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Benutzer:Labraun90/Freecyceln

2018-07-14T13:37:39Z

Labraun90: Erstellt durch Übersetzen der Seite „Freecycling“

'''Freecyceln''', oder "'''free recycling"''', ist das Verschenken nutzbarer unerwünschter Gegenstände an andere, anstatt sie auf [[Mülldeponie|Mülldeponien]] zu entsorgen.<ref>[http://www.freecycle.org/ The Freecycle Network]. Retrieved April 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.freecycle.net/ Freecycle.net]. Retrieved April 2009.</ref><ref name="Norton2007">{{Literatur |ISBN=978-1-4165-4832-4}}</ref> Dieser Begriff wird meistens mit Online-Gruppen in Verbindung gebracht, die Mailing-Listen betreiben, die Mitglieder kostenlos Angebote anbieten.

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

Étang du Stock

2018-06-25T14:36:36Z

Labraun90: Bild hinzufügt.

{{Infobox See
| NAME = Étang du Stock
| BILD = Étang du Stock.jpg
| BILDBESCHREIBUNG = 
| BREITENGRAD = 48/45/0/N
| LÄNGENGRAD = 6/56/0/E
| REGION-ISO = FR-57
| LAGE = [[Département Moselle]]
| ZUFLUSS =
| ABFLUSS = Ruisseau de Langatte → Landbach → [[Saar]]
| UFERSTADT =
| NAHESTADT = [[Sarrebourg]]
| HÖHE = 257
| HÖHE-BEZUG = FR
| FLÄCHE = 7.5
| SEELAENGE = 4.8
| SEEBREITE = 4.3
| VOLUMEN =
| UMFANG =
| MAX-TIEFE =
| MED-TIEFE =
| BESONDERHEITEN =
}}

Der '''Étang du Stock''' (deutsch: ''Stockweiher'') ist ein Gewässer in der Region [[Grand Est]], im [[Département Moselle]], in der Nähe von [[Sarrebourg]]. Er bedeckt eine Fläche von mehr als 700 Hektar und liegt auf 257 Meter Meereshöhe.

Seine Existenz kann bis ins 14. Jahrhundert zurückverfolgt werden. Er war früher allerdings wesentlich kleiner als heute: Um 1900 betrug die Fläche 360 Hektar.

Als Speiseweiher für den [[Saarkanal]] dient er seit 1920. Die Wasserknappheit des Kanals, die sich in trockenen Jahren besonders auswirkte, hatte die zusätzliche Versorgung mit Wasser aus dem Stockweiher erforderlich werden lassen. Das Fassungsvermögen wurde auf rund 18 Millionen m³ gesteigert. Dementsprechend erhöhte sich die Fläche. Der Saarkanal durchquert den Weiher auf einem Damm, der die Wasserfläche in einen Hauptteil im Westen und den ''Kleinen Stockweiher'' im Osten teilt. Für den Wasseraustausch beider Weiherabschnitte sorgt ein Durchlass im Damm (bei ''Les-Trois-Ponts'').

Am Westufer liegt der Ferienort [[Rhodes (Moselle)|Rhodes]]. Der Stockweiher ist auch ein beliebtes Ziel für Urlauber aus dem relativ grenznahen [[Saarland]].

Die ansässigen Segelclubs bieten Segelkurse für Kinder und Jugendliche an.

==Literatur==
* Karin Nagel: ''Die Weiher des „Pays des Étangs“ im nordöstlichen Lothringen''. Dissertation. Saarbrücken, 1982.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Etang du Stock}}
[[Kategorie:See in Grand Est|Stock]]
[[Kategorie:Flusssystem Saar|SStock]]
[[Kategorie:Département Moselle]]
[[Kategorie:See in Lothringen]]

Diskussion:Saprovor

2017-08-08T07:36:01Z

Labraun90:

=das bekannteste Beispiel sind die Pilze?=
"die Pilze" ist zu allgemein. Es gibt auch eine große Zahl von Mykorrhizapilzen und parasitische Pilze.

Wie heißt es eigentlich richtig: saprobiotisch oder saprobiontisch?
[[Benutzer:krk|krk]], 2008-03-26

Pflanzen als Aasfresser

Sind Pflanzen nicht allesamt autotroph? Ich kenne nur parasitäre Pflanzen und solche, die Photosynthese betreiben. Wenn es tatsächlich saprophytische Pflanzen gibt, könnte man ja noch ein, zwei Beispiele dafür einfügen.

Mineralisierer

"''Saprovoren werden als Destruenten, also als Zersetzer bezeichnet.''" ist missverständlich da auch Mineralisierer zu den Destruenten gezählt werden, aber keine Saprovoren sind. (Dr. Horst Bickel, Roman Claus, u.a.: Biologie für Gymnasien 3b, 1. Auflage. Ernst Klett Verlag GmbH bei Stuttgart 2004)

Habe gerade nach anaeroben Bakterien gesucht und bin hierher verlinkt worden. Bitte macht diese Verlinkung raus, denn das sind wirklich keine anaeroben Bakterien. ~~Venia~~ (19:50, 13. Apr. 2009 (CEST), ''Datum/Uhrzeit nachträglich eingefügt, siehe [[Hilfe:Signatur]]'')

=Duplikat?=
Ist das nicht ein Duplikat von [[Saprobiont]]? --[[Benutzer:Labraun90|Labraun90]] ([[Benutzer Diskussion:Labraun90|Diskussion]]) 09:35, 8. Aug. 2017 (CEST)

Zersetzer

2017-08-08T07:27:56Z

Labraun90: AZ: Weiterleitung nach Destruent erstellt

#redirect [[Destruent]]

Benutzer:Labraun90

2017-05-09T22:33:02Z

Labraun90: AZ: Die Seite wurde neu angelegt: {{Babel|en|de-2|:Liondancer/Babel/Denglisch|fr-2|es-2|sw-1}} Hallo! Ich bin Lucas :D en:User:Labrau…

{{Babel|en|de-2|:Liondancer/Babel/Denglisch|fr-2|es-2|sw-1}}
Hallo! Ich bin Lucas :D

[[en:User:Labraun90]]
[[fr:Utilisateur:Labraun90]]

Papst (Titel)

2011-03-31T21:14:09Z

Labraun90: /* History */ Added link to Jesus

{{About|the leader of the Catholic Church|the Incumbent Pope|Pope Benedict XVI|other uses}}
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{Infobox Bishopric
|border = catholic
|font_color = black
|bishopric = [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]
|coatofarms = Coat of arms of the Holy See.svg
|image = Pope Benedictus XVI january,20 2006 (2) mod.jpg
|incumbent = [[Benedict XVI]] Elected: 19 April 2005
|episcopal conference = [[List_of_Roman_Catholic_dioceses_(structured_view)#Episcopal_Conference_of_Italy|Italy]]
|province = [[List of Roman Catholic dioceses (structured view)#Ecclesiastical Province of Rome|Ecclesiastical Province of Rome]]
|diocese = [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]
|cathedral = [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]]
|first_bishop = According to Catholic tradition, [[Saint Peter]]
|date = According to Catholic tradition, the first century
|website = [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm The Holy Father]
}}
The '''Pope''' (from ''{{lang-la|papa}}''; from {{lang-el|πάππας}} (pappas),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/pope |title=American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Education.yahoo.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> a child's word for ''father'')<ref>{{cite web|url=http://artfl.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.51:9:99.lsj |title=Liddell and Scott |publisher=Artfl.uchicago.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> is the [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|Bishop]] of [[diocese of Rome|Rome]], a position that makes him the [[Leadership|leader]] of the worldwide [[Catholic Church]] (which is composed of the [[Latin Rite]] and the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] in [[full communion]] with the [[episcopal see|see]] of Rome). The current office-holder is [[Pope Benedict XVI|Pope Benedict XVI]], who was elected in a [[Papal conclave, 2005|papal conclave]] on 19 April 2005.{{#tag:ref| The [[Annuario Pontificio]], the list of popes, does not assign numbers to the positions in its listing.|group=nb}}

The office of the pope is known as the ''Papacy''. His [[ecclesiastical jurisdiction]] is often called the "[[Holy See]]" (''Sancta Sedes'' in Latin), or the "[[Apostolic See]]" based upon the Church tradition that the Apostles [[Saint Peter]] and [[Paul the Apostle|Saint Paul]] were [[martyr]]ed in [[Rome]]. The pope is also [[head of state]] of [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vaticanstate.va/EN/State_and_Government/ |title=Vatican City State - State and Government |publisher=Vaticanstate.va |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> a sovereign [[city-state]] entirely [[Enclave and exclave|enclaved]] within the city of Rome.

Early popes helped to spread [[Christianity]] and resolve [[doctrinal]] disputes.<ref name = "World History" /> After the [[Conversion to Christianity|conversion]] of the rulers of the [[Roman Empire]] (the conversion of the populace was already advanced even before the [[Edict of Milan]], 313), the [[Roman emperor]]s became the popes' secular allies until the 8th century when [[Pope Stephen II]] was forced to appeal to the [[Franks]] for help,<ref name="AF:CC">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972. Chapter XXI: Christianity in Conflict 529-1085. p. 517–551</ref> beginning a period of close interaction with the rulers of the west. For centuries, the [[Donation of Constantine]], later proved to be a forgery, provided support for the papacy's claim of political supremacy over the entire former [[Western Roman Empire]]. In [[medieval]] times, popes played powerful roles in Western Europe, often struggling with monarchs for control over the wide-ranging affairs of [[Catholic Church|Church]] and [[State (polity)|state]],<ref name="World History"/> crowning [[emperor]]s ([[Charlemagne]] was the first emperor crowned by a pope), and regulating disputes among [[Secular state|secular rulers]].<ref>Such as regulating the [[colonization]] of the [[New World]]. See [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] and [[Inter caetera]].</ref>

Gradually forced to give up temporal power, popes now focus almost exclusively on religious matters.<ref name = "World History" /> Over the centuries, papal claims of spiritual authority have been ever more clearly expressed, culminating in 1870 with the proclamation of the [[Dogma (Roman Catholic)|dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for rare occasions when the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' (literally "from the chair (of [[St. Peter]])") to issue a formal definition of [[dogma|faith]] or [[morals]].<ref name = "World History" /> The first (after the proclamation) and so far the last such occasion was in 1950, with the definition of the dogma of the [[Assumption of Mary]].

==History==
{{Roman Catholicism}}
{{Main|History of the Papacy}}

The word ''Pope'' derives from [[Greek language|Greek]] '''πάππας''' meaning "Father". This title was first assumed by the [[Pope of Alexandria|Patriarchs of Alexandria]], long before it was assumed by the Bishops of Rome. In fact, the first to carry the title of Pope was the Patriarch of Alexandria, [[Pope Heraclas of Alexandria|Pope Heracleus]] (232-249 AD), the 13th Alexandrine Patriarch.<ref name="amazon1">{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/gp/richpub/syltguides/fullview/W4O42BT6T7FQ |title=Get to Know Popes of East & West |publisher=Amazon.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-07}}</ref><ref>History of the Coptic Church By [[Iris Habib Elmasry]]</ref>
Papa has been the specific designation for the Archbishop of Alexandria, Patriarch of Egypt, and the See of Saint Mark, whose ecclessiastic title is "Papa Abba", the Abba stands for the devotion of all monastics, from [[Pentapolis]] in the West to [[Constantinople]] in the East, to his guidance. Abba is the most powerful designation, that for all monks in the East to voluntarily follow his spiritual authority.<ref name="amazon1"/>
The first record in history of the term "Pope" is assigned to [[Pope Heraclas of Alexandria]] in a letter written by the bishop of Rome, [[Pope Dionysius|Dionysius]], to Philemon:
{{cquote|τοῦτον ἐγὼ τὸν κανόνα καὶ τὸν τύπον παρὰ τοῦ μακαρίου πάπα ἡμῶν Ἡρακλᾶ παρέλαβον.}}<ref>Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica Book VII, chapter 7.7</ref>
Which translates into:
{{cquote|I received this rule and ordinance from our blessed pope, Heraclas.}}
It is difficult to ascertain the identity of the first Bishop of Rome to carry the title [[Pope of Rome]]. Some sources suggest that it was [[Pope Marcellinus]] (d. 304 AD),<ref name="autogenerated2005">Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Pope</ref> while other sources suggest that this did not happen until the 6th century, with [[Pope John I]] (523 - 526 AD) the first to assume this title.<ref name="amazon1"/> Bestowing the title on Rome's Pontiff did not strip it from Alexandria's, and the Roman Catholic Church recognizes this ecclesiastical fact.<ref name="amazon1"/>
From the 6th century, the imperial chancery of Constantinople normally reserved this designation for the Bishop of Rome.[47] From the early 6th century, it began to be confined in the West to the Bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the 11th century,[47] when Pope Gregory VII declared it reserved for the Bishop of Rome.<ref name="autogenerated2005"/>

Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to [[Saint Peter]], whom, according to Roman Catholic teaching, [[Jesus]] named as the [[Shepherd#In religion|"shepherd"]] and "rock" of the Catholic Church, which according to Catholic dogma is the [[one true faith|one true Church]] founded by Christ.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church |accessdate=2008-08-02 |publisher=Vatican Library }}, 880-884</ref><ref>"St. Peter, ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]''</ref> Peter never bore the ''title'' of "Pope", which came into use three centuries later, but Catholics traditionally recognize him as the first Pope,<ref>Wilken, p. 281, quote: "Some (Christian communities) had been founded by Peter, the disciple Jesus designated as the founder of his church. ... Once the position was institutionalized, historians looked back and recognized Peter as the first pope of the Christian church in Rome"</ref> while official declarations of the Church only speak of the Popes as holding within the college of the Bishops a role analogous to that held by Peter within the college of the Apostles, of which the college of the Bishops, a distinct entity, is the successor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |title=Second Vatican Council, ''Lumen Gentium'', 22 |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref><ref>[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19921007en.html] [[Pope John Paul II]], Talk on 7 October 1992</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=j8-GHiYUSX8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dulles+catholicity#v=onepage&q=episcopal%20college&f=false [[Avery Dulles]], ''The Catholicity of the Church'', Oxford University Press, 1987, ISBN 0-19-826695-2,] page 140</ref>

Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome.<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=O'Grady |title=The Roman Catholic church: its origins and nature |page=143 |isbn=0809137402}}</ref> The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus personally appointed Peter as leader of the Church and in its dogmatic constitution ''[[Lumen Gentium]]'' makes a clear distinction between apostles and bishops, presenting the latter as the successors of the former, with the Pope as successor of Peter in that he is head of the bishops as Peter was head of the apostles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |title=''Lumen gentium'', 22 |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome and founded the episcopal see there can be traced back no earlier than the 3rd century.<ref name="O'Grady 146">{{cite book |first=John |last=O'Grady |title=The Roman Catholic church: its origins and nature |page=146 |isbn=0809137402}}</ref> The writings of the [[Church Father]] [[Irenaeus]] who wrote around 180 AD reflect a belief that Peter "founded and organised" the Church at Rome.<ref>{{cite book |first=J. |last=Stevenson |title=A New Eusebius| page=114 |isbn=0281008027}}</ref> However, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peter's presence in the early Roman Church. [[Clement of Rome]] wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, ''c.'' 96<ref name="fn_2">{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1010.htm|title=Letter of Clement to the Corinthians}}</ref> about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the “struggles in our time” and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, “first, the greatest and most just columns, the “good apostles” Peter and Paul.<ref name="Gröber, 510">Gröber, 510</ref> [[St. Ignatius of Antioch]] wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did.<ref name="fn_3">{{cite web |url=http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_article/244/Letter_of_Ignatius_of_Antioch_to_the_Romans.html |title=Letter of Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans}}</ref> Given this and other evidence, many scholars agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero, although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in Palestine.<ref>"[M]any scholars ... accept Rome as the location of the martyrdom and the reign of Nero as the time." Daniel William O’Connor, "Saint Peter the Apostle." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 November 2009 [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/453832/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle].</ref><ref>Zeitschr. fur Kirchengesch., 1901, pp. 1 sqq., 161 sqq.</ref><ref>''The Secrets of the 12 Disciples'', [[Channel 4]], transmitted on 23 March 2008.</ref>

Various Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches. Gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas.<ref name="O'Grady 140">{{cite book |first=John |last=O'Grady |title=The Roman Catholic church: its origins and nature |page=140 |isbn=0809137402}}</ref> It has been conjectured{{Who|date=November 2010}} that Antioch, where Peter was before he went to Rome, may have been one of the first Christian communities to have adopted such a structure.<ref name="O'Grady 140"/> In Rome there were many who claimed to be the rightful bishop though again Irenaeus stressed the validity of one line of bishops from the time of St. Peter up to his contemporary [[Pope Victor I]] and listed them.<ref>{{cite book |first=J. |last=Stevenson |title=A New Eusebius| pages=114–115 |isbn=0281008027}}</ref> Some{{Who|date=November 2010}} writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops but not necessarily monarchical bishops.<ref name="O'Grady 146"/> This would not affect their authority as Popes in Catholic Theology.

The [[See of Rome|Holy See]] was accorded prominence in the early Church period in issues related to matters of the whole [[Catholic Church]].<ref>"From an historical perspective, there is no conclusive documentary evidence from the first century or the early decades of the second of the exercise of, or even the claim to, a primacy of the Roman bishop or to a connection with Peter, although documents from this period accord the church at Rome some kind of pre‑eminence" ([http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8523 Emmanuel Clapsis, Papal Primacy], extract from ''Orthodoxy in Conversation'' (2000), p. 110]); and "The see of Rome, whose prominence was associated with the deaths of Peter and Paul, became the principle center in matters concerning the universal Church" (Clapsis, p. 102). The same writer quotes with approval the words of [[Pope Benedict XVI|Joseph Ratzinger]]: "In Phanar, on 25 July 1976, when [[Patriarch Athenagoras I of Constantinople|Patriarch Athenegoras]] addressed [[Pope Paul VI|the visiting pope]] as Peter's successor, the first in honor among us, and the presider over charity, this great church leader was expressing the essential content of the declarations of the primacy of the first millennium" (Clapsis, p. 113).</ref>

===Early Christianity (''c.'' 30 – 325)===
It seems that at first the terms 'episcopos' and 'presbyter' were used interchangeably.<ref>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 1997 edition revised 2005, page 211: "It seems that at first the terms 'episcopos' and 'presbyter' were used interchangeably ..."</ref> The consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable.<ref>Cambridge History of Christianity, volume 1, 2006, "The general consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the first and second centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable."</ref> There was probably no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century ... and likely later."<ref>Cambridge History of Christianity, volume 1, 2006, page 418: "Probably there was no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the second century ... and likely later."</ref> Other scholars and historians disagree, citing the historical records of [[St. Ignatius of Antioch]] and [[St. Irenaeus]] who recorded the linear succession of Bishops of Rome (the Popes) up until their own times. They also cite the importance accorded to the Popes in the [[ecumenical councils]], including the early ones.<ref>http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/1991/9101fea2.asp</ref>

In the early Christian era, Rome and a few other cities had claims on the leadership of worldwide Catholic Church. [[James the Just]], known as "the brother of the Lord", served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honored as the "Mother Church" in Orthodox tradition. Alexandria had been a center of Jewish learning and became a center of Christian learning. Rome had a large congregation early in the apostolic period whom Paul the Apostle addressed in his [[Epistle to the Romans]], and according to tradition Paul was martyred there.

During the 1st century of the Church (''ca.'' 30–130), the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance. [[Pope Clement I]] at the end of the 1st century wrote an epistle to the Church in [[Roman Corinth|Corinth]] intervening in a major dispute, and apologizing for not having taken action earlier.<ref>Chadwick, Henry, ''Oxford History of Christianity'', OUP, quote: "Towards the latter part of the 1st century, Rome's presiding cleric named Clement wrote on behalf of his church to remonstrate with the Corinthian Christians who had ejected clergy without either financial or charismatic endowment in favor of a fresh lot; Clement apologized not for intervening but for not having acted sooner. Moreover, during the second century the Roman community's leadership was evident in its generous alms to poorer churches. About 165 they erected monuments to their martyred apostles, to Peter in a necropolis on the Vatican Hill, to Paul on the road to Ostia, at the traditional sites of their burial. Roman bishops were already conscious of being custodians of the authentic tradition of true interpretation of the apostolic writings. In the conflict with Gnosticism Rome played a decisive role, and likewise in the deep division in Asia Minor created by the claims of the Montanist prophets.."</ref> However, there are only a few other references of that time to recognition of the [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|authoritative primacy]] of the [[Holy See|Roman See]] outside of Rome. In the [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/ch_orthodox_docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20071013_documento-ravenna_en.html Ravenna Document] of 13 October 2007, theologians chosen by the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated: "41. Both sides agree ... that Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St [[Ignatius of Antioch]] ([http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_article/244/Letter_of_Ignatius_of_Antioch_to_the_Romans.html ''To the Romans''], Prologue), occupied the first place in the ''taxis'', and that the [[bishop]] of Rome was therefore the ''protos'' among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the Bishop of Rome as ''protos'', a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium." In addition, in the last years of the 1st century AD the Church in Rome [[Epistles of Clement|intervened]] in the affairs of the Christian Church in [[Roman Corinth|Corinth]] to help solve their internal disputes.

Later in the 2nd century AD, there were more manifestations of Roman authority over other churches. In 189 AD, assertion of the primacy of the Church of Rome may be indicated in [[Irenaeus of Lyons]]'s ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]'' (3:3:2): "With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." In 195 AD, [[Pope Victor I]], in what is seen as an exercise of Roman authority over other churches, excommunicated the [[Quartodecimans]] for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan, the date of the Jewish [[Passover]], a tradition handed down by [[John the Evangelist|St. John the Evangelist]] (see [[Easter controversy]]). Celebration of Easter on a Sunday, as insisted on by the Pope, is the system that has prevailed (see [[computus]]).

Early popes helped spread Christianity and resolve doctrinal disputes.<ref name = "World History"/>

===Nicaea to East-West Schism (325–1054)===
During these seven centuries, the church unified by Emperor Constantine within his empire effectively split first, after the 451 [[Council of Chalcedon]], into [[Chalcedonian Christianity]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], and then, after the 1054 [[East-West Schism]], into a [[Greek East and Latin West]]. In the West, the pope became independent of the Emperor in the East and became a major force in politics there.

====Imperial capitals: Rome and Constantinople====
With the conversion of Roman Emperor [[Constantine I|Constantine]] to Christianity and the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicea]], the Christian religion received imperial sanction.

At the time of the Council (325), Rome was still seen as the capital of the empire, although the emperor rarely lived there. With the establishment of a new fixed capital in [[Constantinople]] (330), there arose a new center, which quickly grew in prominence, rivaling those in Rome, Alexandria and Antioch, which previously had been the most important centers of Christianity.

Of these, Rome claimed the principal place, as illustrated by [[Pope Leo I|Pope Leo the Great]]'s statement, in about 446, that "the care of the universal Church should converge towards Peter's one seat, and nothing anywhere should be separated from its Head",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3604014.htm |title=Letter XIV |publisher=Newadvent.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> clearly articulating the expansion of papal authority as doctrine, and promulgating his right to exercise "the full range of apostolic powers that Jesus had first bestowed on the apostle Peter".

The early [[ecumenical council]]s, especially the [[First Council of Constantinople]] (381), affirmed the importance of the Bishop of Rome's position, though all the councils in the Church's early history took place in cities in the East, and the Pope did not personally attend the council in 381. At the ecumenical [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451, Leo I (through his emissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter". At this same council, the Bishop of Constantinople was given "equal privileges" to those of the Bishop of Rome, because "Constantinople is the New Rome". Pope Leo rejected this decree on the ground that it contravened the sixth canon of Nicaea and infringed the rights of Alexandria and Antioch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Council_of_Chalcedon |title=Council of Chalcedon (1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica) |publisher=1911encyclopedia.org |date=2006-10-06 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref>

====Medieval development====
[[File:Gregorythegreat.jpg|thumb|upright|Gregory the Great (''c'' 540–604) who established medieval themes in the Church, in a painting by [[Carlo Saraceni]], circa 1610, Rome.]]
After the fall of Rome, the pope served as a source of authority and continuity. [[Gregory the Great]] (''c'' 540–604) administered the church with strict reform.<ref name="AF:CC"/> From an ancient senatorial family, Gregory worked with the stern judgment and discipline typical of ancient Roman rule.<ref name="AF:CC"/> Theologically, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook, his popular writings full of dramatic miracles, potent relics, demons, angels, ghosts, and the approaching end of the world.<ref name="AF:CC"/>

Gregory's successors were largely dominated by the exarch or the Eastern emperor.<ref name="AF:CC"/> These humiliations, the weakening of the Empire in the face of Muslim expansion, and the inability of the Emperor to protect the papal estates made Pope Stephen II turn from the Emperor.<ref name="AF:CC"/> Seeking protection against the Lombards and getting no help from Emperor Constantine V, the pope appealed to the Franks to protect his lands.<ref name="AF:CC"/> [[Pepin the Short]] subdued the [[Lombards]] and donated Italian land to the Papacy.<ref name="AF:CC"/> When Leo III crowned [[Charlemagne]] (800), he established the precedent that no man would be emperor without anointment by a pope.<ref name="AF:CC"/>

Around 850, a forger, probably from among the French opposers of [[Hincmar]], [[Archbishop]] of [[Reims]]<ref name=ODCC:fd>"False Decretals." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> made a collection of church legislation that contained forgeries and genuine documents.<ref name=ODCC:fd/><ref name=EB:fd>{{cite web|author=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/200996/False-Decretals |title=Encyclopaedia Britannica: ''False Decretals'' |publisher=Britannica.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> At first some attacked it as false, but it was taken as genuine throughout the rest of the [[Middle Ages]]<ref name=ODCC:fd/> It is now known as the [[False Decretals]]. It was part of a series of falsifications of previous legislation by a party in the Carolingian Empire whose primary aim was to free the church and the bishops from interference by the state and the [[Metropolitan archbishop#Roman Catholic|metropolitan archbishops]] respectively,<ref name=ODCC:fd/><ref name=EB:fd/> and who were concerned for papal supremacy as guaranteeing those rights.<ref name=ODCC:fd/> The author, a French cleric calling himself Isidore Mercator, created false documents purportedly by early church popes, demonstrating that supremacy of the papacy dated back to the church's oldest traditions.<ref name="AF:CC"/> The decretals include the ''[[Donation of Constantine]]'', in which [[Constantine I|Constantine]] grants [[Pope Sylvester I]] secular authority over all Western Europe.<ref name="AFself">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972. p. 525–526</ref> Thanks to this forgery in the collection, the decretals became one of the most persuasive forgeries in the history of the West. It supported Papal policies for centuries.<ref name="AF:CC"/>

[[Pope Nicholas I]] (858–867) asserted that the pope should have suzerain authority over all Christians, even royalty, in matters of faith and morals.<ref name="AF:CC"/> Only Photius, bishop of Constantinople, dared gainsay him.<ref name="AF:CC"/> After his death, the authority of the papacy was acknowledged more widely than ever before.<ref name="AF:CC"/>

The low point of the Papacy was 867–1049.<ref name = "AF"/> The Papacy came under the control of vying political factions.<ref name="AF"/> Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed and deposed by force.<ref name="AF"/> The family of a certain papal official made and unmade popes for fifty years.<ref name="AF"/> The official's great-grandson, [[Pope John XII]], held orgies of debauchery in the Lateran palace.<ref name="AF"/> Emperor Otto I of Germany had John accused in an ecclesiastical court, which deposed him and elected a layman as [[Pope Leo VIII]].<ref name="AF"/> John mutilated the Imperial representatives in Rome and had himself reinstated as Pope.<ref name="AF"/> Conflict between the Emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly.<ref name="AF"/>

In 1049, [[Leo IX]] became pope, at last a pope with the character to face the papacy's problems.<ref name="AF"/> He traveled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably the sale of church offices or services ([[simony]]) and clerical marriage and concubinage.<ref name="AF"/> With his long journey, he restored the prestige of the Papacy in the north.<ref name="AF"/>

===East–West Schism to Reformation (1054–1517)===
[[File:Mediterranean1400.png|thumb|300px|right|An historical map of the [[Mediterranian]] states in 1400. The [[Western Schism]] lasted from 1378 to 1417.]]
The East and West churches split definitively in 1054. This fracture was caused more by political events than by slight diversities of creed.<ref name = "AF"/> Popes had galled the emperors by siding with the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, appropriating the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]], and driving into Greek Italy.<ref name="AF">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972</ref>

In the [[Middle Ages]], popes struggled with monarchs over power.<ref name = "World History"/>

From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in [[Rome]] but in [[Avignon]]. The [[Avignon Papacy]] was notorious for greed and corruption.<ref name="R:RCC">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Reformation. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1957. "Chapter I. The Roman Catholic Church." 1300-1517. p. 3–25</ref> During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of France, alienating France's enemies, such as England.<ref name="R:EWCGR">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Reformation. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1957. "Chapter II. England: Wyclif, Chaucer, and the Great Revolt." 1308-1400. p. 26–57</ref>

The pope was understood to have the power to draw on the "treasury" of merit built up by the saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences, reducing one's time in [[purgatory]].<ref name="R:RCC"/> The concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common assumption that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution.<ref name="R:RCC"/> The Popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses, but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences.<ref name="R:RCC"/>

Popes also contended with the cardinals, who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of councils over the pope's. Conciliar theory holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a General Council, not with the pope.<ref name="ReferenceA">"Conciliar theory." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Its foundations were laid early in the 13th century, and it culminated in the 15th century.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The failure of the conciliar theory to gain broad acceptance after the 15th century is taken as a factor in the Protestant Reformation.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Various anti-popes challenged papal authority, especially during the [[Western Schism]] (1378–1417). In this schism, the papacy had returned to Rome from Avignon, but an anti-pope was installed in Avignon, as if to extend the papacy there.

The Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, undercutting Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Twice an Eastern Emperor tried to force the Eastern Church to reunify with the West. Papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification, which failed in any event. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople.

===Reformation to present (1517 to today)===
[[File:Council Trent.jpg|thumb|As part of the Catholic Reformation, [[Pope Paul III]] (1534–1549) initiated the [[Council of Trent]] (1545–1563), which established the triumph of the Papacy over those who sought to reconcile with Protestants or oppose Papal claims.]]
Protestant Reformers criticized the Papacy as corrupt and characterized the pope as the [[antichrist]].

Popes instituted a [[Counter-Reformation|Catholic Reformation]]<ref name = "World History"/> (1560–1648), which addressed challenges of the [[Protestant Reformation]] and instituted internal reforms. Pope Paul III (1534–1549) initiated the [[Council of Trent]] (1545–1563), which established the triumph of the Papacy over rulers who sought to reconcile with Protestants and against French and Spanish bishops opposed to Papal claims.<ref>"Counter-Reformation." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>

Gradually forced to give up secular power, popes focused on spiritual issues.<ref name = "World History"/>

The pope's claims of spiritual authority have been ever more clearly expressed since the 1st centuries. In 1870, the [[First Vatican Council]] proclaimed the [[dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of [[dogma|faith]] or [[morals]].<ref name="World History">Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994.</ref>

Later in 1870, Victor Emmanuel II [[Capture of Rome|seized Rome]] from the pope's control and substantially completed the unification of Italy.<ref name="World History"/> The Papal States that the pope lost had been used to support papal independence.<ref name="World History"/>

In 1929, the [[Lateran Treaty]] between Italy and Pope Pius XI established the Vatican guaranteed papal independence from secular rule.<ref name="World History"/>

In 1950, the pope defined the [[Assumption of Mary]] as dogma, the only time that a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was explicitly declared.

The [[Petrine Doctrine]] is still controversial as an issue of doctrine that continues to divide the eastern and western churches and separate Protestants from Rome.

==Saint Peter and the origin of the office==
{{See also|Primacy of Simon Peter}}
The [[dogma]]s and traditions of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] teach that the institution of the papacy was first mandated by interpretations of several Biblical passages, mainly Matthew 16:13–19:<ref group="nb" name="ex01">See also Isaiah 22:20–22, John 21:15–17, Luke 12:41, and Luke 22:31–32.</ref>

{{cquote|"When Jesus came into the coasts of [[Caesarea]] Philippi, he asked his disciples, saying, Whom do men say that I the Son of man am? ... And Simon Peter answered and said, Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God. And Jesus answered and said unto him, Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven. And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven."}}

Catholics believe that this passage shows Jesus establishing his church on the shoulders of Simon son of John (Peter). Some authorities have previously asserted that the "rock" Jesus referred to was Jesus himself or was Peter's faith.<ref>Daniel William O'Connor. "Saint Peter the Apostle." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 November 2009 [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/453832/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle].</ref> The general scholarly consensus is that this account is accurate, and most modern scholars agree with the straightforward interpretation that the "rock" Jesus refers to in this passage is Peter.<ref>Such is "the consensus of the great majority of scholars today." "Saint Peter the Apostle." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 November 2009 [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/453832/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle].</ref>

The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here is the basis for the symbolic keys often found in Catholic papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms (see below).{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

==Election, death and resignation==
===Election===
{{Main|Papal conclave}}
[[File:Christ Handing the Keys to St. Peter by Pietro Perugino.jpg|thumb|''The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter'' painted by [[Pietro Perugino]] (1492)]]
The pope was originally chosen by those senior [[clergy]]men resident in and near Rome. In 1059 the electorate was restricted to the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. [[Pope Urban VI]], elected 1378, was the last pope who was not already a cardinal at his election. [[Canon law]] requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80.

The [[Second Council of Lyons]] was convened on 7 May 1274, to regulate the election of the pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year ''[[Sede Vacante]]'' following the death of [[Pope Clement IV]] in 1268. By the mid-16th century, the electoral process had evolved into its present form, allowing for variation in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.

Traditionally, the vote was conducted by [[acclamation]], by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in 1621. [[Pope John Paul II]] abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all Popes will be elected by full vote of the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]] by [[ballot]].

[[File:Konklave Konzilsgebaude Konstanz.jpg|thumb|left|The conclave in [[Konstanz]] where [[Pope Martin V]] was elected]]
The election of the pope almost always takes place in the [[Sistine Chapel]], in a sequestered meeting called a "[[Papal conclave|conclave]]" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, ''cum clave'', until they elect a new pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar (in the 2005 conclave, a special urn was used for this purpose instead of a chalice and plate). The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for electors to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the ballots are counted while still folded; if the number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Otherwise, each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a Pope is elected by a two-thirds majority.<ref>With the promulgation of ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]'' in 1996, a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days was allowed, but this was revoked by Pope [[Benedict XVI]] by ''[[motu proprio]]'' in 2007.</ref>
[[File:Habemus Papam 1415.jpg|thumb|The formal declaration of "[[Habemus Papam]]" after the election of Pope Martin V]]

One of the most prominent aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special stove erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from [[St. Peter's Square]]. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound to create black smoke, or ''fumata nera''. (Traditionally, wet straw was used to produce the black smoke, but this was not completely reliable. The chemical compound is more reliable than the straw.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (''fumata bianca'') through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. At the end of the conclave that elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]], church bells were also rung to signal that a new pope had been chosen.

The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks two solemn questions of the cardinal who has been elected. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word ''"Accepto"'', his reign as Pope begins at that instant, ''not'' at the inauguration ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the [[regnal name]] he has chosen. (If the Dean is elected pope, the Vice Dean performs this task.)

The new pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room where three sets of white papal vestments (''immantatio'') await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]" by the [[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church]], whom he first either reconfirms or reappoints. The pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" (''adoratio'') and to receive his blessing.

The [[Cardinal protodeacon|Senior Cardinal Deacon]] then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following [[Habemus Papam|proclamation]]: ''Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!'' ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!"). He then announces the new pope's Christian name along with his newly chosen regnal name.

Until 1978 the pope's election was followed in a few days by the [[Papal Coronation]]. A procession with great pomp and circumstance formed from the [[Sistine Chapel]] to [[St. Peter's Basilica]], with the newly elected pope borne in the ''[[sedia gestatoria]]''. There, after a solemn [[Papal Mass]], the new pope was crowned with the ''[[Papal Tiara|triregnum]]'' (papal tiara) and he gave for the first time as pope the famous blessing ''[[Urbi et Orbi]]'' ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another renowned part of the coronation was the lighting of a bundle of [[flax]] at the top of a gilded pole, which would flare brightly for a moment and then promptly extinguish, with the admonition ''[[Sic transit gloria mundi]]'' ("Thus passes worldly glory"). A similar warning against papal hubris made on this occasion was the traditional exclamation ''"Annos Petri non videbis"'', reminding the newly crowned Pope that he would not live to see his rule lasting as long as that of St. Peter, who according to tradition headed the church for 35 years and has thus far been the longest reigning Pope in the history of the Catholic Church. <ref>St [[Augustine]], speaking of the honours paid to bishops in his time, mentions the ''absides gradatae'' (apses with steps, a reference to the seating arrangement for the presbyters in the apse of the church, with the bishop in the middle ([http://books.google.com/books?id=LTb6zWm5PMcC&pg=PA186&dq=%22cathedrae+velatae%22&hl=en&ei=3ZR8Te7EM8fOhAeA3uHeBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22cathedrae%20velatae%22&f=false William Smith, Samuel Cheetham, ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Christian Antiquities], "elevated stalls" in the [http://www.scribd.com/doc/2512021/Letters-of-Augustine-of-Hippo Sparrow-Simpson translation] (p. 83), and appearing as "thrones ascended by flights of steps" in [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf101.vii.1.XXIII.html the Cunningham translation]), and ''[[cathedra]]e velatae'' (canopied thrones, appearing as "canopied pulpits" in both those translations) - [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Ms7AAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Augustinus+epistolae&hl=en&ei=knJ8TYm5Hc26hAeE5Yz4Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=maximino&f=false Letter 203 in the old arrangement], 23 in the chronological rearrangement</ref>

A [[traditionalist Catholic]] belief claims the existence of a [[Papal Oath (Traditionalist Catholic)|Papal Oath]] sworn, at their coronation, by all popes from [[Pope Agatho]] to [[Pope Paul VI]], but which since the abolition of the coronation ceremony is no longer used. There is no reliable authority for this claim.

The [[Latin]] term ''sede vacante'' ("vacant seat") refers to a papal [[interregnum]], the period between the death of a pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the term [[sedevacantism]], which designates a category of dissident Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected Pope, and that there is therefore a ''Sede Vacante''. One of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the [[Second Vatican Council]] and especially the replacement of the [[Tridentine Mass]] with the ''[[Mass of Paul VI]]'' are heretical, and that, per the dogma of papal infallibility, it is impossible for a valid Pope to have done these things. [[Sedevacantist]]s are considered to be schismatics by the mainstream Roman Catholic Church.

For centuries, the papacy was an institution dominated by [[Italians]]. Prior to the election of the Polish cardinal [[Karol Wojtyla]] as Pope John Paul II in 1978, the last non-Italian was [[Pope Adrian VI]] of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born Benedict XVI, leading some to believe the Italian domination of the papacy to be over.

===Death===
[[File:Pope johnpaul funeral.jpeg|thumb|Funeral of [[Pope John Paul II]] at the Vatican in 2005, presided over by Cardinal Ratzinger, the future Pope Benedict XVI]]
The current regulations regarding a papal [[interregnum]]—that is, a ''[[sede vacante]]'' ("vacant seat")—were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]''. During the "Sede Vacante", the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]], composed of the pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the [[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church]]; however, canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the [[Holy See]]. Any decision that requires the assent of the pope has to wait until the new pope has been elected and accepts office.

In recent centuries it was traditional, when a Pope was judged to have died, for the Cardinal Chamberlain to confirm the death ceremonially by gently tapping the Pope's head thrice with a silver hammer, calling his birth name each time. This custom was not followed at the death of Pope John Paul I<ref>Sullivan, George E. Pope John Paul II: The People's Pope. Boston: Walker & Company, 1984.</ref> and was not revived upon the death of Pope John Paul II.<ref>{{cite news|author= |url=http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101050411/path.html |title=''The Path to a New Pontiff'' Retrieved: 2010-03-29 |publisher=Time.com |date=2005-04-03 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the [[Ring of the Fisherman]] and cuts it in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.

The body then lies in state for several days before being interred in the [[crypt]] of a leading church or cathedral; the popes of the 20th century were all interred in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. A nine-day period of mourning (''novendialis'') follows the interment of the late Pope.

===Resignation===
{{Main|Papal resignation}}
The [[Code of Canon Law]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P16.HTM 332 §2] states, "If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone." This right has been exercised by, among others, [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 and [[Pope Gregory XII]] in 1409, Gregory XII being the last to do so.

It was widely reported in June and July 2002 that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper ''[[Corriere della Sera]]''. Nevertheless, 332 §2 caused speculation that (1) Pope [[John Paul II]] would have resigned as his health failed, or (2) a properly manifested legal instrument had been prepared which effected his resignation if he could not perform his duties.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} Pope John Paul II, however, did not resign. He died on 2 April 2005 after a long period of ill-health and was buried on 8 April 2005. After his death, it was reported in [[Testament of Pope John Paul II|his last will and testament]] that he considered abdicating in 2000 as he neared his 80th birthday.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} That portion of the will, however, is unclear and others interpret it differently.

==Titles==
{{infobox popestyles
|papal name=The Pope
|dipstyle=[[His Holiness]]
|offstyle=Your Holiness
|relstyle=Holy Father
|deathstyle=NA|}}

===Official list of titles===
The official list of titles of the Pope, in the order in which they are given in the [[Annuario Pontificio]], is: Bishop of [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]], [[Vicar of Christ|Vicar of Jesus Christ]], Successor of the [[Prince of the Apostles]], Supreme [[Pontiff#Christianity|Pontiff]] of the Universal Church, [[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of [[Italy]], [[Metropolitan bishop|Archbishop and Metropolitan]] of the Roman [[Ecclesiastical province|Province]], Sovereign of the State of [[Vatican City]], [[Servus Servorum Dei|Servant of the Servants of God]].<ref>Annuario Pontificio, published annually by Libreria Editrice Vaticana, p. 23*. ISBN of the 2009 edition: 978-88-209-8191-4.</ref>

The official list of titles does not include all the titles that are officially used.

===Pope===
The best-known title of the Popes, that of "Pope", does not appear in the official list, but is commonly used in the titles of documents, and appears, in abbreviated form, in their signatures. Thus [[Pope Paul VI]] signed as "Paulus PP. VI", the "PP." standing for "''Papa''" ("Pope").

The title "Pope" was from the early 3rd century an honorific designation used for ''any'' bishop in the West.<ref name=ODCC:Pope>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ([[Oxford University Press]] 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article ''Pope''</ref> In the East it was used only for the Bishop of Alexandria.<ref name=ODCC:Pope/> [[Pope Marcellinus]] (d. 304) is the first Bishop of Rome shown in sources to have had the title "Pope" used of him. From the 6th century, the imperial chancery of [[Byzantine Empire|Constantinople]] normally reserved this designation for the Bishop of Rome.<ref name=ODCC:Pope/> From the early 6th century, it began to be confined in the West to the Bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the 11th century,<ref name=ODCC:Pope/> when [[Pope Gregory VII]] declared it reserved for the Bishop of Rome.

In [[Eastern Christianity]], where the title "pope" is used also of the Bishop of Alexandria, the Bishop of Rome is often referred to as the "Pope of Rome", regardless of whether the speaker or writer is in communion with Rome or not.

===Vicar of Jesus Christ===
"Vicar of Jesus Christ" (''Vicarius Iesu Christi'') is one of the official titles of the Pope given in the ''Annuario Pontificio''. It is commonly used in the slightly abbreviated form "Vicar of Christ" (''Vicarius Christi''). While it is only one of the terms with which the Pope is referred to as "vicar", it is "more expressive of his supreme headship of the Church on earth, which he bears in virtue of the commission of Christ and with vicarial power derived from him", a vicarial power believed to have been conferred on Saint Peter when Christ said to him: "Feed my lambs. . . . Feed my sheep" ({{bibleverse||John|21:16-17}}).<ref name="New Advent - Vicar of Christ">{{cite web| url= http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15403b.htm| last= | first= | title= Vicar of Christ | accessdate=27 January 2010| work = Catholic Encyclopedia; New Advent}}</ref>

The first record of the application of this title to a Pope appears in a synod of 495 with reference to [[Pope Gelasius I]].<ref name="Macbrien">McBrien, Richard P. ''Os Papas. Os Pontífices de São Pedro a João Paulo II'' (original title: ''Lives of the Popes. The Pontiffs from St. Peter to John Paul II'' 1997. ISBN 0-06-065303-5), pp. 37, 85.</ref> But at that time, and down to the 9th century, other bishops too referred to themselves as vicars of Christ, and for another four centuries this description was sometimes used of kings and even judges,<ref>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 9780-19-280290-3), article ''Vicar of Christ''</ref> as it had been used in the 5th and 6th centuries to refer to the [[Byzantine emperor]].<ref name="New Commentary"/> Earlier still, in the 3rd century, [[Tertullian]] used "vicar of Christ" to refer to the [[Holy Spirit]]<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm| last= | first= | title= Prescription against Heretics (Chapter 28) | accessdate=2010-01-27 | work= Catholic Encyclopedia; New Advent}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0403.htm| last= | first= | title= On the Veiling of Virgins (Chapter 1) | accessdate=2010-01-27 | work= Catholic Encyclopedia; New Advent}}</ref> sent by Jesus.<ref>Cf. {{bibleverse||John|16:7-14}}</ref> Its use specifically for the Pope appears in the 13th century in connection with the reforms of [[Pope Innocent III]],<ref name="New Commentary">{{cite book| url= http://books.google.com/?id=JKgZEjvB5cEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=New+commentary+on+the+Code+of+Canon+Law&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false| last= John P. Beal, James A. Coriden, Thomas J. (Thomas Joseph) Green, Thomas J. Green| first= | title= New Commentary on the Code of Canon Law (p. 432)|accessdate=18 February 2010 | work=| isbn= 9780809140664| date= 2002-06-27 }}</ref> as can be observed already in his 1199 letter to [[Leo I, King of Armenia]].<ref>Faus, José Ignacio Gonzáles. "''Autoridade da Verdade - Momentos Obscuros do Magistério Eclesiástico''" (Edições Loyola. ISBN 85-15-01750-4), p. 33.</ref> Other historians suggest that this title was already used in this way in association with the pontificate of [[Pope Eugenius III]] (1145–1153).<ref name="Macbrien"/>

This title "Vicar of Christ" is thus not used of the Pope alone and has been used of all bishops since the early centuries.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=7bjDsZHPiSYC&pg=PA264&dq=%22vicar+of+Christ%22+title&hl=en&ei=QaULTYnzN4bLhAf3vfjuCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFYQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=%22vicar%20of%20Christ%22%20title&f=false Ken Untener, Elizabeth Picken, ''The Practical Prophet: Pastoral Writings'', p. 264]</ref> The [[Second Vatican Council]] referred to all bishops as "vicars and ambassadors of Christ",<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html | last = | first = | title = Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution ''Lumen gentium'', 27 | accessdate=27 January 2010}}</ref> and this description of the bishops was repeated by [[Pope John Paul II]] in his encyclical ''[http://www.vatican.va/edocs/ENG0221/__PT.HTM Ut unum sint,]'' 95. The difference is that the other bishops are vicars of Christ for their own local churches, the Pope is vicar of Christ for the whole Church.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=vJ78Vd4O9d4C&pg=PA991&dq=%22vicar+of+Christ%22+%22all+bishops%22&hl=en&ei=2LoLTf29L9G4hAeCw-jpCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22vicar%20of%20Christ%22%20%22all%20bishops%22&f=false Peter M. J. Stravinskas, ''Our Sunday Visitor's Catholic Encyclopedia'', p. 991]</ref>

On at least one occasion the title "Vicar of God" (a reference to Christ as God) was used of the Pope.<ref name="New Advent - Vicar of Christ"/>

The title "Vicar of Peter" (''Vicarius Petri'') is used only of the Pope, not of other bishops. Variations of it include: "Vicar of the Prince of the Apostles" (''Vicarius Principis Apostolorum'') and "Vicar of the Apostolic See" (''Vicarius Sedis Apostolicae'').<ref name="New Advent - Vicar of Christ"/> [[Saint Boniface]] described [[Pope Gregory II]] as vicar of Peter in the oath of fealty that he took in 722.<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/boniface1.html Medieval Sourcebook]</ref> In today's [[Roman Missal]], the description "vicar of Peter" is found also in the [[collect]] of the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] for a saint who was a pope.<ref>[http://www.clerus.org/bibliaclerusonline/en/end.htm#cml ''Missale Romanum'', Vatican City, 2008, p. 928]</ref>

===Pontiff===
[[File:Benedictus XVI pont max pontif I.jpg|thumb|Entrance to [[Vatican City]], with inscription "Benedictus XVI Pont(ifex) Max(imus) Anno Domini MMV Pont(ificatus) I.", i.e., "[[Benedict XVI]], Pontifex Maximus, in the year of Our Lord 2005, the first year of his pontificate."]]
The term "[[pontiff]]" is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''pontifex'', which literally means "bridge builder" (''pons'' + ''facere''),<ref name=COD>Concise Oxford Dictionary: pontifex</ref> and which designated a member of the [[College of Pontiffs|principal college of priests]] in ancient Rome.<ref name=COD/><ref>[http://abacus.bates.edu/~mimber/Rciv/public.relig.htm Roman Public Religion] Roman Civilization, bates.edu retrieved August 17, 2006</ref><ref>The bridge making has been interpreted in terms of "one who smoothes the way for the gods and to the gods" (Van Haeperen, Françoise, 2002. ''Le collège pontifical: 3ème s. a. C. - 4ème s. p. C.'' in series '' Études de Philologie, d'Archéologie et d'Histoire Anciennes'', no. 39. (Brussels: Brepols) ISBN 90-74461-49-2, reviewed in [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2003/2003-10-16.html Bryn Mawr Classical review, 2003])</ref> The Latin word was translated into ancient Greek variously: as ἱεροδιδάσκαλος, ἱερονόμος, ἱεροφύλαξ, ἱεροφάντης,<ref>[William Smith, ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities]</ref> or ἀρχιερεύς (high priest)<ref name=L&S>[http://artfl.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.85:10:135.lsj Liddell and Scott: ἀρχιερεύς]</ref><ref>[[Polybius]] 23.1.2 and 32.22.5; ''Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum'' 3.43, 3.428 und 3.458</ref> The head of the college was known as the [[Pontifex Maximus]] (the greatest pontiff).<ref>Translated literally into Greek as ἀρχιερεὺς μέγιστος (greatest high priest) in ''Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum'' 2.2696 and 3.346; [[Plutarch]] ''Numa'' 9.4 – [http://artfl.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.85:10:135.lsj Liddell and Scott: ἀρχιερεύς]</ref>

In Christian use, ''pontifex'' appears in the [[Vulgate]] translation of the [[New Testament]] to indicate the Jewish high priest (in the original, ἀρχιερεύς).<ref>There are 35 instances of the use of this term in the Vulgate: {{bibleverse||Mark|15:11}}; {{bibleverse||John|7:45}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|11:47}},{{bibleverse-nb||John|11:49}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|11:51}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|11:57}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:3}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:10}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:13}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:15-16}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:22}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:24}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:26}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:35}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|19:6}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|19:15}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|19:21}}; {{bibleverse||Hebrews|2:17}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|3:1}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|4:14-15}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|5:1}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|5:5}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|5:10}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|6:20}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|7:26}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|8:1}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|8:3}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|9:7}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|9:11}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|9:25}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|13:11}}</ref> The term came to be applied to any Christian [[bishop]],<ref name="New Advent - Pope">{{cite web| url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm| last= | first= | title= Pope| accessdate=21 February 2010| work= Catholic Encyclopedia; New Advent}}</ref> but since the 11th century commonly refers specifically to the Bishop of Rome,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Pontiff |title=Dictionary definition |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-07}}</ref> who is more strictly called the "Roman Pontiff". The use of the term to refer to bishops in general is reflected in the terms "[[Roman Pontifical]]" (a book containing rites reserved for bishops, such as [[confirmation]] and [[ordination]])<ref>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005</ref> and "pontificals" (the insignia of bishops).<ref>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 9780-19-280290-3), article ''pontificals''</ref>

The ''Annuario Pontificio'' lists as one of the official titles of the Pope that of "Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church" (in Latin, ''Summus Pontifex Ecclesiae Universalis'').<ref>Annuario Pontificio 2008 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana ISBN 978-88-209-8021-4), p. 23*</ref> He is also commonly called the Supreme Pontiff or the Sovereign Pontiff (in Latin, ''Summus Pontifex'').

''Pontifex Maximus'', similar in meaning to ''Summus Pontifex'', is a title commonly found in inscriptions on buildings, paintings, statues and coins of the Popes, usually abbreviated as "Pont. Max" or "P.M." The office of [[pontifex maximus]], or head of the [[college of pontiffs]], was held by [[Julius Caesar]] and thereafter by the Roman emperors until [[Gratian]] (375-383) relinquished it.<ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Pontifex.html Pontifex Maximus] LacusCurtius retrieved 15 August 2006</ref><ref>"Gratian." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037772></ref><ref>[http://www.livius.org/pn-po/pontifex/maximus.html Pontifex Maximus] Livius.org article by Jona Lendering retrieved 15 August 2006</ref> [[Tertullian]], when he had become a [[Montanist]], used the title derisively of either the Pope or the [[episcopal see of Carthage|Bishop of Carthage]].<ref name=ODCC:PM/> The Popes began to use this title regularly only in the 15th century.<ref name=ODCC:PM>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article ''Pontifex Maximus''</ref>

===Servant of the Servants of God===
The title "Servant of the Servants of God", although used by Church leaders including [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] and [[St. Benedict]], was first used by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope St. Gregory the Great]] in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title "[[Ecumenical Patriarch]]". It was not reserved for the pope until the 13th century. The documents of the [[Second Vatican Council]] reinforced the understanding of this title as a reference to the pope's role as a function of collegial authority, in which the Bishop of Rome serves the world's bishops.

===Patriarch of the West===
From 1863 until 2005, the ''Annuario Pontificio'' included also the title "[[Patriarch]] of the West". This title was first used by [[Pope Theodore I]] in 642, and was only used occasionally. Indeed, it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863. On 22 March 2006, the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a "historical and theological reality" and of "being useful to ecumenical dialogue". The title Patriarch of the West symbolized the pope's special relationship with, and jurisdiction over, the Latin Church—and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship, nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the [[Eastern Churches]], as solemnly proclaimed by the Second Vatican Council.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/general-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20060322_patriarca-occidente_fr.html |title=Communiqué concernant la suppression du titre «Patriarche d’Occident» dans l'Annuaire pontifical 2006 |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref>

===Other titles===
Other titles commonly used are "His Holiness", "Holy Father". In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Italian language|Italian]], "''Beatísimo/Beatissimo Padre''" (Most Blessed Father) is often used in preference to "''Santísimo/Santissimo Padre''" (Most Holy Father). In the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]], "''Dominus Apostolicus''" ("the [[Saint Peter|Apostolic]] Lord") was also used.

===Signature===
As indicated above, a Pope normally signs documents using the title "Papa" in the abbreviated form "PP." and with the numeral, as in "Benedictus PP. XVI" (Pope Benedict XVI). Exceptions are [[papal bull|bulls]] of canonization and decrees of ecumenical councils, which the Pope signs with the formula, "Ego N. Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae", without the numeral, as in "Ego Paulus Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae" (I, Paul, Bishop of the catholic/universal Church).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Curia_Romana |title=Classic Encyclopedia: ''Curia Romana'' |publisher=1911encyclopedia.org |date=2006-10-06 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> The Pope's signature is followed, in bulls of canonization, by those of all the cardinals resident in Rome, and in decrees of ecumenical councils, by the signatures of the other bishops participating in the council, each signing as Bishop of a particular see.

[[Papal bull]]s are headed ''N. Episcopus [[Servus Servorum Dei]]'' ("Name, Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God"). In general, they are not signed by the Pope, but [[Pope John Paul II|Pope John Paul II]] introduced in the mid-1980s the custom by which the Pope signs not only bulls of canonization but also, using his normal signature, such as "Benedictus PP. XVI", bulls of nomination of bishops.

==Regalia and insignia==
{{Main|Papal regalia and insignia}}
* "[[Papal Tiara|Triregnum]]", also called the "tiara" or "triple crown", represents the pope's three functions as "supreme pastor", "supreme teacher" and "supreme priest". Recent popes have not, however, worn the ''triregnum'', though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies Popes wear an episcopal [[mitre]] (an erect cloth hat).
* [[Pastoral Staff]] topped by a [[crucifix]], a custom established before the 13th century (see [[papal cross]]).
* [[Pallium]], or pall, a circular band of fabric worn around the neck over the [[chasuble]]. It forms a yoke about the neck, breast and shoulders and has two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. Previously, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the [[primate (religion)|primates]], but in 2005 Pope Benedict XVI began to use a distinct papal pallium that is larger than the primatial, and was adorned with red crosses instead of black.
* "Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolizes the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven.
* [[Ring of the Fisherman]], a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning Pope around it.
* ''[[Umbraculum]]'' (better known in the Italian form ''ombrellino'') is a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions.
* ''[[Sedia gestatoria]]'', a mobile throne carried by twelve [[footmen]] (''palafrenieri'') in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing ''[[flabella]]'' (fans made of white ostrich feathers), and sometimes a large [[baldachin|canopy]], carried by eight attendants. The use of the ''flabella'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul I]]. The use of the ''sedia gestatoria'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul II]], being replaced by the so-called [[Popemobile]].
[[File:Holysee-arms.svg|thumb|left|The [[coat of arms]] of the Holy See. That of the State of Vatican City is the same except that the positions of the gold and silver keys are interchanged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fotw.net/flags/va).html |title=Vatican City (Holy See) - The Keys and Coat of Arms |publisher=Fotw.net |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref>]]
In [[heraldry]], each pope has his own [[Papal Coat of Arms]]. Though unique for each pope, the arms are always surmounted by the two keys in [[saltire]] (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an ''X'') behind the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] (shield) (one silver key and one gold key, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver ''triregnum'' with three gold crowns and red ''infulae'' ([[lappet]]s—two strips of fabric hanging from the back of the triregnum which fall over the neck and shoulders when worn). This is [[blazon]]ed: "two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). With the recent election of [[Benedict XVI]] in 2005, his personal coat of arms eliminated the papal tiara; a [[mitre]] with three horizontal lines is used in its place, with the pallium, a papal symbol of authority more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan [[archbishops]] as a sign of communion with the See of Rome, was added underneath of the shield. The distinctive feature of the crossed keys behind the shield was maintained. The omission of the tiara in the Pope's personal coat of arms, however, did not mean the disappearance of it from papal heraldry, since the coat of arms of the Holy See was kept unaltered.

The [[flag]] most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white [[flag of Vatican City]], with the arms of the Holy See (blazoned: "Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right-hand side (the "fly") in the white half of the flag (the left-hand side—the "hoist"—is yellow). The pope's escucheon does not appear on the flag. This flag was first adopted in 1808, whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colors of the papacy. Although Pope Benedict XVI replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, it has been retained on the flag.

==Status and authority==
{{Main|Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|Papal infallibility}}
[[File:Kruisheren uden bij paus pius xii Crosiers from Uden Holland with PiusXII.jpg|thumb|To maintain contacts with local clergymen and Catholic communities, the popes grant private audiences as well as public ones. Here the [[Canons Regular of the Holy Cross]] from [[Uden]] ([[Netherlands]]) are received by [[Pope Pius XII]].]]

===First Vatican Council===
The status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was [[dogma]]tically [[dogmatic definition|defined]] by the [[First Vatican Council]] on 18 July 1870. In its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ, the Council established the following canons:<ref>The texts of these canons are given in [[Denzinger]], [http://catho.org/9.php?d=byj#dez Latin original;] [http://www.catecheticsonline.com/SourcesofDogma19.php English translation]</ref>

"If anyone says that the blessed Apostle Peter was not established by the Lord Christ as the chief of all the [[twelve apostles|apostles]], and the visible head of the whole militant Church, or, that the same received great honour but did not receive from the same our Lord Jesus Christ directly and immediately the primacy in true and proper jurisdiction: let him be [[anathema]].<ref>Denzinger 3055 (old numbering, 1823)</ref>

If anyone says that it is not from the institution of Christ the Lord Himself, or by divine right that the blessed Peter has perpetual successors in the primacy over the universal Church, or that the Roman Pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in the same primacy, let him be anathema.<ref>Denzinger 3058 (old numbering, 1825)</ref>

If anyone thus speaks, that the Roman Pontiff has only the office of inspection or direction, but not the full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the universal Church, not only in things which pertain to faith and morals, but also in those which pertain to the discipline and government of the Church spread over the whole world; or, that he possesses only the more important parts, but not the whole plenitude of this supreme power; or that this power of his is not ordinary and immediate, or over the churches altogether and individually, and over the pastors and the faithful altogether and individually: let him be anathema.<ref>Denzinger 3064 (old numbering, 1831)</ref>

We, adhering faithfully to the tradition received from the beginning of the Christian faith, to the glory of God, our Saviour, the elevation of the Catholic religion and the salvation of Christian peoples, with the approbation of the sacred Council, teach and explain that the dogma has been divinely revealed: that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, when carrying out the duty of the pastor and teacher of all Christians by his supreme apostolic authority he defines a doctrine of faith or morals to be held by the universal Church, through the divine assistance promised him in blessed Peter, operates with that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer wished that His church be instructed in defining doctrine on faith and morals; and so such definitions of the Roman Pontiff from himself, but not from the consensus of the Church, are unalterable. But if anyone presumes to contradict this definition of Ours, which may God forbid: let him be anathema."<ref>Denzinger 3073–3075 (old numbering, 1839–1840</ref>

===Second Vatican Council===
[[File:GestatorialChair1.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Pius XII]], wearing the traditional 1877 [[Papal Tiara]], is carried through St Peter's Basilica on a [[sedia gestatoria]] circa 1955.]]
In its [[Lumen Gentium|Dogmatic Constitution on the Church]] (1964), the [[Second Vatican Council]] declared:

"Among the principal duties of bishops the preaching of the Gospel occupies an eminent place. For bishops are preachers of the faith, who lead new disciples to Christ, and they are authentic teachers, that is, teachers endowed with the authority of Christ, who preach to the people committed to them the faith they must believe and put into practice, and by the light of the Holy Spirit illustrate that faith. They bring forth from the treasury of Revelation new things and old, making it bear fruit and vigilantly warding off any errors that threaten their flock. Bishops, teaching in communion with the Roman Pontiff, are to be respected by all as witnesses to divine and Catholic truth. In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of Christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. This religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra; that is, it must be shown so that his supreme magisterium is acknowledged with reverence, the judgments made by him are sincerely adhered to, according to his manifest mind and will. His mind and will in the matter may be known either from the character of the documents, from his frequent repetition of the same doctrine, or from his manner of speaking.

... this infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer willed His Church to be endowed in defining doctrine of faith and morals, extends as far as the deposit of Revelation extends, which must be religiously guarded and faithfully expounded. And this is the infallibility which the Roman Pontiff, the head of the college of bishops, enjoys in virtue of his office, when, as the supreme shepherd and teacher of all the faithful, who confirms his brethren in their faith, by a definitive act he proclaims a doctrine of faith or morals. And therefore his definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are justly styled irreformable, since they are pronounced with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, promised to him in blessed Peter, and therefore they need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment. For then the Roman Pontiff is not pronouncing judgment as a private person, but as the supreme teacher of the universal Church, in whom the charism of infallibility of the Church itself is individually present, he is expounding or defending a doctrine of Catholic faith. The infallibility promised to the Church resides also in the body of Bishops, when that body exercises the supreme magisterium with the successor of Peter. To these definitions the assent of the Church can never be wanting, on account of the activity of that same Holy Spirit, by which the whole flock of Christ is preserved and progresses in unity of faith."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |title=''Lumen gentium'', 25 |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref>

==Politics of the Holy See==
{{ Politics of the Holy See}}
[[File:433px-Pope Pius VII.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Pius VII]], bishop of Rome, next to [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Caprara. The Pope wears the [[pallium]], a liturgical [[vestment]] that is used [[heraldry|heraldically]] at the foot of the coat of arms of [[Benedict XVI]].]]

===Residence and jurisdiction===
The pope's [[cathedra|official seat]] or [[cathedral]] is the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]], and his official residence is the [[Palace of the Vatican]]. He also possesses a summer residence at [[Castel Gandolfo]], situated on the site of the ancient city of [[Alba Longa]]. Until the time of the [[Avignon Papacy]], the residence of the Pope was the [[Lateran Palace]], donated by the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]].

The Pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the [[Holy See]]) is distinct from his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City). It is the Holy See that conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the papal court (the [[Roman Curia]]) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church.

The names "Holy See" and "Apostolic See" are ecclesiastical terminology for the [[ordinary jurisdiction]] of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the [[Twelve apostles|Apostle]] [[Saint Peter]] (see [[Apostolic Succession]]). Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives his pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ''ubi Papa, ibi Curia'', wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the popes lived in [[Avignon]], France (see [[Avignon Papacy]]), a period often called the [[Babylonian Captivity]] in allusion to the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[exile]] of [[Israel]].

Though the Pope is the diocesan Bishop of the [[Diocese of Rome]], he delegates most of the day-to-day work of leading the diocese to the [[Cardinal Vicar]], who assures direct episcopal oversight of the diocese's pastoral needs, not in his own name but in that of the Pope. The current Cardinal Vicar is [[Agostino Vallini]], who was appointed to the office in June 2008.

===Political role===
{{Main|Politics of the Vatican City}}
{{Infobox sovereignofvatican
|body = Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City
|insignia = Coat of arms of the Vatican City.svg
|insigniasize = 120px
|insigniacaption = Coat of Arms of the Vatican
|image = BentoXVI-28-10052007.jpg
|incumbent = [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]]
|style = [[His Holiness]]
|residence = [[Papal Palace]]
|firstsovereign = [[Pope Pius XI]]
|formation = 11 February 1929
|website = http://www.va
}}
[[File:PapalPolitics2.JPG|left|thumb|''Antichristus'', a woodcut by Lucas Cranach of the pope using the temporal power to grant authority to a generously contributing ruler]]

Though the progressive [[Christianization|Christianisation]] of the [[Roman Empire]] in the 4th century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the pope the senior imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil ruler was vividly displayed by [[Pope Leo I]]'s confrontation with [[Attila]] in 452. The first expansion of papal rule outside of Rome came in 728 with the [[Donation of Sutri]], which in turn was substantially increased in 754, when the [[Frankish people|Frankish]] ruler [[Pippin the Younger]] gave to the pope the land from his conquest of the [[Lombards]]. The pope may have utilized the forged [[Donation of Constantine]] to gain this land, which formed the core of the [[Papal States]]. This document, accepted as genuine until the 15th century, states that [[Constantine I]] placed the entire Western Empire of Rome under papal rule. In 800 [[Pope Leo III]] [[coronation|crowned]] the Frankish ruler [[Charlemagne]] as [[Roman Emperor]], a major step toward establishing what later became known as the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; from that date onward the popes claimed the prerogative to crown the Emperor, though the right fell into disuse after the coronation of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in 1530. [[Pope Pius VII]] was present at the coronation of [[Napoleon I]] in 1804, but did not actually perform the crowning. As mentioned above, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by [[Italy]].

Popes like [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]], an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politician, and [[Pope Julius II]], a formidable general and statesman, were not afraid to use power to achieve their own ends, which included increasing the power of the papacy. This political and temporal authority was demonstrated through the papal role in the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of [[Pope Gregory VII]] and [[Pope Alexander III]]). [[Papal bull]]s, [[Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)|interdict]], and [[excommunication]] (or the threat thereof) have been used many times to increase papal power. The Bull ''[[Laudabiliter]]'' in 1155 authorized [[Henry II of England]] to invade [[Ireland]]. In 1207, [[Innocent III]] placed England under interdict until [[John of England|King John]] made his kingdom a [[fiefdom]] to the Pope, complete with yearly [[tribute]], saying, "we offer and freely yield...to our lord Pope Innocent III and his catholic successors, the whole kingdom of England and the whole kingdom of Ireland with all their rights and appurtenences for the remission of our sins".<ref>Quoted from the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html Medieval Sourcebook]</ref> The Bull ''[[Inter caetera]]'' in 1493 led to the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in 1494, which divided the world into areas of [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule. The Bull ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'' in 1570 excommunicated [[Elizabeth I of England]] and declared that all her subjects were released from all allegiance to her. The Bull ''[[Inter Gravissimas]]'' in 1582 established the [[Gregorian Calendar]].<ref>See [http://tera-3.ul.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/getImage.pl?target=/data/www/NASD/4a7f1db4-5792-415c-be79-266f41eef20a/009/499/PTIFF/00000673.tif&rs=2 selection from ''Concordia Cyclopedia'': Roman Catholic Church, History of]</ref>

===International position===
Under international law, a serving [[head of state]] has [[sovereign immunity]] from the jurisdiction of the courts of other countries, though not from that of international tribunals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crimesofwar.org/onnews/news-darfur9.html |title=Anthony Dworkin and Katherine Iliopoulos, ''The International Criminal Court, Bashir, and the Immunity of Heads of State'' |publisher=Crimesofwar.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Law |first=International |url=http://gabrielsawma.blogspot.com/2006_01_01_archive.html |title=Gabriel Sawma, ''The Immunity of Heads of State under International Law'' |publisher=Gabrielsawma.blogspot.com |date=2006-01-17 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref><ref>[http://books.google.ie/books?id=fZNZ7r4hYL8C&dq=%22head+of+state%22+%22diplomatic+immunity%22&source=gbs_navlinks_s Yitiha Simbeye, ''Immunity and International Criminal Law''], p. 94</ref> This immunity is sometimes loosely referred to as "[[diplomatic immunity]]," which is, strictly speaking, the immunity enjoyed by the ''diplomatic representatives'' of a head of state.

International law treats the [[Holy See]], essentially the central government of the Roman Catholic Church, as the juridical equal of a state. It is distinct from the state of [[Vatican City]], existing for many centuries before the foundation of the latter. (It is common, however, for publications to use "Holy See," "Vatican/Vatican City," and even "Rome" interchangeably, and incorrectly.) Most countries of the world maintain the same form of diplomatic relations with the Holy See that they entertain with other states. Even countries without those diplomatic relations participate in international organizations of which the Holy See is a full member.

It is as head of the Holy See, not of Vatican City, that the [[U.S. Justice Department]] ruled that the Pope enjoys head-of-state immunity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,169909,00.html |title=U.S. Says Pope Immune From Molestation Lawsuit, 2005 |publisher=Fox News |date=2005-09-20 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> This head-of-state immunity, recognized by the United States, must be distinguished from that envisaged under the United States' [[Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act]] of 1976, which, while recognizing the basic immunity of foreign governments from being sued in American courts, lays down nine exceptions, including commercial activity and actions in the United States by agents or employees of the foreign governments. It was in relation to the latter that, in November 2008, the [[United States Court of Appeals]] in [[Cincinnati]] decided that a case over [[Catholic sex abuse cases|sexual abuse by Catholic priests]] could proceed, provided the plaintiffs could prove that the bishops accused of negligent supervision were acting as employees or agents of the Holy See and were following official Holy See policy.<ref>Allen, John L. [http://ncronline.org/news/autonomy-bishops-and-suing-vatican The autonomy of bishops, and suing the Vatican] [http://www.sexualabuseclaimsblog.com/2008/11/vatican_can_be_sued_for_priest_sexual_abuse_us_court_of_appeals.html Vatican Can Be Sued For Priest Sexual Abuse: U.S. Court of Appeals, November 2008]</ref><ref>[http://www.wcpo.com/news/local/story/Vatican-Offers-3-Reasons-Its-Not-Liable-For-Abuse/cE1c175KyU-PAUuu_-8Oew.cspx NICOLE WINFIELD, Associated Press Writer: Vatican Offers 3 Reasons It's Not Liable For Abuse, 30 March 2010]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref>

In April 2010 there was press coverage in Britain concerning a proposed plan by [[atheist]] campaigners and a prominent [[barrister]] to have Pope Benedict XVI arrested and prosecuted in the UK for alleged offences, dating from several decades before, in failing to take appropriate action regarding Catholic sex abuse cases and concerning their disputing his immunity from prosecution in that country.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article7094310.ece The Sunday Times newspaper: Richard Dawkins calls for arrest of Pope Benedict XVI on UK visit, 11 April 2010]{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> This was generally dismissed as "unrealistic and spurious".<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article7096506.ece The Times: Is the Holy See above the Law?]{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> Another barrister said that it was a "matter of embarrassment that a senior British lawyer would want to allow himself to be associated with such a silly idea".<ref name=Zenit>[http://zenit.org/article-28914?l=english [[Zenit News Agency]], 15 April 2010: Arrest the Pope?]</ref>

==Objections to the papacy==
[[File:Antichrist1.jpg|thumb|''Antichristus'', by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], from Luther's 1521 ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. The Pope is signing and selling [[indulgence]]s.]]

The Pope's claim to authority is either disputed or not recognised at all by other churches. The reasons for these objections differ from denomination to denomination.

===Orthodox, Anglican and Old Catholic churches===
Some Christian churches ([[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Old Catholic Church]], the [[Anglican Communion]], the [[Independent Catholic Churches]], etc.) accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]] and, to varying extents, papal claims to a primacy of honour while generally rejecting that the pope is the successor to Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop. Primacy is regarded as a consequence of the pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the [[Roman Empire]], a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th [[canon law|canon]] of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. These churches see no foundation to papal claims of ''universal immediate jurisdiction'', or to claims of [[papal infallibility]]. Several of these churches refer to such claims as ''[[ultramontanism]]''.

===Protestant denominations===
{{Main|Historicism (Christian eschatology)}}
Many Christian denominations reject the claims of [[Primacy of Simon Peter|Petrine primacy]] of honor, Petrine primacy of jurisdiction, and papal infallibility. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the Pope's claim to authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the Pope is the [[Antichrist]]<ref>'Therefore on the basis of a renewed study of the pertinent Scriptures we reaffirm the statement of the Lutheran Confessions, that “the Pope is the very Antichrist”' from [http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?2617&collectionID=795&contentID=4441&shortcutID=5297 Statement on the Antichrist], from the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]], also [http://www.ianpaisley.org/antichrist.asp The Pope is the Antichrist]</ref> from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579 |title=Brief Statement |publisher=Lcms.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> the [[Man of Sin]] from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thessalonians 2:3-12],<ref>See Kretzmann's [http://www.kretzmannproject.org/EP_MINOR/2TH_2.htm ''Popular Commentary''], 2 Thessalonians chapter two and [http://www.wlsessays.net/authors/IJ/JeskeThessalonians/JeskeThessalonians.PDF An Exegesis of 2 Thessalonians 2:1-10]{{dead link|date=November 2010}} by Mark Jeske</ref> and the [[The Beast (Bible)|Beast out of the Earth]] from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2013:11-18;&version=9; Revelation 13:11-18].<ref>See See Kretzmann's [http://www.kretzmannproject.org/REV/REV_13.htm ''Popular Commentary''], Revelation Chapter 13</ref> The sweeping rejection includes some denominations of Lutherans: [[Confessional Lutheran]]s hold that the pope is the Antichrist, stating that this article of faith is part of a ''quia'' rather than ''quatenus'' subscription to the [[Book of Concord]]. In 1932, the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]] (LCMS) adopted ''A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod'', which a small number of Lutheran church bodies now hold.<ref>The [[Lutheran Churches of the Reformation]][http://www.lcrusa.org/brief_statement.htm]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}, the [[Concordia Lutheran Conference]][http://www.concordialutheranconf.com/clc/doctrine/brief_1932.cfm]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}, the [[Church of the Lutheran Confession]][http://clclutheran.org/library/BriefStatement.html], and the Illinois Lutheran Conference [http://www.illinoislutheranconference.org/our-solid-foundation/doctrinal-position-of-the-ilc.lwp/odyframe.htm] all hold to ''Brief Statement'', which the LCMS adopted in 1932 and places in the [http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579 LCMS.org website]</ref> Statement 43, ''Of the Antichrist'':<ref>Online at [http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579 Of the Antichrist]</ref>

[[File:ChristWashingFeet.JPG|thumb|''Christus'', by Lucas Cranach. This woodcut of John 13:14–17 is from ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. Cranach shows Jesus kissing Peter's foot during the footwashing. This stands in contrast to the opposing woodcut, where the Pope demands others kiss his feet.]]
[[File:PopeKissing Feet.JPG|thumb|left|''Antichristus'', by the Lutheran [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]. This woodcut of the traditional practice of kissing the Pope's toe is from ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. The two fingers the Pope is holding up symbolizes his claim to be the Church's substitute for Christ's earthly presence.]]

<blockquote>43. As to the Antichrist we teach that the prophecies of the Holy Scriptures concerning the Antichrist, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thess.%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thess. 2:3-12];[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18], have been fulfilled in the Pope of Rome and his dominion. All the features of the Antichrist as drawn in these prophecies, including the most abominable and horrible ones, for example, that the Antichrist "as God sitteth in the temple of God," [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thess.%202:4;&version=9; 2 Thess. 2:4]; that he anathematizes the very heart of the Gospel of Christ, that is, the doctrine of the forgiveness of sins by grace alone, for Christ's sake alone, through faith alone, without any merit or worthiness in man ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rom.%203:20-28;&version=9; Rom. 3:20-28]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Gal.%202:16;&version=9; Gal. 2:16]); that he recognizes only those as members of the Christian Church who bow to his authority; and that, like a deluge, he had inundated the whole Church with his antichristian doctrines till God revealed him through the Reformation—these very features are the outstanding characteristics of the Papacy. (Cf. [http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Triglot, p. 515, Paragraphs 39-41; p. 401, Paragraph 45; M. pp. 336, 258.]) Hence we subscribe to the statement of our Confessions that the Pope is "the very Antichrist." ([http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Triglot, p. 475, Paragraph 10; M., p. 308.])</blockquote>

The claim of temporal power over all secular governments, including territorial claims in Italy, raises objection.<ref>See the [http://books.google.com/books?id=Zr3lGJei6fkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r#PPA168,M1 Baltimore Catechism] on the temporal power of the pope over governments and Innocent III's [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html Letter to the prefect Acerbius and the nobles of Tuscany]. For objection to this, see the [http://www.archive.org/details/concordiacyclope009499mbp Concordia Cyclopedia], p.564 and 750</ref> The papacy's complex relationship with secular states such as the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Empires are also objections. Some disapprove of the autocratic character of the papal office.<ref>See Luther, [http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Article four]</ref> In [[Western Christianity]] these objections both contributed to and are products of the [[Protestant Reformation]].

==Antipopes==
{{Main|Antipope|Western Schism}}
Groups sometimes form around [[antipope]]s, who claim the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it.

Traditionally, this term was reserved for claimants with a significant following of cardinals or other clergy. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church ([[heresy]]) or to confusion as to who is the legitimate pope at the time (see schism). Briefly in the 15th century, three separate lines of Popes claimed authenticity (see [[Western Schism|Papal Schism]]). Even Catholics don't all agree whether certain historical figures were Popes or antipopes. Though antipope movements were significant at one time, they are now overwhelmingly minor fringe causes.

==Other popes==
In the earlier centuries of Christianity, the title "Pope," meaning "father," had been used by all bishops. Some popes used the term and others didn't. Eventually, the title became associated especially with the Bishop of Rome. In a few cases, the term is used for other Christian clerical authorities.

===In the Roman Catholic Church===
The "Black Pope" is a name that was popularly, but unofficially, given to the [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus]] due to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits']] importance within the Church. This name, based on the black colour of his cassock, was used to suggest a parallel between him and the "White Pope" (since the time of [[Pope Pius V]] the Popes dress in white) and the Cardinal Prefect of the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]] (formerly called the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith), whose red cardinal's cassock gave him the name of the "Red Pope" in view of the authority over all territories that were not considered in some way Catholic. In the present time this cardinal has power over mission territories for Catholicism, essentially the Churches of Africa and Asia,<ref name = "Magister">[http://www.chiesa.espressonline.it/dettaglio.jsp?id=7049&eng=ylink Sandro Magister], Espresso Online.</ref> but in the past his competence extended also to all lands where [[Protestantism|Protestants]] or [[Eastern Christianity]] was dominant. Some remnants of this situation remain, with the result that, for instance, [[New Zealand]] is still in the care of this Congregation.

===In the Eastern Churches===
Since the papacy of [[Heraclas]] in the 3rd century, the [[Metropolitan Archbishop|Bishop]] of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]] in both the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] continue to be called "Pope", the former being called "Coptic Pope" or, more properly, "[[Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Pope and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle]]" and the last called "[[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria|Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa]]".

In the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a "pope" ("поп" ''pop''). However, this should be differentiated from the words used for the head of the Catholic Church (Bulgarian "папа" ''papa'', Russian "папа римский" ''papa rimskiy'').

===In New Religious Movements===
Some [[New religious movement|New Religious Movements]], especially those that have disassociated themselves from the Catholic Church yet retain a Catholic hierarchical framework, will use the designation "Pope" for a movement's founder or current leader. One example in Africa is the [[Legio Maria|Legio Maria Church of Africa]].

==Lengths of papal reign==
{{See also|List of popes by length of reign}}

===Longest-reigning popes===
[[File:Popepiusix.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Pius IX]], the longest-reigning pope excluding Saint Peter]]
Although the average reign of the pope from the [[Middle Ages]] was a decade, a number of those whose reign lengths can be determined from contemporary historical data are the following:
# [[Pope Pius IX|Pius IX]] (1846–1878): 31 years, 7 months and 23 days (11,560 days).
# [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] (1978–2005): 26 years, 5 months and 18 days (9,665 days).
# [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] (1878–1903): 25 years, 5 months and 1 day (9,281 days).
# [[Pope Pius VI|Pius VI]] (1775–1799): 24 years, 6 months and 15 days (8,962 days).
# [[Pope Adrian I|Adrian I]] (772–795): 23 years, 10 months and 25 days (8,729 days).
# [[Pope Pius VII|Pius VII]] (1800–1823): 23 years, 5 months and 7 days (8,560 days).
# [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]] (1159–1181): 21 years, 11 months and 24 days (8,029 days).
# [[Pope Sylvester I|St. Sylvester I]] (314–335): 21 years, 11 months and 1 day (8,005 days).
# [[Pope Leo I|St. Leo I]] (440–461): 21 years, 1 month, and 13 days. (7,713 days).
# [[Pope Urban VIII|Urban VIII]] (1623–1644): 20 years, 11 months and 24 days (7,664 days).

[[Saint Peter]] is thought to have reigned for over 30 years (AD 29 – 64?/67?), but the exact length is not reliably known.

===Shortest-reigning popes===
[[File:urban3355.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Urban VII]], the shortest-reigning pope]]

Conversely, there have been a number of popes whose reign lasted less than a month. In the following list the number of calendar days includes partial days. Thus, for example, if a pope's reign commenced on 1 August and he died on 2 August, this would count as having reigned for two calendar days.
#[[Pope Urban VII|Urban VII]] (15–27 September 1590): reigned for 13 calendar days, died before [[coronation]].
#[[Pope Boniface VI|Boniface VI]] (April 896): reigned for 16 calendar days
#[[Pope Celestine IV|Celestine IV]] (25 October – 10 November 1241): reigned for 17 calendar days, died before consecration.
#[[Pope Theodore II|Theodore II]] (December 897): reigned for 20 calendar days
#[[Pope Sisinnius|Sisinnius]] (15 January – 4 February 708): reigned for 21 calendar days
#[[Pope Marcellus II|Marcellus II]] (9 April – 1 May 1555): reigned for 22 calendar days
#[[Pope Damasus II|Damasus II]] (17 July – 9 August 1048): reigned for 24 calendar days
#[[Pope Pius III|Pius III]] (22 September – 18 October 1503): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Leo XI|Leo XI]] (1–27 April 1605): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Benedict V|Benedict V]] (22 May – 23 June 964): reigned for 33 calendar days
#[[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]] (26 August – 28 September 1978): reigned for 33 calendar days.

Note: [[Pope-elect Stephen|Stephen]] (23 March – 26 March 752), died of [[apoplexy]] 3 days after his election, and before his [[consecration]] as a bishop. He is not recognized as a valid Pope, but was added to the lists of popes in the 15th century as ''Stephen II'', causing difficulties in enumerating later Popes named Stephen. He was removed in 1961 from the [[Vatican City|Vatican's]] [[List of Popes|list]] (see "[[Pope-elect Stephen]]" for detailed explanation).

==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
* [[Caesaropapism]]
* [[History of the Papacy]]
* [[Investiture Controversy]]
* [[Leaders of Christianity]]
* [[Legends surrounding the papacy]]
* [[List of African popes]]
* [[List of canonised popes]]
* [[List of French popes]]
* [[List of German popes]]
* [[List of names of popes]]
{{Col-3}}
* [[List of popes]]
* [[List of popes by length of reign]]
* [[List of popes (graphical)]]
* [[Papal Coronation]]
* [[Papal Inauguration]]
* [[Papal regalia and insignia]]
* [[Papal Slippers]]
* [[Pontiff]]
* [[Prophecy of the Popes]]
* [[Sedevacantism]]
{{Col-3}}
{{Portal box|Christianity|Catholicism| Pope }}
{{Col-end}}

==References==
;Notes
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

;Footnotes
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

;Bibliography
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|title=One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief|last=Barry|first=Rev. Msgr. John F|year=2001|[[Nihil obstat]], [[Imprimatur]]|publisher=Gerard F. Baumbach, Ed.D|isbn=0-8215-2207-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=A Concise History of the Catholic Church|last=Bokenkotter|first=Thomas|year=2004|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=0385505841|ref=harv}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Chadwick|first=Henry|authorlink=Henry Chadwick (theologian)|editor=John McManners|encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity|title=The Early Christian Community|year=1990|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0198229283|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes|last=Duffy|first=Eamon|authorlink=Eamon Duffy|year=1997|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-3000-7332-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Franzen|first=August|coauthors=John Dolan|title=A History of the Church|publisher=Herder and Herder|year=1969|ref=harv}}
* Hartmann Grisar (1845–1932), ''History of Rome and the Popes in the Middle Ages'', AMS Press; Reprint edition (1912). ISBN 0-404-09370-1
* {{cite book|last=Kelly|first=J. N.|title=Oxford Dictionary of the Popes|year=1986|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn=9780191909351|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=The Catholic Church: A Short History|last=Kung|first=Hans|authorlink=Hans Kung|year=2003|publisher=Random House|isbn=9780812967623|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |author=Loomis, Louise Ropes |title=The Book of the Popes (Liber Pontificalis): To the Pontificate of Gregory I |location=[[Evolution Publishing]] |publisher=[[Merchantville, NJ]] |year=2006 |isbn=1-889758-86-8}}. Reprint of an English translation originally published in 1916.
* [[Ludwig von Pastor]], ''History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the [[Vatican Secret Archives|Secret Archives of the Vatican]] and other original sources'', 40 vols. St. Louis, B. Herder 1898 – ([http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/b92040657d7c02f6.html World Cat entry])
* {{cite book|last=Noble|first=Thomas|coauthors=Strauss, Barry|title=Western Civilization|year=2005|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|isbn=0618432779|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=A Short History of the Catholic Church|last=Orlandis|first=Jose|authorlink=Jose Orlandis|year=1993|publisher=Scepter Publishers|isbn=1851821252|ref=harv}}
* [[James Joseph Walsh]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC22760194&id=B-cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22popes+and+science%22 ''The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time''], Fordam University Press, 1908, reprinted 2003, Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3646-9
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* Brusher, Joseph H. ''Popes Through The Ages''. Princeton: D. Van Nostland Company, Inc., 1959.
* Chamberlin, E.R. ''The Bad Popes''. 1969. Reprint: Barnes and Noble, 1993. ISBN 978-0-88029-116-3.
* Dollison, John ''Pope-pourri''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. ISBN 978-0-671-88615-8.
* Kelly, J.N.D. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Popes''. Oxford: University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-19-213964-9.
* Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. ''Chronicle of the Popes: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St. Peter to the Present; with 308 Illustrations, 105 in Color''. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997. ISBN 0-500-01798-0.
* [[John Julius Norwich|Norwich, John Julius]]. ''The Popes: a History''. [[Chatto]], 2011.

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
* [http://kolonisera.rymden.nu/pope/popes.php?l=1 Pope Endurance League - Sortable list of Popes]
* [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_01_Magisterium_Paparum.html Data Base of more than 23,000 documents of the Popes in latin and modern languages]
* [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm The Holy See - The Holy Father]—website for the past and present Holy Fathers (since [[Pope Leo XIII]])
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/441722/papacy "papacy."] Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
* [http://www.catholic.com/library/Origins_of_Peter_as_Pope.asp Origins of Peter as Pope]
* [http://www.catholic.com/library/Authority_of_the_Pope_Part_1.asp The Authority of the Pope: Part I]
* [http://www.catholic.com/library/Authority_of_the_Pope_Part_2.asp The Authority of the Pope: Part II]

{{Popes}}
{{Papal symbols and ceremonial}}
{{Vatican City topics}}
{{Catholicism}}
{{Christianityfooter}}
{{Europe heads of state and government}}

[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Roman Catholicism]]
[[Category:Holy See| ]]
[[Category:Popes| ]]
[[Category:Religious leadership roles]]

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[[af:Pous]]
[[als:Papst]]
[[ang:Pāpa]]
[[ar:بابوية كاثوليكية]]
[[an:Papa]]
[[arc:ܦܐܦܐ]]
[[roa-rup:Papa]]
[[ast:Papa]]
[[az:Papa]]
[[bn:পোপ]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kàu-chong]]
[[be:Папства]]
[[be-x-old:Папа]]
[[bar:Papst]]
[[bs:Papa]]
[[br:Pab]]
[[bg:Папа]]
[[ca:Papa]]
[[cv:Рим паппи]]
[[ceb:Papa]]
[[cs:Papež]]
[[co:Papa]]
[[cy:Pab]]
[[da:Pave]]
[[pdc:Baapscht]]
[[de:Papst]]
[[et:Paavst]]
[[el:Πάπας]]
[[eml:Papa]]
[[es:Papa]]
[[eo:Papo]]
[[eu:Aita Santua]]
[[fa:پاپ]]
[[fr:Pape]]
[[fy:Paus]]
[[ga:Pápa]]
[[gd:Pàp]]
[[gl:Papa]]
[[ko:교황]]
[[hy:Հռոմի Պապ]]
[[hi:पोप]]
[[hr:Papa]]
[[io:Papo]]
[[id:Paus (Katolik Roma)]]
[[ia:Papa]]
[[ie:Pápa]]
[[is:Páfi]]
[[it:Papa]]
[[he:אפיפיור]]
[[jv:Paus]]
[[kn:ಪೋಪ್]]
[[ka:რომის პაპი]]
[[kw:Pab]]
[[sw:Papa]]
[[ku:Papa]]
[[la:Papa]]
[[lv:Romas pāvests]]
[[lb:Poopst]]
[[lt:Popiežius]]
[[li:Paus]]
[[ln:Pápa]]
[[lmo:Papa]]
[[hu:Pápa (egyházfő)]]
[[mk:Папа]]
[[ml:മാർപ്പാപ്പ]]
[[mr:पोप]]
[[arz:بابا الفاتيكان]]
[[ms:Paus (Katolik)]]
[[mwl:Papa]]
[[nah:Huēyiteōpixcātlahtoāni]]
[[nl:Paus]]
[[nds-nl:Paus]]
[[ja:教皇]]
[[nap:Papa]]
[[no:Pave]]
[[nn:Pave]]
[[nrm:Pape]]
[[oc:Papa]]
[[tpi:Pop]]
[[nds:Paapst]]
[[pl:Papież]]
[[pt:Papa]]
[[ro:Papă]]
[[qu:Tayta Papa]]
[[ru:Папство]]
[[sc:Paba]]
[[sco:Pape]]
[[sq:Papa]]
[[scn:Papa]]
[[simple:Pope]]
[[sk:Pápež]]
[[sl:Papež]]
[[szl:Papjyż]]
[[sr:Папа]]
[[sh:Papa]]
[[fi:Paavi]]
[[sv:Påve]]
[[tl:Papa]]
[[ta:திருத்தந்தை]]
[[te:పోప్]]
[[th:พระสันตะปาปา]]
[[tr:Papa]]
[[uk:Папа Римський]]
[[ur:پوپ]]
[[vec:Papa]]
[[vi:Giáo hoàng]]
[[fiu-vro:Paast (Rooma)]]
[[wa:Påpe]]
[[vls:Paus]]
[[war:Papa]]
[[yi:פויבסט]]
[[yo:Pópù]]
[[zh-yue:教宗]]
[[bat-smg:Puopėžios]]
[[zh:教宗]]