Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Israel Getzler

2016-03-24T22:11:41Z

Languagehat: Hebrew Wikipedia

'''Israel Getzler''' (* [[14. Mai]] [[1920]] in [[Berlin]]; † [[8. Januar]] [[2012]]) war ein [[Deutschland|deutsch]]-[[israel]]ischer [[Historiker]] [[Juden in Polen|polnisch-jüdischer]] [[Abstammung]] und Fachmann für die [[Geschichte Russlands]] und der [[Geschichte der Sowjetunion|Sowjetunion]].

== Leben ==
Getzler, der als Sohn einer aus Polen nach Berlin [[Einwanderung|eingewanderten]] jüdischen Familie geboren wurde, wuchs in der Zeit des wachsenden [[Nationalsozialismus]] auf, und trat der [[Zionismus|zionistischen]] sozialistischen [[Jugendbewegung]] ''[[Hashomer Hatzair]]'' bei. Im Zuge der [[Novemberpogrome 1938]] wurde er zusammen mit seiner Familie nach Polen [[Deportation von Juden aus Deutschland|deportiert]]. Nach dem Ausbruch des [[Zweiter Weltkrieg|Zweiten Weltkrieges]] wurde er von den [[Sowjetunion|sowjetischen]] Behörden in eine [[Gold]]abbausiedlung nach [[Sibirien]] umgesiedelt. Als die Familie schließlich in die [[Wolgadeutsche Republik]] verzog, begann er mit seinen ersten Studien und lernte mit Hilfe eines [[Wörterbuch]]es die [[englische Sprache]]. Nach dem Untergang des [[Drittes Reich|Dritten Reiches]] 1945 beantragte die Familie erfolgreich die Ausreise aus der Sowjetunion und wanderte schließlich nach [[Australien]] aus.

Nachdem er ein Studium der [[Geschichte]] abgeschlossen hatte, erhielt er eine Anstellung an der [[University of Adelaide]]. Daneben führten ihn Forschungsaufträge nach [[Vereinigtes Königreich|Großbritannien]], um dort seine Ideen über die Oktoberrevolution bedeutenden Gelehrten wie [[Edward Hallett Carr]], [[Leonard Schapiro]] und [[Isaiah Berlin]] vorzustellen. Obwohl er E. H. Carr als den führenden Fachmann auf dem Gebiet des [[Stalinismus]] respektierte, lehnte er dessen von ihm als [[Philosophie|philosophischen]] [[Determinismus]] betrachteten Standpunkt ab, und bedauerte, dass er Carr nicht verdeutlichen konnte, warum er politische Verlierer ernst nahm. Zum anderen nutzte er für seine Forschungen die umfangreiche Dokumentensammlung der Archive der [[Hoover Institution]] an der [[Stanford University]].

1967 erschien mit ''Martov. A Political Biography of a Russian Social Democrat'' eine [[Biografie]] über den [[Pazifismus|Pazifisten]] [[Julius Martow]], der als [[Marxismus|Marxist]] und demokratischer [[Sozialismus|Sozialist]] den Kampf gegen die von Lenin getragene Oktoberrevolution verlor. Getzler, der Martow tief verehrte, zeigte zahlreiche strategische und taktische Fehler auf, die dieser beging. Er lehnte es ab, Geschichte lediglich als Zwischenspiel unpersönlicher Kräfte zu betrachten, und bestand darauf, dass die Auswahl von Individuen und Gruppen zählten.

1971 führte ihn sein Engagement für den Zionismus schließlich nach [[Israel]], wo er eine [[Professur]] für Geschichte an der [[Hebräische Universität Jerusalem|Hebräischen Universität Jerusalem]] übernahm. Obwohl er sich zeitlebens auf sein neues Heimatland freute, war er enttäuscht darüber, wie dieses die [[Palästinenser]] während der Besetzung des [[Westjordanland]]es dominierten und diskriminierten. Dies führte dazu, dass er die [[israelische Siedlung]]spolitik sowohl der ''[[Avoda]]'' als auch des ''[[Likud]]'' von [[Menachem Begin]] verurteilte. Weiterhin nahm er an zahlreichen Demonstrationen gegen die Siedlungspolitik teil und gehörte zu den Unterstützern der Frieden Jetzt-Bewegung (''[[Schalom Achschaw]]'').

In seinen späteren Büchern ''Kronstadt 1917-21: The Fate of a Soviet Democracy'' (1983) über den [[Kronstädter Matrosenaufstand]] im März 1921, sowie ''Nikolai Sukhanov. Chronicler of the Russian revolution'' (2002) über [[Nikolai Nikolajewitsch Suchanow]] stellte er dar, dass der nicht eingenommene Weg der Demokratie seiner Ansicht nach eine echte, realistische Alternative war.

Als einer der bekanntesten Historiker der Geschichte der Sowjetunion begrüßte er die in den späten 1980er Jahren von [[Michail Sergejewitsch Gorbatschow]] eingeleitete Politik von ''[[Glasnost]]'' und ''[[Perestroika]]'', und untersuchte auf seinen regelmäßigen Forschungsfahrten nach Großbritannien die Ausgaben der Regierungszeitung ''[[Iswestija]]'' nach Anzeichen für den demokratischen Wandel in der Sowjetunion.

== Veröffentlichungen ==
* ''Martov. A Political Biography of a Russian Social Democrat'', 1967, ISBN 978-0-521-05073-9
* ''Neither toleration nor favour. The Australian chapter of Jewish emancipation'', 1970, ISBN 0-522-83961-4
* ''Kronstadt 1917-21: The Fate of a Soviet Democracy'', 1983, ISBN 0-521-24479-X
* ''Nikolai Sukhanov. Chronicler of the Russian revolution'', 2002, ISBN 0-333-97035-7

== Hintergrundliteratur ==
* ''Revolution in Russia: Reassessments of 1917. Tribute to Israel Getzler'', Herausgeber Edith Rogovin Frankel, Jonathan Frankel, Baruch Knei-Paz, 1992, ISBN 0-521-40585-8

== Weblinks ==
* [http://openlibrary.org/search?q=Israel+Getzler Literaturnachweis] in der [[Open Library]]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/feb/13/israel-getzler-obituary ''Israel Getzler obituary. Leading historian of Russia who argued that the country could have taken a democratic road in 1917 rather than follow Lenin'']. In: [[The Guardian]] vom 13. Februar 2012

{{Normdaten|TYP=p|LCCN=n/82/69996|NDL=00440815|VIAF=97843632|GNDName=151122342|GNDCheck=2012-06-20}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Getzler, Israel}}
[[Kategorie:Neuzeithistoriker]]
[[Kategorie:Osteuropahistoriker]]
[[Kategorie:Hochschullehrer (University of Adelaide)]]
[[Kategorie:Hochschullehrer (Hebräische Universität Jerusalem)]]
[[Kategorie:Autor]]
[[Kategorie:Sachliteratur]]
[[Kategorie:Pole]]
[[Kategorie:Deutscher]]
[[Kategorie:Israeli]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1920]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 2012]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Getzler, Israel
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=deutsch-israelischer Historiker
|GEBURTSDATUM=14. Mai 1920
|GEBURTSORT=[[Berlin]]
|STERBEDATUM=8. Januar 2012
|STERBEORT=
}}
[[he:ישראל גצלר]]

Wurzelkanalbehandlung

2015-05-10T00:27:42Z

Languagehat: added Russian Wikipedia link

{{Portal|Zahnmedizin}}
[[Datei:Endo TX.jpg|mini|Zähne 25 und 26 nach endodontischer Behandlung, provisorische Versorgung]]
Unter einer '''Wurzelkanalbehandlung''' versteht man in der [[Zahnmedizin]] eine Therapie mit dem Ziel einen Zahn zu erhalten, dessen [[Zahnpulpa|Pulpa]] (im Volksmund:„Zahnnerv“) vital, aber irreversibel [[Entzündung|entzündet]] oder devital (abgestorben) ist. Eine Entzündung der Pulpa ([[Pulpitis]]) ist deshalb irreversibel, da dem Zahn ein [[Lymphatisches System|Lymphabflusssystem]] fehlt. Dabei wird das vitale oder devitale Pulpengewebe aus dem Wurzelkanal entfernt, der Wurzelkanal erweitert und dabei das den Wurzelkanal umgebende infizierte Wurzeldentin durch Herausfeilen entfernt. Abschließend wird der Wurzelkanal gefüllt. Die Wurzelkanalbehandlung ist Teil der [[Endodontie]].

== Ursachen ==
[[Datei:Dental X-ray 2012 PD 06.JPG|mini|Apikale Aufhellung an der mesialen Wurzelspitze des Zahnes 36]]
Die Ursachen für die [[Entzündung]] des Zahnmarks ([[Pulpitis]]) sind vielfältig. Meist besteht zunächst ein [[Zahnkaries|kariöser]] Defekt, der als Eintrittspforte für [[Bakterien]] dient und eine gewisse Zeit schmerzfrei verläuft. Eine [[Zahnfraktur]] oder ein Behandlungs[[Trauma (Medizin)|trauma]], zum Beispiel durch Überhitzung beim Beschleifen des Zahnes für eine [[Zahnkrone]], kann zu einer Pulpitis führen, die akut äußerst schmerzhaft sein kann. Gelegentlich kann auch eine Entzündung der Pulpa von [[Anatomische Lage- und Richtungsbezeichnungen#Verlaufsbezeichnungen|retrograd]] erfolgen, wenn der [[Zahnhalteapparat]] so weit geschädigt ist, dass die Infektion über die [[Zahnfleisch]]tasche bis an die Wurzelspitze vordringt und von dort in den [[Zahnwurzel|Wurzelkanal]] aufsteigt.

Im Verlauf einer [[Odontogene Infektion|odontogenen Infektion]] stirbt unbehandelt die Pulpa ab und die Keime breiten sich im System der Wurzelkanäle aus. Der Körper reagiert mit einer Entzündung des Zahnhalteapparates ([[Apikale Parodontitis|Parodontitis apicalis]]) im Sinne einer Abwehrreaktion. Eine Parodontitis apicalis kann in einer [[Krankheitsverlauf#Zeitlicher Verlauf|akuten]] oder einer [[Krankheitsverlauf#Zeitlicher Verlauf|chronischen]] Form vorliegen. Die akute Form ist oft mit Schmerzen verbunden, sie kann unter Umständen [[röntgen]]ologisch nur schwer [[Verifizierung|verifiziert]] werden, während eine chronische Parodontitis apicalis bei einer Auflösung der Knochenstruktur im Bereich der Wurzelspitze im Röntgenbild als sogenannte [[Verschattung|Aufhellung]] sichtbar sein kann. Im Röntgenbild erscheint die Aufhellung dunkel, da das Röntgenbild ein [[Negativfilm|Negativ]] darstellt.

== Indikationen ==
[[Datei:Pulp tissue removed during endodontic therapy by a size 20 broach file.jpg|mini|Extirpationsnadel mit frisch entfernter Pulpa]]
Eine Wurzelkanalbehandlung wird im Regelfall bei zwei Indikationen durchgeführt:
* Ist der Zahn vital und die Pulpa irreversibel geschädigt, wird eine '''Vitalexstirpation''' durchgeführt. Nach einer [[Lokalanästhesie (Zahnmedizin)|Lokalanästhesie]] wird die Pulpa mit einer [[Exstirpationsnadel]] entfernt und das System der Wurzelkanäle mechanisch durch eine sogenannte Aufbereitung gereinigt. Dabei wird mit Feilen mit aufsteigendem Durchmesser die Kanalwand ausgefeilt. Nach weiteren Reinigungsprozessen mittels [[Natriumhypochlorit]]lösungen wird der Zahn mittels einer Wurzelkanalfüllung wieder verschlossen.
* Ist der Zahn bereits devital, ist das Ziel der Behandlung die Entfernung der [[Gangrän|gangränösen]] Pulpa und der Keime aus dem Zahninneren. Nach der Eröffnung des Zahnes wird auch hier − wie bei der Vitalexstirpation − das System der Wurzelkanäle ausgefeilt und gereinigt.

In manchen Fällen muss ein vitaler, gesunder Zahn mittels einer Wurzelkanalbehandlung devitalisiert werden. Dies kann in folgenden Fällen erforderlich sein, wenn der Zahn sonst nicht prothetisch versorgt werden könnte:
* Der Zahn hat eine ungünstige, meist gekippte Stellung und soll als [[Pfeilerwertigkeit|Pfeiler]] für eine prothetische Versorgung dienen, beispielsweise eine [[Zahntechnik#Teilprothese – Modellguss|Teilprothese]] auf [[Teleskopkrone]]n, jedoch muss er auf Grund des Kippungsgrades so weit zugeschliffen werden, dass sich eine Eröffnung der Pulpa nicht vermeiden lässt.
* Der vitale Zahn ist auf Zahnfleischniveau frakturiert, die Pulpa ist nicht eröffnet und der Zahn muss durch einen [[Stiftaufbau]] wiederaufgebaut werden. Hierzu muss ein Befestigungsstift in den Wurzelkanal eingebracht werden.

== Ziel der Behandlung ==
=== Ziele und Prinzipien der Wurzelkanalaufbereitung ===
* Vollständige Entfernung des Pulpagewebes, von Keimen und nekrotischem Material aus allen Kanälen
* Erhaltung der Integrität des periapikalen Gewebes oder Schaffen der Voraussetzung zur Ausheilung bereits existierender periapikaler [[Läsion]]en
* Aufbereitung exakt bis zum [[Endodontischer Apex|endodontischen Apex]]
* Allseits gleichmäßige Bearbeitung der Kanalwände ohne Formveränderung des Kanals und ohne übermäßige Schwächung der Wurzel
* Formgebung zur Erleichterung und Optimierung der definitiven Füllung<ref>modifiziert nach {{Literatur
| Autor=Michael Hülsmann
| Herausgeber=Ott, R.W., H.-P. Vollmer, W. E. Krug
| Titel=Endodontie
| Sammelwerk=Klinik- und Praxisführer Zahnmedizin
| Verlag=Georg Thieme Verlag
| Ort=Stuttgart, New York
| Jahr=2003
| Seiten=194
| ISBN=3-13-131781-7
}}</ref>

=== Ziele und Prinzipien der Wurzelfüllung ===
Bakteriendichter und dauerhafter Verschluss des Wurzelkanalsystems mit nichtresorbierbaren, randständigen, röntgensichtbaren und biokompatiblen Materialien wie [[Guttapercha]]. Das Füllmaterial soll dabei gegebenenfalls auch leicht wieder entfernbar sein.<ref>{{Literatur
| Autor=Michael Hülsmann
| Herausgeber=Ott, R.W., H.-P. Vollmer, W. E. Krug
| Titel=Endodontie
| Sammelwerk=Klinik- und Praxisführer Zahnmedizin
| Verlag=Georg Thieme Verlag
| Ort=Stuttgart, New York
| Jahr=2003
| Seiten=201 f
| ISBN=3-13-131781-7
}}</ref>

== Praktische Durchführung ==
[[Datei:Root Canal Illustration Molar.svg|mini|Schritte der Wurzelkanalbehandlung]]
[[Datei:Misc endo instruments 25.jpg|mini|Wurzelkanalinstrumente, von links: [[Henri Lentulo|Lentulo]] (Wurzelfüller), Reamer, K-Feile, [[Hedströmfeile]], alle ISO-Größe 25]]

=== Zugangskavität ===
Nach ggf. Anlegen von [[Kofferdam]] wird zunächst ein Zugang zum Kanalsystem geschaffen. Dieser muss einerseits groß genug sein, um die Behandlung unter guter Sicht durchführen zu können, andererseits aber auch nicht zu groß, um den unnötigen Verlust von gesunder Zahnsubstanz zu vermeiden.

=== Reinigung ===
Nach einer [[Lokalanästhesie (Zahnmedizin)|Lokalanästhesie]] erfolgt die Längenbestimmung des Wurzelkanals oder der -kanäle (anhand eines [[Röntgen]]einzelbilds in Verbindung mit speziellen Messnadeln oder auf elektrischem Weg durch [[Endometrie]]). Anschließend werden die Kanäle mit Handfeilen oder maschinell angetriebenen [[Rotierende zahnärztliche Instrumente|rotierenden Instrumenten]] [[Konus|konisch]] erweitert („aufbereitet“). Durch Spülungen mit verschiedenen Lösungen wie z. B.: [[Natriumhypochlorit|NaOCl]], [[Wasserstoffperoxid|3%ige H2O2 Lösung]], [[Ethylendiamintetraacetat|EDTA]] oder [[Chlorhexidin|CHX]], werden Verunreinigungen aus den Kanälen entfernt, die Schmierschicht beseitigt und [[Mikroorganismus|Mikroorganismen]] bekämpft. Mittels Laser kann vor der Abfüllung der Kanäle zusätzlich zu den üblich verwendeten Spüllösungen eine Desinfektion erfolgen. Die Spüllösungen können durch Ultraschall aktiviert werden, um die Wirkung zu verstärken. Auf diese Weise können auch Kanalverzweigungen und infizierte [[Dentin]]bereiche desinfiziert werden, die einer instrumentellen Aufbereitung nicht zugänglich sind. Auf Endodontie spezialisierte Zahnärzte verwenden bei der Wurzelkanalbehandlung ein Operationsmikroskop, das mit seiner zusätzlichen Lichtquelle mit koaxialem Licht und der Vergrößerung das Auffinden und Betrachten der Kanaleingänge erleichtert.

=== Ausformung ===
Die Wurzelkanalinstrumente dienen neben dem Dentinabtrag (im Sinne einer Reinigung) vorrangig zur Formgebung der Wurzelkanalhohlräume. Die Instrumente schaffen durch die Bearbeitung der Wurzelkanalwände Platz, um die [[Effektivität]] der Spüllösungen zu verbessern und um ein definiertes Profil zum vorhersehbaren Verschluss zu präparieren.

=== Füllung ===
[[Datei:Lentulo-6 s.JPG|mini|60px|Wurzelfüller nach [[Henri Lentulo|Lentulo]]]]
Nach der Reinigung und Ausformung der Wurzelkanäle werden die Hohlräume gefüllt. Dies erfolgt überwiegend mit [[Guttapercha]] und einem Dichtzement, einem sogenannten Versiegler (engl. „[[Sealer]]“). Die Wurzelfüllung sollte möglichst viel Guttapercha und möglichst wenig Sealer enthalten, weil die Guttapercha das biokompatiblere und stabilere Material darstellt.

Sollte keine sofortige Wurzelfüllung möglich sein, erfolgt zunächst eine medikamentöse Einlage. Dabei wird meistens ein Calciumhydroxid-Präparat<ref>Peter H. A. Guldener, Kaare Langeland: ''Endodontologie'', Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, New York 1982, ISBN 3-13-610001-8, S. 203 ff.</ref>, seltener ein Kortison-Antibiotikum-Präparat<ref>Peter H. A. Guldener, Kaare Langeland: ''Endodontologie'', Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, New York 1982, ISBN 3-13-610001-8, S. 266.</ref> verwendet.<ref>{{Literatur
| Autor=Michael Hülsmann
| Herausgeber=Ott, R.W., H.-P. Vollmer, W. E. Krug
| Titel=Endodontie
| Sammelwerk=Klinik- und Praxisführer Zahnmedizin
| Verlag=Georg Thieme Verlag
| Ort=Stuttgart, New York
| Jahr=2003
| Seiten=200 f
| ISBN=3-13-131781-7
}}</ref> In diesen Fällen werden die Wurzelkanäle erst in einer weiteren Behandlungssitzung endgültig verschlossen.

Die Wurzelfüllung kann klassisch mittels eines Zements und eines Guttaperchastifts erfolgen (Ein-Stift-Methode) oder mittels lateraler Kondensation, wo zusätzlich noch weitere Guttaperchastifte eine dichtere Wurzelfüllung ermöglichen. Es gibt des Weiteren die Möglichkeit mittels thermischer Wurzelfüllungstechniken den Zahn abzufüllen. Dabei wird ein Guttaperchastift erwärmt und dann in den Kanal eingebracht, so dass dadurch die Möglichkeit besteht, durch Verflüssigung des Materials in die Aufästelung des Wurzelkanals an der Wurzelspitze in die kleinen Lumen einzudringen. Hier kann es zu einem Herauspressen des Sealermaterials um die Wurzelspitze kommen (Puff). Zudem besteht die Möglichkeit, einen Stift zuerst einzubringen und diesen dann im Kanal zu erwärmen und abzutrennen (sogenannter Downpack) und den Rest des Kanals mit flüssiger Guttapercha (Backfill) aufzufüllen. Für die zuletzt genannte Technik ist ein Operationsmikroskop zur besseren Sicht von Vorteil. Zusätzlich bietet das Operationsmikroskop die Möglichkeit, zusätzliche kleinere Kanäle im Zahn aufzufinden oder Perforationen im Kanal mit besonderen Materialien zu decken.

=== Beispiel ===
Der Ablauf einer Wurzelkanalbehandlung am [[Zahn#Zahlencode der Zähne|Zahn 17]]
<gallery heights="100%">
ZMO0582-R01.jpg|Röntgenaufnahme vor Wurzelkanalbehandlung
ZMO0582-026.jpg|Zahn eröffnet, Pulpa soll entfernt werden
ZMO0582-027.jpg|Pulpa exstirpiert
ZMO0582-R02.jpg|Messaufnahme
ZMO0582-028.jpg|Drei Kanäle aufbereitet und ausgeformt
ZMO0582-029.jpg|Oft haben obere Molaren allerdings vier Kanäle
ZMO0582-030.jpg|Alle vier Kanäle abgefüllt
ZMO0582-R03.jpg|Kontrollaufnahme nach Wurzelkanalbehandlung
ZMO0582-032.jpg|Deckfüllung
ZMO0582-R04.jpg|Kontrollaufnahme nach 20 Monaten
</gallery>

== Mögliche Komplikationen ==
[[Datei:Dental x-rays 2010 pd 009.JPG|mini|Wurzelfraktur zwei Jahre nach einer Wurzelkanalbehandlung]]
Komplikationen bei Wurzelkanalbehandlungen können verursacht werden durch:
* unzugängliche Kanalabschnitte (Verlegung des Kanallumens durch [[Dentikel]], starke Krümmung der Wurzel, Verzweigungen),
* abgebrochene Instrumente,
* besonders hartnäckige Mikroorganismen wie etwa ''[[Enterococcus faecalis]]'' oder ''[[Candida albicans]]'', die bis zu 0,4 mm tief in [[Dentin]]tubuli eindringen und als Monoinfektion überleben können,
* eine zusätzliche [[Zahnhalteapparat|parodontale]] Schädigung des Zahnes,
* [[Via falsa]] („falscher Weg“) – iatrogene (vom Arzt verursachte) [[Perforation]] der Wurzel oder
* [[Knochenbruch|Frakturen]] der Wurzel.
In manchen Fällen ist ergänzend eine ''[[Wurzelspitzenresektion]]'' mit ''retrograder Wurzelfüllung'' indiziert. Alternativ kann eine [[Revision (Medizin)|Revision]] der Wurzelkanalbehandlung angebracht sein, der im Regelfall der Vorzug vor einer Wurzelspitzenresektion gegeben werden sollte.<ref>{{Literatur
| Autor=Michael Hülsmann
| Herausgeber=Ott, R.W., H.-P. Vollmer, W. E. Krug
| Titel=Endodontie
| Sammelwerk=Klinik- und Praxisführer Zahnmedizin
| Verlag=Georg Thieme Verlag
| Ort=Stuttgart, New York
| Jahr=2003
| Seiten=205
| ISBN=3-13-131781-7
}}</ref>

:''siehe ausführlicher:'' Alternativen zur [[Wurzelspitzenresektion#Alternativen|Wurzelspitzenresektion]]

== Krankenversicherungsrechtliche Aspekte ==
In Deutschland wurden zum 1. Januar 2004 die Kassenrichtlinien zur Wurzelkanalbehandlung geändert. Eine Wurzelkanalbehandlung kann vom [[Zahnarzt]] nur noch dann zu Lasten der [[Krankenkassen]] erbracht werden, wenn für den jeweiligen Zahn die Richtlinien des [[Gemeinsamer Bundesausschuss|Gemeinsamen Bundesausschusses]] (G-BA) erfüllt sind.<ref>[https://www.g-ba.de/downloads/62-492-78/RL-Z_Behandlung_2006-03-01.pdf Richtlinien des Gemeinsamen Bundesausschusses für eine ausreichende, zweckmäßige und wirtschaftliche vertragszahnärztliche Versorgung vom 1. März 2006]</ref> Endodontische Behandlungen von Zähnen, die nicht diesen Richtlinien entsprechen, können mit dem gesetzlich versicherten Patienten auf dessen Wunsch privat nach der [[Gebührenordnung für Zahnärzte]] (GOZ) vereinbart werden.

Die Wurzelkanalbehandlung an [[Molar (Zahn)|Molaren]] ist in der Regel angezeigt, wenn
* damit eine geschlossene Zahnreihe erhalten werden kann,
* eine einseitige Freiendsituation vermieden wird,
* der Erhalt von funktionstüchtigem Zahnersatz nur dadurch möglich wird.

Darüber hinaus grenzen die Richtlinien des G-BA die vertragszahnärztliche Wurzelkanalbehandlung weiter ein.<ref>[http://www.bema-goz.de/kommentar/leseproben/KCH-35.pdf BEMA-Richtlinien] (Auszug; PDF; 480 kB)</ref>

''9.1 Eine Behandlung im Rahmen der vertragszahnärztlichen Versorgung ist nur dann angezeigt, wenn die Aufbereitbarkeit und Möglichkeit der Füllung des Wurzelkanals bis bzw. bis nahe an die Wurzelspitze gegeben sind.''

''9.4 Bei pulpentoten Zähnen mit im Röntgenbild diagnostizierter pathologischer Veränderung an der Wurzelspitze ist bei der Prognose kritisch zu überprüfen, ob der Versuch der Erhaltung des Zahnes durch konservierende oder konservierend-chirurgische Behandlung unternommen wird. Für die Therapie von Zähnen mit Wurzelkanalfüllungen und apikaler Veränderung sind primär chirurgische Maßnahmen angezeigt.''

''9.5 Bei kombinierten parodontalen und endodontischen Läsionen ist die Erhaltung der Zähne im Hinblick auf die parodontale und endodontische Prognose kritisch zu prüfen.''

''10. In der Regel ist die Entfernung eines Zahnes angezeigt, wenn er nach den in diesen Richtlinien beschriebenen Kriterien nicht erhaltungsfähig ist. Ein Zahn, der nach diesen Richtlinien nicht erhaltungswürdig ist, soll entfernt werden. Eine andere Behandlung von nicht erhaltungswürdigen Zähnen ist kein Bestandteil der vertragszahnärztlichen Versorgung.''

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Bewertungsmaßstab zahnärztlicher Leistungen#Teil 1 - Konservierende und chirurgische Leistungen und Röntgenleistungen|Bewertungsmaßstab zahnärztlicher Leistungen, BEMA-Nummern 28, 32 und 35]]
* [http://www.zahnarztpreise.net/kosten-einer-wurzelkanalbehandlung/ Verbraucherinformationen zu den Kosten einer Wurzelkanalbehandlung]

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

== Weblinks ==
{{Commonscat|Root canal}}
* [http://www.dgzmk.de/index.php?lnk=m034X Wissenschaftliche Stellungnahmen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Zahn-, Mund- und Kieferheilkunde, darunter mehrere zur konservierenden Zahnheilkunde und zu endodontischen Themen]
* [http://portal.dimdi.de/de/hta/hta_berichte/hta109_bericht_de.pdf Technologiefolgenbericht zur Wurzelkanalbehandlung an Molaren (incl. Erfolgsraten)] (PDF-Datei; 607 kB)
* [http://www.dgendo.de/ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Endodontie]
* [http://www.oegendo.at/patienten/index.html Österreichische Gesellschaft für Endodontie]
* [http://www.agz-rnk.de/agz/content/3/3_4/3_4_2/3_4_2_2/3_4_2_2_1/index.php Wurzelkanalbehandlung]

{{Gesundheitshinweis}}

[[Kategorie:Endodontie]]

[[en:Endodontic therapy]]
[[ru:Перепломбировка каналов зуба]]

Boleslaw Michailowitsch Markewitsch

2014-04-03T17:51:55Z

Languagehat: corrected translation

{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2014}}
{{Infobox writer 
| image = Boleslav Mikhailovich Markevich.jpg
| imagesize = 240px
| caption =
| birth_date = 1822
| birth_place = [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire]]
| death_date = {{BirthDeathAge||1822|||1884|11|18}}
| death_place = Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
}}

'''Boleslav Mikhailovich Markevich''' ({{lang-ru|link=no|Болеслав Михайлович Маркевич}}; 1822 – November 6 (18) 1884) was a [[Russians|Russian]] writer, essayist, journalist, and [[literary critic]] of [[Poles|Polish]] origin; author of a number of popular novels, including: ''Marina of the Aluy Rog'' (1873), ''A Quarter of a Century Ago'' (1878), ''The Turning Point'' (1881) and ''The Void'' (1884, unfinished).<ref name="rulex">{{cite web | author = Vengerov, S.| date = | url = http://www.rulex.ru/01130234.htm| title = Маркевич, Б.М.| publisher = Русский биографический словарь| accessdate = October 10, 2011}}</ref>

==Biography==
Boleslav Markevich was born and died in [[Saint Petersburg]], a member of a noble Russian family of [[Poles|Polish]] descent. He spent his early years in [[Kiev]] and [[Volhynian Governorate|Volynskaya gubernia]] and received good home education. In 1836 the family moved to [[Odessa]] where the boy studied first in the [[Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu|Richelieu Lyceum]]'s gymnasium, then at the Lyceum's law faculty.<ref>Болеслав Маркевич. Из прожитых дней. Полно. собр. соч., Сп.-Б., 1885, т.11, стр. 372</ref> It was there that he first started to write poetry, critical essays and translations from French, some of which were published by the ''Odessky vestnik'' newspaper.<ref>И.Михневич. Сорокалетие Ришельевского лицея. Одесса, 1857, стр. 192.</ref>

Markevich started his state official career in Saint Petersburg, the in 1843 he moved to Moscow to join the local governor [[Arseny Zakrevsky]]'s office. He became a stalwart at both Petersburg and Moscow's aristocracy saloons and, reportedly, had immense success, with women especially, due to good looks,<ref>Панаева А.Я. (Головачева). Воспоминания. М., 1972, стр.99.</ref> sense of humour, penchant for showmanship and a considerable dramatic talent.<ref>Загоскин С.М. Воспоминания. Исторический вестник. 1900. №7, стр.50.</ref><ref>Валуев, П.А. Дневник. Русская старина. 1891. №8, стр. 288.</ref>

Markevich, who was close to government circles and was among the most ardent of [[Mikhail Katkov]]'s right-wing allies, caused much controversy by depicting real life political and popular figures in his prose, the latter serving as a source of rumours, consumed avidly by the public. Praised by conservatives (among them [[Konstantin Leontiev]] who compared his trilogy to ''[[War and Peace]]'' by [[Leo Tolstoy]])<ref name="mayorova"/> and hated by revolutionary democrats (whom he made a point to paint in the blackest possible tones, insisting that for the 'progressivist' disease "the whip is the best cure").<ref name="mayorova"/> Markevich made his mark in the history of 19th century Russian literature as a tendentious novelist, a friend of Katkov and the center of at least two scandals, the first caused by his highly publicised row with [[Ivan Turgenev]], the second having to do with alleged bribery (which he denied). Markevich's literary gift, though, has never been doubted; his books, which were widely read in Russia (notably by members of the monarch's family) and translated into many languages, contain, according to the 1990 Russian Writers dictionary, priceless documentary material and are still in need of objective analysis.<ref name="mayorova">{{cite web | author = Майорова, О.| date = | url = http://az.lib.ru/m/markewich_b_m/text_0010.shtml| title = Маркевич, Болеслав Михайлович| publisher = Русские писатели". Биобиблиографический словарь. | accessdate = October 10, 2011}}</ref>

== Select works ==
* ''Marina from Aly Rog'' (Марина из Алого Рога, 1873)
* ''Two Masks'' (Две маски, 1874, novelet)
* ''A Quarter of a Century Ago'' (Четверть века назад, 1878, 1st part of the trilogy)
* ''Princess Tata'' (Принцесса Тата, 1879, novelet)
* ''The Forester'' (Лесник, 1880, novelet)
* ''The Turning Point'' (Перелом, 1881, 2nd part of the trilogy)
* ''The Void'' (Бездна, 1884, 3rd part of the trilogy, unfinished).

=== Compilations ===
* ''Short Stories and Novellas'' (1883, Saint Petersburg)
* ''The Complete Markevich'' in 11 volumes (1885, Saint Petersburg; 1912, second edition, Moscow).<ref name="smolin">{{cite web | author = Смолин, Михаил| date = | url =http://www.fondiv.ru/articles/6/282/| title= Забытый консервативный писатель – Болеслав Маркевич | publisher = www.fondiv.ru| accessdate= October 10, 2011}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Markevich, Boleslav Mikhailovich
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Russian novelis and essayist
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1822
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Saint Petersburg]], Russia
| DATE OF DEATH = November 18, 1884
| PLACE OF DEATH = Saint Petersburg, Russia
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Markevich, Boleslav Mikhailovich}}
[[Category:Russian journalists]]
[[Category:Russian writers]]
[[Category:Russian essayists]]
[[Category:Russian literary critics]]
[[Category:Russian people of Polish descent]]
[[Category:People from Saint Petersburg]]
[[Category:1822 births]]
[[Category:1884 deaths]]

Bestuschew-Kurse

2013-05-18T20:35:12Z

Languagehat: added mention of St. Petersburg

[[File:Laboratory of Bestuzhev courses.jpg|thumb|Students at the chemistry laboratory]]
The '''Bestuzhev Courses''' (Бестужевские курсы) in [[St. Petersburg]] were the largest and most prominent women's higher education institution in [[Imperial Russia]].<ref>Rochelle Goldberg Ruthchild. ''Equality and Revolution: Women's Rights in the Russian Empire, 1905-1917''. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-8229-6066-9. Page 56.</ref>

The institute opened its doors in 1878. It was named after [[Konstantin Bestuzhev-Ryumin]], the first director. Other professors included [[Baudouin de Courtenay]], [[Alexander Borodin]], [[Faddei Zielinski]], [[Dmitry Mendeleyev]], [[Ivan Sechenov]], and [[Sergey Platonov]]. [[Nadezhda Krupskaya]] and [[Maria Piłsudska]] were among the graduates. The courses occupied a purpose-built edifice on [[Vasilievsky Island]].

After the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] they were reorganized as the Third University of Petrograd, which was merged into the [[Petrograd University]] in September 1919.<ref>[http://www.encspb.ru/article.php?kod=2804011750 The encyclopaedia of St. Petersburg]</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{commonscat-inline|Bestuzhev courses}}

{{Russia-university-stub}}

[[Category:Education in Russia]]
[[Category:Former women's universities and colleges]]
[[Category:History of Saint Petersburg]]
[[Category:1878 establishments in Russia]]
[[Category:1918 disestablishments]]

Miriquidi

2012-03-26T20:57:14Z

Languagehat: added English Wiki link

Als '''Miriquidi''' werden in mehreren früh- und hochmittelalterlichen Quellen fiktionale oder reale Waldgebiete bezeichnet. In verschiedenen [[Germanische Sprachen|germanischen Sprachen]] bedeutet dies "dunkler oder schwarzer Wald". Häufig wird dieser Name auf den ehemals das [[Erzgebirge]] und [[Erzgebirgsvorland]] bedeckenden [[Urwald]] bezogen, insbesondere in der heimatkundlichen Forschung, obwohl die wenigen zeitgenössischen Quellen keine Aussage zur Lokalisierung eines so benannten Waldes im Gebiet zwischen Saale und Elbe zulassen.

== Quellen ==

=== Germanische Heldenlieder und die Edda ===

Der Name ''Myrkvidr'' kommt in mehreren germanischen Heldenliedern und in der Edda-Erzählung [[Lokasenna]] („Lokis Zankreden“) vor. In den Tagen des mythischen Weltendes [[Ragnarök]] sollen [[Muspell]]s Söhne durch den entstehenden Tumult aus Myrkwid, dem im Süden liegenden Dunkelwald, hervorgeritten kommen. Der Name Myrkvidr findet sich außerdem in dem isländischen Lied ''Atlaquida in groenlezka''.

In der im 13. Jahrhundert entstandenen [[Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks konungs|Hervarar-Saga]] wird so der die [[Ostgoten]] von den [[Hunnen]] trennende Wald benannt.

=== Real existierender Wald im heutigen Mitteldeutschland ===

Lediglich an zwei Stellen kommt in den schriftlichen Quellen der Name als Bezeichnung eines konkreten Waldes im Raum zwischen Saale und Elbe vor. Ein Miriquido genannter Wald (''silva que Miriquido dicitur'') erscheint erstmals in einer Urkunde des Kaisers [[Otto II. (HRR)|Otto II.]] vom 30. August 974. Darin schenkt er auf Bitten seiner Ehefrau [[Theophanu (HRR)|Theophanu]] und [[Giselher von Magdeburg|Giselhers]], [[Bischof von Merseburg]], der bischöflichen Kirche zu [[Merseburg]] einen [[Forst]] in diesem Bistum, im [[Gau Chutizi]] und in der Grafschaft [[Gunther von Merseburg|Gunthers]] († 982) innerhalb bestimmter Grenzen zwischen den beiden Flüssen [[Saale]] und Mulde gelegen, und damit zugleich den [[Wildbann]], das heißt das alleinige Jagdrecht. Die genaue Lage wird nicht näher benannt.<ref> DD OII Nr. 90 S. 103 f. [http://mdz10.bib-bvb.de/~db/bsb00000443/images/index.html?id=00000443&nativeno=105 Online-Edition]{{dead link|date=February 2012}}: ''... donari forestum in eodem episcopatu et in comittatu Gunterii comitis et in pago Chutizi situm cum banno adpertinenti.'' ''... , insuper fideli nostro Gisilero suisque successoribus prefatum forestum inter Salam ac Mildam fluvios ac Siusili et Plisni provencias iacentem concedimus firmiterque donamus,'' ''; qualescumque venationum species in his modo sint terminis vel nutriantur seu ex magna prodecant silva que Miriquido dicitur,''</ref> Aufgrund einer zweiten Urkunde Ottos II. wurde angenommen, dass das verschenkte Waldgebiet in der Nähe von [[Zwenkau]] gelegen habe und mit dem 997 an König Otto III. geschenkten Zwenkauer Wald identisch sei, doch handelt es sich bei der zweiten Urkunde um eine spätere Fälschung.

Ein weiteres Mal erscheint der Name in der zwischen 1012 und 1018 entstandene Chronik des [[Thietmar von Merseburg]] (''in silva, quae Miriquidui dicitur''), jedoch erneut ohne weitere Angaben, die eine Lokalisierung erlauben würden.<ref>''Die Chronik des Bischofs Thietmar von Merseburg''. Hrsg. von Robert Holtzmann. Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores rerum Germanicarum Nova series 9. Weidmann, Berlin 1935. Unveränd. Nachdr. d. Aufl. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, München 1996, ISBN 3-921575-38-9. [http://mdz10.bib-bvb.de/~db/bsb00000689/images/index.html?id=00000689&nativeno=286 Online-Edition]{{dead link|date=February 2012}}: ''Huius adventum leo rugiens cauda subsequenti impedire satagens, in silva, quae Miriquidiu dicitur, montem quondam cum sagittariis prorsus intercluso omni aditu firmat.''</ref>

Spätestens am Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts wurde der Begriff Miriquidi als angeblich den Quellen entnommene Bezeichnung für den Urwald im Erzgebirgsvorland und Erzgebirge verwendet, so etwa auch von namhaften Historikern wie [[Robert Holtzmann]]. Bis heute begegnet der ''Miriquidi'' in dieser Verwendung noch häufig in heimatkundlichen Schriften und Ortschroniken. In der Geschichtswissenschaft wird eine solche, durch die Quellen nicht belegbare Lokalisierung allerdings nicht aufrechterhalten.

==Weblinks==
{{Wiktionary|Miriquidi}}

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

[[Kategorie:Waldgebiet in Sachsen]]
[[Kategorie:Waldgebiet in Europa]]
[[Kategorie:Erzgebirge]]
[[Kategorie:Sächsische Geschichte]]

[[en:Miriquidi]]
[[eo:miriquidi]]
[[no:Miriquidi]]

Paterikon

2011-11-25T22:34:00Z

Languagehat: corrected Greek spelling

{{Belege}}
Ein '''Paterikon ''' (griech.: πατερικόν; pl.: ''Paterika'') ist die Kurzform für πατεριχόν βιβλίον ("Buch des Vaters") und ein eigenes Genre der byzantinischen religiösen Literatur, in dem Aussprüche von Heiligen, Märtyrern und Kirchenoberhäuptern sowie Legenden über diese zusammengestellt werden.

Einige der ersten dieser Zusammenstellungen sind die ''Apophtegmata der Heiligen Starzen'' (Αποφθέγματα των άγίων γερόντων; auch bekannt als ''das Alphabetische Paterikon''); die ''Apophtegmata Patrum''; die ''Aussprüche der Wüstenväter''; das ''Ägyptische Paterikon'' (auch: ''Historia Monachorum in Aegypto'' oder ''Geschichte der Mönche in Ägypten'') sowie die Λαυσαϊχόν (''Historia Lausiaca'') des [[Palladios]] aus dem 4. Jahrhundert. Verschiedene Paterika wurden auch in verschiedene Sprachen übersetzt, u.a. ins Lateinische, Koptische, Armenische u.a.

In der [[Russisch-Orthodoxe_Kirche|Russischen Orthodoxen Kirche]] ist dieses Genre seit der frühesten Slawischen Literatur bekannt, wobei zuerst Übersetzungen, später auch originale Texte in verschiedenen Klöstern angefertigt wurden.

[[Kategorie:Orthodoxie]]
[[Kategorie:Byzanz (Literatur)]]
[[Kategorie:Hagiographie]]

[[en:Patericon]]
[[fr:Paterikon]]
[[pl:Pateryk]]
[[ru:Патерик]]
[[sh:Paterik]]
[[sr:Патерик]]
[[uk:Житія Святих Отців]]

Sperrsatz

2011-08-18T13:42:52Z

Languagehat: provided link to more appropriate Russian Wikipedia article

[[Datei:Emphasis typography2.png|rechts|Beispiel für Sperrsatz in Fraktur]]
Mit '''Sperrsatz''' oder '''Sperren''' bezeichnet man in der [[Typografie]] eine [[Schriftauszeichnung]] zur Hervorhebung von Textteilen durch Vergrößerung der Abstände (durch Einfügen von [[Spatium|Spatien]]) zwischen den einzelnen Buchstaben. Bei vielen [[Gebrochene Schrift|gebrochenen Schriften]] gibt es keine fetten und kursiven Schnitte, so dass der Sperrsatz die einzige dezente Art der Hervorhebung ist.

Für nicht gebrochene Schriftarten ist mit der zweiten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts die Sperrung nicht mehr gebräuchlich; sie kann aber in künstlerischen, exklusiven Werken oder zur Wiedergabe historischer Dokumente verwendet werden.

Das Gegenteil von Sperren ist [[Unterschneidung (Typografie)|Unterschneiden]].

== Regeln ==
* Leerzeichen vor und nach dem gesperrten Text werden mit gesperrt, Satzzeichen außer Punkt und Anführungszeichen ebenfalls. Beispiel:
*: Dies ist f a l s c h gesperrt, so ist es  r i c h t i g  gesperrt.
* Zahlen werden nicht gesperrt.
* Bei [[Gebrochene Schrift|gebrochenen Schriften]] werden im Deutschen die [[Ligatur (Typografie)|Zwangsligaturen]] ''ch, ck, ſt'' und ''tz'' sowie der Buchstabe ''[[ß]]'' nicht aufgelöst.<ref>Richard L. Niel: ''Satztechnisches Taschen-Lexikon''. Wien, 1925.</ref> Alle anderen Ligaturen (z. B. ''ff, fi, st'') werden aufgelöst und gesperrt:
*: [[Datei:Fraktur Sperrsatz.png|350px|Sperrsatz bei Frakturschrift]]
* Sperren erfolgt grundsätzlich mit dem [[Geviert (Typografie)|Achtelgeviert]]. Leerzeichen mit voller Breite würden eine Sperrung zu breit laufen lassen und werden nur verwendet auf Schreibmaschinen und in anderen Umgebungen, in denen nur [[Festbreitenschrift]]en verfügbar sind (z. B. Reintext-E-Mails).

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

[[Kategorie:Typografie]]

[[en:Letter-spacing]]
[[fr:Approche (typographie)]]
[[pl:Tracking]]
[[ru:Разрядка (типографика)]]
[[sv:Spärrning]]

Emily Hahn

2011-07-31T16:22:07Z

Languagehat: added link to NYT obit

'''Emily Hahn''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: {{lang|zh|項美麗}}, January 14, 1905 - February 18, 1997) was an [[United States|American]] journalist and author. Called "a forgotten American literary treasure" by ''[[The New Yorker]]'' magazine, she was the author of 52 books and more than 180 articles and stories. Her writings in the 20th century played a significant role in opening up [[Asia]] to the west.

 {{more footnotes|date=October 2009}}

== Early life ==
One of six children of a dry goods salesman and a [[free-thinking]] mother, Emily Hahn was born in [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] [[Missouri]] on January 14, 1905. Nicknamed "Mickey", she moved with her family to [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]] when she was 15. In her memoir ''No Hurry to Get Home'', she describes how being prevented from taking a chemistry class in which she was interested caused her to switch her course of study from English to Engineering at the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]]. In 1926 she was the first women to receive a degree there in Mining Engineering—despite the coolness of the administration and most of her male classmates. It was a testament to her intelligence and persistence that her lab partner grudgingly admitted, "you ain't so dumb!"

After graduation she worked briefly for an engineering company in Illinois, before traveling {{convert|2400|mi|km}} across the [[United States]] by car with a female friend, both disguised as men, and then working as a "[[Fred Harvey Company|Harvey Girl]]" tour guide in [[New Mexico]]. Later she traveled to the [[Belgian Congo]], where she worked for the [[Red Cross]], and lived with a [[pygmy]] tribe for two years, before crossing [[Central Africa]] alone on foot.

Her first book, ''Seductio ad Absurdum: The Principles and Practices of [[Seduction]]--A Beginner's Handbook'' (1930), was a tongue-in-cheek exploration of how men court women. [[Maxim Lieber]] was her literary agent, 1930-1931.

== China and Hong Kong ==
Her years in [[Shanghai]], [[China]] (from 1935 to the [[Japanese invasion of Hong Kong]] in 1941) were the most tumultuous of her life. There she became involved with prominent Shanghai figures, such as the wealthy [[Sir Victor Sassoon]], and was in the habit of taking her pet [[gibbon]], Mr. Mills, with her to dinner parties, dressed in a diaper and a minute dinner jacket.

Supporting herself as a writer for ''The New Yorker'', she lived in an apartment in Shanghai's red light district, and became romantically involved with the Chinese poet and publisher Sinmay Zau ({{zh|t=[[:zh:邵洵美|邵洵美]]|p=[[Shao Xunmei]]}}). He gave her the ''entrée'' that enabled her to write a biography of the famous [[Soong sisters]], one of whom was married to [[Sun Yat-sen]] and another to [[Chiang Kai-shek]].

Hahn frequently visited Sinmay's house, which was highly unconventional for a Western woman in the 1930s. The [[Treaty of the Bogue]] was in full effect, and Shanghai was a city divided by Chinese and Westerners at the time. Sinmay introduced her to the practice of smoking [[opium]], to which she became [[Substance use disorder|addicted]]. She later wrote, "Though I had always wanted to be an opium addict, I can't claim that as the reason I went to China."

After moving to Hong Kong, she began an affair with [[C. R. Boxer|Charles Boxer]],<ref>[http://asjapan.org/Memorial_Wall/boxer.htm asjapan.org]</ref><ref>[http://www.plumsite.com/crboxer/ plumsite]</ref> the local head of British [[MI6|army intelligence]]. According to a December 1944 [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] article, Hahn "decided that she needed the steadying influence of a baby, but doubted if she could have one. 'Nonsense!' said the unhappily-married Major Charles Boxer, 'I'll let you have one!' Carola Militia Boxer was born in Hong Kong on October 17, 1941".

When the Japanese marched into Hong Kong a few weeks later Boxer was imprisoned in a [[prisoner of war|POW]] camp, and Hahn was brought in for questioning. "Why?" screamed the Japanese Chief of Gendarmes, "why ... you have baby with Major Boxer?" "Because I'm a bad girl," she quipped. Fortunately for her, the Japanese respected Boxer's record of wily diplomacy. 

As Hahn recounted in her book ''China to Me'' (1944), she was forced to give Japanese officials English lessons in return for food, and once slapped the Japanese Chief of Intelligence in the face. He came back to see her the day before she was repatriated in 1943 and slapped her back. 

''China to Me'' was an instant hit with the public. According to [[Roger Angell]] of ''The New Yorker'', Hahn "was, in truth, something rare: a woman deeply, almost domestically, at home in the world. Driven by curiosity and energy, she went there and did that, and then wrote about it without fuss."<ref>{{cite book|last=Angell|first=Roger|title=Let Me Finish|isbn=9780151013500|publisher=Harcourt|year=2006|page=242}}</ref>

==England, and return to the US==
In 1945 she married Boxer who, during the time he was interned by the Japanese, had been reported by American news media to have been beheaded; their reunion—whose love story had been reported faithfully in Hahn's published letters—made headlines throughout the United States. They settled in [[Dorset]], England at "Conygar", the {{convert|48|acre|m2|sing=on}} estate Boxer had inherited, and in 1948 had a second daughter, [[Amanda Boxer]] (now a stage and television actress in [[London]]).

Finding family life too constraining, however, in 1950 Hahn took an apartment in [[New York City]], and visited her husband and children from time to time in England. She continued to write articles for ''The New Yorker'', as well as biographies of [[Aphra Behn]], [[James Brooke]], [[Fanny Burney]], [[Chiang Kai-Shek]], [[D. H. Lawrence]] and [[Mabel Dodge Luhan]]. According to biographer Ken Cuthbertson, while her books were favorably reviewed, "her versatility, which enabled her to write authoritatively on almost any subject, befuddled her publishers who seemed at a loss as to how to promote or market an Emily Hahn book. She did not fit into any of the usual categories" because she "moved effortlessly ... from genre to genre."

In 1978 she published ''Look Who's Talking'', which dealt with the controversial subject of animal-human communication (her personal favorite among her non-fiction books); she wrote her last book ''Eve and the Apes'' in 1988 when she was in her eighties.

Hahn reportedly went into her office at ''The New Yorker'' daily, until just a few months before she died on February 18, 1997 at the age of 92, following complications from surgery for a shattered [[femur]].

"Chances are, your grandmother didn't smoke cigars and let you hold wild role-playing parties in her apartment", said her granddaughter Alfia Vecchio Wallace in her affectionate eulogy of Hahn. "Chances are that she didn't teach you [[Swahili language|Swahili]] obscenities. Chances are that when she took you to the zoo, she didn't start whooping passionately at the top her lungs as you passed the [[gibbon]] cage. Sadly for you ... your grandmother was not Emily Hahn."

In 1998, Canadian author Ken Cuthbertson published the biography ''Nobody Said Not to Go: The Life, Loves, and Adventures of Emily Hahn''. "Nobody said not to go" was one of her characteristic phrases.

In 2005 ''Xiang Meili'' (the name given to Hahn by Sinmay) was published in China. It looks back at the life and loves of Hahn in the Shanghai of the 1930s.

*''Seductio ad Absurdum: The Principles and Practices of Seduction—A Beginner's Handbook'' (1930)
*''Beginner's Luck'' (1931)
*''Congo Solo: Misadventures Two Degree North'' (1933)
*''With Naked Foot (1934)''
*''Affair'' (1935)
*''Steps of the Sun'' (1940)
*''The Soong Sisters'' (1941, 1970)
*''Mr. Pan'' (1942)
*''China to Me: A Partial Autobiography'' (1944, 1975, 1988)
*''Hong Kong Holiday'' (1946)
*''China: A to Z'' (1946)
*''The Picture Story of China'' (1946)
*''Raffles of Singapore'' (1946)
*''Miss Jill'' (1947) also as ''House in Shanghai'' (1958)
*''England to Me'' (1949)
*''A Degree of Prudery: A Biography of Fanny Burney'' (1950)
*''Purple Passage: A Novel About a Lady Both Famous and Fantastic'' (1950) (published in the UK as ''Aphra Behn'' (1951))
*''Francie'' (1951)
*''Love Conquers Nothing: A Glandular History of Civilization'' (1952)
*''Francie Again'' (1953)
*''Mary, Queen of Scots'' (1953)
*''James Brooke of Sarawak: A Biography of Sir James Brooke'' (1953)
*''Meet the British'' (with Charles Roetter and Harford Thomas) (1953)
*''The First Book of India'' (1955)
*''Chiang Kai-shek: An Unauthorized Biography'' (1955)
*''Francie Comes Home'' (1956)
*''Spousery'' (1956)
*''Diamond: The Spectacular Story of the Earth's Greatest Treasure and Man's Greatest Greed'' (1956)
*''Leonardo da Vinci'' (1956)
*''Kissing Cousins'' (1958)
*''The Tiger House Party: The Last Days of the Maharajas'' (1959)
*''Aboab: First Rabbi of the Americas'' (1959)
*''Around the World With Nellie Bly'' (1959)
*''June Finds a Way'' (1960)
*''China Only Yesterday, 1850-1950: A Century of Change'' (1963)
*''Indo'' (1963)
*''Africa to Me'' (1964)
*''Romantic Rebels: An Informal History of Bohemianism in America'' (1967)
*''Animal Gardens'' (1967)
*''The Cooking of China'' (1968)
*''Recipes: Chinese Cooking'' (1968)
*''Times and Places'' (1970, reissued as ''No Hurry to Get Home'' 2000)
*''Breath of God: A Book About Angels, Demons, Familiars, Elementals and Spirits'' (1971)
*''Fractured Emerald: Ireland'' (1971)
*''On the Side of the Apes: A New look at the Primates, the Men Who Study Them and What They Have Learned'' (1971)
*''Once Upon A Pedestal'' (1974)
*''Lorenzo: D. H. Lawrence and the Women Who Loved Him'' (1975)
*''Mabel: A Biography of Mabel Dodge Luhan'' (1977)
*''Look Who's Talking! New Discoveries in Animal Communications'' (1978)
*''Love of Gold'' (1980)
*''The Islands: America's Imperial Adventures in the Philippines'' (1981)
*''Eve and the Apes'' (1988)

== External links ==
*[http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/19/arts/emily-hahn-chronicler-of-her-own-exploits-dies-at-92.html ''New York Times'' obituary]

==References==
Ken Cuthbertson, ''Nobody Said Not to Go: The Life, Loves, and Adventures of Emily Hahn'' (Boston: Faber and Faber, 1998). ISBN 057119950X

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Hahn, Emily
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = January 14, 1905
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = February 18, 1997
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hahn, Emily}}
[[Category:American travel writers]]
[[Category:American memoirists]]
[[Category:American short story writers]]
[[Category:American children's writers]]
[[Category:American biographers]]
[[Category:American novelists]]
[[Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni]]
[[Category:1905 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:American expatriates in China]]

[[fi:Emily Hahn]]

Garip Adaları

2011-06-12T20:53:16Z

Languagehat: added links to English, Turkish Wikis

'''Garip Adaları''' ({{ELSneu2|Αργινούσσες}}, ''Arginousses'') ist der Name einer kleinen, zur [[Türkei]] gehörenden Inselgruppe in der [[Ägäisches Meer|Ägäis]]. Sie liegt vor der [[Kleinasien|kleinasiatischen]] Küste östlich der [[Griechenland|griechischen]] Insel [[Lesbos]]. Die Gruppe besteht aus den Inseln Garip und Kalem sowie einer wesentlich kleineren dritten Insel westlich von Garip.

In der Antike wurden die Inseln als '''Arginusen''' ({{ELSalt2|Ἀργινούσσαι}}, ''Arginoussai'') bezeichnet; in der [[Schlacht bei den Arginusen]] ([[406 v. Chr.]]) des [[Peloponnesischer Krieg|Peloponnesischen Krieges]] besiegten die Athener die Flotte der Spartaner.

{{Coordinate|article=DMS |NS=39.005278 |EW=26.790278 |type=isle |pop=13000 |dim=2000 |region=TR-35 }}

[[Kategorie:Inselgruppe (Ägäisches Meer)]]
[[Kategorie:Inselgruppe (Asien)]]
[[Kategorie:Geographie (Türkei)]]

[[en:Garip Island]]
[[fr:Îles Arginuses]]
[[tr:Garip Adası]]

Moshe Lewin (Historiker)

2011-06-04T13:14:32Z

Languagehat: Wikified first paragraph

[[File:Lewin-Misha.jpg|thumb|upright|Historian Misha Lewin as he appeared in the middle 1980s.]]

'''Moshe Lewin''' (also known as "Misha") (1921 - August 14, 2010) was a scholar of [[History of Russia|Russian]] and [[History of the Soviet Union|Soviet history]]; he was a major figure in the revisionist school of Soviet studies which emerged in the 1960s. His surname is pronounced "Luh-VENE".

==Biography==
===Early years===

Moshe Lewin was born in 1921 in [[Wilno]], [[Poland]] (now [[Vilnius]], [[Lithuania]]), the son of ethnic [[Jewish]] parents who died in the [[Holocaust]]. Lewin lived in Poland for the first 20 years of his life, fleeing to the [[Soviet Union]] in June 1941 just ahead of the invading [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] army.<ref name="LampertX">Nick Lampert, "Preface" to Nick Lampert and Gabor Rittersporn, ''Stalinism: Its Nature and Aftermath: Essays in Honour of Moshe Lewin.'' Basingstoke, England: Macmillan, 1992; pg. x.</ref> For the next two years, Lewin worked as a [[collective farm]] worker and as a [[blast furnace]] operator in a metallurgical factory.<ref name="LampertX" />

In the summer of 1943, Lewin enlisted in the [[Soviet army]]. He was sent to officers' training school and was promoted on the last day of the [[World War II|war]].<ref name="LampertX" />

In 1946, Lewin returned to Poland before emigrated to [[France]]. A believer in [[Labor Zionism]] from his youth, in 1951 Lewin emigrated again, this time to [[Israel]], where he worked for a time on a [[kibbutz]] and as a [[journalist]] before eventually returning to school.<ref name="LampertX" /> Lewin received his [[Bachelor of Arts]] from [[Tel Aviv University]], in [[Israel]] in 1961.<ref name="Register">Kaiyi Chen, [http://www.archives.upenn.edu/faids/upt/upt50/lewinm.html Finding Aid for the Moshe Lewin Papers], University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1998.</ref>

In 1961, Lewin received a research scholarship to study at the [[Sorbonne]] in [[Paris]], where he studied the [[collectivization]] of Soviet agrculture.<ref name="LampertXI">Nick Lampert, "Preface," pg. xi.</ref> In 1964, Lewin was awarded his [[Ph.D]] from the Sorbonne.<ref name="Register" />

===Academic career===

Newly credentialed with his doctorate degree, Lewin was named Director of Study at l'[[École des hautes études]], Paris, where he served from 1965 to 1966.<ref name="Register" /> During this time he converted his Sorbonne dissertation into a book manuscript, which was published in 1966 in French and translated into English in 1968 as ''Russian Peasants and Soviet Power.''

This [[monograph]] dealt with the Soviet grain procurement crisis of 1928 and the associated political battle, a bitter fight which resulted in a decision to forcibly [[collectivization|collectivize]] Soviet agriculture. In this work, Lewin emphasized collectivization as a practical (albeit extreme) solution to a real world problem facing the Soviet regime, one out of several potential solutions to a crisis situation. Rather than an inevitable and predestined action, collectivization was cast as a brutal manifestation of ''[[realpolitik]]'' — a view in marked contrast to the traditionalist [[historiography]] of the day. ''Russian Peasants and Soviet Power'' was initially projected as the first part of a long study of the [[social history]] of Soviet Russia down to 1934,<ref>Moshe Lewin, "Author's Foreword" to ''Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: A Study of Collectivization.'' London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968; pg. 11.</ref> although the project seems to have been abandoned, perhaps as duplicative of the work of British historians [[E.H. Carr]] and [[Robert William Davies|R.W. Davies]].

Lewin's other 1968 book, ''Lenin's Last Struggle,'' was an extended essay charting the evolution of [[V.I. Lenin|Lenin's]] thinking about the growing bureaucracy of Soviet Russia. In it, Lewin additionally chronicled the politics of the post-Lenin succession struggle during the time of Lenin's final illness, emphasizing "lost" alternatives to the actual path of historical historical development. In this Lewin again presented a perspective which again stood in marked contrast to the voluminous writings of the [[totalitarianism|totalitarianist school]] that dominated academia, which cast the USSR as a monolithic and fundamentally unchanging structure.

From 1967 to 1968, Lewin was a senior fellow at [[Columbia University]] in [[New York City]].<ref name="Register" /> Upon completion of his Columbia fellowship, Lewin took a post as a research professor at [[Birmingham University]], [[England]] from 1968 until 1978.<ref name="Register" /> During this interval he published ''Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates: From Bukharin to the Modern Reformers,'' which, along with the work of [[Princeton University]] professor [[Stephen F. Cohen]], helped to restore the name and ideas of [[Nikolai Bukharin]] to the academic debate concerning the Soviet 1920s. Lewin noted that many of the same criticisms which Bukharin had leveled against Stalin during the political battles of 1928 and 1929 in the USSR were later "adopted by current reformers as their own," thereby adding a contemporary importance to the study of the historical past.<ref>Moshe Lewin, "Introduction" to ''Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates: From Bukharin to the Modern Reformers.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974; pg. xiii.</ref>

After leaving Birmingham, Lewin returned to the United States, where he assumed a professorship at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], where he remained until his retirement in 1995.<ref name="Register" />

Although regarded as a doyen of [[social history]] and a godfather of the so-called "[[historical revisionism|revisionist]]" movement of young social historians who came to the fore in the field of Soviet studies during the decades of the 1970s and 1980s, Lewin's own work largely centered on the relationship between [[political history|high politics]] and economic policy. One notable exception came with the publication in 1985 of a collection of Lewin's essays and lectures entitled ''The Making of the Soviet System.'' In this book, Lewin visited a number of key topics of social history such as rural social [[mores]], popular [[religion]], [[customary law]] in rural society, the social structure of the Russian peasantry, and social relations within Soviet industry. Lewin emerged as a critic of the politicized "What are they up to?" orientation of Soviet studies in favor of a more apolitical perspective attempting to answer the question "What makes the Russians tick?"<ref>Moshe Lewin, "Introduction" to ''The Making of the Soviet System: Essays in the Social History of Interwar Russia.'' New York: Pantheon, 1985; pp. 5-6.</ref>

Lewin's final works attempted to analyze the rise of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and his brief efforts at top-down reform of the communist system and to put the rise and fall of Soviet communism into historical perspective. In his final book, ''The Soviet Century,'' published in 2005, Lewin argued that the political and economic system of the former Soviet Union constituted a sort of "bureaucratic absolutism" akin to the [[Prussia|Prussian]] bureaucratic monarchy of the 18th Century which had "ceased to accomplish the task it had once been capable of performing" and therefore given way.<ref>Moshe Lewin, ''The Soviet Century.'' London: Verso, 2005; pg. 383.</ref>

===Death and legacy===

Moshe Lewin died August 14, 2010 in [[Paris]].

In 1992, Lewin was honored with a ''[[Festschrift]]'' edited by historians Nick Lampert and Gabor Rittersporn entitled ''Stalinism: Its Nature and Aftermath: Essays in Honour of Moshe Lewin.''<ref>Nick Lampert and Gabor Rittersporn, ''Stalinism: Its Nature and Aftermath: Essays in Honour of Moshe Lewin.'' Basingstoke, England: Macmillan, 1992. Published in the United States by M.E. Sharpe.</ref> Contributors to the volume included economic historians [[Alec Nove]] and [[R.W. Davies]] as well as key social historians such as [[Lewis Siegelbaum]] and [[Ronald Grigor Suny]], among others.

In the Lewin ''Festschrift,'' co-editor Lampert summarized Lewin's work in the following manner:

<blockquote>
"The scope of Lewin's explorations has been very wide, dealing with a panorama of social classes and groups, with the lower depths of society as well as the bosses, with informal social norms as well as formal law, with popular religion as well as established [[ideology]]. The range of his intellectual debts is also broad, owing as much to [[Max Weber|Weber]] as to [[Karl Marx|Marx]], emphasising as much the power of ideologies and myths in human behaviour as the weight of economic structure. The key thing is the perception of society as a socio-cultural whole, though Lewin always remained open to new pathways that might appear in the course of research, always [[eclecticism|eclectic]] in the best sense, always eschewing the pursuit of a grand theory for all history — a pursuit which only leads you away from the rich canvas of concrete human experience."<ref name="LampertXI" /></blockquote>

Lewin's papers are housed at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]].

==Works==

* ''La Paysannerie et le Pouvoir Sovietique.'' Paris: Mouton, 1966. English edition: ''Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: A Study of Collectivization.'' Irene Nove with John Biggart, trans. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968.
* ''Le Dernier Combat de Lénine.'' Paris: Les Editions de Minuit, 1967. English edition: ''Lenin's Last Struggle.'' A.M. Sheridan Smith, trans. New York: Random House, 1968.
* ''Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates: From Bukharin to the Modern Reformers.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974. Reissued as ''Stalinism and the Seeds of Soviet Reform: The Debates of the 1960s'' (1991).
* ''The Making of the Soviet System: Essays in the Social History of Interwar Russia.'' New York: Pantheon, 1985.
* ''The Gorbachev Phenomenon: A Historical Interpretation.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
* ''Russia — USSR — Russia: The Drive and Drift of a Superstate.'' New York: The New Press, 1995.
* ''Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison.'' Co-edited with [[Ian Kershaw]]. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
* ''The Soviet Century.'' London: Verso, 2005.

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* Kaiyi Chen, [http://www.archives.upenn.edu/faids/upt/upt50/lewinm.html Finding Aid for the Moshe Lewin Papers], University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1998.
* Interview by Sasha Lilly with Moshe Lewin, "Against the Grain," [http://www.albany.edu/talkinghistory/ind/atg-20051220-soviet-century-part1.mp3 Part One] and [http://www.albany.edu/talkinghistory/ind/atg-20051220-soviet-century-part2.mp3 Part Two], Talking History radio show, 2005. —Audio files.
* Moshe Lewin, [http://mondediplo.com/_Moshe-Lewin_ Articles] in ''[[Le Monde diplomatique]].''

{{Persondata 
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| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lewin, Moshe}}
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:Historians of Russia]]
[[Category:Historians of communism]]
[[Category:Stalinism era scholars and writers]]
[[Category:Historiographers]]
[[Category:Polish immigrants to Israel]]
[[Category:Tel Aviv University alumni]]
[[Category:Columbia University staff]]
[[Category:University of Paris alumni]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania faculty]]

[[da:Moshe Lewin]]
[[fr:Moshe Lewin]]
[[he:משה לוין]]
[[ja:モーシェ・レヴィン]]
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Sabantui

2011-04-04T15:10:54Z

Languagehat: added Tvardovsky info, with refs

'''Sabantuy''' is a [[Tatars|Tatar]] and [[Idel-Ural]]ian summer [[festival]], that dates back to the [[Volga Bulgaria]]n epoch. At first Sabantuy was a festival of [[farmer]]s in rural areas, but it later became a [[Public holiday|national holiday]] and now is widely celebrated in the [[city|cities]]. In 2008, [[Kazan]] Sabantuy was celebrated on June 21.

== Nomenclature ==
Sabantuy (Сабантуй, {{IPA-tt|sʌbɑnˈtuɪ|}}), or, more correctly, '''Saban tuyı''' (Сабан туе, {{IPA|[sʌˈbɑn tuˈjɯ]}}) is a [[Tatar language|Tatar]] name for the holiday. Its plural form is ''Sabantuylar'' {{IPA|[sʌbɑntuɪˈlɑr]}}).

The holiday is also celebrated by other [[Turkic peoples]] living along the [[Volga]]. In [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]], it is known as '''Habantuy''' (Һабантуй), in [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]] — as '''Akatuy''' (Акатуй).

The [[holiday]]'s name means "[[plough]]'s [[Festival|feast]]" in [[Turkic languages]]. Sometimes, it is also referred to as "plough's holiday", or '''Saban bäyräme''' (Сабан бәйрәме {{IPA|[sʌˈbɑn bæɪræˈme]}}).

==History==
Sabantuy traces its origins to the pre-[[Islam]]ic epoch, when it was celebrated before the [[sowing]] season. The presence of Sabantuy was noticed by [[ibn Fadlan]] as early as in 921. Traditional [[song]]s and other customs of the Sabantuy probably had a religious connotation at that time.

Later, with the spread of [[Islam]] among [[Tatars]] and [[Bashkirs]] and [[Christianity]] among [[Chuvash people|Chuvashs]], it became a [[secular holiday]]. In each region, [[village]]s took turns to celebrate the holiday.

In the beginning of the 20th century Sabantuy gained recognition as the national festival of the Tatars. The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] authorities approved of this festival probably due to its humble rural origin. However, they moved Sabantuy to the after-sowing season, thus merging it with the ancient summer festival ''[[Cíın]]'' (Cyrillic: Җыен, {{IPA|[ʑɯɪˈɯn]}}).

Recently, Moscow announced plans to nominate Sabantuy for the inclusion into the [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] list in 2007.

==Traditions==
The main distinctive elements of Sabantuy include the traditional sporting competitions such as ''[[köräş]]'' (Tatar wrestling), horse racing, race-in-sack, pillar-climbing, egg-in-spoon-in-mouth-racing, sacks-battle on the crossbar, pots crashing [http://www.ogoniok.com/common/archive/1996/4459/28-10-11/28-11-1b.gif], finding a coin in a ''qatıq'' (a beverage made from sour milk), and other contests. Such activities take place on the ''[[mäydan]]''<ref>Мәйдан; {{IPA|[mæɪˈdɑn]}}; also ''maydan'', майдан, {{IPA|[mʌɪˈdɑn]}} in spoken language</ref>, which would usually be located at the edge of a forest.

A tradition, called ''sörän''<ref>Сөрән; {{IPA|[sœˈræn]}}</ref>, was held to collect a fare for guests of the festival and prizes for the winners of the contests. ''Qarğa botqası'' (Rook's porridge) <ref>Карга боткасы, {{IPA|[qʌrˈɣɑ bɔtqɑˈsɯ]}}</ref>, a ritual porridge, was cooked before the Sabantuy to treat children in the village. Another tradition was praying at the cemetery.

In the recent years Sabantuy is also often combined with the [[Music of Tatarstan|folk and pop music festivals]], as well as accordion music festivals, named ''Play, accordion!'' (''Uyna, ğarmun!'').

===Köräş===
[[Image:Koeraesh.jpg|lef|thumb|Tatarça köräş|Tatar-style wrestling]]
The Tatar [[wrestling]] (''Tatarça [[köräş]]''<ref>Татарча көрәш, {{IPA|[tʌˈtɑɕɑ kɶˈræʃ]}}</ref>), is the main competition of Sabantuy. Wrestlers <ref>Tatar: köräşçe(lär)/көрәшче(ләр)</ref> use [[towel]]s and the aim is to knock down the opponent.

Usually young boys start the competition. At the end of Sabantuy, the main event of the festival is the final of köräş. The winner becomes the ''[[batır]],''<ref>{{IPA|[bʌˈtɯr]}}, also батыр ''batyr,'' {{Unicode|паттӑр}} ''pattăr''</ref> the hero of the Sabantuy. The prize varies from a [[ram (animal)|ram]] at the village to a [[car]] in the city.

===Calendar of the festival===
Sabantuylar do not have a set date. The festivities take place approximately from June 15 to July 1, and usually fall on a Sunday. Initially, Sabantuylar are arranged in villages, followed by Sabantuylar in rural districts, and the final ones taking place in major cities. The last Sabantuy is held in [[Kazan]], the capital of [[Tatarstan]]. A similar schedule is applied for Akatuy in [[Chuvashia Republic|Chuvashia]] and Habantuy in [[Bashkortostan]].

In the last few years the Russian government arranged [[Russian Federation|federal]] Sabantuylar in Moscow. Many cities in [[Europe]] and [[Asia]] that have major Tatar diasporas, such as [[Moscow]], [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Tallinn]], [[Prague]], [[Istanbul]], [[Kiev]] and [[Tashkent]], also hold Sabantuylar.

Today Sabantuy can be characterized as an international festival attracting many people of various ethnicities who participate in Sabanuylar, both in Tatarstan, and all over the world.

==Political traditions==
Sabantuy is a symbol of Tatarstan. This is why every Russian president visiting the republic takes part in the Sabantuy held in Kazan. During his visit to Kazan in the mid-1990s [[Boris Yeltsin]] became the center of attention at a Sabantuy when he took part in a traditional competition in which the participants try to crash a clay pot while being blindfolded. [[Vladimir Putin]] took part in a humorous competition during which he tried to dip his face into a jar full of sour milk in order to fish out a coin without using his hands.<ref>{{ru icon}} [http://2001.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2001/41n/n41n-s07.shtml]</ref>

== Popular culture ==
In [[Aleksandr Tvardovsky]]'s popular [[World War Two]] poem ''Vasily Tyorkin'', the hero uses the term "sabantuy" for various kinds of trouble a soldier can run into (air-raid warnings, mortars, and tanks).<ref>James Von Geldern and Richard Stites, ''Mass Culture in Soviet Russia: Tales, Poems, Songs, Movies, Plays, and Folklore, 1917-1953'' (Indiana University Press, 1995: ISBN 0253328934), p. 372.</ref><ref>''Russian Life'', Vol. 48 (2005), p. 5.</ref>

== Notes ==
<references/>

== References ==
*{{TES|Saban tuyı/Сабан туе}}
*{{en icon}} [http://www.ogoniok.com/archive/2002/4758-2/91-04-09/ Traditions of Sabantuy, ''Ogonyok'', photos]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.bashedu.ru/konkurs/sahabetdinov/sabantui_e/sabantui_photo/istory.htm History of Habantuy]
*{{en icon}} [http://gov.cap.ru/home/chuv_adm/album/2003/06_07/akatuy.htm Photos of Akatuy]
*{{ru icon}} [http://www.ogoniok.com/archive/2002/4754-2/90-04-09/ Традиции Сабантуя, ''Огонёк'']
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SDamzGwKZw Video on YouTube: Sabantui in Prague]

[[Category:Tatar topics]]
[[Category:Tatar culture]]
[[Category:Festivals in Russia]]

[[az:Sabantuy]]
[[ba:Һабантуй]]
[[ca:Sabantuy]]
[[cv:Акатуй]]
[[da:Sabantuy]]
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[[eo:Sabantuj]]
[[eu:Sabantui]]
[[it:Sabantuy]]
[[ja:サバントゥイ]]
[[pl:Sabantuj]]
[[ru:Сабантуй]]
[[fi:Sabantuy]]
[[sv:Saban tuyı]]
[[tt:Saban tuyı]]
[[zh:薩班推節]]

Cadzow Castle

2011-02-21T14:39:41Z

Languagehat: added info on name Cadzow, with ref

[[Image:CadzowCastle01.JPG|thumb|250px|Cadzow Castle, seen across the [[Avon Water|Avon Gorge]] from the Duke's Bridge]]

'''Cadzow Castle''', now in ruins, was constructed between 1500 and 1550 on the site of an earlier [[Scottish royalty|royal]] castle, one mile south-east of the centre of [[Hamilton, South Lanarkshire]], [[Scotland]]. The town of Hamilton was formerly known as Cadzow or Cadyou<ref>George Chalmers, ''Caledonia, Or, A Historical and Topographical Account of North Britain from the Most Ancient to the Present Times: With a Dictionary of Places, Chorographical and Philological'', Vol. 6 (A. Gardner, 1890), p. 683.</ref> ({{lang-scom|{{lang|ang|Cadȝow}}}}, the "{{lang|ang|ȝ}}" being the letter [[yogh]]), until renamed in 1455 in honour of [[James Hamilton, 1st Lord Hamilton]]. The castle sits above a gorge overlooking the [[Avon Water]] in what is now [[Chatelherault Country Park]], but was previously the hunting and pleasure grounds of the [[Duke of Hamilton]]'s estate of [[Hamilton Palace]]. The ruin is a category B [[listed building]] and a [[Scheduled Ancient Monument]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hsewsf.sedsh.gov.uk/hslive/hsstart?P_HBNUM=12483 |title=Cadzow Castle, Listed Building Report |accessdate=2010-04-19 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=Historic Scotland}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hsewsf.sedsh.gov.uk/eschedule/show?id=90342&OK=Y |title=Entry in the Schedule of Monuments, The Monument Known as Cadzow Castle |accessdate=2010-04-19 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date=2003 |work= |publisher=Historic Scotland}}</ref>

==History==
===The early castle===
The ancient [[kings of Strathclyde]] are said to have had a [[hunting|hunting lodge]] at Cadzow, prior to that kingdom's assimilation into Scotland in the 12th century. The original Cadzow Castle was built in the 12th century as an occasional royal residence for [[David I of Scotland|King David I]] (1124–1153). Royal charters of David's reign were issued from here as early as 1139. His successors [[Alexander II of Scotland|Alexander II]], [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] and others down to [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]] also used the castle, primarily as a hunting lodge. It is possible that this earlier castle was on an alternative site at {{gbmappingsmall|NS729548}}, now known as Castlehill, although the area is now a housing estate.

[[Image:Cadzowforest.jpg|left|thumb|The ancient Cadzow oak forest and Cadzow White Park Cattle in the 19th century.]]

The estate of Cadzow was divided in 1222, with Cadzow Castle passing to the [[Clan Cumming|Comyns]]. Following the forfeiture of their lands for supporting [[John I of Scotland|John Baliol]], the estate was granted by Robert the Bruce to [[Walter fitz Gilbert of Cadzow|Walter FitzGilbert de Hambeldon]] in the early 14th century. FitzGilbert was ennobled as the first [[Duke of Hamilton|Baron of Cadzow]], and is the ancestor of the Dukes of Hamilton. He constructed a [[motte-and-bailey|motte]] near the town ({{gbmappingsmall|NS729548}}), which remains, adjacent to the M74 motorway.

===The 16th century castle===
The present castle was built around 1530 by Sir [[James Hamilton of Finnart]], who also constructed nearby [[Craignethan Castle]]. Following her escape from [[Loch Leven Castle]] in 1568, [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], stayed here. As a result it was destroyed by forces of the [[John Erskine, 17th Earl of Mar|Earl of Mar]], regent for James VI, in the late 16th century, as retaliation against the Hamiltons for their support of Mary. It was partially rebuilt in the 18th century, to serve as a [[folly]] within the Duke's park.

==The castle today==
The site is now owned and managed by [[Historic Scotland]]. There is no public access to the ruins, as the structure is unstable, and largely supported by scaffolding. Footpaths within the country park allow visitors to view the ruin. The Duke's Bridge, built high across the Avon Gorge, offers the most dramatic view of the ruins above the wooded gorge. A series of excavations, sponsored by Historic Scotland, took place at the castle between 2000 and 2003.

==References==
{{reflist}}
*{{cite web |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/45740/details/cadzow+castle/ |title=Cadzow Castle |accessdate=2010-04-19 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work=[[CANMORE]] |publisher=[[Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland]]}}

==External links==
{{commons|Cadzow Castle}}
*{{historic-scotland-link|046}}

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[[Category:1530s architecture]]
[[Category:Castles in South Lanarkshire]]
[[Category:Category B listed buildings]]
[[Category:Listed castles in Scotland]]
[[Category:Listed buildings in South Lanarkshire]]
[[Category:Royal residences in Scotland]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Scotland]]

[[sv:Cadzow Castle]]

Paikuli-Inschrift

2010-12-16T22:52:20Z

Languagehat: added Persian name; minor fixes; article needs work!

The '''Paikuli inscription''' ({{lang-fa|پایکولی}}) was set up as a monument to victory, and tells how and why the Sasanian emperor [[Narseh]] ousted his grandnephew from power.<ref>Jacob Neusner, ''A History of the Jews in Babylonia'', Vol. 12, p. 3.</ref>

In 293 [[Narseh|Narses]] marched from [[Armenia]] in open revolt against his nephew with a host of supporters and allies, whose names are recorded on the Paikuli inscription.<ref>Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron, ''The Cambridge Ancient History'', p. 494.</ref> This list includes king Tiridates, possibly of [[Armenia]]. The inscription shows that by this time [[Armenia]] was no longer regarded as part of Eranshahr, a view that is reinforced from the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] side by a remark found in [[Ammianus Marcellinus]].

== Background ==
The Paikuli inscription of Narses shows that Assuristan ([[Babylonia]]) at least was in [[Persian Empire|Persian]] hands, but says nothing of [[Nisibis]] and [[Singara]].<ref>C. E. V. Nixon and Barbara Saylor Rodgers, ''In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyric Latini'', p. 69.</ref>

The fact of Amru's vassalage to Narses was preserved by the latter in the Paikuli inscription. <ref>Joel L. Kraemer, ''Israel Oriental Studies'', p. 21.</ref>

{{cquote|Paikuli inscription may be devoid of much historical information because it belongs to the genre of epic literature composed since time immemorial in the ancient Near East.<ref>P.O. Skjærvø and H. Humbach, ''The Sassanian Inscription of Paikuli'', Wiesbaden, 1983, p. 44.</ref>}}

In the 19th century, when it was visited by several travelers, it consisted of the ruins of a large, square tower that had originally been covered on all sides by stone blocks, some contained inscriptions, but, at the time, lay scattered all around the monument.

== Sassanians ==
In [[Tabari]] and sources that follow his work, and also in the Paikuli inscription of Narses, a son of Papak called Shapur is mentioned as his successor, although the text of the inscription of Paikuli in which king [[Shapur]] appears is unclear because of long lacunae. Some suggest that Narses in the inscription sought to compare his succession to the throne with that of his grandfather Ardashir, just as [[Ardashir]] had succeeded Shapur.

{{cquote|S. Mori contends that the Paikuli inscription is basically relating the traditional Near Eastern story of how a king achieves supremacy with the aid of the gods in the epic form. He also believes that the early Islamic texts, such as al-Tabarī are of little use for the history of the Sasanian period.<ref>“The narrative structure of the Paikuli Inscription,” ''Orient'' 30-31 (1995): 182-193.</ref>}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
*P.O. Skjærvø and H. Humbach, ''The Sassanian Inscription of Paikuli'', Wiesbaden, 1983.

== External links ==
*[http://www.klassalt.uni-kiel.de/projekte/sasaniden/Paikuli_Inschrift.pdf The Sassanian Inscription of Paikuli]
*[http://www.sasanika.com/pdf/Paikuli.pdf The Sassanian Inscription of Paikuli by Prods Skjærvø]
*[http://www.iranica.com/articles/v12f3/v12f3019d.html Herzfeld and the Paikuli Inscription at Iranica]

[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:History of Assyria]]
[[Category:Persian inscriptions]]

[[fa:سنگ‌نوشته پایکولی]]

Kotoko-Staaten

2010-11-20T00:41:05Z

Languagehat: added links

The '''Kotoko kingdom''' was a [[West Africa]]n monarchy in what is today northern [[Cameroon]] and [[Nigeria]], and southwestern [[Chad]]. Its inhabitants and their modern descendants are known as the [[Kotoko people]].

The rise of Kotoko coincided with the decline of the [[Sao civilisation]] in northern Cameroon. A [[monarch|king]] headed the nascent state, which came to assimilate several smaller kingdoms. Among these were [[Kousséri]], [[Logone-Birni]], Makari, and Mara. Kotoko spread to parts of what is today northern Cameroon and Nigeria, and southwestern Chad by the mid-15th century. Logone-Birni emerged as the most influential of Kotoko's client kingdoms.

The [[Kanem Empire]] brought northern Kotoko into its sphere of influence early on. Through the actions of missionaries and conquerors, most of northern Kotoko had converted to [[Islam]] by the 19th century. That same century, Kotoko itself was completely subsumed into the [[Bornu Empire]], and Islam continued to spread. The Bornu rulers divided the territory into northern and southern halves, which allowed Logone-Birni in the south to maintain some degree of autonomy under its [[paramount chief]]. Logone-Birni was divided into provinces headed by sub-chiefs.

Kotoko, along with the rest of Bornu, was split among European powers during Africa's [[colonialism|colonial]] period. In modern times, there has been some conflict between the Kotoko and the [[Shuwa Arabs]].

==References==
*DeLancey, Mark W., and DeLancey, Mark Dike (2000). ''Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon''. 3rd ed.
*Fanso, V. G. (1989). ''Cameroon History for Secondary Schools and Colleges: Volume 1: Prehistoric Times to the Nineteenth Century''. London: Macmillan Education Ltd.

[[Category:History of Cameroon]]
[[Category:History of Nigeria]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Africa]]

Budu Mdiwani

2010-11-08T20:48:46Z

Languagehat: added links to other Wikipedia articles

{{Государственный деятель
| русское имя = Мдивани Буду
| оригинальное имя =
| портрет =
| ширина портрета =
| подпись =
| титул = народный комиссар лёгкой промышленности ССР Грузия
| порядок =
| флаг = Flag_of_Georgian_SSR_1940-1952.png‎
| периодначало = [[1931]]
| периодконец = [[1936 год]]
| предшественник =
| преемник =
| титул_2 = председатель Союзного Совета ЗСФСР
| порядок_2 =
| флаг_2 = Flag_of_Transcaucasian_SFSR.svg‎
| периодначало_2 = [[12 марта]] [[1922]]
| периодконец_2 = [[13 декабря]] [[1922]]
| предшественник_2 =
| преемник_2 =
| титул_3 = председатель Революционного комитета Грузии
| порядок_3 =
| флаг_3 = Flag_of_Georgian_SSR_1940-1952.png‎
| периодначало_3 = [[май]] [[1921]]
| периодконец_3 = [[июнь]] [[1921]]
| предшественник_3 =
| преемник_3 =
| титул_4 =
| порядок_4 =
| флаг_4 =
| флаг2_4 =
| периодначало_4 =
| периодконец_4 =
| предшественник_4 =
| преемник_4 =
| дата рождения = [[1877]]
| место рождения =
| дата смерти ={{ДатаСмерти|10|7|1937}}
| место смерти = [[Тбилиси]]
| отец =
| мать =
| супруг =
| супруга =
| дети =
| партия = [[РСДРП]] с [[1903]]
| профессия =
| образование =
| автограф =
| награды =
}}
'''Мдивани Буду''' ('''Поликарп Георгиевич''') ([[1877]] - 10.07.[[1937]], [[Тбилиси]]) - советский государственный и партийный деятель.

==Биография==

* с 30.11.[[1918]] по 13.02.[[1919]] член [[Революционный военный совет|РВС]] 11-й армии Южного - Каспийско-Кавказского фронта

* с [[1919]] по 03.[[1920]] начальник Политического отдела 10-й армии

* 1920 по 1921 председатель КП(б) Грузии, одновременно член Кавказского бюро ЦК РКП(б)

* 19.02.1921 по 05.1921 полномочный представитель [[РСФСР]] в [[Турция|Турции]]

* 05.1921 по 06.1921 председатель Революционного комитета Грузии

* [[1922]] член Президиума ЦК КП(б) Грузии и одновременно с 12.03.1922 по 13.12.1922 председатель Союзного Совета [[ЗСФСР]]

* 11.1923 - 1924 член Главного концессионного комитета СССР, с 1924 переведён торговым представителем [[СССР]] во [[Франция|Франции]]

* в [[1928]] отозван из [[Франция|Франции]], смещён со всех постов и исключен из партии

* [[1931]] восстановлен в ВКП(б) назначен председатель СНХ ССР Грузия и народный комиссар лёгкой промышленности ССР Грузия. Так же по июнь 1936 занимал пост 1-й заместителя председателя СНК ССР Грузия

* [[1936]] арестован, как участник "троцкисткого шпионско-вредительского центра". Расстрелян в [[1937]]

== Литература ==

* Орлов А. Тайная история сталинских преступлений.- СПб,1991

* Торчинов В.А., Леонтюк А.М. Вокруг сталина: историко-биографический справочник.- СПб,2000.

[[Категория:Народные комиссары Грузинской ССР]]
[[Категория:Коммунисты Грузии]]
[[Категория:Члены КПСС]]
[[Категория:Революционеры Грузии]]
[[Категория:Родившиеся в 1877 году]]
[[Категория:Умершие в 1937 году]]
[[Категория:Казнённые политики]]
[[Категория:Репрессированные в СССР]]

[[cs:Polikarp Mdivani]]
[[en:Polikarp Mdivani]]
[[no:Polikarp Mdivani]]

Messe Nischni Nowgorod

2010-09-26T15:03:43Z

Languagehat: minor fixes

[[Image:Yarmarka.jpg|thumb|right|Exhibition Hall of the Fair in Nizhny Novgorod]]
'''Makaryev Fair''' ({{lang-ru|Макарьевская ярмарка}}) was a [[fair]] in [[Russia]] held annually every July near [[Makaryev Monastery]] on the left bank of the [[Volga River]] from the mid-16th century to 1816. Following a massive fire in 1816, it was moved to [[Nizhny Novgorod]], but for some decades thereafter it still was commonly referred to
as Makariev Fair. It attracted many foreign merchants from [[India]], [[Iran]], and [[Central Asia]].

This fair was a commerce centre to sell up to half the total production of export goods in Russia. The fair ceased in 1929. A society named ''Nizhegorodskaya yarmarka'' ({{lang-ru|Нижегородская ярмарка}}, Nizhny Novgorod fair) was created in 1991 with its headquarters in the former main fair building. However, today it is not actually a fair, but an exhibition center.

==References==
* Munro-Butler-Johnstone, Henry Alexander, ''A trip up the Volga to the fair of Nijni-Novgorod'', Oxford: J. Parker and co., 1876.
* Fitzpatrick, Anne Lincoln, ''The Great Russian Fair: Nizhnii Novgorod, 1840-90'', Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, in association with St. Antony’s College, Oxford, 1990. ISBN 0-333-42437-9

==External links==
{{commonscat|Nizhny Novgorod Fair}}
*[http://www.admcity.nnov.ru/references/arch/fair/fair1.html History of Makariev Fair] (in Russian)
*[http://www.yarmarka.ru:8100/ Official site of Nizhny Novgorod Fair] (in Russian)

[[Category:Economic history of Russia]]
[[Category:Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Nizhny Novgorod Oblast]]
[[Category:Annual fairs]]

[[nl:Makarjevmarkt]]
[[ru:Нижегородская ярмарка]]

August Franz von Haxthausen

2010-09-18T21:14:36Z

Languagehat: added English Wiki link

'''August Franz Ludwig Maria Freiherr von Haxthausen''' (* [[3. Februar]] [[1792]] in [[Bökendorf]] im [[Fürstbistum Paderborn]]; † [[31. Dezember]] [[1866]] in [[ Hannover]]) war [[Agrarwissenschaft]]ler, [[Nationalökonom]], Jurist, Landwirt und Schriftsteller sowie [[Volkslied]]ersammler.

== Leben ==
August Franz war der letzte von 8 Söhnen des Drosten des paderbornischen [[Amt Lichtenau (Westfalen)|Amtes Lichtenau]], [[Werner Adolph von Haxthausen|Werner Adolf Freiherr von Haxthausen]], Herrn auf Thienhausen, Bökendorf, Abbenburg und Hellersen, und der Freiin Marie Anne von Wendt-Papenhausen. Ein Bruder war der preußische Staatsbeamte und Philologe [[Werner von Haxthausen]]. Er hatte weitere 9 Schwestern.
Auf dem Gut Abbenburg im [[Fürstbistum Paderborn]] geboren, studierte Haxthausen 1811 auf der [[Technische Universität Clausthal|Bergschule Clausthal]] das Bergfach, nahm an den [[Befreiungskriege]]n teil und setzte anschließend 1815 bis 1818 in Göttingen seine Studien fort. Schwerpunkte seiner Studien war ein umfassendes Werk über Agrarverfassung, wovon indessen nur der erste Teil: ''Über die Agrarverfassung in den Fürstenthümern Paderborn und Corvey'' (Berlin 1829), später erschien. Im Jahr 1818 kehrte er, ohne seine Studien abschließen zu können, wegen der kritischen Vermögenslage der Familiengüter, nach Bökendorf zurück und verwaltete sie in der mittlerweile endgültig preußisch gewordenen Heimat, bevor sie 1825 sein älterer Bruder [[Werner von Haxthausen]] übernahm. August von Haxthausen blieb unverheiratet. 1843 kaufte er das benachbarte Schloss Thienhausen, wo er als sogenannter "Tyrann von Thienhausen" lebte. August von Haxthausen starb in der Silvesternacht 1866 bei seiner Schwester Anna von [[Arnswaldt (Adelsgeschlecht)]] in Hannover. Er liegt auf dem Friedhof von [[Bellersen]] begraben.

== Öffentliches Wirken ==

Schon in seinem Studium hatte sich Haxthausen mit der Agrargeschichte befasst. 1829 wurde Haxthausen durch den späteren preußischen Innenminister [[Gustav von Rochow]] in Berlin eingeführt. Er erwarb die Gunst des damaligen Kronprinzen und späteren Königs [[Friedrich Wilhelm IV.]]. Infolgedessen 1834 zum Geheimen Regierungsrat ernannt, bereiste er im Auftrag der Regierung neun Jahre lang den preußischen Staat, um die ländliche Verfassung in den verschiedenen Provinzen zu erforschen. Aufgrund seiner konservativ-katholischen Gesinnung verlor er 1838 seine [[Diät]]en und kehrte auf das väterliche Gut Abbenburg zurück. Ein letzter Versuch, 1842 eine dauernde Anstellung zu erhalten, endete damit, dass er aus dem preußischen Staatsdienst mit einer [[Pension]] von 800 Talern ausschied.

Als Kenner des [[Landwirtschaft|Agrarwesen]]s wurde Haxthausen vom russischen [[Zar|Zaren]] [[Nikolaus I. (Russland)|Zaren Nikolaus I.]] 1843/44 eingeladen, [[Russland]] zu bereisen, um die ländlichen Verhältnisse dort zu untersuchen. Zur Finanzierung dieser Reise zahlte ihm der Staat sein Gehalt für ein Jahr im Voraus aus. Dadurch entstanden zwei Reisewerke, „Studien über Russland“ und „Transkaukasia“.

Die Ergebnisse seiner Untersuchungen veröffentlichte er in verschiedenen Schriften. Das von ihm herausgegebene Werk ''Vier Abhandlungen über das constitutionelle Princip'' (Leipzig 1864, 2 Tle.) enthält Monographien von [[Karl Biedermann (Politiker)|Karl Biedermann]], [[Joseph von Held]], [[Rudolf von Gneist]], [[Georg Waitz]] und [[Wilhelm Kosegarten]]. Seine letzte Arbeit: ''Die ländliche Verfassung Rußlands'' (Leipzig 1866), bezog sich auf die inzwischen vollendete [[Bauernbefreiung|Bauernemanzipation]]. August von Haxthausen beteiligte sich auch stark an der russischen [[Bauernbefreiung]] von 1861. Außerdem entstand eine von ihm zusammengetragene, umfangreiche Sammlung von geistlichen und weltlichen [[Volkslied]]ern.

August von Haxthausen war im fortgeschrittenen Alter (ab 1857) die treibende Kraft für die Wiederbegründung des [[Malteser]]ordens, der durch die Säkularisation in Deutschland untergegangen war und dessen [[Großmeister]] zu jener Zeit der russische Zar war. Als Beauftragter des [[Heiliger Stuhl|Heiligen Stuhls]] führte er jahrzehntelange, zähe Verhandlungen mit der Regierung von [[Preußen]], die 1859 zur Anerkennung durch Rom und erst 1900 zur staatlichen Anerkennung als Verein führten.

== Verwandtschaft zur Dichterin Annette von Droste-Hülshoff ==

Haxthausen war ein Onkel von [[Annette von Droste-Hülshoff]], die in ihrer Jugend längere Zeit bei der Familie [[Haxthausen]] weilte. Im Laufe der Zeit löste sich die Abneigung der Dichterin, die durch Augusts Verwicklung in deren "Jugendkatastrophe" begründet war und wich gegenseitigem Respekt. Punktuell kam es auch zum Zusammenwirken. Die von Haxthausen aus den Familienunterlagen dokumentierte „Geschichte eines Algierer-Sklaven“ gab den Anstoß zur Abfassung der Novelle „[[Die Judenbuche]]“ durch seine Nichte, die zur [[Weltliteratur]] zählt.

== Nachwirkung ==

Die willensstarke und originelle Persönlichkeit August von Haxthausens inspirierte Literaten. [[Lulu von Strauss und Torney]] beschrieb Haxthausen in ihrem Roman "Vom Biedermeier zur Bismarckzeit" als "Tyrann von Thienhausen". [[Levin Schücking]] zeichnet sein Bild als "Baron Bellersheim" in seinem Roman "Herberge der Gerechtigkeit".

Nachwirkung bis in die heutige Zeit hat die durch Haxthausen maßgeblich vorangetriebene Wiederbegründung des geistlichen Ritterordens der [[Malteser]] in Deutschland.

== Werke ==
* ''Über die Agrarverfassung in den Fürstenthümern Paderborn und Corvey und deren Conflicte in der gegenwärtigen Zeit nebst Vorschlägen, die den Grund und Boden belastenden Rechte und Verbindlichkeiten daselbst aufzulösen''. Reprint der Ausgabe Berlin, Reimer, 1829. Bökendorf: Bökerhof-Ges., 1992. [http://dlib-pr.mpier.mpg.de/m/kleioc/0010/exec/books/%22146458%22 im Volltext]
* ''Die ländliche Verfassung in den einzelnen Provinzen der preußischen Monarchie''.
** Band 1: ''Die ländliche Verfassung in den Provinzen Ost- und West-Preussen''. Königsberg: Bornträger, 1839.
** Band 2: ''Die ländliche Verfassung in der Provinz Pommern im amtl. Auftr. von Alexander Padberg''. Stettin, 1861.
* ''Ueber den Ursprung und die Grundlagen der Verfassung in den ehemals slawischen Ländern Deutschlands im Allgemeinen und des Herzogthums Pommern im Besondern: eine Einladungsschrift zur Erörterung und litterarischen Besprechung''. Berlin: Krause, 1842.
* ''Die Kriegsmacht Rußlands in ihrer historischen, statistischen, ethnographischen und politischen Beziehung''. Berlin: Behr, 1852.
** ''Etudes sur la situation intérieure, la vie nationale et les institutions rurales de la Russie''. Hanovre: Hahn, 1847-53.
** ''The Russian Empire''. (New impr.)(London:) Cass, 1968.
* ''Studien über die innern Zustände, das Volksleben und insbesondere die ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands''. Hannover: Hahn, 1847-1852. [[Mikrofiche]]-Ausg. Hildesheim [u. a.]: Georg Olms Verlag, 1994-1998. ISBN 3-487-29018-9.
** ''Les forces militaires de la Russie sous les rapports historiques, statistiques, ethnographiques et politiques''. Berlin, 1853.
* ''Transkaukasia: Reiseerinnerungen u. ges. Notizen''. 2 Teile in 1 Bd. Nachdr. d. Ausg. Leipzig, Brockhaus, 1856. Hildesheim: Olms, 1985.
* ''Wird Rußlands Kirche das Papstthum anerkennen? : nach La Russie sera-t-elle catholique … ; nebst einem Auszug des Cardinal Baronius über den Ursprung der Russinen von Jean Gagarin. Mit einem Vorw. von August Freiherrn von Haxthausen. Münster: Theissing, 1857.
* ''Ein Briefwechsel im Hintergrund der russischen Bauernbefreiung 1861''. Paderborn: Schöningh, 1975
* ''Das constitutionelle Prinzip, seine geschichtliche Entwicklung und seine Wechselwirkungen mit den politischen und sozialen Verhältnissen der Staaten und Völker''. Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1864
* ''La question religieuse en Pologne: mémoire rédige en 1856 par feu le Baron Auguste de Haxthausen. Précédé d'une introduction et accompagné de notes par le Jean Gagarin, de la Compagnie de Jésus''. Berlin: Behr, 1877.
* ''Geschichte eines Algierer-Sklaven: Urfassung der "Judenbuche" / von August von Haxthausen''. Übers. ins Hochdt. durch Gerta Thier. Brakel/Westf.: G. Thier, 2000. Vgl. auch Anhang in: Annette von Droste-Hülshoff: Die Judenbuche; Frankfurt am Main/Leipzig 2005; S. 77ff; ISBN 3-458-34796-8.

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Haxthausen (Adelsgeschlecht)]]

== Literatur ==
* {{ADB|11|119|121|Haxthausen, August Freiherr von|Reifferscheid, Alexander|ADB:Haxthausen, August Freiherr von}}
* Urs Buhlmann: "Malteserkreuz und Preußenadler", Peter Lang-Verlag, 1999, ISBN 3-631-35575-0
* [[Droste zu Hülshoff]], Wilderich Frhr. v.: "Annette v. Droste-Hülshoff im Spannungsfeld ihrer Familie". C. A. Starke Verlag, Limburg (Lahn) 1997, ISBN 3-7980-0683-0
* Ludwig von der Osten: ''Franz Ludwig August Maria Freiherr von Haxthausen: ein photographischer Versuch''. Hannover: Klindworth, 1868.
* Josepha Grauheer: ''August von Haxthausen und seine Beziehungen zu Annette von Droste-Hülshoff''. Altena, 1933.
* Günter Tiggesbäumker: ''Zur Kulturgeographie von Transkaukasien und Armenien in der 1. Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts nach den Aufzeichnungen des Freiherrn August v. Haxthausen''. Münster (Westfalen), Univ., Philos. Fak., Diss., 1980.
* Martina Stoyanoff-Odoy: ''Die Grossfürstin Helene von Russland und August Freiherr von Haxthausen: zwei konservative Reformer im Zeitalter der russischen Bauernbefreiung''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1991. ISBN 3-447-03151-4.
* Peter Hesselmann, Walter Gödden: ''August Freiherr von Haxthausen (1792–1866). Sammler von Märchen, Sagen und Volksliedern, Agrarhistoriker und Rußlandreisender aus Westfalen''. Katalog zu einer Ausstellung in der Universitätsbibliothek Münster 24. Februar 1992-25. März 1992. Münster 1992. ISBN 3-9801781-1-0

== Weblinks ==
* {{DNB-Portal|118547305}}
* {{Wikisource|August Franz von Haxthausen}}
* [http://www.lwl.org/literaturkommission/alex/index.php?id=00000003&letter=H&layout=2&author_id=00000123 August von Haxthausen im Lexikon Westfälischer Autorinnen und Autoren]
* [http://www.boekerhof.de/augusthxt.html Biografie bei der Bökerhof-Gesellschaft]

{{Meyers}}

{{Normdaten|PND=118547305|LCCN=n/50/82684|VIAF=36961935}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Haxthausen, August Franz von}}
[[Kategorie:Ökonom (19. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Freiherr]]
[[Kategorie:Deutscher]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1792]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1866]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Haxthausen, August Franz von
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Haxthausen, August Franz Freiherr von
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=deutscher Agronom
|GEBURTSDATUM=3. Februar 1792
|GEBURTSORT=[[Bökendorf]]
|STERBEDATUM=31. Dezember 1866
|STERBEORT=[[Hannover]]
}}
[[en:August von Haxthausen]]

Guerra do Contestado

2010-04-10T18:48:23Z

Languagehat: moved hidden material into visible text of article, did copyediting

{{Infobox War
|image=
|caption=Militia in the service of colonels Contestado.
|conflict=Contestado War
|casus=Social Conflicts, Religious Fanaticism, Proclamation of the Republic
|date=October, 1912 – August, 1916
|place=Contestado Region, Southern [[Brazil]]
|result=Governist Victory
|combatant1=<center>[[Image:Bandeira do Contestado.svg|75px]] [[Rebels]]
|combatant2=<center>[[Image:Flag of Brazil (1889-1960).svg|75px]] [[Brazil]]
|commander1=[[José Maria]]
|commander2=[[Carlos Frederico de Mesquita]]
|strength1=10,000
|strength2=8,000
|casualties1=5,000 - 8,000 dead, wounded or disappeared 20,000 civilians
|casualties2=800 - 1,000 dead, wounded, deserted or disappeared 20,000 civilians
}}

The '''Contestado War''' ({{lang-pt|Guerra do Contestado}}), broadly speaking, was a guerrilla war for land between settlers and landowners, the latter supported by the [[Brazil]]ian state's police and military forces, that lasted from October 1912 to August 1916.

It was fought in a inland southern region of the country, rich in wood and [[yerba mate]], that was called Contestado because it was contested by the states of [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]] and [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]] as well as [[Argentina]]. The war had its casus belli in the social conflicts in the region, the result of local disobediences, particularly regarding the regularization of [[land ownership]] on the part of the [[caboclo]]s. The conflict was permeated by religious fanaticism expressed by the messianism and faith of the rebellious cablocos that they were engaged in a [[religious war]]; at the same time, it reflected the dissatisfaction of the population with its material situation.

==Prologue: the monks' power==

The origins of the Contestado War can be understood best by beginning a little earlier and considering the influence of three [[monk]]s of the region. The first one who rose to prominence was João Maria, a man of [[Italy|Italian]] origin, who wandered, preaching and attending to the sick, from 1844 to 1870. He lived a very simple life, and his ethics and lifestyle attracted thousands of followers. He died in 1870, in [[Sorocaba]], [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] state.

The second monk also adopted the alias of João Maria, although his real name was [[Atanás Marcaf]], probably of [[Syria]]n origin. He appeared to the public during the Federalist Revolution of 1893; he belonged to the [[Maragato (Brazil)|Maragato]] faction, and projected a firm and even messianic stature. He even made prophecies about the political events of his time. He was active in the region between the [[Rio Iguaçu|Iguaçu]] and [[Uruguay River|Uruguay]] rivers. As a sign of his unquestioned influence over the faithful, a portion of them waited for his return by resurrection after his disappearance in 1908.

The wait of the faithful ended in 1912, when the figure of the third monk appeared in public. He was initially known as an herbal healer, having presented himself under the name of José Maria de Santo Agostinho, although, according to a report of the police of Vila de Palmas, Paraná state, he was, in reality, an army deserter who had been convicted of [[rape]], by the name of Miguel Lucena de Boaventura.

Because no one knew his origins, and because he lived a straight and honest life, it was not difficult for him to achieve the people's admiration and confidence in a short period of time. One of his claims to fame was the account of his resurrection of a young lady (who probably was just a victim of [[catalepsy]]). He was also said to have cured the colonel Francisco de Almeida's wife of a previously uncurable illness. After this event. the monk won even more fame and trust by declining the land and significant quantity of gold that the grateful colonel offered him.

From this point on, José Maria began to be considered a [[saint]]: a man who had come to Earth only to heal the sick and aid the needy. Methodical and organized, he was quite different from the familiar healers. He knew how to read and write and he described in his notebooks the medical properties of the plants found in the region. With the permission of Colonel Almedia, he set up what was known as the "people's [[pharmacy]]" at the ranch of one of the foremen, where he stored up medicinal herbs that he used in his daily medical consultations with anyone who wished to visit him, until the late hours of the night.

==Railroad==
[[Image:08 tory railtrack ubt.jpeg|right|thumb|300px|The railroad, one of the causes of the Contestado War]]

A foreign company was commissioned to finish the railroad that was to begin in 1890 by the engineer [[João Teixeira Soares]]. This railroad would connect the cities of [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]] to [[Santa Maria]], in [[Rio Grande do Sul]] state. As Teixeira did not or could not take on the project, the responsibility was transferred in 1908 to the ''[[Brazil Railway Company]]'', a north-American company owned by [[Percival Farquhar]].

Besides the right to finish the project, the company also obtained from the government the right to explore a strip of land 15 km (9.32 mi) wide on each side of the railroad. The Company thus legally seized ownership of the land that it bordered and offered work to local families during the construction of the railroad.

At the same time, the concession guaranteed that another associated company of the trust, the Southern Brazil Lumber & Colonization would have the rights to extract lumber and later resell the land.

It was estimated that 8000 men had worked for the railroad at the time: workers coming from the urban populations of Rio De Janeiro, Santos, Salvador and Recife attracted by the possibility of many advantages and high wages.

However by the time the construction work was finished a large number of people were left without work or a place to go (as much land around the railroad was legally owned by the Trust) adding to unrest amid dissatisfaction.


==The first casualties==

The Brazilian government, then led by Marshal [[Hermes da Fonseca]] who was responsible for the policy of military inverventions in other states in order to eliminate political adversaries decided to send federal troops to that regionin order to quell the rebellion.

Foreseeing what was coming, [[José Maria]] ([[Miguel Lucena Boaventura]]) left immediately for the border town of Irani with his followers. Irani at the time belonged to the municipality of [[Palmas, Paraná|Palmas]] which was within the jurisdiction of the state of Paraná. As Paraná and Santa Catarina then had unresolved land disputes, the government of Paraná regarded this mass relocation of people as a strategy by the State of Santa Catarina to occupy and claim those lands.

So the Contestado war began there in October 1912. In order to prevent the sudden mass occupation of that land, some troops of the [[Military Police of Paraná State|Regiment of Security of Paraná State]] were sent out to force the invaders to return to Santa Catarina.

But things did not go as planned. A bloody confrontation started between government troops and followers of the Contestado at a place called Banhado Grande. At the end of the battle, dozens of people from both sides were dead, and the rebels seized a large amount of guns and ammunition from the Paraná police forces. Among those killed were Colonel Gualberto João, who commanded the troops, and also the Monk Jose Maria, but the partisans of the Contestado had obtained their first victory.

Jose Maria was buried by his followers, who hoped for his resurrection (in similar fashion to the legend of the king Sebastian of Portugal, who was revered by some messianic followers of [[Sebastianism]]).

The federal government sent in 200 federal troops on December 29, 1913 in order to deal with the rebellion. Once again, the government was upset by the fierce opposition. For some historians, this is considered to be the official beginning of the war, despite the initial confrontations back in 1912.

==More conflicts, attacks and counter-attacks==

On February 8, 1914, the federal and state governments sent 700 men to Taquaruçu, supported by artillery and machine guns. Caraguatá was a more remote location where 2,000 other people had already settled. The followers in Caraguatá were led by Maria Rosa, a 15-year-old girl who led the 6000-strong armed rebellion after the death of José Maria.

In March and May of that year other expeditions were sent out, however they were all unsuccessful. As the social order degraded quickly in the region, the central government appointed General Carlos Frederico de Mesquita (a veteran of the Canudos rebellion) to lead a new operation against the rebels. He led an assault on the village of Santo Antônio da Platina, causing the rebels to flee. The hamlet of Caraguatá where the federal troops were first chased from by the rebels was now struck by [[typhoid fever]]. General Mesquita mistakenly believed the rebels were finally dispersed and declared the war was over.

However, peace was to be short-lived. The rebels quickly regrouped and organized around Santa Maria, intensifying the attacks: they took and set fire to the Calmon rail station; destroyed the village of São João (present-day Matos Costa), they attacked Curitibanos and threatened Porto União, causing the population to flee. There were rumours that they were on their way to invade the city of [[Ponta Grossa]] and some believed the rebels and their army would march all the way to [[Rio de Janeiro]] in order to oust the President. The rebels at the time already controlled 25,000 sq. km.

The federal government named General Setembrino de Carvalho the leader of the operation against the rebels in southern Brazil. So in September 1914 he led about 7,000 men with the mandate to suppress the rebellion and thus pacify the region at any cost. Setembrino sent out an announcement to the rebels in which he guaranteed the land would be returned to those who turned themselves in. He also promised, however, a harsh and hostile treatment to those who decided to continue the armed uprising against the government.

==Change of strategy and the war's end==

At this point in the war Deodato Manuel Ramos (also known as Adeodato) became a prominent figure, and he is considered by historians to be the last leader of the Contestadores. Adeodato moved the capital of the rebellious territory over to the Santa Maria valley, where he amassed about 5,000 men. As food and other shortages increased, he became more ruthless in dealing orders, including the execution of those willing to turn themselves in.

By then the rebels were totally enclosed, and internal strife further weakened them. On February 8, 1915, a column from the south led by Lt. Col. Estillac arrived in Santa Maria. That attack cost the Army 30 dead and 40 injured. New pushes and retreats took place in the next few days.

On March 28, 1915, Captain Tertuliano Potyguara led 710 men from the town of Reinchardt towards Santa Maria, losing 24 men in the process. After several strikes, the spiritual leader of the insurgents, Maria Rosa, was killed on the banks of the Caçador river. On the 3rd of April, Estillac's and Potyguara's troops advanced towards the final assault on Santa Maria, where a few of the starving rebels still lived.

On the 5th of April, after the major attack on Santa Maria, General Estillac wrote that "everything was destroyed, the estimated number of razed houses is 5000 (...) women that fought along the men were killed (...) the number of irregulars killed is over 600. The villages of Caçador and Santa Maria were annihilated. I cannot guarantee that all such bandits that festered in the Contestado may have disappeared, but the mission entrusted to the Army is now accomplished." The surviving rebels soon dispersed and moved to other towns and cities.

In December 1915, the last of the rebellious villages was destroyed by Gen. Setembrino's troops. Adeodato managed to escape and hide in the woods while being sought by the federal troops. The War of the Contestado was finally over with his arrest in August 1916.

Adeodato was sentenced to 30 years in prison. However, in 1923, less than seven years later, Adeodato was killed by the jail warden in an alleged escape attempt.

On October 12, 1916, the state governors Filipe Schmidt (Santa Catarina) and Afonso de Camargo (Paraná) signed an agreement and the town of Campos do Irani was renamed Concordia.



==Statistics of the war==
*Size of combat area: 20,000 km²
*Population living in the combat area: about 40,000 inhabitants
*Municipalities of Paraná (at the time): [[Rio Negro, Brazil|Rio Negro]], [[Itaiópolis]], [[Timbó]], [[Três Barras]], [[União da Vitória]] and [[Palmas, Paraná|Palmas]]
*Municipalities of Santa Catarina (at the time): [[Lages]], [[Curitibanos]], [[Campos Novos]] and [[Canoinhas]]


==References==
*''Grandes Acontecimentos da História - Revista da Editora'' 3, nº 4 (setembro de 1973)
*Diacon, Todd A. ''Millenarian Vision, Capitalist Reality: Brazil's Contestado Rebellion, 1912-1916'' ([[Duke University]] Press 1991), ISBN 0-8223-1167-4

==See also==
* [[Revolutions of Brazil]]
* [[List of wars involving Brazil]]

==External links==
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/bravo/brazil1914.htm Onwar]
*[http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:gIMNlhOIFVIJ:www.scscertified.com/PDFS/forest_madepar_eng.pdf+%22Contestado+War%22+-wikipedia&hl=en Article]
*[http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:dmrrogt90xoJ:www.unc.edu/depts/geog/people/faculty/wolford/AnnalsMST.PDF+%22Contestado+War%22+-wikipedia&hl=en UNC article with a brief mention]
*[http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:dzvLvTysACoJ:research.yale.edu/ycias/database/files/MESV6-1.pdf+%22Contestado+war%22+-wikipedia&hl=en Brief mention on a Yale site].

[[Category:20th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Wars involving Brazil|Contestado]]
[[Category:Rebellions in South America|Contestado War]]

[[fr:Guerre du Contestado]]
[[pt:Guerra do Contestado]]
[[ru:Крестьянская война в Бразилии 1902-1917]]

Guerra do Contestado

2010-04-09T17:31:04Z

Languagehat: fixed caboclo link, added one for Maragato

{{Infobox War
|image=
|caption=Militia in the service of colonels Contestado.
|conflict=Contestado War
|casus=Social Conflicts, Religious Fanaticism, Proclamation of the Republic
|date=October, 1912 – August, 1916
|place=Contestado Region, Southern [[Brazil]]
|result=Governist Victory
|combatant1=<center>[[Image:Bandeira do Contestado.svg|75px]] [[Rebels]]
|combatant2=<center>[[Image:Flag of Brazil (1889-1960).svg|75px]] [[Brazil]]
|commander1=[[José Maria]]
|commander2=[[Carlos Frederico de Mesquita]]
|strength1=10,000
|strength2=8,000
|casualties1=5,000 - 8,000 dead, wounded or disappeared 20,000 civilians
|casualties2=800 - 1,000 dead, wounded, deserted or disappeared 20,000 civilians
}}

The '''Contestado War''' ({{lang-pt|Guerra do Contestado}}), broadly speaking, was a guerrilla war for lands between settlers and landowners, the latter supported by the [[Brazil]]ian state's police and military forces. It was fought in a Inland of southern region of the country, rich in wood and [[yerba mate]] that was contested by the States of [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]], [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]] and [[Argentina]], from October 1912 to August 1916. The war had its casus belli in the social conflicts in the region, the result of local disobediences, particularly regarding the regularization of [[land ownership]] on the part of the [[caboclo]]s. The conflict was permeated by religious fanaticism expressed by the messianism and faith of the rebellious cablocos that they were engaged in a [[religious war]]; at the same time, it reflected the dissatisfaction of the population with its material situation.

==Prologue: the monks' power==

The origins of the Contestado War can be understood best by beginning a little earlier and considering the influence of three [[monk]]s of the region. The first one who rose to prominence was João Maria, a man of [[Italy|Italian]] origin, who wandered, preaching and attending to the sick, from 1844 to 1870. He lived a very simple life, and his ethics and lifestyle attracted thousands of followers. He died in 1870, in [[Sorocaba]], [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] state.

The second monk also adopted the alias of João Maria, although his real name was [[Atanás Marcaf]], probably of [[Syria]]n origin. He appeared to the public during the Federalist Revolution of 1893; he belonged to the [[Maragato (Brazil)|Maragato]] faction, and projected a firm and even messianic stature. He even made prophecies about the political events of his time. He was active in the region between the [[Rio Iguaçu|Iguaçu]] and [[Uruguay River|Uruguay]] rivers. As a sign of his unquestioned influence over the faithful, a portion of them waited for his return by resurrection after his disappearance in 1908.

The wait of the faithful ended in 1912, when the figure of the third monk appeared in public. He was initially known as an herbal healer, having presented himself under the name of José Maria de Santo Agostinho, although, according to a report of the police of Vila de Palmas, Paraná state, he was, in reality, an army deserter who had been convicted of [[rape]], by the name of Miguel Lucena de Boaventura.

Because no one knew his origins, and because he lived a straight and honest life, it was not difficult for him to achieve the people's admiration and confidence in a short period of time. One of his claims to fame was the account of his resurrection of a young lady (who probably was just a victim of [[catalepsy]]). He was also said to have cured the colonel Francisco de Almeida's wife of a previously uncurable illness. After this event. the monk won even more fame and trust by declining the land and significant quantity of gold that the grateful colonel offered him.

From this point on, José Maria began to be considered a [[saint]]: a man who had come to Earth only to heal the sick and aid the needy. Methodical and organized, he was quite different from the familiar healers. He knew how to read and write and he described in his notebooks the medical properties of the plants found in the region. With the permission of Colonel Almedia, he set up what was known as the "people's [[pharmacy]]" at the ranch of one of the foremen, where he stored up medicinal herbs that he used in his daily medical consultations with anyone who wished to visit him, until the late hours of the night.

==Railroad==
[[Image:08 tory railtrack ubt.jpeg|right|thumb|300px|The railroad, one of the causes of the Contestado War]]

A foreign company was commissioned to finish the railroad that was to begin in 1890 by the engineer [[João Teixeira Soares]]. This railroad would connect the cities of [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]] to [[Santa Maria]], in [[Rio Grande do Sul]] state. As Teixeira did not or could not take on the project, the responsibility was transferred in 1908 to the ''[[Brazil Railway Company]]'', a north-American company owned by [[Percival Farquhar]].

Besides the right to finish the project, the company also obtained from the government the right to explore a strip of land 15 km (9.32 mi) wide on each side of the railroad. The Company thus legally seized ownership of the land that it bordered and offered work to local families during the construction of the railroad.

At the same time, the concession guaranteed that another associated company of the trust, the Southern Brazil Lumber & Colonization would have the rights to extract lumber and later resell the land.

It was estimated that 8000 men had worked for the railroad at the time: workers coming from the urban populations of Rio De Janeiro, Santos, Salvador and Recife attracted by the possibility of many advantages and high wages.

However by the time the construction work was finished a large number of people were left without work or a place to go (as much land around the railroad was legally owned by the Trust) adding to unrest amid dissatisfaction.



==The first casualties==

The Brazilian government, then led by Marshal [[Hermes da Fonseca]] who was responsible for the policy of military inverventions in other states in order to eliminate political adversaries decided to send federal troops to that regionin order to quell the rebellion.

Foreseeing what was coming, [[José Maria]] ([[Miguel Lucena Boaventura]]) left immediately for the border town of Irani with his followers. Irani at the time belonged to the municipality of [[Palmas, Paraná|Palmas]] which was within the jurisdiction of the state of Paraná. As Paraná and Santa Catarina then had unresolved land disputes, the government of Paraná regarded this mass relocation of people as a strategy by the State of Santa Catarina to occupy and claim those lands.

So the Contestado war began there in October 1912. In order to prevent the sudden mass occupation of that land, some troops of the [[Military Police of Paraná State|Regiment of Security of Paraná State]] were sent out to force the invaders to return to Santa Catarina.

But things did not go as planned. A bloody confrontation started between government troops and followers of the Contestado at a place called ''Banhado Grande''. At the end of the battle, dozens of people from both sides were dead, and the rebels seized a large amount of guns and ammunition from the Paraná police forces. Among those killed were Colonel Gualberto João, who commanded the troops, and also the Monk Jose Maria, but the partisans of the Contestado had obtained their first victory.

Jose Maria was buried by his followers, who hoped for his ressurection (in similar fashion to the legend of the king Sebastian of Portugal, who was revered by some messianic followers of [[Sebastianism]]).



==Statistics of the war==
*Size of combat area: 20,000 km²
*Population living in the combat area: about 40,000 inhabitants
*Municipalities of Paraná (at the time): [[Rio Negro, Brazil|Rio Negro]], [[Itaiópolis]], [[Timbó]], [[Três Barras]], [[União da Vitória]] and [[Palmas, Paraná|Palmas]]
*Municipalities of Santa Catarina (at the time): [[Lages]], [[Curitibanos]], [[Campos Novos]] and [[Canoinhas]]


==References==
*''Grandes Acontecimentos da História - Revista da Editora'' 3, nº 4 (setembro de 1973)
*Diacon, Todd A. ''Millenarian Vision, Capitalist Reality: Brazil's Contestado Rebellion, 1912-1916'' ([[Duke University]] Press 1991), ISBN 0-8223-1167-4

==See also==
* [[Revolutions of Brazil]]
* [[List of wars involving Brazil]]

==External links==
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/bravo/brazil1914.htm Onwar]
*[http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:gIMNlhOIFVIJ:www.scscertified.com/PDFS/forest_madepar_eng.pdf+%22Contestado+War%22+-wikipedia&hl=en Article]
*[http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:dmrrogt90xoJ:www.unc.edu/depts/geog/people/faculty/wolford/AnnalsMST.PDF+%22Contestado+War%22+-wikipedia&hl=en UNC article with a brief mention]
*[http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:dzvLvTysACoJ:research.yale.edu/ycias/database/files/MESV6-1.pdf+%22Contestado+war%22+-wikipedia&hl=en Brief mention on a Yale site].

[[Category:20th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Wars involving Brazil|Contestado]]
[[Category:Rebellions in South America|Contestado War]]

[[fr:Guerre du Contestado]]
[[pt:Guerra do Contestado]]
[[ru:Крестьянская война в Бразилии 1902-1917]]

Edward L. Ferman

2010-03-28T12:54:32Z

Languagehat: added full name, birth date

'''Edward Lewis Ferman''' (born March 6, 1937) was an [[United States|American]] [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy fiction]] editor and magazine publisher.

Ferman is the son of [[Joseph W. Ferman]], and took over as editor of ''[[The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]]'' in 1964<ref name="clute">{{Cite book | last = Clute | first = John | authorlink = John Clute | coauthors = Peter Nicolls | title = Encyclopedia of Science Fiction | publisher = St. Martin's Press | date = 1993 | location = New York | pages = 424-425 | isbn = 0312096186}}</ref> when [[Avram Davidson]], due to his residence in various [[Latin American]] locales with unreliable postal delivery, could no longer practically continue editing; on the masthead, Joseph Ferman was listed as editor and publisher for Edward Ferman's first two years. Edward Ferman would take on the role of publisher, as well, by 1970, as his father gradually retired. He remained as editor until 1991 when he hired his replacement, [[Kristine Kathryn Rusch]]. He remained as publisher of the magazine until he sold it to [[Gordon Van Gelder]] in 2000. While Ferman was the editor, many other magazines in the field began to fold or were short-lived, and his magazine, along with ''[[Astounding Science Fiction|Analog]]'', was one of the few which maintained a regular schedule and sustained critical appreciation for its contents.

In 1969-1970, he was the editor of ''Fantasy & Science Fiction's'' sister publication ''[[Venture Science Fiction Magazine]]''. <ref>{{Cite book | last = Clute | first = John | authorlink = John Clute | coauthors = Peter Nicolls | title = Encyclopedia of Science Fiction | publisher = St. Martin's Press | date = 1993 | location = New York | pages = 1273 | isbn = 0312096186}}</ref> Together, the Fermans had also edited and published the short-lived [[nostalgia]] and [[humor]] magazine ''P.S.'' and a similarly brief run of a magazine about [[mysticism]] and other proto-[[New Age]] matters, ''Inner Space.''

Ferman received the [[Hugo Award for Best Professional Editor]] three years in a row, from 1981 through 1983.<ref>{{Cite web | title = The Hugo Awards | publisher = World Science Fiction Society | date = 2010 | url = http://www.thehugoawards.org/hugo-history/ | accessdate = 25-01-2010}}</ref> ''F&SF'' had previously won several other Hugos under his editorship, which had been famously conducted, at least in the last decade of his tenure, from a table in the Ferman family's Connecticut house. He edited or co-edited several volumes of stories from ''F&SF'' and co-edited ''Final Stage'' with [[Barry N. Malzberg]]. It is probable that he also ghost-edited ''No Limits'' for or with Joseph Ferman, an anthology drawn from the pages of the first run of ''Venture''.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ferman, Edward}}
[[Category:1937 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning editors]]

[[nl:Edward L. Ferman]]

Mannar (Insel)

2010-03-23T14:26:07Z

Languagehat: added former spelling Manar and info from Britannica

{{Infobox Settlement
| name = Mannar
| native_name = மன்னார்
| settlement_type = [[Island]]
| pushpin_map = Sri Lanka
| subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
| subdivision_name = [[Sri Lanka]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Provinces of Sri Lanka|Province]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Northern Province, Sri Lanka|Northern]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Districts of Sri Lanka|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Mannar District|Mannar]]
| subdivision_type4 = [[Divisional Secretariats of Sri Lanka|DS Division]]
| subdivision_name4 = Mannar
| latd=9 | latm=03 | lats=0 | latNS=N
| longd=79 | longm=50 | longs=0 | longEW=E
}}

'''Mannar''' ({{lang-ta|மன்னார்}}) '''Island''', formerly called '''Manar Island''', is part of [[Mannar District]], [[Sri Lanka]]. It is linked to the rest of [[Sri Lanka]] by a [[causeway]].

It is dry and barren; fishing is economically important.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/362510/Mannar-Island Britannica article].</ref>

[[Image:Adams bridge map.png|250px|thumb|none|Mannar Island and adjacent [[Adam's Bridge]]]]

{{coord|9|03|N|79|50|E|display=title|region:LK_type:isle_source:GNS-enwiki}}

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:Islands of Sri Lanka]]

{{Tamil-stub}}

{{SriLanka-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Mannar District]]

[[pt:Mannar]]

Erich Berneker

2010-03-19T13:15:28Z

Languagehat: added Karl

'''Erich Karl Berneker''' (* [[3. Februar]] [[1874]] in [[Königsberg (Preußen)|Königsberg]]; † [[15. März]] [[1937]] in [[Königsberg (Preußen)|Königsberg]]) war ein deutscher [[Slawist]].

Er studierte slawische und baltische [[Philologie]] in [[Leipzig]] bei [[August Leskien]].

== Literatur ==

* Helmut Wilhelm Schaller: ''Erich Berneker: Leben und Werk'', P. Lang, 1999: ISBN 3631342535.

== Weblinks ==

* {{DNB-Portal|117589004}}

{{Normdaten|PND=117589004|LCCN=n/2002/49209|VIAF=45084259}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Berneker, Erich}}
[[Kategorie:Slawist]]
[[Kategorie:Deutscher]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1874]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1937]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Berneker, Erich
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=deutscher Slawist
|GEBURTSDATUM=3. Februar 1874
|GEBURTSORT=[[Königsberg (Preußen)|Königsberg]]
|STERBEDATUM=15. März 1937
|STERBEORT=[[Königsberg (Preußen)|Königsberg]]
}}

Warsuga

2010-03-13T22:04:47Z

Languagehat: added accent mark to Russian name

{{Unreferenced stub|auto=yes|date=December 2009}}
{{Infobox River
| river_name = Varzuga
| image_name = Река Варзуга.jpg
| caption =
| origin = [[Murmansk Oblast]]
| mouth = [[White Sea]]
| basin_countries = [[Russia]]
| length = 254 km
| elevation =
| discharge = 77 m³/s (average) and up to 300 m³/s in May and June
| watershed = 9840 km²
}}

'''Varzuga River''' ({{Lang-ru|Ва́рзуга}}) is a [[river]] in the south of the [[Kola Peninsula]] in [[Murmansk Oblast]], [[Russia]]. It is 254 km in length. The area of its [[Drainage basin|basin]] is 9,840 km². The Varzuga River flows into the [[White Sea]]. It freezes up in October and stays under the ice until May.

This is the most prolific atlantic salmon fishing river in the whole of the Kola peninsular. Over the season over 10,000 salmon are caught and returned in this river system.
Favourite Salmon fishing patterns are the Kola Vulcan, Kola Blue Fire, Kola Fire and the Kolalander.

{{Coord missing|Russia}}

[[Category:Rivers of Murmansk Oblast]]
[[Category:Watersheds of the White Sea]]

{{MurmanskOblast-geo-stub}}

[[cs:Varzuga]]
[[fr:Varzouga]]
[[it:Varzuga]]
[[lt:Varzuga]]
[[no:Varzuga]]
[[nn:Varzuga]]
[[ru:Варзуга (река)]]

Shergotty (Meteorit)

2010-03-07T02:13:56Z

Languagehat: added modern name

The '''Shergotty meteorite''' is the first example of the '''shergottite''' [[Mars meteorite]] family.

The Shergotty meteorite, a 5 kg martian meteorite, fell to Earth at Shergotty (now [[Sherghati]]), [[Gaya district|Gaya]], [[Bihar]], [[India]] on August 25, 1865 and was retrieved by witnesses almost immediately.<ref>[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/shergotty.html Shergotty Meteorite - JPL, NASA]</ref> This meteorite is relatively young; [[radiometric dating]] indicates that it solidified from a volcanic [[magma]] about 4.1 billion years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bouvier |first=A. |coauthors=et al. |year=2009 |title=Martian meteorite chronology and the evolution of the interior of Mars. |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=280 |pages=285-295 |id= |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V61-4VPKR15-2&_user=56861&_coverDate=04/15/2009&_alid=972474355&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=5801&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059542&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=56861&md5=03c14d4bde6ba2d6e9b1ece135335a33 |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref> It is composed mostly of [[pyroxene]] and is thought to have undergone preterrestrial [[aqueous]] alteration for several centuries. Certain features in its interior suggest to be remanents of biofilm and their associated microbial communities.<ref name="meteoritos-Bio">[http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/sci/fifthconf99/6142.pdf Evidence for ancient Martian life]. E. K. Gibson Jr., F. Westall, D. S. McKay, K. Thomas-Keprta, S. Wentworth, and C. S. Romanek, Mail Code SN2, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston TX, USA.</ref> Work is in progress on searching for [[magnetite]]s within alteration phases.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

==References==
<references/>

==See also ==
* [[ALH84001|ALH84001 meteorite]]
* [[Nakhla meteorite]]
* [[Life on Mars]]

{{Mars}}
{{Extraterrestrial life}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shergotty Meteorite}}
[[Category:Mars]]
[[Category:Meteorites]]
[[Category:1865 in India]]
[[Category:Geology of India]]
[[Category:History of Bihar]]
[[Category:1860s in science]]
[[Category:Astrobiology]]
[[Category:Extraterrestrial life]]

{{Mars-stub}}

[[pl:Shergotty (meteoryt)]]

River Loughor

2009-08-22T23:50:22Z

Languagehat: added pronunciation

[[Image:River Loughor downstream.JPG|thumb|right|River Loughor just above the Loughor bridges]]
The '''River Loughor''' ({{pronEng|ˈlʌxər}}<ref>G.M. Miller, ''BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names'' (Oxford UP, 1971), p. 92.</ref>) ({{lang-cy|Afon Llwchwr}}) in [[Carmarthenshire]], [[Wales]] has its source at an underground lake at the [[Black Mountain (range)|Black Mountain]]. It flows past settlements like [[Ammanford]] and [[Hendy]] in Carmarthenshire and [[Pontarddulais]] in [[Swansea]]. The river divides Carmarthenshire from Swansea for much of its course and it separates Hendy from Pontarddulais at the point where the river becomes tidal. The Loughor meets the sea at its estuary near the town of [[Loughor]] where it separates the south coast of Carmarthenshire from the north coast of the [[Gower peninsula]].

Among its tributaries is the [[River Amman]], which joins the Loughor near [[Pantyffynnon]].

In the 18th century, the river was a noted [[salmon]] and sea [[trout]] river. Fish from the river was then carried on ponies to be sold at [[Swansea Market]]. The fishing declined in the 19th century due to increasing pollution from industrialisation.

[[Carmarthenshire County Council]] is currently undertaking studies into the possibility of constructing a barrage across the River Loughor upstream from the Loughor bridges.

==Estuary==
[[Image:Burry Holms.jpg|thumb|Looking out to the Loughor [[estuary]] from [[Rhossili]]]]
The '''Loughor Estuary''' (aka '''Burry inlet''' or '''Burry estuary''', from the small '''Burry River''' which enters on the Gower side near its mouth) is the region of the waterway below the road and rail bridges at Loughor, where it turns abruptly from a southerly to a westerly direction towards [[Carmarthen Bay]]. The Afon Lliw empties into the estuary just below the Loughor bridges. This region almost completely empties at low tide, exposing extensive sandy areas supporting a thriving [[cockle]] industry.

On the south side of the inlet, the gathering and processing of cockles (''Cerastoderma edule'') contributes significantly to the economy of the villages of [[Crofty]], [[Llanmorlais]] and [[Penclawdd]]. Anyone can take a bucket of cockles for their personal use, but the commercial fishery is restricted to a relatively small number of licence holders. Cockle density fluctuates from year to year; the estuary is also an internationally important location for [[wader]]s and other wildfowl, which has led to demands from cocklers for the control of [[oystercatcher]]s (''[[Haematopus ostralegus]]''), which feed on cockles.

The estuary cuts through the southern part of a once-important coalfield. [[Llanelli]], on its north shore, was noted for its [[tinplate]] industry, whilst [[Penclawdd]], on the south side, smelted [[copper]] from ore shipped in from Anglesey. Both required ready access to the [[Bristol Channel]] via [[Carmarthen Bay]]. The main channel has fluctuated from side to side of the estuary in the past; in the late 19th century, the Llanelli port authority obtained legislation permitting the construction of a training wall intended to confine it to the north side of the estuary; unfortunately, this merely dissipated the currents, accelerating the silting-up not only of the entrance to [[North Dock, Llanelli|Llanelli North Dock]] but also of the Penclawdd anchorage. The wall has since been breached in several places.
[[Image:River Lougher mudflats.JPG|thumb|[[Whiteford National Nature Reserve]]]]
A later influence on the physical environment was the planting of [[cordgrass]] (''[[Spartina anglica]]'') to claim grazing land at the western end of the Gower side during the 1930s. This vigorous grass has since spread in a wide band all along the south side, forming the basis of a [[salt-marsh]] supporting the grazing of sheep, ponies and cattle.

The estuary is partly closed off by Whiteford Point, which extends from [[Llanmadoc]] in Gower towards [[Burry Port]] and [[Cefn Sidan]] in Carmarthenshire. This is now a National Nature Reserve maintained by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] and the [[Countryside Council for Wales]] (ex Nature Conservancy) and is an area of sand dunes supporting several rare species. Just off the tip of the point is one of the few remaining cast-iron [[lighthouse]]s, long since disused and in need of preservation.

During [[World War II]] several gun batteries were established to both the east and west of Penclawdd, where gun-barrels were calibrated and [[Shell (projectile)|shell's]] (of various types including [[high-explosive]] and [[mustard gas]]) were fired across the salt marsh towards [[Whiteford Point]]; quantities of unwanted munitions were also buried on the seaward side of this point. The area is regularly swept by the [[Royal Navy]]'s [[bomb disposal]] team, although few [[Unexploded ordnance|shells]] are now recovered. Persistent rumours that [[anthrax]] [[biological warfare]] shells were tested against sheep in the estuary have never been substantiated. In the 1960s, the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] proposed to move its main artillery and explosives testing facility at [[Foulness]], at the mouth of the [[River Thames]], to a site between [[Burry Port]] and [[Kidwelly]], which was already used in a very sporadic way as an air-to-ground rocket range. The intention was to make way for a planned third London airport. The proposal was vigorously resisted locally and was dropped when another airport site was agreed.

==References==
<references/>

==Sources==
* ''Problems of a Small Estuary'', ed. A. Nelson-Smith & E.M.Bridges, Institute of Marine Studies ([[University College, Swansea]]) & West Glamorgan County Council, Swansea, 1977.

==External links==
*[http://www.coracle-fishing.net/text-files/types-loughor.htm Coracle Types - River Loughor Coracles]
*[http://www.msc.org/assets/docs/Burry_Inlet_cockles/BurryInlet_FullCertReport.pdf Bury Inlet Cockle Fishery]
*[http://www.jncc.gov.uk/page-2065-theme=default Special Protection Area designation for the estuary]
* [http://www.goweruk.com An interactive, social networking and tourism web site based on the Gower peninsula.]

{{Gower peninsula}}

{{coord|51|40|N|4|05|W|display=title|region:GB_type:river_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Rivers of Wales|Loughor]]
[[Category:Geography of Swansea|Loughor]]
[[Category:Geography of Carmarthenshire|Loughor]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest in West Glamorgan]]

[[cy:Afon Llwchwr]]

Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski

2009-08-15T23:53:40Z

Languagehat: added "on the family name" for clarity

{{For|the cruise ship|MS Feodor Dostoevskiy}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2008}}
{{Infobox Writer 
| name = Fyodor Dostoyevsky
| image = Dostoevskij 1872.jpg
| birthdate = {{birth date|1821|11|11|mf=y}}
| birthplace = [[Moscow]], [[Russian Empire]]
| deathdate = {{Death date and age|1881|2|9|1821|11|11}}
| deathplace = [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire]]
| occupation = [[Novelist]]
| nationality =
| period=
| genre= [[suspense]], [[literary fiction]]
| subject=
| movement=
| religion = [Russian Orthodox]
| notableworks= ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]'' ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''
| spouse=
| children=
| relatives=
| influences= Writers: [[Miguel de Cervantes]]<ref>[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5055894/Dostoevsky-s-other-Quixote-influence.html Dostoevsky's other Quixote.(influence of Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote on Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Idiot)] Fambrough, Preston</ref>, [[Charles Dickens]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], [[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Nikolai Gogol]], [[Victor Hugo]], [[E.T.A. Hoffmann]], [[Mikhail Lermontov]], [[Adam Mickiewicz]], [[Alexander Pushkin]], Philosophers: [[Mikhail Bakunin]], [[Vissarion Belinsky]], [[Nikolai Chernyshevsky]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], [[Aleksandr Herzen]], [[Konstantin Leontyev]], [[Sergei Nechaev]], [[Mikhail Petrashevsky]], [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Vladimir Solovyov]], [[Tikhon of Zadonsk]]
| influenced = [[Knut Hamsun]], [[Richard Brautigan]], [[Charles Bukowski]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Orhan Pamuk]]<ref>{{cite book
| first = Orhan
| last = Pamuk
| authorlink = Orhan Pamuk
| title = [[Istanbul: Memories of a City]]
| publisher = [[Vintage Books]]
| year = 2006
| isbn = 978-1400033881
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| first = Orhan
| last = Pamuk
| authorlink = Orhan Pamuk
| title = [[Other Colors: Essays and a Story]]
| publisher = [[Vintage Books]]
| year = 2008
| isbn = 978-0307386236
}}</ref>, [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Witold Gombrowicz]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Jack Kerouac]], [[James Joyce]], [[Czesław Miłosz]], [[Yukio Mishima]], [[Alberto Moravia]], [[Iris Murdoch]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Marcel Proust]], [[Ayn Rand]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], [[Wisława Szymborska]], [[Irvine Welsh]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[Cormac McCarthy]], [[Ken Kesey]], [[Albert Einstein]]
}}
'''Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky''' ({{lang-ru|Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский}}, ''Fёdor Mihajlovič Dosto'evskij,'' {{IPA-ru|ˈfʲodər mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪtɕ dəstɐˈjɛfskʲɪj|pron|ru-Dostoevsky.ogg}},<ref>loose phonetic pronunciation: fyo-der mi-(k)hail-a-vitch das-ta-yef-skee)</ref> sometimes [[Transliteration of Russian into English|transliterated]] '''Dostoevsky''', '''Dostoievsky''', '''Dostojevskij''', '''Dostoevski''' or '''Dostoevskii''' ({{OldStyleDate|November 11,|1821|October 30}} – {{OldStyleDate|February 9,|1881|January 28}}) was a [[Russian people|Russian]] [[writer]], [[essayist]] and [[philosopher]], known for his novels ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' and ''[[The Brothers Karamazov (novel)|The Brothers Karamazov]]''.

Dostoyevsky's literary output explores human [[psychology]] in the troubled [[political]], [[social]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]] context of 19th-century Russian society. Considered by many as a founder or precursor of 20th-century [[existentialism]], his ''[[Notes from Underground]]'' (1864), written in the embittered voice of the anonymous "underground man", was called by [[Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)|Walter Kaufmann]] the "best overture for existentialism ever written."<ref>Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Sartre Walter Kaufmann ISBN 0452009308 page 12</ref> A prominent figure in [[world literature]], Dostoyevsky is often acknowledged by critics as one of the greatest psychologists in world literature, <ref name="BritannicaRussianLit">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513793/Russian-literature|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-04-11|title=Russian literature|quote=Dostoyevsky, who is generally regarded as one of the supreme psychologists in world literature, sought to demonstrate the compatibility of Christianity with the deepest truths of the psyche.}}</ref> although some fellow novelists have assessed his works as mediocre and full of [[platitude]]s.<ref name="NabokovOnDostoyevsky"/>

==Biography==
===Family origins===
[[Image:Wki Dostoyevsky Street 2 Moscow Mariinsky Hospital.jpg|thumb|Mariinsky Hospital in [[Moscow]], Dostoyevsky's birthplace.]]
Dostoyevsky's mother was Russian. His paternal ancestors were from a village called Dostoyev in [[Belarus]], in the [[guberniya]] (province) of [[Minsk]], not far from [[Pinsk]]; the stress on the family name was originally on the second syllable, matching that of the town (Dostóev), but in the nineteenth century was shifted to the third syllable.<ref>B.O. Unbegaun, ''Russkie familii'' (Moscow: "Univers"), pp. 28, 345.</ref> According to one account, Dostoyevsky's paternal ancestors were Polonized nobles ([[szlachta]]) of Russian origin and went to war bearing Polish [[Radwan Coat of Arms]]. Dostoyevsky (Polish "Dostojewski") Radwan armorial bearings were drawn for the Dostoyevsky Museum in [[Moscow]].<ref>{{citation
| last=Dostoyevsky
| first=Aimée
| title=FYODOR DOSTOYEVSKY: A STUDY
| place=Honolulu, HAWAII
| publisher=[http://www.universitypressofthepacific.com/ University Press of the Pacific]
| year=2001
| url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/61397936
| isbn=0898751659
| pages=1, 6–7}}</ref>

===Early life===
Dostoyevsky was the second of six children born to Mikhail and Maria Dostoyevsky.<ref>The Best Short Stories of Dostoevsky: Translated with an Introduction by David Magarshack. New York: The Modern Library, Random House; 1971.</ref> Dostoyevsky's father Mikhail was a retired military surgeon and a violent [[alcoholic]], who had practiced at the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor in [[Moscow]]. The hospital was located in one of the city's worst areas; local landmarks included a cemetery for criminals, a lunatic asylum, and an orphanage for abandoned infants. This urban landscape made a lasting impression on the young Dostoyevsky, whose interest in and compassion for the poor, oppressed and tormented was apparent. Though his parents forbade it, Dostoyevsky liked to wander out to the hospital garden, where the suffering patients sat to catch a glimpse of sun. The young Dostoyevsky loved to spend time with these patients and hear their stories.

There are many stories of Dostoyevsky's father's despotic treatment of his children. After returning home from work, he would take a nap while his children, ordered to keep absolutely silent, stood by their slumbering father in shifts and swatted at any flies that came near his head. However, it is the opinion of Joseph Frank, a biographer of Dostoyevsky, that the father figure in ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' is not based on Dostoyevsky's own father. Letters and personal accounts demonstrate that they had a fairly loving relationship.

[[Image:Dostoevskij 1847.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The young Dostoyevsky, in a portrait of Trutovsky, 1847]]
Shortly after his mother died of [[tuberculosis]] in 1837, Dostoyevsky and his brother were sent to the Military Engineering Academy at [[Saint Petersburg]]. Fyodor's father died in 1839. Though it has never been proven, it is believed by some that he was murdered by his own [[serf]]s.<ref>[http://worldebooklibrary.com/eBooks/Coradella_Collegiate_Bookshelf_Collection/Dostoevsky-notesfromtheunderground.pdf Notes from the Underground] Coradella Collegita Bookshelf edition, ''About the Author''.</ref> According to one account, they became enraged during one of his drunken fits of violence, restrained him, and poured [[vodka]] into his mouth until he drowned. A similar account appears in ''Notes from Underground''. Another story holds that Mikhail died of natural causes, and a neighboring landowner invented the story of his murder so that he might buy the estate inexpensively. Some{{Who|date=June 2009}} have argued that his father's personality had influenced the character of Fyodor Pavlovich Karamazov, the "wicked and sentimental buffoon", father of the main characters in his 1880 novel ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'', but such claims fail to withstand the scrutiny of many critics{{Who|date=June 2009}}.

Dostoyevsky had [[epilepsy]] and his first seizure occurred when he was nine years old.<ref>[http://www.epilepsy.com/epilepsy/famous_writers.html epilepsy.com] Famous authors with epilepsy.</ref> Epileptic seizures recurred sporadically throughout his life, and Dostoyevsky's experiences are thought{{Who|date=June 2009}} to have formed the basis for his description of Prince Myshkin's epilepsy in his novel ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]'' and that of Smerdyakov in ''The Brothers Karamazov'', among others.

At the [[Saint Petersburg Academy of Military Engineering]], Dostoyevsky was taught [[mathematics]], a subject he despised. However, he also studied literature by [[Shakespeare]], [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]], [[Victor Hugo]] and [[E.T.A. Hoffmann]]. Though he focused on areas different from mathematics, he did well on the exams and received a commission in 1841. That year, he wrote two romantic plays, influenced by the German Romantic poet/playwright [[Friedrich Schiller]]: ''[[Maria Stuart (play)|Mary Stuart]]'' and ''[[Boris Godunov]]''. The plays have not been preserved. Dostoyevsky described himself as a "dreamer" when he was a young man, and at that time revered [[Schiller]]. However, in the years during which he yielded his great masterpieces, his opinions changed and he sometimes poked fun at Schiller.

===Beginnings of a literary career===
Dostoyevsky was made a [[lieutenant]] in 1842, and left the Engineering Academy the following year. He completed a translation into Russian of [[Balzac]]'s novel ''[[Eugénie Grandet]]'' in 1843, but it brought him little or no attention. Dostoyevsky started to write his own fiction in late 1844 after leaving the army. In 1845, his first work, the epistolary short novel, ''[[Poor Folk]]'', published in the periodical ''The Contemporary'' ([[Sovremennik]]), was met with great acclaim. As legend has it, the editor of the magazine, poet [[Nikolai Nekrasov]], walked into the office of liberal critic [[Vissarion Belinsky]] and announced, "a new [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol]] has arisen!" Belinsky, his followers, and many others agreed. After the novel was fully published in book form at the beginning of the next year, Dostoyevsky became a literary celebrity at the age of 24.

In 1846, Belinsky and many others reacted negatively to his novella, ''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem|The Double]]'', a psychological study of a bureaucrat whose alter ego overtakes his life. Dostoyevsky's fame began to cool. Much of his work after ''[[Poor Folk]]'' met with mixed reviews and it seemed that Belinsky's prediction that Dostoyevsky would be one of the greatest writers of Russia was mistaken.

[[Image:Omsk Dostoyevskiy Monument.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Statue of Dostoyevsky in [[Omsk]]]]
===Exile in Siberia===
Dostoyevsky was arrested and imprisoned on April 23, 1849 for being a part of the [[Liberalism|liberal]] intellectual group, the [[Petrashevsky Circle]]. [[Tsar]] [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] after seeing the [[Revolutions of 1848]] in [[Europe]] was harsh on any sort of underground organization which he felt could put [[autocracy]] into jeopardy. On [[November 16]] that year Dostoyevsky, along with the other members of the Petrashevsky Circle, was [[death sentence|sentenced to death]]. After a [[mock execution]], in which he and other members of the group stood outside in freezing weather waiting to be shot by a [[firing squad]], Dostoyevsky's sentence was commuted to four years of [[exile]] with hard labor at a [[katorga]] prison camp in [[Omsk]], [[Siberia]]. Dostoyevsky described later to his brother the sufferings he went through as the years in which he was "shut up in a coffin." Describing the dilapidated barracks which, as he put in his own words, "should have been torn down years ago", he wrote:
{{quote|In summer, intolerable closeness; in winter, unendurable cold. All the floors were rotten. Filth on the floors an inch thick; one could slip and fall...We were packed like herrings in a barrel...There was no room to turn around. From dusk to dawn it was impossible not to behave like pigs...Fleas, lice, and black beetles by the bushel...<ref>Frank 76. Quoted from Pisma, I: 135-137.</ref>}}

He was released from prison in 1854, and was required to serve in the [[Siberian Regiment]]. Dostoyevsky spent the following five years as a private (and later lieutenant) in the Regiment's Seventh Line Battalion, stationed at the fortress of [[Semey|Semipalatinsk]], now in [[Kazakhstan]]. While there, he began a relationship with [[Maria Dmitrievna Isayeva]], the wife of an acquaintance in Siberia. They married in February 1857, after her husband's death.

===Post-prison maturation as a writer===
[[Image:Valikhanov.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky (right) and the [[Kazakhstan]]i scholar [[Shokan Walikhanuli]] in 1859]]
Dostoyevsky's experiences in prison and the army resulted in major changes in his political and religious convictions. Firstly, his ordeal somehow caused him to become disillusioned with "Western" ideas; he repudiated the contemporary Western [[Europe]]an philosophical movements, and instead paid greater tribute in his writing to traditional, rural-based, rustic Russian values exemplified in the [[Slavophil]] concept of [[sobornost]]. But even more significantly, he had what his biographer Joseph Frank describes as a [[Religious conversion|conversion]] experience in prison,{{Page number}} which greatly strengthened his [[Christian]], and specifically [[Russian Orthodox|Orthodox]], faith (Dostoyevsky would later depict his conversion experience in the short story, ''[[The Peasant Marey]]'' (1876)).

In his writings, Dostoyevsky started to extol the virtues of [[humility]], [[submission]], and [[suffering]].<ref name="Nab81Censors">[[Vladimir Nabokov]] (1981) ''[[Lectures on Russian Literature]]'', lecture on ''Russian Writers, Censors, and Readers'', p.14</ref> He now displayed a much more critical stance on contemporary European philosophy and turned with intellectual rigour against the [[Nihilist movement|Nihilist]] and [[Socialism|Socialist]] movements; and much of his post-prison work—particularly the novel, ''[[The Possessed (novel)|The Possessed]]'', and the essays, ''[[A Writer's Diary|The Diary of a Writer]]''—contains both criticism of socialist and nihilist ideas, as well as thinly-veiled parodies of contemporary Western-influenced Russian intellectuals ([[Timofey Granovsky]]), revolutionaries ([[Sergey Nechayev]]), and even fellow novelists ([[Ivan Turgenev]]).<ref>Dostoevsky the Thinker James P. Scanlan. Dostoevsky the Thinker. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002. xiii, pp. 251</ref><ref>[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jim_forest/pevear.htm Dostoevsky's View of Evil] Reprinted from ''In Communion'', April 1998.</ref> In social circles, Dostoyevsky allied himself with well-known conservatives, such as the statesman [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]]. His post-prison essays praised the tenets of the [[Pochvennichestvo]] movement, a late-19th century Russian nativist ideology closely aligned with [[Slavophile|Slavophilism]].

Dostoyevsky's post-prison fiction abandoned the European-style domestic melodramas and quaint character studies of his youthful work in favor of dark, more complex story-lines and situations, played-out by brooding, tortured characters—often styled partly on Dostoyevsky himself—who agonized over [[existentialism|existential]] themes of spiritual torment, religious awakening, and the psychological confusion caused by the conflict between traditional Russian culture and the influx of modern, Western philosophy. This, nonetheless, does not take from the debt which Dostoyevsky owed to the earlier (Western influenced within Russia [[Gogol]]) writers whose work grew from out of the irrational and anti-authoritarian spiritualist ideas contained within the Romantic movement which had immediately preceded Dostoyevsky in Europe. However, Dostoyevsky's major novels focused on the idea that [[utopias]] and [[positivist]] ideas being [[utilitarian]] were unrealistic and unobtainable.<ref>{{cite book | last = Sirotkina | first = Irina | title = Diagnosing Literary Genius: A Cultural History of Psychiatry in Russia, 1880 | year = 1996 | publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | page = 55 | isbn = 0801867827}}</ref>

===Later literary career===
[[Image:Dostoevskij 1863.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky in 1863]]
In December 1859, Dostoyevsky returned to [[Saint Petersburg]], where he ran a series of unsuccessful literary journals, ''Vremya'' (Time) and ''Epokha'' (Epoch), with his older brother Mikhail. The latter was shut down as a consequence of its coverage of the [[January Uprising|Polish Uprising of 1863]]. That year Dostoyevsky traveled to Europe and frequented the gambling casinos. There he met [[Apollinaria Suslova]], the model for Dostoyevsky's "proud women", such as the two characters named Katerina Ivanovna, in ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' and ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''.

Dostoyevsky was devastated by his wife's death in 1864, which was followed shortly thereafter by his brother's death. He was financially crippled by business debts; furthermore, he decided to assume the responsibility of his deceased brother's outstanding debts, and he also provided for his wife's son from her earlier marriage and his brother's widow and children. Dostoyevsky sank into a deep [[depression (mood)|depression]], frequenting gambling parlors and accumulating massive losses at the tables.

Dostoyevsky suffered from an acute gambling compulsion and its consequences. By one account{{Who|date=June 2009}} he completed ''Crime and Punishment'', possibly his best known novel, in a mad hurry because he was in urgent need of an advance from his publisher. He had been left practically penniless after a gambling spree. Dostoyevsky wrote ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]'' simultaneously in order to satisfy an agreement with his publisher [[Stellovsky]] who, if he did not receive a new work, would have claimed the copyrights to all of Dostoyevsky's writings.

Motivated by the dual wish to escape his creditors at home and to visit the casinos abroad, Dostoyevsky traveled to [[Western Europe]]. There, he attempted to rekindle a love affair with Suslova, but she refused his marriage proposal. Dostoyevsky was heartbroken, but soon met [[Anna Grigorevna Snitkina]], a twenty-year-old [[stenographer]]. Shortly before marrying her in 1867, he dictated ''The Gambler'' to her. This period resulted in the writing of what are generally considered{{Who|date=June 2009}} to be his greatest books. From 1873 to 1881 he published the ''Writer's Diary'', a monthly journal of short stories, sketches, and articles on current events. The journal was an enormous success.

Dostoyevsky influenced and was influenced by the philosopher [[Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov]]. Solovyov was the inspiration for the characters [[Ivan Karamazov]] and [[Alyosha Karamazov]].<ref>Zouboff, Peter, Solovyov on Godmanhood: Solovyov’s Lectures on Godmanhood Harmon Printing House: Poughkeepsie, New York, 1944; see Czeslaw Milosz’s introduction to Solovyov’s War, Progress and the End of History. Lindisfarne Press: Hudson, New York 1990.</ref>

In 1877, Dostoyevsky gave the keynote [[eulogy]] at the funeral of his friend, the poet [[Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov|Nekrasov]], to much controversy{{Who|date=June 2009}}. On [[June 8]], [[1880]], shortly before he died, he gave his famous [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]] speech at the unveiling of the Pushkin monument in Moscow.<ref>[http://az.lib.ru/d/dostoewskij_f_m/text_0340.shtml az.lib.ru]</ref>

In his later years, Fyodor Dostoyevsky lived for a long time at the resort of [[Staraya Russa]] in northwestern Russia, which was closer to [[Saint Petersburg]] and less expensive than German resorts. He died on {{OldStyleDate|February 9,|1881|January 28}} of a lung hemorrhage associated with [[emphysema]] and an [[epileptic seizure]]. He was interred in [[Tikhvin Cemetery]] at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]] in [[Saint Petersburg]]. Forty thousand mourners attended his funeral.<ref>Dostoevsky, Fyodor; Introduction to The Idiot, Wordsworth Ed. Ltd, 1996.</ref> His tombstone reads "Verily, Verily, I say unto you, Except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone: but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit." from [[Gospel of John|John]] 12:24, which is also the [[Epigraph (literature)|epigraph]] of his final novel, ''The Brothers Karamazov''.

==Works and influence==
[[Image:Dostoevsky.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky in 1879]]
Some like journalist [[Otto Friedrich]],<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Time Magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,943893,00.html?promoid=googlep|accessdate=2008-04-10|title=Freaking-Out with Fyodor|author=Otto Friedrich}}</ref> consider Dostoyevsky to be one of Europe's major novelists, while others like [[Vladimir Nabokov]] maintain that from point of view of enduring art and individual genius, he is a rather mediocre writer which produced wastelands of literary [[platitude]]s.<ref name="NabokovOnDostoyevsky">[[Vladimir Nabokov]] (1981) ''[[Lectures on Russian Literature]]'', lecture on ''Fyodor Dostoyevsky'', p.68. Quote: "he is not a great writer, but a rather mediocre one—with flashes of excellent humor, but, alas, with wastelands of literary platitudes in between."</ref>

Dostoyevsky promoted in his novels religious moralities, particularly those of [[Orthodox Christianity]].<ref name="BritannicaRussianLit"/> Nabokov metioned in his University courses at [[Cornell University|Cornell]], that such religious propaganda, rather than artistic qualities, was the main reason Dostoyevsky was praised and regarded as a 'Prophet' in Russia.<ref name="NabokovOnDostoyevsky"/>

Dostoyevsky has influenced many writers.

American novelist [[Ernest Hemingway]] cited Dostoyevsky as a major influence on his work, in his posthumous collection of sketches ''[[A Moveable Feast]]''.

In a book of interviews with Arthur Power (''Conversations with James Joyce''), [[James Joyce]] praised Dostoyevsky's influence:

{{quote|...he is the man more than any other who has created modern prose, and intensified it to its present-day pitch. It was his explosive power which shattered the Victorian novel with its simpering maidens and ordered commonplaces; books which were without imagination or violence.}}

In her essay ''The Russian Point of View'', [[Virginia Woolf]] said:

{{quote|The novels of Dostoevsky are seething whirlpools, gyrating sandstorms, waterspouts which hiss and boil and suck us in. They are composed purely and wholly of the stuff of the soul. Against our wills we are drawn in, whirled round, blinded, suffocated, and at the same time filled with a giddy rapture. Out of Shakespeare there is no more exciting reading.<ref>[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/w/woolf/virginia/w91c/chapter16.html The Russian Point of View] Virginia Woolf.</ref>}}
[[Image:Dostoevsky-Library Moscow Russia.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Dostoyevsky beside the Library Moscow]]

Dostoyevsky displayed a nuanced understanding of human psychology in his major works. He created an opus of vitality and almost hypnotic power, characterized by feverishly dramatized scenes where his characters are frequently in scandalous and explosive atmospheres, passionately engaged in [[Socratic dialogue]]s. The quest for God, the [[problem of Evil]] and suffering of the innocents haunt the majority of his novels.

His characters fall into a few distinct categories: humble and self-effacing [[Christianity|Christians]] ([[Prince Myshkin]], [[Sonya Marmeladova]], [[Alyosha Karamazov]], [[Saint Ambrose of Optina|Starets Zosima]]), self-destructive [[nihilism|nihilists]] ([[Svidrigailov]], [[Smerdyakov]], [[Stavrogin]], [[Notes from Underground|the underground man]]){{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}, cynical debauchees ([[Fyodor Karamazov]], [[Dmitri Karamazov]]), and rebellious intellectuals ([[Raskolnikov]], [[Ivan Karamazov]], [[Ippolit]]); also, his characters are driven by ideas rather than by ordinary biological or social imperatives. In comparison with [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]], whose characters are [[Literary realism|realistic]], the characters of Dostoyevsky are usually more symbolic of the ideas they represent, thus Dostoyevsky is often cited as one of the forerunners of [[Symbolism|Literary Symbolism]] in specific [[Russian Symbolism]] (see [[Alexander Blok]]).
[[Image:Dostoevsky MR280908.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky beside the birthplace Moscow]]

Dostoyevsky's novels are compressed in time (many cover only a few days) and this enables him to get rid of one of the dominant traits of [[realism (arts)|realist]] prose, the corrosion of human life in the process of the time flux; his characters primarily embody spiritual values, and these are, by definition, timeless. Other themes include [[suicide]], wounded pride, collapsed family values, spiritual regeneration through suffering, rejection of the West and affirmation of [[Russian Orthodoxy]] and [[Tsarism]]. Literary scholars such as [[Mikhail Bakhtin|Bakhtin]] have characterized his work as "[[Polyphony (literature)|polyphonic]]": Dostoyevsky does not appear to aim for a "single vision", and beyond simply describing situations from various angles, Dostoyevsky engendered fully dramatic novels of ideas where conflicting views and characters are left to develop unevenly into unbearable crescendo.

Dostoyevsky and the other giant of late 19th century [[Russian literature]], [[Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy]], never met in person, even though each praised, criticized, and influenced the other (Dostoyevsky remarked of Tolstoy's ''[[Anna Karenina]]'' that it was a "flawless work of art"; [[Henri Troyat]] reports that Tolstoy once remarked of ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' that, "Once you read the first few chapters you know pretty much how the novel will end up").{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}} There was a meeting arranged, but there was a confusion about where the meeting place was to take place and they never rescheduled. Tolstoy reportedly{{Who|date=June 2009}} burst into tears when he learned of Dostoyevsky's death. A copy of ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' was found on the nightstand next to Tolstoy's deathbed at the [[Lev Tolstoy (settlement)|Astapovo]] railway station.
[[Image:450px-Grab-dostojewsky.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky's tomb at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]]]]

Dostoyevsky has also been noted as having expressed anti-Semitic sentiments. In the recent biography by [[Joseph Frank (academic)|Joseph Frank]], ''The Mantle of the Prophet,'' Frank spent much time on ''A Writer's Diary'' — a regular column which Dostoyevsky wrote in the periodical ''The Citizen'' from 1873 to the year before his death in 1881. Frank notes that the ''Diary'' is "filled with politics, literary criticism, and pan-Slav diatribes about the virtues of the Russian Empire, [and] represents a major challenge to the Dostoyevsky fan, not least on account of its frequent expressions of antisemitism."<ref>''Dostoevsky's leap of faith This volume concludes a magnificent biography which is also a cultural history.'' Orlando Figes. ''Sunday Telegraph'' (London). Pg. 13. September 29, 2002.</ref> Frank, in his foreword for the book ''Dostoevsky and the Jews'', attempts to place Dostoyevsky as a product of his time. Steven Cassedy, for example, alleges in his book, ''Dostoevsky's Religion'', that much of the depiction of Dostoyevsky’s views as anti-Semitic denies that Dostoyevsky expressed support for the equal rights of the Russian Jewish population, a position that was not widely supported in Russia at the time.<ref name="Cassedy1">{{cite book |title= Dostoevsky's Religion |last= Cassedy |first= Steven |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2005 |publisher= [[Stanford University Press]] |isbn= 0804751374 |pages= 67–80}}</ref> Cassedy also notes that this criticism of Dostoyevsky also appears to deny his sincerity when he said that he was for equal rights for the Russian Jewish populace and the [[Russian serfdom|Serf]]s of his own country (since neither group at that point in history had equal rights),<ref name=Cassedy1/> or when he stated that he did not hate Jewish people and was not an Anti-Semite.<ref name=Cassedy1/> According to Cassedy, this does not take into consideration Dostoyevsky's expressed desire to peacefully reconcile Jews and Christians into a single universal brotherhood of all mankind.<ref name=Cassedy1 />

In 2008, Dostoyevsky was elected to be one of 12 most notable personalities in Russian history by votes of [[Russia TV channel]] audience. His promoter in the TV show called [[Name of Russia]] was Russian Ambassador to NATO [[Dmitriy Rogozin]].

==Dostoyevsky and Existentialism==
With the publication of ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' in 1866, Dostoyevsky became one of Russia's most prominent authors. [[Will Durant]], in ''[[The Pleasures of Philosophy]]'', called Dostoyevsky one of the founding fathers of the philosophical movement known as [[existentialism]], and cited ''[[Notes from Underground]]'' in particular as a founding work of existentialism. For Dostoyevsky, [[war]] is the people's rebellion against the idea that [[reason]] guides everything, and thus, reason is the ultimate guiding principle for neither [[history]] nor [[human|mankind]]. After his 1849 exile to the city of [[Omsk]], Siberia, Dostoyevsky focused heavily on notions of [[suffering]] and [[wiktionary:despair|despair]] in many of his works.

[[Nietzsche]] referred to Dostoyevsky as "the only psychologist from whom I have something to learn: he belongs to the happiest windfalls of my life, happier even than the discovery of [[Stendhal]]." He said that ''Notes from Underground'' "cried truth from the blood." According to [[Kontinent|Mihajlo Mihajlov]]'s "The Great Catalyzer: Nietzsche and Russian Neo-Idealism", [[Nietzsche]] constantly refers to Dostoyevsky in his notes and drafts throughout the winter of 1886–1887. Nietzsche also wrote abstracts of several Dostoyevsky works.

[[Freud]] wrote an article titled "[[Dostoevsky and Parricide]]", asserting that the greatest works in world literature are all about [[parricide]]; though he is critical of Dostoyevsky's work overall, his inclusion of ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' among the three greatest works of literature is remarkable.

==List of works==
===Novels===
*(1846) ''Bednye lyudi'' (Бедные люди); English translation: ''[[Poor Folk]]''
*(1846) ''Dvojnik'' (Двойник. Петербургская поэма); English translation: ''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem]]''
*(1849) ''Netochka Nezvanova'' (Неточка Незванова); a proper feminine name, English transliteration: ''[[Netochka Nezvanova (novel)|Netochka Nezvanova]]'' (Unfinished)
*(1859) ''Dyadyushkin son'' (Дядюшкин сон); English translation: ''The Uncle's Dream''
*(1859) ''Selo Stepanchikovo i ego obitateli'' (Село Степанчиково и его обитатели); English translation: ''[[The Village of Stepanchikovo]]''
*(1861) ''Unizhennye i oskorblennye'' (Униженные и оскорбленные); English translation: ''[[The Insulted and Humiliated]]''
*(1862) ''Zapiski iz mertvogo doma'' (Записки из мертвого дома); English translation: ''[[The House of the Dead (novel)|The House of the Dead]]''
*(1864) ''Zapiski iz podpolya'' (Записки из подполья); English translation: ''[[Notes from Underground]]''
*(1866) ''Prestuplenie i nakazanie'' (Преступление и наказание); English translation: ''[[Crime and Punishment]]''
*(1867) ''Igrok'' (Игрок); English translation: ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]''
*(1869) ''Idiot'' (Идиот); English translation: ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]''
*(1870) ''Vechnyj muzh'' (Вечный муж); English translation: ''The Eternal Husband''
*(1872) ''Besy'' (Бесы); English translation: ''[[The Possessed (novel)|The Possessed]]''
*(1875) ''Podrostok'' (Подросток); English translation: ''[[The Raw Youth]]''
*(1881) ''Brat'ya Karamazovy'' (Братья Карамазовы); English translation: ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''

===Novellas and short stories===
*(1846) ''Gospodin Prokharchin'' (Господин Прохарчин); English translation: ''Mr. Prokharchin''
*(1847) ''Roman v devyati pis'mah'' (Роман в девяти письмах); English translation: ''Novel in Nine Letters''
*(1847) ''Hozyajka'' (Хозяйка); English translation: ''The Landlady''
*(1848) ''Polzunkov'' (Ползунков); English translation: ''Polzunkov''
*(1848) ''Slaboe serdze'' (Слабое сердце); English translation: ''A Weak Heart''
*(1848) ''Chestnyj vor'' (Честный вор); English translation:) ''[[An Honest Thief]]''
*(1848) ''Elka i svad'ba'' (Елка и свадьба); English translation: ''[[A Christmas Tree and a Wedding]]''
*(1848) ''Chuzhaya zhena i muzh pod krovat'yu'' (Чужая җена и муҗ под кроватю); English translation: ''The Jealous Husband''
*(1848) ''Belye nochi'' (Белые ночи); English translation: ''[[White Nights (short story)|White Nights]]''
*(1849) ''Malen'kij geroj'' (Маленький герой); English translation: ''A Little Hero''
*(1862) ''Skvernyj anekdot'' (Скверный анекдот); English translation: ''[[A Nasty Story]]''
*(1865) ''Krokodil'' (Крокодил); English translation: ''[[The Crocodile (short story)|The Crocodile]]''
*(1873) ''Bobok'' (Бобок); English translation: ''[[Bobok]]''
*(1876) ''Krotkaja'' (Кроткая); English translation: ''[[A Gentle Creature]]''
*(1876) ''Muzhik Marej'' (Мужик Марей); English translation: ''[[The Peasant Marey]]''
*(1876) ''Mal'chik u Hrista na elke'' (Мальчик у Христа на елке); English translation: ''The Heavenly Christmas Tree''
*(1877) ''Son smeshnogo cheloveka'' (Сон смешного человека); English translation: ''[[The Dream of a Ridiculous Man]]''
The last five stories (1873-1877) are included in ''[[A Writer's Diary]]''.

===Non-fiction===
* ''Winter Notes on Summer Impressions'' (1863)
* ''[[A Writer's Diary]]'' (Дневник писателя) (1873–1881)
* Letters

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Albert Camus]]
* [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]
* [[Anti-Catholicism]]
* [[Determinism]]
* [[Existentialism]]
* [[Free will]]
* [[Hesychasm]]
* [[History of Eastern Christianity]]
* [[History of the Eastern Orthodox Church]]
* [[History of the Russian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Ivan Ilyin]]
* [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]
* [[Lev Shestov]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Mikhail Bakhtin]]
* [[Mikhail Epstein]]
* [[Negative theology]]
* [[Nihilism]]
* [[Nikolai Berdyaev]]
* [[Nikolai Lossky]]
* [[Nikolay Strakhov]]
* [[Philokalia]]
* [[Russian Philosophy]]
* [[Russian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Søren Kierkegaard]]
* [[Voluntarism (philosophy)|Voluntarism]]
* [[Vasily Rozanov]]
* [[Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov]]
{{col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{wikisource|Author:Fyodor Dostoevsky|Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Фёдор Михайлович Достоевский}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Fyodor+Dostoyevsky | name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* [http://Dostoyevsky.thefreelibrary.com/ Fyodor Dostoevsky's brief biography and works]
* [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Dostoyevsky%2c+ Selected Dostoevsky e-texts from Penn Librarys digital library project]
*[http://ilibrary.ru/author/dostoevski/ Full texts of some Dostoevsky's works in the original Russian]
* [http://www.magister.msk.ru/library/dostoevs/ Another site with full texts of Dostoevsky's works in Russian]
*[http://www.fmdostoyevsky.com Fyodor Dostoyevsky] - Biography, ebooks, quotations, and other resources
* [http://www.kiosek.com/dostoevsky/contents.html Dostoevsky Research Station]
* [http://people.emich.edu/wmoss/publications/ Alexander II and his times: A Narrative History of Russia in the Age of Alexander II, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky]
* ''Dostoevsky,'' Joseph Frank. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1979-2003 (5 volumes).
* {{IBList |type=author|id=96|name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* [http://www.the-ledge.com/flash/ledge.php?book=75&lan=UK Dostoyevsky 'Bookweb' on literary website The Ledge, with suggestions for further reading.]
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-29930}}
* [http://www.mootnotes.com/literature/dostoevsky/index.html Dostoevsky works (HTML/PDF), media gallery & interactive timeline]
* [http://forums.toketastic.com/User/Discussion.aspx?id=186088 Crime and Punishment Review]
* [http://www.tanais.info/art/en/inquisitor.html Legend of the Grand Inquisitor] from ''Brothers Karamazov'' by Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky.
* [http://www.FyodorDostoevsky.com FyodorDostoevsky.com] - Fan site: discussion forum, essays, e-texts, photos, biography, quotes, and links
{{Fyodor Dostoevsky}}

{{Persondata
|NAME= Dostoevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich
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|SHORT DESCRIPTION= Russian novelist
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[[Category:Christian novelists]]
[[Category:Deaths from emphysema]]
[[Category:Deaths from epilepsy]]
[[Category:People with epilepsy]]
[[Category:Russians of Belarusian descent]]
[[Category:Russians of Ukrainian descent]]
[[Category:Polish nobility]]
[[Category:Russian monarchists]]
[[Category:Christian Existentialists]]

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[[zh:費奧多爾·陀思妥耶夫斯基]]

Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski

2009-08-15T23:05:01Z

Languagehat: improved discussion of family name; deleted "Rdishev" statement as lacking support

{{For|the cruise ship|MS Feodor Dostoevskiy}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2008}}
{{Infobox Writer 
| name = Fyodor Dostoyevsky
| image = Dostoevskij 1872.jpg
| birthdate = {{birth date|1821|11|11|mf=y}}
| birthplace = [[Moscow]], [[Russian Empire]]
| deathdate = {{Death date and age|1881|2|9|1821|11|11}}
| deathplace = [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire]]
| occupation = [[Novelist]]
| nationality =
| period=
| genre= [[suspense]], [[literary fiction]]
| subject=
| movement=
| religion = [Russian Orthodox]
| notableworks= ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]'' ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''
| spouse=
| children=
| relatives=
| influences= Writers: [[Miguel de Cervantes]]<ref>[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5055894/Dostoevsky-s-other-Quixote-influence.html Dostoevsky's other Quixote.(influence of Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote on Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Idiot)] Fambrough, Preston</ref>, [[Charles Dickens]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], [[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Nikolai Gogol]], [[Victor Hugo]], [[E.T.A. Hoffmann]], [[Mikhail Lermontov]], [[Adam Mickiewicz]], [[Alexander Pushkin]], Philosophers: [[Mikhail Bakunin]], [[Vissarion Belinsky]], [[Nikolai Chernyshevsky]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], [[Aleksandr Herzen]], [[Konstantin Leontyev]], [[Sergei Nechaev]], [[Mikhail Petrashevsky]], [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Vladimir Solovyov]], [[Tikhon of Zadonsk]]
| influenced = [[Knut Hamsun]], [[Richard Brautigan]], [[Charles Bukowski]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Orhan Pamuk]]<ref>{{cite book
| first = Orhan
| last = Pamuk
| authorlink = Orhan Pamuk
| title = [[Istanbul: Memories of a City]]
| publisher = [[Vintage Books]]
| year = 2006
| isbn = 978-1400033881
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| first = Orhan
| last = Pamuk
| authorlink = Orhan Pamuk
| title = [[Other Colors: Essays and a Story]]
| publisher = [[Vintage Books]]
| year = 2008
| isbn = 978-0307386236
}}</ref>, [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Witold Gombrowicz]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Jack Kerouac]], [[James Joyce]], [[Czesław Miłosz]], [[Yukio Mishima]], [[Alberto Moravia]], [[Iris Murdoch]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Marcel Proust]], [[Ayn Rand]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], [[Wisława Szymborska]], [[Irvine Welsh]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[Cormac McCarthy]], [[Ken Kesey]], [[Albert Einstein]]
}}
'''Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky''' ({{lang-ru|Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский}}, ''Fёdor Mihajlovič Dosto'evskij,'' {{IPA-ru|ˈfʲodər mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪtɕ dəstɐˈjɛfskʲɪj|pron|ru-Dostoevsky.ogg}},<ref>loose phonetic pronunciation: fyo-der mi-(k)hail-a-vitch das-ta-yef-skee)</ref> sometimes [[Transliteration of Russian into English|transliterated]] '''Dostoevsky''', '''Dostoievsky''', '''Dostojevskij''', '''Dostoevski''' or '''Dostoevskii''' ({{OldStyleDate|November 11,|1821|October 30}} – {{OldStyleDate|February 9,|1881|January 28}}) was a [[Russian people|Russian]] [[writer]], [[essayist]] and [[philosopher]], known for his novels ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' and ''[[The Brothers Karamazov (novel)|The Brothers Karamazov]]''.

Dostoyevsky's literary output explores human [[psychology]] in the troubled [[political]], [[social]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]] context of 19th-century Russian society. Considered by many as a founder or precursor of 20th-century [[existentialism]], his ''[[Notes from Underground]]'' (1864), written in the embittered voice of the anonymous "underground man", was called by [[Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)|Walter Kaufmann]] the "best overture for existentialism ever written."<ref>Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Sartre Walter Kaufmann ISBN 0452009308 page 12</ref> A prominent figure in [[world literature]], Dostoyevsky is often acknowledged by critics as one of the greatest psychologists in world literature, <ref name="BritannicaRussianLit">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513793/Russian-literature|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-04-11|title=Russian literature|quote=Dostoyevsky, who is generally regarded as one of the supreme psychologists in world literature, sought to demonstrate the compatibility of Christianity with the deepest truths of the psyche.}}</ref> although some fellow novelists have assessed his works as mediocre and full of [[platitude]]s.<ref name="NabokovOnDostoyevsky"/>

==Biography==
===Family origins===
[[Image:Wki Dostoyevsky Street 2 Moscow Mariinsky Hospital.jpg|thumb|Mariinsky Hospital in [[Moscow]], Dostoyevsky's birthplace.]]
Dostoyevsky's mother was Russian. His paternal ancestors were from a village called Dostoyev in [[Belarus]], in the [[guberniya]] (province) of [[Minsk]], not far from [[Pinsk]]; the stress was originally on the second syllable, matching that of the town (Dostóev), but in the nineteenth century was shifted to the third syllable.<ref>B.O. Unbegaun, ''Russkie familii'' (Moscow: "Univers"), pp. 28, 345.</ref> According to one account, Dostoyevsky's paternal ancestors were Polonized nobles ([[szlachta]]) of Russian origin and went to war bearing Polish [[Radwan Coat of Arms]]. Dostoyevsky (Polish "Dostojewski") Radwan armorial bearings were drawn for the Dostoyevsky Museum in [[Moscow]].<ref>{{citation
| last=Dostoyevsky
| first=Aimée
| title=FYODOR DOSTOYEVSKY: A STUDY
| place=Honolulu, HAWAII
| publisher=[http://www.universitypressofthepacific.com/ University Press of the Pacific]
| year=2001
| url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/61397936
| isbn=0898751659
| pages=1, 6–7}}</ref>

===Early life===
Dostoyevsky was the second of six children born to Mikhail and Maria Dostoyevsky.<ref>The Best Short Stories of Dostoevsky: Translated with an Introduction by David Magarshack. New York: The Modern Library, Random House; 1971.</ref> Dostoyevsky's father Mikhail was a retired military surgeon and a violent [[alcoholic]], who had practiced at the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor in [[Moscow]]. The hospital was located in one of the city's worst areas; local landmarks included a cemetery for criminals, a lunatic asylum, and an orphanage for abandoned infants. This urban landscape made a lasting impression on the young Dostoyevsky, whose interest in and compassion for the poor, oppressed and tormented was apparent. Though his parents forbade it, Dostoyevsky liked to wander out to the hospital garden, where the suffering patients sat to catch a glimpse of sun. The young Dostoyevsky loved to spend time with these patients and hear their stories.

There are many stories of Dostoyevsky's father's despotic treatment of his children. After returning home from work, he would take a nap while his children, ordered to keep absolutely silent, stood by their slumbering father in shifts and swatted at any flies that came near his head. However, it is the opinion of Joseph Frank, a biographer of Dostoyevsky, that the father figure in ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' is not based on Dostoyevsky's own father. Letters and personal accounts demonstrate that they had a fairly loving relationship.

[[Image:Dostoevskij 1847.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The young Dostoyevsky, in a portrait of Trutovsky, 1847]]
Shortly after his mother died of [[tuberculosis]] in 1837, Dostoyevsky and his brother were sent to the Military Engineering Academy at [[Saint Petersburg]]. Fyodor's father died in 1839. Though it has never been proven, it is believed by some that he was murdered by his own [[serf]]s.<ref>[http://worldebooklibrary.com/eBooks/Coradella_Collegiate_Bookshelf_Collection/Dostoevsky-notesfromtheunderground.pdf Notes from the Underground] Coradella Collegita Bookshelf edition, ''About the Author''.</ref> According to one account, they became enraged during one of his drunken fits of violence, restrained him, and poured [[vodka]] into his mouth until he drowned. A similar account appears in ''Notes from Underground''. Another story holds that Mikhail died of natural causes, and a neighboring landowner invented the story of his murder so that he might buy the estate inexpensively. Some{{Who|date=June 2009}} have argued that his father's personality had influenced the character of Fyodor Pavlovich Karamazov, the "wicked and sentimental buffoon", father of the main characters in his 1880 novel ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'', but such claims fail to withstand the scrutiny of many critics{{Who|date=June 2009}}.

Dostoyevsky had [[epilepsy]] and his first seizure occurred when he was nine years old.<ref>[http://www.epilepsy.com/epilepsy/famous_writers.html epilepsy.com] Famous authors with epilepsy.</ref> Epileptic seizures recurred sporadically throughout his life, and Dostoyevsky's experiences are thought{{Who|date=June 2009}} to have formed the basis for his description of Prince Myshkin's epilepsy in his novel ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]'' and that of Smerdyakov in ''The Brothers Karamazov'', among others.

At the [[Saint Petersburg Academy of Military Engineering]], Dostoyevsky was taught [[mathematics]], a subject he despised. However, he also studied literature by [[Shakespeare]], [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]], [[Victor Hugo]] and [[E.T.A. Hoffmann]]. Though he focused on areas different from mathematics, he did well on the exams and received a commission in 1841. That year, he wrote two romantic plays, influenced by the German Romantic poet/playwright [[Friedrich Schiller]]: ''[[Maria Stuart (play)|Mary Stuart]]'' and ''[[Boris Godunov]]''. The plays have not been preserved. Dostoyevsky described himself as a "dreamer" when he was a young man, and at that time revered [[Schiller]]. However, in the years during which he yielded his great masterpieces, his opinions changed and he sometimes poked fun at Schiller.

===Beginnings of a literary career===
Dostoyevsky was made a [[lieutenant]] in 1842, and left the Engineering Academy the following year. He completed a translation into Russian of [[Balzac]]'s novel ''[[Eugénie Grandet]]'' in 1843, but it brought him little or no attention. Dostoyevsky started to write his own fiction in late 1844 after leaving the army. In 1845, his first work, the epistolary short novel, ''[[Poor Folk]]'', published in the periodical ''The Contemporary'' ([[Sovremennik]]), was met with great acclaim. As legend has it, the editor of the magazine, poet [[Nikolai Nekrasov]], walked into the office of liberal critic [[Vissarion Belinsky]] and announced, "a new [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol]] has arisen!" Belinsky, his followers, and many others agreed. After the novel was fully published in book form at the beginning of the next year, Dostoyevsky became a literary celebrity at the age of 24.

In 1846, Belinsky and many others reacted negatively to his novella, ''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem|The Double]]'', a psychological study of a bureaucrat whose alter ego overtakes his life. Dostoyevsky's fame began to cool. Much of his work after ''[[Poor Folk]]'' met with mixed reviews and it seemed that Belinsky's prediction that Dostoyevsky would be one of the greatest writers of Russia was mistaken.

[[Image:Omsk Dostoyevskiy Monument.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Statue of Dostoyevsky in [[Omsk]]]]
===Exile in Siberia===
Dostoyevsky was arrested and imprisoned on April 23, 1849 for being a part of the [[Liberalism|liberal]] intellectual group, the [[Petrashevsky Circle]]. [[Tsar]] [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] after seeing the [[Revolutions of 1848]] in [[Europe]] was harsh on any sort of underground organization which he felt could put [[autocracy]] into jeopardy. On [[November 16]] that year Dostoyevsky, along with the other members of the Petrashevsky Circle, was [[death sentence|sentenced to death]]. After a [[mock execution]], in which he and other members of the group stood outside in freezing weather waiting to be shot by a [[firing squad]], Dostoyevsky's sentence was commuted to four years of [[exile]] with hard labor at a [[katorga]] prison camp in [[Omsk]], [[Siberia]]. Dostoyevsky described later to his brother the sufferings he went through as the years in which he was "shut up in a coffin." Describing the dilapidated barracks which, as he put in his own words, "should have been torn down years ago", he wrote:
{{quote|In summer, intolerable closeness; in winter, unendurable cold. All the floors were rotten. Filth on the floors an inch thick; one could slip and fall...We were packed like herrings in a barrel...There was no room to turn around. From dusk to dawn it was impossible not to behave like pigs...Fleas, lice, and black beetles by the bushel...<ref>Frank 76. Quoted from Pisma, I: 135-137.</ref>}}

He was released from prison in 1854, and was required to serve in the [[Siberian Regiment]]. Dostoyevsky spent the following five years as a private (and later lieutenant) in the Regiment's Seventh Line Battalion, stationed at the fortress of [[Semey|Semipalatinsk]], now in [[Kazakhstan]]. While there, he began a relationship with [[Maria Dmitrievna Isayeva]], the wife of an acquaintance in Siberia. They married in February 1857, after her husband's death.

===Post-prison maturation as a writer===
[[Image:Valikhanov.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky (right) and the [[Kazakhstan]]i scholar [[Shokan Walikhanuli]] in 1859]]
Dostoyevsky's experiences in prison and the army resulted in major changes in his political and religious convictions. Firstly, his ordeal somehow caused him to become disillusioned with "Western" ideas; he repudiated the contemporary Western [[Europe]]an philosophical movements, and instead paid greater tribute in his writing to traditional, rural-based, rustic Russian values exemplified in the [[Slavophil]] concept of [[sobornost]]. But even more significantly, he had what his biographer Joseph Frank describes as a [[Religious conversion|conversion]] experience in prison,{{Page number}} which greatly strengthened his [[Christian]], and specifically [[Russian Orthodox|Orthodox]], faith (Dostoyevsky would later depict his conversion experience in the short story, ''[[The Peasant Marey]]'' (1876)).

In his writings, Dostoyevsky started to extol the virtues of [[humility]], [[submission]], and [[suffering]].<ref name="Nab81Censors">[[Vladimir Nabokov]] (1981) ''[[Lectures on Russian Literature]]'', lecture on ''Russian Writers, Censors, and Readers'', p.14</ref> He now displayed a much more critical stance on contemporary European philosophy and turned with intellectual rigour against the [[Nihilist movement|Nihilist]] and [[Socialism|Socialist]] movements; and much of his post-prison work—particularly the novel, ''[[The Possessed (novel)|The Possessed]]'', and the essays, ''[[A Writer's Diary|The Diary of a Writer]]''—contains both criticism of socialist and nihilist ideas, as well as thinly-veiled parodies of contemporary Western-influenced Russian intellectuals ([[Timofey Granovsky]]), revolutionaries ([[Sergey Nechayev]]), and even fellow novelists ([[Ivan Turgenev]]).<ref>Dostoevsky the Thinker James P. Scanlan. Dostoevsky the Thinker. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002. xiii, pp. 251</ref><ref>[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jim_forest/pevear.htm Dostoevsky's View of Evil] Reprinted from ''In Communion'', April 1998.</ref> In social circles, Dostoyevsky allied himself with well-known conservatives, such as the statesman [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]]. His post-prison essays praised the tenets of the [[Pochvennichestvo]] movement, a late-19th century Russian nativist ideology closely aligned with [[Slavophile|Slavophilism]].

Dostoyevsky's post-prison fiction abandoned the European-style domestic melodramas and quaint character studies of his youthful work in favor of dark, more complex story-lines and situations, played-out by brooding, tortured characters—often styled partly on Dostoyevsky himself—who agonized over [[existentialism|existential]] themes of spiritual torment, religious awakening, and the psychological confusion caused by the conflict between traditional Russian culture and the influx of modern, Western philosophy. This, nonetheless, does not take from the debt which Dostoyevsky owed to the earlier (Western influenced within Russia [[Gogol]]) writers whose work grew from out of the irrational and anti-authoritarian spiritualist ideas contained within the Romantic movement which had immediately preceded Dostoyevsky in Europe. However, Dostoyevsky's major novels focused on the idea that [[utopias]] and [[positivist]] ideas being [[utilitarian]] were unrealistic and unobtainable.<ref>{{cite book | last = Sirotkina | first = Irina | title = Diagnosing Literary Genius: A Cultural History of Psychiatry in Russia, 1880 | year = 1996 | publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | page = 55 | isbn = 0801867827}}</ref>

===Later literary career===
[[Image:Dostoevskij 1863.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky in 1863]]
In December 1859, Dostoyevsky returned to [[Saint Petersburg]], where he ran a series of unsuccessful literary journals, ''Vremya'' (Time) and ''Epokha'' (Epoch), with his older brother Mikhail. The latter was shut down as a consequence of its coverage of the [[January Uprising|Polish Uprising of 1863]]. That year Dostoyevsky traveled to Europe and frequented the gambling casinos. There he met [[Apollinaria Suslova]], the model for Dostoyevsky's "proud women", such as the two characters named Katerina Ivanovna, in ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' and ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''.

Dostoyevsky was devastated by his wife's death in 1864, which was followed shortly thereafter by his brother's death. He was financially crippled by business debts; furthermore, he decided to assume the responsibility of his deceased brother's outstanding debts, and he also provided for his wife's son from her earlier marriage and his brother's widow and children. Dostoyevsky sank into a deep [[depression (mood)|depression]], frequenting gambling parlors and accumulating massive losses at the tables.

Dostoyevsky suffered from an acute gambling compulsion and its consequences. By one account{{Who|date=June 2009}} he completed ''Crime and Punishment'', possibly his best known novel, in a mad hurry because he was in urgent need of an advance from his publisher. He had been left practically penniless after a gambling spree. Dostoyevsky wrote ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]'' simultaneously in order to satisfy an agreement with his publisher [[Stellovsky]] who, if he did not receive a new work, would have claimed the copyrights to all of Dostoyevsky's writings.

Motivated by the dual wish to escape his creditors at home and to visit the casinos abroad, Dostoyevsky traveled to [[Western Europe]]. There, he attempted to rekindle a love affair with Suslova, but she refused his marriage proposal. Dostoyevsky was heartbroken, but soon met [[Anna Grigorevna Snitkina]], a twenty-year-old [[stenographer]]. Shortly before marrying her in 1867, he dictated ''The Gambler'' to her. This period resulted in the writing of what are generally considered{{Who|date=June 2009}} to be his greatest books. From 1873 to 1881 he published the ''Writer's Diary'', a monthly journal of short stories, sketches, and articles on current events. The journal was an enormous success.

Dostoyevsky influenced and was influenced by the philosopher [[Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov]]. Solovyov was the inspiration for the characters [[Ivan Karamazov]] and [[Alyosha Karamazov]].<ref>Zouboff, Peter, Solovyov on Godmanhood: Solovyov’s Lectures on Godmanhood Harmon Printing House: Poughkeepsie, New York, 1944; see Czeslaw Milosz’s introduction to Solovyov’s War, Progress and the End of History. Lindisfarne Press: Hudson, New York 1990.</ref>

In 1877, Dostoyevsky gave the keynote [[eulogy]] at the funeral of his friend, the poet [[Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov|Nekrasov]], to much controversy{{Who|date=June 2009}}. On [[June 8]], [[1880]], shortly before he died, he gave his famous [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]] speech at the unveiling of the Pushkin monument in Moscow.<ref>[http://az.lib.ru/d/dostoewskij_f_m/text_0340.shtml az.lib.ru]</ref>

In his later years, Fyodor Dostoyevsky lived for a long time at the resort of [[Staraya Russa]] in northwestern Russia, which was closer to [[Saint Petersburg]] and less expensive than German resorts. He died on {{OldStyleDate|February 9,|1881|January 28}} of a lung hemorrhage associated with [[emphysema]] and an [[epileptic seizure]]. He was interred in [[Tikhvin Cemetery]] at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]] in [[Saint Petersburg]]. Forty thousand mourners attended his funeral.<ref>Dostoevsky, Fyodor; Introduction to The Idiot, Wordsworth Ed. Ltd, 1996.</ref> His tombstone reads "Verily, Verily, I say unto you, Except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone: but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit." from [[Gospel of John|John]] 12:24, which is also the [[Epigraph (literature)|epigraph]] of his final novel, ''The Brothers Karamazov''.

==Works and influence==
[[Image:Dostoevsky.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky in 1879]]
Some like journalist [[Otto Friedrich]],<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Time Magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,943893,00.html?promoid=googlep|accessdate=2008-04-10|title=Freaking-Out with Fyodor|author=Otto Friedrich}}</ref> consider Dostoyevsky to be one of Europe's major novelists, while others like [[Vladimir Nabokov]] maintain that from point of view of enduring art and individual genius, he is a rather mediocre writer which produced wastelands of literary [[platitude]]s.<ref name="NabokovOnDostoyevsky">[[Vladimir Nabokov]] (1981) ''[[Lectures on Russian Literature]]'', lecture on ''Fyodor Dostoyevsky'', p.68. Quote: "he is not a great writer, but a rather mediocre one—with flashes of excellent humor, but, alas, with wastelands of literary platitudes in between."</ref>

Dostoyevsky promoted in his novels religious moralities, particularly those of [[Orthodox Christianity]].<ref name="BritannicaRussianLit"/> Nabokov metioned in his University courses at [[Cornell University|Cornell]], that such religious propaganda, rather than artistic qualities, was the main reason Dostoyevsky was praised and regarded as a 'Prophet' in Russia.<ref name="NabokovOnDostoyevsky"/>

Dostoyevsky has influenced many writers.

American novelist [[Ernest Hemingway]] cited Dostoyevsky as a major influence on his work, in his posthumous collection of sketches ''[[A Moveable Feast]]''.

In a book of interviews with Arthur Power (''Conversations with James Joyce''), [[James Joyce]] praised Dostoyevsky's influence:

{{quote|...he is the man more than any other who has created modern prose, and intensified it to its present-day pitch. It was his explosive power which shattered the Victorian novel with its simpering maidens and ordered commonplaces; books which were without imagination or violence.}}

In her essay ''The Russian Point of View'', [[Virginia Woolf]] said:

{{quote|The novels of Dostoevsky are seething whirlpools, gyrating sandstorms, waterspouts which hiss and boil and suck us in. They are composed purely and wholly of the stuff of the soul. Against our wills we are drawn in, whirled round, blinded, suffocated, and at the same time filled with a giddy rapture. Out of Shakespeare there is no more exciting reading.<ref>[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/w/woolf/virginia/w91c/chapter16.html The Russian Point of View] Virginia Woolf.</ref>}}
[[Image:Dostoevsky-Library Moscow Russia.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Dostoyevsky beside the Library Moscow]]

Dostoyevsky displayed a nuanced understanding of human psychology in his major works. He created an opus of vitality and almost hypnotic power, characterized by feverishly dramatized scenes where his characters are frequently in scandalous and explosive atmospheres, passionately engaged in [[Socratic dialogue]]s. The quest for God, the [[problem of Evil]] and suffering of the innocents haunt the majority of his novels.

His characters fall into a few distinct categories: humble and self-effacing [[Christianity|Christians]] ([[Prince Myshkin]], [[Sonya Marmeladova]], [[Alyosha Karamazov]], [[Saint Ambrose of Optina|Starets Zosima]]), self-destructive [[nihilism|nihilists]] ([[Svidrigailov]], [[Smerdyakov]], [[Stavrogin]], [[Notes from Underground|the underground man]]){{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}, cynical debauchees ([[Fyodor Karamazov]], [[Dmitri Karamazov]]), and rebellious intellectuals ([[Raskolnikov]], [[Ivan Karamazov]], [[Ippolit]]); also, his characters are driven by ideas rather than by ordinary biological or social imperatives. In comparison with [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]], whose characters are [[Literary realism|realistic]], the characters of Dostoyevsky are usually more symbolic of the ideas they represent, thus Dostoyevsky is often cited as one of the forerunners of [[Symbolism|Literary Symbolism]] in specific [[Russian Symbolism]] (see [[Alexander Blok]]).
[[Image:Dostoevsky MR280908.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky beside the birthplace Moscow]]

Dostoyevsky's novels are compressed in time (many cover only a few days) and this enables him to get rid of one of the dominant traits of [[realism (arts)|realist]] prose, the corrosion of human life in the process of the time flux; his characters primarily embody spiritual values, and these are, by definition, timeless. Other themes include [[suicide]], wounded pride, collapsed family values, spiritual regeneration through suffering, rejection of the West and affirmation of [[Russian Orthodoxy]] and [[Tsarism]]. Literary scholars such as [[Mikhail Bakhtin|Bakhtin]] have characterized his work as "[[Polyphony (literature)|polyphonic]]": Dostoyevsky does not appear to aim for a "single vision", and beyond simply describing situations from various angles, Dostoyevsky engendered fully dramatic novels of ideas where conflicting views and characters are left to develop unevenly into unbearable crescendo.

Dostoyevsky and the other giant of late 19th century [[Russian literature]], [[Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy]], never met in person, even though each praised, criticized, and influenced the other (Dostoyevsky remarked of Tolstoy's ''[[Anna Karenina]]'' that it was a "flawless work of art"; [[Henri Troyat]] reports that Tolstoy once remarked of ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' that, "Once you read the first few chapters you know pretty much how the novel will end up").{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}} There was a meeting arranged, but there was a confusion about where the meeting place was to take place and they never rescheduled. Tolstoy reportedly{{Who|date=June 2009}} burst into tears when he learned of Dostoyevsky's death. A copy of ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' was found on the nightstand next to Tolstoy's deathbed at the [[Lev Tolstoy (settlement)|Astapovo]] railway station.
[[Image:450px-Grab-dostojewsky.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky's tomb at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]]]]

Dostoyevsky has also been noted as having expressed anti-Semitic sentiments. In the recent biography by [[Joseph Frank (academic)|Joseph Frank]], ''The Mantle of the Prophet,'' Frank spent much time on ''A Writer's Diary'' — a regular column which Dostoyevsky wrote in the periodical ''The Citizen'' from 1873 to the year before his death in 1881. Frank notes that the ''Diary'' is "filled with politics, literary criticism, and pan-Slav diatribes about the virtues of the Russian Empire, [and] represents a major challenge to the Dostoyevsky fan, not least on account of its frequent expressions of antisemitism."<ref>''Dostoevsky's leap of faith This volume concludes a magnificent biography which is also a cultural history.'' Orlando Figes. ''Sunday Telegraph'' (London). Pg. 13. September 29, 2002.</ref> Frank, in his foreword for the book ''Dostoevsky and the Jews'', attempts to place Dostoyevsky as a product of his time. Steven Cassedy, for example, alleges in his book, ''Dostoevsky's Religion'', that much of the depiction of Dostoyevsky’s views as anti-Semitic denies that Dostoyevsky expressed support for the equal rights of the Russian Jewish population, a position that was not widely supported in Russia at the time.<ref name="Cassedy1">{{cite book |title= Dostoevsky's Religion |last= Cassedy |first= Steven |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2005 |publisher= [[Stanford University Press]] |isbn= 0804751374 |pages= 67–80}}</ref> Cassedy also notes that this criticism of Dostoyevsky also appears to deny his sincerity when he said that he was for equal rights for the Russian Jewish populace and the [[Russian serfdom|Serf]]s of his own country (since neither group at that point in history had equal rights),<ref name=Cassedy1/> or when he stated that he did not hate Jewish people and was not an Anti-Semite.<ref name=Cassedy1/> According to Cassedy, this does not take into consideration Dostoyevsky's expressed desire to peacefully reconcile Jews and Christians into a single universal brotherhood of all mankind.<ref name=Cassedy1 />

In 2008, Dostoyevsky was elected to be one of 12 most notable personalities in Russian history by votes of [[Russia TV channel]] audience. His promoter in the TV show called [[Name of Russia]] was Russian Ambassador to NATO [[Dmitriy Rogozin]].

==Dostoyevsky and Existentialism==
With the publication of ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' in 1866, Dostoyevsky became one of Russia's most prominent authors. [[Will Durant]], in ''[[The Pleasures of Philosophy]]'', called Dostoyevsky one of the founding fathers of the philosophical movement known as [[existentialism]], and cited ''[[Notes from Underground]]'' in particular as a founding work of existentialism. For Dostoyevsky, [[war]] is the people's rebellion against the idea that [[reason]] guides everything, and thus, reason is the ultimate guiding principle for neither [[history]] nor [[human|mankind]]. After his 1849 exile to the city of [[Omsk]], Siberia, Dostoyevsky focused heavily on notions of [[suffering]] and [[wiktionary:despair|despair]] in many of his works.

[[Nietzsche]] referred to Dostoyevsky as "the only psychologist from whom I have something to learn: he belongs to the happiest windfalls of my life, happier even than the discovery of [[Stendhal]]." He said that ''Notes from Underground'' "cried truth from the blood." According to [[Kontinent|Mihajlo Mihajlov]]'s "The Great Catalyzer: Nietzsche and Russian Neo-Idealism", [[Nietzsche]] constantly refers to Dostoyevsky in his notes and drafts throughout the winter of 1886–1887. Nietzsche also wrote abstracts of several Dostoyevsky works.

[[Freud]] wrote an article titled "[[Dostoevsky and Parricide]]", asserting that the greatest works in world literature are all about [[parricide]]; though he is critical of Dostoyevsky's work overall, his inclusion of ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' among the three greatest works of literature is remarkable.

==List of works==
===Novels===
*(1846) ''Bednye lyudi'' (Бедные люди); English translation: ''[[Poor Folk]]''
*(1846) ''Dvojnik'' (Двойник. Петербургская поэма); English translation: ''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem]]''
*(1849) ''Netochka Nezvanova'' (Неточка Незванова); a proper feminine name, English transliteration: ''[[Netochka Nezvanova (novel)|Netochka Nezvanova]]'' (Unfinished)
*(1859) ''Dyadyushkin son'' (Дядюшкин сон); English translation: ''The Uncle's Dream''
*(1859) ''Selo Stepanchikovo i ego obitateli'' (Село Степанчиково и его обитатели); English translation: ''[[The Village of Stepanchikovo]]''
*(1861) ''Unizhennye i oskorblennye'' (Униженные и оскорбленные); English translation: ''[[The Insulted and Humiliated]]''
*(1862) ''Zapiski iz mertvogo doma'' (Записки из мертвого дома); English translation: ''[[The House of the Dead (novel)|The House of the Dead]]''
*(1864) ''Zapiski iz podpolya'' (Записки из подполья); English translation: ''[[Notes from Underground]]''
*(1866) ''Prestuplenie i nakazanie'' (Преступление и наказание); English translation: ''[[Crime and Punishment]]''
*(1867) ''Igrok'' (Игрок); English translation: ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]''
*(1869) ''Idiot'' (Идиот); English translation: ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]''
*(1870) ''Vechnyj muzh'' (Вечный муж); English translation: ''The Eternal Husband''
*(1872) ''Besy'' (Бесы); English translation: ''[[The Possessed (novel)|The Possessed]]''
*(1875) ''Podrostok'' (Подросток); English translation: ''[[The Raw Youth]]''
*(1881) ''Brat'ya Karamazovy'' (Братья Карамазовы); English translation: ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''

===Novellas and short stories===
*(1846) ''Gospodin Prokharchin'' (Господин Прохарчин); English translation: ''Mr. Prokharchin''
*(1847) ''Roman v devyati pis'mah'' (Роман в девяти письмах); English translation: ''Novel in Nine Letters''
*(1847) ''Hozyajka'' (Хозяйка); English translation: ''The Landlady''
*(1848) ''Polzunkov'' (Ползунков); English translation: ''Polzunkov''
*(1848) ''Slaboe serdze'' (Слабое сердце); English translation: ''A Weak Heart''
*(1848) ''Chestnyj vor'' (Честный вор); English translation:) ''[[An Honest Thief]]''
*(1848) ''Elka i svad'ba'' (Елка и свадьба); English translation: ''[[A Christmas Tree and a Wedding]]''
*(1848) ''Chuzhaya zhena i muzh pod krovat'yu'' (Чужая җена и муҗ под кроватю); English translation: ''The Jealous Husband''
*(1848) ''Belye nochi'' (Белые ночи); English translation: ''[[White Nights (short story)|White Nights]]''
*(1849) ''Malen'kij geroj'' (Маленький герой); English translation: ''A Little Hero''
*(1862) ''Skvernyj anekdot'' (Скверный анекдот); English translation: ''[[A Nasty Story]]''
*(1865) ''Krokodil'' (Крокодил); English translation: ''[[The Crocodile (short story)|The Crocodile]]''
*(1873) ''Bobok'' (Бобок); English translation: ''[[Bobok]]''
*(1876) ''Krotkaja'' (Кроткая); English translation: ''[[A Gentle Creature]]''
*(1876) ''Muzhik Marej'' (Мужик Марей); English translation: ''[[The Peasant Marey]]''
*(1876) ''Mal'chik u Hrista na elke'' (Мальчик у Христа на елке); English translation: ''The Heavenly Christmas Tree''
*(1877) ''Son smeshnogo cheloveka'' (Сон смешного человека); English translation: ''[[The Dream of a Ridiculous Man]]''
The last five stories (1873-1877) are included in ''[[A Writer's Diary]]''.

===Non-fiction===
* ''Winter Notes on Summer Impressions'' (1863)
* ''[[A Writer's Diary]]'' (Дневник писателя) (1873–1881)
* Letters

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Albert Camus]]
* [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]
* [[Anti-Catholicism]]
* [[Determinism]]
* [[Existentialism]]
* [[Free will]]
* [[Hesychasm]]
* [[History of Eastern Christianity]]
* [[History of the Eastern Orthodox Church]]
* [[History of the Russian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Ivan Ilyin]]
* [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]
* [[Lev Shestov]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Mikhail Bakhtin]]
* [[Mikhail Epstein]]
* [[Negative theology]]
* [[Nihilism]]
* [[Nikolai Berdyaev]]
* [[Nikolai Lossky]]
* [[Nikolay Strakhov]]
* [[Philokalia]]
* [[Russian Philosophy]]
* [[Russian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Søren Kierkegaard]]
* [[Voluntarism (philosophy)|Voluntarism]]
* [[Vasily Rozanov]]
* [[Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov]]
{{col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{wikisource|Author:Fyodor Dostoevsky|Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Фёдор Михайлович Достоевский}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Fyodor+Dostoyevsky | name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* [http://Dostoyevsky.thefreelibrary.com/ Fyodor Dostoevsky's brief biography and works]
* [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Dostoyevsky%2c+ Selected Dostoevsky e-texts from Penn Librarys digital library project]
*[http://ilibrary.ru/author/dostoevski/ Full texts of some Dostoevsky's works in the original Russian]
* [http://www.magister.msk.ru/library/dostoevs/ Another site with full texts of Dostoevsky's works in Russian]
*[http://www.fmdostoyevsky.com Fyodor Dostoyevsky] - Biography, ebooks, quotations, and other resources
* [http://www.kiosek.com/dostoevsky/contents.html Dostoevsky Research Station]
* [http://people.emich.edu/wmoss/publications/ Alexander II and his times: A Narrative History of Russia in the Age of Alexander II, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky]
* ''Dostoevsky,'' Joseph Frank. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1979-2003 (5 volumes).
* {{IBList |type=author|id=96|name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* [http://www.the-ledge.com/flash/ledge.php?book=75&lan=UK Dostoyevsky 'Bookweb' on literary website The Ledge, with suggestions for further reading.]
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-29930}}
* [http://www.mootnotes.com/literature/dostoevsky/index.html Dostoevsky works (HTML/PDF), media gallery & interactive timeline]
* [http://forums.toketastic.com/User/Discussion.aspx?id=186088 Crime and Punishment Review]
* [http://www.tanais.info/art/en/inquisitor.html Legend of the Grand Inquisitor] from ''Brothers Karamazov'' by Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky.
* [http://www.FyodorDostoevsky.com FyodorDostoevsky.com] - Fan site: discussion forum, essays, e-texts, photos, biography, quotes, and links
{{Fyodor Dostoevsky}}

{{Persondata
|NAME= Dostoevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich; Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский (Russian)
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= Russian novelist
|DATE OF BIRTH= {{birth date|1821|11|11|mf=y}}
|PLACE OF BIRTH= Moscow
|DATE OF DEATH= {{death date|1881|2|9|mf=y}}
|PLACE OF DEATH= Saint Petersburg
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dostoevsky, Fyodor}}
[[Category:1821 births]]
[[Category:1881 deaths]]
[[Category:Russian essayists]]
[[Category:Russian novelists]]
[[Category:Russian writers]]
[[Category:Russian Orthodox Christians]]
[[Category:Russian Eastern Orthodox Christians]]
[[Category:Russian short story writers]]
[[Category:Christian novelists]]
[[Category:Deaths from emphysema]]
[[Category:Deaths from epilepsy]]
[[Category:People with epilepsy]]
[[Category:Russians of Belarusian descent]]
[[Category:Russians of Ukrainian descent]]
[[Category:Polish nobility]]
[[Category:Russian monarchists]]
[[Category:Christian Existentialists]]

{{Link FA|ca}}
{{Link FA|hr}}
{{Link FA|ml}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[af:Fjodor Dostojefski]]
[[am:ፍዮዶር ዶስቶየቭስኪ]]
[[ar:فيودور دوستويفسكي]]
[[an:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[az:Fyodor Dostoyevski]]
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[[cs:Fjodor Michajlovič Dostojevskij]]
[[cy:Fyodor Dostoievski]]
[[da:Fjodor Mikhajlovitj Dostojevskij]]
[[de:Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski]]
[[dsb:Fjodor Michajlowič Dostojewskij]]
[[et:Fjodor Dostojevski]]
[[el:Φιοντόρ Ντοστογιέφσκι]]
[[es:Fiódor Dostoyevski]]
[[eo:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
[[eu:Fiodor Dostojevski]]
[[fa:فئودور داستایوسکی]]
[[fr:Fedor Dostoïevski]]
[[gl:Fiódor Dostoievski]]
[[gan:多托頁夫斯基]]
[[ko:표도르 도스토옙스키]]
[[hy:Ֆյոդոր Դոստոևսկի]]
[[hr:Fjodor Mihajlovič Dostojevski]]
[[io:Fyodor Dostoyevski]]
[[id:Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]
[[os:Достоевский, Михаилы фырт Фёдор]]
[[is:Fjodor Dostojevskíj]]
[[it:Fëdor Michajlovič Dostoevskij]]
[[he:פיודור דוסטויבסקי]]
[[jv:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[ka:თედორე დოსტოევსკი]]
[[sw:Fyodor Dostoyevski]]
[[ku:Fyodor Dostoyevskî]]
[[la:Theodorus Dostoevskij]]
[[lv:Fjodors Dostojevskis]]
[[lb:Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski]]
[[lt:Fiodoras Dostojevskis]]
[[hu:Fjodor Mihajlovics Dosztojevszkij]]
[[mk:Фјодор Михајлович Достоевски]]
[[ml:ഫിയോദര്‍ ദസ്തയേവ്‌സ്കി]]
[[mr:फ्योदर दस्तयेवस्की]]
[[arz:دوستويفسكى]]
[[mn:Фёдор Михайлович Достоевский]]
[[nl:Fjodor Dostojevski]]
[[ja:フョードル・ドストエフスキー]]
[[no:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
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[[uz:Fyodor Dostoyevskiy]]
[[pag:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[pms:Fëdor Dostoevskij]]
[[pl:Fiodor Dostojewski]]
[[pt:Fiódor Dostoiévski]]
[[ro:Fiodor Dostoievski]]
[[ru:Достоевский, Фёдор Михайлович]]
[[sah:Фёдор Достоевскай]]
[[sq:Fëdor Michajlovič Dostoevskij]]
[[scn:Fëdor Mikhailovič Dostoevskij]]
[[simple:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[sk:Fiodor Michajlovič Dostojevskij]]
[[sl:Fjodor Mihajlovič Dostojevski]]
[[sr:Фјодор Михајлович Достојевски]]
[[sh:Fjodor Mihajlovič Dostojevski]]
[[fi:Fjodor Dostojevski]]
[[sv:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
[[tl:Fëdor Dostoevskij]]
[[ta:ஃபியோடார் டாஸ்டோவ்ஸ்கி]]
[[th:ฟีโอดอร์ ดอสโตเยฟสกี]]
[[tg:Фёдор Михайлович Достоевский]]
[[tr:Fyodor Mihayloviç Dostoyevski]]
[[uk:Достоєвський Федір Михайлович]]
[[ur:فیدرو دوستوفسکی]]
[[vi:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky]]
[[vo:Fyodor Mihailovic Dostoyevskiy]]
[[wa:Fyodor Mixhaylovitch Dostoyevskiy]]
[[war:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[bat-smg:Fiuoduors Duostuojėvskis]]
[[zh:費奧多爾·陀思妥耶夫斯基]]

Methow River

2009-07-31T18:14:10Z

Languagehat: corrected pronunciation

{{Geobox River

| name = Methow River
| native_name =
| other_name =
| other_name1 =

| image = Methow River.JPG
| image_size =
| image_caption = The Methow River at Mazama, Washington

| country = United States
| country1 =
| state = Washington
| state1 =
| region = [[Okanogan County, Washington|Okanogan County]]
| region1 =
| district =
| district1 =
| city = [[Winthrop, Washington| Winthrop]]
| city1 = [[Twisp, Washington| Twisp]]
| city2 = [[Pateros, Washington|Pateros]]

| length_imperial = 80
| length_note = <ref name="gazetteer">[http://www.bartleby.com/69/86/M06586.html Methow River], The Columbia Gazetteer of North America. 2000.</ref>
| watershed_imperial = 1825
| watershed_note = <ref name=subbasin>{{cite web |title= Wenatchee Subbasin Plan |publisher= Northwest Power and Conservation Council |url= http://www.nwcouncil.org/fw/subbasinplanning/wenatchee/plan/ |accessdate= 30 July 2009}}</ref>
| discharge_location = mouth
| discharge_imperial = 1522
| discharge_round = 2
| discharge_max_imperial = 27200
| discharge_min_imperial = 150
| discharge_note = <ref name="wdr">http://pubs.usgs.gov/wdr/2005/wdr-wa-05-1/ Water Resources Data-Washington Water Year 2005</ref>
| discharge1_location =
| discharge1_imperial =

| source_name = Cascade Range
| source_location = Methow Pass
| source_district =
| source_region =
| source_state =
| source_country =
| source_lat_d = 48
| source_lat_m = 35
| source_lat_s = 9
| source_lat_NS = N
| source_long_d = 120
| source_long_m = 44
| source_long_s = 44
| source_long_EW = W
| source_coordinates_note = <ref name="GNISmethow">{{Gnis|1523034|Methow River}}, [[USGS]] GNIS.</ref>
| source_elevation_imperial = 5677
| source_elevation_note = <ref name="GE">[[Google Earth]] elevation for GNIS coordinates.</ref>
| source_length_imperial =

| mouth_name = Columbia River
| mouth_location = [[Pateros, Washington|Pateros]]
| mouth_district =
| mouth_region =
| mouth_state =
| mouth_country =
| mouth_lat_d = 48
| mouth_lat_m = 3
| mouth_lat_s = 2
| mouth_lat_NS = N
| mouth_long_d = 119
| mouth_long_m = 53
| mouth_long_s = 43
| mouth_long_EW = W
| mouth_coordinates_note = <ref name="GNISmethow"/>
| mouth_elevation_imperial = 784
| mouth_elevation_note = <ref name="GE"/>

| tributary_left = <nowiki>Lost River</nowiki>
| tributary_left1 = Chewuch River
| tributary_right = Early Winters Creek
| tributary_right1 = Twisp River

| free_name =
| free_value =

| map =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
}}
The '''Methow River''' (pronounced /ˈmɛtˌhaʊ/, "MET-how"<ref>''Webster's Geographical Dictionary''.</ref>) is a [[tributary]] of the [[Columbia River]]. in northern [[Washington]] in the [[United States]]. The river's [[Drainage basin|watershed]] is 1,890 square miles, with a population of about 5,000 people. The Methow's watershed is characterized by relatively pristine habitats, with much of the river basin is located in national forests and wildernesses. Many tributaries drain the large [[Pasayten Wilderness]]. An earlier economy based on agriculture is giving way to one based on recreation and tourism.

The river was named after the Methow Indian Tribe (today part of the Confederated Tribes of the [[Colville Indian Reservation]]). The Indian name for the river was ''Buttlemuleemauch'', meaning "salmon falls river".<ref>{{cite book |last= Phillips |first= James W. |title= Washington State Place Names |year= 1971 |publisher= University of Washington Press |isbn= 0-295-95158-3}}</ref> In 1841 the [[United States Exploring Expedition|Wilkes Expedition]] named the river "Barrier River". [[Alexander Ross (fur trader)|Alexander Ross]] said the native name was Buttle-mule-emauch. In 1811 [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]] met the tribe living along the river nd wrote their name as Smeetheowe. In 1853 George Gibbs called the the river Methow or Barrier.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Meany |first= Edmond S. |authorlink= Edmond S. Meany |year= 1920 |title= Origin of Washington Geographic Names |journal= The Washington Historical Quarterly |volume= XI |page= 204 |publisher= Washington University State Historical Society |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=dbsUAAAAYAAJ |accessdate=2009-06-11}}</ref>

==Course==
The Methow River, along with its tributaries the Twisp River, Cedar Creek, and Early Winters Creek, originates in a cluster of high mountains such as Golden Horn, Tower Mountain, Cutthroat Peak, Snagtooth Ridge, Kangaroo Ridge, Early Winter Spires, and Liberty Bell. Several mountain passes are associated with the Methow River and its tributaries, such as Methow Pass and Twisp Pass. [[Washington State Route 20|State Route 20]] utilizes [[Washington Pass]] and [[Rainy Pass]], also in the general areas of headwater streams.

The [[Pacific Crest Trail]] follows the uppermost reach of the Methow River, until the river turns east, flowing into the Methow Valley near [[Mazama, Washington|Mazama]]. Along the way it collects the tributary streams of Robinson Creek and Lost River. In the Methow Valley, between Mazama and [[Winthrop, Washington|Winthrop]], the Methow River is joined by Early Winters Creek, Cedar Creek, Goat Creek, and Wolf Creek. The Chewuch River joins at Winthrop. One of the Methow's larger tributaries, the Chewuch River and its many tributaries drain large parts of the Pasayten Wilderness to the north. One of its headwater streams, Cathedral Creek, reaches nearly to [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]].

The Methow Valley continues below Winthrop to [[Twisp, Washington|Twisp]], where the Methow River is joined by another important tributary, the [[Twisp River]]. Flowing from the west, the Twisp River drains the mountains south of Washington Pass as well as the eastern slopes of Sawtooth Ridge, a major mountain range with some of Washington state's highest peaks (such as Star Peak and Mt Bigelow).

Downriver from Twisp, the Methow River passes by the communities of Carlton and Methow, receiving several minor tributaries, before joining the Columbia River at [[Pateros, Washington|Pateros]]. This part of the Columbia is the impoundment of [[Wells Dam]], a lake known as [[Lake Pateros]].

==See also==
* [[Tributaries of the Columbia River]]
* [[Methow, Washington]]
{{Commons|Category:Methow River|The Methow River}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Rivers of Washington (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Tributaries of the Columbia River]]

Rachid Mimouni

2009-07-17T15:14:53Z

Languagehat: deleted POV sentence

{{Infobox Person
| name = Rachid Mimouni
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1945|11|20|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Boudouaou]] (Alma), [[Algeria]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1995|2|12|1945|11|20|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[Paris, France|Paris]], [[France]]
| occupation = [[Writer]]
}}

'''Rachid Mimouni''' (In [[Arabic]]:رشيد ميموني) ([[November 20]], [[1945]] – [[February 12]], [[1995]]) was an Algerian writer, teacher and human rights activist.

Mimouni studied science at the [[University of Algiers]] before becoming a teacher at the ''École supérieure du commerce'' (business school) in Algiers. He was president of the [[Kateb Yacine]] foundation and he also held the position of vice-president at [[Amnesty International]]. He fled [[Algeria]] for [[France]] in 1993 to escape the civil war and the assassinations of intellectuals. He died in [[Paris]] in 1995 of [[hepatitis]].

Mimouni wrote novels describing Algerian society in a realist style.

==Works==

* « Le printemps n'en sera que plus beau » (1978)
* « Le Fleuve détourné » (1982)
* « Une paix à vivre » (1983)
* « Tombéza » (1984)
* « L'Honneur de la tribu » (1989)
* « La ceinture de l'ogresse » (1990)
* « Une peine à vivre » (1991)
* « De la barbarie en général et de l'intégrisme en particulier » (1992)
* « La Malédiction » (1993)

==Literary Awards==

* Prix de l'Amitié Franco-Arabe (Fraco-Arab Friendship Award) for « L'honneur de la tribu » (1990)
* Prix de la critique littéraire : Ruban de la francophonie (Literary Critics Award, best Francophone novel) for « L'honneur de la tribu » (1990)
* Prix de littérature-cinéma du festival international du film à Cannes (Cannes Film Festival Film-Literature Award) for « L'honneur de la tribu » (1990)
* Prix de l'Académie Française (Academie Francaise Award) for « La ceinture de l'ogresse » (1991)
* Prix Hassan II des Quatre Jurys (Hassan II Four Juries Award ) for his complete works (1992)
* Prix Albert Camus (Albert Camus Award) for « Une peine à vivre et De la barbarie en général et de l’intégrisme en particulier » (1993)
* Prix du Levant (Levant Award) for « La malédiction » (1993)
* Prix Liberté Littéraire (Literary Freedom Award) for « La malédiction » (1994)
* Prix spécial Grand Atlas (Special Grand Atlas Award) for his complete works (1995)

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mimouni, Rachid}}
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:1995 deaths]]
[[Category:Algerian writers]]
[[Category:Deaths from hepatitis]]

[[ar:رشيد ميموني]]
[[fr:Rachid Mimouni]]
[[ro:Rachid Mimouni]]
[[fi:Rachid Mimouni]]

Phanes (Mythologie)

2009-06-05T21:59:30Z

Languagehat:

In der [[Griechische Mythologie|griechischen Mythologie]] war '''Phanes''' (Φάνης, ''Licht'') bzw. '''Protogonus''' (Πρωτογόνος, ''Erstgeborener'') der urzeitliche [[Gott]] der Zeugung und der Erzeugung des neuen Lebens; zu seinen anderen Namen zählen Erikapaeus („Energie“) und Metis („Gedanke“). Er wird häufig mit [[Eros (Mythologie)|Eros]] und [[Mithras]] gleichgestellt und wird als eine [[Hermaphroditismus|hermaphroditische]] Gottheit dargestellt, die aus dem kosmischen Ei hervorging; umwunden mit einer Schlange.

Von Phanes glaubte man, dass er von [[Chronos]] und [[Ananke (Mythologie)|Ananke]] aus dem [[Weltenei]] ausgebrütet wurde.<ref>''[[Argonautika]]'' 12ff.</ref> Er war der Herrscher der Götter und vererbte seiner Tochter [[Nyx (Mythologie)|Nyx]] das [[Zepter]] der Herrschaft, die es später ihrem Sohn [[Uranos (Mythologie)|Uranos]] gab.

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.theoi.com/Protogenos/Phanes.html Phanes] auf Theoi.com (engl.)

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references/>

[[Kategorie:Griechische Gottheit]]

[[el:Φάνης (μυθολογία)]]
[[en:Phanes (mythology)]]
[[es:Fanes]]
[[it:Phanes]]
[[lt:Fanas]]
[[no:Phanes (mytologi)]]
[[pt:Phanes]]

Notion

2009-05-27T21:26:07Z

Languagehat:

'''Notion''' war eine antike [[Ionien|ionische]] Stadt an der Westküste [[Kleinasien]]s, die Hafenstadt für [[Kolophon]] und [[Klaros]]. Sie liegt in der heutigen Türkei ca. 50 km südlich von [[İzmir]] am Golf von [[Kuşadası]].

Dort kamen in der Antike die Pilger an, wenn sie Klaros besuchen wollten. Sie pilgerten etwa einen Kilometer auf einer heiligen Straße bis zum dortigen Orakel. Die Stadt liegt erhöht auf einem Hügel, von dem man das Meer gut überschauen konnte. Es gibt noch Reste der Befestigungsmauer, der Nekropole, der Tempel, der [[Agora]] und des [[Theater der griechischen Antike|Theaters]].

{{Coordinate |NS=37/59/34/N |EW=27/11/51/E |type=landmark |elevation=36 |region=TR-35}}
[[Kategorie:Antike griechische Stadt]]
[[Kategorie:Archäologischer Fundplatz in der Türkei]]

[[en:Notion (ancient city)]]

Erich Berneker

2009-04-26T14:35:01Z

Languagehat: AZ: Die Seite wurde neu angelegt: '''Erich Berneker''' (* 3. Februar 1874 in Königsberg, † 15. März 1937 in [[Köni…

'''Erich Berneker''' (* [[3. Februar]] [[1874]] in [[Königsberg]], † [[15. März]] [[1937]] in [[Königsberg]]) war ein deutscher [[Slawist]].

Er studierte Slawische und Baltische Philologie vor allem in [[Leipzig]] bei [[August Leskien]].

== Literatur ==
* Helmut Wilhelm Schaller: ''Erich Berneker: Leben und Werk'', P. Lang, 1999: ISBN 3631342535.

{{SORTIERUNG:Berneker, Erich}}
[[Kategorie:Slawist]]
[[Kategorie:Deutscher]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1874]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1937]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

Chipping Norton Castle

2009-03-12T15:23:35Z

Languagehat: added Old English to etymology

{{Infobox UK place
| official_name= Chipping Norton
| nickname= Chippy
| country= England
| region= South East England
| population= 5,972<ref name="population">{{cite web | url = http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=7&b=6096480&c=chipping+norton&d=14&e=16&g=481610&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1234221284148&enc=1&dsFamilyId=77 | title = Sex (UV03), Chipping Norton (Ward) | accessdate = 2009-02-09 | date = 2004-11-18 | work = 2001 Census: Census Area Statistics | publisher = Office for National Statistics | location = United Kingdom | quote = All People (Persons) Count: 5,972; Males (Persons) Count: 2,879; Females (Persons) Count: 3,093}}</ref>
| os_grid_reference= SP309269
| london_distance= 74.5mi
| latitude= 51.94
| longitude= -1.55
| post_town= CHIPPING NORTON
| postcode_area=
| postcode_district=
| dial_code= 01608
| constituency_westminster= [[Witney (UK Parliament constituency)|Witney]]
| civil_parish=
| shire_district= West Oxfordshire
| shire_county= [[Oxfordshire]]
| Coord |51|56|28|N|1|32|44|W|display=title,inline
}}

'''Chipping Norton''' is a [[town]] in the [[Cotswold Hills]] in [[Oxfordshire]], England, about {{convert|20|km|mi|0}} [[southwest]] of [[Banbury]]. It is the highest town above [[Elevation|sea level]] in Oxfordshire.

==History until the 17th century==

The [[Rollright Stones]], a [[stone circle]] {{convert|4|km|mi}} north of Chipping Norton, are evidence of prehistoric habitation in the area.

The town's name etymologically means 'market north town', with "Chipping" (from [[Old English]] ''cēping'') meaning 'market'. It is not clear what the original [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] settlement was north of, but John Blair, Professor of Medieval History and Archaeology at the [[University of Oxford]], suggested in [[2000]] at a lecture in Chipping Norton [[Town Hall]] that [[Charlbury]] to the [[south]], now a smaller town, was in [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] times a more important [[minster]] town and that Chipping Norton's "nor-" prefix refers to this geographical and pastoral relationship with Charlbury.

Chipping Norton began as a small settlement at the foot of a hill on which stand the [[motte-and-bailey]] [[Chipping Norton Castle]] Only the earthworks of the [[castle]] remain.

The [[parish church]] of [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Saint Mary the Virgin]] was built on the hill next to the castle. Parts of the present building may date from the [[12th century]]. It certainly retains features from the [[13th century|14th]] and [[14th century|14th]] [[century|centuries]]. The [[nave]] was largely rebuilt in about [[1485]] with a [[clerestorey]] in the [[English_gothic_architecture#Perpendicular_Gothic|Perpendicular]] style. This rebuilding is believed to have been funded by John Ashfield, a wool merchant, making St. Mary's an example of a "[[wool church]]". The [[bell tower]] was rebuilt in [[1825]].<ref>{{Cite book | author=Pevsner, Nikolaus| authorlink= | coauthors= Sherwood, Jennifer| title=The Buildings of England: Oxfordshire | date=1974 | publisher=Penguin | location=Harmondsworth | isbn=0 14 071045 0 | pages=536-538}}</ref> <ref>[http://www.st-marys-cnorton.com/httpdocs/ Parish Church of St. Mary the Virgin]</ref>

[[Image:Alms houses, Chipping Norton.JPG|thumb|left|[[Almshouse]]s in Chipping Norton]]
In the [[Middle Ages]] wool production made the Cotswolds one of the wealthiest parts of England. Many of the [[Middle Ages|mediaeval]] buildings built in the town as a result of that trade still survive. It became the new centre of the town and remains so today. There is still a weekly market every Wednesday and the "[[Mop Fair]]" in September. In [[1205]] a new marketplace was laid out higher up the hill.

Later, sheep farming was largely displaced by [[arable]], but [[agriculture]] remained important in this part of the Oxfordshire Cotswolds. Many of the original houses around the market place were rebuilt in the [[18th century]] with fashionable [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] frontages.

The [[almshouse]]s were built in [[1640]]. An inscription records that they were ''"The work and gift of Henry Cornish, gent"''.

==History from the 18th century onwards==

In [[1796]] James and William Hitchman founded Hitchman's Brewery in West Street. In [[1849]] the business built a larger brewery in Albion Street that included a [[malt]]house and its own [[water well]]s. Three generations of Hitchmans ran the brewery, but in [[1890]] Alfred Hitchman sold the business as a [[limited company]]. The new company grew by buying other breweriess in [[1891]] and [[1917]]. In [[1924]] it merged with Hunt Edmunds of Banbury, and in [[1931]] Hunt Edmunds Hitchmans closed the brewery in Chipping Norton.<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/mamachic1/brewery.html Hitchman's Brewery history]</ref>

Other industries in the town included a wool mill (see below), a [[glove]]-making factory, a [[tannery]] and an [[iron]] [[foundry]].

Chipping Norton had a [[Workhouse]] by the [[1770s]]. The town's [[Poor Law Union]] built a new, larger workhouse in [[1836]]. [[The architect]] [[George Edmund Street|G.E. Street]] added a chapel in [[1856]]-[[1857]]. It ceased to be a workhouse in [[1929]] and became a [[hospital]] in the [[World War II|Second World War]]. The [[National Health Service]] took it over in [[1948]], making it Cotshill Hospital which later served as a [[psychiatric hospital]]. The hospital was closed in [[1983]]<ref>[http://www.oxfordshirehealtharchives.nhs.uk/hospitals/cotshill.htm Cotshill Hospital history]</ref> and has since been redeveloped as private residences.

[[Image:Chipping-Norton-Town-Hall.jpg|thumb|right|Town Hall]]
Chipping Norton was one of the [[borough]]s reformed by the [[Municipal Corporations Act 1835]]. The borough built its [[Neoclassical_architecture|neoclassical]] [[Town Hall]] in [[1842]].

Holy [[Trinity]] [[Roman Catholic church]] is also neoclassical. It was built in [[1836]] by the architect John Adey Repton, a [[grandson]] of the [[English garden]] designer [[Humphry Repton]].

The [[Chipping Norton Railway]] opened in [[1855]], linking the town with [[Kingham railway station|Kingham]] on the [[Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway]].<ref>[http://archive.theoxfordtimes.net/2005/3/14/4601.html ''The Oxford Times'', 14 March 2005]</ref> By [[1881]] a second railway had opened, linking Chipping Norton to the [[Oxford and Rugby Railway]] at [[King's Sutton railway station|King's Sutton]], and the CNR became part of the resulting [[Banbury and Cheltenham Direct Railway]]. Extending the railway from Chipping Norton involved digging a [[tunnel]] {{convert|685|yd|m}} long<ref>[http://deaves47.users.btopenworld.com/Tunnels/Tunnels1.htm Railway Tunnel Lengths website, page 1]</ref> under Elmsfield Farm to the [[west]] of the town.

In [[1951]] [[British Rail|British Railways]] withdrew passenger services between Chipping Norton and [[Banbury railway station|Banbury]]. In [[1962]] BR closed [[Chipping Norton station]] and withdrew passenger services between Chipping Norton and [[Kingham railway station|Kingham]]. In [[1964]] BR closed the B&CDR to [[freight]] traffic, and thereafter dismantled the line. The disused railway tunnel is now bricked up at both ends to prevent access, both for people's safety and to protect any [[bat]]s that may roost inside. (''See [[Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981]]'')

Bliss Mill, on the western side of the town, was built as a [[tweed]] mill in [[1872]]. In [[1913]]-[[1914]] the millworkers [[Strike_action|struck]] for eight [[month]]s. The mill closed in [[1980]] and has since been converted into [[apartments]]. It remains a local landmark, clearly visible from the [[Worcester]] Road.

The town lost its status as a [[municipal borough]] in [[1974]], when the [[Local Government Act 1972]] made it a [[successor parish]] within the district of [[West Oxfordshire]].

==Notable people==

In [[1581]] the neo-Latin poet '''[[Elizabeth Jane Weston]]''', also known as Westonia, was born in Chipping Norton. She soon moved to [[Prague]] with her mother and stepfather [[Edward Kelley]], an [[alchemist]] at the court of [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Rudolf II]]. She died in Prague in [[1612]].

'''[[James Hind]]''' was born in the town in [[1616]]. He was a notorious [[highwayman]] in the area, executed for [[high treason]] in [[1652]].

[[Image:Cows_in_Chipping_Norton.JPG|thumb|left|Bliss Mill]]
In [[1763]] the '''[[Edward Stone (discoverer of the active ingredient of Aspirin)|Reverend Edward Stone]]''' (1702–68), while living in Chipping Norton, reported to the [[Royal Society]] that [[willow]] bark relieved pain, later discovered to contain 2-Hydroxybenzoic acid (Salicylic acid) a mild [[analgesic]], and prepared via [[esterification]] into [[aspirin]].<ref name="Michael Volkin"> Volkin, Michael (ed.), ''Nuffield Advanced Chemistry Students Book'', Longman, 2000, ISBN 0-582-32835-7</ref>

'''[[William Bliss (mill owner)|William Bliss]]''', modernised the textile industry using the technology of the [[industrial revolution]]. He was also the promoter of the Chipping Norton Railway (see above). After a fire destroyed his old [[textile mill]] in the town, Bliss built the Bliss Mill in 1872 (see above).

In the [[1850s]] '''[[Charles Stewart Parnell]]''' from [[Ireland]] was sent to school in the town. He later became an [[Member_of_parliament#United_Kingdom|MP]] and in the [[1880s]] he led the Irish [[Home Rule League]], which he renamed the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]].

Joseph Allen was born in Chipping Norton, moved to Canada, and became a business owner and mayor of [[Verdun, Quebec]], a borough on the [[Island of Montreal]].{{fact|date=February 2009}}

The [[artist]] '''[[Conroy Maddox]]''' lived with his parents at the Blue Boar pub in the town centre from [[1929]] until [[1933]]. He used one of the bedrooms as a studio and later became Britain's leading [[Surealism|surrealist]].

The [[World record]]-holding [[Ocean rowing|ocean rower]] '''[[Janice Meek]]''' lived for many years in Chipping Norton. She was the first female Chairman of the Chipping Norton Chamber of Commerce, served on the Town Council and served for a year as [[Mayor#English-Saxon_mayors_and_counterparts|Mayor]].<ref>[http://archive.witneygazette.co.uk/1998/3/2/86692.html ''Witney Gazette'' 2nd March 1998]</ref>

The actors '''[[Rachel Ward]]''' and '''[[Wentworth Miller]]''' were born in Chipping Norton.

[[The who|The Who]] [[drummer]] '''[[Keith Moon]]''' once owned the Crown and Cushion Hotel in the High Street. Former [[comedian]] '''[[Ronnie Barker]]''' ran The Emporium [[antique shop]] in Chipping Norton after his retirement from showbusiness in [[1987]].

The [[television]] broadcaster '''[[Jeremy Clarkson]]''' lives in Chipping Norton.

[[Blur (band)|Blur]] bassist '''[[Alex James]]''' lives on a sheep and dairy farm outside the village and chronicles the experience in his column in [[The Guardian]]<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/columnists/alex-james/ Alex James, Rural Notebook]</ref>.

==Chipping Norton today==

The town is a retail and leisure centre for its area, with a [[supermarket]] and numerous [[Retailing|shop]]s including branches of a number of national [[chain store]]s. It has a number of [[public house]]s and a [[theatre]].<ref>[http://www.chippingnortontheatre.co.uk/ The Theatre, Chipping Norton]</ref>

The town has three [[school]]s. Holy Trinity [[Roman Catholic church|Roman Catholic]] School<ref>[http://www.holy-trinity.oxon.sch.uk/ Holy Trinity RC School]</ref>
and St Mary's [[Church of England]] School<ref>[http://www.st-marys-chipping.oxon.sch.uk/ St Mary's C of E School]</ref> are [[primary]] schools. Chipping Norton School<ref>[http://www.chipping-norton.oxon.sch.uk/ Chipping Norton School]</ref> is the town's [[secondary school]] and has a [[Sixth form]].

Chipping Norton [[Rugby Union]] Football Club<ref>[http://www.cnrufc.co.uk/ Chipping Norton RUFC]</ref> first XV plays in the Southern Counties North League and was the league champion ifor the [[2007]]-[[2008]] season. Chipping Norton Town [[Football (soccer)|Football]] Club<ref>[http://www.chippingnorton.net/SPORT/chippyFC2005.htm Chipping Norton Town FC]</ref> used to play in the [[Hellenic Football League]] premier division. Chipping Norton Town Cricket Club plays in Oxfordshire Cricket Association Division 7. The town also has a bowls club.<ref>[http://www.wospweb.com/site/chippy-bowls/index.htm Chipping Norton Bowls Club]</ref>

Chipping Norton has a [[Women's Institute]]<ref>[http://www.oxfordshirefwi.freeuk.com/ Oxfordshire Federeation of Women's Institutes]</ref> and a [[Rotary Club]].<ref>[http://www.rotary-ribi.org/clubs/homepage.asp?ClubID=530 Chipping Norton Rotary Club]</ref>

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.chippingnorton.net ChippingNorton.net]
*[http://www.chippingnortontown.info Chipping Norton Town Partnership]
*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CH/CHIPPING_NORTON.htm Chipping Norton] — [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] article.
*[http://www.chippingnortontheatre.co.uk The Theatre]
*{{dmoz|/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/England/Oxfordshire/Chipping_Norton/|Chipping Norton}}
*[http://www.cotswolds.info/places/chipping-norton.shtml Chipping Norton Tourist Information and Visitor Guide]

{{West Oxfordshire}}
{{Oxfordshire}}
[[Category:Towns in Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Market towns in England]]

[[bg:Чипинг Нортън]]
[[eo:Chipping Norton]]
[[it:Chipping Norton (Oxfordshire)]]
[[no:Chipping Norton]]
[[pl:Chipping Norton]]
[[pt:Chipping Norton]]
[[ro:Chipping Norton]]
[[vo:Chipping Norton]]

Phil Jutzi

2008-12-28T21:08:42Z

Languagehat: added English Wikipedia link

'''Phil(ipp) Jutzi''' (* [[22. Juli]] [[1896]] in [[Altleiningen]] als ''Philipp Jutzi''; † [[1. Mai]] [[1946]] in [[Neustadt an der Weinstraße]]) war ein deutscher [[Kameramann]] und [[Filmregisseur]].

Die Änderung seines Vornamens in die Pfälzer Dialektform „Piel“ (Anfang der 1920er-Jahre) führte 1931 zu einem Prozess mit dem Schauspieler und Regisseur [[Harry Piel]], den Jutzi verlor. Seitdem führte er wieder den Vornamen „Phil“.

==Leben==
Der Sohn eines Schneidermeisters besuchte nach Beendigung der Volksschule und autodidaktischen Malversuchen eine Kunstgewerbeschule. 1916 arbeitete er als Plakatmaler für ein kleines Kino im Schwarzwald. Im [[Erster Weltkrieg|Ersten Weltkrieg]] war er wegen eines körperlichen Gebrechens dienstuntauglich gestellt und lediglich für „Hilfsdienste“ eingeteilt. Ab 1919 führte er bei der Internationalen Film-Industrie GmbH (ifi) in [[Heidelberg]], die auf Detektiv- und Wildwestfilme spezialisiert war, Regie. 1923 heiratete er Emmy Philippine Zimmermann, die Schwester des Schauspielers [[Holmes Zimmermann]], der später Hauptdarsteller einiger seiner Filme wurde; im Mai 1926 wurde eine Tochter, Gisela, geboren.

1925 ging Phil Jutzi nach Berlin, wo er über die [[Internationale Arbeiterhilfe]] (IAH) zum kommunistischen Film-Kartell Welt-Film kam, wo er als Kameramann aktuelle Ereignisse drehte. 1928/29 entstand hier unter seiner Regie der halbdokumentarische Film ''[[Um's tägliche Brot (Hunger in Waldenburg)]]''.

Ab 1926 arbeitete Jutzi als Regisseur bei der [[Proletarischer Film|proletarischen]] [[Prometheus Film]], wo er u. a. an der Produktion der deutschen Tonfassung des sowjetischen Films [[Panzerkreuzer Potemkin]] mitwirkte und sich – u. a. mit dem Film ''[[Mutter Krausens Fahrt ins Glück]]'' (1929) - zum führenden Regisseur des „proletarischen“ Films entwickelte. Nachdem finanzielle Schwierigkeiten eine geplante Verfilmung von [[Anna Seghers]]’ „Aufstand der Fischer“ mit [[Asta Nielsen]] unmöglich machten und Jutzis Verbitterung wuchs, trat er Ende 1929 auch aus der [[KPD]] aus, deren Mitglied er seit Anfang 1928 gewesen war.

Auf die Fertigstellung der [[Alfred Döblin|Alfred-Döblin]]-Verfilmung ''[[Berlin – Alexanderplatz]]'' (1931) mit [[Heinrich George]] als Franz Biberkopf folgte eine politische Neuorientierung. Im März 1933 trat Phil Jutzi der [[Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei|NSDAP]] und zwei Monate später auch der [[Nationalsozialistische Betriebsorganisation |Nationalsozialistischen Betriebsorganisation]] Film (NSBO) bei. Unter dem [[Nationalsozialismus]] entwickelte Jutzi sich zu einem produktiven Kurzfilmregisseur; von 1933 bis 1941 entstanden unter seiner Regie nicht weniger als 49 Kurzfilme. Die Produktion langer Spielfilme war ihm wegen seiner politischen Vorgeschichte zunächst nicht erlaubt. 1934/35 führte Jutzi Regie in dem deutschen Spionagefilm ''Lockspitzel Asew'' mit [[Fritz Rasp]] und [[Olga Tschechowa]] und anschließend in dem österreichischen Spionagedrama ''Der Kosak und die Nachtigall'' (mit [[Ivan Petrovich]] und [[Jarmila Novotna]]). Ein renommierter Starregisseur wurde Jutzi nicht und auch seine finanziellen Verhältnisse blieben bis zum Ende seines Lebens schwierig.

In den 1940er Jahren verschlechterte sich Phil Jutzis Gesundheit und machte ihn trotz einer Festanstellung als Chef-Kameramann bei der Reichspost-Fernseh-Gesellschaft (1942) und einem Engagement bei der Berliner Lex-Film, wo Jutzi im Auftrag der [[Reichsanstalt für Film und Bild in Wissenschaft und Unterricht]] (RWU) einige [[Kulturfilm]]e produzieren sollte, weitgehend arbeitsunfähig. Nach dem Ende des [[Zweiter Weltkrieg|Zweiten Weltkrieges]] ging er zurück in seine Heimat [[Altleiningen]], starb aber bereits im folgenden Jahr.

==Filmografie==
*Fiesko (1913) - Regie
*Die das Licht scheuen...! Aus dem Tagebuch des Meisterdetektivs Ferry White (1919) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Die Rache des Banditen (1919) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Der maskierte Schrecken (1919) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Das deutsche Lied. Henkerskarren und Königsthron (1919/20) - Regie
*Das blinkende Fenster (1919) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Bull Arizona der Wüstenadler (1919) - Regie
*Red Bull, der letzte Apache (1920) - Regie
*Feuerteufel (1920) - Regie
*Der Fremde mit der Teufelsfratze (1920) - Regie
*Bull Arizona. 2. Das Vermächtnis der Prärie (1920) - Regie
*Rote Rache (1921) - Regie
*Die Piraten des Rio Negro (1921) - Regie
*Der graue Hund. Greyhound (1922) - Regie
*Die große Gelegenheit. Raub in der Zentralbank (1925) - Kamera
*Kladd und Datsch, die Pechvögel (1926) - Regie, Drehbuch, Bauten, Kamera
*Kinderschicksal [1928] (1927) - Regie
*Die rote Front marschiert (1927) - Regie
*Um's tägliche Brot (Hunger in Waldenburg) (1928/29) - Regie, Kamera
*Falschmünzer (1928) - Kamera
*Der lebende Leichnam (1928) - Kamera
*Mutter Krausens Fahrt ins Glück (1929) - Regie, Kamera
*Klippen der Ehe (1929) - Kamera
*Blutmai 1929 (1929) - Regie, Schnitt, Kamera
*100 000 unter roten Fahnen. Solidaritätstag der I.A.H., Bezirk Berlin-Brandenburg 1930 (1929/30) - Regie, Kamera
*1. Mai - Weltfeiertag der Arbeiterklasse (1929) - Regie, Schnitt, Drehbuch, Kamera
*Die Todeszeche (1930) - Regie, Kamera
*[[Berlin – Alexanderplatz]] (1931) - Regie
*Was gibt's Neues heut? (1932) - Regie, Kamera
*Eine wie Du (1932/33) - Regie, Kamera, Drehbuch
*Tempo, Carlo, Tempo (1933) - Regie
*Die Goldgrube (1933) - Regie
*Warum so aufgeregt? (1934) - Regie
*Und sie singt doch (1934) - Regie
*Tante Mariechen (1934) - Regie
*Mucki (1934) - Regie
*Mausi (1934) - Regie
*Los Nr. 13013 (1934) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Lockspitzel Asew (1934/35) - Regie
*Ich versichere Sie (1934) - Regie
*Ich tanke, Herr Franke (1934) - Regie
*Herr oder Diener (1934) - Regie
*Herr Mahler in tausend Nöten (1934) - Regie
*Halb und halb (1934) - Regie
*Frau Eva wird mondain! (1934) - Regie
*Ferner liefen (1934) - Regie
*Ein fideles Büro (1934) - Regie
*Ein falscher Fünfziger (1934) - Regie
*Dr. Bluff (1934) - Regie
*Die einsame Villa (1934) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Der Kosak und die Nachtigall (1934/35) - Regie
*Der Bart ist ab (1934) - Regie
*Das Geschäft blüht (1934) - Regie
*Carlos schönstes Abenteuer (1934) - Regie
*Bitte ein Autogramm! (1934) - Regie
*Aufschnitt (1934) - Regie
*Am Telefon wird gewünscht (1934) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Adam, Eva und der Apfel (1934) - Regie
*Die Frauen haben es leicht (1935) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Anekdoten um den Alten Fritz (1935) - Regie
*Zeugen gesucht (1936) - Regie
*Wie ein Wunder kam die Liebe (1936) - Drehbuch
*Münchhausens neuestes Abenteuer (1936) - Regie
*Heiteres und Ernstes um den Großen König (1936) - Regie
*Es wird nichts so fein gesponnen (1936/37) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Die lange Grete (1936) - Regie
*Das häßliche Entlein (1936) - Regie
*Wiederseh'n macht Freude (1937) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Sparkasse mit Likör (1937) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Pension Elise Nottebohm (1937) - Regie
*Frauen wollen betrogen sein (1937) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Ferngespräch mit Hamburg (1937) - Regie
*Die Unterschlagung (1937) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Die Seitensprünge des Herrn Blohm (1937) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Der andere Mann (1937) - Regie, Drehbuch
*Alkohol und Steuerrad (1937) - Regie
*Wir marschieren mit (1938) - Kamera
*Es kann der Beste nicht in Frieden leben (1938) - Regie, Schnitt
*Der Schein trügt (1938) - Regie, Drehbuch, Schnitt
*Der Haustyrann (1938) - Regie, Schnitt
*Die Sache mit dem Hermelin (1939) - Regie
*Das Gewehr über! (1939) - Kamera
*Das Fenster im 2. Stock (1939) - Regie
*So ein Früchtchen (1941/42?) - Kamera

==Siehe auch==
*[[Liste der Regisseure des deutschsprachigen Films]]

==Weblinks==
{{Filmportal.de Name|URL=http://www.filmportal.de/df/fa/Uebersicht,,,,,,,,0CC4C3AC479B484D8445112B12FBF823,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.html}}
{{IMDb Name|ID=0433292|NAME=Piel Jutzi}}
*[http://www.cinegraph.de/lexikon/Jutzi_Phil/biografie.html Bio-Filmografie bei CineGraph]
*[http://www.cinegraph.de/filmmat/fm5/index.html Texte von und über Jutzi in FilmMaterialien 5]
*[http://www.cinegraph.de/filmmat/fm5/fm5_10.html Fragebogen der [[Reichsfachschaft Film]]]

[[Kategorie:Altleiningen|Jutzi, Phil]]
[[Kategorie:Kameramann|Jutzi, Phil]]
[[Kategorie:Filmregisseur|Jutzi, Phil]]
[[Kategorie:KPD-Mitglied|Jutzi, Phil]]
[[Kategorie:NSDAP-Mitglied|Jutzi, Phil]]

[[Kategorie:Deutscher|Jutzi, Phil]]
[[Kategorie:Mann|Jutzi, Phil]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1896|Jutzi, Phil]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1946|Jutzi, Phil]]

{{Personendaten|
NAME=Jutzi, Phil
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Jutzi, Piel
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=Deutscher [[Kameramann]] und [[Filmregisseur]]
|GEBURTSDATUM=[[22. Juli]] [[1896]]
|GEBURTSORT=[[Altleiningen]]
|STERBEDATUM=[[1. Mai]] [[1946]]
|STERBEORT=[[Neustadt an der Weinstraße]]
}}

[[en:Phil Jutzi]]

Life Savers

2008-12-14T18:28:19Z

Languagehat: Undid revision 257501734 by 165.170.128.66 (talk)

{{refimprove|date=January 2008}}
{{otheruses4|the candy||Life saver}}
[[Image:Life Savers logo.svg|thumb|The Life Savers logo.]]
[[Image:Lifesavers wrapped.jpg|thumb|A Life Savers Five-Flavor roll.]]

'''Life Savers''' is an [[United States|American]] brand of ring-shaped [[mint (candy)|mints]] and artificially fruit-flavored [[candy|hard candy]]. The candy is known for its distinctive packaging, coming in [[aluminium foil|aluminum foil]] rolls.

In 1912, chocolate manufacturer Ben Versteeg (Garrettsville, Ohio) invented Life Savers as a "summer candy" that could withstand heat better than chocolate. Since the mints looked like miniature [[Life_preservers#Throwable_PFDs|life preservers]], he called them Life Savers. After registering the trademark, Crane sold the rights to the peppermint candy to Edward Noble (1882–1958) for [[United States dollar|$]]2,900. Instead of using cardboard rolls, which were not very successful, Noble created tin-foil wrappers to keep the mints fresh. Pep-O-Mint was the first Life Savers flavor. Noble founded the Life Savers Candy Company in 1913 and significantly expanded the market for the candy by installing Life Savers displays next to the cash registers of restaurants and grocery stores. He also trained the owners of the establishments to always give customers a nickel in their change as doing so would increase sales of Life Savers. Since then, many different flavors of Life Savers have been produced. The five-flavor roll first appeared in 1935.

Life Savers was a [[subsidiary]] of [[Kraft Foods]] before being purchased by the [[Wrigley Company]] in 2004. In recent years, the brand has expanded to include '''Gummi Savers''' (currently known as '''Life Savers Gummies''') in 1994, '''Life Saver Minis''' in 1996, '''Creme Savers''' in 1998, and '''Life Saver Fusions''' in 2001. Discontinued varieties include: '''Fruit Juicers''', '''Holes''', '''Life Saver [[Lollipop]]s''' and '''Squeezit'''.

For a collection of historical Life Savers images: http://www.flickr.com/photos/jasonliebigstuff/sets/72157602539630786/
==History==
[[Image:VioletLifeSavers.jpg|thumb|Violet Life Savers Ad from 1921.]]
Life Savers candy was first created in 1912 by Ben Versteeg, a [[Garrettsville, Ohio]] [[candy maker]] and father of the famed poet [[Hart Crane]]. Crane was looking for a new "summer candy" to supplement his chocolate business, which slumped in hot weather.

Versteeg developed a line of hard mints but did not have the space or machinery to make them. He contracted with a pill manufacturer to press the mints into shape. The pill manufacturer, whose machinery was malfunctioning, found that the pressing process worked much better when the mints were stamped with a hole in the middle.

Versteeg called the new candy "Versteeg's Peppermint Life Savers", because they had holes in the center for when you choked. The ring-shaped devices were just beginning to come into use after the [[RMS Titanic|''Titanic'' disaster]].

In 1913, Versteeg sold the formula for his Life Savers candy to [[Edward Noble]] for only $2,900. Noble started his own candy company and began producing and selling the mints known as Pep-O-Mint Life Savers. He also began to package the mints into rolls wrapped in [[tinfoil]] to prevent them from going stale. This process was done by hand until 1919 when machinery was developed by Edward Noble's brother, Robert Peckham Noble, to streamline the process.

Robert Peckham Noble, Edward Noble's brother and a [[Purdue University|Purdue]] educated engineer, took his younger brother's entrepreneurial vision and designed and built the manufacturing facilities needed to expand the company. The Lifesavers primary manufacturing plant was located in [[Port Chester, New York]]. Robert P. Noble led the company as its [[Chief Executive Officer]] and primary shareholder for more than 40 years, until selling the company in the late 1950s.

By 1919, six other mint flavors (Wint-O-Green, Cl-O-ve, Lic-O-Rice, Cinn-O-Mon, Vi-O-let and Choc-O-Late) had been developed, and these remained the standard flavors until the late 1920s. In 1920, a new flavor called Malt-O-Milk was introduced. This flavor was received so poorly that it was discontinued after only a few years.<ref>''New Yorker Magazine'', Feb. 28, 1925, pages 47–50.</ref> In 1925, the tinfoil was replaced with [[aluminium foil|aluminum foil]].

Noble promoted the candy at the cash registers of saloons, cigar stores, drug stores, barber shops, and restaurants. He had the candy placed, with a five-cent price, near the cash register. Noble soon began to create and sell many other flavors.

In 1921, the company began to produce solid fruit drops. In 1925, technology improved to allow a hole in the center of the fruit candies. These were introduced as the "fruit drop with the hole" and came in four flavors, namely, Grape, Orange, Lemon and Lime, each of which were packaged in their own separate rolls. In contrast to the opaque white mints previously produced by the company, these new candies were crystal-like in appearance. These new flavors quickly became popular with the public. Three new flavors were quickly introduced, namely, Anise, Cola and Root Beer, which were made in the clear fruit drop style. These did not prove to be as popular as the original four fruit drop flavors.
In 1931, the Life Savers "Cough Drop" was introduced with [[Menthol]] but it was not successful. In 1931, rolls of Pineapple and Cherry fruit drops were also introduced. As the public response proved positive for these, a new variety of mint, called Cryst-O-Mint, made in this same crystal-like style was introduced in 1932. In 1935, the classic "Five-Flavor" rolls were introduced, offering a selection of five different flavors (lemon, lime, orange, grape, and pineapple) in each roll. This flavor lineup was unchanged for nearly 70 years, until 2003, when three of the flavors were replaced, making the rolls pineapple, cherry, raspberry, watermelon, and blackberry.<ref>
{{cite news
| url = http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/2003-08-14-LifeSavers_x.htm
| title = LifeSavers changes its stripes Friday
| last = Howard
| first = Theresa
| date = August 14, 2002
| publisher = ''[[USA Today]]''
| format =
| pages =
| accessdate =
| quote = Raspberry-, watermelon- and blackberry-flavored "O's" will replace the traditional orange, lemon and lime.}}
</ref> However, orange was subsequently reintroduced and blackberry was dropped (It should be emphasized that none of the Life Savers fruit flavors actually contain any ingredients whatsoever derived from their eponymous fruits and berries. They are all completely artificially flavored, and colored with the ultra-bright artificial food coloring Americans have come to associate with specific artificial flavors: bright yellow for "lemon" or "pineapple", bright red for "watermelon", "raspberry", and "cherry", bright green for "lime", etc.). In the late 1930s and early 1940s, four new mint flavors were introduced: Molas-O-Mint, Spear-O-Mint, Choc-O-Mint and Stik-O-Pep.

In 1981, Nabisco Brands Inc. acquired Life Savers from the E.R. Squibb Corporation. A number of early mint flavors, including Cl-O-Ve, Vi-O-Let, Lic-O-Rice and Cinn-O-Mon were discontinued due to poor sales. Nabisco introduced a new Cinnamon flavor ("Hot Cin-O-Mon") as a clear fruit drop type candy. This replaced the white mint flavor Cinn-O-Mon which had recently been discontinued. The other original mint flavors have never been revived except by Wrigley (although a mint similar to Vi-O-Let Life Savers continues to be manufactured by [[C. Howard's Violet candies|C. Howard]]). A number of other flavors were also quickly discontinued, after Nabisco took over, in order to make the business more profitable. In 2004, the USA Life Savers business was acquired by Wrigley's. Wrigley's introduced two new mint flavors (for the first time in over sixty years) in 2006: Orange Mint and Sweet Mint. They also revived some of the early mint flavors (such as Wint-O-Green).

Life Savers production for North America was based in [[Holland, Michigan]], United States, for many years, but in 2002 production was moved to [[Montreal]], [[Québec]], [[Canada]]. Significantly lower sugar prices in that country is the reason behind the move.<ref>
{{cite news
| url = http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0320-02.htm
| title = Workers Feel Like Suckers
| last = Frammolino
| first = Ralph
| date = March 20, 2002
| publisher = ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''
| format =
| pages =
| accessdate =
| quote = Life Savers is moving its candy factory from Michigan to Canada, where sugar is cheaper, displacing 600 employees.}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite news
| url = http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1138434
| title = Life Savers
| last =
| first =
| date = February 21, 2002
| publisher = [[National Public Radio|NPR]]
| format =
| pages =
| accessdate =
| quote = The candy's manufacturer says sugar prices in the U.S. are too high, and it is moving the factory from Holland, Michigan, to Canada.}}
</ref>
The company was headquartered in Port Chester, New York, where the distinctive former headquarters building (now apartments) still retains some Lifesavers signage.

==Trivia==
{{trivia|date=June 2007}}
*Wint-O-Green and Cl-O-Ve<ref>EN Harvey "The luminescence of sugar wafers", ''Science'' magazine, 14 July 1939: Vol. 90. no. 2324, pp. 35–36.</ref> (now discontinued) Life Savers are known for their ability to produce bright sparks when bitten in a dark room, due to [[triboluminescence]] produced by an electrical charge produced by grinding [[methyl salicylate|wintergreen]] or [[clove]] oil and sugar together.<ref>
{{cite news
| url = http://home.howstuffworks.com/question505.htm
| title = Why do Wint-O-Green Life Savers spark in the dark?
| last =
| first =
| date =
| publisher = [[HowStuffWorks]]
| format =
| pages =
| accessdate =
| quote =
}}</ref>

*[[Pixar Animation Studios]] animated many commercials for the company before [[Pixar]] became famous for its [[short films]], like ''[[Luxo Jr.]]''

*The [[South Africa]]n chorus group [[Ladysmith Black Mambazo]] sang the distinctive [[a cappella]] songs used in Life Savers and Creme Savers commercials throughout the 1990s.

*There is an [[urban legend]] about the creation of Life Savers which states that the creator's daughter died after choking on a hard candy, and that the hole in the middle was included to prevent further death (thus earning the name Life Saver). This tale is often mistaken for truth and is probably more well-known than the real origin story.

*[[Brian Sandoval]] has done voiceovers for Life Savers.

*The 1932 [[Marx Brothers]] movie ''[[Horse Feathers]]'' features a scene in which [[Thelma Todd]] falls out of a canoe and into a river. She calls for a life saver and [[Groucho Marx]] tosses her the candy. This was done also in the 1989 movie ''[[Troop Beverly Hills]].''

*''[[Croc 2]]'', a 1999 video game appearing on the [[PlayStation]], Windows PC, and [[GameBoy Color]] platforms, prominently featured various large Gummi Savers as trampolines of sorts for the main character to vault over obstacles.

*Life Savers are often recommended by doctors for diabetics. The fast acting sugar quickly raises a diabetic's blood sugar during a hypoglycemic attack.

*In the 1993 [[Mel Brooks]] film [[Robin Hood: Men in Tights]], Latrine (played by [[Tracey Ullman]]) saves the Sheriff of Rottingham (played by [[Roger Rees]]) with a Life Saver, after he was stabbed in the stomach with a sword.

==Timeline==
*1912: Versteeg's Peppermint Life Savers created by Ben Versteef in Garrettsville, Ohio.
*1913: Edward Noble bought the Life Saver formula, renamed Pep-O-Mint Life Savers, and started Mint Products Company in New York City.
*1921: The first fruit flavors were produced as solid candies.
*1925: Technology improved to allow a hole in the center of the fruit candies.
*1931: Life Savers Limited acquired Beech-Nut and the two merged companies became Squibb Beech-Nut Inc.
*1935: The Original Five-Flavor roll of Life Savers debuted.
*1981: Nabisco Brands Inc. acquired Life Savers from the E.R. Squibb Corporation.
*1987: Canadian Life Savers business acquired by [[The Hershey Company|Hershey]] Canada.
*1996: Canadian Life Savers business acquired by Beta Brands Limited.
*2004: USA Life Savers business Acquired By [[Wrigley's]].<ref>
{{cite news
| url = http://www.corporate-ir.net/ireye/ir_site.zhtml?ticker=WWY&script=410&layout=0&item_id=643926
| title = Wrigley to Add Life Savers(R) and Altoids(R) to Its Confectionery Portfolio
| last =
| first =
| date = November 15, 2004
| publisher = [[Wrigley]]
| format = Press Release
| pages =
| accessdate =
| quote = The Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company announced today that it has entered into an agreement to purchase certain confectionery assets of Kraft Foods for $1.48 billion. The transaction includes ownership of well-known, iconic brand franchises—such as Life Savers, Creme Savers, and Altoids—as well as production facilities in the United States and Europe.
}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Wrigley}}

[[Category:Brand name confectionery]]
[[Category:Wrigley brands]]
[[Category:1912 introductions]]

[[fr:Life Savers]]

Life Savers

2008-12-14T18:27:57Z

Languagehat: Undid revision 257502304 by 165.170.128.66 (talk)

{{refimprove|date=January 2008}}
{{otheruses4|the candy||Life saver}}
[[Image:Life Savers logo.svg|thumb|The Life Savers logo.]]
[[Image:Lifesavers wrapped.jpg|thumb|A Life Savers Five-Flavor roll.]]

'''Life Savers''' is an [[United States|American]] brand of ring-shaped [[mint (candy)|mints]] and artificially fruit-flavored [[candy|hard candy]]. The candy is known for its distinctive packaging, coming in [[aluminium foil|aluminum foil]] rolls.

A NURSE INVENTED THIS...as per L.E.O.....In 1912, chocolate manufacturer Ben Versteeg (Garrettsville, Ohio) invented Life Savers as a "summer candy" that could withstand heat better than chocolate. Since the mints looked like miniature [[Life_preservers#Throwable_PFDs|life preservers]], he called them Life Savers. After registering the trademark, Crane sold the rights to the peppermint candy to Edward Noble (1882–1958) for [[United States dollar|$]]2,900. Instead of using cardboard rolls, which were not very successful, Noble created tin-foil wrappers to keep the mints fresh. Pep-O-Mint was the first Life Savers flavor. Noble founded the Life Savers Candy Company in 1913 and significantly expanded the market for the candy by installing Life Savers displays next to the cash registers of restaurants and grocery stores. He also trained the owners of the establishments to always give customers a nickel in their change as doing so would increase sales of Life Savers. Since then, many different flavors of Life Savers have been produced. The five-flavor roll first appeared in 1935.

Life Savers was a [[subsidiary]] of [[Kraft Foods]] before being purchased by the [[Wrigley Company]] in 2004. In recent years, the brand has expanded to include '''Gummi Savers''' (currently known as '''Life Savers Gummies''') in 1994, '''Life Saver Minis''' in 1996, '''Creme Savers''' in 1998, and '''Life Saver Fusions''' in 2001. Discontinued varieties include: '''Fruit Juicers''', '''Holes''', '''Life Saver [[Lollipop]]s''' and '''Squeezit'''.

For a collection of historical Life Savers images: http://www.flickr.com/photos/jasonliebigstuff/sets/72157602539630786/
==History==
[[Image:VioletLifeSavers.jpg|thumb|Violet Life Savers Ad from 1921.]]
Life Savers candy was first created in 1912 by Ben Versteeg, a [[Garrettsville, Ohio]] [[candy maker]] and father of the famed poet [[Hart Crane]]. Crane was looking for a new "summer candy" to supplement his chocolate business, which slumped in hot weather.

Versteeg developed a line of hard mints but did not have the space or machinery to make them. He contracted with a pill manufacturer to press the mints into shape. The pill manufacturer, whose machinery was malfunctioning, found that the pressing process worked much better when the mints were stamped with a hole in the middle.

Versteeg called the new candy "Versteeg's Peppermint Life Savers", because they had holes in the center for when you choked. The ring-shaped devices were just beginning to come into use after the [[RMS Titanic|''Titanic'' disaster]].

In 1913, Versteeg sold the formula for his Life Savers candy to [[Edward Noble]] for only $2,900. Noble started his own candy company and began producing and selling the mints known as Pep-O-Mint Life Savers. He also began to package the mints into rolls wrapped in [[tinfoil]] to prevent them from going stale. This process was done by hand until 1919 when machinery was developed by Edward Noble's brother, Robert Peckham Noble, to streamline the process.

Robert Peckham Noble, Edward Noble's brother and a [[Purdue University|Purdue]] educated engineer, took his younger brother's entrepreneurial vision and designed and built the manufacturing facilities needed to expand the company. The Lifesavers primary manufacturing plant was located in [[Port Chester, New York]]. Robert P. Noble led the company as its [[Chief Executive Officer]] and primary shareholder for more than 40 years, until selling the company in the late 1950s.

By 1919, six other mint flavors (Wint-O-Green, Cl-O-ve, Lic-O-Rice, Cinn-O-Mon, Vi-O-let and Choc-O-Late) had been developed, and these remained the standard flavors until the late 1920s. In 1920, a new flavor called Malt-O-Milk was introduced. This flavor was received so poorly that it was discontinued after only a few years.<ref>''New Yorker Magazine'', Feb. 28, 1925, pages 47–50.</ref> In 1925, the tinfoil was replaced with [[aluminium foil|aluminum foil]].

Noble promoted the candy at the cash registers of saloons, cigar stores, drug stores, barber shops, and restaurants. He had the candy placed, with a five-cent price, near the cash register. Noble soon began to create and sell many other flavors.

In 1921, the company began to produce solid fruit drops. In 1925, technology improved to allow a hole in the center of the fruit candies. These were introduced as the "fruit drop with the hole" and came in four flavors, namely, Grape, Orange, Lemon and Lime, each of which were packaged in their own separate rolls. In contrast to the opaque white mints previously produced by the company, these new candies were crystal-like in appearance. These new flavors quickly became popular with the public. Three new flavors were quickly introduced, namely, Anise, Cola and Root Beer, which were made in the clear fruit drop style. These did not prove to be as popular as the original four fruit drop flavors.
In 1931, the Life Savers "Cough Drop" was introduced with [[Menthol]] but it was not successful. In 1931, rolls of Pineapple and Cherry fruit drops were also introduced. As the public response proved positive for these, a new variety of mint, called Cryst-O-Mint, made in this same crystal-like style was introduced in 1932. In 1935, the classic "Five-Flavor" rolls were introduced, offering a selection of five different flavors (lemon, lime, orange, grape, and pineapple) in each roll. This flavor lineup was unchanged for nearly 70 years, until 2003, when three of the flavors were replaced, making the rolls pineapple, cherry, raspberry, watermelon, and blackberry.<ref>
{{cite news
| url = http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/2003-08-14-LifeSavers_x.htm
| title = LifeSavers changes its stripes Friday
| last = Howard
| first = Theresa
| date = August 14, 2002
| publisher = ''[[USA Today]]''
| format =
| pages =
| accessdate =
| quote = Raspberry-, watermelon- and blackberry-flavored "O's" will replace the traditional orange, lemon and lime.}}
</ref> However, orange was subsequently reintroduced and blackberry was dropped (It should be emphasized that none of the Life Savers fruit flavors actually contain any ingredients whatsoever derived from their eponymous fruits and berries. They are all completely artificially flavored, and colored with the ultra-bright artificial food coloring Americans have come to associate with specific artificial flavors: bright yellow for "lemon" or "pineapple", bright red for "watermelon", "raspberry", and "cherry", bright green for "lime", etc.). In the late 1930s and early 1940s, four new mint flavors were introduced: Molas-O-Mint, Spear-O-Mint, Choc-O-Mint and Stik-O-Pep.

In 1981, Nabisco Brands Inc. acquired Life Savers from the E.R. Squibb Corporation. A number of early mint flavors, including Cl-O-Ve, Vi-O-Let, Lic-O-Rice and Cinn-O-Mon were discontinued due to poor sales. Nabisco introduced a new Cinnamon flavor ("Hot Cin-O-Mon") as a clear fruit drop type candy. This replaced the white mint flavor Cinn-O-Mon which had recently been discontinued. The other original mint flavors have never been revived except by Wrigley (although a mint similar to Vi-O-Let Life Savers continues to be manufactured by [[C. Howard's Violet candies|C. Howard]]). A number of other flavors were also quickly discontinued, after Nabisco took over, in order to make the business more profitable. In 2004, the USA Life Savers business was acquired by Wrigley's. Wrigley's introduced two new mint flavors (for the first time in over sixty years) in 2006: Orange Mint and Sweet Mint. They also revived some of the early mint flavors (such as Wint-O-Green).

Life Savers production for North America was based in [[Holland, Michigan]], United States, for many years, but in 2002 production was moved to [[Montreal]], [[Québec]], [[Canada]]. Significantly lower sugar prices in that country is the reason behind the move.<ref>
{{cite news
| url = http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0320-02.htm
| title = Workers Feel Like Suckers
| last = Frammolino
| first = Ralph
| date = March 20, 2002
| publisher = ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''
| format =
| pages =
| accessdate =
| quote = Life Savers is moving its candy factory from Michigan to Canada, where sugar is cheaper, displacing 600 employees.}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite news
| url = http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1138434
| title = Life Savers
| last =
| first =
| date = February 21, 2002
| publisher = [[National Public Radio|NPR]]
| format =
| pages =
| accessdate =
| quote = The candy's manufacturer says sugar prices in the U.S. are too high, and it is moving the factory from Holland, Michigan, to Canada.}}
</ref>
The company was headquartered in Port Chester, New York, where the distinctive former headquarters building (now apartments) still retains some Lifesavers signage.

==Trivia==
{{trivia|date=June 2007}}
*Wint-O-Green and Cl-O-Ve<ref>EN Harvey "The luminescence of sugar wafers", ''Science'' magazine, 14 July 1939: Vol. 90. no. 2324, pp. 35–36.</ref> (now discontinued) Life Savers are known for their ability to produce bright sparks when bitten in a dark room, due to [[triboluminescence]] produced by an electrical charge produced by grinding [[methyl salicylate|wintergreen]] or [[clove]] oil and sugar together.<ref>
{{cite news
| url = http://home.howstuffworks.com/question505.htm
| title = Why do Wint-O-Green Life Savers spark in the dark?
| last =
| first =
| date =
| publisher = [[HowStuffWorks]]
| format =
| pages =
| accessdate =
| quote =
}}</ref>

*[[Pixar Animation Studios]] animated many commercials for the company before [[Pixar]] became famous for its [[short films]], like ''[[Luxo Jr.]]''

*The [[South Africa]]n chorus group [[Ladysmith Black Mambazo]] sang the distinctive [[a cappella]] songs used in Life Savers and Creme Savers commercials throughout the 1990s.

*There is an [[urban legend]] about the creation of Life Savers which states that the creator's daughter died after choking on a hard candy, and that the hole in the middle was included to prevent further death (thus earning the name Life Saver). This tale is often mistaken for truth and is probably more well-known than the real origin story.

*[[Brian Sandoval]] has done voiceovers for Life Savers.

*The 1932 [[Marx Brothers]] movie ''[[Horse Feathers]]'' features a scene in which [[Thelma Todd]] falls out of a canoe and into a river. She calls for a life saver and [[Groucho Marx]] tosses her the candy. This was done also in the 1989 movie ''[[Troop Beverly Hills]].''

*''[[Croc 2]]'', a 1999 video game appearing on the [[PlayStation]], Windows PC, and [[GameBoy Color]] platforms, prominently featured various large Gummi Savers as trampolines of sorts for the main character to vault over obstacles.

*Life Savers are often recommended by doctors for diabetics. The fast acting sugar quickly raises a diabetic's blood sugar during a hypoglycemic attack.

*In the 1993 [[Mel Brooks]] film [[Robin Hood: Men in Tights]], Latrine (played by [[Tracey Ullman]]) saves the Sheriff of Rottingham (played by [[Roger Rees]]) with a Life Saver, after he was stabbed in the stomach with a sword.

==Timeline==
*1912: Versteeg's Peppermint Life Savers created by Ben Versteef in Garrettsville, Ohio.
*1913: Edward Noble bought the Life Saver formula, renamed Pep-O-Mint Life Savers, and started Mint Products Company in New York City.
*1921: The first fruit flavors were produced as solid candies.
*1925: Technology improved to allow a hole in the center of the fruit candies.
*1931: Life Savers Limited acquired Beech-Nut and the two merged companies became Squibb Beech-Nut Inc.
*1935: The Original Five-Flavor roll of Life Savers debuted.
*1981: Nabisco Brands Inc. acquired Life Savers from the E.R. Squibb Corporation.
*1987: Canadian Life Savers business acquired by [[The Hershey Company|Hershey]] Canada.
*1996: Canadian Life Savers business acquired by Beta Brands Limited.
*2004: USA Life Savers business Acquired By [[Wrigley's]].<ref>
{{cite news
| url = http://www.corporate-ir.net/ireye/ir_site.zhtml?ticker=WWY&script=410&layout=0&item_id=643926
| title = Wrigley to Add Life Savers(R) and Altoids(R) to Its Confectionery Portfolio
| last =
| first =
| date = November 15, 2004
| publisher = [[Wrigley]]
| format = Press Release
| pages =
| accessdate =
| quote = The Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company announced today that it has entered into an agreement to purchase certain confectionery assets of Kraft Foods for $1.48 billion. The transaction includes ownership of well-known, iconic brand franchises—such as Life Savers, Creme Savers, and Altoids—as well as production facilities in the United States and Europe.
}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Wrigley}}

[[Category:Brand name confectionery]]
[[Category:Wrigley brands]]
[[Category:1912 introductions]]

[[fr:Life Savers]]

Konstantin Konstantinowitsch Waginow

2008-11-26T21:37:54Z

Languagehat: added accent marks to Russian name, corrected birth year

'''Konstantin Konstantinowitsch Waginow''' ({{RuS|Константи́н Константи́нович Ва́гинов}}, wiss. [[Transliteration]] ''{{lang|ru-Latn|Konstantin Konstantinovič Vaginov}}'', eigentlich ''Wagengejm/Wagenheim''; * {{JULGREGDATUM|16|4|1899|FormatJUL=j.|Link="true"}} in [[Sankt Petersburg]]; † [[26. April]] [[1934]] ebenda) war ein [[Russland|russischer]] Dichter.

Waginow wurde als Sohn einer deutschstämmigen Offiziersfamilie in Sankt Petersburg geboren. Er schloss sich in seiner Heimatstadt Leningrad zuerst dem Kreis der [[Akmeismus|Akmeisten]] um [[Nikolai Stepanowitsch Gumiljow|Nikolai Gumiljow]] an, dann der Gruppe der [[Oberiuten]] um [[Daniil Charms]] u. a.

Konstantin Waginow ist einer der eigenwilligsten und originellsten Vertreter der Russischen Moderne. Seine Strategie der poetischen Verweigerung machte es schwer, das Werk von Konstantin Waginow einzuordnen.

== Werke ==

* Bocksgesang, (Козлиная песнь) Verlag Johannes Lang, [[1999]];
* Auf der Suche nach dem Gesang der Nachtigall, Bibliothek Suhrkamp, Band 1094,
* Bambocciade (Бамбочада, 1931), Reclam Verlag Leipzig

== Weblinks ==

{{PND|119134055}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Waginow, Konstantin Konstantinowitsch}}
[[Kategorie:Mann]]
[[Kategorie:Autor]]
[[Kategorie:Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Literatur (Russisch)]]
[[Kategorie:Akmeismus (Literatur)]]
[[Kategorie:Lyrik]]
[[Kategorie:Russe]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1836]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1934]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Waginow, Konstantin Konstantinowitsch
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Wagengejm, Wagenheim
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=russischer Dichter
|GEBURTSDATUM=16. April 1836
|GEBURTSORT=Sankt Petersburg
|STERBEDATUM=26. April 1934
|STERBEORT=Leningrad
}}
[[en:Konstantin Vaginov]]
[[ru:Вагинов, Константин Константинович]]

Benutzer:Languagehat

2008-11-26T21:36:19Z

Languagehat: AZ: Die Seite wurde neu angelegt: My site is http://www.languagehat.com/.

My site is http://www.languagehat.com/.

Nowoje wremja

2008-09-27T15:56:34Z

Languagehat:

{{другие значения|Новое время (значения)}}
[[Изображение:Novoe vremja.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Рекламная полоса «Нового времени» от {{СС|17|мая|1896|5}} с объявлением о первом представлении «движущейся фотографии» — [[кинематограф|синематографа]] в Петербурге]]
'''«Но́вое вре́мя»''' — русская газета. Издавалась в [[1868]]—[[1917]] в [[Петербург]]е, с 1914 в [[Петроград]]е.

До 234-го номера в [[1869]] выходила 5 раз в неделю, затем ежедневно. С 1881 выходило 2 издания — утреннее и вечернее. В [[1891]] году издавалось еженедельное иллюстрированное приложение.

== Издатели ==

* [[Киркор, Адам Гоноры|А. К. Киркор]] и Н. Н. Юматов (1868—1872)
* Ф. Н. Устрялов (1872—1873)
* [[Нотович, Осип Константинович|О. К. Нотович]] (1873—1874)
* [[Трубников, Константин Васильевич|К. В. Трубников]] (1874—1876)
* [[Суворин, Алексей Сергеевич|А. С. Суворин]] (1876—1912)
* «Товарищество А. С. Суворин» (1912—1917).

При Устрялове в либеральной газете «Новое время» была напечатана передовица, посвящённая выходу на русском языке первого тома «[[Капитал (Маркс)|Капитала]]» [[Маркс]]а (23 мая 1872).

При Суворине «Новое время» имело противоречивую репутацию: с одной стороны, это была большая газета «европейского типа», в ней печатались наиболее подробные зарубежные новости, объявления крупнейших компаний, подробная хроника, некрологи известных деятелей. Дружеские связи с редакцией газеты и с Сувориным лично поддерживал [[Антон Чехов]]. С другой стороны, чем дальше, тем больше в русском либеральном обществе складывалась репутация «Нового времени» как сервильной, реакционной и беспринципной газеты, а слово «нововременец» становилось нарицательным (во многом это было связано с журналистской деятельностью [[Буренин, Виктор Петрович|В. П. Буренина]], с [[антисемитизм|антисемитскими]] выступлениями на страницах газеты в связи с [[дело Дрейфуса|делом Дрейфуса]]) и т. п. Отрицательно воспринимали газету и сравнительно аполитичные русские модернисты 1900—1910-х (из-за литературный позиции Буренина), что не помешало многим из них ([[Фёдор Сологуб]], [[Михаил Кузмин]], [[Георгий Иванов]]) в 1914—1915 сотрудничать в издававшемся при «Новом времени» высокогонорарном журнале «Лукоморье».

Газета была закрыта большевиками на другой день после Октябрьской революции, {{СС|8|ноября|1917|26|октября}} ([[Ленин]] в ответ на критику революционных идей социал-демократов называл «Новое время» «образцом продажных газет. „Нововременство“ стало выражением, однозначащим с понятиями: отступничество, ренегатство, подхалимство»<ref>В. И. Ленин. Полное собрание соч., 5 изд., т. 22, с. 44</ref>).

В 1920—1930-е годы сын А. С. Суворина издавал одноименную газету в [[Белград]]е.

== Примечания ==
<references/>

== Ссылки ==
* [http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00053/18800.htm Новое время в БСЭ]
* [http://enc.mail.ru/article/1900429042 Новое время в РЭС]
* [http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/io/article/io/19000/12528.htm Новое время в Энциклопедическом словаре «История Отечества с древнейших времен до наших дней»]

[[Категория:Российские дореволюционные газеты]]
[[Категория:Газеты Санкт-Петербурга]]

[[en:Novoye Vremya (newspaper)]]

Benutzer:Tmfreitag/Übersetzungswerkstatt Čoček

2008-07-08T20:48:20Z

Languagehat: clarified parenthetical list of languages and pronunciation

{{Unreferenced|date=March 2007}}
'''Čoček''' ([[Serbian language|Serbian]] чочек / čoček, pronounced "cho'-chek"; compare [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] чочек, [[Albanian language|Albanian]] qyqek, [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] кючек (''kyuchek'' or ''kyutchek'')) is a [[musical genre]] and [[dance]] that emerged in the [[Balkans]] during the early 19th century. In [[English language|English]], it is sometimes referred to as '''Gypsy brass'''.

Čoček originated from [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] military bands, which at that time were scattered across the region, mostly throughout [[Bulgaria]], [[Serbia]], the [[Republic of Macedonia]] and [[Romania]]. That led to the eventual segmentation and wide range of ethnic sub-styles in čoček. Čoček was handed down through the generations, preserved mostly by [[Roma people|Roma]] ("Gypsy") minorities, and was largely practiced at village weddings and banquets.

Čoček is especially popular among the Moslem Rom and Albanian populations of Kosovo, South Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia. When [[Tanec]] first came to America in 1956, they performed čoček as a Moslem woman’s dance, "Ќupurlika" from Titov Veles.

The kyuchek, as a common musical form in the Balkans (primarily Bulgaria and Macedonia), is typically a dance with a 9/8 time signature; two variant forms have the beats divided 2-2-2-3 and 2-2-3-2. (This latter meter is sometimes referred to as "gypsy 9".) Roma musicians living in areas of the former Yugoslavia have broadened the form to include variations in 4/4 and 7/8.

This music has traditionally been used for [[belly dancing]]. In the folk dance community, čoček is danced to many melodies.

==See also==
*[[Köçek]]

==External links==
*[http://cocek.com Cocek - Balkan Brass Music]
*[http://helene-eriksen.de/RomaProgEng.html Dances of the Roma - Čoček Dances from Macedonia]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cocek}}
[[Category:Folk dances]]
[[Category:Balkan music]]
[[Category:Serbian music]]
[[Category:Turkish music]]
[[Category:Romani music]]
[[Category:Bellydance]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern culture]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern music]]
[[Category:Arab music]]
{{Balkan music}}
{{music-genre-stub}}
{{folk-dance-stub}}
{{roma-stub}}

[[ja:チョチェク]]
[[pt:Čoček]]

Köçek

2008-07-08T20:41:19Z

Languagehat: added etymological detail

{{Unreferenced|date=July 2007}}
[[Image:Turkish - Dancing Kocek - Late 19th c - wiki.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''Köçek with [[tambourine]]'' Entertainers and sex workers, köçeks were in high demand in the [[Ottoman Empire]]. They were sought by high and low, up to the Sultan. Photograph, late 19th c.]]
The ''köçek'' phenomenon (plural ''köçekler'' in Turkish) is one of the significant features of [[Ottoman Empire]] culture. The köçek was typically a very handsome young male ''rakkas,'' "dancer," usually cross-dressed in feminine attire, employed as an [[entertainer]] and [[sex worker]].

The köçeks were usually children of non-Muslim [[dhimmi]] peoples living under Ottoman rule. Their ranks were filled from the ethnic groups - mostly Christians - subdued by the Turkish empire (such as the [[Circassians]], [[Albanians]], [[South Slavs#Ethno-cultural subdivisions|Balkan Slavs]], [[Armenians]], [[Jews]], [[Roma people|Roma-Gypsies]], [[Moldavians]] and [[Greeks]]) since the profession was held to be below the dignity of a Muslim and thus forbidden to Muslim boys.

== Roots ==
The Turkish word is derived from the [[Persian language|Persian]] word ''kuchek,'' "little, small" or "young," itself borrowed from Turkish ''küçük'' "little, small."

The culture of the köçek, which flourished from the 17th to the 19th century, had its origin in the customs in [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] palaces, and in particular in the [[harem (household)|harems]]. Its genres enriched both the music and the dance of the Ottomans.

The support of the [[Ottoman Dynasty|Sultans]] was a key factor in its development, as in the early stages the arts form was confined to palace circles. From there the practice dispersed throughout [[Anatolia]] and the [[Balkans]] by means of independent troupes.

== Culture ==
[[Image:Koceks - Surname-i Vehbi.jpg|thumb|left|250px|'''Köçek troupe at a fair''' at Sultan Ahmed's 1720 celebration of his sons' circumcision. Miniature from the ''Surname-i Vehbi'', [[Topkapi Palace]], [[Istanbul]].]]
A köçek would begin training around the age of seven or eight, and would be considered accomplished after about six years of study and practice. A dancer's career would last as long as he was beardless and retained his youthful appearance. Dancers would get married when they were around 25 or 30, and then could become organizers of a new köçek troupe. Köçeks were organized into companies known as ''kol.'' Twelve such companies were counted in the mid-1600s, each company averaging about 250 dancers.

Their erotic dances, collectively known as ''köçek oyunu,'' blended [[Arab]], [[Greeks|Greek]], [[Assyria]]n and [[Kurdistan|Kurdish]] elements. They were performed to a particular genre of music known as ''köçekce,'' which was performed in the form of suites in a given melody. It too was a mix of [[Sufism|Sufi]], Balkan and [[Ottoman classical music|classical Anatolian]] influences, some of which survives in [[Music of Turkey|popular Turkish music]] today. The accompaniment included various percussion instruments, such as the ''davul-köçek,'' the [[davul]] being a large drum, one side covered with goat skin and the other in sheep skin, producing different tones. [[Image:Zils.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Pair of zils; Khan el Khalili market, [[Cairo]].]]A köçek's skill would be judged not only on his dancing abilities but also on his proficiency with percussion instruments, especially a type of [[castanets|castagnette]] known as the ''çarpare.'' In later times these were replaced by metal cymbals called ''[[Zil]]s''. The dancers were accompanied by an orchestra, featuring four to five each [[Kemenche|''kaba kemence'']] and ''lauto'' as principal instruments, used exclusively for köçek suites. There were also two singers. A köçek dance in the Ottoman [[Seraglio]] (palace harem) involved one or two dozen köçeks and many musicians. The occasions of their performances were wedding or circumcision celebrations, feasts and festivals, as well as the pleasure of the sultans and the aristocracy.

The youths, often wearing heavy makeup, would curl their hair and wear it in long tresses under a small black or red velvet hat decorated with coins, jewels and gold. Their usual garb consisted of a tiny red embroidered velvet jacket with a gold-embroidered silk shirt, ''shalvars'' (baggy trousers), a long skirt and a gilt belt, knotted at the back. They were said to be "sensuous, attractive, effeminate," and their dancing "sexually provocative," impersonating female dancers. Dancers minced and gyrated their hips in slow vertical and horizontal figure-8's, rhythmically snapping their fingers and making suggestive gestures. Often acrobatics, tumbling and mock [[wrestling]] were also part of the act. The köçeks were available sexually, often to the highest bidder, in the passive role.

The names and backgrounds of köçeks in Istanbul in the 18th century are well documented. Among the more celebrated köçeks from the end of the 18th century are the Gypsy Benli Ali of [[Didymoteicho|Dimetoka]] (today's [[Greece]]); ''Buyuk'' (big, older) Afet (born Yorgaki) of [[Croatia in the Habsburg Empire#The Ottoman incursion|Croatian]] origin, ''Kucuk'' (little) Afet (born Kaspar) of Armenian origin, and Pandeli from the Greek Island of Chiros. There were at least fifty köçeks of star stature at the time. The famous ones, like the [[Roma people|Gypsy]] köçek Ismail, would have to be booked weeks or months in advance, at a very high cost.

Western visitors were variously taken with the - for them - unusual sight of [[pederasty]] unleashed. One impression is preserved in ''Don Leon,'' a poem anonymously written in the voice of [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]]:
[[Image:Saki - Reza Abbasi - Moraqqa’-e Golshan 1609 Golestan Palace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Saki'' ([[1609]]) by [[Reza Abbasi]] ([[1565]] - [[1635]]). Moraqqa’-e Golshan, [[Isfahan]], Iran; [[Golestan Palace]].]]
:''Here much I saw – and much I mused to see
:''The loosened garb of Eastern luxury.
:''I sought the brothel, where, in maiden guise,
:''The black-eyed boy his trade unblushing plies;
:''Where in lewd dance he acts the scenic show –
:''His supple haunches wriggling to and fro:
:''With looks voluptuous the thought excites,
:''Whilst gazing sit the hoary sybarites:
:''Whilst gentle lute and drowsy tambourine
:''Add to the languor of the monstrous scene.
:''Yes, call it monstrous! but not monstrous, where
:''Close latticed harems hide the timid fair:
:''With mien gallant where pæderasty smirks,
:''And whoredom, felon like, in covert lurks.
:''All this I saw – but saw it not alone –
:''A friend was with me, and I dared not own
:''How much the sight had touched some inward sense,
:''Too much for e’en the closest confidence.'' (441-8).

In his travels to the [[Levant]], Byron had indeed been present at such a dance as described above. His traveling companion, [[John Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton|John Cam Hobhouse]], relates in his diary that on Saturday, May 19th, [[1810]]:

:''This day, went with Byron and a party to the [[Meyhane|wine houses]] of [[Galata]]. Took pipes, and saw two old and ugly boys, who wrung the sweat off their brows, dance as before, waving their long hair. Also they spread a mat and, putting on a kind of shawl, performed an [[Alexandria]]n woman’s dance – much the same, except that they knelt, and, covering each other’s heads, seemed as if kissing. One of [[Robert Adair|Mr Adair]]’s [[Janissary|Janissaries]], who talks English and has been in England, was with us. I asked him if these boys would not be hanged in England. “Oh yes, directly. De Turk take and byger dem d’ye see?”''

:''For this beastly sight we paid fifty-five piastres, five to the boys each, and five to all fiddlers and singers and performers &c., nor is this dear, I understand. Turk boys are not allowed to dance.'' [http://www.hobby-o.com/constantinople.php#ref42 Excerpt from Hobhouse's diary]

The youths were held in high esteem. Famous poets, such as [[Fazyl bin Tahir Enderuni]], wrote poems, and classical composers, such as the court musician [[Dede Efendi|Hammamizade İsmail Dede Efendi]] (1778-1846), composed köçekces for celebrated koceks. Many Istanbul [[meyhane]]s (night-time taverns serving [[meze]], [[raki]] or wine) hired köçeks. Before starting their performance, the köçek danced among the spectators, to make them more excited. In the audience, competition for their attention often caused commotions and altercations. Men would go wild, breaking their glasses, shouting themselves voiceless, or fighting and sometimes killing each other vying for the boys' sexual favors. This resulted in suppression of the practice under sultan Sultan [[Abd-ul-Mejid I]]. Köçek dances were officially banned in [[1856]], and many of the boys left the country to practice their profession in Egypt and elsewhere. With the suppression of [[Seraglio|harem culture]] under Sultan [[`Abdu'l-`Aziz]] ([[1861]]-[[1876]]) and Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] ([[1876]]-[[1908]]), köçek dance and music lost the support of its royal patrons, and gradually disappeared.

The other type of ''rakkas,'' or male dancer (from ''raks,'' "dance") was the ''tavşan oğlan'', "rabbit boy," a young dancer dressed in provocative male clothing: tight pants and a jaunty hat. The non-Muslim tavşan oğlan are thought to have come mainly from the Greek islands in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and the [[Sea of Marmara]]. They performed mainly during [[Ramadan]], working as ''saki''s "wine boys" in the ''meyhane''s otherwise, when not dancing at special occasions.

Köçeks were much more sought after than the ''çengi'', their feminine counterparts. Some youths were known to have been killed by the çengi, who were extremely jealous of men's attention towards the boys.

== Modern offshoots ==
[[Image:MaleBellyDance.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Male belly dancer in Istanbul Turkey.]] 
At present, the same-sex love and sexuality aspect of köçek culture is considered to have been "a privilege of the powerful economic classes or the world of the arts." Though no new compositions or performances have taken place in the last hundred years, male dancers dressed as women still perform in some areas of Turkey, though their art is no longer primarily of a sensual nature and is seen primarily as [[Turkish folk music|folkloric]].

The style however continues to inspire modern musicians. [[Ulvi Cemal Erkin]] (1906-1972) is a Turkish classical composer whose most popular masterpiece is ''Köçekçe'' a dance rhapsody composed in [[1943]], and perhaps the best known single piece of Turkish music abroad. It was first introduced to the public in 1943 with [[Ernst Praetorius]] conducting the [[Presidential Symphony Orchestra]].

The music genre has been preserved in the [[Balkans]] in the form of the [[Čoček]], and is especially popular in [[Kosovo]], [[Albania]] and the [[Republic of Macedonia]]. It is also an important music genre amongst the [[Roma people|Roma-Gypsies]] and is performed at weddings, circumcisions and festivals all over the Balkans.

Another modern interpretation is the movie ''Kocek'' (''Küçük cadi'' 1975) by director [[Nejat Saydam]]. It is probably the first Turkish movie to deal with the topic of [[homosexuality]] and change of [[gender role]].
At the same time, young male dancers dressed in sparkling costumes are again finding favor, despite the objections of conservative commentators. Known as ''rakkas'', they have become a common feature of dance halls and night clubs, performing seductive [[belly dance#Male belly dancing|belly dance]]s, and are reputed to be "as sexual and popular as any of the best Turkish female belly dancers."

==References==
*AYVERDI, Sâmiha; Istanbul Geceleri ''The nights of Istanbul,'' ed. Baha, Istanbul, 1977.
*ENDERUNLU Fazıl bey; ''Çenginame','' 1759
*Erdoğan, Sema Nilgün: ''Sexual life in Ottoman Empire,'' ed. Dönence, Istanbul, 1996. Pp 88-92
*JANSSEN, Thijs: ''Transvestites and Transsexuals in Turkey,'' in ''Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies,'' edited by Arno Schmidt and Jehoeda Sofer, ed. Harrington Park Press, NY, 1992
*KOCU, Resad Ekrem, ''Eski Istanbul'da Meyhaneler ve Meyhane Kocekleri, Istanbul Ansiklopedisi Notlari No''
*OZTUNA, Yılmaz: ''Turk Musikisi Ansiklopedisi,'' Milli Egitim Basimevi, Istanbul, 1976. p.23

==See also==
*[[Bacchá]]
*[[Cocek]]
*[[Culture of the Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Harem (household)|Harem]]
*[[Ottoman Turkish language]]
*[[Pederasty in the Middle East#The Ottoman Empire|Pederasty in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Hammam#Tellak (Staff)|Tellak]]
*[[List of transgender-related topics]]

==External links==

*[http://www.jasminjahal.com/articles/02_02_male_belly_d.html Male Belly Dance in Turkey]
*[http://www.zadiel.de Male Belly Dance in Germany - Original turkish Köcek/Zenne]
*[http://www2.egenet.com.tr/mastersj/encyclopedia-k.html Habibullah's Encyclopaedia of the Ottoman Empire]
*[http://www.bdancer.com/history/BDhist2c.html Origins of oriental dance]
*[http://www.turkishnews.com/itumuk/info/petek/c1s4/petek9603.txt Turkish News.com]
*[http://www.androphile.org/preview/Museum/Turkey/turkish.htm Classical Turkish homoerotic art]
*{{imdb title|id=392318|title=Küçük cadi}}

==Videos==

Videos of modern-day Köçek Dancers
* http://www.youtube.com/v/EifhmS-XXxA

[[Category:Turkish culture|Kocek]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and history]]
[[Category:Transgender in non-western cultures|Kocek]]
[[Category:Pederasty in the Muslim world|Kocek]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern culture]]
[[Category:Arabic culture]]
[[Category:Bellydance]]
[[Category:Turkish sex workers|Kocek]]

[[ru:Кучек]]
 *http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2fPxfbIqubU 

*http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AdvqrEZE-gA

Anne Chapman

2008-06-28T19:03:46Z

Languagehat: MacKaye added from her home page

'''Anne MacKaye Chapman''' (born [[1922]]) is a [[France|Franco]]-[[United States|American]] [[ethnologist]]. She has studied the [[Mesoamerican]] civilizations and especially the [[Tolupan]] ([[Jicaque]]) people of Honduras. She has also visited [[Magallanes]] and [[Tierra del Fuego]] many times, since 1965, to study the [[Fuegians|Fuegian peoples]] in depth, especially the [[Selk’nam]] and [[Yahgan]].

Concerning the Fuegian, she first became interested in the matter through [[Annette Laming-Emperaire]] and [[Joseph Emperaire]]. Her research was essential to understand the cultures of these peoples and she met the last members of the Selk’nam people: Lola Kiepja and [[Angela Loij]].
She has published many papers in important anthropologic revues, but, without a doubt her most important work concerning the Fuegian is the book ''Drama and Power in a Hunting Society: The Selk’nam of Tierra del Fuego'' (1981). She has also published ''La Isla de los Estados en la prehistoria: Primeros datos arqueológicos'' (1987, [[Buenos Aires]]), ''El Fin de Un Mundo: Los Selk'nam de Tierra del Fuego''' (1990, Buenos Aires), and three chapters listed in ''Cap Horn 1882-1883: Rencontre avec les Indiens Yahgan'' (1995, [[Paris]]), which contains many photographs taken by members of the French expedition to [[Cape Horn]] 1882-83 that are among the best of the Yahgans, ten of the [[Alakaluf]] in 1881 of the eleven who were kidnapped and taken to Paris and other [[Europe]]an cities, and six of the last Yahgans she took in 1964 and 1987. Later, she has also published ''Hain: Selknam Initiation Ceremony'' and ''End of a World: The Selknam of Tierra del Fuego'', both books includding a [[CD]] of Lola Kiepja’s Hain chants (2003, Santiago de Chile). In 2004 she has published ''El fenómeno de la canoa yagán'' ([[Universidad Marítima de Chile]], [[Viña del Mar]]) and in 2006 both ''Darwin in Tierra del Fuego'' (Buenos Aires) and ''Lom: amor y venganza, mitos de los yámana'' (Santiago de Chile). Her present book in press is ''Cape Horn: Encounters with the Native People Before and After Darwin's Voyage'', a narrative of the dramas played out from 1578 to 2000 in the Cape Horn area of [[Chile]] by the native people, the navigators, the missionaries and other Europeans.

Chapman has also made the following films about the lives of the last members of the Selk’nam and Yahgan tribes: ''The Onas: Life and Death in Tierra del Fuego'' (1977, in collaboration with Ana Montes de González) and ''Homage to the Yahgans: The Last Indians of Tierra del Fuego and Cape Horn'' (1990), which became International Film and TV Festival of New York Finalist.

==Awards==
*Doctor Honoris Causa. [[University of Magallanes]], [[Punta Arenas]], Chile (2003).
*Orden [[José Cecilio del Valle]] en grado de Caballero. Foreign Relations Ministry, [[Tegucigalpa]], [[Honduras]] as well as other honors by the Instituto Hondureño de Antropología e Historia and the [[University of Honduras]] mainly for her work with the [[Tolupan]] of [[Montaña de la Flor]] and the [[Lencas of Intibuca]] (2005).
*Orden al Mérito Docente y Cultural [[Gabriela Mistral]] en el grado de Comendador. Given by the Chilean Ministry of Education (2005).

==External links==
*[http://www.rism.org/chapman/ Anne Chapman page]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chapman, Anne}}
[[Category:1922 births]]
[[Category:American anthropologists]]
[[Category:French anthropologists]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Sari Saltuk

2008-04-09T21:46:13Z

Languagehat: deleted BD|missing -- this is a legendary (mythical) figure, he doesn't have dates

'''Sari Saltik''' ({{lang-tr|Sarı Saltuk}}) is a legendary warrior saint venerated by the [[Bektashis]] of the [[Balkans]].

<blockquote>The Arab traveller [[Ibn Battuta]] is the earliest known source of a reference to him in Eastern Europe... The evidence suggests that it is with coastal Bulgaria and the place called to this day [[Babadag]], in the [[Dobrudja]] of [[Romania]], that the saint's activities came to have a particularly close association. Yazicioğlu 'Alī, who wrote during the reign of [[Murad II]] (1421-51), says that 'Izz al-Dīn [[Kaykaus II|Kaykā'ūs II]], who was threatened by his brother, found refuge with his followers at the court of the [[Byzantine]] emperor. He fought the latter's enemies, and as a reward the latter gave them the Dobrudja. The Turkish clans were summoned, and with Ṣarī Ṣaltiq (Sari Saltik) as their leader, they crossed over from [[Üsküdar]] and then proceeded to the Dobrudja. Such a migration has the unmistakable character of a folk epic ''destan'', and it recalls another westward emigration, that of the [[Banu Hilal|Banū Hilāl]] nomads into Tunisia and North Africa... The historicity of the migrating horde allegedly led by Sari Saltik is bound up with the whole question of the entry of sundry Turkic groups into [[Bulgaria]] and beyond.<ref name = "Norris">Norris, ''Islam in the Balkans'', pp. 146-47.</ref></blockquote>Similarly, F. W. Hasluck writes: "Sari Saltik, the Bektashi apostle par excellence of [[Rumeli]], seems to have had a similar history. He appears to have been originally the saint of a [[Crimean Tatars|Tatar]] tribe in the [[Crimea]], which emigrated to Baba Dagh in Rumania, carrying its cult with it. Developed by the Bektashi, Sari Saltik loses every trace of his real origin and figures as one of the missionary saints sent by [[Khwaja Ahmad Yasavi|Ahmed Yasevi]] for the conversion of Europe."<ref name = "Hasluck">Hasluck, ''Christianity and Islam under the Sultans'', p. 340.</ref>

==Notes==
<div class="references-small"><references />
</div>

==References==

* Norris, H. T. ''Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World''. University of South Carolina Press, 1993.
* Hasluck, F. W. ''Christianity and Islam under the Sultans''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1929; repr. Read Books, 2007.

[[tr:Sarı Saltuk]]

Sari Saltuk

2008-04-09T19:40:47Z

Languagehat: corrected typos

'''Sari Saltik''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]] Sarı Saltuk) is a legendary warrior saint venerated by the [[Bektashis]] of the [[Balkans]].

<blockquote>The Arab traveller [[Ibn Battuta]] is the earliest known source of a reference to him in Eastern Europe... The evidence suggests that it is with coastal Bulgaria and the place called to this day [[Babadag]], in the [[Dobrudja]] of [[Romania]], that the saint's activities came to have a particularly close association. Yazicioğlu 'Alī, who wrote during the reign of [[Murad II]] (1421-51), says that 'Izz al-Dīn [[Kaykaus II|Kaykā'ūs II]], who was threatened by his brother, found refuge with his followers at the court of the [[Byzantine]] emperor. He fought the latter's enemies, and as a reward the latter gave them the Dobrudja. The Turkish clans were summoned, and with Ṣarī Ṣaltiq (Sari Saltik) as their leader, they crossed over from [[Üsküdar]] and then proceeded to the Dobrudja. Such a migration has the unmistakable character of a folk epic ''destan'', and it recalls another westward emigration, that of the [[Banu Hilal|Banū Hilāl]] nomads into Tunisia and North Africa... The historicity of the migrating horde allegedly led by Sari Saltik is bound up with the whole question of the entry of sundry Turkic groups into [[Bulgaria]] and beyond.<ref name = "Norris">Norris, ''Islam in the Balkans'', pp. 146-47.</ref></blockquote>Similarly, F. W. Hasluck writes: "Sari Saltik, the Bektashi apostle par excellence of [[Rumeli]], seems to have had a similar history. He appears to have been originally the saint of a [[Crimean Tatars|Tatar]] tribe in the [[Crimea]], which emigrated to Baba Dagh in Rumania, carrying its cult with it. Developed by the Bektashi, Sari Saltik loses every trace of his real origin and figures as one of the missionary saints sent by [[Khwaja Ahmad Yasavi|Ahmed Yasevi]] for the conversion of Europe."<ref name = "Hasluck">Hasluck, ''Christianity and Islam under the Sultans'', p. 340.</ref>

==Notes==
<div class="references-small"><references />
</div>

==References==

* Norris, H. T. ''Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World''. University of South Carolina Press, 1993.
* Hasluck, F. W. ''Christianity and Islam under the Sultans''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1929; repr. Read Books, 2007.

[[tr:Sarı Saltuk]]

Sari Saltuk

2008-04-09T19:26:55Z

Languagehat: created entry

'''Sari Saltik''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]] Sarı Saltuk) is a legendary warrior saint venerated by the [[Bektashis]] of the [[Balkans]].

<blockquote>The Arab traveller [[Ibn Battuta]] is the earliest known source of a reference to him in Eastern Europe... The evidence suggests that it is with coastal Bulgaria and the place called to this day [[Babadag]], in the [[Dobrudja]] of [[Romania]], thta the saint's activities came to have a particularly close association. Yazicioğlu 'Alī, who wrote during the reign of [[Murad II]] (1421-51), says that 'Izz al-Dīn [[Kaykaus II|Kaykā'ūs II]], who was threatened by his brother, found refuge with his followers at the court of the [[Byzantine]] emperor. He fought the latter's enemies, and as a reward the latter gave them the Dobrudja. The Turkish clans were summoned, and with Ṣarī Ṣaltiq (Sari Saltik) as their leader, they crossed over from [[Üsküdar]] and then proceeded to the Dobrudja. Such a migration has the unmistakeable character of a folk epic ''destan'', and it recalls another westward emigration, that of the [[Banu Hilal|Banū Hilāl]] nomads into Tunisia and North Africa... The historicity of the migrating horde allegedly led by Sari Saltik is bound up with the whole question of the entry of sundry Turkic groups into [[Bulgaria]] and beyond.<ref name = "Norris">Norris, ''Islam in the Balkans'', pp. 146-47.</ref></blockquote>Similarly, F. W. Hasluck writes: "Sari Saltik, the Bektashi apostle par excellence of [[Rumeli]], seems to have had a similar history. He appears to have been originally the saint of a [[Crimean Tatars|Tatar]] tribe in the [[Crimea]], which emigrated to Baba Dagh in Rumania, carrying its cult with it. Developed by the Bektashi, Sari Saltik loses every trace of his real origin and figures as one of the missionary saints sent by [[Khwaja Ahmad Yasavi|Ahmed Yasevi]] for the conversion of Europe."<ref name = "Hasluck">Hasluck, ''Christianity and Islam under the Sultans'', p. 340.</ref>

==Notes==
<div class="references-small"><references />
</div>

==References==

* Norris, H. T. ''Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World''. University of South Carolina Press, 1993.
* Hasluck, F. W. ''Christianity and Islam under the Sultans''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1929; repr. Read Books, 2007.

[[tr:Sarı Saltuk]]

Enumclaw

2008-02-23T14:29:48Z

Languagehat: added information on pronunciation (from Webster's Geographical Dictionary)

<noinclude>{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}</noinclude>
{{Infobox Settlement
|official_name = City of Enumclaw, Washington
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|image_skyline =
|imagesize =
|image_caption =
|image_map = King_County_Washington_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Enumclaw_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250x200px
|map_caption = Location of Enumclaw within [[King County, Washington]], and King County within [[Washington]].
|image_map1 =
|mapsize1 =
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|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States| State]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Washington|Counties]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Washington]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[King County, Washington|King]], [[Pierce County, Washington|Pierce]]
|government_type =
|leader_title =
|leader_name =
|established_date =
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 10.1
|area_land_km2 = 10.1
|area_water_km2 = 0.0
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_total = 11116
|population_density_km2 = 1097.7
|timezone = [[Pacific]]
|utc_offset = −8
|timezone_DST = [[Pacific]]
|utc_offset_DST = −7
| latitude = 47°12′9″ N
| longitude = 121°59′39″ W
|area_total_sq_mi = 3.9
|area_land_sq_mi = 3.9
|area_water_sq_mi = 0.0
|elevation_m = 232
|elevation_ft = 761
|latd = 47 |latm = 12 |lats = 09 |latNS = N
|longd = 121 |longm = 59 |longs = 39 |longEW = W
| other =
|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 98022
|area_code = [[Area code 360|360]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 53-22045{{GR|2}}
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 1519366{{GR|3}}
|footnotes =
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}}
'''Enumclaw''' is a city in [[King County, Washington|King County]], [[Washington]], [[United States]]. The population was 11,116 at the 2000 census. The [[center of population]] of Washington is located in Enumclaw [http://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt].

The name Enumclaw (stressed on the first syllable: EE-num-claw) is derived from a local [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] word meaning "Place of evil spirits" and the city is named after a mountain about six miles (10 km) north. The local Natives believed that the Thunder Bird lived in a cave on this mountain, and had changed tribesmen into thunder for all time.

Enumclaw was homesteaded in [[1879]] by Frank and Mary Stevenson. The first [[plat]]s were filed six years later, and the city was incorporated on [[January 27]], [[1913]].

It is home to the ''[[Enumclaw Courier-Herald]]'' newspaper and [[Mutual of Enumclaw]], an [[insurance|insurer]] doing business in [[Washington]], [[Oregon]], [[Idaho]], and [[Utah]]. Enumclaw is the hometown of [[NASCAR]] driver [[Kasey Kahne]] and [[Boston Celtics]] player [[Brian Scalabrine]], both graduates of Enumclaw High School. Poet [[Tony Tost]] was raised in the city. Musician Erica Dunham who writes under the moniker [[Unter Null]] was raised in Enumclaw.

==Geography==
Enumclaw is located at {{coor dms|47|12|9|N|121|59|39|W|city}} (47.202401, -121.994044){{GR|1}}.

The city is located in the midst of flat, level farmlands and dairy farms. The flat geography in the middle of mountainous territory is due to the ancient Osceola Mudflow from nearby Mount Rainier.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 3.9 [[square mile]]s (10.1 [[km²]]).None of the area is covered with water.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 11,116 people, 4,317 households, and 2,840 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 2,842.8 people per square mile (1,097.7/km²). There were 4,456 housing units at an average density of 1,139.6/sq mi (440.0/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 94.25% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.79% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.78% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.30% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.11% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.15% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 2.62% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 3.42% of the population.

There were 4,317 households out of which 37.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% were non-families. 29.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.13.

In the city the population was spread out with 29.2% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 30.3% from 25 to 44, 18.3% from 45 to 64, and 14.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 91.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.3 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $43,820, and the median income for a family was $56,270. Males had a median income of $46,060 versus $30,926 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $20,596. About 4.3% of families and 8.2% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 6.3% of those under age 18 and 9.6% of those age 65 or over.

==External links==
*[http://www.ci.enumclaw.wa.us/ City of Enumclaw]
*[http://www.courierherald.com/front ''Enumclaw Courier-Herald'']
*[http://chamber.enumclaw.wa.us/ Enumclaw Area Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.enumclawhospital.org/ Enumclaw Community Hospital]
*[http://www.enumclaw.wednet.edu/ ''Enumclaw School District Web Page'']
*[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/motorsports/2002472739_kahne05.html Enumclaw honors Nascar driver Kasey Kahne], ''[[The Seattle Times]]'', September 5, 2005
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|47.202401|-121.994044}}

{{Washington}}

[[Category:Cities in King County, Washington]]
[[Category:Cities in Washington]]
[[Category:King County, Washington]]
[[Category:Settlements established in 1885]]

[[ar:إنومكلاو، واشنطن]]
[[nl:Enumclaw]]
[[vo:Enumclaw]]

Charles Atlas

2007-12-15T21:37:25Z

Languagehat: added Bernarr Macfadden's name, made a few corrections, tried to put paragraphs in better order

{{Advert|date=December 2007}}

'''Charles Atlas''' ([[October 30]], [[1892]] – [[December 23]], [[1972]]) was the owner and figurehead of a [[bodybuilding]] method and its associated exercise program; he is most well-known for a landmark advertising campaign featuring his name and likeness, which has been described as one of the most lasting and memorable ad campaigns of all time<ref name="hogan">[http://cagle.msnbc.com/hogan/features/atlas.asp The ad that made an icon out of Mac]</ref>. According to his description, he [[Physical exercise|trained]] himself to develop his body from that of a “scrawny weakling”, eventually becoming the most popular muscleman of his day. His company, Charles Atlas Ltd., was founded in 1929 and continues to this day marketing a fitness program for the “97-pound weakling”, it is now owned by [[Jeffrey C. Hogue]].

==History==
Born '''Angelo Siciliano''' (also called Angelino) in [[Acri, Italy|Acri]], in [[Calabria]], Italy, 1892 he moved to [[Brooklyn]], [[New York]], in 1905, took the name Charles, and became a leatherworker. Said by some to have been a small, weak child, Angelino by his own admission was not undersized when he started training. Siciliano worked hard to develop his physique, he tried many forms of exercise initially using weights, pulley style resistance and gymnastic style calisthenics. Atlas was inspired by other fitness and health advocates who preceded him. World-renowned strongman [[Eugene Sandow]] and creator of “Physical Culture” [[Bernarr Macfadden]] set the stage for Atlas.
After being bullied as a child Charles Atlas joined the YMCA and began to do numerous exercise routines. He became obsessed with strength. One day he watched a tiger stretching in the zoo and asked himself, "How does Mr. Tiger keep in physical condition? Did you ever see a tiger with a barbell?" He concluded that lions and tigers became strong by pitting muscle against muscle. <ref>(The 20th Century History With The Boring parts Left Out" D. Wallechinsky 1999) </ref> He took the name “Charles Atlas” after a friend told him he resembled the statue of [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] on top of a hotel in Coney Island, New York, legally changing his name in 1922. (He later filed for and received trademark status for the name.)

In 1921, [[Bernarr Macfadden]], the publisher of the magazine ''[[Physical Culture (magazine)|Physical Culture]]'' dubbed him "The World's Most Perfectly Developed Man" in a [[contest]] held in [[Madison Square Garden]]. He was chosen by a cross-disciplined group of health and medical experts, educators, [[anthropology|anthropologist]]s, scientists and medical doctors who viewed Atlas as the "perfect male body" and placed his physical measurements on file for posterity. Atlas's physical measurements are buried in the [[Crypt of Civilization]], a [[time capsule]] at [[Oglethorpe University]]. He soon took the role of [[Strongman (strength athlete)|strongman]] in the [[Coney Island]] [[Circus (performing art)|Circus]] [[Side show|Side Show]].

His system was later dubbed “[[Dynamic-Tension]]” and turned him into a 180-pound man who was able to pull a 72-ton locomotive 112 feet along the tracks. Atlas began advertising his program in comic books. Atlas’ "Dynamic-Tension" program consists of 12 lessons and one final perpetual lesson. His ad became iconic, presenting a scenario in which a boy is threatened on the beach by a sand-kicking [[Bullying|bully]] while his date watches. Humiliated, he goes home and, after kicking a chair and gambling a ten cent stamp, subscribes to Atlas' "Dynamic-Tension" program. Later, the boy, now muscular, goes to the beach again and beats up the bully, becoming the “hero of the beach”. Girls marvel at how big his muscles are, and the ad is called “The Insult that Made a Man out of Mac”.

The name "Dynamic-Tension" was coined by Mr. Charles P. Roman of Charles Atlas, Ltd. The Charles Atlas course "Dynamic-Tension" launched a major advertising campaigned aimed at young men between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five. His advertisements proclaimed the effectiveness of his program of turning "you into a new man." His most noticeable advertisement was the "Mac" advertisement in which Mac is transformed from a "scrawny boy" into Atlas' "muscular man." The "Mac" advertisement has been characterized as one of the single greatest advertisements of all time and launched Atlas into notoriety throughout the United States.

"As is true of all the exercises in Atlas's course, you can do these exercises almost anywhere." <ref>(Yours in Perfect Manhood, Gaines and Butler 1982)</ref>

== Likenesses ==

Charles Atlas's popularity grew throughout the 20th century. Atlas used his personal story as a marketing tool and had a strong following around the United States. His promises and personal anecdotes convinced the American people to follow his program. His " System of Health, Strength, and Physique Building" includes twelve lessons and one final "perpetual lesson". Each lesson is supplemented with photos of Atlas demonstrating the exercises. Beyond the physical aspect of his regiment his rhetoric and personal touch improved his likeness even more. He would add commentary that referred to the readers as his friends and gave them an open invitation to write him letters to update Atlas on their progress and stories. His products and lessons have sold millions and Atlas became the face of fitness.

Besides photographs, Atlas posed for many [[statue]]s throughout his life, including, it has been said, the statue of [[George Washington]] in [[New York City|New York]]'s [[Washington Square Park]]. Atlas was also an inspiration and a model for more recent body builders and fitness gurus including the current Governor of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger. Atlas died of heart failure at age 80 after his daily jog on the beach. (It should be noted that his family had a history of heart attacks, so it was probably due to genetic inheritance.) At the time, people were still writing to him.

== Pop culture references ==
*A&E Biography - Modern Day Hercules" - The biography of Charles Atlas and Charles Atlas, Ltd. The show can be ordered off Charles Atlas, Ltd. website.
*The song "Charles Atlas Song/I Can Make You a Man" from the [[rock and roll]] musical ''[[The Rocky Horror Show]]'' mentions Charles Atlas and his "Dynamic-Tension" course by name. The song also refers to a ''98''-pound weakling, a device that did not infringe Atlas' trademark on the phrase "97-pound weakling". The character of [[Dr. Frank N. Furter|Frank N. Furter]] furthermore claims that Rocky Horror, another character who Frank created to be his new lover, "carries the Charles Atlas Seal of Approval".
*The song "I Can See For Miles" by [[The Who]] (on the album ''[[The Who Sell Out]]'') is followed by a "commercial" for the Charles Atlas Course ("The Charles Atlas course with "Dynamic Tension" can turn you into a beast of a man.")
*The song "[[She's Your Lover Now (Just a Little Glass of Water)]]" by [[Bob Dylan]], released on ''[[The Bootleg Series Volumes 1-3]]'', refers to Charles Atlas in the line "Why must I fall into the sadness / Do I look like Charles Atlas?"
*The song "[[Mr Apollo]]" by the [[Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band]] on the album ''[[Tadpoles]]'' parodies Charles Atlas' advertising, with lead-singer/writer [[Vivian Stanshall]] affecting a gruff butch voice. The song involves members of the band singing the praises of fictional bodybuilder Mr Apollo, while Stanshall alternately sings and offers no-nonsense motivational advice, such as "''no tiresome exercises / no tricks / no unpleasant bending / wrestle poodles and win!''"
*The song "[[Mr Superman]]" ([[Swingles II]]; lyrics by [[Tony Vincent Isaacs]] to the melody of [[Scott Joplin]]'s 'Elite syncopations') whilst not referring to Charles Atlas directly, implies the connection. In the song, the 'hero', having done the course and having achieved nothing, thinks it's a fraud and becomes an expert in other fields and Mr Superman only in his daydreams. There are some poetic references to "sand in the face".
* [[The Onion]]'s compendium ''[[Our Dumb Century]]'' has a parody of the Charles Atlas "Hero of the Beach" cartoon advertisement woven into an article about US politician [[Adlai E. Stevenson|Adlai Stevenson]] confronting General [[William Westmoreland]]. Stevenson is described as having a ''97-pound runt frame''.
*In the [[Kurt Vonnegut]] novel ''[[Cat's Cradle]]'', the religious leader [[Bokononism|Bokonon]] is a graduate of Charles Atlas' course.
*In the ''[[Futurama]]'' Season 2 episode "When Aliens Attack", Fry gets sand kicked in his face by a "professional beach bully" who asks for payment for his services after Fry has won the girl. Leela hits on him but he turns out to be gay.
*The song "Sand In My Face" by [[10cc]], on their debut album, is a detailed description of Atlas' legendary ads.
*The band [[AFI (band)|A.F.I.]] have a song called "Charles Atlas" on their album "Very Proud Of Ya".
*The 1990 film [[Book of Love (1990 film)|Book of Love]] has [[Tom Platz]] playing a Charles Atlas-like character.
*Australian band The Fauves had a minor local hit with their song "The Charles Atlas Way".
*The song "Sunset Strip" by [[Pink Floyd]]'s [[Roger Waters]] contains the line "''I like riding in my Uncle's car, Down to the beach where the pretty girls all parade, And movie stars and paparazzi play the Charles Atlas kicking sand in the face game.''"
*In the [[Ren and Stimpy]] episode "Ren's Pecs", Ren seeks counsel from the bodybuilder "Charles Globe", who inspires him to get plastic surgery. Charles Globe, and the entire episode, are obvious spoofs of the story of Charles Atlas.
* In the 1966 postmodern Canadian novel ''Beautiful Losers'' by [[Leonard Cohen]], Charles Atlas is parodied as "Charles Axis"
* In the [[DC Comics]] title [[Mystery in Space]] the main character, [[Captain Comet|Comet]], referring to an army of superpowered clones says "Physically those clones may make me looking like a 98-pound-weakling, but psychically I'm the Charles Atlas of this beach."
*An animated short on [[Monty Python's Flying Circus]] spoofed the Charles Atlas ad albeit with the bully using a cannon on the newly-muscular Mac character and getting the girl again in the end.
* In the [[DC Comics]] title [[Watchmen]] the character, [[Ozymandias (comics)]] advertises a workout regimen entitled the Veidt method. The advertisement appears on the back cover of comics featured within the graphic novel. The advertisement, which references the Atlas ads, promises to "Give You Bodies Beyond Your Wildest Imagination!"
*In Pepper Ann episode "Halloween" Charles Atlas if referenced as a subtitle saying when he was born.
* Cartoonist [[Chris Ware]] created a parody ad in which the weakling obtains a handgun, kills the bully and apprehends the young woman.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ware|first=Chris|publication-date=January 1994|title=The ACME Novelty Library||volume=2|publication-place=Seattle|publisher=Fantagraphics Books|url=http://quimby.gnus.org/warehouse/anl2/anl2.html|accessdate=2007-11-21}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Dynamic tension|Dynamic Tension]]

==External links==
* [http://www.charlesatlas.com CharlesAtlas.com]
* [http://www.sandowplus.co.uk Sandow Plus]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=2300 Charles Atlas at Find-A-Grave]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Atlas, Charles}}
[[Category:1892 births]]
[[Category:1972 deaths]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States]]
[[Category:Italian-American sportspeople]]
[[Category:Advertising]]
[[Category:American bodybuilders]]
[[Category:American exercise and fitness writers]]
[[Category:Sideshow attractions]]
[[Category:Strength training writers]]
[[Category:Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens)]]

[[es:Charles Atlas]]

Alice Roosevelt Longworth

2007-09-13T18:46:48Z

Languagehat: corrected motto according to linked reference

[[Image:Alice_roosevelt_color_3.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Alice Roosevelt, taken around her debut in 1902. A striking beauty, her outspokenness and antics won the hearts of the American people who nicknamed her "Princess Alice".]]

'''Alice Lee Roosevelt Longworth''' ([[February 12]], [[1884]] – [[February 20]],[[1980]]) was a child of [[Theodore Roosevelt]], the 26th [[President of the United States]], born of his first wife, [[Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt|Alice Hathaway Lee]]. She was Lee's only child.

Alice led an unconventional and controversial life. Despite her love for her legendary father, she proved to be almost nothing like him. Her shaky marriage with [[Ohio]] power representative [[Nicholas Longworth]] drew the attention of many in Washington. She spurned [[Christianity]]. She was alleged to be unfaithful in marriage, but, considering the roving eye of her husband [[Nicholas Longworth]], it would not be surprising. She once considered accepting the offer to be "an honorary [[homosexual]]" in the late 1960s. She temporarily became a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] during the [[John Kennedy|Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon Johnson|Johnson]] administrations, and proudly boasted in a ''[[60 Minutes]]'' interview with [[Eric Sevareid]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] [[February 17]], [[1974]], that she was a "[[hedonist]]."

==Childhood==
[[Image:Theodore Roosevelt and family, 1903.jpg|thumb|left|220 px|Roosevelt Family in 1903 with [[Quentin Roosevelt|Quentin]] on the left, TR, [[Theodore Roosevelt, Jr.|Ted, Jr.]], [[Archibald Roosevelt|"Archie"]], Alice, [[Kermit Roosevelt|Kermit]], [[Edith Kermit Roosevelt|Edith]], and [[Ethel Roosevelt Derby|Ethel]].]]

Alice Lee Roosevelt was born at the [[Roosevelt]] family home on 6 West 57th St. in [[New York City]]. Two days after her birth, in the same house, both her mother, [[Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt|Alice]], a [[Boston]] banking heiress, and her paternal grandmother, [[Martha Bulloch|Martha]], died; the former of undiagnosed [[Bright's disease]], the latter from [[typhoid]]. Her father, then a New York state legislator, was so distraught with the loss that the only way he could deal with this tragedy was to try not to even think about his deceased spouse. While he wrote a short tribute to her in his diary and made a couple of references to her in the months after her death, from the next year on, Roosevelt tried never to speak of her again. He refused to have her name mentioned in his presence and even omitted her name from his autobiography. Even his daughter was seldom referred to by her name calling her "Baby Lee" (the use of any name other than Alice was a practice she continued late in life, preferring to be called "Mrs. L"). Grief-stricken, Roosevelt left his infant daughter Alice in the care of his sister [[Bamie Roosevelt|Bamie]], (also known as "Bye"). While some Theodore Roosevelt biographers have claimed that he showed no affection for his young baby, there are letters to his sister, Ana (Bamie) that reveal his concern such as one written in 1884 in which he said of Alice, "I hope Mousiekins will be very cunning, I shall dearly love her." [http://books.google.com/books?id=qv8_vLud0LQC&pg=PA110&ots=XawpZ7Z1CH&dq=Presidents+Children+Ana&sig=OTjT_31wTZWPmYTwT2SpRArxfrs#PPA48,M1] <ref> All the Presidents' Children: Triumph and Tragedy in the Lives of America's First Families By Doug Wead, pg 48. </ref>

==The influence of Theodore Roosevelt's sister, Bamie and the Lee grandparents==
Theodore Roosevelt's sister, and the only aunt with whom she had a long-term relationship, [[Bamie Roosevelt]], would be the one strong stabilizing influence on her. She would take Alice under her watchful care until TR married [[Edith Roosevelt|Edith Kermit Carow]], at which time she would come under her step-mother's wing and during much of Alice's childhood, Bamie would be a remote figure who eventually would marry and move to London for a time. Auntie "Bye", Bamie would provide the needed structure and stability, on and off again, as Alice became more and more independent, and her father and step-mother would come into conflict with her independent and rebellious nature. Late in life, when Alice spoke of her beloved Auntie Bye in a series of interviews lasting over five years with Michael Teague, she told him that, "There is always someone in every family who keeps it together. In ours, it was Auntie Bye."

Increasingly, Alice's parents would send her off to visit Bamie when they couldn't handle her. Likewise it would be Alice's Lee grandparents (on her mother's side) in Boston, with whom Alice would spend summers and holiday periods, including Thanksgiving, who would give her the undivided attention she could seldom find in her father's home to the point of spoiling her as only grandparents can. They would provide an unconditional love and constancy of affection that Alice would miss in her father's home with her step-mother Edith. In the weeks after his wife's death, her father embarked on a journey of personal discovery to the violent [[Old West]], an experience that largely allowed him to rise above his childhood illnesses and physical limitations and so influenced his life that it would substantially contribute to the succession of personal accomplishments that led him to the White House in September 1901.

==Her father's return from the West and marriage to Edith Carow==
[[Image:Alice Roosevelt LOC USZ 62 13520.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Alice around 1902 by [[Frances Benjamin Johnston]].]]
After returning east, and running for and losing the election to mayor of [[New York City]], Theodore Roosevelt went to London where he married a childhood friend, [[Edith Roosevelt|Edith Kermit Carow]], by whom he would have five more children. There were strains in the relationship between [[Theodore Roosevelt|TR]] and his daughter, and he had very little interaction with her during her earliest years, leaving the work to other people, such as his sister Bamie, Alice's maternal grandparents and even his second wife, Edith. Alice was continually shuffled about from one house to another, even as a teenager, and she later said she often felt like he loved her "one-sixth" as much as the other children. There were also tensions in the relationship between young Alice and her stepmother, who had known her husband's previous wife and made it clear that she regarded her predecessor as a beautiful but insipid, childlike fool. As Alice Longworth later recalled, her stepmother once angrily told her that if Alice's mother, Alice Lee Roosevelt had lived, she would have bored her father to death. Despite these strains, it would be Edith, the demanding step-mother, who would save Alice from a life possibly in a wheelchair or on crutches when Alice came down with a mild form of [[polio]] and one leg and its muscles grew shorter than the other. By Edith's uncompromising regimen of nightly forced wearing of torturous leg braces and shoes, even over Alice's sobs, Edith ensured that Alice would grow up with almost no trace of the disability. Alice was able to run up stairs and touch her nose with her toe well into her 80s because of a step-mother she didn't always appreciate and who didn't like her either. In later years, however, Alice expressed admiration for her stepmother's sense of humor and stated that they had shared similar literary tastes.

==Growing young womanhood==
Alice, always spoiled with gifts, matured into young womanhood and, in the course, became known as a great beauty like her mother. However, continuing tension with her stepmother and prolonged separation and little attention from her father created a young woman who was as independent and outgoing as she was self-confident and calculating. When her father was governor of New York, Edith and her father proposed that Alice attend a quite conservative school for girls in New York City. Pulling out all the stops, Alice wrote, "If you send me I will humiliate you. I will do something that will shame you. I tell you I will."

==Father's Presidency==
When her father took office following the assassination of President [[William McKinley]] (an event that "filled (me) with an extreme rapture"), Alice became an instant celebrity and fashion icon. While proud of her father's accomplishment, she also was painfully aware that his new duties would afford her significantly less of his time even as she longed for more of his attention. She was known as a rule-breaker in an era when women were under great pressure to conform. The American public noticed many of her exploits. She smoked cigarettes in public, rode in cars with men, stayed out late partying, kept a pet snake named Emily Spinach (Emily as in her spinster aunt and Spinach as in garter snake green) in the White House, and was seen placing bets with a bookie. This was simply not the sort of demeanor expected of a turn-of-the-century American President's daughter. [[Image:AlicePortrait.jpg|thumb|left|220 px|Alice Roosevelt, formal portrait by [[Theobald Chartran]] 1901.]]
[[Image:AliceRooseveltwPekingeseDog1902.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Alice with her dog, Leo. She was also given a [[Pekingese]] named Manchu, by the last Chinese [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] in 1902]]
Alice, along with her father's Secretary of War, [[William Howard Taft]], led the diplomatic mission to [[Japan]], the largest in U.S. history up until that time, comprised 35 U.S. Congressmen (including her future husband [[Nicholas Longworth]]) and other diplomats. She made headlines wherever she went, being photographed with the [[Emperor of Japan]] and the [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] of [[China]], as well as attending [[sumo]] wrestling matches. In the cruise to Japan, she made a splash by jumping into the ship's pool fully clothed, and coaxed a Congressman to join her in the water. (Years later Bobby Kennedy would chide Alice about the incident, saying it was outrageous for the time, to which the by then octogenarian Alice replied it would only have been outrageous had she removed her clothes! In her biography, Crowded Hours, Alice made note of the event, pointing out that there was little difference between the linen skirt and blouse she had been wearing and a ladies bathing suit of the period.) The press dubbed Alice's part in this government-sponsored trip to Asia "Alice in Plunder Land." She brought back enough silk from China for a lifetime of beautiful dresses and would wear a beautiful strand of costly pearls given to her by the Cuban government for the rest of her life. (See photos). This diplomatic junket, and Alice's ability to keep the press at bay by becoming the center of attention, contributed to her father's successful conclusion of the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]] in 1905 that ended the [[Russo-Japanese War]], which eventually made her father the first-ever [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner in American history.

[[Image:Alice Roosevelt Mar 24 1902 side in black.jpg.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Alice 1902 studio portrait by [[Frances Benjamin Johnston]].]]
Once, a [[White House]] visitor commented on Alice's frequent interruptions to the [[Oval Office]], often because of her political advice. The exhausted President commented to his friend, author [[Owen Wister]], after the third interruption to their conversation and after threatening to throw Alice 'out the window', "I can either run the country or I can attend to Alice, but I cannot possibly do both."

Alice was the center of attention in the social context of her father's presidency, especially at her wedding, but she had to be very competitive to get noticed when he was around. She said of his love of attention, that he "wants to be the bride at every wedding, the corpse at every funeral, and the baby at every christening."

==Married life==
For her husband, Alice chose [[Nicholas Longworth]], a Republican [[U.S. House of Representatives]] member from [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], who ultimately would rise to become [[Speaker of the House]]. Their 1906 wedding was the social event of the season. Alice and Nick bought the residence in the Washington, DC at 2009 Massachusetts Avenue and which is now the headquarters of the [[Washington Legal Foundation]].

A scion of a socially prominent Ohio family, Nick had a reputation as a Washington, D.C. playboy. The two made an awkward couple. Alice publicly supported her father's 1912 [[Bull Moose]] presidential candidacy, while Nick stayed loyal to his mentor, President Taft. During that election cycle, she appeared on stage with her father's vice presidential candidate, [[Hiram Johnson]], in Nick's own district. Nick later lost by about 105 votes, and she joked that she was worth at least 100 votes (meaning she was the reason he lost). However, he was elected again in 1914 and stayed in the House for the rest of his life.

Alice Longworth's campaign against her husband caused a permanent chill in her marriage to Nick Longworth. During their marriage, Longworth carried on numerous affairs. As reported in Carol Felsenthal's biography of Alice, and in Betty Boyd Caroli's ''The Roosevelt Women'', as well by TIME journalist Rebecca Winters Keegan, it was generally accepted knowledge in DC that Alice also had a long, ongoing affair with Senator [[William Borah]], and that he was in fact the father of Alice's daughter, [[Paulina Longworth]] (1925-1957). [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1207827,00.html]

==Post-TR presidency==
[[Image:Nicholas+Alice Longworth-USCapitol.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Alice and her husband, House Speaker & Ohio Congressman [[Nicholas Longworth]] on the steps of the US Capitol in 1926]]
When it came time for the Roosevelt family to move out of the [[White House]], Alice buried a [[Voodoo doll]] of the new First Lady, [[Helen Herron Taft|Nellie Taft]] in the front yard. [http://www.salon.com/people/feature/1999/06/07/longworth/] At many White House social activities such as dinners, Alice frequently mocked the [[First Lady]], rendering Mrs. Taft rather uncomfortable in Alice's presence though she some twenty years her junior. Mrs. Taft offended Alice by offering her an invitation to the [[White House]], upon receiving the invitation, Alice asked, "Me? Who walked the halls of the White House for so many years." Later, the Taft White House would mark her first ban from her former residence. During the administration of [[Woodrow Wilson]] (from which she was banned in 1916 for a bawdy joke at Wilson's expense), Alice worked endlessly against the entry of the United States into the [[League of Nations]]. Her Washington society dinners and reception lobbying is credited with helping to derail America's membership in the League of Nations.

[[Image:Paulina & Alice Roosevelt Longworth.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Alice on her 43rd birthday in 1927 with her daughter Paulina, age 2]]
Alice didn't like [[Warren G. Harding]] any more than she had Taft or Wilson. Mrs. Longworth felt that Harding was a crass man, barely educated, and ill-suited for the job. She preferred his vice-president, [[Calvin Coolidge]]. Her feelings toward First Lady [[Florence Harding]] grew more strained during the Hardings' years in Washington. Alice felt that she had lost her best friend, [[Evalyn Walsh McLean]], to Florence, and the relationship between Alice -- the Speaker's wife -- and the President's wife grew bitter.

Following the death of her husband in 1931, Alice Longworth and her daughter continued to live near [[Dupont Circle]] on Massachusetts Avenue, Washington's [[Embassy Row]]. When asked if she would run for her late husband's seat, she declined. She did not like public speaking, seldom spoke at public receptions, and abhorred physical contact with the public and the "press of the flesh" that came so easily to her father; in short, campaigning did not suit her. Her final visits to Cincinnati were in order to fulfill obligations, not for pleasure. One such trip was made for the burial of her husband, another for the social debut of her daughter. When asked if she would be buried in Cincinnati, Mrs. Longworth said that to do so "would be a fate worse than death itself."

During the [[Great Depression]], when she like so many other Americans found her fortunes reversed, Mrs. L. appeared in [[tobacco]] advertisements to raise money. She also published an autobiography, ''Crowded Hours.'' The book sold well and received rave reviews. TIME Magazine praised its "insouciant vitality." [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,746277-1,00.html] Her library was filled with autographed works from Tennyson, Yeats, and Ezra Pound.

==The other Washington Monument==
The widow Longworth maintained her stature in the community, socially and politically, garnering her the nickname "the other Washington Monument". Mrs. Longworth served as a delegate to [[Republican National Convention]] on more than one occasion, declining to address the Convention.

Alice's wit was legendary in Washington, DC; and that wit could have a deadly political effect on friend and foe alike. When columnist and cousin [[Joseph Alsop]] claimed that there was grass-roots support for Republican presidential candidate, [[Wendell Willkie]], the Republican hope to defeat F.D.R. in 1940, Alice said yes, "the grass roots of 10,000 country clubs." [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,967243,00.html] Alice demolished [[Thomas Dewey]], the 1944 opponent of her cousin Franklin, by comparing the pencil-line mustached Republican to “the little man on the wedding cake.” The image stuck and helped Governor Dewey lose two consecutive presidential elections.

[[Paulina Longworth]] married [[Alexander McCormick Sturm]], with whom she had a daughter, [[Joanna Sturm|Joanna]] (b. July 1946). Sturm died in 1951. Following the death of her daughter in 1957 (by an accidental overdose of sleeping pills, for many years suspected of being a suicide, although Alice never agreed with that assessment), Alice Longworth fought for and won the custody of her granddaughter [[Joanna Sturm]], whom she raised. Not very long before Paulina's death, she and Alice had discussed the care of Joanna in case of such an event. In an article in ''[[American Heritage (magazine)|American Heritage]]'' in 1969, Joanna was described as a "highly attractive and intellectual twenty-two-year-old" and was called "a notable contributor to Mrs. Longworth’s youthfulness....The bonds between them are twin cables of devotion and a healthy respect for each other’s tongue. 'Mrs. L.,' says a friend, 'has been a wonderful father and mother to Joanna: mostly father.' [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1969/2/1969_2_42.shtml]

Unlike her relationship with her daughter, Mrs. Longworth doted on her granddaughter and the two were very close. Upon Paulina's death, her cousin [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] sent condolences and the two mended their broken relationship based on their obvious political differences.

==Lifelong Republican who occasionally flirted with Democrats==
From an early age, Alice was interested in politics. When advancing age and illness incapacitated her aunt Bamie, Alice stepped into her place as an unofficial political adviser to her father. Alice strongly advised her father against challenging the renomination of William Howard Taft on the Republican 1912 ticket. While her political instincts were highly developed, she was not at all accommodating. In fact, she took a hard line view of the Democrats and was on the decidedly conservative wing of the Republican party in her youth. She was active in supporting her half-brother, Ted Roosevelt in his attempt to become governor of New York in 1924. When Franklin Delano Roosevelt ran for president in 1932, Alice took pains to publicly oppose his candidacy. Writing in the Ladies' Home Journal in October 1932, she said of FDR, "He is my father's fourth cousin once removed. . . . Politically, his branch of the family and ours have always been in different camps, and the same surname is about all we have in common. . . . I am a Republican. . . . I am going to vote for Hoover. . . . If I were not a Republican, I would still vote for Mr. Hoover this time." [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,753436,00.html]

[[Image:Alice Roosevelt & Joanna Sturm at Tricia Nixon Wedding.gif|right|thumb|300px|[[Joanna Sturm]] and Alice, her grandmother at [[Tricia Nixon]]'s wedding in 1971]]
Alice developed a genuine friendship with [[Richard Nixon]] when he was vice-president, and when he returned to California after Eisenhower's 2nd term, Alice continued to maintain an active relationship with him and did not consider his political career to be over. She encouraged Nixon to re-enter politics and continued to invite him to her famous dinners. Not forgetting this kindness, when Nixon became President, he invited Alice to his first formal White House dinner. She was also invited to the wedding of his daughter [[Tricia Nixon]] in 1971.

As she aged Alice would occasionally flirt with the Democrats and even supported [[John F. Kennedy]] and had an affectionate although sometimes strained friendship with [[Bobby Kennedy]], perhaps because of his relatively thin skin. When she privately made fun of his scaling the newly named Mt. Kennedy in Canada, he was not amused. She even admitted to voting for President [[Lyndon Johnson]] over Senator [[Barry Goldwater]] in 1964 because she believed Goldwater was too mean.

==Odds and ends==
Alice was a medal awarder at the notorious [[1904 Summer Olympics|1904 Olympics]] in St. Louis.

In 1958, Mrs. L. was found to be suffering from [[breast cancer]], and though successfully undergoing a [[mastectomy]] at the time, she was again later found to have cancer in the other breast, requiring a second mastectomy. Taking the medical procedures in stride, she referred to herself as the only "topless octogenarian" in Washington. After these surgeries, Mrs. L.'s health was not as strong as it once had been but she continued a rigorous schedule and maintained her social rounds.

Alice was a lifelong member of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] party, like her father. Yet her political sympathies began to change when she became close to the Kennedy family and Lyndon Johnson. She voted Democratic in 1964, and was known to be supporting Bobby Kennedy in the 1968 Democratic primary.

It is possible her change in political leanings was the result of the social upheavals occurring in American society at the same time. Beginning in the late 1950s and continuing into the 1970s, the struggle of African Americans for social and legal equality could not have escaped the notice of a woman always known for approaching everyone she first met with respect, without regard for their station in life. As an example of her attitudes on race, in 1965 her African American chauffeur and one of her best friends, Turner, was driving Mrs. L. to an appointment. During the trip, he pulled out in front of a [[Taxicab|taxi]], and the driver got out and demanded to know of him, "What do you think you're doing you black bastard?" Turner took the insult calmly, but Mrs. L. did not and told the taxi driver, "He's taking me to my destination, you white son of a bitch!"

Yet after RFK was murdered, she again supported her friend [[Richard Nixon]], just as she did in his 1960 campaign against JFK. However, her long friendship with Nixon ended at the conclusion of the Watergate Scandal. Specifically, when Nixon quoted her father's diary at his resignation, by saying "Only if you've been to the lowest valley can you know how great it is to be on the highest mountain top", and other things TR wrote when Alice's mother and grandmother died. This infuriated Mrs. L, who literally spat curse words at her television screen as she watched him compare his loss - due to criminal behavior- to her young father's loss of his wife and mother on the same day due to illness.

She remained cordial with Nixon's successor, [[Gerald Ford]], but a minor lack of social grace on the part of [[Jimmy Carter]] caused her to decline to ever meet the last sitting president in her lifetime.

[[Image:Alice Roosevelt Christens Sub TR.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Alice christening the sub named after her father, the USS Theodore Roosevelt in 1959]]

Her last public appearance was televised nationwide on PBS. It was the 1976 Bicentennial of the United States, attended by Queen Elizabeth II of England. Joseph Alsop and other friends were taken aback when she came on the screen, escorted to the head of the receiving line by her granddaughter's close friend Robert Hellman. She had her own reception line later, greeting old friends of many years for the last time — including some old-timers from the White House kitchen staff, most of whom were African Americans.

After many years of ill health, Alice finally died in her Embassy Row home in 1980 of [[emphysema]], [[pneumonia]], [[cardiac arrest]] and a number of other extended illnesses at the age of 96. Alice Roosevelt Longworth is buried in [[Rock Creek Cemetery]], [[Rock Creek Park]], Washington, D.C.

Of her quotable quotes, her most famous found its way to a pillow on her settee: "If you haven't got anything good to say about anybody, come sit next to me." [http://www.salon.com/people/feature/1999/06/07/longworth/] To Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] she stated that the garbage men, taxi drivers and street sweepers in her neighborhood could call her by her first name, but that he could not. She also informed President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] that she wore wide brim hats so he couldn't kiss her. When a well-known Washington senator was discovered to have been having an affair with a young woman less than half his age, Mrs. Longworth quipped, "You can't make a soufflé rise twice."

Interestingly, though Alice was Theodore Roosevelt's first-born child, she was the last of his children to die, surviving all of her half-siblings from her father's second marriage.

=== References ===
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
Brough, James. ''Princess Alice: A Biography of Alice Roosevelt Longworth''. Boston: Little, Brown. 1975. 
Caroli, Betty Boyd. ''The Roosevelt Women''. New York: Basic Books, 1998. 
Teague, Michael. ''Mrs. L: Talks with Alice Roosevelt Longworth''. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. 1981. 
Teichmann, Howard. ''Alice: The Life and Times of Alice Roosevelt Longworth''. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1979. 
Longworth, Alice Roosevelt. ''Crowded Hours'' (Autobiography). New York: Scribners. 1933. 
Felsenthal, Carol. ''Princess Alice: The Life and Times of Alice Roosevelt Longworth''. New York: St. Martin's Press. 1988. 
Wead, Doug. ''All the Presidents' Children: Triumph and Tragedy in the Lives of America's First Families''. New York: Atria Books, 2004. 

==See also==
*[[Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt|Alice Lee Roosevelt]] Mother
*[[Theodore Roosevelt]] Alice's father
*[[Edith Roosevelt|Edith Carow Roosevelt]] Alice's step-mother
*[[Nicholas Longworth]] Alice's husband
*[[Eleanor Roosevelt]] Alice's cousin and friend
*[[Paulina Longworth]] Alice's daughter
*[[Joanna Sturm]] Alice's granddaughter and companion

*[[Martha Bulloch|Martha Roosevelt]] Grandmother
*[[Bamie Roosevelt]] - Auntie Bye, Theodore's talented sister and stability figure in Alice's life
*[[Washington Legal Foundation]] - the organization that occupies the former Longworth site in Washington, DC.

==External links==
*[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990DEEDD123BF930A1575BC0A967948260&sec=&pagewanted=all New York Times Book Review of "Conversations with Mrs. L" in August 1981]
*[http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/alice.html Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt: Alice Roosevelt Longworth]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1656 Find-a-Grave]

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[[Category:1884 births]]
[[Category:1980 deaths]]
[[Category:Autobiographers]]
[[Category:Bulloch family]]
[[Category:Children of Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:Deaths by pneumonia]]
[[Category:Roosevelt family]]
[[Category:Americans with Huguenot ancestry]]
[[Category:White House weddings]]

[[fr:Alice Roosevelt Longworth]]

Elie Kedourie

2007-05-30T12:42:21Z

Languagehat: fixed Gibb link

'''Elie Kedourie''' [[Order of the British Empire|C.B.E.]], [[FBA]] ([[25 January]] [[1926]]-[[29 June]][[1992]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[historian]] of the [[Middle East]]. He wrote from a [[Conservatism|conservative]] perspective, dissenting from many points of view taken as orthodox in the field. He was at the [[London School of Economics]] (LSE) from 1953 to 1990, becoming Professor of Politics.

He was born in [[Baghdad]]; his background was [[Iraqi Jew]]ish and he grew up in the Jewish quarter, attending the Alliance Française primary school and then the Shammash High School. He took an undergraduate degree at the LSE.

Kedourie's doctoral thesis (later ''England and the Middle East'') was critical ''inter alia'' of Britain's inter-war role in [[Iraq]]. It was refused the degree of D. Phil. of the [[University of Oxford]], but was published in 1956. It castigated British policy makers, for their encouragement of [[Arab nationalism]], and contained a very negative view of [[T. E. Lawrence]]. He refused to make changes requested by one of the examiners, Sir [[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|Hamilton Gibb]], and so did not proceed to take the degree. [[Michael Oakeshott]] brought Kedourie back to the LSE in 1953.

In [[1964]] Kedourie was founder and Editor of the [[learned journal]] ''[[Middle Eastern Studies]]''.

His 1960 book ''Nationalism'' provoked replies, in ''Thought and Change'' (1964) and ''Nations and Nationalism'' (1983), by his LSE colleague [[Ernest Gellner]], contesting Kedourie's theories on the potential eliminability of nationalist thought.

Kedourie was critical of [[Marxist]] interpretations of history and of [[nationalism]], which he described as 'anti-individualist, despotic, racist, and violent'. He claimed it had turned the Middle East into 'a wilderness of tigers'.

Kedourie also documented and criticised as what he saw as the [[British Empire]]'s debilitation through over-indulgence in self-criticism. He in 1970 attacked another British celebrity, [[Arnold J. Toynbee]], in an essay ''The Chatham House Version'', holding him responsible, in part, for British imperial abdication of responsibility for the state of the Middle East.

==Books==
*''England and the Middle East: The Vital Years 1914-1921'' (1956) later as England and the Middle East; the destruction of the Ottoman Empire 1914-1921
*''Nationalism'' (1960) revised edition 1993
*''Afghani and 'Abduh: An essay on religious unbelief and political activism in modern Islam'' (1966)
*''The Chatham House Version: And Other Middle Eastern Studies'' (1970)
*''Nationalism in Asia and Africa'' (1970) editor
*''Arabic Political Memoirs and Other Studies'' (1974)
*''In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence and its Interpretations 1914-1939'' (1976)
*''Middle Eastern Economy: Studies in Economics and Economic History'' (1976)
*''The Jewish World: Revelation, Prophecy and History'' (1979) editor, as The Jewish World: History and Culture of the Jewish World'' (US)
*''Islam in the Modern World and Other Studies'' (1980)
*''Towards a Modern Iran; Studies in Thought, Politics and Society'' (1980) editor with Sylvia G. Haim
*''Modern Egypt: Studies In Politics And Society'' (1980) editor
*''Zionism And Arabism In Palestine And Israel'' (1982) editor with Sylvia G. Haim
*''The Crossman Confessions and Other Essays in Politics, History and Religion'' (1984)
*''Diamonds into Glass: The Government and the Universities'' (1988)
*''Essays on the Economic History of the Middle East'' (1988) editor with Sylvia G. Haim
*''Democracy and Arab Political Culture'' (1992)
*''Politics in the Middle East'' (1992)
*''Spain and the Jews: The Sephardi Experience, 1492 and After'' (1992)
*''Hegel & Marx: Introductory Lectures'' (1995)

==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Kedourie.htm Elie Kedourie], entry in ''Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing''.
*[http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/PolicyAcademy.htm Policy and the Academy: An Illicit Relationship?], on Kedourie's politics, by [[Martin Kramer]].
*[http://covenant.idc.ac.il/en/2006/issue1/sieff.html Isaiah Berlin and Elie Kedourie: Recollections of Two Giants], by Martin Sieff.

[[Category:1926 births|Kedourie, Elie]]
[[Category:1992 deaths|Kedourie, Elie]]
[[Category:British historians|Kedourie, Elie]]
[[Category:Fellows of the British Academy|Kedourie, Elie]]
[[Category:Jewish historians|Kedourie, Elie]]
[[Category:British Jews|Kedourie, Elie]]
[[Category:Iraqi Jews|Kedourie, Elie]]
[[Category:Academics of the London School of Economics|Kedourie, Elie]]

Ioannis Makrygiannis

2007-03-18T15:20:04Z

Languagehat: added common alternate spelling, deleted word "adulterated" which made no sense in context

{{Infobox Military Person |name=Ioannis Makrygiannis
|lived=1797-1864
|placeofbirth=Avoriti, [[Doris (Greece)|Doris]]
|placeofdeath=[[Athens]]
|image= [[Image:Makrigiannis.jpg|300px]]
|nickname=Makrygiannis
|allegiance=[[Greece]]
|serviceyears=[[1821]]-[[1864]]
|rank=[[General]]
|commands=
|battles=[[Greek War of Independence]]
|awards=
|laterwork=[[Commerce]], [[Politics]]
|portrayedby=[[Karl Krazeisen]]
}}

[[General]] '''Ioannis Makrygiannis''' (also spelled Makriyannis) ([[Greek Language|Greek]]: Ιωάννης Μακρυγιάννης) (1797-1864) was a [[Greek people|Greek]] merchant, military officer, politician and author. Starting from humble origins, he joined the [[Greek War of Independence|Greek struggle for independence]], achieving the rank of general and leading his men to some notable victories. Following Greek independence, he had a tumultuous public career, playing a prominent part in the granting of the first [[Constitution of Greece|Greek constitution]] and later being sentenced to death and pardoned.

Despite his important contributions to the political life of the early [[Greece|Greek state]], general Makrygiannis is mostly remembered for his ''Memoirs''. Aside from being a source of historical and cultural information about the period, this work has also been called a "monument of Modern Greek literature" due to its being written in pure [[Demotic Greek|Demotic]] speech. More than that, however, its literary quality has led [[Nobel laureate]] [[Giorgos Seferis]] to dub the general one of the greatest masters of Modern Greek prose. (see [[Ioannis_Makrygiannis#Assessment_and_significance_of_his_literary_work|relevant section]])

==Biography==
===Early life===
Ioannis Makrygiannis was born Ioannis Triantafyllou, son of a poor family in the village of Avoriti, in the vicinity of [[Doris (Greece)|Doris]]. Makrygiannis (Long John) was a cognomen he acquired due to his tall stature.<ref name="NBCG">[http://book.culture.gr/Fakeloi/makrygiannis/biografia.htm National Book Centre of Greece's biography of Makrygiannis (affiliated with Ministry of Culture). (in Greek)]</ref> His father, Dimitris Triantafyllou, was killed in a clash with the forces of [[Ali Pasha]]. His family was forced to flee to [[Levadeia]], where Makrygiannis spent his childhood up to 1811. At age seven, he was given as a foster son to a wealthy man from Levadeia, but the menial labour and beatings he endured were, in his own words, "his death".<ref name="Makrygiannis">Strategus Makrygiannis, ''Απομνημονευματα (Memoirs)'', Athens: Papyros, 1996 (work first published 1907) (preface by V. Sphyroeras). (in Greek)</ref> Thus, in 1811 he left for [[Arta, Greece|Arta]] to stay with an acquaintance who maintained close relations with Ali Pasha. There, still a teenager, he was involved in trade and, according to his memoirs, became a wealthy man. His property amounted to 40.000 [[Kuruş|piastres]].<ref name="Macriyannis">Général Macriyannis, ''Mémoires'', (preface by Pierre Vidal-Naquet), [[Éditions Albin Michel|Albin Michel]]. (in French)</ref> According to Sphyroeras, he probably joined the [[Filiki Etaireia]], a secret anti-[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] society, in 1820.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> In March 1821 he left for [[Patras]], in the [[Peloponnese]], supposedly on business. His actual assignment, however, was to inform local members of the Filiki Etaireia of the state of affairs in his native [[Rumelia|Roumeli]]. Having met with [[Odysseas Androutsos]], he returned to Arta two days before the revolution broke out in Patras and was promptly arrested by the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] and placed under arrest in the local fortress. He was held captive for 90 days but managed to escape and, in August 1821, first took up arms against the Turks under chieftain Gogos Bakolas.<ref name="Macriyannis"/>

===Activity during the War of Independence===
Under the command of Gogos Bakolas, in September 1821 he took part in the battle of Stavros, near [[Tzoumerka]], and in the battle of [[Peta, Greece|Peta]], where he sustained a light leg injury. A few days later he took part in the siege of Arta that temporarily brought the city under Greek control.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> In late 1821 he left for [[Mesolonghi]], but there, according to his memoirs, he fell seriously ill until March 1822.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> Having spent his recovery in the village of Sernikaki, near [[Amfissa|Salona]], he resumed military action, assuming the leadership of a band of warriors from four villages in the vicinity. He fought alongside several other chieftains during the successful siege of [[Ypati]], which had been fortified with considerable Turkish forces.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/>

After the [[Acropolis]] of [[Athens]] was surrendered by the Turks in June 1822, Makrygiannis was appointed Supervisor of Public Order in the city by the executive authority of Roumeli on [[January 1]], [[1823]]. In that function, he took severe measures aimed at stopping arbitrary oppression of the populace and thievery.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> In the summer of 1823 he fought alongside [[Nikitaras]] in the eastern part of [[Central Greece]]. In October 1823 he led a force of Roumeliots in the Peloponnese, and fought alongside the government of [[Georgios Kountouriotis]] against the rebels in the civil war. For his actions during that conflict he was rewarded with the rank of [[brigadier]], promoted to [[lieutenant general]] in August 1824 and full general in late 1824.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/>

In March 1825, after the Peloponnese had been invaded by [[Egypt under Muhammad Ali and his successors|Egyptian forces]], he was appointed politarch (head of public order) of [[Kyparissia]] and took part in the defence of Neokastro. After the fortress fell on [[May 11]], [[1825]] he hurried to [[Myloi, Argolis|Myloi]], near [[Nafplio]], arriving with one hundred men on [[June 10]]. He ordered the construction of some make-shift fortifications, as well as the gathering of provisions. More chieftains soon arrived in Myloi and [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]], the commander of the Egyptian forces, was unable to take the position, despite numerical superiority and the launching of fierce attacks on [[June 13]] and [[June 14|14]]. Makrygiannis was injured during the battle and was carried to Nafplio.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/>

Soon after the battle he married the daughter of a prominent Athenian, and his activities were thereafter inextricably linked with that city until his death. After Athens was captured by Ibrahim Pasha in June 1826, Makrygiannis helped organise the defence of the Acropolis, and became the provisional commander of the garrison after the death of the commander, Yannis Gouras. He managed to repel a fierce assault against the [[Odeon of Herodes Atticus]] on [[October 7]], and during the entire defence of the Acropolis he sustained heavy injures three times, to the head and to the neck.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> These wounds troubled him for the remainder of his life, but they did not dissuade him from taking part in the last phase of the war: in the spring of 1827 he took part in the battles of [[Piraeus|Peiraeus]] and the battle of Analatos.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/>

===Activity after Greek Independence===
====Governorship of Kapodistrias====
Makrygiannis's activity did not cease with the achievement of Greek independence. After Governor [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]] arrived in Greece, he appointed Makrygiannis "General Leader of the Executive Authority of the Peloponnese", based in [[Argos]], in 1828. It was during this period, and more specifically on [[February 26]], [[1829]], that he started writing his [[Ioannis_Makrygiannis#Literary_work|''Memoirs'']]. After Kapodistrias restructured the military in 1830, Makrygiannis was given the rank of brigadier. However, his opposition to the [[John_Capodistria#Administration|Governor's policies]] gradually started to present itself and finally evolved into a rupture. More specifically, he opposed what he considered to be totalitarianism on behalf of Kapodistrias and, on a more personal level, was concerned about whether his home region would be included or not in the liberated Greek state.<ref name="Macriyannis"/> Influenced by [[Ioannis Kolettis]], he even tried to force the Governor into accepting a constitutional form of government, using the troops under his command, but had no success.<ref name="NBCG"/> Finally, in August 1831, the government forced all civil servants and military personnel to sign an oath stating they were not part of "secret companies" and that they fully obliged to the government's commands. Makrygiannis considered this to be degrading,<ref name="Helios">Encyclopaedic Dictionary ''The Helios.'' (in Greek)</ref> and tried to author his own version of an oath instead.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> This, however, was not accepted by the government, and he was consequently stripped of his positions.<ref name="Helios"/> His opposition to the existing regime did not cease with the Governor's assassination on [[October 9]], [[1831]]. He took the side of the "Constitutionalists" and fought against the governor's brother and successor [[Augustinos Kapodistrias]]. It should be noted, however, that he condemned the assassination itself in the strongest terms.<ref name="Macriyannis"/>

====Reign of King Otto====

Otto, Prince of [[Bavaria]], was agreed upon to become the first [[King of Greece]] in 1832, under the name [[Otto of Greece|Othon]]. His arrival in Nafplio, then the Greek capital, was hailed enthusiastically by Makrygiannis. This attitude is exemplified in his ''Memoirs'': {{cquote2|quotetext=Today the fatherland is reborn, that for so long was lost and extinguished. Today are raised from the dead the fighters, political, religious, as well as military, for our King has come, that we begot with the power of God. Praised be your most virtuous name, omnipotent and most merciful Lord.|personquoted=Strategus Makrygiannis|quotesource=''Memoirs''.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/>|quotewidth=##px|quoteheight=##px}} The hopes he had based on the new regime, however, where soon to be dispelled. King Otho was underage and Bavarian regents were appointed to him during the first months of his rule. During the regency, Makrygiannis came into conflict with the Defence Minister, the Bavarian Heidek, due to the latter's attitude towards the veterans of the War of Independence. In the newly restructured [[Greek Army]], there was little place left for the [[Irregular military|irregular bands]] of [[klephts]]. These guerilla-styled fighters had formed the backbone of the Greek forces during the war, and their exclusion from the newly formed army was considered irreverent by Makrygiannis.<ref name="Helios"/> Furthermore, most of these men had been left with no resources after their exclusion from the military, and found themselves in a dire financial situation. Makrygiannis also believed that the Prime Minister, the Bavarian [[Josef Ludwig von Armansperg|von Armansperg]], was personally responsible for the serious problems faced by the newly formed state.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> As a consequence, Makrygiannis briefly retired from active politics.

After municipalities were first instituted by Royal decree on [[December 27]], [[1833]], Makrygiannis was steadily elected to the municipal council of Athens (the city becoming the new capital in 1834). In that capacity he harshly criticised, to the extent that it was possible, what he perceived as omissions and totalitarianism by the royal administration and Palace Cabinet.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> He often voiced his demand for constitutional rule, even though the royal administration had initially held him in high esteem and given him the rank of [[colonel]].<ref name="NBCG"/> During the King's absence from Greece on the occasion of his marriage with [[Amalia of Oldenburg|Queen Amalia]] (late 1836 - early 1837), public discontent with von Armansperg was at its peak. The newspapers ''Athena'' and ''Elpis'' were severely criticising him, and some politicians called for his removal. Makrygiannis, in his capacity as President of the municipal council of Athens, proposed ,in January 1837, the adoption of a resolution to be handed to the King upon his return requesting the granting of a Constitution. Not long before that, at a banquet attended by former fighters of the War of Independence, such as [[Georgios Kountouriotis|Kountouriotis]], [[Kolokotronis]] and others, Makrygiannis had toasted to the health of the royal couple, adding "may God enlighten them to rule us through constitutional laws, in accordance with the fatherland's sacrifices". Von Armansperg immediately dissolved the municipal council, fired mayor Petrakis and had Makrygiannis placed under house arrest.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> Sometime during this period, Makrygiannis commissioned 25 engravings from the painter, and veteran of the War of Independence, Panaghiotis Zographos. The profits from the sales were used to the benefit of veterans of the war.<ref name="Macriyannis"/>

[[Image:Ag 04.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The September 3, 1843 movement]]

Meanwhile, the demand for constitutional liberties was becoming widespread, as was discontent with King Otto's Bavarian administration. The situation escalated in the [[Constitutional_history_of_Greece#From_the_absolute_to_the_constitutional_monarchy_.281833-1924.29|September 3, 1843 movement]] that led to the granting of the first [[Greek Constitution of 1844|Constitution]]. Makrygiannis was one of the three leaders of the movement. He played a crucial part in preparations for the action, having started them as early as 1840.<ref name="NBCG"/> After its successful conclusion, he also played an important part in the forming of the new cabinet.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> He was elected as a representative of Athens to the National (Constitutional) Assembly,<ref name="Helios"/> and headed an informal group of 63 representatives loyal to him. He personally proposed various recommendations during the course of the proceedings.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> Soon after the conclusion of the Assembly's work, however, he retired from politics.<ref name="Helios"/> For his leading role in the creation of the first Greek Constitution, general Makrygiannis appeared on the special edition of the 50 [[drachma]] coins issued for the celebration of the 150th anniversary of the first Constitution, in 1994. There are three versions of the coin, each featuring one of the three leaders of the September 3 movement: one features Makrygiannis, one colonel [[Dimitri Kalergis|Dimitrios Kallergis]], and one minister (and later prime minister) [[Andreas Metaxas]].

Makrygiannis stopped working on his memoirs in 1850. Therefore, information about the last part of his life, including his trial, comes from other sources. He was always outspoken about his views, and as a result he stirred negative reactions among his opponents. He opposed what he perceived as a continued degradation of the veterans of the War of Independence, and had repeatedly been considered suspect of plotting against King Otho. Furthermore, the King never quite forgave him for his part in the September 3 movement. When summoned to the palace and asked to denounce all the conspirators of 1843, Makrygiannis refused, saying "I am not a slave".<ref name="Macriyannis"/> Eventually, in 1852, he was accused of planning to "overthrow the establishments and assassinate the King".<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> On [[April 13]], [[1852]] he was placed under house arrest, heavily guarded and with an officer posted in the room next to his own. On [[March 16]], [[1853]] he was sentenced to death, in what has been called a "pre-fabricated trial".<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> According to [[Pierre Vidal-Naquet|Vidal-Naquet]], the prosecution brought up false testimonies and false evidence.<ref name="Macriyannis"/> Furthermore, the president of the tribunal, [[Kitsos Tzavelas]], was a personal enemy of Makrygiannis. Five out of the six judges voted for the death sentence, and appealed for royal clemency.<ref name="Macriyannis"/> His sentence was commuted to life imprisonment by the King, but he only spent 18 months in prison. King Otho reduced the sentence first to twenty, and later to ten years. He was finally pardoned and released on [[September 2]], [[1854]], thanks to the [[Crimean War]]. The [[blockade]] of Peiraeus by the [[France|French]] and [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] fleets also led to the imposition of Kallergis as Minister of War, despite his previous attempts at overthrowing the King. Thus, Kallergis used his newly acquired influence to have Makrygiannis released.<ref name="Macriyannis"/> Makrygiannis suffered greatly in prison, and after his release suffered from hallucinations. His condition did not improve with the death of one of his younger sons in the cholera epidemic that struck Athens.<ref name="Macriyannis"/>

[[Image:MakryiannisProsalentis.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Portrait by Spyridon Prosalentis]]

On [[October 10]], [[1862]] a [[Otho_I#Exile_and_death|revolution]] broke out, which led to the eviction of King Otho I from the country. Makrygiannis's son, the future general Othon Makrygiannis, reportedly presented his father with the King's golden crown.<ref name="NBCG"/> Makrygiannis was restored to the ranks he had been stripped of as a result of his trial, and was re-elected as a representative of Athens to the new [[Greek Constitution of 1864|National (Constitutional) Assembly of 1864]]. He was promoted to the rank of general on [[April 20]], [[1864]], and died on [[April 27]].<ref name="Macriyannis"/>

==Literary work==
===Assessment and significance of his literary work===
As mentioned, Makrygiannis concluded work on his ''Memoirs'' in the last years before his imprisonment. More specifically, the last entries seem to be from September or October 1850, as evinced by his references to the events of that period.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> In the text of the ''Memoirs'', one can see not only the personal adventures and disappointments of his long public career, but, more significantly, his views on people, situations and events, phrased clearly and quite often passionately. They were first published in 1907 by Yannis Vlahogiannis, while some fragments of them had earlier been published in the newspaper ''Acropolis'' in 1904. Spyridon Lambros, in 1908, noted his straightforwardness and slight egotism, along with his holding firm to his own opinion (as quoted by Sphyroeras).<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> [[Kostis Palamas]], in 1911, called his work "incomparable in its kind, a masterpiece of his illiterate, but strong and autonomous mind" (ibid).<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> It should be noted that Makrygiannis had received only the most basic and fragmentary education, and, according to his own testimony, mastered writing shortly before he started writing his ''Memoirs'', while he was stationed in Argos.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/>

Makrygiannis, having been ignored by history, and hardly mentioned by chroniclers of the War of Independence, had renewed interest in the revolution by offering a significant personal testimony to historical research. Despite this, after the initial interest in the newly published ''Memoirs'', they were hardly used as a source of reference for almost 40 years. One could say that Makrygiannis was forgotten, not only as a fighter, but also as the author of a text written in [[Demotic Greek]];<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> a text that, besides reproducing the heroic atmosphere of the War of Independence, is also a treasure-house of [[Linguistics|linguistic]] knowledge concerning the common Greek tongue of the time.

Makrygiannis was resurrected, so to speak, during the [[Axis occupation of Greece during World War II|German occupation of Greece]]. In 1941, [[Yórgos Theotokás|Yorgos Theotokas]] published an article on the general, calling his ''Memoirs'' "a monument of Modern Greek literature", due to the fact that they were written in pure Demotic Greek.<ref name="Theotokas">Yorgos Theotokas, ''General Makrygiannis'', Nea Estia, 1941 (in Greek)</ref> Two years later, in 1943, the Greek Nobel laureate [[Giorgos Seferis]] gave a lecture on him, saying: {{cquote2|quotetext=In our times, ... when people seek to find in other people something clear and stable and compassionate, it is appropriate to speak of people such as Makrygiannis.|personquoted=Giorgos Seferis|quotesource=''Dokimes (Essays)''<ref name="Seferis">Georgios Seferis, ''Dokimes (Essays)'' 3 vols. (vols 1-2, 3rd ed. (ed. G.P. Savidis) 1974, vol 3 (ed. Dimitri Daskalopoulos) 1992) (work first published 1944) (in Greek)</ref>|quotewidth=##px|quoteheight=##px}}
According to the National Book Centre of Greece, Seferis also stated that Makrygiannis, along with [[Alexandros Papadiamantis]], is one of the two greatest masters of [[Modern_Greek_Literature#19th_century_literature_.281821_-_1880.29|modern Greek prose]].<ref name="NBCG"/>

Since then hundreds of essays have been written on the subject of his ''Memoirs'', and it would be fair to say that the chronicler has overshadowed the fighter, and with good reason, according to Sphyroeras.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> Spyros Asdrachas has noted that: {{cquote2|quotetext=The fact that an illiterate man managed to use the Demotic speech ... to achieve an expressive density and dynamism entirely unusual of Greek prose made a terrific impression on people.|personquoted=Spyros Asdrachas|quotesource=preface to ''Memoirs of General Makrygiannis''<ref name="Makrygiannis-Asdr">Strategus Makrygiannis, ''Απομνημονευματα (Memoirs)'', Athens: 1957 (work first published 1907) (preface by Spyros Asdrachas). (in Greek)</ref>|quotewidth=##px|quoteheight=##px}}
The general's objectivity, however, has often been questioned. Vlahogiannis, in his preface to the ''Memoirs'', praises his honesty and contrasts it to his lack of objectivity and impartiality.<ref name="Makrygiannis-Vlahogiannis">Strategus Makrygiannis, ''Απομνημονευματα (Memoirs)'', Athens: 1907 (preface by Yannis Vlahogiannis). (in Greek)</ref> While always straightforward, Makrygiannis clearly holds a grudge against people he had come into conflict with. He often uses disparaging language against people like Kolokotronis, while staying silent about the more questionable deeds of people he had a favourable opinion of. According to Sphyroeras, however, his judgements do not stem from selfishness, but rather from his severity against those he considered were defaming the cause of Greece.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/>

A few months after completing his ''Memoirs'', on New Year's Eve in 1851, Makrygiannis started to pen another "history", as he called it, which he interrupted rather abruptly in late March 1852, when he was under house arrest. This text was acquired in 1936 or 1937 by Vlahogiannis, and was finally published in 1983 by Aggelos Papakostas, aptly titled ''Visions and Wonders''. It has, according to Papakostas, far less historical significance compared to the ''Memoirs''.<ref name="Visions">Strategus Makrygiannis, ''Οραματα και Θαματα (Visions and Wonders)'' (ed. Aggelos Papakostas), Athens: 1983. (in Greek)</ref> The events described therein are given briefly, and are used only as an excuse for his meditations and the interpretation of his ''Visions'', on which he particularly insists. Vlahogiannis, according to Sphyroeras, considered the manuscript to be a religiously overzealous work of a deranged mind, and that is the reason he did not publish it.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/> The work, however, is also the product of a physically and mentally tormented soul, who, being isolated at the age of 54, instead converses with God, the [[Panagia]] and the saints. It also shows the deep religiousness of Makrygiannis, who turns away from guns, instead seeking the nation's salvation through divine intervention. Furthermore, as Sphyroeras points out, the work is unique in Modern Greek literature in its subject matter, and is, as the ''Memoirs'', a significant source of linguistic and cultural information.<ref name="Makrygiannis"/>

===Works===
''Απομνημονευματα (Memoirs)'' first published: Athens: 1907

''Οραματα και Θαματα (Visions and Wonders)'' first published: Athens: 1983

==Sources==
*Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios. (in Greek)
*Général Macriyannis, Mémoires, (preface by Pierre Vidal-Naquet), Albin Michel. (in French)
*Georgios Seferis, Dokimes (Essays) 3 vols. (vols 1-2, 3rd ed. (ed. G.P. Savidis) 1974, vol 3 (ed. Dimitri Daskalopoulos) 1992) (work first published 1944) (in Greek)
*[http://book.culture.gr/Fakeloi/makrygiannis/biografia.htm National Book Centre of Greece's biography of Makrygiannis (affiliated with Ministry of Culture). (in Greek)]
*Strategus Makrygiannis, Απομνημονευματα (Memoirs), Athens: 1907 (preface by Yannis Vlahogiannis). (in Greek)
*Strategus Makrygiannis, Απομνημονευματα (Memoirs), Athens: 1957 (work first published 1907) (preface by Spyros Asdrachas). (in Greek)
*Strategus Makrygiannis, Απομνημονευματα (Memoirs), Athens: Papyros, 1996 (work first published 1907) (preface by V. Sphyroeras). (in Greek)
*Strategus Makrygiannis, Οραματα και Θαματα (Visions and Wonders) (ed. Aggelos Papakostas), Athens: 1983. (in Greek)
*Yorgos Theotokas, General Makrygiannis, Nea Estia, 1941 (in Greek)

==References==
<references/>

===External links===
*[http://durabond.ca/gdouridas/makrygiannis.html Significant parts of the "Memoirs" (in Greek) and a painting of the general.]
*[http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BD%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%8D%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1_%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%81%CF%85%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%B7 The text of the "Memoirs" on the Greek Wikisource.]
*[http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://worldcoingallery.com/countries/img4/77-168.jpg&imgrefurl=http://worldcoingallery.com/countries/Greece.html&h=228&w=454&sz=39&tbnid=-tZIm6gPK70y_M:&tbnh=62&tbnw=124&hl=en&start=5&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmakrygiannis%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D An image of the 50 drachma coin featuring General Makrygiannis.]

{{Persondata
|NAME=Ioannis Makrygiannis
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Ιωάννης Μακρυγιάννης (Greek)
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Officer
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[1797]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=Avoriti, [[Doris (Greece)]], [[Greece]]
|DATE OF DEATH=1864
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Athens]], [[Greece]]
}}

[[Category:1797 births|Makrygiannis, Ioannis]]
[[Category:1864 deaths|Makrygiannis, Ioannis]]
[[Category:Greek generals|Makrygiannis, Ioannis]]
[[Category:Modern Greek writers|Makrygiannis, Ioannis]]
[[Category:Natives of Central Greece|Makrygiannis, Ioannis]]
[[Category:Greek revolutionaries|Makrygiannis, Ioannis]]
[[Category:People of the Greek War of Independence|Makrygiannis, Ioannis]]

[[el:Μακρυγιάννης]]
[[fr:Yánnis Makriyánnis]]