaller fortification at nearby [[Aldbrough, East Riding of Yorkshire|Aldborough]].<ref>{{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=40}}; {{harvnb|Dalton|1994|p=75}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/yorks/east/vol7/pp374-405|title=North division: Skipsea|publisher=British History Online|mode=cs2| last1=Allison|first1=K. J.|last2=Baggs|first2=A. P.|last3=Cooper|first3=T.N.|last4=Davidson-Cragoe|first4=C.|last5=Walker|first5=J.||editor-last=Kent|editor-first=G. H. R.|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref>

Drogo was accused of poisoning his wife and the castle was reassigned by [[William the Conqueror]] to [[Odo, Count of Champagne|Odo]], the [[Count of Aumale]].<ref name=ListEntry/> In 1096 it passed to Arnulf de Montgomery, but returned to the Aumales in 1102, who held it until 1221.<ref name=ListEntry/> Trade initially flourished and as a result [[William le Gros, 1st Earl of Albemarle|William le Gros]] founded the fortified town of [[Skipsea Brough]] along the ridgeway just south of the castle, probably around 1160.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/yorks/east/vol7/pp374-405|title=North division: Skipsea|publisher=British History Online|mode=cs2| last1=Allison|first1=K. J.|last2=Baggs|first2=A. P.|last3=Cooper|first3=T.N.|last4=Davidson-Cragoe|first4=C.|last5=Walker|first5=J.||editor-last=Kent|editor-first=G. H. R.|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1011212|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> The town was intended to bring in valuable revenue to the earls, but would also have helped to defend the castle on its most vulnerable, overlooked side.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> The castle-guard system lapsed, with the surrounding estates paying their rents in cash instead.<ref name=BritishHistory/>

===13th – 14th centuries===
[[File:Skipsea Castle - geograph.org.uk - 79788.jpg|thumb|The inner earthworks of the bailey and the motte seen from the south-west]]
After around 1200 the castle declined in importance: it was poorly situated, the threat of Danish raids had now passed, and so the nearby manor of [[Burstwick]] became the new administrative centre for the lordship instead.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=40}}</ref> In January 1220 [[William de Forz, 3rd Earl of Albemarle|William de Forz]], the Count of Aumale by marriage, rebelled against Henry III; part of their dispute involved the ownership of the estate of [[Driffield]], {{convert|11|mile}} away from Skipsea Castle, which Henry had seized the previous year, but William had been in disagreement with Henry's policies for several years before.<ref>{{harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=229–231}}</ref>

William was promptly [[excommunication|excommunicated]] and Henry moved quickly to suppress the revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=229, 233}}</ref> The barons in the north were ordered to besiege William's castles, including Skipsea, and William shortly surrendered himself to the King and was ultimately pardoned.<ref>{{harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=233–234}}</ref> Following the rebellion, Henry ordered Skipsea Castle to be [[slighting|destroyed]], although it is uncertain to what extent this order was actually carried out.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/yorks/east/vol7/pp374-405|title=North division: Skipsea|publisher=British History Online|mode=cs2| last1=Allison|first1=K. J.|last2=Baggs|first2=A. P.|last3=Cooper|first3=T.N.|last4=Davidson-Cragoe|first4=C.|last5=Walker|first5=J.||editor-last=Kent|editor-first=G. H. R.|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; List Entry; {{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=80781|title=Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage|mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> William passed on the castle to his own son, another [[William de Forz, 4th Earl of Albemarle|William]], but on the death of his son's widow, [[Isabella de Forz, Countess of Devon|Isabella]], it passed to [[the Crown]] in 1293.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/29/101029480/|title=William de Forz|work=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2004|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/29480|mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/47/101047209/|title=Isabella de Forz|work=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2008|edition=online|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/47209|mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}};
{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/yorks/east/vol7/pp374-405|title=North division: Skipsea|publisher=British History Online|mode=cs2| last1=Allison|first1=K. J.|last2=Baggs|first2=A. P.|last3=Cooper|first3=T.N.|last4=Davidson-Cragoe|first4=C.|last5=Walker|first5=J.||editor-last=Kent|editor-first=G. H. R.|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref>

Skipsea Mere was drained in the second half of the 14th century and by 1397 the castle was considered worthless: the {{convert|20|acres}} of land around it became used for [[pasture|pasturing]] animals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/yorks/east/vol7/pp374-405|title=North division: Skipsea|publisher=British History Online|mode=cs2| last1=Allison|first1=K. J.|last2=Baggs|first2=A. P.|last3=Cooper|first3=T.N.|last4=Davidson-Cragoe|first4=C.|last5=Walker|first5=J.||editor-last=Kent|editor-first=G. H. R.|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{harvnb|Wessex Archaeology|2005|p=6}}</ref> The counts of Aumale used the manor house at nearby Cleeton when they visited the area.<ref name=BritishHistory/> Probably because of its poor location, the town of Skipsea Brough also proved unsuccessful as a commercial site.<ref name=Creighton2002EHHistoryListEntryBritishHistory>{{harvnb|Creighton|2002|p=172}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/yorks/east/vol7/pp374-405|title=North division: Skipsea|publisher=British History Online|mode=cs2| last1=Allison|first1=K. J.|last2=Baggs|first2=A. P.|last3=Cooper|first3=T.N.|last4=Davidson-Cragoe|first4=C.|last5=Walker|first5=J.||editor-last=Kent|editor-first=G. H. R.|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; List Entry; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> There were only three [[Burgess (title)|burgesses]] in the town paying rent in 1260, and by the late 14th century the town was largely abandoned; in 1377 there were only 95 people registered for the [[Tax per head|poll tax]] in the two settlements of Skipsea and Skipsea Brough combined.<ref name=Creighton2002EHHistoryListEntryBritishHistory/>

===15th – 21st centuries===
Further drainage of the mere occurred around 1720 and its land was [[Land reclamation|reclaimed]] for farming.<ref name=ListEntry/> The ground remained marshy and still occasionally flooded at the start of the 20th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Armitage|1912|p=210}}</ref> In 1911 the castle was placed into the guardianship of the [[Ministry of Works (United Kingdom)|Commissioners of Works and Public Buildings]], later passing into the control of the government heritage agency [[English Heritage]].<ref name=BritishHistory/> [[Archaeological survey]]s of the site were carried out in 1987, 1988, 1992 and 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1011212|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref>

The castle is protected as a [[Scheduled Monument]] under UK law and the remaining earthworks generally well preserved, but between 2010 and 2014 English Heritage expressed concerns about its condition and the impact of drainage, and the consequent drying out of the land, on the castle's earthworks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/har-2014-registers/yo-HAR-register-2014.pdf|title=Heritage At Risk Register, 2014|publisher=English Heritage|p=21|mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/HAR-2010-regional-registers/yh-HAR-register-2010.pdf|title=Heritage At Risk Register, 2010|publisher=English Heritage|p=36|mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=80781|title=Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage|mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> Only a handful of buildings survive in the castle's planned town of Skipsea Brough.<ref>{{harvnb|Creighton|2002|pp=171–172}}</ref>

==Architecture and landscape==
[[File:Map of Skipsea Castle.png|thumb|300px|Plan of Skipsea Castle. Key: A – North Gate of bailey; B – line of channel; C – main part of Skipsea Mere; D – motte; E – south-east corner of Skipsea Mere; F – Scotch Gap; G – South Gate of bailey; H – Skipsea Brough; dotted red lines – paths; solid red line – road]]
Skipsea Castle was a motte and bailey design, with the two parts of the fortification divided by Skipsea Mere.<ref name=ListEntry/> The mere surrounded the motte; the south-east corner of the mere was cut off by two causeways to the south and east of the motte.<ref name=ListEntry/> [[Eel]]s were recorded being caught in the lake during the 13th century, and the south-eastern corner may have formed a fresh-water fishery.<ref name=ListEntryArmitage>{{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1011212|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{harvnb|Armitage|1912|p=210}}</ref> A curved channel, approximately {{convert|25|by|200|m}} in size and ultimately leading to the North Sea, flowed around down the south-west side of the motte, giving boats access to wharves along the inside of the bailey, and concluded in a possible boat yard at the eastern end of the channel.<ref name=ListEntry/> There may have been an additional inland harbour just to the west of the bailey, but archaeologists are divided on this issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=80781|title=Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage|mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref>

The motte, constructed from [[sand]] and [[gravel]], was deliberately built on a natural [[Glacial landform|glacial mound]], making it appear unusually large.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Skipsea Castle|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1011212|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| |mode=cs2| postscript =none|accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> It is {{convert|100|m}} in diameter and {{convert|11|m}} high, with a {{convert|0.25|acre}} of space on the top, protected around the base by a {{convert|1.5|m}} high bank and a ditch up to {{convert|10|m}} wide, although when first built these would have been taller and deeper than today.<ref name=ListEntryArmitage/> There was a [[timber]] [[keep]] on the motte, and possibly a stone [[gatehouse]] at the south-east corner, leading onto the earthwork causeway that crossed the mere south to link the motte with the bailey.<ref name=ListEntry/> The eastern causeway linked the motte with the church in Skipsea village.<ref name=ListEntry/>

The bailey was approximately {{convert|300|by|100|m}}, covering an area of around {{convert|8.25|acres}}, curving around the west and south side of the castle.<ref name=ListEntryArmitage/> Its earthworks were built from [[clay]], with a [[rampart (fortification)|rampart]] up to {{convert|4|m}} high, protected by a {{convert|10|m|adj=on}} wide ditch, originally up to {{convert|4|m}} deep.<ref name=ListEntry/> The main entrance to the bailey was positioned on the southern side, and was known as Bail Gate and guarded by a gatehouse, with a subsidiary entrance on the north side, linked by a path.<ref name=ListEntry/> A break in the earthworks, now called Scotch Gap, was cut out during the 13th-century destruction of the castle, and the bank has been damaged in other ways from the installation of drainage works.<ref name=ListEntry/>

==See also==
*[[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
*[[List of castles in England]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{citation
| last = Armitage
| first = Ella
| year = 1912
| title = The Early Norman Castles of the British Isles
| publisher = John Murray
| location= London, UK
| oclc = 752419931
}}
* {{citation
| last = Carpenter
| first = D. A.
| year = 1990
| title = The Minority of Henry III
| publisher = University of California Press
| location= Berkeley, US and Los Angeles, US
| isbn = 978-0-520-07239-8
| ref = harv
}}
* {{citation
| last = Creighton
| first = O. H.
| year = 2002
| title = Castles and Landscapes: Power, Community and Fortification in Medieval England
| publisher = Equinox
| location= London, UK
| isbn = 978-1-904768-67-8
}}
* {{citation
| last = Dalton
| first = Paul
| year = 1994
| title = Conquest, Anarchy, and Lordship : Yorkshire, 1066–1154
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location= Cambridge, UK
| isbn = 9780521450980
| ref=harv
}}
* {{citation
| last = Pounds
| first = Norman John Greville
| year = 1994
| title = The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: A Social and Political History
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location= Cambridge, UK
| isbn = 978-0-521-45828-3
| ref=harv
}}
* {{citation
| last = Wessex Archaeology
| year = 2005
| title = Skipsea Grange, Skipsea, Holdenress, East Riding of Yorkshire: A Report on an Archaeological Evaluation and an Assessment of the Results
| publisher = Wessex Archaeology
| location= Salisbury, UK
}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Skipsea Castle}}
*[http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/skipsea-castle/ English Heritage's visitor page]

[[Category:English Heritage sites in the East Riding of Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Castles in the East Riding of Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Holderness]]

Frances Ames

2015-02-10T10:21:19Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox medical person
|name = Frances Ames
|image =
|caption =
|birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1920|04|20}}
|birth_place = [[Pretoria, South Africa]]
|death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2002|11|11|1920|04|20}}
|death_place = [[Rondebosch|Rondebosch, South Africa]]
|profession =
|specialism =
|research_field =
|known_for = Exposing medical neglect of Steve Biko
|years_active =
|education = [[Cape Town University]]
|work_institutions = [[Groote Schuur Hospital]], [[Valkenberg Hospital]]
|prizes = [[Order of the Star of South Africa|Star of South Africa]]<ref>[http://govza.gcis.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/20855c_1.pdf Class V: Member]. See also: ''South African Journal of Science''. August 1999. 95 (8): 324.</ref>
|relations =
}}

'''Frances Rix Ames''' (20 April 1920 – 11 November 2002) was a South African [[neurologist]], psychiatrist, and human rights activist, best known for supporting a medical ethics inquiry into the death of [[anti-apartheid]] activist [[Steve Biko]], who died from medical neglect after being [[Medical torture|tortured]] in police custody. When the South African Medical and Dental Council (SAMDC) declined to discipline the chief district surgeon and his assistant who treated Biko, Ames and a group of five academics and physicians raised funds and fought an eight-year legal battle against the medical establishment. Ames risked her personal safety and academic career in her pursuit of justice, taking the dispute to the [[Supreme Court of South Africa|South African Supreme Court]], where she eventually won the case in 1985.

Born in Pretoria and raised in poverty in Cape Town, Ames was the first woman to receive a Doctor of Medicine degree from the [[University of Cape Town]] in 1954; a decade later, she become its first female professor.<ref name="hrc">Bateman, Chris (January 2003). [http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/viewFile/2030/1288 Frances Ames – Human Rights Champion]. ''South African Medical Journal'', 93 (1): 14–15. Retrieved January 15, 2015.</ref> Ames studied the effects of cannabis on the brain and published several articles on the subject; seeing the therapeutic benefits of cannabis on patients in her own hospital, she became an early proponent of legalization for [[medical cannabis|medicinal use]]. She headed the neurology department at [[Groote Schuur Hospital]] before retiring in 1985, but continued to lecture at Valkenberg and Alexandra Hospital. After [[apartheid]] was finally dismantled in 1994, Ames testified at the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] about her work on the "Biko doctors" medical ethics inquiry. In 1999, [[Nelson Mandela]] awarded Ames the Star of South Africa, the country's highest civilian award, in recognition of her work on behalf of human rights.

==Early life==
Ames was born at [[Voortrekkerhoogte]] in Pretoria, South Africa, on 20 April 1920, to Frank and Georgina Ames, the second of three daughters. Her mother, who was raised in a Boer
concentration camp by Ames' grandmother, a nurse in the [[Second Boer War]], was also a nurse. Ames never knew her father, who left her mother alone to raise three daughters in poverty.<ref name="unde">van der Unde, Ina (November 1995). [http://archive.samj.org.za/1995%20VOL%2085%20Jan-Dec/Articles/11%20November/1.20%20INTERVIEW.A%20WOMAN%20OF%20SUBSTANCE%20,FRANCES%20AMES.pdf Interview: A woman of substance]. ''South African Medical Journal'', 85 (11): 1202-1203.</ref> With her mother unable to care for her family, Ames spend part of her childhood in a Catholic orphanage where she was stricken with [[typhoid fever]].<ref name="Sidley"/><ref name="rich"/> Her mother later rejoined the family and moved them to Cape Town, where Ames attended the [[Rustenburg School for Girls]].<ref name="hrc"/> She enrolled at the [[University of Cape Town]] (UCT) medical school where she received her [[MBChB]] degree in 1942.<ref name="dent">Dent, David M.; Gonda Perez (June 2010). [http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/view/5422/4206 The place and the person: Named buildings, rooms and places on the campus of the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town]. ''South African Medical Journal'', 100 (6):4–5. Retrieved January 15, 2015.</ref>

==Medical career==
{{ external media
| float = right
| width = 200px
| image1 = [http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/viewFile/5422/4206/29461 Portrait of Frances Ames]<ref name="dent"/>
}}
In Cape Town, Ames interned at [[Groote Schuur Hospital]]; she also worked in the [[Transkei]] region as a general practitioner. She earned her MD degree in 1954 from UCT, the first woman to do so.<ref name="shaw">Shaw, Gerald (21 November 2014). [http://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/nov/22/guardianobituaries Frances Ames]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved January 15, 2015.</ref> In 1964, she became the first female professor at the UCT, becoming an associate professor in 1978.<ref name="UCT"/> From 1976–1986, she was the head of the neurology department at Groote Schuur Hospital.<ref>Breier, Mignonne; Angelique Wildschut (2006). ''Doctors in a Divided Society: The Profession and Education of Medical Practitioners in South Africa''. HSRC Press. ISBN 0796921539.</ref><ref name="dent"/> Ames retired in 1985, but continued to work part-time at both Valkenberg and Alexandra Hospital as a lecturer in the UCT Psychiatry and Mental Health department.<ref name="UCT"/> In 1997, UCT made Ames an associate professor emeritus of neurology; she received an honorary doctorate in medicine from UCT in 2001.<ref name="dent"/> According to Pat Sidley of the ''British Medical Journal'', Ames "was never made a full professor, and believed that this was because she was a woman."<ref name="Sidley"/>

==Biko affair==
South African anti-apartheid activist [[Steve Biko]], who had formerly studied medicine at the [[University of Natal Medical School]], was detained by [[Port Elizabeth]] security police on 18 August 1977 and held for 20 days. Sometime between 6-7 September, Biko was beaten and tortured into a coma.<ref name="shaw"/> According to allegations by Ames and others, surgeon Ivor Lang, along with chief district surgeon Benjamin Tucker, collaborated with the police and covered up the abuse, leading to Biko's death from his injuries on 12 September. According to Bentar & Bentar 2012, "there were clear ethical breaches on the part of the doctors who were responsible" for Biko.<ref name="Benatar">Benatar, Solomon R.; David Benatar (1 June 2012). [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-293812463.html From Medical Manners to Moral Reasoning: An Historical Overview of Bioethics in the University of Cape Town's Faculty of Health Sciences]. ''South African Medical Journal''. {{subscription required}}</ref><ref>Smith, L. (13 September 2012). [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-302323255.html Not Much Changed since Biko's Death]. ''The Mercury''. {{subscription required}}</ref><ref name="grundy">Grundy, Trevor (27 November 2002). [http://www.heraldscotland.com/sport/spl/aberdeen/frances-ames-human-rights-activist-who-battled-for-justice-after-the-death-of-steve-biko-in-south-africa-1.132947 Frances Ames; Human rights activist who battled for justice after the death of Steve Biko in South Africa]. ''The Herald''. Retrieved January 29, 2015.</ref><ref name="myser">For a history of bioethics in South Africa in relation to the Biko affair, see: Myser, Catherine (2011). "The Social Functions of Bioethics in South Africa". ''Bioethics Around the Globe''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199749825.</ref>

When the South African Medical and Dental Council (SAMDC) along with the support of the Medical Association of South Africa (MASA), declined to discipline the district surgeons in Biko's death, two groups of physicians filed separate formal complaints with the SAMDC regarding the lack of professionalism shown by Biko's doctors. Both cases made their way to the South African Supreme Court in an attempt to force the SAMDC to conduct a formal inquiry into the medical ethics of Lang and Tucker. One case was filed by Ames, along with Trefor Jenkins and Phillip Tobias of the [[University of the Witwatersrand]]; a second case was filed by Dumisani Mzana, Yosuf Veriava of Coronationville Hospital, and Tim Wilson of Alexandra Health Centre.<ref name="Baldwin"/><ref>Biko doctors: Verdic 'lenient'. ''Weekend Argus''. July 6, 1985.</ref>

As Ames and the small group of physicians pursued an inquiry into members of their own profession, Ames was called a [[whistleblower]].<ref name="Baldwin">Baldwin-Ragaven, Laurel; Leslie London; Jeanelle De Gruchy (1999). ''An Ambulance of the Wrong Colour: Health Professionals, Human Rights and Ethics in South Africa''. Juta and Company Ltd. pp. 91-100. ISBN 1919713484.</ref> Her position at the university was threatened by her superiors and her colleagues asked her to drop the case.<ref name="McCarthy"/> Baldwin-Ragaven et al. note that the medical association "closed ranks in support of colleagues who colluded with the security police in the torture and death of detainees [and] also attempted to silence and discredit those doctors who stood up for human rights and who demanded disciplinary action against their colleagues."<ref name="Baldwin"/>

After eight years, Ames successfully won the case in 1985 when the South African Supreme Court ruled in her favor. The two doctors who treated Biko were finally disciplined.<ref name="rich"/> With Ames' help, the case forced the medical regulatory body to reverse their decision and "exposed the collusion of the medical profession in the suppression and torture of anti-apartheid activists".<ref>Veriava, F. (2004) [http://www.wits.ac.za/files/resb598dabcc70c4779a723025f48e0cd10.pdf Ought the notion of informed consent' to be cast in stone?] ''South African Journal on Human Rights''. University of the Witwatersrand. 20. Retrieved January 15, 2015.</ref> Major medical reforms followed.<ref name="myser"/> According to Bentar & Bentar 2012, the case "played an important role in sensitising the medical profession to medical ethical issues in South Africa."<ref name="Benatar"/>

==Cannabis research==
Ames studied the [[effects of cannabis]] in 1958, publishing her work in ''[[British Journal of Psychiatry |The British Journal of Psychiatry]]'' as "A clinical and metabolic study of acute intoxication with ''Cannabis sativa'' and its role in the model psychoses". Her work is cited extensively throughout the cannabis literature. She opposed the [[War on Drugs]] and was a proponent of the [[Medical cannabis|therapeutic benefits of cannabis]], particularly for people with [[multiple sclerosis]] (MS).<ref>Ames, Frances (December 12, 1995). [http://archive.samj.org.za/1995%20VOL%2085%20Jan-Dec/Articles/12%20December/1.4%20GREAT%20DEBATES-%20A%20PLEA%20FOR%20DECRIMINALISATION,%20CANNABIS%20SATIVA-%20DECEPTIVE%20WEED.pdf Great Debates: Cannabis sativa - a plea for decriminalisation]. ''South African Medical Journal'', 85 (12): 1268-1269. For secondary source coverage of this article, see: Sboros, Marika (January 10, 1996). Curse or blessing-the flourishing dagga controversy. ''The Star''.</ref><ref name="hrc"/><ref>Bateman, Chris (August 2000). [http://archive.samj.org.za/2000%20VOL%2090%20Jan-Dec/Articles/08%20August/1.3%20NEWS.pdf Get pragmatic about pot]. ''South African Medical Journal'', 90 (8): 752–753.</ref> Ames observed first-hand how cannabis (known as ''dagga'' in South Africa) relieved spasm in MS patients and helped paraplegics in the spinal injuries ward of her hospital.<ref name="Froman">Froman, Colin (2005). ''The Barbershop Quartet: A Surgical Saga''. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1412047250.</ref> She continued to study the effects of cannabis in the 1990s, publishing several articles about cannabis-induced [[euphoria]] and the effects of cannabis on the brain with co-author David J. Castle of [[St Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne]].<ref>Castle, David; Murray, Robin; Deepak Cyril D’Souza (2009) [2004]. ''Marijuana and Madness: Psychiatry and Neurobiology''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107000216.</ref>

==Personal life==
Ames was married to editorial writer David Castle of the ''[[Cape Times]]'' and they had four sons. She was 47 years old when her husband died unexpectedly in 1967.<ref name="UCT"/> After her husband's death, Ames's housekeeper Rosalina helped raise the family. Ames wrote about the experience in her memoir, ''Mothering in an Apartheid Society'' (2002).<ref name="shaw"/>

==Death==
Ames struggled with [[leukaemia]] for some time.<ref name="grundy"/> Before her death, she told an interviewer, "I shall go on until I drop."<ref>[https://www.uct.ac.za/mondaypaper/archives/?id=3043 Tale of two mothers in a divided society]. Monday Monthly. University of Cape Town, 21 (2): 28 May 2002.</ref> She continued to work for UCT as a part-time lecturer at [[Valkenberg Hospital]] until six weeks before she died at home in [[Rondebosch]] on 11 November 2002.<ref name="hrc"/><ref name="UCT">[https://www.uct.ac.za/mondaypaper/archives/?id=3451 Passing of UCT legend Frances Ames]. Monday Monthly. University of Cape Town, 21 (35): 15 November 2002.</ref> Representing UCT's psychiatry department, Greg McCarthy gave the eulogy at the funeral.<ref name="McCarthy">McCarthy, Greg (January 2003). [http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/download/2011/1270 Frances Rix Ames]. SAMJ Forum.
''South African Medical Journal'', 93 (1): 48. Retrieved January 15, 2015.</ref> Ames was cremated, and according to her wishes, her ashes were combined with hemp seed and dispersed outside of Valkenberg Hospital where her memorial service was held.<ref name="grundy"/><ref name="hrc"/>

==Legacy==
{{ external media
| align = right
| width =
| video1= [http://www.aparchive.com/metadata/view/163d3daadd40c97bbef0e3abadf8342b?subClipIn=00:00:00&subClipOut=00:02:38 Frances Ames talking abut the poisoning of political activist Siphiwo Mtimkulu], April 1996
}}
South African neurosurgeon Colin Froman referred to Ames as the "great and unorthodox protagonist for the medical use of marijuana many years before the current interest in its use as a therapeutic drug".<ref name="Froman"/> J. P. van Niekerk of the ''[[South African Medical Journal]]'' notes that "Frances Ames led by conviction and example" and history eventually justified her action in the Bioko affair.<ref name="Niekerk"/>

Ames's work on the Biko affair led to major medical reforms in South Africa, including the disbanding and replacement of the old apartheid-era medical organisations which failed to uphold the medical standards of the profession.<ref name="myser"/> According to van Niekerk, "the most enduring lesson for South African medicine was the clarification of the roles of medical practitioners when there is a question of dual responsibilities. This is now embodied inter alia in the SAMA Code of Conduct and in legal interpretations of doctors' responsibilities".<ref name="Niekerk">van Niekerk, J. P. (January 2003). [http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/view/1994/1253 The power of one good person]. ''South African Medical Journal'', 93 (1): 1.</ref>

Ames testified during the medical hearings at the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] in 1997. Archbishop Desmond Tutu honored Ames as "one of the handful of doctors who stood up to the apartheid regime and brought to book those doctors who had colluded with human rights abuse."<ref name="rich">Richmond, Caroline (4 January 2003). Frances Ames. ''The Lancet'', 361 (9351): 91. {{doi|10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12105-8}}</ref> In acknowledgement of her work on behalf of human rights in South Africa, [[Nelson Mandela]] awarded Ames the Order of the Star of South Africa in 1999, the highest civilian award in the country.<ref name="Sidley">Sidley, Pat (7 December 2002). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1124818/ Frances Ames]. ''BMJ: British Medical Journal'', 325 (7376): 1365. Retrieved January 15, 2015.</ref><ref name="grundy"/>

==Selected publications==
*''Mothering in an Apartheid Society'' (2002)

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{wikiquote}}
*McLean, G.R.; Trefor Jenkins (2003). The Steve Biko Affair: A Case Study in Medical Ethics. ''Developing World Bioethics'', 3 (1): 77-95. {{PMID|14577454}}
*Saunders, Stuart (2000). ''Vice-chancellor on a Tightrope: A Personal Account of Climactic Years in South Africa''. New Africa Books. ISBN 0864864582.
*Taitz, Jerold (May 1986). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1096126 Medical Mores, Judicial Review and the Last Days of Steve Biko]. ''The Modern Law Review'' 49 (3): 374-381. {{subscription required}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Ames, Frances
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = South African physician
| DATE OF BIRTH = 20 April 1920
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Pretoria, South Africa
| DATE OF DEATH = 11 November 2002
| PLACE OF DEATH = Cape Town, South Africa
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ames, Frances}}
[[Category:1920 births]]
[[Category:2002 deaths]]
[[Category:Anti-apartheid activists]]
[[Category:People from Pretoria]]
[[Category:People from Cape Town]]
[[Category:South African medical doctors]]
[[Category:South African human rights activists]]
[[Category:University of Cape Town alumni]]
[[Category:Cannabis researchers]]
[[Category:South African whistleblowers]]

Conisbrough Castle

2015-01-30T07:21:56Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}
{{Infobox military installation
|name = Conisbrough Castle
|location = Castle Hill, [[Conisbrough]], Doncaster, England
|image = ConisbroughCastle.jpg
|alt =
|caption = The castle seen from the south-east
|type = Castle
|map_type = South Yorkshire
|map_size = 250
|map_alt =
|map_caption = Shown within South Yorkshire
|latitude = 53.484167
|longitude = -1.226389
|coordinates = {{coord|53|29|03|N|1|13|35|W|display=inline,title|region:GB_type:landmark}}
|ownership = [[Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council]] and [[English Heritage]]
|open_to_public = Yes
|built = 11th century
|builder =
|materials = Magnesian Limestone
|height = {{convert|62|ft}}
|fate = 
|condition = Ruined
|battles =
|events =
|website =
}}

'''Conisbrough Castle''' is a medieval [[castle|fortification]] in [[Conisbrough]], [[South Yorkshire]], England. The castle was initially built in the 11th century by [[William de Warenne, 1st Earl of Surrey|William de Warenne]], the [[Earl of Surrey]], after the [[Norman conquest of England]] in 1066. Hamelin Plantagenet, the illegitimate, ''[[parvenu]]'' son of Henry II, acquired the property by marriage in the late 12th century. [[Hamelin de Warenne, Earl of Surrey|Hamelin]] and his son [[William de Warenne, 5th Earl of Surrey|William]] rebuilt the castle in stone, including its prominent {{convert|28|m|adj=mid}}-high [[keep]]. The castle remained in the family line into the 14th century, despite being seized several times by [[the Crown]]. The fortification was then given to [[Edmund of Langley]], passing back into royal ownership in 1461.

Conisbrough fell into ruin, its outer wall badly affected by [[subsidence]], and was given to the Carey family in the 16th century. Its derelict state prevented it from involvement in the [[English Civil War]] of the 17th century and the remains were bought by the [[Thomas Osborne, 4th Duke of Leeds|Duke of Leeds]] in 1737. Sir [[Walter Scott]] used the location for his 1819 novel ''[[Ivanhoe]]'' and by the end of the 19th century the ruins had become a tourist attraction, despite the increasing industrial character of the area.

The state took over the management of the property in 1950, but by the 1980s the visitor facilities were felt to be unsuitable, leading to a three-way partnership being created between the [[Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council|local council]], the state agency [[English Heritage]] and a local [[charitable trust]] to develop the castle. The keep was re-roofed and re-floored in the 1990s with the help of [[European Union]] funding. English Heritage took over control of the castle in 2008 and continue to operate the property as a tourist attraction.

The castle is made up of an [[Inner bailey|inner]] and an [[outer bailey]], the former surrounded by a stone [[curtain wall (castle)|curtain wall]] defended by six [[mural tower]]s and the castle keep. The inner bailey would have included a [[hall]], [[solar (room)|solar]], [[Castle chapel|chapel]] and other service buildings of which only the foundations survive. The design of Conisbrough's keep is unique in England, and the historians Oliver Creighton and Stephen Johnson consider it an "architectural gem" and "one of the finest examples of late Norman defensive architecture". The keep comprises a circular central tower with six massive [[buttress]]es; its four floors would have included a main chamber and a private chamber for the lord above it. Although militarily weak, the design would have been a powerful symbol of Hamelin Plantagenet's new social status as a major lord.

==History==
===11th – 12th centuries===
[[Image:Aerial view of Conisbrough Castle - geograph.org.uk - 639358.jpg|thumb|300px|Aerial photograph in 2007, showing the [[outer bailey|outer]] and [[inner bailey]]s (bottom left and top right)]]
Conisbrough Castle was founded by [[William de Warenne, 1st Earl of Surrey|William de Warenne]], the first [[Earl of Surrey]], who had taken part in the [[Norman conquest of England]] in 1066 and was rewarded by his father-in-law, [[William the Conqueror]], with extensive estates in [[Yorkshire]], [[Norfolk]] and [[Sussex]].<ref name=Johnson1984P3>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=3}}</ref> As part of these, Earl William was given the manor of [[Conisbrough]], which had previously been owned by the late [[Harold Godwinson]].<ref name=Johnson1984P3/> The manor took its name from the [[Anglo-Saxon name]] for the settlement, ''Cyningesburh'', meaning "the king's fortress", and formed a large estate comprising 28 townships, centred on an Anglo-Saxon fortified [[burh]] at Conisbrough itself.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=3}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/conisbrough-castle/history/|title=History of Conisbrough Castle|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref>

William built his castle on a rocky [[Magnesian Limestone]] [[spur]] surrounded by steep banks, and the fortification included a [[motte]], an [[inner bailey]] protected by an earth bank and [[palisade]]s, an [[outer bailey]], and possibly a timber [[keep]].<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Clark|1884a|p=433}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/conservation-bulletin-19/conservationbulletin19.pdf|title=Conservation Bulletin, Issue 19, March 1993|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref> The castle was located around {{convert|175|ft}} above the river and would have dominated this part of the [[Lower Don Valley|Don Valley]].<ref>{{harvnb|Clark|1884a|p=433}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1010828|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref> It was positioned directly opposite the village, which had probably contained the old Anglo-Saxon burh.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Clark|1884b|p=126}}</ref>

The castle was held by William's son, also called [[William de Warenne, 2nd Earl of Surrey|William]], from 1088 to 1138, and then by his son, another [[William de Warenne, 3rd Earl of Surrey|William]], until his death in 1147.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|pp=3, 5}}</ref> Conisbrough and the earldom then passed through [[Isabel de Warenne, Countess of Surrey|Isabel]], William's daughter, to her first husband, [[William I, Count of Boulogne|William de Blois]], and then onto to her second husband, [[Hamelin de Warenne, Earl of Surrey|Hamelin Plantagenet]], whom she married in 1163.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=5}}</ref> Hamelin was the illegitimate half-brother of King [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], who had arranged the marriage, and the union brought him great wealth.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=5}}; {{harvnb|Liddiard|2005|p=54}}</ref> Hamelin extensively rebuilt the castle around 1180 to 1190, including constructing the stone keep; given his ''[[parvenu]]'' status, he probably hoped to reinforce perceptions of his new elevated rank.<ref>{{harvnb|Liddiard|2005|p=54}}; {{harvnb|Johnson|1980|p=78}}</ref> King [[John of England|John]] visited the castle in 1201.<ref name=Johnson1984P7>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=7}}</ref>

===13th – 15th centuries===
[[File:Conisbrough Castle inner ward - geograph.org.uk - 920706.jpg|thumb|The inner bailey seen from the east, showing the former locations of the gatehouse and the solar block (left), and the castle's hall (right)]]
The castle continued in the ownership of Hamelin Plantagenet's family, passing to his son [[William de Warenne, 5th Earl of Surrey|William de Warenne]] in 1202.<ref name=Johnson1984P7/> William was probably responsible for the construction of new stone [[curtain wall (castle)|curtain wall]]s around the inner bailey, destroying the former earthwork defences in the process.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1980|p=80}}</ref> The inner bailey was levelled and William built a hall and service buildings inside the castle, again in stone.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1980|pp=77, 80}}</ref> Conisbrough was inherited by William's young son [[John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey|John de Warenne]] in 1239, but he was still a minor and the castle was initially managed by his mother, [[Maud Marshal|Maud]].<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|pp=6—7}}</ref>

Under John, Conisbrough's [[constable]]s carried out a range of what the historian Stephen Johnson terms "colourful if rather unlawful dealings"; one was ultimately charged with having conducted "devilish and innumerable oppressions".<ref name=Johnson1984P7/> Further work was carried out in the castle during John's ownership, including modernising the castle hall and solar.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1980|p=81}}</ref>

The castle passed to John's grandson, also called [[John de Warenne, 7th Earl of Surrey|John]], in 1304, who married [[Joan of Bar, Countess of Surrey|Joan de Barr]].<ref name=Johnson1984P7/> The marriage broke down but John's attempts to gain a divorce in 1316 failed in the law courts.<ref name=Johnson1984P7/> John blamed [[Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster|Thomas]], the [[Earl of Lancaster]], for this and in response he kidnapped Thomas's wife; Thomas then retaliated by seizing Conisbrough Castle.<ref name=Johnson1984P7/> [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] intervened in the dispute and confirmed Thomas as the new owner of the castle.<ref name=Johnson1984P7/> In 1322, however, Thomas rebelled against the King and was executed, resulting in Edward taking control of Conisbrough himself.<ref name=Johnson1984P7/> The King visited the castle in 1322, and spent 40 [[mark (money)|mark]]s on repairing both Conisbrough and the neighbouring castle of Pontefract.<ref name=Johnson1984P7/>{{efn|name=Medievalmoney|The medieval [[mark (money)|mark]] was worth two-thirds of an English pound; 400 marks was the equivalent of £266. It is impossible to accurately compare medieval financial sums with their modern equivalents; as a comparative example, an average English baron of the period had an annual income of around £200.<ref>{{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=147}}</ref>}} Edward was overthrown by his wife [[Isabella of France|Isabella]] in 1326 and the castle was returned to John.<ref name=Johnson1984P7/> John had hoped to pass the property to his mistress and two illegitimate sons, but he outlived them and on his death in 1347 it reverted to the control of the Crown.<ref name=Johnson1984P7/>

Edward III gave the castle to his own son, [[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York|Edmund of Langley]], the [[Duke of York]], who controlled it until 1402.<ref name=Johnson1984P7/> Edmund's eldest son, [[Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York|Edward]], owned it until 1415, when it passed to Maud Clifford, the widow of Edmund's younger son [[Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge|Richard]], who lived there until 1446.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|pp=7—8}}</ref> [[Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York|Richard of York]] then inherited the castle, and on his death in 1460 during the [[Wars of the Roses]] it passed to his son [[Edward IV of England|Edward]], who seized the throne in 1461, bringing Conisbrough back into Crown ownership once again.<ref name=Johnson1984P8>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=8}}</ref>

===16th – 19th centuries===
[[File:Conisbrough Castle, 1785.png|thumb|Engraving of the castle in 1785]]
By the 16th century Conisbrough Castle was in a poor state of repair, and a royal survey carried out in 1537 and 1538 showed that the gates, bridge and parts of the walls had collapsed in a spectacular land slippage, and that one floor of the keep had also fallen in.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|pp=8, 10}}</ref> The collapse of the walls was a consequence of the instability of the top soil on top of the limestone spur, which was a mixture of clay and sandstone; once the clay was washed away over time, the remaining sandstone proved extremely unstable and liable to crack.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1969|p=215}}</ref>

Henry VIII gave the ruins to the Carey family, who retained it until it passed by marriage into first the Heviningham and then the Coke families.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=8}}; {{harvnb|Smith|1887|p=112}}</ref> The castle was not involved in the events of the English Civil War in the 17th century, and escaped the slighting that affected many similar properties, probably because the collapse of the outer walls had already made it indefensible and of little military value.<ref name=Johnson1984P8/> In 1737, after the death of Edward Coke, the castle and the surrounding manor were bought by [[Thomas Osborne, 4th Duke of Leeds|Thomas Osborne]], the [[Duke of Leeds]], for £22,500.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1887|p=112}}</ref>{{efn|It is challenging to accurately compare 18th-century and modern financial sums. £22,500 in 1737 would be worth between £3.1 million and £364 million in 2013 terms, depending on the financial measure used. <ref name=MeasuringWorth>{{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/relativevalue.php | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson | separator = ,| postscript =none | date = 2014| accessdate=31 December 2014 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}}

In 1811 the novelist Sir Walter Scott passed by the castle and later used it as the location for his novel ''Ivanhoe'', published in 1819.<ref>{{harvnb|Hull|2008|p=27}}</ref> Scott only had a partial view of the property from the road and the events portrayed in the novel, set at the end of the 12th century, are fictitious; Scott believed the castle to have been Saxon in origin, a view shared by many 19th century commentators.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=8}}; {{harvnb|Scott|1998|p=573}}</ref> Although the writer John Wainwright was still able to praise the "picturesque view" around the castle in 1826, the antiquarian Ecroyd Smith commented with concern in 1887 on the changing character of the location, in particular the factories that were growing up around the new railway line and the "murky atmosphere" the industrial works created.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1887|pp=15—16, 39—40}}</ref>

In 1859 [[Francis D'Arcy-Osborne, 7th Duke of Leeds|Francis D'Arcy-Osborne]], the Duke of Leeds, died, leaving Conisbrough to his nephew, [[Sackville Lane-Fox, 12th Baron Conyers|Sackville Lane-Fox]], the [[Baron Conyers]].<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1887|p=112}}</ref> The keep remained in good condition, but by 1884 it was apparent that repairs were needed and the antiquarian George Clark recommended urgent work to repair the stonework.<ref name=CLark1884BP157>{{harvnb|Clark|1884b|p=157}}</ref> If finances allowed it, he also urged the reinstallation of a roof and wooden floors.<ref name=CLark1884BP157/> Limited repairs were subsequently approved by the trustees of Lord Conyers, although Clark's colleague, A. Ellis, expressed concerns that railings to protect the visitors who routinely climbed to the top of the keep had not been funded.<ref>{{harvnb|Ellis|1885|pp=399—400}}</ref> A reported £500 was spent by the trustees renovating the castle ruins, including the construction of a lodge in the outer bailey for the castle keeper, completed in 1885, and improvements to the footpaths.<ref>{{harvnb|Dixon|1887|p=189}}; {{harvnb|Davis|2012|p=5}}</ref>{{efn|Comparing 19th-century and modern financial sums depends on the financial measure used. £500 in 1885 would be worth between £47,000 and £651,000 in 2013 terms, depending on the financial measure used. <ref name=MeasuringWorth>{{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/relativevalue.php | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson | separator = ,| postscript =none | date = 2014| accessdate=31 December 2014 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}}

===20th – 21st centuries===
[[File:Conisborough Castle entrance.JPG|thumb|The inner bailey seen from the outer bailey, showing the remains of the barbican and the mural towers]]
Conisbrough Castle was bought by the Conisbrough local council in the 1940s, who placed the castle into the guardianship of the [[Ministry of Works (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Public Works]] in 1949, but retained the freehold ownership of the land.<ref name="english-heritage1993">{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/conservation-bulletin-19/conservationbulletin19.pdf|title=Conservation Bulletin, Issue 19, March 1993|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref> Two sets of archaeological excavations were carried out on the site between 1967 and 1969, exposing the foundations of the buildings in the inner bailey, and then from 1973 to 1977, examining options for future visitor facilities.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1980|p=59}}; {{harvnb|Thompson|1969|p=215}}</ref> By 1984, when the government agency English Heritage took over the management of the property, the condition of the visitor services was unsatisfactory and the industrial character of the surrounding area was discouraging tourists.<ref name="english-heritage1993"/>

In response, [[English Heritage]] and [[Doncaster Council|Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council]] formed a three-way agreement in 1988 with the Ivanhoe Trust, a local charity designed to generate new employment in the region.<ref name="english-heritage1993"/> Under this agreement the trust would manage the site, English Heritage would maintain the historic fabric of the castle, while the council would construct a new visitors' centre.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/conservation-bulletin-19/conservationbulletin19.pdf|title=Conservation Bulletin, Issue 19, March 1993|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.conisbroughcastle.org.uk/CastleHistory/CastleHistory.aspx |title=Castle History |accessdate=30 December 2014 |publisher=Conisbrough Castle |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080401170403/http://www.conisbroughcastle.org.uk/History/history.htm | separator = ,| postscript =none|archivedate = 1 April 2008}}</ref> A new, controversial visitor's centre was built in the style of a collection of jousting tents, while the floors and roof of the keep were reinstalled between 1993 and 1995 with [[European Union]] funding, in an attempt to limit the erosion of the castle stonework.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/conservation-bulletin-19/conservationbulletin19.pdf|title=Conservation Bulletin, Issue 19, March 1993|publisher=English Heritage|accessdate=30 December 2014 |separator = ,| postscript =none}}; {{harvnb|Davis|2012|p=5}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/main-topics/local-stories/deal-lifts-hopes-for-boom-in-castle-visitors-1-2492905|title=Deal lifts hopes for boom in castle visitors|publisher=Yorkshire Post|date=5 March 2008| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref>

Visitor numbers following the investments fell far short of expectations, however, and by 2006 had settled at around 30,000 each year, only slightly above the level in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/conservation-bulletin-19/conservationbulletin19.pdf|title=Conservation Bulletin, Issue 19, March 1993|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/main-topics/local-stories/deal-lifts-hopes-for-boom-in-castle-visitors-1-2492905|title=Deal lifts hopes for boom in castle visitors|publisher=Yorkshire Post|date=5 March 2008|| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref> The external facilities did not age well and funding shortages led to the new audio-visual effects in the keep being turned off to save money.<ref>{{harvnb|Davis|2012|pp=5–6}}</ref> Discussions between the three partners about the future of the castle took place, but relations broke down and English Heritage resumed the direct management of the castle in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.southyorkshiretimes.co.uk/news/local/row-as-castle-trust-ousted-1-611267|title=Row as castle trust ousted|publisher=South Yorkshire Times|date=12 March 2008| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref>

The castle was closed for a £1.1 million programme of renovations in 2013, funded by the [[Heritage Lottery Fund]], as part of which a new visitors' centre and visitor facilities were constructed.<ref>{{harvnb|Davis|2014|p=11}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/about/news/heritage-lottery-fund-award-confirmed-for-conisbrough-castle/|title=£900,000 Heritage Lottery Fund Award Confirmed for Conisbrough Castle|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref> The castle is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and as an Ancient Monument.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-334795-conisbrough-castle-|title=Conisbrough Castle, Conisbrough|publisher=British Listed Buildings|author=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=28 December 2014}}</ref>

==Architecture==
===Inner and outer baileys===
[[File:Plan of Conisbrough Castle, early 13th century.png|thumb|300px|Plan of the inner bailey of the castle in the early 13th century. Key: A – solar block; B – hall; C – kitchen and pantry; D – keep and stairs; E – barbican and gatehouse; F – chapel. Grey indicates splayed footings]]
Conisbrough Castle has an outer and an inner bailey, approximately {{convert|260|by|120|ft}} and {{convert|290|by|205|ft}} across respectively.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=9, 12–13}}; {{harvnb|Clark|1884b|p=124}}</ref> The castle was entered through the outer bailey, a rectangular enclosure protected by earthworks, which would have contained the castle's barns, stables and other service facilities.<ref name=Johnson1984P9>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=9}}</ref> A [[drawbridge]] on the northern side of the outer bailey, now replaced by an earth causeway, linked it with the inner bailey.<ref name=Johnson1984P9/>

The oval inner bailey was formed by [[Scarp (fortification)|scarping]] and counter-scarping the natural contours of the hill, producing a bank, now largely destroyed, and a protective ditch.<ref name=Johnson1984P9/> The early 13th-century [[curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] is mostly of roughly dressed, coursed stone, up to {{convert|7|ft}} thick and {{convert|35|ft}} high, with two sections repaired with [[ashlar]] facings.<ref name=Johnson1984PP9Johnson1980PP78>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|pp=9–10, 18}}; {{harvnb|Johnson|1980|pp=78–80}}; {{harvnb|Clark|1884b|p=128}}</ref> The wall was defended by six mural towers along its southern and western sides, of which three still survive reasonably intact, and strengthened with [[pilaster]] [[buttress]]es along the northern edge.<ref name=Johnson1984PP9Johnson1980PP78/> The bases of the walls and the towers were splayed, spreading their weight out more broadly, but their footings are only {{convert|0.6|m}} deep in places.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=9}}; {{harvnb|Johnson|1980|p=78}}</ref> A [[barbican]] protected the link from the drawbridge to the [[gatehouse]] of the inner bailey, complete with an additional corner turret.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|pp=10–12}}</ref> The remains of the collapse of the curtain wall are still visible in the ditch.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=10}}</ref>

Various buildings were constructed along the inside of the inner bailey wall of similar rough stonework to the curtain wall, but only their foundations remain today.<ref name=Johnson1984P18>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=18}}</ref> In the south-west corner was the solar block, containing the [[solar (room)|solar]] and various chambers.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|pp=20–21}}</ref> Along the north side was the hall, pushed into an awkward corner of the curtain wall, {{convert|70|by|30|ft}} in size and originally probably built two storeys high.<ref name=Johnson1984P18/> Initially constructed with a central hearth, a fireplace was added into the outer wall in the later 13th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=20}}</ref> Alongside the hall were a kitchen and [[pantry]], the former with a cellar.<ref name=Johnson1984P18/> On the south-east side of the inner bailey was the [[castle chapel]], {{convert|20|by|40|ft}} across.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|1969|pp=215–216}}</ref>

===Keep===
Conisbrough's keep was positioned on the north-east side of the inner bailey.<ref name=Johnson1984P14>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=14}}</ref> It is an important medieval survival: the historian Sidney Toy considered it to be "one of the finest keeps in England", the historian Oliver Creighton describes it as an "architectural gem" and Stephen Johnson as "one of the finest examples of late Norman defensive architecture".<ref>{{harvnb|Toy|1985|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Creighton|2005|p=8}}; {{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=14}}</ref>

[[Image:ConisbroughCastle2.jpg|thumbnail|upright|The keep, re-roofed and floored between 1993 and 1995]]
The keep comprises a central circular tower, {{convert|62|ft}} in diameter, with six, large solid buttresses projecting outwards to form an hexagonal design, unique in England.<ref name=Johnson1984P14/> It was made from magnesian limestone and {{convert|28|m}} tall with walls up to {{convert|15|ft}} thick in places.<ref name="english-heritage14">{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|pp=14–15, 17}}; {{harvnb|Clark|1884b|p=133}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1010828|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref> It has four floors: a ground floor that serves as a basement and a [[vault (architecture)|vault]]ed stone support for the chamber above; the first floor, through which the keep was accessed; two upper floors and a roof walk, which was probably covered by a [[pentice]] and defended by [[battlement]]s.<ref name="english-heritage14"/>

The current concrete stairs to the keep are modern, and the original medieval stairway, made from timber and stone, would have incorporated a drawbridge just before the castle doors.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=15}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1010828|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref> The basement contained a well, which could also be drawn from the 1st floor through a hole in the stone floor.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=15}}</ref>

The keep was designed as a private tower for Hamelin Plantagenet, rather than a grander residence.<ref name=Dixon2008P273>{{harvnb|Dixon|2008|p=273}}</ref> As a result, it was not designed to accommodate several different households and its layout was simpler than that seen at the contemporary keep of [[Orford Castle]], for example.<ref name=Dixon2008P273/> The 2nd and the 3rd floor would have served as the main chamber and the lord's private chamber, forming a vertical sequence of rooms, with a vaulted, hexagonal chapel leading off the private chamber, cut into one of the buttresses.<ref>{{harvnb|Dixon|2008|p=273}}; {{harvnb|Johnson|1984|pp=15, 17}}</ref>

Most of the castle would have been very dark due to the lack of natural light.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=15}}</ref> The main chamber, however, had a large window, {{convert|1|ft|10|in}} by {{convert|4|ft|8|in}}, with deep recesses to allow for the thickness of the walls; two carved seats sat alongside the window.<ref>{{harvnb|Toy|1985|p=114}}; {{harvnb|Johnson|1984|pp=14—15, 17}}</ref> A similar window was placed above it in the private chamber.<ref>{{harvnb|Clark|1884b|p=142}}</ref> The keep had relatively advanced [[fireplace]]s and [[flue]]s for this period, the fireplace in the main chamber being exceptionally large and decorated with stone columns and carved capitals.<ref>{{harvnb|Toy|1985|p=115}}; {{harvnb|Johnson|1984|p=16}}</ref>

Conisbrough Castle was probably similar to two other castles owned by the Warren earls. Hamelin Plantagenet was also responsible for the development of [[Mortemer, Seine-Maritime|Mortemer Castle]] in France, where a similar keep was built on top of a motte, and Conisbrough might also have had resemblances to [[Sandal Castle]] in the north of England, also owned by the earls.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1980|p=77}}</ref> The keep's design was poor from a military perspective, as although the central circular tower would have had defensive advantages, the buttresses introduced 12 vulnerable corners into the stonework, and the keep itself had no arrow slots to permit the defenders to fire on any attackers.<ref> {{harvnb|Liddiard|2005|p=50}}</ref> Rather than being designed primarily for military defence, it was intended to symbolise and reinforce Hamelin's lordship and new social status.<ref>{{harvnb|Liddiard|2005|p=54}}</ref>

{{wide image|Plan of Conisbrough keep.png|850px|Plan of the Conisbrough Castle's keep}}

==See also==
*[[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
*[[List of castles in England]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|notes=}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

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last=Smith|
first=Henry Ecroyd|
title=The History of Conisborough Castle, With Glimpses of Ivanhoe-Land|
publisher=Robert White|
location=Worksop, UK |
year=1887 |
ref=harv |
oclc=}}
*{{cite journal
|last=Thompson
|first=M. W.
|year=1969
|title=Further work at Conisbrough Castle, Yorkshire
|journal=Medieval Archaeology
|volume=13
|pages=215–216
|ref = harv}}
*{{cite book |
last=Toy|
first=Sidney |
title=Castles: Their Construction and History |
publisher=Dover|
location=New York, US |
year=1985 |
origyear=1939|
ref=harv |
isbn=978-1-904768-67-8}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Conisbrough Castle}}
* [http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/conisbrough-castle/ English Heritage: visitor information]

[[Category:Castles in South Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Conisbrough]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in South Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed castles]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in South Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Doncaster]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Doncaster Borough]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in South Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Ruins in South Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in South Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Ruined castles in England]]
[[Category:Grade I listed ruins]]

Sutton Valence Castle

2015-01-04T10:41:42Z

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{{Infobox military structure
|name=Sutton Valence Castle
|location=[[Kent]]
|map_type=Kent
|map_alt=
|latitude=51.212691
|longitude=0.597937
|coordinates={{gbmapping|TQ815491}}
|image=[[File:Sutton Valence Castle.jpg|225px]]
|caption= The ruined [[keep]] of the castle
|condition=Ruined
|open_to_public = Yes
|built = 12th century
|materials = [[Ragstone]] and [[flint]] rubble
|ownership= [[English Heritage]]
}}

'''Sutton Valence Castle''' is a ruined [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[castle|fortification]] in the village of [[Sutton Valence]] in [[Kent]], England. It was built in the second half of the 12th century, probably by [[Baldwin of Bethune]], the [[Count of Aumale]]. Overlooking a strategic route to the coast, the original castle probably comprised an [[inner bailey|inner]] and an [[outer bailey]] and a protective [[barbican]], with a three-storey high [[keep]] on its southern side. It was passed into the [[William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|Marshal]] and [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|de Montfort]] families, before being given by King [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] to his half-brother [[William de Valence]] in 1265, from whom the castle takes its current name. It was abandoned in the early 14th century and fell into ruin. In the 21st century the castle is managed by [[English Heritage]], and the remains of the keep are open to the public.

==History==

===12th – 15th centuries===
Sutton Valence Castle was probably built in the second half of the 12th century by the [[Count of Aumale|Counts of Aumale]], most likely by [[Baldwin of Bethune]], but perhaps alternatively by [[William le Gros, 1st Earl of Albemarle|William le Gros]], Baldwin's father-in-law.<ref>{{harvnb|Pettifer|1995|p=192}}; {{harvnb|Sands|1907|p=196}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/sutton-valence-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Sutton Valence Castle|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1013537|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}</ref> The castle was built on a commanding position overlooking the strategic route between the towns of [[Maidstone]], [[Rye]] and [[Winchelsea|Old Winchelsea]]. and the location was originally known as Town Sutton.<ref>{{harvnb|Grove|1957|pp=202, 204}}; {{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1013537|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}</ref> The stone [[keep]] of the castle was constructed around 1200.<ref name="english-heritage1">{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/sutton-valence-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Sutton Valence Castle|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}</ref>

In 1203, Baldwin gave the castle to his daughter Alicia on her marriage to [[William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|William Marshal]], the [[Earl of Pembroke]], who later remarried, passing the property to his second wife, [[Eleanor of Leicester|Eleanor]].<ref name=Sands1904P205/> After William's death, Eleanor married [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]], the [[Earl of Leicester]].<ref name=Sands1904P205>{{harvnb|Sands|1902|p=205}}</ref> Simon led a rebellion against King [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] during the [[Second Barons' War]], but was killed at the [[Battle of Evesham]] in 1265, after which Eleanor was stripped of the castle.<ref name=Sands1904P205/>

The King gave Sutton Valence to [[William de Valence]], his half-brother, who had supported him during the conflict.<ref name="english-heritage1"/> Under William, the castle acquired its current name of Sutton Valence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1013537|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}} {{harvnb|Sands|1902|p=205}}</ref> [[Aymer de Valence]], his son, inherited the castle in 1307.<ref>English Heritage history website.</ref> The Valences travelled around their estates, increasingly focusing their attention on a handful of their various great houses, and stayed at Sutton Valence on at least several occasions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/sutton-valence-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Sutton Valence Castle|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}; {{harvnb|Emery|2006|p=28}}</ref>

After Aymer's death in 1324, the castle passed by marriage to Lawrence, [[Lord Hastings]], and was held in the Hastings family until 1390, when [[Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn|Reginald Lord Grey de Ruthin]] acquired it.<ref>{{harvnb|Sands|1902|pp=204–206}}</ref> There are few historical records of the castle beyond this point, but it appears to have been abandoned in the early 14th century and by the 15th century had become ruined.<ref>{{harvnb|Pettifer|1995|p=130}}; {{harvnb|Grove|1957|p=228}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/sutton-valence-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Sutton Valence Castle|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}</ref>

===16th – 21st centuries===

By the end of the 18th century, the historian [[Edward Hasted]] described Sutton Valence Castle as being "now almost covered with ivy, and the branches of the trees which sprout out from the walls of it."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol5/pp364-375|title=Parishes: Sutton Valence, in The History and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent: Volume 5|pages=364–375|author=Edward Hasted|publisher=British History Online|date=1798| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}</ref> [[Archaeological excavation]]s were carried out at the site during the mid-1950s with the assistance of Maidstone Museum and the local Sutton Valence School, focusing on the castle keep.<ref>{{harvnb|Grove|1957|pp=227–228}}</ref> The castle was placed into the guardianship of the state in 1976; it is now owned by [[English Heritage]] and conservation work was done on the ruins in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1013537|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://magic.defra.gov.uk/Metadata_for_magic/rsm/27017.pdf|title=Extract from English Heritage's Record of Scheduled Monuments|author=English Heritage|publisher=Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}</ref> It is protected under UK law as a Grade II [[listed building]] and as a [[Scheduled Monument]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1186956|publisher=English Heritage|title=List Entry| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}</ref>

==Architecture==
[[File:Sutton Valence Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1015824.jpg|thumb|The remains of the ragstone and flint rubble keep]]
Sutton Valence Castle occupied a [[spur]] of the Chart Hills, adjacent to the village of [[Sutton Valence]], and probably comprised an [[inner bailey|inner]] and an [[outer bailey]] and a protective [[barbican]].<ref name=ListEntryEH>{{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1013537|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/sutton-valence-castle/history-and-research/|title=History and Research: Sutton Valence Castle|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}</ref> Visitors would have entered through an eastern barbican, coming through to an outer bailey; these feaures only survive as earthworks.<ref name="english-heritage1"/> A dry ditch protected the inner bailey, which was approximately {{convert|300|by|34|m}} across, positioned on the southern side of the site.<ref name=ListEntryEH/> It probably included a [[hall]], [[castle chapel|chapel]] and kitchen, but only the castle keep now survives.<ref name=ListEntryEH/> The keep is {{convert|11|m}} square, with walls {{convert|2.4|m}} thick, built from [[ragstone]] and [[flint]] rubble and surviving up to {{convert|7|m}} high.<ref name=ListEntryEH/> It was originally {{convert|20|m}} tall, with at least three storeys, and entered through an external staircase leading to a doorway in the first floor.<ref name=ListEntryEH/> The building had a corner tower, in which was a [[spiral staircase]] linking the floors, and had clasping [[buttress]]es at the corners.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1013537|title=List Entry|publisher=English Heritage| separator = ,| postscript =none|accessdate=1 January 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
*[[List of castles in England]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=20em}}

==Bibliography==

* {{cite book
| last = Emery
| first = Anthony
| year = 2006
| title = Greater Medieval Houses of England and Wales, 1300–1500: Volume 3, Southern England
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location= Cambridge, UK
| isbn = 9781139449199
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite journal
| year = 1957
| last1 = Grove
| first1 = L. R. A.
| title = Sutton Valence
| journal = Archaeologia Cantiana
| volume = 71
| pages = 227–228
| ref = harv}}
* {{cite book
| last = Pettifer
| first = Adrian
| year = 1995
| title = English Castles: A Guide by Counties
| publisher = Boydell Press
| location= Woodbridge, UK
| isbn = 9780851157825
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite journal
| year = 1902
| last1 = Sands
| first1 = Harold
| title = Sutton Valence Castle
| journal = Archaeologia Cantiana
| volume = 25
| pages = 198–206
| ref = harv}}
*{{cite book |
last=Sands|
first=Harold |
editor-last1 =Ditchfield|
editor-first1 = P. H. |
editor-last2 =Clinch |
editor-first2 = George |
chapter= Some Kentish Castles |
title=Memorials of Old Kent |
publisher=Bemrose and Sons|
location=London, UK |
year=1907 |
pages = 150–214 |
ref=harv |
oclc=}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sutton Valence Castle|position=right}}
*[http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/sutton-valence-castle/ English Heritage's website entry]

[[Category:English Heritage sites in Kent]]
[[Category:Castles in Kent]]

Haddam Island State Park

2015-01-01T23:41:45Z

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{{Geobox | Protected Area

| name = Haddam Island State Park
| native_name =
| other_name =
| other_name1 =

| category = [[List of Connecticut state parks|Connecticut State Park]]
| category_iucn =

| image =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =

| etymology_type = Named for
| etymology =

| country = {{flag|United States}}
| state = {{flag|Connecticut}}
| region_type = County
| region = [[Middlesex County, Connecticut|Middlesex]]
| region1 =
| district_type = Town
| district = [[Haddam, Connecticut|Haddam]]
| district1 =
| district2 =
| city =

| location = [[Connecticut River]]
| lat_d = 41 | lat_m = 29 | lat_s = 30 | lat_NS = N
| long_d = 72 | long_m = 31 | long_s = 02 | long_EW = W
| coordinates_note = <ref name=gnis>{{cite gnis|id=207581|name=Haddam Island State Park|entrydate=September 12, 1979|accessdate=December 22, 2014}}</ref>
| location_note =
| elevation_imperial = 10
| elevation_round = 0
| elevation_note = <ref name=gnis/>
| area_unit = acre
| area_imperial = 14
| area_type =
| area_round = 0
| area_note = <ref name=pristaff/>

| established_type = Established
| established = 1944
| established_note = <ref name=hist/>
| management_body = Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection
| management_location =
| visitation = | visitation_year = | visitation_note =

| map = Connecticut Locator Map.PNG
| map_caption = Location in Connecticut
| map_locator = Connecticut
| map_first =

| website = [http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#HaddamIsland Haddam Island State Park]
}}

'''Haddam Island State Park''' is an undeveloped {{convert|14|acre|ha|adj=on}} island in the lower [[Connecticut River]] in the [[New England town|town]] of [[Haddam, Connecticut|Haddam]], [[Connecticut]], in the [[United States]]. Originally used by the [[Wangunk]] tribe, the island was reserved for their use as part of a {{convert|150|sqmi|km2|adj=on}} land sale to [[Connecticut Colony|English colonists]] in May 1662. In the 19th century, the island was used for fishing and farming. The early 20th century saw it as a place of public recreation, and the State of Connecticut purchased the island and made it a state park in 1944. The park is only accessible by boat, and recommended activities are boating, fishing, and birdwatching.

== History ==
The English settlers in the [[Connecticut Colony]] originally named the island ''Thirty Mile Island'' because it was erroneously believed to be {{convert|30|mi|km}} north of the Connecticut River's mouth. The original English settlement in the area was called Thirty Mile Island Plantation. In May 1662, an area of {{convert|150|sqmi|km2}} of land, including the island, was sold by the [[Wangunk]] tribe to the English settlers for 30 [[Coat (clothing)|coats]]. However, the natives reserved the right to use the island as part of the sale stipulations.<ref name=hist /><ref name=wan /> Though little documentation exists today, the Wangunk tribe lived on the island and in the surrounding area before selling it along with the rest of their land.<ref name=wan /> Recorded deeds show that the Wangunk tribe made another land sale in 1672, and the remaining parcels of Wangunk land were sold between 1765 and 1769.<ref name=wan /><ref>Burkett, Jillian (May 9, 2014). [https://commons.trincoll.edu/nativenortheastplacenames/2014/05/09/compliation-of-wangunk-land-records/#_ftnref Compliation of Wangunk Land Records] {{sic}}. ''Trinity Banter''. Trinity College. Retrieved December 26, 2014.</ref>

At the close of the 18th century, the island was one of the most important fishing locations on the Connecticut River.<ref name=hist /> By 1819, the island was listed as {{convert|18|acre|ha}} in area and was expected to increase in size following the construction of a [[pier]] 90 [[Rod (unit)|rod]]s north of the island, which caused the accumulation of sand at the head of the island.<ref>{{cite book | url=http://books.google.com/?id=M3sFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&dq=%22Haddam+Island%22#v=onepage&q=%22Haddam%20Island%22&f=false | title=A Statistical Account of the County of Middlesex, in Connecticut | publisher=Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences | author=Field, David Dudley |location=Middletown, Connecticut |year=1819 }}</ref> The island is currently listed as {{convert|14|acre|ha}} in size.<ref name=pristaff/> In the 19th century, two fishing companies operated from the island and constructed piers, and the island was also used for grazing [[cattle]] and farming [[Maize|corn]].<ref name=hist /> Records in the late 19th century indicate that the Haddam Island area of the Connecticut River was [[Dredging|dredged]] annually.<ref>{{cite book | url=http://books.google.com/?id=_Oo3AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1168&dq=%22Haddam+Island%22#v=onepage&q=%22Haddam%20Island%22&f=false | title=United States Congressional serial set, Issue 4280 | publisher=Washington Government Printing Office | year=1901 | page=1168}}</ref> The island became a popular recreational area with picnics and private events in the beginning of the 20th century. The island was purchased by the State of Connecticut in 1944, and it became a state park. According to legend, [[William Kidd|Captain Kidd]] buried some of his treasure on the island, but none has been found.<ref name=hist />

== Activities ==
Haddam Island State Park is home to a large number of bird species, especially during annual migrations, which make it suitable for birdwatching. [[Bird ringing|Bird-banding]] and other research activities have taken place on the island. Other recommended activities are boating and fishing; fishing was the historic use of the island from centuries ago.<ref name=leary /> To access to the island, one must cross the Connecticut River, and there is no parking area or fees. The northern side of the island has a beach that is fragile and cannot support heavy visitation, and the island has a significant amount of [[Toxicodendron radicans|poison ivy]].<ref name=leary /><ref name=DEEP /> The nearest access point is the [[Haddam Meadows State Park]] boat launch, which features [[chemical toilet]]s and parking.<ref name=boat />

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=DEEP>{{cite web |url=http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#HaddamIsland |title=Haddam Island State Park |work=State Parks and Forests |publisher=Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection |accessdate=March 5, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name=boat>{{cite web | url=http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2686&q=382704&depNAV_GID=1620 | title=Haddam Meadows Boat Launch (Connecticut River) Haddam | publisher=Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection | accessdate=December 9, 2014}}</ref>

<ref name="leary">{{cite book | title=A Shared Landscape: A Guide & History of Connecticut's State Parks & Forests | publisher=Friends of the Connecticut State Parks, Inc. | author=Leary, Joseph | year=2004 | pages=80 | isbn=0974662909}}</ref>

<ref name="wan">{{cite web | url=http://commons.trincoll.edu/nativenortheastplacenames/2014/05/09/haddam-island-and-the-wangunk-tribe/ | title=Haddam Island and the Wangunk Tribe | work=Trinity Banter |publisher=Trinity College | date=May 4, 2014 | accessdate=December 22, 2014 | author=Gleysteen, Will}}</ref>

<ref name=pristaff>{{cite web |url=http://www.cga.ct.gov/pri/docs/2013/State%20Parks%20and%20Forests%20Funding%20Staff%20Findings%20and%20Recommendations%20.pdf |format=PDF |title=State Parks and Forests: Funding |author=Legislative Program Review and Investigations Committee |series=Staff Findings and Recommendations |publisher=Connecticut General Assembly |date=January 23, 2014 |page=A-2 |accessdate=March 20, 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=hist>{{cite web | url=http://www.haddamhistory.org/parks.htm | title=Parks: Haddam Island State Park | publisher=The Haddam Historical Society | accessdate=December 8, 2014}}</ref>

}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#HaddamIsland Haddam Island State Park], Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=jsxcIeO3maUC&lpg=PA7&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false Photo of the island in 1877] in ''Haddam, 1870-1930''

{{Protected Areas of Connecticut}}

[[Category:State parks of Connecticut]]
[[Category:Connecticut River]]
[[Category:River islands of Connecticut]]
[[Category:Parks in Middlesex County, Connecticut]]
[[Category:Haddam, Connecticut]]

Above All State Park

2015-01-01T15:41:39Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Geobox|Protected area
| name = Above All State Park
| category = [[List of Connecticut state parks|Connecticut state park]]
| image =
| image_caption =
| country = {{flag|United States}}
| state = {{flag|Connecticut}}
| region_type = County
| region = [[Litchfield County, Connecticut|Litchfield]]
| district_type = Town
| district = [[Warren, Connecticut|Warren]]
| location =
| elevation_imperial = 1470
| elevation_round = 0
| elevation_note = <ref name=gnis>{{cite gnis|205037|Above All State Park}}</ref>
| lat_d = 41
| lat_m = 43
| lat_s = 36
| lat_NS = N
| long_d = 73
| long_m = 21
| long_s = 10
| long_EW = W
| coordinates_note = <ref name=gnis/>
| area_unit = acre
| area_imperial = 31
| area_round = 0
| area_note = <ref name=DEEP/>
| established_type = Established
| established = Unspecfied
| management_body = Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection
| map_locator = Connecticut
| map = Connecticut Locator Map.PNG
| map_caption = Location in Connecticut
| website = [http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#AboveAll Above All State Park]
}}

'''Above All State Park''' is an undeveloped [[Connecticut]] [[state park]] located in the [[New England town|town]] of [[Warren, Connecticut|Warren]].<ref name=DEEP/> The park was founded in 1927 and it became a military installation known as the New Preston Gap-Filler RADAR Annex P-50A /Z-50A from June 1957 to June 1968. It later returned to being a state park, but the remnants of the [[Cold War]] defense installation are still extant. There are no markers, toilets, or other facilities at the Above All State Park. There are some informal trails near the top of the park that are not maintained or marked by the [[Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection]].

== History ==
In his book on Connecticut's state parks, author Joseph Leary traces the name to when the land was used by the Stone family, who claimed it was the highest working farm by elevation in all of Connecticut.<ref name=leary /> During the 19th-century, the site was considered for the "Above-All Mountain House", a holiday resort, but it was never built.<ref name=green /> Leary writes that despite its name, the park is not "Above All" in terms of scale, views or elevation and cites the scale of [[Lake Waramaug State Park]], the views of [[Mount Tom State Park]] and the elevation of [[Dennis Hill State Park]].<ref name=leary /> According to ''Connecticut; a Guide to Its Roads, Lore, and People'', the park's name came from its "top of the world" isolation.<ref name="book1">{{cite book | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uvvqa9ctEmMC&pg=PA455&dq=%22Above-All%22+connecticut+park&hl=en&sa=X&ei=20B4U5KnLqrLsQTQ0YDIDQ&ved=0CFMQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=%22Above-All%22%20connecticut%20park&f=false | title=Connecticut; a Guide to Its Roads, Lore, and People, | author=Federal Writers' Project | year=1938 | pages=455}}</ref>

The park was founded in 1927 when the heirs of Seymour Strong gifted three acres of land to the state.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1915&dat=19280112&id=N6AtAAAAIBAJ&sjid=e3EFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3808,823106 | title=Park Commission To Buy 125 Acres For State Forest | publisher=The Day | date=January 12, 1928 | accessdate=19 May 2014}}</ref> The State of Connecticut decided purchase 28 additional acres from the Stanley estate in December 1927.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.newspapers.com/clip/1471198/purchase_of_land_for_above_all_state/ | title=State to Buy 28 Acres of Land on Mountain | publisher=The Bridgeport Telegram (Bridgeport, Connecticut) | date=9 Dec 1927 | accessdate=1 January 2015 | pages=13}}</ref> Above All State Park was the 36th state park to be designated.<ref>{{cite book | title=Connecticut Register and Manual | publisher=State of Connecticut | year=1934 | pages=235}}</ref> From June 1957 to June 1968, the state park became a military installation known as the New Preston Gap-Filler RADAR Annex P-50A /Z-50A. In 1968, a dirt road and a cinder block building, a bunker, was added to the top of the hill as part of an upgrade to the site.<ref name=leary /><ref name=green /> Located behind the bunker was the launchpad for the Nike missiles, each carrying a 2-to-40 kiloton nuclear warhead.<ref name=green /> The site also functioned as the command and control center, but Bedell states that it was the command center for the twelve Nike sites across Connecticut.<ref name=leary /><ref name=green /> However, the site is also described as an unmanned gap-filler that provided low altitude coverage.<ref name=cold /> The site "consisted of the radar and tower along with the building which contained the radar equipment and a diesel generator".<ref name=cold>{{cite web | url=http://coldwar-ct.com/Nike_Warren.html | title=SAGE New Preston | publisher=Cold War CT | accessdate=19 May 2014}}</ref> Bedell states that the park reappeared on the maps after its decommissioning, but has since reverted to secrecy.<ref name=green /> This claim of secrecy is countered by it being listed on the [[Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection]] website.<ref name=DEEP />

In 1981, the park was the subject of a study by [[Northeast Utilities]] as a possible [[wind power]] site. An [[anemometer]] and wind vane were placed atop a {{convert|65|ft|m}} tower and recorded wind data for at least a year.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1915&dat=19810117&id=kBUiAAAAIBAJ&sjid=CXUFAAAAIBAJ&pg=1080,2523696 | title=Northeast Utilities studying wind power | publisher=The Day | date=17 January 1981 | accessdate=19 May 2014}}</ref>

== Status ==
The Above All State Park is managed by the [[Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection]], but it is unmarked and undeveloped.<ref name="leary">{{cite book | title=A Shared Landscape: A Guide & History of Connecticut's State Parks & Forests | publisher=Friends of the Connecticut State Parks, Inc. | author=Leary, Joseph | year=2004 | pages=228 | isbn=0974662909}}</ref> The location of the military site is the subject of debate because the website Radomes states that the site is "not within a state park as earlier reported", but proceeds to give the same directions and description as Leary and Bedell.<ref name=radome>{{cite web | url=http://www.radomes.org/museum/parsehtml.php?key=NewPrestonCT.html&type=recent_html | title=Recent photos of New Preston, CT GFA | publisher=Radomes | accessdate=19 May 2014}}</ref><ref name=leary /><ref name=green /> Photos included on the Radome website show the condition of the site in 2001 and 2006, both show the buildings are extant in "excellent condition", but the site says the radar tower and chain-link fencing are missing. The site has been vandalized by graffiti.<ref name=radome />

The park is accessed off [[Connecticut Route 341]] and requires passing a barred gate before visitors.<ref name=leary /> There are no markers, toilets, or other facilities at the Above All State Park; there are some informal trails near the top of the park, but these are not maintained or marked by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection.<ref name=leary />

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=DEEP>{{cite web |url=http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284&deepNav_GID=1650#AboveAll |title=Above All State Park |work=State Parks and Forests |publisher=Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection |accessdate=February 5, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name=green>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctgreenparty.org/articles/83-connecticuts-nuclear-weapons.html |title=Connecticut's Nuclear Weapons |first=David |last=Bedell |publisher=Green Party of Connecticut |accessdate=March 20, 2014}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#AboveAll Above All State Park] Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection

{{Protected Areas of Connecticut}}

[[Category:State parks of Connecticut]]
[[Category:Parks in Litchfield County, Connecticut]]
[[Category:Warren, Connecticut]]
[[Category:Litchfield, Connecticut]]

Ludlow Castle

2014-12-29T01:21:33Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

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{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
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{{About|the castle in Shropshire|the house in Delhi|Ludlow Castle, Delhi}}
{{infobox military structure
|name = Ludlow Castle
|location = [[Ludlow]] in [[Shropshire]], England
|image = [[File:Ludlow Castle from Whitcliffe, 2011.jpg|300px]]
|caption = Ludlow Castle from the south-east
|map_type = Shropshire
|map_alt = Located in Shropshire
|map_caption = Location in Shropshire
|latitude = {{decdeg|52|22|02|N}}
|longitude = {{decdeg|2|43|25|W}}
|map_size = 200
|coordinates = {{gbmapping|SO5086874594}}
|coord_region = GB-SHR
|coord_display=inline,title
|coord_format = dms
|built = 1066–85
|builder = [[Walter de Lacy (died 1085)|Walter de Lacy]]
|condition=Ruined
|materials=[[Siltstone]] and [[red sandstone]]
|events = [[The Anarchy]], the [[Second Barons' War]], the [[Wars of the Roses]], the [[English Civil War]]
|ownership = The [[Earl of Powis]] and the Trustees of the Powis Estate
|open_to_public = Yes
}}

'''Ludlow Castle''' is a ruined medieval fortification in the [[Ludlow|town of the same name]] in the English county of [[Shropshire]], standing on a [[promontory]] overlooking the [[River Teme]]. The castle was probably founded by [[Walter de Lacy (died 1085)|Walter de Lacy]] after the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman conquest]] and was one of the first stone castles to be built in England. During the [[The Anarchy|civil war]] of the 12th century the castle changed hands several times between the de Lacy's and rival claimants, and was further fortified with a [[keep|Great Tower]] and a large [[outer bailey]]. In the mid-13th century, Ludlow was passed on to [[Geoffrey de Geneville, 1st Baron Geneville|Geoffrey de Geneville]] who rebuilt part of the [[inner bailey]], and the castle played a part in the [[Second Barons' War]]. [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]] acquired the castle in 1301, further extending the internal complex of buildings, and the Mortimer family went on to hold Ludlow for over a century.

[[Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York|Richard]], the [[Duke of York]], inherited the castle in 1425, and it became an important symbol of [[Yorkist]] authority during the [[Wars of the Roses]]. When Richard's son, [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]], seized the throne in 1461 it passed into the ownership of [[the Crown]]. Ludlow Castle was chosen as the seat of the [[Council in the Marches of Wales]], effectively acting as the capital of Wales, and it was extensively renovated during throughout the 16th century. By the 17th century the castle was luxuriously appointed, hosting cultural events such as the first performance of [[John Milton]]'s [[masque]] ''[[Comus (John Milton)|Comus]]''. Ludlow Castle was held by the [[Cavalier|Royalists]] during the [[English Civil War]] of the 1640s, until it was besieged and taken by a [[Roundheads|Parliamentarian]] army in 1646. The contents of the castle were sold off and a garrison was retained there for much of the [[Interregnum (1649–1660)|interregnum]].

With the [[Restoration (1660)|Restoration of 1660]], the Council was reestablished and the castle repaired, but Ludlow never recovered from the civil war years and when the Council was finally abolished in 1689 it fell into neglect. [[Henry Herbert, 1st Earl of Powis|Henry Herbert]], the [[Earl of Powis]], leased the property from the Crown in 1772, extensively landscaping the ruins, and his brother-in-law, [[Edward Clive, 1st Earl of Powis|Edward Clive]], bought the castle outright in 1811. A [[mansion]] was constructed in the outer bailey but the remainder of the castle was left largely untouched, attracting an increasing number of visitors and becoming a popular location for artists. After 1900, Ludlow Castle was cleared of vegetation and over the course of the century it was extensively repaired by the Powis Estate and government bodies. In the 21st century it is still owned by the Earl of Powis and operated as a tourist attraction.

The architecture of Ludlow reflects its long history, retaining a blend of several styles of building. The castle is approximately {{convert|500|by|435|ft}} in size, covering almost {{convert|5|acre}}. The outer bailey includes the Castle House building, now used by the Powis Estate as offices and accommodation, while the inner bailey, separated by a trench cut out of the stone, houses the Great Tower, Solar block, Great Hall and Great Chamber block, along with later 16th century additions, as well as a rare, circular chapel, modelled on the shrine in the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]. [[English Heritage]] notes that the ruins represent "a remarkably complete multi-phase complex" and considers Ludlow to be "one of England's finest castle sites".

==History==
===11th century===
[[File:Ludlow Castle overlooking river.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Seen here across the [[River Teme]], the castle was built on a rocky [[promontory]].]]
Ludlow Castle was probably founded by [[Walter de Lacy (died 1085)|Walter de Lacy]] around 1075.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|1987|pp=55–58}}; {{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|pp=21}}</ref> Walter had arrived in England in 1066 as part of [[William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford|William fitzOsbern's]] household during the [[Norman conquest of England]].<ref name="a21">{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|p=21}}</ref> FitzOsbern was made the [[Earl of Hereford]] and tasked with settling the area; at the same time, several castles were founded in the west of the county, securing its border with Wales.<ref name="a21"/> Walter de Lacy was the earl's second in command, and was rewarded with 163 [[manorialism|manors]] spread across seven counties, with 91 in Herefordshire alone.<ref name="a21"/>

Walter began building a castle within the manor of [[Stanton Lacy]]; the fortification was originally called Dinham Castle, before it acquired its later name of Ludlow.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|pp=21–22}}</ref> Ludlow was the most important of Walter's castles: as well as being at the heart of his new estates, the site also lay at a strategic crossroads over the Teme River, on a strong defensive [[promontory]].<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=69}} </ref> Walter died in a construction accident at Hereford in 1085 and was succeeded by his son, [[Roger de Lacy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|1987|p=57}}</ref>

The castle's [[Norman architecture|Norman]] stone fortifications were added possibly as early as the 1080s onwards, and were finished before 1115, based around what is now the [[inner bailey]] of the castle, forming a stone version of a [[ringwork]].<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|pp=125–126}}; {{harvnb|Goodall|2011|p=79}}; {{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=11}}; {{cite web | url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1291698 | | separator = ,| postscript =none | title=List Entry | accessdate=26 November 2014 | publisher=English Heritage}}</ref> It had four towers and a [[gatehouse]] tower along the walls, with a ditch dug out of the rock along two sides, the excavated stone being reused for the building works, and would have been one of the very first masonry castles in England.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|pp=125–126}}; {{harvnb|Goodall|2011|p=79}}; {{harvnb|Creighton|2012|p=83}}</ref> With its circular design and grand entrance tower, it has been likened to the earlier Anglo-Saxon ''[[Burh|burgheat]]'' designs.<ref>{{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Liddiard|2005|pp=21–22}}</ref> In 1096, Roger was stripped of his lands after rebelling against [[William II of England|William II]] and they were reassigned to Roger's brother, Hugh.<ref name="a22">{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|p=22}}</ref>

===12th century===
[[File:Ludlow Castle gatehouse, 2007.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[keep|Great Tower]], constructed in the mid-12th century (centre), and the late-12th century entrance to the [[inner bailey]] (right)]]
Hugh de Lacy died childless around 1115, and [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] gave Ludlow Castle and most of the surrounding estates to Hugh's niece, [[Sybil (wife of Pain fitzJohn)|Sybil]], marrying her to [[Pain fitzJohn]], one of his household staff.<ref name="a22"/> Pain used Ludlow as his ''[[caput baroniae|caput]]'', the main castle in his estates, using the surrounding estates and [[knight's fee]]s to support the castle and its defences.<ref name="a25">{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|p=25}}</ref> Pain died in 1137 fighting the Welsh, triggering a struggle for the inheritance of the castle.<ref name="a25"/> [[Roger Fitzmiles, 2nd Earl of Hereford|Robert fitzMiles]], who had been planning to marry Pain's daughter, laid claim to it, as did [[Gilbert de Lacy]], Roger de Lacy's son.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|pp=25–26}}</ref> By now, King [[Stephen of England|Stephen]] had seized the English throne, but his position was insecure and he therefore gave Ludlow to fitzMiles in 1137, in exchange for promises of future political support.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|p=26}}</ref>

A [[the Anarchy|civil war]] between Stephen and the [[Empress Matilda]] soon broke out and Gilbert took his chance to rise up against Stephen, seizing Ludlow Castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|pp=26–27}}</ref> Stephen responded by taking an army into the [[Welsh Marches]], where he attempted to garner local support by marrying one of his knights, [[Josce de Dinan|Joce de Dinan]], to Sybil and granting the future ownership of the castle to them.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|p=27}}</ref> Stephen took the castle after several attempts in 1139, famously rescuing his ally Prince [[Henry of Scotland]] when the latter was caught on a hook thrown over the walls by the garrison.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|1987|p=55}}; {{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|p=28}}</ref> Gilbert still maintained that he was the rightful owner of Ludlow, however, and a private war ensued between Joce and himself.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|pp=30–33}}</ref> Gilbert was ultimately successful and retook the castle around a few years before the end of the civil war in 1153.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|p=34}}</ref> He ultimately left for [[the Levant]], leaving Ludlow in the hands of firstly, his eldest son, Robert, and then, after Robert's death, his younger son, [[Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath|Hugh de Lacy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000a|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|p=35}}</ref>

During this period, the Great Tower, a form of [[keep]], was constructed by converting the entrance tower, probably either around the time of the siege of 1139, or during the war between Gilbert and Joce.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=133}}</ref> The old Norman castle had also begun to become too small for a growing household and, probably between 1140 and 1177, an [[outer bailey]] was built to the south and east of the original castle, creating a large open space.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|Shoesmith|2000|pp=191–194}}</ref> In the process, the entrance to the castle shifted from the south to the east, to face the growing town of Ludlow.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|Shoesmith|2000|p=191}}</ref> Gilbert probably built the circular chapel in the inner bailey, resembling the churches of the [[Templar order]] which he later joined.<ref>{{harvnb|Coppack|2000|p=150}}</ref>

Hugh took part in the [[Norman invasion of Ireland]] and in 1172 was made Lord of Meath; he spent much time away from Ludlow, and [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] confiscated the castle in his absence, probably to ensure that Hugh stayed loyal while in Ireland.<ref name="b35">{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|p=35}}</ref> Hugh died in Ireland in 1186 and the castle passed to his son, [[Walter de Lacy, Lord of Meath|Walter]], who was a minor and did not take charge of the property until 1194.<ref name="b35"/> During Prince [[John of England|John]]'s rebellion against [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] in 1194, Walter joined in the attacks against the prince; Richard did not approve of this and confiscated Ludlow and Walter's other properties.<ref name="b35"/> Walter de Lacy offered to buy back his land for 1,000 [[Mark (money)|marks]], but the offer was rejected until in 1198 the vast sum of 3,100 marks was finally agreed.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|pp=35–36}}</ref>{{efn|name=Medievalmoney|The medieval mark was worth two-thirds of an English pound; 400, 1,000 marks and 3,100 marks were the equivalent of £240, £666 and £2,066 respectively. It is impossible to accurately compare medieval financial sums with their modern equivalents; as a comparative example, an average English baron of the period had an annual income of around £200.<ref>{{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=147}}</ref>}}

===13th century===
[[File:View to Wenlock Edge from Ludlow Castle Keep - trimmed - 1745084.jpg|thumb|13th-century [[Solar (room)|Solar block]] (left) and [[Great hall|Great Hall]] (right), in front of the North-West Tower]]
Walter de Lacy travelled to Ireland in 1201 and the following year his properties, including Ludlow Castle, were once again confiscated to ensure his loyalty and placed under the control of [[William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber|William de Braose]], his father-in-law.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|p=36}}</ref> Walter's lands were returned to him, subject to the payment of a fine of 400 marks, but in 1207 his disagreements with royal officials in Ireland led to King John seizing the castle and putting it under the control of William again.<ref name="b37">{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|p=37}}</ref>{{efn|name=Medievalmoney|The medieval mark was worth two-thirds of an English pound; 400, 1,000 marks and 3,100 marks were the equivalent of £240, £666 and £2,066 respectively. It is impossible to accurately compare medieval financial sums with their modern equivalents; as a comparative example, an average English baron of the period had an annual income of around £200.<ref>{{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=147}}</ref>}} Walter reconciled himself with John the following year, but meanwhile William himself had fallen out with the King; violence broke out and both Walter and William took refuge in Ireland, with John taking control of Ludlow yet again.<ref name="b37"/> It was not until 1215 that their relationship recovered and John agreed to give Ludlow back to Walter.<ref name="b38">{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|p=38}}</ref> At some point during the early 13th century, the innermost bailey was constructed in the castle, creating an additional private space within the inner bailey.<ref>{{harvnb|White|2000|p=140}}</ref>

In 1223, King [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] met with the Welsh prince [[Llywelyn ab Iorwerth]] at Ludlow Castle for peace talks, but the negotiations were unsuccessful.<ref name="b38"/> The same year Henry became suspicious of Walter's activities in Ireland and, among other measures to secure his loyalty, Ludlow Castle was taken over by [[the Crown]] for a period of two years.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|p=39}}</ref> This was cut short in May 1225 when Walter carried out a campaign against Henry's enemies in Ireland and paid the King 3,000 marks for the return of his castles and lands.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|pp=38–39}}</ref> During the 1230s, however, Walter had accumulated a thousand pounds of debt to Henry and private moneylenders which he was unable to repay.<ref name="b40">{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|p=40}}</ref> As a result, in 1238 he gave Ludlow Castle as [[Collateral (finance)|collateral]] to the King, although the fortification was returned to him sometime before his death in 1241.<ref name="b40"/>

Walter's grand-daughters [[Maud de Lacy, Baroness Geneville|Maud]] and Margaret were due to inherit Walter's remaining estates on his death, but they were still unmarried, making it hard for them to hold property in their own right.<ref name="b40"/> Henry informally divided the lands up between them, giving Ludlow to Maud and marrying her to one of his royal favourites, Peter de Geneva, cancelling many of the debts they had inherited from Walter at the same time.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|pp=40–42}}</ref> Peter died in 1249 and Maud married a second time, this time to [[Geoffrey de Geneville, 1st Baron Geneville|Geoffrey de Geneville]], a friend of the [[Edward I of England|Prince Edward]], the future king.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|p=41}}</ref> In 1260, Henry officially split up Walter's estate, allowing Geoffrey to retain the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|p=42}}</ref>

Henry lost control of power in the 1260s, resulting in the [[Second Barons' War]] across England.<ref name="b43">{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|p=43}}</ref> Following the Royalist defeat in 1264, the rebel leader [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]] seized Ludlow Castle, but it was recaptured shortly afterwards by Henry's supporters, probably led by Geoffrey de Geneville.<ref name="b43"/> Prince Edward escaped from captivity in 1265 and met up with his supporters at the castle, before commencing his campaign to retake the throne, culminating in de Montfort's defeat at [[Battle of Evesham|Evesham]] later that year.<ref name="b43"/> Geoffrey continued to occupy the castle for the rest of the century under Edward I's rule, prospering until his death in 1314.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|pp=43–44}}</ref> Geoffrey built the [[Great hall|Great Hall]] and the [[Solar (room)|Solar block]] during his tenure of the castle, either between 1250 and 1280, or later, in the 1280s and 1290s.<ref>{{harvnb|Morriss|2000|p=166}}; {{harvnb|Thompson|2000|p=170}}</ref>{{efn|The dating of the Great Hall and the Solar block depends on an analysis of their stylistic features and the historical events during the period; there are no documentary records available of the construction work. There has been consensus since the St John Hope's work at the beginning of the 20th century that they were built in the late 13th century, but the precise date is uncertain. The historian Richard Morriss concludes that they date from the 1280s or 1290s, but Michael Thompson argues in favour of the construction taking place between 1250 and 1280.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=276}}; {{harvnb|Morriss|2000|p=166}}; {{harvnb|Thompson|2000|p=170}}</ref>}} The [[town wall]]s of Ludlow also began to be constructed in the 13th century, probably from 1260 onwards, and these were linked to the castle to form a continuous ring of defences around the town.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|Shoesmith|2000|p=194}}</ref>

===14th century===
{{double image|right|Ludlow Castle chapel, 2010.jpg|200|Ludlow Castle interior, 2010 (1).jpg|200|The 14th-century Great Chamber block and the 12th-century chapel of St Mary Magdalene (left), and the interior of the Great Chamber block (right)}}

Geoffrey and Maud's oldest granddaughter, [[Joan de Geneville, 2nd Baroness Geneville|Joan]], married [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]] in 1301, giving Mortimer control of Ludlow Castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|p=45}}</ref> Around 1320, Roger built the Great Chamber block alongside the existing Great Hall and Solar complex, copying what was becoming a popular tripartite design for domestic castle buildings in the 14th century; an additional building was also constructed by Roger on the location of the later Tudor Lodgings, and the Guardrobe Tower was added to the curtain wall.<ref>{{harvnb|Pounds|1994|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Thompson|2000|pp=170–171}}; {{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000b|p=175}}; {{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=100}}</ref> Between 1321 and 1322 Mortimer found himself on the losing side of the [[Despenser War]] and, after being imprisoned by [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], he escaped from the [[Tower of London]] in 1323 into exile.<ref name=Harding2000P46>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|p=46}}</ref>

While in France, Mortimer formed an alliance with Queen [[Isabella of France|Isabella]], Edward's estranged wife, and together in 1327 they seized power in England.<ref name=Harding2000P46/> Mortimer was made the [[Earl of March]] and became extremely wealthy, possibly entertaining [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] at the castle in 1329.<ref>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|pp=47–48}}</ref> The earl built a new chapel in the Outer Bailey, named after [[Saint Peter]], honouring the [[saint's day]] on which he had escaped from the Tower.<ref>{{harvnb|Coplestone-Crow|2000b|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Harding|2000|p=47}}</ref> Mortimer's work at Ludlow was probably intended to produce what the historian David Whitehead has termed a "show castle" with [[Chivalry|chivalric]] and [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] overtones, echoing the now archaic Norman styles of building.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=100}}</ref> Mortimer fell from power the following year but his widow [[Joan de Geneville, 2nd Baroness Geneville|Joan]] was permitted to retain Ludlow.<ref>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|p=48}}</ref>

Ludlow Castle gradually became the Mortimer family's most important property, but for much of the rest of the century its owners were too young to control the castle personally.<ref>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|pp=48–54}}</ref> The castle was first briefly inherited by Mortimer's son, Edmund, and then in 1331 Mortimer's young grandson, [[Roger Mortimer, 2nd Earl of March|Roger]], who eventually became a prominent soldier in the [[Hundred Years War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|pp=48–49}}</ref> Roger's young son, [[Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March|Edmund]], inherited the castle in 1358, and also grew up to become involved in the war with France.<ref name=Harding2000PP50>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|pp=50–51}}</ref> Both Roger and Edmund used a legal device called "the use", effectively giving Ludlow Castle to trustees during their lifetimes in exchange for annual payments; this reduced their tax liabilities and gave them more control over the distribution of the estates on their deaths.<ref name=Harding2000PP50/> Edmund's son, another [[Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March|Roger]], inherited the castle in 1381, but King [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] took the opportunity of Roger's minority to exploit the Mortimer estates until they were put into the control of a committee of major nobles.<ref>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|pp=51–52}}</ref> When Roger died in 1398, Richard again took wardship of the castle on behalf of the young heir, [[Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March|Edmund]], until he was deposed from power in 1399.<ref>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|p=53}}</ref>

===15th century===
[[File:Ludlow hunting tile - hound.jpg|thumb|Medieval tile, probably from Ludlow Castle, originally forming part of a [[medieval hunting|hunting]] scene<ref>The tile is from The Shropshire Hills Discovery Centre, holding number SRCHM A08248; origins described on museum label</ref>]]
Ludlow Castle was in the wardship of King [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]], when the [[Owain Glyndŵr]] revolt broke out across Wales.<ref>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|pp=53–54}}</ref> Military captains were appointed to the castle to protect it from the rebel threat, in the first instance John Lovel and then Henry's half-brother, [[Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter|Sir Thomas Beaufort]].<ref name=Harding2000P54>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|p=54}}</ref> Roger Mortimer's younger brother, [[Edmund Mortimer, son of the 3rd Earl|Edmund]], set out from the castle with an army against the rebels in 1402, but was captured at the [[Battle of Bryn Glas]].<ref name=Harding2000P54/> Henry refused to ransom him, and he eventually married one of Glyndŵr's daughters, before dying during the siege of [[Harlech Castle]] in 1409.<ref name=Harding2000P54/>

Henry placed the young heir to Ludlow, another Edmund Mortimer, under house arrest in the south of England, and kept a firm grip on Ludlow Castle himself.<ref name=Harding2000P55>{{harvnb|Harding|2000|p=55}}</ref> This persisted until Henry V finally granted Edmund his estates in 1413, with Edmund going on to serve the Crown overseas.<ref name=Harding2000P55/> As a result, the Mortimers rarely visited the castle during the first part of the century, despite the surrounding town having become prosperous in the wool and cloth trades.<ref>{{harvnb|Griffiths|2000|pp=57–58}}</ref> Edmund fell heavily into debt and having sold his rights to his Welsh estates to a consortium of nobles, before dying childless in 1425.<ref>{{harvnb|Griffiths|2000|p=59}}; {{harvnb|Harding|2000|p=55}}</ref>

The castle was inherited by Edmund's sister's young son, [[Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York|Richard]] the [[Duke of York]], who took possession in 1432.<ref>{{harvnb|Griffiths|2000|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Harding|2000|p=55}}</ref> Richard took a keen interest in the castle, which formed the administrative base for his estates around the region, possibly living there in the late 1440s and definitely residing there for much of the 1450s.<ref>{{harvnb|Griffiths|2000|pp=59–60}}</ref> Richard also established his sons, including the future [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]], and their household at the castle in the 1450s, and was possibly responsible for rebuilding the northern part of the Great Tower during this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Griffiths|2000|p=67}}; {{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=101}}</ref>

The [[Wars of the Roses]] broke out between the [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrians]] and Richard's [[House of York|Yorkist]] faction in the 1450s. Ludlow Castle did not find itself in the front-line of most of the conflict, instead acting as a safe retreat away from the main fighting.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=101}}; {{harvnb|Griffiths|2000|p=60}}</ref> An exception to this was the [[Battle of Ludford Bridge]] which took place just outside the town of Ludlow in 1459, resulting in a largely bloodless victory for the Lancastrian [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]].<ref name=GriffithsPP64>{{harvnb|Griffiths|2000|pp=64–65}}</ref> After the battle, in a bid to break Richard's power over the region, Edmund de la Mare was placed in charge of the castle as constable, with [[John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury|John Talbot]], the [[Earl of Shrewsbury]], being given the wider lordship.<ref name=GriffithsPP64/> Richard was killed in battle in 1460, and his son Edward seized the throne the following year, retaking control of Ludlow Castle and merging it with the property of the Crown.<ref>{{harvnb|Griffiths|2000|p=65}}; {{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=69}}</ref>

The new Edward IV visited the castle regularly and established a council there to govern his estates in Wales.<ref name=Griffiths2000P67Whitehead2000P102/> He probably conducted only modest work on the property, although he may could have been responsible for the remodelling of the Great Tower.<ref name=Griffiths2000P67Whitehead2000P102>{{harvnb|Griffiths|2000|p=67}}; {{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=102}}</ref> In 1473, possibly influenced by his own childhood experiences at Ludlow, Edward sent his eldest son, the future [[Edward V of England|Edward V]], and his brother Prince [[Richard of Shrewsbury, 1st Duke of York|Richard]] to live at the castle, which was also made the seat of the newly created [[Council of the Marches|Council in the Marches of Wales]].<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=69}}; {{harvnb|Goodall|2011|p=383}}</ref> By now Ludlow had become primarily residential, rather than military, but was still rich in chivalric connotations and a valuable symbol of the Yorkist authority and their claim to the throne.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|pp=101–102}}</ref> Edward died in 1483, but after [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] took the throne in 1485 he continued to use Ludlow Castle as a regional base, granting it to his son, [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Prince Arthur]], in 1493, and reestablishing the dormant Council in the Marches at the property.<ref>{{harvnb|Griffiths|2000|p=67}}; {{harvnb|Faraday|2000|pp=69–70}}</ref>

===16th century===
[[File:Castle ruins, Ludlow - geograph.org.uk - 1744659.jpg|thumb|Interior of the 16th-century Judges' Lodgings, showing the spiral staircase (centre)]]
In 1501, Prince Arthur arrived in Ludlow in 1501 for his honeymoon with his bride [[Catherine of Aragon]], before dying the following year.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=102}}</ref> The Council in the Marches of Wales continued to operate, however, under the guidance of its president, Bishop [[William Smyth]].<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=70}}</ref> The council evolved into a combination of a governmental body and a court of law, settling a range of disputes across Wales and charged with maintaining general order, and Ludlow Castle became effectively the capital of Wales.<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|pp=69–70}}; {{harvnb|Cooper|2014|p=138}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=3}}</ref>

[[Mary I of England|Mary Tudor]], daughter of Catherine of Aragon and [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], spent 19 months at Ludlow overseeing the Council of the Marches between 1525 and 1528, along with her entourage of servants, advisors, and guardians.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2011|p=427}}</ref> The relatively small sum of £5 was spent restoring the castle before her arrival.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=102}}</ref>{{efn|It is challenging to accurately compare 16th-century and modern financial sums. £5 in 1525 would be worth between £3,059 and £1,101,000 in 2013 terms, depending on the financial measure used. £500 in 1534 would be worth between £306,000 and £110 million in 2013 terms.<ref name=MeasuringWorth>{{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/relativevalue.php | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson | separator = ,| postscript =none | date = 2014| accessdate=3 December 2014 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}} The council's wide ranging role was reinforced in [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542|legislation in 1534]], and its purpose was further elaborated in the Act of Union of 1543; some presidents, such as Bishop [[Rowland Lee]], used its harsher powers extensively to execute local criminals, but later presidents typically preferred to punish with the pillory, whipping or imprisonment in the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=71}}; {{harvnb|Cooper|2014|p=138}}</ref> The Great Chamber itself was used as the council's meeting room.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=15}}</ref>

The establishment of the Council in Ludlow Castle gave it a new lease of life, during a period in which many similar fortifications were falling into decay.<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=77}}; {{harvnb|Pounds|1994|pp=256–257}}</ref> By the 1530s, the castle needed considerable renovation; Lee began work in 1534, borrowing money to do so, but Sir Thomas Engleford complained the following year that the castle was still unfit for habitation.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=103}}; {{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=77}}</ref> Lee repaired the castle roofs, probably using lead from the Carmelite friary in the town, and using the fines imposed and the goods confiscated by the court.<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=70}}; {{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=103}}; {{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000b|p=181}}</ref> He later claimed that the work on the castle would have cost around £500, had the Crown had to pay for it all directly.<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=76}}</ref> The porter's lodge and prison were built in the outer bailey around 1552.<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|2000|p=209}}</ref> The woods around the castle were gradually cut down during the 16th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=106}}</ref>

[[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], influenced by her royal favourite [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester|Robert Dudley]], appointed [[Sir Henry Sidney]] as President of the Council in 1560, and he took up residence at Ludlow Castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=103}}; {{harvnb|Goodall|2011|p=453}}</ref> Henry was a keen [[antiquarian]] with an interest in chivalry, and used his post to restore much of the castle in a [[perpendicular style|late-perpendicular style]].<ref name=Whitehead2000P103>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=103}}</ref> He extended the castle by building family apartments between the Great Hall and Mortimer's Tower, and used the former royal apartments as a guest wing, starting a tradition of decorating the Great Hall with the [[coats of arms]] of council officers.<ref name=Whitehead2000P103/> The larger windows in the castle were glazed, a clock installed and water piped into the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=77}}; {{harvnb|Goodall|2011|p=453}}</ref> The judicial facilities were improved with a new [[courthouse]] converted out of the 14th-century chapel, facilities for prisoners and storage facilities for the court records, Mortimer's Tower in the outer bailey being turned into a record depository.<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=77}}; {{harvnb|Curnow|Kenyon|2000|p=195}}; {{harvnb|Remfry|Halliwell|2000|pp=203–204}}</ref> The restoration was generally sympathetic and, although it included a fountain, a [[real tennis]] court, walks and viewing platform, it was less ephemeral a make-over than seen in other castle restorations of the period.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|pp=103–104}}</ref>

===17th century===
[[File:Title page to "A Maske", 1637.jpg|thumb|upright|The title page of [[John Milton]]'s ''[[Comus (John Milton)|Comus]]'', first performed at the castle in 1634]]
The castle was luxuriously appointed by the 17th century, with an expensive, but grand, household based around the Council of the Marches.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|p=89}}; {{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=76}}</ref> The future [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] was declared [[Prince of Wales]] in the castle by [[James I of England|James I]] in 1616, and Ludlow was made his principal castle in Wales.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=105}}</ref> A company called the "Queen's Players" entertained the Council in the 1610s, and in 1634 [[John Milton]]'s [[masque]] ''[[Comus (John Milton)|Comus]]'' was performed in the Great Hall for [[John Egerton, 1st Earl of Bridgewater|John Egerton]], [[Earl of Bridgewater]].<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=105}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=17}}; {{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=76}}</ref> The Council faced increased criticism over its legal practices, however, and in 1641 an [[Habeas Corpus Act 1640|Act of Parliament]] stripped it of its judicial powers.<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=79}}</ref>

When the [[English Civil War]] broke out in 1642 between the supporters of King Charles and those of Parliament, Ludlow and the surrounding region supported the Royalists.<ref>{{harvnb|Knight|2000|p=83}}</ref> A [[Cavalier|Royalist]] garrison was put in place in the town, under the command of Sir Michael Woodhouse, and the defences were strengthened, with artillery being brought from nearby Bringwood Forge for the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Knight|2000|pp=84–85}}; {{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=80}}</ref> As the war turned against the King in 1644, the garrison was drawn down to provide reinforcements for the field army.<ref name=Knight2000P87>{{harvnb|Knight|2000|p=87}}</ref> The military situation deteriorated and in 1645 the remaining outlying garrisons were drawn in to protect Ludlow itself.<ref name=Knight2000P87/> In April 1646 [[Sir William Brereton, 1st Baronet|Sir William Brereton]] and Colonel [[John Birch (soldier)|John Birch]] led a Parliamentary army from Hereford to take Ludlow; after a short siege, Woodhouse surrendered the castle and town on good terms on 26 May.<ref>{{harvnb|Knight|2000|p=88}}</ref>

During the years of the [[Interregnum (1649–1660)|interregnum]], Ludlow Castle continued to be run by Parliamentarian governors, the first being the military commander [[Samuel More]].<ref name="knight88">{{harvnb|Knight|2000|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=80}}</ref> There was a Royalist plot to retake the castle in 1648, but no other military activity took place.<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=80}}</ref> The most valuable items in the castle were removed shortly after the siege, and the remainder of the luxurious furnishings were sold off in the town in 1650.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|p=89}}</ref> The castle was initially kept garrisoned, but in 1653, most of the weapons in the castle were removed on the grounds of security and sent to [[Hereford]], then in 1655 the garrison was disbanded altogether.<ref name="knight88"/> In 1659, the political instability in the Commonwealth government led to the castle being regarrisoned by 100 men under the command of William Botterell.<ref name="knight88"/>

[[Charles II of England|Charles II]] returned to the throne in 1660 and reinstated the Council of the Marches in 1661, but the castle never recovered from the war.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|pp=89–90}}</ref> [[Richard Vaughan, 2nd Earl of Carbery|Richard Vaughan]], the [[Earl of Carberry]], was appointed president and given £2,000 to renovate the castle, and between 1663 and 1665, a company of infantry soldiers was garrisoned there, overseen by the earl, with the task of safeguard the money and contents of the castle as well as the ammunition for the local Welsh militia.<ref>{{harvnb|Knight|2000|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Faraday|2000|p=81}}</ref>{{efn|It is challenging to accurately compare 17th-century and modern financial sums. £2,000 in 1661 would be worth between £3.2 million and £49 million in 2013 terms, depending on the financial measure used.<ref name=MeasuringWorth>{{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/relativevalue.php | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson | separator = ,| postscript =none | date = 2014| accessdate=3 December 2014 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}} The Council of the Marches failed to reestablish itself and was finally disbanded in 1689, bringing an end to Ludlow Castle's role in government.<ref>{{harvnb|Faraday|2000|pp=81–82}}; {{harvnb|Hughes|2000|p=90}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=15}}</ref> Uncared for, the condition of the castle rapidly deteriorated.<ref name=Hughes2000P90>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|p=90}}</ref>

===18th century===
[[File:Samuel Scott - Ludlow Castle with Dinham Weir, from the South-West - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|250px|18th-century depiction of the castle by [[Samuel Scott (painter)|Samuel Scott]], painted between 1765 to 1769, prior to the landscaping of the castle site]]
The castle remained in disrepair, and in 1704 its governor, [[William Gower (MP)|William Gower]], proposed dismantling the castle and building a residential square on the site instead, in a more contemporary style.<ref name=LloydP19>{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=19}}</ref> His proposal was not adopted but, by 1708, only three rooms were still in use in the hall range, many of the other buildings in the inner bailey had fallen into disuse, and much of the remaining furniture was rotten or broken.<ref name=Hughes2000P90/> Shortly after 1714, the roofs were stripped of their lead and the wooden floors began to collapse; the writer [[Daniel Defoe]] visited in 1722, and noted that the castle "is in the very Perfection of Decay".<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|p=90}}; {{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=269}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=19}}</ref> Nonetheless, some rooms remained usable for many years afterwards, possibly as late as the 1760s and 1770s, when drawings show the entrance block to the inner bailey to still be intact, and visitors remarked on the good condition of the round chapel.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|p=90}}; {{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=269}}; {{harvnb|Coppack|2000|p=145}}</ref> The stonework became overgrown with [[ivy]], trees and shrubs, and by 1800 the chapel of Saint Mary Magdalene had finally degenerated into ruin.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=113}}; {{harvnb|Coppack|2000|p=145}}</ref>

Alexander Stuart, an Army captain who served as the last governor of the castle, stripped down what remained of the fortification in the mid-1700s.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|pp=90–91}}; {{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=107}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=18}}</ref> Some of the stone was reused to build the Bowling Green House – later renamed the Castle Inn – on the north end of the tennis courts, while the north side of the outer bailey was used to make the [[bowling green]] itself.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|pp=90–91}}; {{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=107}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=10}}</ref> Stuart lived in a house in Ludlow itself, but decorated the Great Hall with the remains of the castle armoury, and may have charged visitors for admittance.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=107}}</ref>

[[File:Ludlow Castle Oct1812.jpg|thumb|left|Painting of the castle in October 1812 by an anonymous artist, after the landscaping and extensive tree-planting]]
It became fashionable to restore castles as private homes, and the future [[George II of England|George II]] may have considered making Ludlow habitable again, but was deterred by the estimated costs of £30,000.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|pp=107–108}}</ref>{{efn|It is challenging to accurately compare 18th-century and modern financial sums. £30,000 in 1720 would be worth between £55 million and £440 million in 2013 terms, depending on the financial measure used. £20 in 1772 would be worth between £2,200 and £38,000 in 2013 terms.<ref name=MeasuringWorth>{{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/relativevalue.php | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson | separator = ,| postscript =none | date = 2014| accessdate=3 December 2014 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}} [[Henry Herbert, 1st Earl of Powis|Henry Herbert]], the [[Earl of Powis]], later became interested in acquiring the castle and in 1771 approached the Crown about leasing it.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|p=91}}</ref> It is uncertain if he intended to further strip the castle of its materials or, more likely, if he intended to turn it into a private home, but the castle was, according to Powis' surveyor's report later that year, already "extremely ruinous", the walls "mostly rubble and the battlements greatly decayed".<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|pp=91, 93}}</ref> The Crown offered a 31 year [[lease]] at £20 a year, which Powis accepted in 1772, only to die shortly afterwards.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|p=95}}; {{harvnb|Renn|1987|p=55}}</ref>

Henry's son, [[George Herbert, 2nd Earl of Powis|George Herbert]], maintained the lease and his wife, [[Henrietta Clive, Countess of Powis|Henrietta]], constructed gravel-laid public walks around the castle, dug into the surrounding cliffs, and planted trees around the grounds to improve the castle's appearance.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=258}}; {{harvnb|Hughes|2000|p=95}}; {{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=216}}</ref> The castle walls and towers were given superficial repairs and tidied up, usually when parts threatened to collapse, and the interior of the inner bailey levelled, costing considerable sums of money.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|pp=95–96, 98}}; {{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=115}}</ref> The landscape also required expensive maintenance and repairs.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|pp=112}}</ref>

The town of Ludlow was increasingly fashionable and frequented by tourists, with the castle forming a particularly popular attraction.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=108}}</ref> [[Thomas Warton]] published an edition of Milton's poems in 1785, describing Ludlow Castle and popularising the links to ''Comus'', reinforcing the castle's reputation as a [[picturesque]] and [[sublime (literary)|sublime]] location.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=105}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=17}}</ref> The castle became a topic for painters interested in these themes: [[J. M. W. Turner]], [[Francis Towne]], [[Thomas Hearne (artist)|Thomas Hearne]], [[Julius Caesar Ibbetson|Julius Ibbetson]], [[Peter de Wint]] and [[William Marlowe]] all produced depictions of the castle during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, usually taking some artistic license with the details in order to produce atmospheric works.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|pp=108–111}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=19}}</ref>

===19th century===
[[File:Ludlow Castle, 1852.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|The inner bailey and visitors in 1852]]
[[Edward Clive, 2nd Baron Clive|Lord Clive]], George's brother-in-law and heir, attempted to acquire the lease after 1803, citing the efforts that the family had put in to restoring the castle.<ref name="hughes96">{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|pp=96–97}}; {{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=112}}</ref> He faced competition for the lease from the government's Barrack Office, who were considering using the castle as a French [[prisoner-of-war camp]] for up to 4,000 inmates from the [[Napoleonic wars]].<ref name="hughes96"/> After some extensive discussions the prisoner-of-war plan was finally dropped, and Lord Clive, by now declared the Earl of Powis, was offered the chance to buy the castle outright for £1,560, which he accepted in 1811.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2000|pp=96–98}}; {{harvnb|Renn|1987|p=55}}</ref>{{efn|Comparing 19th-century and modern financial sums depends on the financial measure used. £1,560 in 1811 would be worth between £99,000 and £5.2 million in 2013 terms. £50 in 1887 would be worth between £4,900 and £62,000 in 2013 terms. Six pence in 1887 would be worth between £2.40 and £18 in 2013 terms.<ref name=MeasuringWorth>{{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/relativevalue.php | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson | separator = ,| postscript =none | date = 2014| accessdate=23 December 2014 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}}

Between 1820 and 1828 the earl had converted the abandoned tennis court and the Castle Inn – which he closed in 1812 after buying the castle – into a new, grand building, called Castle House, overlooking the north side of the outer bailey.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=10}}; {{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=216}}</ref> By the 1840s the house had been leased out, first to George Hodges and his family, and then to William Urwick and to Robert Marston, all important members of the local landowning classes.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=10}}</ref> The mansion included a drawing room, dining room, study, servants' quarters, a conservatory and grapevines, and in 1887 was worth £50 a year in rent.<ref>{{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=218}}</ref>

During the 19th century, vegetation continued to grow over the castle's stonework, although after a survey by Arthur Blomfield in 1883, which highlighted the damage being caused by the ivy, attempts were made to control the plants, cleaning them off many of the walls.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|pp=114–115}}</ref> Ludlow Castle was held in high esteem by Victorian antiquarians, [[G. T. Clark|George Clark]] referring to it as "the glory of the middle marches of Wales" and as being "probably without rival in Britain" for its woodland setting.<ref>{{harvnb|Clark|1877|p=165}}</ref> When Ludlow became connected to the growing railway network in 1852, the numbers of tourists to the castle increased, with admission costing six pence in 1887.<ref name=LloydP19/> The castle was put to a wide range of uses. The grassy areas of the bailey were kept cropped by grazing sheep and goats, and used for [[fox hunting]] meetings, sporting events and [[agricultural show]]s; parts of the outer bailey was used as a timber yard, and, by the turn of the century, the old prison was used as an [[ammunition store]] by the local volunteer militia.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=18}}; {{harvnb|Stone|2000|p=212}}; {{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=263}}; {{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=115}}</ref>

===20th century===
[[File:Map of Ludlow Castle.jpg|thumb|300px|Plan of Ludlow Castle; locations: A – inner bailey; B – ditch; C – Castle House; D – Mortimer's Tower; E – St Peter's chapel; F – outer bailey; G – porter's lodge, prison and stable; H – entrance]]
W. H. St John Hope and [[Harold Brakspear]] began a sequence of archaeological investigations at Ludlow Castle in 1903, publishing their conclusions in 1909 in an account which continues to be held in regard by modern academics.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=257}}; {{harvnb|White|2000|p=139}}; {{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=129}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=21}}</ref> [[Christian Victor Charles Herbert, 6th Earl of Powis|Christian Herbert]], the Earl of Powis, cleared away much of the ivy and vegetation from the castle stonework.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=257}}</ref> In 1915 the castle was declared an [[ancient monument]] by the state, but it continued to be owned and maintained by the earl and trustees of the Powis estate.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=115}}; {{harvnb|Streeten|2000|p=117}}</ref>

The castle was increasingly rigorously maintained, and during the 1910s and 1920s the larger trees around the castle were cut down, and the animals were cleared from the inner and outer baileys on the basis that they posed a health and safety risk to visitors.<ref name=Whitehead2000P115>{{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=115}}</ref> The 1930s saw a major effort to clear the remaining vegetation from the castle, the cellars were cleared of debris by the government's [[Office of Works]] and the stable block was converted into a museum.<ref name=Whitehead2000P115/> Tourists continued to visit the castle, with the 1920s and 1930s seeing many day-trips by teams of workers in the region encouraged by the growth in motor transport.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=19}}; {{harvnb|Whitehead|2000|p=116}}</ref> The open spaces inside the castle were used by the local townsfolk for football matches and similar events, and in 1934 Milton's ''Comus'' was restaged in the castle to mark the 300th anniversary of the first such event.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=17}}</ref>

Castle House in the outer bailey was leased to the diplomat [[Alexander Condie Stephen|Sir Alexander Stephen]] in 1901, who carried out extensive work on the property in 1904, extending and modernising the north end of the house, including constructing a [[billiard room]] and a library; he estimated the cost of the work to be around £800.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|pp=10–11}}; {{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=220}}</ref> Castle House continued to be leased out by the Powis estate to wealthy individuals up until the [[Second World War]].<ref name="lloyd11">{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=222}}</ref> One such lessee, Richard Henderson observed that he had spent around £4,000 maintaining and upgrading the property, and the rentable value of the property rose from £76 to £150 over the period.<ref name="lloyd11"/>{{efn|name=20thcenturymoney|£800 in 1904 would be worth between £86,000 and £673,000 in 2013 terms, depending on the financial measure used. £4,000 in 1928 would be worth between £630,000 and £1.4 million; £2,000 in 1945 would be worth between £230,000 and £320,000; £4,000 in 1956 would be worth between £81,000 and £300,000.<ref name=MeasuringWorth>{{cite web | url=http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/relativevalue.php | title=Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present| author1 = Lawrence H. Officer | author2= Samuel H. Williamson | separator = ,| postscript =none | date = 2014| accessdate=3 December 2014 | publisher=MeasuringWorth}}</ref>}}

During the Second World War the castle was used by the Allied military.<ref>{{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=225}}</ref> The Great Tower was used as a look-out post and United States' forces used the castle gardens for [[baseball]] games.<ref>{{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=225}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=18}}</ref> Castle House fell empty after the death of its final lessee, James Geenway; the house was then briefly requisitioned in 1942 by the [[Royal Air Force]] and turned into flats for key war workers, causing extensive damage later estimated at £2,000.<ref>{{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=225}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=11}}</ref> In 1956, Castle House was de-requisitioned and sold by the Earl of Powis the following year to Ludlow Borough Council for £4,000, which rented out the flats.<ref>{{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=226}}; {{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=11}}</ref>

During the 1970s and early 1980s the [[Department of the Environment]] assisted the Powis estate by lending government staff to repair the castle.<ref name=Streeten2000PP117>{{harvnb|Streeten|2000|pp=117, 120}}</ref> Visitor numbers were falling, however, in part due the dilapidated condition of the property, and the estate became increasingly unable to afford to maintain the castle.<ref name=Streeten2000PP117/> After 1984, when the function of the department was taken over by [[English Heritage]], a more systematic approach was put into place.<ref>{{harvnb|Streeten|2000|p=117}}</ref> This based around a partnership in which the Powis Estate would retain ownership of the castle and develop visitor access, in exchange for a £500,000 contribution from English Heritage for a jointly-funded programme of repairs and maintenance, delivered through specialist contractors.<ref>{{harvnb|Streeten|2000|pp=117–118}}</ref> This included repairs to the parts of the curtain wall, which collapsed in 1990, and the redevelopment of the visitor's centre.<ref>{{harvnb|Streeten|2000|pp=119, 122}}</ref> Limited archaeological excavation was carried out in the outer bailey between 1992 and 1993 by the City of Hereford Archaeology Unit.<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|2000|p=205}}</ref>

===21st century===
[[File:Ludlow from the castle Great Tower - geograph.org.uk - 89050.jpg|thumb|The castle hosting the Ludlow Food and Drink Festival in 2003]]

In the 21st century, Ludlow Castle is owned by [[John Herbert, 8th Earl of Powis|John Herbert]], the current Earl of Powis, but is held and managed by the Trustees of the Powis Castle Estate as a tourist attraction.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=20}}</ref> The castle was receiving over 100,000 visitors a year by 2005, more than in previous decades.<ref>{{harvnb|Streeten|2000|p=122}}</ref> The castle traditionally hosts a Shakespearean play as part of the annual cultural [[Ludlow Festival]] in the town, and is at the centre of the Ludlow Food and Drink Festival each September.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=17}}; {{cite web|title=Ludlow Festival|url=http://www.shropshiretourism.co.uk/ludlow/festival/|publisher=Shropshire Tourism|separator = ,| postscript = none|accessdate=26 November 2014}}; {{cite web|title=Ludlow Food and Drink Festival|url=http://www.ludlow.org.uk/food_festival.html#.VHWT2IusV8E|publisher=The Ludlow Website|separator = ,| postscript = none|accessdate=26 November 2014}}</ref>

English Heritage considers Ludlow to be "one of England's finest castle sites", with the ruins representing "a remarkably complete multi-phase complex".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1291698 | | separator = ,| postscript =none | title=List Entry | accessdate=26 November 2014 | publisher=English Heritage}}</ref> It is protected under UK law as a [[Scheduled Monument]] and a Grade I [[listed building]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Ludlow Castle |url=http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=111057 |work=Pastscape |publisher=[[English Heritage]] |separator = ,| postscript = none|accessdate=11 January 2012}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=MSA884&resourceID=1015 |title=Ludlow Castle |publisher=Heritage Gateway |separator = ,| postscript = none|accessdate=12 January 2012}}</ref> By the 21st century, however, Castle House had become dilapidated and English Heritage placed it on its "at risk" register.<ref>{{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=226}}</ref> In 2002, the Powis Estate repurchased the property from the South Shropshire District Council for £500,000, renovating it and converting it for use as offices and rental apartments, reopening the building in 2005.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|n.d.|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=226}}; {{cite news|title=Historic residence returns to castle|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/shropshire/3353881.stm|publisher=BBC News|date=2003|| separator = ,| postscript =none |accessdate=7 November 2014}}</ref>

==Architecture==
Ludlow Castle sits on a rocky promontory, overlooking the modern town of Ludlow on lower ground to the east, while the ground slopes steeply from the castle to the rivers [[River Corve|Corve]] and [[River Teme|Teme]] to the south and west, about {{convert|100|ft}} below.<ref>{{harvnb|Clark|1877|p=166}}</ref> The castle is broadly rectangular in shape, and approximately {{convert|500|by|435|ft}} in size, covering almost {{convert|5|acre}} in total.<ref name=Hope1909P258>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=258}}</ref> The interior is divided into two main parts: an inner bailey which occupies the north-west corner and a much larger outer bailey.<ref name=Shoessmith15-6>{{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000a|p=15-16}}</ref> A third enclosure, known as the innermost bailey, was created in the early 13th century when walls were built to enclose the south-west corner of the inner ward.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=135}}; {{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000a|p=16}}</ref> The castle's walls are linked to Ludlow's medieval town wall circuit on the south and east sides.<ref name=Hope1909P258/> The castle is built from a range of different types of stone; the Norman stone work is constructed from greenish-grey [[siltstone]] rubble, with the [[ashlar]] and [[quoin]] features carved from [[red sandstone]], with the later work primarily using local red sandstone.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=126}}; {{cite web | url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/resultsingle.aspx?uid=1291698 | | separator = ,| postscript =none | title=List Entry | accessdate=26 November 2014 | publisher=English Heritage}}</ref>

===Outer bailey===
[[File:Mortimer's Tower at Ludlow Castle.jpg|thumb|Mortimer's Tower with the towers of the inner bailey in the distance]]
The outer bailey is entered through a gatehouse; inside, the space within the curtain walls is divided into two. On the north side of the outer bailey is Castle House and its gardens; the house is a two-storeyed property, based around the old walls of the tennis court and the Castle Inn, and the curtain wall.<ref>{{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|pp=213, 227}}</ref> The north end of Castle House butts onto Beacon Tower, overlooking the town.<ref>{{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000c|p=213}}</ref>

The other half of the outer bailey houses the 16th-century porter's lodge, prison and stable block which run along its eastern edge.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=262}}; {{harvnb|Stone|2000|p=206}}</ref> The porter's lodge and prison comprise two buildings, {{convert|40|ft}} and {{convert|58|by|23|ft}} across, both two-storeyed and well built in ashlar stone, with a stable block on the far end, more crudely built in stone and {{convert|66|by|21|ft}} in size.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=261–262}}; {{harvnb|Stone|2000|p=206}}</ref> The exterior of the prison was originally decorated with the coats of arms of Henry, the Earl of Pembroke, and Queen Elizabeth I, but these have since been destroyed, as have the barred windows which once protected the property.<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|2000|p=208}}</ref>

Along the south of the bailey are the remains of St Peter's, a former 14th-century chapel, approximately {{convert|21|by|52|ft}} in size, later converted to a courthouse by the addition of an extension reaching up to the western [[Curtain wall (castle)|curtain wall]].<ref name="autogenerated263">{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=263–264}}; {{harvnb|Remfry|Halliwell|2000|pp=202–204}}</ref> The courtroom occupied the whole of the combined first floor with records kept in the rooms underneath.<ref name="autogenerated263"/> The south-west corner of the outer bailey is cut off by a modern wall from the rest of the bailey.<ref>{{harvnb|Remfry|Halliwell|2000|p=201}}</ref>

The western curtain wall is approximately {{convert|6|ft|5|in|adj=on}} thick, and guarded by the 13th-century Mortimer's Tower, {{convert|18|ft}} across externally, with a ground floor [[Vault (architecture)|vaulted]] chamber inside, {{convert|12|ft|9.5|ft|adj=on}} large.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=263, 265–266}}</ref> When first built, Mortimer's Tower was a three storey gateway with an unusual D-shaped design, possibly similar to those at Trim Castle in Ireland, but in the 15th century the entrance way was blocked up to turn it into a conventional mural tower, and in the 16th century an additional internal floor was inserted.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=266}}; {{harvnb|Curnow|Kenyon|2000|pp=196, 199–200}}</ref> The tower is now roofless, although it was roofed as late as the end of the 19th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Curnow|Kenyon|2000|p=198}}</ref>

===Inner bailey===
[[File:Map of the Inner Courtyard of Ludlow Castle.png|thumb|300px|The inner bailey; locations: A – Garderobe Tower; B – North-West Tower; C – Solar block; D – Great Hall; E – Great Chamber block; F – Tudor Lodgings and North-East Tower; G – Great Kitchen and pantry; H – well; I – Chapel of St Mary Magdalene; J – West Tower; K – South-West Tower; L – Great Tower; M – ditch and bridge; N – Judges's Lodgings. Period: black – 11th/12th century; purple – 12th century; blue – 13th century; yellow – 14th century; orange- 15th century; red – 16th century; light purple – 17th century; shading shows destroyed buildings]]
The inner bailey represents the extent of the original Norman castle and is protected by a curtain wall between {{convert|5|ft|adj=on}} and {{convert|6|ft|adj=on}} thick.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=267}}</ref> On the south and west sides the wall is protected by a ditch, originally up to {{convert|80|ft|adj=on}} deep, cut out of the rock and navigated by a bridge which still contains part of the ashlar stone of its 16th century predecessor.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=259, 267}}</ref> Within the inner bailey, a separate area, called the innermost bailey, was created by the addition of a {{convert|5|ft|adj=on}} thick stone wall around the south-west corner in the early 13th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=301}}</ref>

The gatehouse to the inner bailey has the coats of arms of Sir Henry Sidney and Queen Elizabeth I displayed over it, dating to 1581, and was originally a three-storeyed building with [[Transom (architectural)|transomed]] windows and fireplaces, probably used as the lodgings for the judges.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=268–269, 271}}</ref> There were probably additional heraldic supporters displayed alongside the arms, since lost.<ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2000|p=187}}</ref> A porter's lodge would have been on the right hand side of the entrance to control access, with the rooms accessed by a [[spiral staircase]] in a protruding tower, with prominent triple chimneys, since lost.<ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2000|pp=187–180}}</ref> Alongside the gatehouse was originally a half-timbered building, possibly a laundry, approximately {{convert|48|by|15|ft}}, which has since been lost.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=271}}</ref>

On the east side of the bailey is the 12th-century chapel of Saint Mary Magdalene. The circular, [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] design of the chapel is unusual, with only three similar examples existing in England, at [[Castle Rising (castle)|Castle Rising]], [[Hereford Castle|Hereford]] and [[Pevensey Castle|Pevensey]].<ref>{{harvnb|Coppack|2000|p=145}}</ref> Built from sandstone, the circular design imitates the shrine at the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]].<ref>{{harvnb|Coppack|2000|pp=147, 149–150}}</ref> Originally the chapel had a [[nave]], a square [[Presbytery (architecture)|presbytery]], {{convert|3.8|by|3.8|m}} in size, and a [[chancel]], but this design was heavily altered in the 16th century and only the nave survives.<ref>{{harvnb|Coppack|2000|pp=145–146, 151}}</ref> Although roofless, the nave survives to its full height and is {{convert|26|ft|3|in}} in diameter, visibly divided into two sections by different bands of stonework, and with some plaster surviving on the lower level.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=271–272}}; {{harvnb|Coppack|2000|p=145}}</ref> Around the inside of the nave are 14 [[Arcade (architecture)|arcaded]] bays in the walls.<ref>{{harvnb|Coppack|2000|p=148}}</ref>

The north end of the bailey is occupied by a range of buildings, the Solar block, the Great Hall and the Great Chamber block, with the Tudor Lodgings in the north-east corner. The Tudor Lodgings take the form of two [[rhomboid]]s to fit into the space provided by the [[curtain wall (castle)|curtain wall]], divided by a [[cross-wall]], the west side being approximately {{convert|33|by|15|ft}}, and the east side {{convert|33|by|21|ft}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=295, 297}}</ref> They were entered by a shared spiral staircase, a design used in various episcopal palaces in the 16th century, and originally provided sets of individual offices and personal rooms for the court officials, later being converted into two distinct apartments.<ref>{{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000b|p=175}}</ref>

The Great Chamber block adjoining the Tudor Lodgings dates from around 1320.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=288}}</ref> Another rhomboid design, approximately {{convert|53|by|34|ft}} across, this originally had its main chamber on the first floor, but has been much altered over the subsequent years.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=288–289}}</ref> The carved [[corbel]] heads that survive on the first floor may represent Edward II and Queen Isabella.<ref>{{harvnb|Thompson|2000|p=172}}</ref> Behind the Great Chamber block is the Guardrobe Tower, a four storeyed construction, providing a combination of bed chambers and guardrobes.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=294}}</ref>

In the 13th-century Great Hall, the hall itself was also positioned on the first floor, originally fitted with a wooden floor supported by stone pillars in the basement, and a massive wooden roof.<ref name="autogenerated276">{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=276, 279}}; {{harvnb|Thompson|2000|p=167}}</ref> It was {{convert|60|by|30|ft}} across: this 2:1 ratio between length and width was typical for castle halls of this period.<ref name="autogenerated276"/> The hall was reached by a flight of stone steps at the west end, and lit by three tall, trefoiled windows, each originally with its own window seat and south-facing to receive the sunlight.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=276, 277–279}}; {{harvnb|Thompson|2000|p=167}}</ref> Originally the hall had an open fire in the centre, which was normal for the 13th century, but the middle window was turned into a more modern fireplace around 1580.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=277–279}}; {{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000b|pp=180–181}}</ref>

To the west of the Great Hall is the three-storeyed Solar block, an irregular oblong measuring up to {{convert|26|by|39|ft}} in size.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=281–283}}</ref> The first floor chamber would probably have been used as a solar, with the cellar being used as a service area.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=286}}</ref> The Great Hall and Solar block were built at the same time in the 13th century, the builders carving out the inside of the old Norman tower behind them in the process.<ref>{{harvnb|Morriss|2000|pp=155, 163–166}}</ref> They were probably built in two phases and were originally intended to be smaller, less grand buildings, only for the design to be changed about half-way through construction; they were finished in a rushed manner, the traces of which can still be seen, along with other changes made in the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Morriss|2000|pp=164–166}}</ref>

[[File:Great Kitchen at Ludlow Castle.JPG|thumb|left|The Great Kitchen (right), in front of the innermost bailey, and the entrance to the inner bailey (left)]]
The North-West and North-East towers behind the northern range are Norman in origin, from the 11th and early 12th century. When first built, they were created by pushing or folding the line of the curtain wall outwards to create the desired external shape, and then adding timber floors and a timber wall at the back, rather than being designed as individual buildings.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2011|p=79}}</ref> The timber parts of the towers were later replaced in stone, and incorporated into the later range of buildings. The North-East Tower, also known as the Pendover Tower, was originally two-storeys high, with a third floor added on in the 14th century, followed by an extensive remodelling of the inside in the 16th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=298–299}}; {{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=127}}</ref> It has [[chamfer]]ed angles on the external corners to make it harder to attack the stonework, although this has weakened the structural strength of the tower as a whole.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=127}}</ref> The North-West Tower had similar chamfered corners, but the Closet Tower was built alongside it in the 13th century, altering the external appearance.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=127}}; {{harvnb|Shoesmith|2000b|p=180}}</ref> Two more Norman towers survive in the innermost bailey, the West Tower, also known as the Postern Tower, because it contained a postern gate, and the South-West tower, also called the Oven Tower, on account of its cooking facilities.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|pp=128–129}}</ref> The Norman towers looked out towards Wales, probably to make a symbolic statement.<ref>{{harvnb|Liddiard|2005|p=129}}</ref>

A range, now lost, once stretched from the innermost bailey towards the Great Hall, including a large stone house running along the curtain wall, {{convert|54|by|20|ft}} in size, and on the other side of the innermost bailey, the Great Kitchen, {{convert|31|by|23|ft}} in size, built around the same time as the Great Hall, and an oven building, since lost, {{convert|21|by|27|ft}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|pp=299–301}}</ref>

The Great Tower, or keep, is on the south side of the innermost bailey. A roughly square building, four storeys tall, most of its walls are {{convert|8|ft|6|in|adj=on}} thick, with the exception of its newer northern facing wall, only {{convert|7|ft|6|in|adj=on}} thick.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=306}}; {{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=133}}</ref> The Great Tower was constructed in several stages. Originally it was a relatively large gatehouse in the original Norman castle, probably with accommodation over the gateway, before being extended to form the Great Tower in the mid-12th century, although still being used as a gatehouse for the inner bailey.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=133}}; {{harvnb|White|2000|p=140}}</ref> When the innermost bailey was created in the early 13th century, the gateway was then filled in and a new gateway cut into the inner bailey wall just to the east of the Great Tower.<ref>{{harvnb|White|2000|pp=140}}</ref> Finally, the north side of the tower was rebuilt in the mid-15th century to produce the Great Tower that appears today.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=138}}</ref> The keep has a vaulted basement, {{convert|20|ft|adj=on}} high, with Norman wall arcading, and a row of windows along the first floor, since mostly blocked.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=305}}; {{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=136}}; {{harvnb|Creighton|2012|p=83}}</ref> The arcading echoes that in the chapel, and probably dates from around 1080.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=130}}</ref> The windows and large entrance-way would have looked impressive, but would also have been very hard to defend; this form of tower probably reflected earlier Anglo-Saxon high-status towers and was intended to display lordship.<ref>{{harvnb|Renn|2000|p=136}}; {{harvnb|Creighton|2012|pp=82–83}}; {{harvnb|Liddiard|2005|pp=31–32}}</ref> The first floor originally formed a tall hall, {{convert|29|by|17|ft}} across, which was subsequently subdivided into two separate floors.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope|1909|p=310}}</ref>

====Early 12th century chapel====
<gallery mode=packed heights=160px>
File:Round Chapel - geograph.org.uk - 1248404.jpg|The chapel of St Mary Magdalene, showing the two levels of stonework and surviving plasterwork...
File:Norman doorway, Round Chapel, Ludlow Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1745704.jpg|...the entrance...
File:Ludlow Castle chapel interior, 2010.jpg|...the interior, with arcaded bays...
File:Corbel in Ludlow Castle chapel.JPG|...and carved corbel head.
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
*[[List of castles in England]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|notes=}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

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|editor-last2=Johnson
|editor-first2=Andy
|isbn=1-873827-51-2 |pages=125–138| ref = harv}}
*{{cite book
|last1=Renn
|first1=Derek
|last2=Shoesmith
|first2=Ron
|chapter=The Outer Bailey
|title=Ludlow Castle: Its History & Buildings
|publisher=Logaston Press
|location=Logaston, UK
|year=2000
|editor-last1=Shoesmith
|editor-first1=Ron
|editor-last2=Johnson
|editor-first2=Andy
|isbn=1-873827-51-2
|pages=191–194
|ref = harv}}
*{{cite book
|last=Shoesmith
|first=Ron
|chapter=Ludlow Castle
|title=Ludlow Castle: Its History & Buildings
|publisher=Logaston Press
|location=Logaston, UK
|year=2000a
|editor-last1=Shoesmith
|editor-first1=Ron
|editor-last2=Johnson
|editor-first2=Andy
|isbn=1-873827-51-2
|pages=15–20
|ref = harv}}
*{{cite book
|last=Shoesmith
|first=Rob
|chapter=The Tudor Lodgings and User of the North-East Range
|title=Ludlow Castle: Its History & Buildings
|publisher=Logaston Press
|location=Logaston, UK
|year=2000b
|editor-last1=Shoesmith
|editor-first1=Ron
|editor-last2=Johnson
|editor-first2=Andy
|isbn=1-873827-51-2
|pages=175–184
|ref = harv}}
*{{cite book
|last=Shoesmith
|first=Rob
|chapter=The Story of Castle House
|title=Ludlow Castle: Its History & Buildings
|publisher=Logaston Press
|location=Logaston, UK
|year=2000c
|editor-last1=Shoesmith
|editor-first1=Ron
|editor-last2=Johnson
|editor-first2=Andy
|isbn=1-873827-51-2
|pages=213–228
|ref = harv}}
*{{cite book
|last=Streeten
|first=Anthony D. F.
|chapter=Monument Preservation, Management and Display
|title=Ludlow Castle: Its History & Buildings
|publisher=Logaston Press
|location=Logaston, UK
|year=2000
|editor-last1=Shoesmith
|editor-first1=Ron
|editor-last2=Johnson
|editor-first2=Andy
|isbn=1-873827-51-2
|pages=117–122
|ref = harv}}
*{{cite book
|last=Stone
|first=Richard
|chapter=The Porter' Lodge, Prison and Stable Block
|title=Ludlow Castle: Its History & Buildings
|publisher=Logaston Press
|location=Logaston, UK
|year=2000
|editor-last1=Shoesmith
|editor-first1=Ron
|editor-last2=Johnson
|editor-first2=Andy
|isbn=1-873827-51-2
|pages=205–212
|ref = harv}}
*{{cite book
|last=Thompson
|first=Michael
|chapter=The Great Hall & Great Chamber Block
|title=Ludlow Castle: Its History & Buildings
|publisher=Logaston Press
|location=Logaston, UK
|year=2000
|editor-last1=Shoesmith
|editor-first1=Ron
|editor-last2=Johnson
|editor-first2=Andy
|isbn=1-873827-51-2
|pages=167–174
|ref = harv}}
*{{cite book
|last=White
|first=Peter
|chapter=Changes to the Castle Keep
|title=Ludlow Castle: Its History & Buildings
|publisher=Logaston Press
|location=Logaston, UK
|year=2000
|editor-last1=Shoesmith
|editor-first1=Ron
|editor-last2=Johnson
|editor-first2=Andy
|isbn=1-873827-51-2
|pages=139–144
|ref = harv}}
*{{cite book
|last=Whitehead
|first=David
|chapter=Symbolism and Assimilation
|title=Ludlow Castle: Its History & Buildings
|publisher=Logaston Press
|location=Logaston, UK
|year=2000
|editor-last1=Shoesmith
|editor-first1=Ron
|editor-last2=Johnson
|editor-first2=Andy
|isbn=1-873827-51-2
|pages=99–117
|ref = harv}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.gatehouse-gazetteer.info/English%20sites/3138.html Bibliography of sources related to Ludlow Castle]
* [http://www.ludlowcastle.com/ Ludlow Castle official information site]

[[Category:Castles in Shropshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Shropshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed castles]]
[[Category:History of Shropshire]]
[[Category:Ruins in Shropshire]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Shropshire]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Shropshire]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Ludlow]]
[[Category:History of Ludlow]]
[[Category:De Lacy family|Castle, Ludlow]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Shropshire]]

Brainard Homestead State Park

2014-12-05T20:42:55Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Geobox | Protected Area

| name = Brainard Homestead State Park
| native_name =
| other_name =
| other_name1 =

| category = [[List of Connecticut state parks|Connecticut State Park]]
| category_iucn =

| image =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =

| etymology_type = Named for
| etymology =

| country = {{flag|United States}}
| state = {{flag|Connecticut}}
| region_type = County
| region = [[Middlesex County, Connecticut|Middlesex]]
| region1 =
| district_type = Town
| district = [[East Haddam, Connecticut|East Haddam]]
| district1 =
| district2 =
| city =

| location =
| location_note =
| lat_d = 41 | lat_m = 28 | lat_s = 01 | lat_NS = N
| long_d = 72 | long_m = 27 | long_s = 45 | long_EW = W
| coordinates_note = <ref name=gnis/>
| elevation_imperial = 226
| elevation_round = 0
| elevation_note = <ref name=gnis>{{cite gnis|205681|Brainard Homestead State Park}}</ref>
| area_unit = acre
| area_imperial = 25
| area_type =
| area_round = 0
| area_note = <ref name=DEEP/>
| area1_imperial = | area1_type =
| length_imperial = | length_orientation =
| width_imperial = | width_orientation =
| highest = | highest_location = | highest_location_note =
| highest_lat_d = | highest_lat_m = | highest_lat_s = | highest_lat_NS =
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| lowest_elevation_imperial =

| biome = | biome_share = | biome1 = | biome1_share =
| geology = | geology1 = | plant = | plant1 =
| animal = | animal1 =

| established_type = Established
| established = Unspecified
| established_note =
| management_body = Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection
| management_location =
| management_lat_d = | management_lat_m = | management_lat_s = | management_lat_NS =
| management_long_d = | management_long_m = | management_long_s = | management_long_EW =
| management_elevation =
| visitation = | visitation_year = | visitation_note =

| map = Connecticut Locator Map.PNG
| map_caption = Location in Connecticut
| map_locator = Connecticut
| map_first =

| website = [http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#BrainardHomestead Brainard Homestead State Park]
}}

'''Brainard Homestead State Park''', and alternatively '''Brainerd Homestead State Park''', is a 25 acre undeveloped [[Connecticut]] [[state park]] located in the town of [[East Haddam, Connecticut]], United States. A farmhouse was built on the site by Timothy Green in 1842 before being purchased by Selden Tyler Brainerd in March 1854. The ownership of the property was willed to Geraldine W. Hayden. Upon her death in 1929, the property was willed to the State of Connecticut with the condition that William Brainerd be able to use the property for life. William Brainerd died in 1936, the buildings were later dismantled, but the Brainard Homestead State Park was established prior to May 1, 1932. The undeveloped park is said to offer bird watching, sports fields and hiking according to the [[Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection]]. As of 2012, the fields were noted to be actively farmed and there were no established trails for hiking.

== History ==
The known history of Brainard Homestead State Park begins in 1842 when Timothy Green constructed a farmhouse on the property. Green never lived in the farmhouse, but leased it to Jonathan Morgan. In March 1854, the property was sold to Selden Tyler Brainerd. Brainerd with his wife, Harriet, raised five children in the {{convert|30|ft|m}} by {{convert|25|ft|m}} farmhouse. At some point ownership of the property was transferred to Geraldine W. Hayden in a will.<ref name=geo /> In March 1929, Hayden died and willed the property to the State of Connecticut so that the homestead could be utilized as a memorial to her grandfather. A report by the Connecticut State Park and Forest Commission noted that it was not an ideal situation due the concerns about identifying a proposed site in advance and establishing the adaptability of the land for public use. The report also notes that Mrs. Hayden was unknown to the commissioners and despite the land having significant liabilities was waiting to become a state park by 1930.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tNxWAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA7-PA18&lpg=RA7-PA18&dq=Geraldine+W.+Hayden&source=bl&ots=z--EE29-d1&sig=TDRSORCWWxTOr7vjTl58EIFYGIA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mh53VLG7JbiIsQT9rIHwBg&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Geraldine%20W.%20Hayden&f=false | title=Report of the State Park and Forest Commission to the Governor (1930) | publisher=State Park and Forest Commission | date=1930 | accessdate=27 November 2014 | pages=15}}</ref> The delay in its transformation stemmed from a request that William Brainerd, one of Selden and Harriet's sons, have life use of the property. William Brainerd died in 1936 and completing the terms of the will. At a later date, the State of Connecticut dismantled the buildings and established the Brainard Homestead State Park.<ref name=geo />

Land use records show that two fields on the farm were once leased and used by Mortimer Gelston, but the fields surrounding or on the Brainard Homestead State Park continue to be actively farmed.<ref name=geo>{{cite web | url=http://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC1B759_brainard-homestead?guid=6b0e87f9-0bcf-4bfa-b863-40847158c3cd | title=Brainard Homestead | publisher=Geocaching.com | work=From data obtained from East Haddam Town Clerk, who provided a history of the homestead compiled by Karl P. Stofko in 1981 | accessdate=26 May 2014}}</ref> Leary writes that the park preserves the Brainard Homestead and notes that the foundations and cellar pits are visible and provides a picture of the fieldstone foundation.<ref name="leary">{{cite book | title=A Shared Landscape: A Guide & History of Connecticut's State Parks & Forests | publisher=Friends of the Connecticut State Parks, Inc. | author=Leary, Joseph | year=2004 | pages=97| isbn=0974662909}}</ref>

The establishment date of the Brainard Homestead State Park is unknown, but it predates the death of William Brainard. The 1934 ''State of Connecticut Register and Manual'' lists the Brainard Homestead State Park as the 39th State Park and consists of 25 acres.<ref name=vol34>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/register34conn | title=State of Connecticut Register and Manual (1934) | publisher=State of Connecticut | accessdate=26 May 2014 | pages=227}}</ref> Though it is unspecific, the 1932 ''State of Connecticut Register and Manual'' notes that there were 40 state parks as of May 1, 1932.<ref name=vol32>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/register34conn | title=State of Connecticut Register and Manual (1932) | publisher=State of Connecticut | accessdate=26 May 2014 | pages=757}}</ref>

== Activities ==
The [[Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection]] website highlights three activities for Brainard Homestead State Park: bird watching, field sports and hiking. In 2004, Leary noted that the open fields were perfect for field sports and picnics.<ref name=leary /> Use of field for sports seem to have ended soon after because a [[geocache]] placed within Brainard Homestead State Park and referenced on the Geocaching website notes that the fields were used for farming.<ref name=geo /> In 2012, the "The A to Z of CT State Parks " [[Tumblr]] website noted that the fields were unusable and were currently being farmed.<ref name="atoz">{{cite web | url=http://connecticutatoz.tumblr.com/post/24289582997/brainard-homestead-state-park | title=Brainard Homestead State Park | publisher=The A to Z of CT State Parks | date=2012 | accessdate=26 May 2014}}</ref> The Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection website continues to note the park's "field sports" use as of 2014.<ref name=DEEP /> Also "The A to Z of CT State Parks" states that there were no established trails for hiking.<ref name=atoz /> Leary writes that there are limited views of the [[Connecticut River]] in winter, but the foliage in summer "precludes much of a vista."<ref name=leary /> Al Braden writes in his book that the park provides access to the Salmon River with parking, boat ramp and docks, but this is the "Salmon River Boat Launch East Haddam" and not a part of the state park.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uW48m8ifpmAC&pg=PA94&dq=Brainard+Homestead+State+Park&hl=en&sa=X&ei=BcmCU9KKHoTRsQSmh4DoAg&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Brainard%20Homestead%20State%20Park&f=false | title=The Connecticut River: A Photographic Journey into the Heart of New England | publisher=Wesleyan University Press | date=2010 | accessdate=26 May 2014 | author=Braden, Al | pages=94}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?A=2686&Q=384278 | title=Salmon River Boat Launch East Haddam | publisher=Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection | accessdate=26 May 2014}}</ref>

== Notes ==
Despite the family name being Brainerd, the State of Connecticut has used the Brainard spelling since at least 1934.<ref name=geo /><ref name=vol34 /> Official publications to date list the property as Brainard Homestead State Park and as such is not a simple typographical error.<ref name=DEEP />

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=DEEP>{{cite web |url=http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#BrainardHomestead |title=Brainard Homestead State Park |work=State Parks and Forests |publisher=Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection |accessdate=March 3, 2013}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#BrainardHomestead Brainard Homestead State Park] Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection

{{Protected Areas of Connecticut}}

[[Category:State parks of Connecticut]]
[[Category:Parks in Middlesex County, Connecticut]]
[[Category:East Haddam, Connecticut]]

Becket Hill State Park Reserve

2014-11-28T18:02:49Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Geobox|Protected area
| name = Becket Hill State Park Reserve
| category = [[List of Connecticut state parks|Connecticut state park]]
| image =
| image_caption =
| country = {{flag|United States}}
| state = {{flag|Connecticut}}
| region_type = County
| region = [[New London County, Connecticut|New London]]
| district_type = Town
| district = [[Lyme, Connecticut|Lyme]]
| location =
| elevation_imperial = 253
| elevation_round = 0
| elevation_note = <ref name=gnis>{{cite gnis|1930618|Becket Hill State Park Reserve|accessdate=28 November 2014}}</ref>
| lat_d = 41
| lat_m = 22
| lat_s = 20
| lat_NS = N
| long_d = 72
| long_m = 17
| long_s = 58
| long_EW = W
| coordinates_note = <ref name=gnis/>
| area_unit = acre
| area_imperial = 260
| area_round = 0
| area_note = <ref name=DEEP/>
| established_type = Established
| established = Unspecified
| management_body = Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection
| map_locator = Connecticut
| map = Connecticut Locator Map.PNG
| map_caption = Location in Connecticut
| website = [http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#BecketHill Becket Hill State Park Reserve]
}}

'''Becket Hill State Park Reserve''', often misspelled as '''Beckett Hill''', is an undeveloped [[Connecticut]] [[state park]] located in [[Lyme, Connecticut]], United States. The 260 acre park was donated to the State of Connecticut in 1961 by the George Dudley Seymour Trust and became the state's 76th designated State Park. Becket Hill is listed by the [[Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection]] as a walk-in park, and its activities include hiking and picnicking.

== History ==
Becket Hill State Park Reserve is named for an early settler of the area named Becket and the land was part of the [[Niantic people|Nehantic]] tribe's territory. This state park was acquired by the State of Connecticut in order to preserve the hill, but unlike the abutting [[Nehantic State Forest]], Becket Hill has accessibility problems and is returning to its natural state. Becket Hill is located between the south side of Norwich Pond and the northern and northeastern side of Uncas Lake.<ref name="leary">{{cite book | title=A Shared Landscape: A Guide & History of Connecticut's State Parks & Forests | publisher=Friends of the Connecticut State Parks, Inc. | author=Leary, Joseph | year=2004 | pages=130–131 | isbn=0974662909}}</ref> The Uncas Lake is named after [[Uncas]], chief of the [[Mohegan people|Mohegan]]s.<ref name=leary /> A small brook known as Falls Brook on some maps is listed as making its way between Uncas lake and Norwich pond.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://itouchmap.com/?d=1930618&s=CT&f=park | title=Beckett Hill State Park Reserve, CT | publisher=Itouchmap | accessdate=20 May 2014}}</ref> In 1961, the land for the Becket Hill State Park Reserve was given to the State of Connecticut by the George Dudley Seymour Trust.<ref name=day86>{{cite web | url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1915&dat=19860731&id=vchGAAAAIBAJ&sjid=QfgMAAAAIBAJ&pg=1020,5989240 | title=Good Ole Days | publisher=The Day | date=July 31, 1986 | accessdate=20 May 2014}}</ref> Beckett Hill was first listed on the ''Connecticut Register and Manual'' for 1962 with its present 260 acres of undeveloped land.<ref name="conn62">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/register62conn | title=Connecticut Register and Manual - 1962 | publisher=State of Connecticut | year=1962 | pages=437}}</ref> The Becket Hill State Park Reserve is the 76th designated Connecticut State Park.<ref name=day86 />

== Activities ==
Becket Hill State Park Reserve is an undeveloped walk-in park: that is has no facilities or specific activities according to the [[Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection]].<ref name=DEEP/> The Oh Ranger website lists picnicking as an activity, but notes that visitors should "contact the park for information on hiking".<ref name=or>{{cite web | url=http://www.ohranger.com/ct/becket-hill-reserve | title=Beckett Hill State Park Reserve | publisher=Oh Ranger | accessdate=20 May 2014}}</ref> ''The Day'' notes that "[i]f all you want to do is hike, this undeveloped property is suitable."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.theday.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20130815/NWS01/308159973/-1/zip06 | title=Centennial SoJourn spotlights state parks in an 11-day trek | publisher=The Day | date=August 15, 2013 | accessdate=20 May 2014 | author=Cotter, Betty}}</ref> The park is itself unmarked and undeveloped. Both Norwich Pond and Uncas Lake have boat launches from the Nehantic State Forest, but no motorized boats are allowed.<ref name=leary /> The waters are stocked with [[brook trout|brook]], [[brown trout|brown]] and [[rainbow trout]] by the State of Connecticut, and other fish include [[largemouth bass]], [[yellow perch]] and [[Centrarchidae|sunfish]].<ref name=leary />

According to the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection, Becket Hill is accessed off [[Connecticut Route 156]], but this has been reported as the entrance to [[Nehantic State Forest]].<ref name=DEEP/><ref name=az>{{cite web | url=http://connecticutatoz.tumblr.com/post/19157632436/beckett-hill-state-park | title=Beckett Hill State Park | publisher=The A to Z of CT State Parks | date=March 11, 2012 | accessdate=20 May 2014}}</ref> The A to Z of CT State Parks website states that the site is all but inaccessible, and does not have a trail leading from Nehantic State Forest to the area that is marked on the park maps.<ref name=az /> Oh Ranger's website provides different directions to the park off [[U.S. Route 1]].<ref name=or />

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=DEEP>{{cite web |url=http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#BecketHill |title=Becket Hill State Park Reserve |work=State Parks and Forests |publisher=Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection |accessdate=February 5, 2013}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#BecketHill Becket Hill State Park Reserve] Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection
*[http://www.ct.gov/deep/lib/deep/stateparks/maps/neha.pdf Nehantic State Forest Map] Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection

{{Protected Areas of Connecticut}}

[[Category:State parks of Connecticut]]
[[Category:Lyme, Connecticut]]
[[Category:Parks in New London County, Connecticut]]

Beaver Brook State Park

2014-11-19T06:22:57Z

Legobot: Adding Good Article icon

{{good article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2014}}
{{Geobox|Protected area
| name = Beaver Brook State Park
| category = [[List of Connecticut state parks|Connecticut state park]]
| image =
| image_caption =
| country = {{flag|United States}}
| state = {{flag|Connecticut}}
| region_type = County
| region = [[Windham County, Connecticut|Windham]]
| district_type = Towns
| district = [[Chaplin, Connecticut|Chaplin]], [[Windham, Connecticut|Windham]]
| location =
| elevation_imperial = 328
| elevation_round = 0
| elevation_note = <ref name=gnis>{{cite gnis|205482|Bibbins Pond}}</ref>
| lat_d = 41
| lat_m = 43
| lat_s = 56
| lat_NS = N
| long_d = 72
| long_m = 07
| long_s = 34
| long_EW = W
| coordinates_note = <ref name=gnis/>
| area_unit = acre
| area_imperial = 401
| area_round = 0
| area_note = <ref name=DEEP/>
| established_type = Established
| established = Unspecified
| management_body = [[Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection]]
| map_locator = Connecticut
| map = Connecticut Locator Map.PNG
| map_caption = Location in Connecticut
| website = [http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#BeaverBrook Beaver Brook State Park]
}}

'''Beaver Brook State Park''' is an undeveloped [[state park]] located in the [[Windham, Connecticut|Windham]] and [[Chaplin, Connecticut|Chaplin]], [[Connecticut]], United States. The park encompasses Bibbins Pond, also known as Beaver Brook Pond, and the acreage to its north, and the Beaver Brook runs through the park and exits in the south. The state park began with a donation of 165 acres by H. Keeney Lathrop to the State of Connecticut. According to state records, the park grew from the 165 from 1955 to 391 acres in 1957 before reaching its present 401 acres by 1960. The park is listed as an undeveloped walk-in park with hunting as an activity, but it is better known for its trout fishing. Beaver Brook has abundant stocks of wild trout, but is restricted to [[catch and release]] only. The [[Air Line State Park Trail]] goes through Beaver Brook State Park.

== History ==
Beaver Brook State Park is an undeveloped [[state park]] located in [[Windham, Connecticut|Windham]] and [[Chaplin, Connecticut|Chaplin]], [[Connecticut]].<ref name=DEEP/> According to Joseph Leary, {{nowrap|"[t]he}} central feature of the park is Bibbins Pond, sometimes called Beaver Brook Pond."<ref name="leary">{{cite book | title=A Shared Landscape: A Guide & History of Connecticut's State Parks & Forests | publisher=Friends of the Connecticut State Parks, Inc. | author=Leary, Joseph | year=2004 | pages=147 | isbn=0974662909}}</ref> The park encompasses Bibbins Pond, and the acreage to its north, but the park's name may derive from a beaver pond that was once present. The park began with a donation of 165 acres by H. Keeney Lathrop to the State of Connecticut.<ref name=day /> Prior to the creation of the park, it was reported that the trout pools were developed for fishing before 1955.<ref name="day">{{cite news | url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1915&dat=19550119&id=3OwgAAAAIBAJ&sjid=PnMFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6276,2810070 | title=State Acquires 60 Acres For Park At Gardner Lake | work=The Day | date=January 19, 1955 | accessdate=May 20, 2014}}</ref> The ''Connecticut State Register and Manual'' notes a boundary increase from 165 acres in 1955 to 391 acres in the 1957.<ref name="conn55">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/register55conn | title=Connecticut Register and Manual - 1955 | publisher=State of Connecticut | pages=316}}</ref><ref name="conn57">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/register57conn | title=Connecticut Register and Manual - 1957 | publisher=State of Connecticut | pages=404}}</ref> The park achieved its present size of 401 acres by 1960.<ref name="conn60">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/registerm60conn | title=Connecticut Register and Manual - 1960 | publisher=State of Connecticut | pages=437}}</ref> In 2013, the State of Connecticut opened a contract to improve and repair the Bibbins Pond Dam.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ct.gov/deep/lib/deep/water_inland/dams/bibbins_pond_dam_contract_book-_sept_2013.pdf | title=Contract Documents For Improvements And Repairs To Bibbins Pond Dam Windham, Connecticut | publisher=Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection | accessdate=May 20, 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520220542/http://www.ct.gov/deep/lib/deep/water_inland/dams/bibbins_pond_dam_contract_book-_sept_2013.pdf |archivedate=May 20, 2014}}</ref> Beaver Brook that runs both north and south of the pond and continues beyond the park limits.<ref name="merly" />

== Activities ==
The [[Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection]] notes that the Beaver Brook State Park is an undeveloped walk-in park with hunting as an activity.<ref name=DEEP/> The ''Flyfisher's Guide to Connecticut'' states that the Beaver Brook is a class 1 Wild Trout Management Area and is described as having abundant wild trout with no seasonal restrictions, but is [[catch and release]] only.<ref name="dep">{{cite web | url=http://www.ct.gov/deep/lib/deep/fishing/freshwater/troutbroc.pdf | title=Connecticut's Trout Management Progream | publisher=Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection | accessdate=May 19, 2014}}</ref><ref name="merly">{{cite book | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tVLtl98q9bsC&pg=PA288&dq=beaver+brook+state+park+connecticut&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Fz16U72lD4ijsQTY54DIBA&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=beaver%20brook%20state%20park%20connecticut&f=false | title=Flyfisher's Guide to Connecticut | publisher=Wilderness Adventures Press | author=Merly, Ron | year=2011 | pages=288}}</ref> The book further notes that only an artificial fly or lure with a single, barb-less free-swinging hook can be used in this area.<ref name="merly" /> Only small, motor-less vessels are permitted on the ponds from May 16 to October 31.<ref name="deep2">{{cite web | url=http://ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2686&q=383712&deepNav_GID=1620 | title=Beaver Brook Pond Boat Launch Windham | publisher=DEEP | accessdate=November 19, 2014}}</ref> Beaver Brook State Park is connected to the [[Air Line State Park Trail]], which runs through the park.<ref name="rail1">{{cite book | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5JT8pTHx6lwC&pg=PA46&dq=beaver+brook+state+park+connecticut&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Fz16U72lD4ijsQTY54DIBA&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=beaver%20brook%20state%20park%20connecticut&f=false | title=Best Rail Trails New England: More than 40 Rail Trails from Maine to Connecticut | publisher=Globe Pequot | author=Mascott, Cynthia | year=2009 | pages=46}}</ref> The site also includes a [[geocache]] which can be accessed via three different routes.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GCTC7Z_beaver-brook-pond-cache?guid=9b887182-6750-4a83-95db-d97d78f64e27 | title=Beaver Brook Pond Cache | publisher=Geocaching.com | accessdate=May 19, 2014}}</ref> In 1994, a Connecticut state record for [[Brook Trout]] was caught in Beaver Brook by Sean Wozniak.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.redmoonguides.com/lawsct.html | title=Redmoon's Connecticut Fishing Guide | publisher=Redmoon Guides | accessdate=May 19, 2014}}</ref> As of 2014, the Brook Trout record was last surpassed in 1998 by David Andes in Blackwells Brook in [[Brooklyn, Connecticut]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=2014 Angler's Guide - Inland & Marine Fishing | author=Connecticut Department of Energy & Environmental Protection. | year=2014}}</ref>

The park is accessible from the junction of [[Connecticut Route 203]] and [[Connecticut Route 14]] in [[Windham Center]] and by following Route 14 east for 0.7 miles and turning left onto Back Road. Proceeding down Back Road for 2.5 miles leads to the pond on the left, and there is no parking fee at the park.<ref name=DEEP/>

== Note ==
''The Day'' states that 175 acres were donated, but the State of Connecticut lists only 165 acres in the official publication for 1955.<ref name="day" /><ref name="conn55" /> For accuracy, the State of Connecticut's official designation of 165 acres is used.

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=DEEP>{{cite web |url=http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#BeaverBrook |title=Beaver Brook State Park |work=State Parks and Forests |publisher=Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection |accessdate=February 5, 2013}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?a=2716&q=445284#BeaverBrook Beaver Brook State Park] Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection

{{Protected Areas of Connecticut}}

[[Category:State parks of Connecticut]]
[[Category:Parks in Windham County, Connecticut]]
[[Category:Chaplin, Connecticut]]
[[Category:Windham, Connecticut]]