Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Sarah Emma Edmonds

2014-03-28T15:45:44Z

Keithh: unnecessary spacing removed - Undid revision 601583631 by 68.7.173.53 (talk)

{{Infobox military person
|name= '''Sarah Emma Edmonds'''
|birth_date= December 1841
|death_date= September 5, 1898 (age 56)
|birth_place= [[Magaguadavic, New Brunswick|Magaguadavic]], [[New Brunswick|Colony of New Brunswick]]
|death_place= [[La Porte, Texas|La Porte]], [[Texas]], [[United States|U.S.]]
|placeofburial=Washington Cemetery [[Houston]], [[Texas]]
|placeofburial_label= Place of burial
|image= Sarah Edmonds lg sepia.jpg
|caption= Edmonds as Franklin Thompson
|nickname=Franklin Thompson
|allegiance= {{Flagicon|USA}} [[United States|United States of America]] [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]
|branch={{Flagicon|USA|army}} [[Union Army]]
|serviceyears=1861-1863
|rank= Private
|commands=
|unit= {{Flagicon|Michigan}} [[2nd Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment|2nd Michigan Volunteer Infantry]]
|battles= '''[[American Civil War]]'''
|awards=
|laterwork=
}}
'''Sarah Emma Edmonds''' (December 1841<ref>Eggleston, Larry G. (2003). Women in the Civil War: Extraordinary Stories of Soldiers, Spies, Nurses, Doctors, Crusaders, and Others. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 0786414936, page 23</ref> – September 5, 1898<ref>Eggleston, Larry G. (2003). Women in the Civil War: Extraordinary Stories of Soldiers, Spies, Nurses, Doctors, Crusaders, and Others. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 0786414936, page 30</ref>), was a [[Canadian]]-born woman who is known for serving as a man with the [[Union Army]] during the [[American Civil War]]. A master of disguise, Edmonds exploits were described in the bestselling ''Nurse and Spy in the Union Army''. In 1992 she was inducted into the [[Michigan Women's Hall of Fame]].

==Biography==
Sarah Emma Edmonds had always been adventurous and her interest in adventure was sparked by a book she read in her youth called ''Fanny Campbell, the Female Pirate Captain'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Ballou|first=Maturin Murray|title=Fanny Campbell, the female pirate captain : a tale of the revolution|year=1845|publisher=F. Gleason|location=Boston}}</ref> telling the story of Fanny Campbell and her adventures on a pirate ship while dressed as a man. Fanny remained dressed as a man in order to pursue other adventures, which Edmonds attributes to her desire to [[cross dress]]. During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], she enlisted in the [[2nd Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment|2nd Michigan Infantry]] on her second try, disguising herself as a man named "Franklin Flint Thompson," the middle name possibly after the city she volunteered in, [[Flint, Michigan]]. She felt that it was her duty to serve her country and it was truly patriotic. Extensive [[physical examinations]] were not required for [[enlistment]] at the time, and she was not discovered.<ref>Eggleston, Larry G. (2003). Women in the Civil War: Extraordinary Stories of Soldiers, Spies, Nurses, Doctors, Crusaders, and Others. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 0786414936, page 25.</ref> She at first served as a male field [[nurse]], participating in several campaigns under [[General McClellan]], including the [[First Battle of Bull Run|First]] and [[Second Battle of Bull Run]], [[Battle of Antietam|Antietam]], the [[Peninsula Campaign]], [[Siege of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]], and others. However, some historians today say she could not have been at all these different places at the same time.

Frank Thompson's career took a turn before the war when a Union spy in Richmond, Virginia was discovered and went before a [[firing squad]], and a friend, James Vesey, was killed in an ambush. She took advantage of the open spot and the opportunity to avenge her friend's death. She applied for, and won, the position as Franklin Thompson. Although there is no proof in her military records that she actually served as a spy, she wrote extensively about her experiences disguised as a spy during the war.<ref name=Tsui>Tsui, Bonnie. Emma received very little education or nurturing. She started to act as a man early in her life. ''She Went to the Field: Women Soldiers of the Civil War.''</ref>

Traveling into enemy territory in order to gather information required Emma to come up with many disguises. One disguise required Edmonds to use [[silver nitrate]] to dye her skin black, wear a black wig, and walk into the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] disguised as a black man by the name of Cuff. Another time she entered as an Irish peddler woman by the name of Bridget O'Shea, claiming that she was selling apples and soap to the soldiers. Yet another time she was "working for the Confederates" as a black laundress when a packet of official papers fell out of an officer's jacket. When Thompson returned to the Union with the papers, the generals were delighted. Another time, she worked as a detective in Maryland as Charles Mayberry, finding an agent for the Confederacy.

Edmonds' career as Frank Thompson came to an end when she contracted malaria. She abandoned her duty in the military, fearing that if she went to a military [[hospital]] she would be discovered. She checked herself into a private hospital, intending to return to military life once she had recuperated. Once she recovered, however, she saw posters listing Frank Thompson as a deserter. Rather than return to the army under another alias or as Frank Thompson, risking execution for desertion, she decided to serve as a female nurse at a [[Washington, D.C.]] hospital for wounded soldiers run by the [[United States Christian Commission]]. There was speculation that Edmonds may have deserted because of John Reid having been discharged months earlier. There is evidence in his diary that she had mentioned leaving before she had contracted malaria. Her fellow soldiers spoke highly of her military service, and even after her disguise was discovered, was considered a good soldier. She was referred to as a fearless soldier and was active in every battle her regiment faced.<ref name=Tsui /><ref>Eggleston, Larry G. (2003). Women in the Civil War: Extraordinary Stories of Soldiers, Spies, Nurses, Doctors, Crusaders, and Others. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 0786414936, page 29.</ref>

In 1864 Boston publisher DeWolfe, Fiske, & Co. published Edmonds' account of her military experiences as ''The Female Spy of the Union Army''. One year later her story was picked up by a Hartford, CT publisher who issued it with a new title, ''Nurse and Spy in the Union Army''. It was a huge success, selling in excess of 175,000 copies. In 1867, she married L. H. Seelye, a Canadian mechanic, with whom she had three children.<ref name="archives.gov">{{cite journal|url=http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1993/spring/women-in-the-civil-war-2.html|work=[[Prologue (magazine)|Prologue Magazine]]: Selected Articles|date=Spring 1993|volume=25|issue=1|title=Women Soldiers of the Civil War, Part 2|author=DeAnne Blanton}}</ref> In 1886,<ref name="archives.gov"/> she received a government [[pension]] of $12 a month for her military service, and after some campaigning, was able to have the charge of desertion dropped, and receive an honorable discharge. In 1897, she became the only woman admitted to the [[Grand Army of the Republic]], the Civil War Union Army veterans' organization. Edmonds died in [[La Porte, Texas]], and is buried in the GAR section of Washington Cemetery in [[Houston]].

She was inducted into the [[Michigan Women's Hall of Fame]] in 1992.<ref>[http://hall.michiganwomen.org/honoree.php?C=0&A=85~261~181~134~111~71~45~121~95 Sarah Emma Edmonds: Michigan Women's Hall of Fame page]</ref>

Edmonds' book was reprinted again in 1999 with a new title, ''Memoirs of a Soldier, Nurse and Spy.''

==See also==
{{portal|American Civil War}}
*[[List of wartime cross-dressers]]

==References==
===Books===
*''[[Girl in Blue]]'' by [[Ann Rinaldi]]
*''[[Behind Rebel Lines]]'' by [[Seymour Reit]]
*''[[Petticoat Spies]]'' by [[Peggy Caravantes]]
* ''All the Daring of the Soldier: Women of the Civil War Armies'' by Elizabeth D. Leonard
* '' A Soldier's Secret: The incredible true story of Sarah Edmonds, a Civil War Hero'' by Marissa Moss
* ''Girl, soldier and spy: Sarah Emma Edmunds'', by Mary Duprey Hoehling (1959) A young adult novel.

===Theatre===
*''[[Pistols and Petticoats: Shadows of Sarah Emma Edmonds]]'' by Emily Bossé, Jean-Michel Cliche, Thomas Fanjoy, Jake Martin, Lisa Anne Ross and Julia Whalen, produced in 2011 by the Next Folding Theatre Company.<ref>http://nextfolding.ca/productions.html</ref>
*"The Secret War of Emma Edmonds," an original play by Bonnie Milne Gardner, produced 2013 at Ohio Wesleyan University
*"Comrades Mine: Emma Edmonds of the Union Army" by Maureen Gallagher received its world premiere production in April 2013 as part of Chicago-based City Lit Theater Company's Civil War Sesquicentennial Project.<ref>http://www.citylit.org/CivilWar150thAnniversary.htm</ref>

===Footnotes===
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USACWthompsonF.htm Biography from Spartacus Educational which has primary sources]
* [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/SS/fse16.html University of Texas at Austin]
* [http://www.saltmag.net/givetous/Andrea_21405.pdf "What part am I to act in this great drama?"]
* [http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1993/spring/women-in-the-civil-war-3.html DeAnne Blanton - Women soldiers of the Civil War (Part 3)]
* [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=ABV2963 Online version of "Nurse and Spy in the Union Army"]
* [http://www.civilwarhome.com/edmondsbio.htm Comprehensive biography]
* [http://www.libertyletters.com/resources/civil-war/sarah-emma-edmonds.php Sarah Emma Edmonds a.k.a. Private Franklin Thompson]
* {{findagrave|6843300}}

{{Michigan Women's Hall of Fame}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=23344954}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Edmonds, Sarah Emma
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American spy
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1841
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = September 5, 1898
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Edmonds, Sarah Emma}}
[[Category:1841 births]]
[[Category:1898 deaths]]
[[Category:Female wartime cross-dressers in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:American spies]]
[[Category:Female wartime spies]]
[[Category:Female wartime nurses]]
[[Category:American Civil War spies]]
[[Category:People of Michigan in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Canadian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:People from York County, New Brunswick]]
[[Category:American Civil War nurses]]

Sarah Emma Edmonds

2013-10-10T14:18:43Z

Keithh: /* Biography */ added article link

{{refimprove|date=March 2012}}
[[File:Sarah Edmonds lg sepia.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Edmonds as Franklin Thompson]]

'''Sarah Emma Edmonds ''' (December 1841—September 5, 1898), was a [[Canadian]]-born woman who is known for serving as a man with the [[Union Army]] during the [[American Civil War]]. A master of disguise, Edmonds exploits were described in the bestselling ''Nurse and Spy in the Union Army''. In 1992 she was inducted into the [[Michigan Women's Hall of Fame]].

==Biography==
Sarah Emma Edmonds had always been adventurous and her interest in adventure was sparked by a book she read in her youth called Fanny Campbell seriously, the female sailor, telling the story of Fanny Campbell and her adventures on a pirate ship while dressed as a man. Fanny remained dressed as a man in order to pursue other adventures, which Edmonds attributes to her desire to [[cross dress]]. During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], she enlisted in the [[2nd Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment|2nd Michigan Infantry]] on her second try, disguising herself as a man named "Franklin Flint Thompson," the middle name possibly after the city she volunteered in, [[Flint, Michigan]]. She felt that it was her duty to serve her country and it was truly patriotic. Extensive [[physical examinations]] were not required for [[enlistment]] at the time, and she was not discovered. She at first served as a male field [[nurse]], participating in several campaigns under [[General McClellan]], including the [[First Battle of Bull Run|First]] and [[Second Battle of Bull Run]], [[Battle of Antietam|Antietam]], the [[Peninsula Campaign]], [[Siege of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]],and others. However, some historians today say she could not have been at all these different places at the same time.

Frank Thompson's career took a turn before the war when a Union spy in Richmond, Virginia was discovered and went before a [[firing squad]], and a friend, James Vesey, was killed in an ambush. She took advantage of the open spot and the opportunity to avenge her friend's death. She applied for, and won, the position as Franklin Thompson. Although there is no proof in her military records that she actually served as a spy, she wrote extensively about her experiences disguised as a spy during the war.<ref name=Tsui>Tsui, Bonnie. Emma received very little education or nurturing. She started to act as a man early in her life. ''She Went to the Field: Women Soldiers of the Civil War.''</ref>

Traveling into enemy territory in order to gather information required Emma to come up with many disguises. One disguise required Edmonds to use [[silver nitrate]] to dye her skin black, wear a black wig, and walk into the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] disguised as a black man by the name of Cuff. Another time she entered as an Irish peddler woman by the name of Bridget O'Shea, claiming that she was selling apples and soap to the soldiers. Yet another time she was "working for the Confederates" as a black laundress when a packet of official papers fell out of an officer's jacket. When Thompson returned to the Union with the papers, the generals were delighted. Another time, she worked as a detective in Maryland as Charles Mayberry, finding an agent for the Confederacy.

Edmonds' career as Frank Thompson came to an end when she contracted malaria. She abandoned her duty in the military, fearing that if she went to a military [[hospital]] she would be discovered. She checked herself into a private hospital, intending to return to military life once she had recuperated. Once she recovered, however, she saw posters listing Frank Thompson as a deserter. Rather than return to the army under another alias or as Frank Thompson, risking execution for desertion, she decided to serve as a female nurse at a [[Washington, D.C.]] hospital for wounded soldiers run by the [[United States Christian Commission]]. There was speculation that Edmonds may have deserted because of John Reid having been discharged months earlier. There is evidence in his diary that she had mentioned leaving before she had contracted malaria. Her fellow soldiers spoke highly of her military service, and even after her disguise was discovered, was considered a good soldier. She was referred to as a fearless soldier and was active in every battle her regiment faced.<ref name=Tsui />

In 1864 Boston publisher DeWolfe, Fiske, & Co. published Edmonds' account of her military experiences as ''The Female Spy of the Union Army''. One year later her story was picked up by a Hartford, CT publisher who issued it with a new title, ''Nurse and Spy in the Union Army''. It was a huge success, selling in excess of 175,000 copies. In 1867, she married L. H. Seelye, a Canadian mechanic with whom she had three children.<ref name="archives.gov">{{cite journal|url=http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1993/spring/women-in-the-civil-war-2.html|work=[[Prologue (magazine)|Prologue Magazine]]: Selected Articles|date=Spring 1993|volume=25|issue=1|title=Women Soldiers of the Civil War, Part 2|author=DeAnne Blanton}}</ref> In 1886,<ref name="archives.gov"/> she received a government [[pension]] of $12 a month for her military service, and after some campaigning, gained an honorable discharge. In 1897, she became the only woman admitted to the [[Grand Army of the Republic]], the Civil War Union Army veterans' organization. Edmonds died in [[La Porte, Texas]] and is buried in Washington Cemetery in [[Houston, Texas]].

She was inducted into the [[Michigan Women's Hall of Fame]] in 1992.<ref>[http://hall.michiganwomen.org/honoree.php?C=0&A=85~261~181~134~111~71~45~121~95 Sarah Emma Edmonds: Michigan Women's Hall of Fame page]</ref>

Edmonds' book was reprinted again in 1999 with a new title, ''Memoirs of a Soldier, Nurse and Spy.''

==See also==
{{portal|American Civil War}}
*[[List of wartime cross-dressers]]

==References==
===Books===
*''[[Girl in Blue]]'' by [[Ann Rinaldi]]
*''[[Behind Rebel Lines]]'' by [[Seymour Reit]]
*''[[Petticoat Spies]]'' by [[Peggy Caravantes]]
* ''All the Daring of the Soldier: Women of the Civil War Armies'' by Elizabeth D. Leonard
* '' A Soldier's Secret: The incredible true story of Sarah Edmonds, a Civil War Hero'' by Marissa Moss

===Theatre===
*''[[Pistols and Petticoats: Shadows of Sarah Emma Edmonds]]'' by Emily Bossé, Jean-Michel Cliche, Thomas Fanjoy, Jake Martin, Lisa Anne Ross and Julia Whalen, produced in 2011 by the Next Folding Theatre Company.<ref>http://nextfolding.ca/productions.html</ref>
*"The Secret War of Emma Edmonds," an original play by Bonnie Milne Gardner, produced 2013 at Ohio Wesleyan University
*"Comrades Mine: Emma Edmonds of the Union Army" by Maureen Gallagher received its world premiere production in April 2013 as part of Chicago-based City Lit Theater Company's Civil War Sesquicentennial Project.<ref>http://www.citylit.org/CivilWar150thAnniversary.htm</ref>

===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USACWthompsonF.htm Biography from Spartacus Educational which has primary sources]
* [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/SS/fse16.html University of Texas at Austin]
* [http://www.saltmag.net/givetous/Andrea_21405.pdf "What part am I to act in this great drama?"]
* [http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1993/spring/women-in-the-civil-war-3.html DeAnne Blanton - Women soldiers of the Civil War (Part 3)]
* [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=ABV2963 Online version of "Nurse and Spy in the Union Army"]
* [http://www.civilwarhome.com/edmondsbio.htm Comprehensive biography]
8 [http://www.libertyletters.com/resources/civil-war/sarah-emma-edmonds.php] Sarah Emma Edmonds a.k.a. Private Franklin Thompson

{{Michigan Women's Hall of Fame}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=23344954}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Edmonds, Sarah Emma
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American spy
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1841
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = September 5, 1898
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Edmonds, Sarah Emma}}
[[Category:1841 births]]
[[Category:1898 deaths]]
[[Category:Female wartime cross-dressers in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:American spies]]
[[Category:Female wartime spies]]
[[Category:Female wartime nurses]]
[[Category:American Civil War spies]]
[[Category:People of Michigan in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Canadian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:People from York County, New Brunswick]]

Nicolau Borràs

2013-10-03T20:44:34Z

Keithh: added pic, commons link

[[File:Fray Nicolás Borrás - The Adoration of the Magi - WGA02477.jpg|thumb|''The [[Adoration of the Magi]]'' by Nicolás Borrás, private collection, 1570s]]
'''Nicolás Borrás''' (1530–1610) was a [[Spain|Spanish]] painter, active in [[Valencia, Spain|Valencia]].

Borrás was born in [[Cocentaina]]. Going to Valencia at an early age to study under [[Vicente Juan Macip]], he became the latter's most noteworthy pupil. Borrás's works generally resemble those of Macip and some of them have been taken for his. Upon entering the priesthood he was assigned to the [[Hieronymites|Hieronymite]] [[Monastery of Sant Jeroni de Cotalba|Monastery of Saint Jerome of Cotalba]], in Gandia where he enjoyed his stay so much that he asked for membership in the order has his only payment. He received the habit in 1575, and took the final vows the following year. Three years later, he spent some time with the [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchins]] at the Franciscan monastery of San Juan de la Riviera near Valencia. He was soon back, however, at Gandia where he passed the rest of his life painting, leaving twelve altar pieces in the church alone. He also spent his own money in the employment of sculptors and builders for the embellishment of the monastery.

Borrás also did much work for churches and religious houses in Valencia, [[Madrid]], and elsewhere. His paintings appeared in [[Saint Mary of Valencia Cathedral]] and at the Hieronymite monastery in the city of San Miguel de los Reyes where there was a "Christ at the Column", and a picture of the painter in adoration of "The Holy Virgin". Others were in the church of St. Stephen in Gandia, in the Escorial in [[Aldaia]], and in Ontiniente. In a museum in Valencia there are some fifty paintings by Borrás chiefly from Gandia and San Miguel. Among them are ''The Last Supper'', ''Christ Bearing His Cross'', ''The Dead Saviour in the Arms of the Eternal Father'', and ''The Archangel Michael Driving Souls into Purgatory and Hell''. In the last Borrás is supposed to have pictured himself as a white robed monk kneeling on the brink. He died, aged about 80, in [[Gandia]].

== See also ==
*[[Monastery of Sant Jeroni de Cotalba|Monastery of Saint Jerome of Cotalba]]
*[[Hieronymites]]

== External links ==
*Gerard William Smith (1884), ''Painting, Spanish and French'', Sampson and Low publishers, editors EJ Poynter and Roger Smith, page 37.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=wq0GAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7&dq=Diccionario+Historico+mas+ilustres+1800&as_brr=1 Valencia Art exhibit]
*{{Catholic|wstitle=Francisco Nicolás Borras}}

{{commons category|Nicolau Borràs}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=167997490}}
{{Persondata 
| NAME = Borras, Nicolas
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Spanish artist
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1530
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1610
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Borras, Nicolas}}
[[Category:1530 births]]
[[Category:1610 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Cocentaina]]
[[Category:Valencian painters]]
[[Category:16th-century Spanish painters]]
[[Category:17th-century Spanish painters]]

Zacarías González Velázquez

2013-09-26T13:56:11Z

Keithh: added to pic description

[[File:González Velázquez, Zacarías - The miracle of Saint Casilda - c. 1820.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''[[Miracle_of_the_roses#St._Casilda_of_Toledo|The Miracle of Saint Casilda]]'' by Zacarías González Velázquez, private collection, 1820]]
'''Zacarías González Velázquez''' (1763-1834), was a Spanish painter.

Velázquez was born in [[Madrid]] and was the part of a family of artists; his father was [[Antonio González Velázquez]], his grandfather [[Pablo González Velázquez|Pablo]] and his uncles [[Luis González Velázquez|Luis]] and [[Alejandro González Velázquez|Alejandro]] were all sculptors or painters. He began his training at the [[Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando]], initially directed by his father and then later taking over. He was also a student of [[Mariano Salvador Maella]]. He decorated several rooms in the [[Royal Palace of El Pardo]], mostly with mythological scenes. He also worked as a painter at the [[Royal Tapestry Factory]]. The artistic talent ran in almost everyone in the family. Two of Zacarías' brothers, Isidro González Velázquez and Castor González Velázquez also studied painting at the [[Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando|Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando]]. They went on to become renowned painters in their own rights.<ref name="Zacarias Gonzalez Velazquez">{{cite web|title=Zacarias Gonzalez Velazquez|url=http://www.josedelamano.com/zacariasgonzalez.htm|accessdate=26 September 2013}}</ref>

==At the Academy==
Zacarías González Velázquez had a stellar career at the Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando. He enrolled in the Academy in 1777, when his father was the Director. In his second year at the Academy, Zacarías won first prize in the Second Class Paintings category. His prominence grew when he graduated from the Academy in 1782, when a series of commissions were given to him.<ref name="Zacarias Gonzalez Velazquez">{{cite web}}</ref>

[[File:Maria Luisa of Parma as Queen of Spain by Zacarías González Velázquez.jpg|thumb|''Portrait of [[Maria Luisa of Parma]]'', private collection, c. 1790]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links and references==
* Encyclopedia Online for Museo del Prado [http://www.museodelprado.es/enciclopedia/enciclopedia-on-line/voz/gonzalez-velazquez-zacarias/ «González Velázquez, Zacarías» {{es}}]

{{commons category}}
{{Persondata
| NAME = Zacarías González Velázquez
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Spanish painter
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1763
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Madrid
| DATE OF DEATH = 1834
| PLACE OF DEATH = Madrid
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gonzalez Velazquez, Zacarias}}
[[Category:1763 births]]
[[Category:1834 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century Spanish painters]]
[[Category:People from Madrid]]

{{Spain-painter-stub}}

Zacarías González Velázquez

2013-09-24T23:38:35Z

Keithh: create page

[[File:González Velázquez, Zacarías - The miracle of Saint Casilda - c. 1820.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''[[Miracle_of_the_roses#St._Casilda_of_Toledo|The miracle of Saint Casilda]] by Zacarías González Velázquez, private collection, 1820]]
'''Zacarías González Velázquez''' (1763-1834), was a Spanish painter.

Velázquez was born in [[Madrid]] and was the part of a family of artists; his father was [[Antonio González Velázquez]], his grandfather [[Pablo González Velázquez|Pablo]] and his uncles [[Luis González Velázquez|Luis]] and [[Alejandro González Velázquez|Alejandro]] were all sculptors or painters. He began his training at the [[Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando]], initially directed by his father and then later taking over. He was also a student of [[Mariano Salvador Maella]]. He decorated several rooms in the [[Royal Palace of El Pardo]], mostly with mythological scenes. He also worked as a painter at the [[Royal Tapestry Factory]].

==External links and references==
* Encyclopedia Online for Museo del Prado [http://www.museodelprado.es/enciclopedia/enciclopedia-on-line/voz/gonzalez-velazquez-zacarias/ «González Velázquez, Zacarías» {{es}}]

{{commons category}}
{{Persondata
| NAME = Zacarías González Velázquez
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Spanish painter
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1763
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Madrid
| DATE OF DEATH = 1834
| PLACE OF DEATH = Madrid
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gonzalez Velazquez, Zacarias}}
[[Category:1763 births]]
[[Category:1834 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century Spanish painters]]
[[Category:People from Madrid]]

{{Spain-painter-stub}}

Diego Quispe Tito

2013-09-23T14:52:20Z

Keithh: added commons link

{{Infobox artist
| bgcolour = #6495ED
| name = Diego Quispe Tito
| image = Brooklyn Museum - Virgin of Carmel Saving Souls in Purgatory - Circle of Diego Quispe Tito - overall.jpg
| imagesize = 280px
| alt =
| caption = ''Virgin of Carmel Saving Souls in Purgatory,'' Circle of Diego Quispe Tito, 17th century, collection of the [[Brooklyn Museum]]
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 1611
| birth_place = [[Cuzco, Peru]]
| death_date = 1681
| death_place = [[Peru]]
| nationality = [[Quechua people|Quechua]]
| field = devotional painting, [[Mannerism]]
| training =
| movement = [[Cusco School]]
| works = ''Signs of the Zodiac''
| patrons =
| influenced by =
| influenced =
| awards =
| elected =
| website =
}}

'''Diego Quispe Tito''' (1611—1681) was a [[Peru]]vian [[Painting|painter]]. He is considered the leader of the [[Cuzco School]] of painting.<ref>Bethell, Leslie. ''The Cambridge History of Latin America'', Cambridge University Press (1995), p.742. ISBN 0-521-24516-8.</ref>

The son of a noble [[Inca]] family, Quispe Tito was born in [[Cuzco]], and worked throughout his life in the district of [[San Sebastián]]; his house remains, and shows his [[coat of arms]] on its door. His earliest signed painting is an ''[[Immaculate Conception]]'' from 1627, [[gilding|gilded]] in a fashion typical of the Cuzco school. The work's elongated forms reveal a knowledge of [[Mannerism]]; where Quispe Tito learned the style is unknown, but it is hypothesized that he encountered it in the work of [[Italy|Italian]] [[Jesuit]] [[Bernardo Bitti]], who was active at the time in Cuzco. In addition, he is believed to have known [[Luis de Riaño]] in his youth, and may have derived some elements of his style from the older artist; de Riaño, a painter from [[Lima]], had trained in the [[workshop]] of [[Angelino Medoro]], and so would have provided another source of Italian influence.

Quispe Tito also was influenced in his work by [[engraving]]s from [[Flanders]]; indeed, his best-known work, the 1681 ''Signs of the [[Zodiac]]'' in [[Cathedral of Santo Domingo, Cusco|Cuzco Cathedral]], is a series of copies of Flemish engravings in which each zodiac sign is tied to a [[parable]] from the life of [[Christ]]. These engravings were designed for distribution in Peru, where worship of the [[sun]], [[moon]], and [[star]]s was still practiced in some quarters; they were designed to encourage worship of Christ and His miracles in place of the zodiac. A further series, depicting scenes from the life of [[John the Baptist]] and dating to 1663, was also produced on Flemish models.

Quispe Tito also incorporated several personal elements into his work; most notable was his use of gilding and his depiction of spacious [[landscape]]s filled with [[bird]]s and [[angel]]s. In 1667 he painted several scenes from the life of Christ, which were sent to [[Potosí]]. Quispe Tito died in [[Cuzco]] in 1681.

==See also==
*[[Master of Calamarca]], 18th century, Bolivia
*[[Basilio Pacheco de Santa Cruz Pumacallao]], (1635–1710), Peru
*[[Marcos Zapata]], c. 1710—1773, Peru

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.artnet.com/library/07/0704/T070449.asp Artnet.com biography]

{{commons category|Circle of Diego Quispe Tito}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=43927158}}
{{Persondata
| NAME = Quispe Tito, Diego
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Peruvian painter
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1611
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1681
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Quispe Tito, Diego}}
[[Category:1611 births]]
[[Category:1681 deaths]]
[[Category:Peruvian painters]]
[[Category:Colonial Peru]]
[[Category:Peruvian people of Quechua descent]]
[[Category:Latin American artists of indigenous descent]]
[[Category:Cusco School]]
[[Category:People from Cusco]]
[[Category:17th-century indigenous painters of the Americas]]

Paul Fischer (Maler, 1786)

2013-03-05T21:46:33Z

Keithh: update link

{{underlinked|date=November 2012}}

'''John George Paul Fischer''' (1786-1875), was a painter.

Fischer was born at [[Hanover]] on 16 September 1786, was the youngest of three sons of a line-engraver, who died very soon after the birth of the youngest child, leaving his family in poverty. Fischer at the age of fourteen was placed as pupil with [[Johann Heinrich Ramberg]], the fashionable court painter, by whom he was employed in painting portraits, theatrical scenery, and generally assisting his master. He became capable of earning enough money to support his mother. In 1810 he betook himself to England, and his Hanoverian connection rendered it easy for him to obtain the patronage of royalty.

He painted miniature portraits of [[Queen Charlotte]] and the junior members of the royal family, and was employed by [[George IV of England|the prince regent]] to paint a series of military costumes. In 1817 he began to exhibit at the [[Royal Academy]], and continued to do so up to 1852, occasionally contributing also to the [[Suffolk Street Exhibition]]. His works were chiefly portraits in miniature, but he occasionally exhibited landscapes in watercolours. He continued to paint up to his eighty-first year, and died 12 September 1875. Fischer was an industrious but inferior artist. Some sketches by him in the print room at the British Museum show spirit and intelligence, especially two pencil portraits of William Hunt and his wife. He published a few etchings and lithographs.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{DNB|wstitle=Fischer, John George Paul}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Fischer, John George Paul
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1786
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Hanover
| DATE OF DEATH = 1875
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fischer, John George Paul}}
[[Category:1786 births]]
[[Category:1875 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Hanover]]
[[Category:German painters]]
[[Category:19th-century painters]]

{{Germany-painter-stub}}

Paul Fischer (Maler, 1786)

2013-03-05T21:43:39Z

Keithh: updated cats, add stub, meta data, link

{{underlinked|date=November 2012}}

'''John George Paul Fischer''' (1786-1875), was a painter.

Fischer was born at [[Hanover]] on 16 September 1786, was the youngest of three sons of a line-engraver, who died very soon after the birth of the youngest child, leaving his family in poverty. Fischer at the age of fourteen was placed as pupil with [[J. H. Ramberg]], the fashionable court painter, by whom he was employed in painting portraits, theatrical scenery, and generally assisting his master. He became capable of earning enough money to support his mother. In 1810 he betook himself to England, and his Hanoverian connection rendered it easy for him to obtain the patronage of royalty.

He painted miniature portraits of [[Queen Charlotte]] and the junior members of the royal family, and was employed by [[George IV of England|the prince regent]] to paint a series of military costumes. In 1817 he began to exhibit at the [[Royal Academy]], and continued to do so up to 1852, occasionally contributing also to the [[Suffolk Street Exhibition]]. His works were chiefly portraits in miniature, but he occasionally exhibited landscapes in watercolours. He continued to paint up to his eighty-first year, and died 12 September 1875. Fischer was an industrious but inferior artist. Some sketches by him in the print room at the British Museum show spirit and intelligence, especially two pencil portraits of William Hunt and his wife. He published a few etchings and lithographs.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{DNB|wstitle=Fischer, John George Paul}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Fischer, John George Paul
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1786
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Hanover
| DATE OF DEATH = 1875
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fischer, John George Paul}}
[[Category:1786 births]]
[[Category:1875 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Hanover]]
[[Category:German painters]]
[[Category:19th-century painters]]

{{Germany-painter-stub}}

Sarah Emma Edmonds

2010-05-26T16:19:52Z

Keithh: removed poorly formatted, bad grammar section that was redundant with rest of article

[[File:Sarah Edmonds lg sepia.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Edmonds as Franklin Thompson]]

'''Sarah Emma Edmonds ''' (December 1841 – September 5, 1898), was a [[Canadian]]-born woman who is known for serving with the [[Union Army]] during the [[American Civil War]].

==Biography==
Sarah Emma Edmonds
Edmonds was born in Magaguadavic, New Brunswick, Canada but left home after her mother and her verbally and physically abusive father attempted to force her to marry a man she hated. She worked for a time as a milliner in the Moncton area and later sold Bibles and other odds and ends in New Brunswick and New England. Still afraid of being found by her father, she fled to the United States in 1856 where she settled in Flint, Michigan.

During the Civil War, she enlisted in the [[2nd Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment|2nd Michigan Infantry]] on her first try, disguising herself as a man named "Franklin Flint Thompson." Extensive physical examinations were not required for enlistment at the time, and she was not discovered. She at first served as a male field [[nurse]], participating in several campaigns under McClellan, including the [[First and Second Battle of Bull Run]], Antietam, the Pensilur Campaign, Vicksburg, and others.

Frank Thompson's career took a turn before the war when a Union spy (Known to her as James a old childhood friend) in Richmond Virginia was discovered and went before a firing squad, which opened up a slot in intelligence gathering for Thompson. Seeing this as an opportunity to avenge a fallen comrade's death she eagerly accepted. When she went before the committee for an interview as Franklin Thompson, Edmonds impressed the committee and the position was given to her.

Having to travel into enemy territory in order to gather information required Frank Thompson to come up with many disguises. Edmonds established several. For example, for the first disguise, Edmonds used silver nitrate to dye her skin black, used a black wig, and walked into the Confederacy disguised as a black man by the name of Cuff. Another time she entered as an Irish peddler woman by the name of Bridget O'Shea, claiming that she was selling apples and soap to the soldiers. Yet another time she was working "for the Confederates" as a black laundress when a packet of official papers fell out of an officer's jacket. When Thompson returned to the Union with the papers, the generals were quite pleased.

Edmonds' career as Frank Thompson came to an end when she contracted [[malaria]]. Unable to go to the military [[hospital]], because she would be revealed as a woman, she left the army and checked herself in to a private hospital, intending to return to military life once she had recuperated. Once she recovered, however, she saw posters listing Frank Thompson as a deserter. Rather than return to the army under another alias or as Frank Thompson, in which case she would be shot for deserting, she decided to serve as a female nurse at a [[Washington, D.C.]] hospital for wounded soldiers run by the [[United States Christian Commission]].

In 1864 Boston publisher DeWolfe, Fiske, & Co. published Edmonds' account of her military experiences as ''The Female Spy of the Union Army''. One year later her story was picked up by a Hartford, CT publisher who issued it with a new title, ''Nurse and Spy in the Union Army''. It was a huge success, selling in excess of 175,000 copies. In 1867, she married L. H. Seelye, a Canadian mechanic with whom she had three children.<ref name="archives.gov">{{cite journal|url=http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1993/spring/women-in-the-civil-war-2.html|work=[[Prologue (magazine)|Prologue Magazine]]: Selected Articles|date=Spring 1993|volume=25|issue=1|title=Women Soldiers of the Civil War, Part 2|author=DeAnne Blanton}}</ref> Her two sons and her daughter died young, so she took in to two boys.{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}} In 1886,<ref name="archives.gov"/> she received a government [[pension]] of $12 a month for her military service, and after some campaigning, gained an honorable discharge. Edmonds died in [[La Porte, Texas]] and is buried in Washington Cemetery in [[Houston, Texas]].

She was inducted into the [[Michigan Women's Hall of Fame]] in 1992.<ref>[http://hall.michiganwomenshalloffame.org/honoree.php?C=0&A=85~134~111~95 Sarah Emma Edmonds: Michigan Women's Hall of Fame page]</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|American Civil War}}
*[[Crossdressing during wartime]]
*[[Deborah Sampson]], impersonated a man to stick up for women's right and to fight during the [[American War of Independence]]
*[[Loreta Janeta Velazquez]]
*[[Mary Edwards Walker]]
*[[Sally Louisa Tompkins]]

'''Books:'''
*''[[Girl in Blue]]'' by [[Ann Rinaldi]]
*''[[Behind Rebel Lines]]'' by [[Seymour Reit]]
*''[[Petticoat Spies]]'' by [[Peggy Caravantes]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USACWthompsonF.htm Biography from Spartacus Educational which has primary sources]
* [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/SS/fse16.html University of Texas at Austin]
* [http://www.saltmag.net/givetous/Andrea_21405.pdf "What part am I to act in this great drama?"]
* [http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1993/spring/women-in-the-civil-war-3.html DeAnne Blanton - Women soldiers of the Civil War (Part 3)]
* [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=ABV2963 Online version of "Nurse and Spy in the Union Army"]
* [http://www.civilwarhome.com/edmondsbio.htm Comprehensive biography]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Edmonds, Sarah Emma}}
[[Category:1841 births]]
[[Category:1898 deaths]]
[[Category:Female wartime crossdressers in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:American spies]]
[[Category:Female wartime spies]]
[[Category:Female wartime nurses]]
[[Category:American Civil War spies]]
[[Category:People from New Brunswick]]
[[Category:People of Michigan in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Canadian immigrants to the United States]]

[[pl:Sarah Emma Edmonds]]

Aniceto Arce Ruiz

2010-01-21T17:46:29Z

Keithh: dab

{{unreferenced|date=June 2008}}
[[Image:Aniceto Arce.jpg|right|thumb|'''Aniceto Arce''']]
'''Aniceto Arce Ruiz''' (1824–1906) was [[President of Bolivia]] from 1888 until 1892. The [[Aniceto Arce Province]] is named after him. Arce was a native of Tarija but was educated as a lawyer and resided most of his life in Sucre, where he became one of the country's foremost silver-mining tycoons. A supporter of Linares and Constitutionalist government, he later served in Congress during the 1870s until the time of the Daza dictatorship.

Unlike other capable leaders of his day, Arce did not enlist to serve when the [[War of the Pacific]] developed in 1879. Indeed, his became one of the most accommodationist voices in the political spectrum, perhaps as a result of his extensive business connections to [[Chile]], where he sold much of his silver, invested his profits, and sought financing for his projects. His position was that the Litoral was, for various lamentable reasons, largely indefensible. Thus, the country should cut its losses and seek an alliance with [[Chile]] rather than with [[Peru]]. Despite this minority position, what ringed more clearly in the ears of most Bolivians was Arce's steadfast call for the establishment of a conservative democratic order, with the primacy of law, regular elections, and rule by enlightened pro-business elites such as himself. To this end, he founded the Conservative Party, participated as one of the principals in the 1880 Congress that toppled Hilarión [[Daza]], and had a role in the drafting of the country's new Constitution. Moreover, he agreed to become [[Narciso Campero]]'s vice-president for the crucial, nation-building 1880-84 period.

Early on, however, vice-president Arce's pro-Chile stance clashed with those of the patriotic President and retired General, who favored rearmament and a sustained diplomatic offensive against [[Chile]], perhaps leading to a mediation of the conflict and if not, to a reinsertions of Bolivian troops in Peru's aid. Arce, as explained, favored a "realistic" policy of recognition that [[Bolivia]] had indeed lost its access to the Pacific, and that the best that could be done was to reach a modus vivendi with Santiago (which had the upper hand), even if this meant abandoning the hitherto sacrosanct alliance with Lima. President Campero took this to be a sign of treason and in 1881 expelled Arce, his own vice-president until then, to exile.

Eventually, Arce's name was cleared and he was allowed to return to the country. He promptly entered his name as Conservative Party candidate in the May, 1884 Presidential elections, the first under the new charter and since 1873. Arce was widely expected to win too, but very narrowly lost to the "dark-horse" candidate [[Gregorio Pacheco]], a man even wealthier than Arce and the country's chief philathropist, who ran on a platform of apolitical "efficient administration." Being privileged silver miners from the South who shared a conservative, pro-business philosophy, the 2 reached an understanding, with Pacheco agreeing to become President in exchange for making Arce his vice-president and pledging himself to support the Conservative party candidate in the 1884 elections.

As had been agreed upon, President Pacheco supported Arce in the 1888 elections, which the latter not surprisingly won, quite possibly with official "help" (i.e., electoral fraud). It is thus that Arce, the Conservative Party caudillo, at long last came became President in August 1888, at the age of 64. Even more so than Pacheco, Arce ruled repressively, but also consolidated many advances, including the completion of the first intra-Bolivian railway (leading from the Chilean border to [[Oruro Department|Oruro]]) and the electrification of a number of Bolivian cities. He also promulgated a modern new set of banking and investment laws. Unabashedly pro-capitalist, devoted to practically unrestricted free entrepreneurship in the English tradition, anti-Indian, and pro-insertion into the international economy under the aegis of foreign investment, he faced many pro-Liberal rebellions but somehow managed to hold on to power by the force of his assertive personality. He completed his term and in 1892 passed the baton to another Conservative, his understudy and vice-president [[Mariano Baptista]].

Aniceto Arce at that point ostensibly retired from politics (he was 68 years old), although he served as an unofficial but very mportant adviser to the Conservative Presidents Baptista (1882-86) and Fernandez-Alonso (1896-99). He was forcefully returned to the political limelight at the turn of the century when he suffered political prosecution at the hands of the hated Liberal Party, which had at long last seized power in the so-called Civil War of 1899. Surprisingly, the elderly Arce was nonetheless allowed to present himself as candidate for President in the 1904 elections, presumably because he was 80 years old, unpopular, and therefore quite beatable. Finding the party he founded demoralized, vilified, and acephalous, the combative Arce accepted the difficult challenge of running against the officially-supported, popular Liberal candidate [[Ismael Montes]]. He was trounced, losiing by a wide margin—the largest in Bolivian electoral history up to that point. The former president then returned to retirement in his vast rural estate, where he died 2 years later in 1906, at the age of 82. He is best remembered for his assertive temperament and firm stance in favor of a civilian democratic (although oligarchic) order and for having laid the foundation for the functioning of a modern party system in the country.

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Gregorio Pacheco]]|
title=[[President of Bolivia]]|
years=1888-1892|
after=[[Mariano Baptista]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{Presidents of Bolivia}}

[[Category:1824 births]]
[[Category:Presidents of Bolivia|Arce, Aniceto]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of Bolivia]]
[[Category:1906 deaths]]

[[es:Aniceto Arce]]
[[pt:Aniceto Arce Ruiz]]
[[qu:Aniceto Arce]]

DARPA FALCON Project

2009-08-19T00:33:45Z

Keithh: fixed typo

[[Image:DARPA Falcon HTV-3X 1.jpg|thumb|right|A representation of the Falcon HTV-3X from a [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8MhtLWB0dJ8 DARPA-made video]]]

The '''DARPA Falcon Project''' ('''F'''orce '''A'''pplication and '''L'''aunch from '''Con'''tinental United States) is a two-part joint project between the [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]] (DARPA) and the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF). One part of the program aims to develop a reusable, rapid-strike '''[[Hypersonic]] Cruise Vehicle''' (HCV), and the other is for the development of a launch system capable of accelerating a HCV to cruise speeds, as well as launching small satellites into earth orbit. This two-part program was announced in 2003 and continued into 2006.<ref name="FALCON_PIP">[http://www.darpa.mil/tto/falcon/FALCON_PIP_FINAL.pdf FALCON Force Application and Launch from CONUS Broad Agency Announcement (BAA) PHASE I Proposer Information Pamphlet (PIP) for BAA Solicitation 03-35], DARPA, 2003</ref>

The latest project to be announced under the Falcon banner was a fighter-sized unmanned aircraft called "Blackswift" which would take off from a runway and accelerate to [[Mach number|Mach]] 6 before completing its mission and landing again. The [[Memorandum_of_Understanding|memo of understanding]] between DARPA and the USAF on Blackswift — also known as the HTV-3X — was signed in September 2007. The Blackswift HTV-3X did not receive needed funding and was canceled in October 2008.<ref name="DARPA_HTV-3X_cancel"/>

==Design and development==
{{Refimprove|section|date=July 2008}}
===Past projects===

The aim was always to be able to deploy a craft from the USA, which could reach anywhere on the planet within an hour or two. The [[X-20 Dyna-Soar]] in 1957 was the first publicly acknowledged program — although this would have been launched vertically on a rocket and then glided back to [[Earth]], as the [[Space Shuttle]] does, rather than taking off from a runway. Originally, the Shuttle itself was envisaged as a part-USAF operation, and [[Vandenberg AFB Space Launch Complex 6|separate military launch facilities]] were built at Vandenberg AFB at great cost, though never used. After the open DynaSoar USAF program from 1957-1963, spaceplanes went [[black project|black]]. In the mid 1960s, the CIA began work on a high-Mach spyplane called [[ISINGLASS]]. This developed into [[Rheinberry]], a design for a Mach-17 air-launched reconnaissance aircraft, which was later cancelled.<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/craft/isiglass.htm Isinglass]</ref> Black spending on spaceplanes probably peaked in the 1980s during the [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] when [[Science Dawn]], [[Have Region]] and [[Rockwell X-30|Copper Canyon]] focused efforts on building a spaceplane that could take off from a runway like an aircraft. In 1986, that emerged back into the white world, with President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s announcement of the [[National AeroSpace Plane]] (NASP). When that project was canceled in 1992, the spaceplane efforts went black again, until the USAF announced FALCON in 2003, although FALCON at least initially was aimed to build smaller unmanned vehicles.

According to [[Henry F. Cooper]], who was the Director of the [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] (Star Wars) under President Reagan, spaceplane projects swallowed $4 billion in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s (excluding the Space Shuttle). This does not include the 1950 and 1960s budgets for the Dynasoar, ISINGLASS, Rheinberry, and any 21st-century spaceplane project which might emerge under Falcon. He told the [[United States Congress]] in 2001 that all the USA had in return for those billions of dollars was "one crashed vehicle, a [[hangar queen]], some drop-test articles and static displays".<ref>[http://www.tgv-rockets.com/press/cooper_testimony.htm Cooper Testimony]</ref> Others would argue that Falcon — which has been allocated $170 million USD for budget year 2008<ref>[http://www.cdi.org/PDFs/Space%20Weapons%20Spending%20in%20the%20FY%202008%20Defense%20Budget.pdf Space Weapons Spending in the FY 2008 Defense Budget]</ref> — and its predecessors maintain the USA's capability to develop a spaceplane quickly, should the need arise.

===FALCON===
The overall FALCON program announced in 2003 had two major components: a small [[launch vehicle]] for carrying payloads to orbit or launching the hypersonic weapons platform payload, and the hypersonic vehicle itself.<ref name="FALCON_PIP"/>

====Small Launch Vehicle====
The DARPA FALCON solicitation in 2003 asked for bidders to do development work on proposed vehicles in a first phase of work, then one or more vendors would be selected to build and fly an actual launch vehicle. Companies which won first phase development contracts of $350,000 to $540,000 in November 2003 included:<ref name="AIR_ATTACK">[http://www.air-attack.com/page/32/USAF--DARPA-FALCON-Program.html USAF DARPA FALCON Program], Air-attack.com, accessed 2009-04-02</ref>
* Air Launch LLC, Reno Nevada
* Andrews Space Inc., Seattle Washington
* Exquadrum Inc., Victorville California
* KT Engineering, Huntsville Alabama
* [[Lockheed Martin]] Corp., New Orleans Louisiana
* Microcosm Inc., El Segundo California
* Orbital Sciences Corp., Dulles Virginia
* Schafer Corp., Chelmsford Massachusetts
* [[SpaceX|Space Exploration Technologies]], El Segundo California

Phase two for the SLV was won by Air Launch LLC, with a $17.8 million contract awarded in 2005 which provided for further test and development of their QuickReach air-dropped launch vehicle contract.

Additionally, in related Phase two work, DARPA purchased a flight of the Space Exploration Technologies ([[SpaceX]]) [[Falcon 1]] launch vehicle which was already under commercial development at the time, for approximately $6 million. The vehicle name and program name were coincidentally the same, but the Falcon launch vehicle predated the DARPA program, having started in 2002 with the founding of SpaceX.

====Hypersonic Weapons System====
The first phase of the HWS development was won by three bidders in 2003, each receiving a $1.2 to $1.5 million contract for hypersonic vehicle development:<ref name="AIR_ATTACK"/>
* Andrews Space Inc., Seattle, Wash.
* Lockheed Martin Corp., Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Co., Palmdale, Calif.
* Northrop Grumman Corp., Air Combat Systems, El Segundo, Calif.

Lockheed Martin received the only Phase 2 HWS contract in 2004, to develop technologies further and reduce technology risk on the program.

====Follow on hypersonic program====
Following the Phase 2 HWS contract, DARPA and the US Air Force continued to develop the hypersonic weapons platform.

The program was to follow a set of flight tests with a series of hypersonic technology vehicles.<ref name="Falcon_fact_sh">[http://www.darpa.mil/body/news/2004/falcon_fs_jan06_final.pdf Falcon fact sheet], January 2006, Darpa.mil.</ref>

The FALCON project includes:
*The [[X-41 Common Aero Vehicle]] (CAV) — a common aerial platform for hypersonic [[ICBM]]s and [[cruise missile]]s, as well as civilian [[RLV]]s and [[ELV]]s.
*The Hypersonic Technology Vehicle-1 (HTV-1) — a test concept, originally planned to fly in September 2007 now cancelled.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2006/05/30/206909/us-hypersonic-aircraft-projects-face-change-as-congress-urges-joint-technology.html ]</ref>
*The HTV-2 — to fly in 2009
*The HTV-3X — Blackswift
*The Small Launch Vehicle (SLV) — a smaller engine to power CAVs, tests to begin by 2010

The Hypersonic Cruise Vehicle (HCV) will be able to fly 9,000 [[nautical mile]]s (17,000 km) in 2 hours with a payload of 12,000 [[pound (mass)|lb]] (5,500 kg).<ref>[http://www.aviationnow.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=awst&id=news/aw072307p2.xml&headline=Propulsion,%20Materials%20Test%20Successes%20Put%20Positive%20Spin%20on%20Falcon%20Prospects "Propulsion, Materials Test Successes Put Positive Spin on Falcon Prospects"]. ''Aviation Week'', [[22 July]] [[2007]].</ref> It is to fly at a high [[altitude]]s and achieve speeds of up to [[Mach number|Mach]] 6.

Test flights are supported by [[NASA]], the [[Space and Missile Systems Center]], [[Lockheed Martin]], [[Sandia National Laboratories]] and the Air Force Research Laboratory’s ([[AFRL]]) Air Vehicles and Space Vehicles Directorates.

The program is launching the HTV-2 off the top of a rocket booster from [[Vandenberg Air Force Base]] in December 2008. The HTV-2 is a ten-foot-long glider which will fly {{convert|4800|mi|km}} across the [[Pacific]] to [[Kwajalein]] at Mach 20.<ref name="Mach 20"> Little, Geoffrey.[http://www.airspacemag.com/issues/2007/september/hypersonics.php?page=4 Mach 20 or Bust, Weapons research may yet produce a true spaceplane]. Air & Space Magazine, September 1, 2007.</ref>

===Blackswift===
The Blackswift is an aircraft capable of hypersonic flight being designed by the [[Lockheed Martin]] [[Skunk Works]], [[Boeing]], and [[Alliant Techsystems|ATK]].<ref>[http://aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/BLACK07248.xml&headline=Boeing%20Joins%20Lockheed%20Martin%20On%20Blackswift&channel=defense Boeing Joins Lockheed Martin On Blackswift], Aviation Week.</ref>

The USAF states "The Falcon Blackswift flight demonstration vehicle will be powered by a combination [[turbine engine]] and [[ramjet]], an all-in-one power plant. The turbine engine accelerates the vehicle to around Mach 3 before the ramjet takes over and boosts the vehicle up to Mach 6." <ref>[http://www.arnold.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123053670 DARPA official: AEDC 'critical' to hypersonics advancement]</ref> Dr. [[Stephen Walker]], the Deputy Director of DARPA's Tactical Technology Office, will be coordinating the project. He told the USAF website,

{{cquote|I will also be communicating to Lockheed Martin and Pratt & Whitney on how important it is that we get the technical plan in place… I'm trying to build the bridge at the beginning of the program — to get the communication path flowing.}}

The Falcon program has announced the Mach 6 horizontal take-off Blackswift/HTV-3X. It is also launching the HTV-2 off the top of a rocket booster.<ref name="Mach 20"/> Falcon seems to be converging from two directions, on the ultimate goal of producing a hypersonic aircraft which can take off and land from a runway in the USA, and be anywhere in the world in an hour or two. Falcon is methodically proceeding toward a Hypersonic Cruise Vehicle. Dr. Walker said,

{{cquote|We need to fly some hypersonic vehicles — first the expendables, then the reusables — in order to prove to decision makers that this isn’t just a dream… We won't overcome the skepticism until we see some hypersonic vehicles flying.}}

{| align=center
|[[Image:DARPA Falcon HTV-3X 2.jpg|thumb|188px|center|The HTV-3X activates its turbojets in transonic flight…]]
|[[Image:DARPA Falcon HTV-3X 3.jpg|thumb|188px|center|…then ignites its [[scramjet]]s for the hypersonic phase]]
|}

In October 2008 it was announced that HTV-3X or Blackswift did not receive needed funding in the fiscal year 2009 defense budget and had been canceled. The Hypersonic Cruise Vehicle program will continue with reduced funding.<ref name="DARPA_HTV-3X_cancel">[http://www.darpa.mil/Docs/Falcon-Blackswift%20FS%20Oct08.pdf "Falcon Technology Demonstration Program HTV-3X Blackswift Test Bed"]. DARPA, October 2008.</ref><ref name="Flt_HTV_3_cancel">Trimble, Stephen. [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/10/13/317382/videos-darpa-cancels-blackswift-hypersonic-test-bed.html "DARPA cancels Blackswift hypersonic test bed"]. Flightglobal.com, 13 October 2008.</ref>

==Flight testing==
DARPA intends to assemble two HTV-2s and conduct two flight tests in 2009. Each HTV-2 flight will be launched by a [[Minotaur IV]] Lite rocket. DARPA will use the flights to demonstrate thermal protection systems and aerodynamic control features.<ref name="DARPA_HTV-3X_cancel"/>

==See also==
*[[Aurora (aircraft)|Aurora]]
*[[Rockwell X-30]] (National AeroSpace Plane)
*[[Boeing X-51]]

==References==
[[Image:DARPA Falcon HTV-3X 4.jpg|thumb|right|HTV-3X on approach to [[Edwards Air Force Base]] in a computer animation]]
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.darpa.mil/tto/programs/Falcon.htm Falcon page] and [http://www.darpa.mil/tto/solicit/PS08-02.pdf Blackswift proposal solicitation on Darpa.mil]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/hcv.htm HCV page on Globalsecurity.org]
*[http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=awstspace&id=news/102405p1.xml "Air Drops Dummy Rocket for Darpa's Falcon"], Aviation Week,
* [http://www.defensetech.org/archives/003998.html "Hypersonics Back in the News" on Defensetech.org]
*[http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/darpa_falcon_030723.html "Going Hypersonic: Flying FALCON for Defense"] and [http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/060126_darpa_falcon.html "Air Force Plans Flight Tests Of Hypersonic Vehicle" on Space.com]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A38272-2005Mar15 "Pentagon Has Far-Reaching Defense Spacecraft in Works"], Washington Post, March 16, 2005
*[http://www.flightglobal.com/Articles/2006/05/30/206909/US+hypersonic+aircraft+projects+face+change+as+Congress+urges+joint+technology.html "US hypersonic aircraft projects face change as Congress urges joint technology office"], Flight International, 30 May 2006

{{AFRL spacecraft}}

[[Category:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency|Falcon]]
[[Category:Future products]]
[[Category:Hypersonic aircraft]]
[[Category:Research projects]]

[[nl:Blackswift]]

Chad Kilger

2009-07-16T16:57:14Z

Keithh: fix typo

{{Infobox Ice Hockey Player
| position = [[Winger (ice hockey)|Right Wing]]
| shoots = Left
| height_ft = 6
| height_in = 4
| weight_lb = 224
| team = [[Florida Panthers]]
| former_teams = [[Toronto Maple Leafs]] [[Montreal Canadiens]] [[Edmonton Oilers]] [[Chicago Blackhawks]] [[Phoenix Coyotes]] [[Winnipeg Jets]] [[Anaheim Ducks|Mighty Ducks of Anaheim]]
| league = [[NHL]]
| nationality = Canada
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1976|11|27|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Cornwall, Ontario|Cornwall]], [[Ontario|ON]], [[Canada|CAN]]
| career_start = 1995
| draft = 4th overall
| draft_year = 1995
| draft_team = [[Mighty Ducks of Anaheim]]
| image =
}}
'''Chad Kilger''' (born [[27 November]], [[1976]] in [[Cornwall, Ontario]]) is a retired [[Canada|Canadian]] professional [[ice hockey]] player. He played for several [[National Hockey League]] teams, most recently the [[Toronto Maple Leafs]].

==Playing career==
Chad Kilger began his playing career by playing two seasons in the [[Ontario Hockey League]] with the [[Kingston Frontenacs]]. He was subsequently drafted fourth overall by the [[Mighty Ducks of Anaheim|Anaheim Mighty Ducks]] in the [[1995 NHL Entry Draft]]. He made the team that fall, but on [[7 February]], [[1996]] he was traded with [[Oleg Tverdovsky]] and a third round draft pick to the [[Winnipeg Jets]] for [[Teemu Selänne]], [[Marc Chouinard]] and a fourth round draft choice, and subsequently spent most of his playing time with Winnipeg's minor league affiliate, the [[Springfield Falcons]].

Kilger's numbers did not improve until he came to the [[Chicago Blackhawks]]. In 86 games in parts of two seasons with the Blackhawks, he scored 36 points. In March 1999, he was traded to the [[Edmonton Oilers]] with [[Daniel Cleary]], [[Ethan Moreau]], and [[Christian Laflamme]] for [[Boris Mironov]], [[Dean McAmmond]] and [[Jonas Elofsson]], and in December 2000, he was sent to the [[Montreal Canadiens]] for [[Sergei Zholtok]]. He had early success, but as his ice time dropped so did his point totals. In his first season with the Canadiens he averaged 17:57 in ice time. In March 2004, he was put on waivers and claimed by the [[Toronto Maple Leafs]].<ref name = "travel">{{cite news | url = http://canadianpress.google.com/article/ALeqM5gI4TpIHx2brZMQUbd84Lpg3Aq0Xg | title =Well-travelled Chad Kilger knows all about NHL trading deadline deals | publisher = Canadian Press | date = 2008-02-18 | accessdate = 2008-02-18}}</ref>

Chad Kilger set the unofficial hockey record for the hardest shot on December 3, 2006, when he was clocked at 106.6 mph, beating the old record held by former Sharks defenseman [[Shawn Heins]] (106.0 mph). The old NHL record was held by former Capitals defenseman Al Iafrate, whose record was 105.2 mph.

===Failure to report to Florida===
On the NHL trade deadline date, February 26, 2008, the Leafs dealt Kilger to the [[Florida Panthers]] for a third round draft pick. He immediately requested a leave of absence from Panthers' management, which was granted. However, he did not report to the team at the pre-arranged time, and on March 5, the Panthers suspended him indefinitely without pay.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://tsn.ca/nhl/news_story/?ID=231303&hubname=nhl | title = Panthers suspend Kilger without pay | publisher = The Canadian Press | date = 2008-03-05 | accessdate = 2008-03-05}}</ref> Kilger also failed to report to training camp at the beginning of the 2008–09 season. As of April 2009, he has not played and has not made a statement to the media regarding his status. His mother stated he was on holidays, and his agent is not returning calls. Former Maple Leafs GM [[Cliff Fletcher]] stated that Kilger retired after leaving Toronto, though this was unconfirmed and Kilger had not officially announced his retirement. <ref>{{cite news | url = http://lfpress.ca/newsstand/Sports/Hockey/2009/01/06/7928751-sun.html | title = Kilger's disappearance from game astounding | last = Simmons | first = Steve | publisher = London Free Press | date = 2009-01-06 | accessdate = 2009-01-09}}</ref>
Chad Kilger was officially confirmed to be retired on July 10, 2009. He now works as a fire fighter in [[Cornwall]] [[Ontario]].<ref>http://www.standard-freeholder.com/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=1601060</ref>

==Personal==
Kilger and his family currently reside in Cornwall, Ontario, where all three of his children were born.<ref name = "travel"/> His father, [[Bob Kilger]], is presently the mayor of the city. Chad was recently hired as a firefighter for the City of Cornwall, though there is some controversy surrounding the circumstances of his hiring.<ref>http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/NHL/Toronto/2009/07/09/10079386-sun.html</ref>

==Career statistics==
{| BORDER="0" CELLPADDING="1" CELLSPACING="0" width="75%" style="text-align:center"
|- bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! colspan="3" bgcolor="#ffffff" |  
! rowspan="99" bgcolor="#ffffff" |  
! colspan="5" | [[Regular season|Regular season]]
! rowspan="99" bgcolor="#ffffff" |  
! colspan="5" | [[Playoffs]]
|- bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! [[Season (sports)|Season]]
! Team
! League
! GP
! [[Goal (ice hockey)|G]]
! [[Assist (ice hockey)|A]]
! [[Point (ice hockey)|Pts]]
! [[Penalty (ice hockey)|PIM]]
! GP
! G
! A
! Pts
! PIM
|-
| 1993–94
| [[Kingston Frontenacs]]
| [[Ontario Hockey League|OHL]]
| 66
| 17
| 35
| 52
| 23
| 6
| 7
| 2
| 9
| 8
|-bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
| 1994–95
| Kingston Frontenacs
| OHL
| 65
| 42
| 53
| 95
| 6
| 5
| 2
| 7
| 10
| 0
|-
| [[1995–96 NHL season|1995–96]]
| [[Anaheim Ducks|Mighty Ducks of Anaheim]]
| [[National Hockey League|NHL]]
| 45
| 5
| 7
| 12
| 22
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|- bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
| [[1996–97 AHL season|1996–97]]
| [[Springfield Falcons]]
| [[American Hockey League|AHL]]
| 52
| 17
| 28
| 45
| 36
| 16
| 5
| 7
| 12
| 56
|-
| align=right|[[1996–97 NHL season|1996–97]]
| [[Winnipeg Jets]]
| NHL
| 29
| 2
| 3
| 5
| 12
| 4
| 1
| 0
| 1
| 0
|- bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
| [[1997–98 AHL season|1997–98]]
| Springfield Falcons
| AHL
| 35
| 14
| 14
| 28
| 33
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|-
| align=right|[[1997–98 NHL season|1997–98]]
| [[Phoenix Coyotes]]
| NHL
| 10
| 0
| 1
| 1
| 4
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|- bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
| align=right|1997–98
| [[Chicago Blackhawks]]
| NHL
| 22
| 3
| 8
| 11
| 6
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|-
| [[1998–99 NHL season|1998–99]]
| Chicago Blackhawks
| NHL
| 64
| 14
| 11
| 25
| 30
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|- bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
|align=right| 1998–99
| [[Edmonton Oilers]]
| NHL
| 13
| 1
| 1
| 2
| 4
| 4
| 0
| 0
| 0
| 4
|- ALIGN="center"
| [[1999–00 NHL season|1999–00]]
| Edmonton Oilers
| NHL
| 40
| 3
| 2
| 5
| 18
| 3
| 0
| 0
| 0
| 0
|- bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
| align=right|[[1999–00 AHL season|1999–00]]
| [[Hamilton Bulldogs]]
| AHL
| 7
| 4
| 2
| 6
| 4
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|-
| [[2000–01 NHL season|2000–01]]
| Edmonton Oilers
| NHL
| 34
| 5
| 2
| 7
| 17
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|- bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
|align=right| 2000–01
| [[Montreal Canadiens]]
| NHL
| 43
| 9
| 16
| 25
| 34
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|-
| [[2001–02 NHL season|2001–02]]
| Montreal Canadiens
| NHL
| 75
| 8
| 15
| 23
| 27
| 12
| 0
| 1
| 1
| 9
|- bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
| [[2002–03 NHL season|2002–03]]
| Montreal Canadiens
| NHL
| 60
| 9
| 7
| 16
| 21
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|-
| [[2003–04 NHL season|2003–04]]
| Montreal Canadiens
| NHL
| 36
| 2
| 2
| 4
| 14
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|- bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
| align=right|[[2003–04 AHL season|2003–04]]
| Hamilton Bulldogs
| AHL
| 2
| 1
| 0
| 1
| 0
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|-
| align=right|2003–04
| [[Toronto Maple Leafs]]
| NHL
| 5
| 1
| 1
| 2
| 2
| 13
| 2
| 1
| 3
| 0
|- bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
| [[2004–05 NHL season|2004–05]]
| DNP — [[2004–05 NHL lockout|Lockout]]
| NHL
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|-
| [[2005–06 NHL season|2005–06]]
| Toronto Maple Leafs
| NHL
| 79
| 17
| 11
| 28
| 63
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|- bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
| [[2006–07 NHL season|2006–07]]
| Toronto Maple Leafs
| NHL
| 82
| 14
| 14
| 28
| 58
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|-
| [[2007–08 NHL season|2007–08]]
| Toronto Maple Leafs
| NHL
| 53
| 10
| 7
| 17
| 18
| --
| --
| --
| --
| --
|- ALIGN="center" bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! colspan="3" | OHL totals
! 131
! 59
! 88
! 147
! 118
! 12
! 12
! 4
! 16
! 18
|- ALIGN="center" bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! colspan="3" | NHL totals
! 714
! 107
! 111
! 218
! 363
! 36
! 3
! 2
! 5
! 13
|}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{hockeydb|17660}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Oleg Tverdovsky]] | title = [[List of Anaheim Ducks draft picks|Anaheim Mighty Ducks first round draft pick]] | years = [[1995 NHL Entry Draft|1995]] | after = [[Ruslan Salei]]}}
{{end box}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kilger, Chad}}
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:Canadian ice hockey right wingers]]
[[Category:Edmonton Oilers players]]
[[Category:Ice hockey personnel from Ontario]]
[[Category:Kingston Frontenacs alumni]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Mighty Ducks of Anaheim players]]
[[Category:Mighty Ducks of Anaheim draft picks]]
[[Category:Montreal Canadiens players]]
[[Category:National Hockey League first round draft picks]]
[[Category:Phoenix Coyotes players]]
[[Category:Toronto Maple Leafs players]]
[[Category:Winnipeg Jets players]]
[[Category:Springfield Falcons players]]
[[Category:Hamilton Bulldogs players]]
[[Category:People from Cornwall, Ontario]]

[[fr:Chad Kilger]]
[[ru:Килгер, Чед]]

Syrtis Major (Gradfeld)

2009-04-22T00:26:33Z

Keithh: fixed typo

The '''Syrtis Major quadrangle''' covers longitudes 270° to 315° west and latitudes 0° to 30° north on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]].
==Discovery and name==
The name [[Syrtis Major]] is derived from the classical [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] name ''Syrtis maior'' for the [[Gulf of Sidra]] on the coast of [[Libya]] (classical [[Cyrenaica]]).

Syrtis Major was the first documented surface feature of another [[planet]]. It was discovered by [[Christiaan Huygens]], who included it in a drawing of Mars in 1659. The feature was originally known as the '''Hourglass Sea''' but has been given different names by different [[cartographer]]s. In 1840, [[Johann Heinrich von Mädler]] compiled a map of Mars from his observations and called the feature '''Atlantic Canale'''. In [[Richard Proctor]]'s 1867 map it is called then '''Kaiser Sea''' (after [[Frederick Kaiser]] of the [[Leiden Observatory]]). [[Camille Flammarion]] called it the '''Mer du Sablier''' (French for "Hourglass Sea") when he revised Proctor's nomenclature in 1876. The name "Syrtis Major" was chosen by [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]] when he created a map based on observations made during Mars' close approach to Earth in 1877.<ref>{{cite book| title=Mapping Mars: Science, Imagination, and the Birth of a World| first=Oliver| last=Morton| publisher=Picador USA| location=New York| year=2002| isbn=0312245513| pages=14–15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap04.htm|title=The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery - Chapter 4: Areographers|author=William Sheehan|accessdate=2007-09-07}}</ref>

== Igneous Rocks ==
Syrtis Major is of great interest to geologists because several types of igneous rocks have been found there with orbiting spacecraft. Besides [[basalt]], [[dacite]] and [[granite]] have been found there. Dacite originates under [[volcanoes]] in [[magma]] chambers. Dacites form at the top of the chamber, after heavy minerals ([[olivine]] and [[pyroxene]]) containing [[iron]] and [[magnesium]] have settled to the bottom. Granite is formed by a more complex process. <ref>Christensen, P. 2005. The Many Faces of Mars. Scientific American. July, 2005.</ref>

Some areas of Syrtis Major contain large amounts of the mineral [[olivine]]. Olivine turns into other minerals very rapidly in the presence of water, so a high abundance of olivine suggests that for a long time little water has been there.<ref>http://www.marsdaily.com/news-odyssey-05a.html</ref>

== [[Dikes]] ==
Some crater floors in the Syrtis Major area show elongated ridges in a lattice-like pattern. Such patterns are typical of [[faults]] and breccia dikes formed as a result of an impact. The ridges are found where there has been enhanced [[erosion]]. Pictures on this page show examples of these dikes. Water may flow along faults. The water often carries minerals that serve to cement rock materials thus making them harder. Later when the whole area undergoes erosion the dikes will remain as ridges because they are more resistant to erosion.<ref>http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_008189_2080</ref> This discovery may be of great importance for future colonization of Mars because these types of faults and breccia dikes on earth are associated with key mineral resources. Perhaps, when people live on Mars these areas will be mined as they are on earth.
<ref>Head, J. and J. Mustard. 2006. Breccia Dikes and Crater-Related Faults in Impact Craters on Mars: Erosion and Exposure on the Floor of a 75-km Diameter Crater at the Dichotomy Boundary. In Special Issue on Role of Volatiles and Atmospheres on Martian Impact Craters Meteoritics & Planetary Science.</ref>

== [[Buttes]] ==
Many places on Mars have buttes that are similar to buttes on Earth, such as the famous ones in [[Monument Valley]], [[Utah]]. Buttes are formed when most of a layer(s) of rocks are removed from an area. Buttes usually have a hard, erosion resistant cap rock on the top. The cap rock causes the top of a butte to be flat. An example of a butte in the Syrtis Major quadrangle is shown in a picture on this page.

== Dunes ==
[[Sand dunes]] are found all over Mars. Often sand dunes will form in low areas, for example on the floor of ancient river valleys. Dunes on the floor of [[Auquakuh Valles]], an old river valley are easily visible in a picture on this page.

== Streaks ==
Many areas of Mars change their shape and/or coloration. For many years, astronomers observing regular changes on Mars when the seasons changed, thought that what they saw was evidence of vegetation growing. After close-up inspection with a number of spacecraft, other causes were discovered. Basically, the changes are caused by the effects of the wind blowing dust around. Sometimes, fine bright dust settles on the dark basalt rock making the surface appear lighter, at other times the light-toned dust will be blown away; thus making the surface darken--just as if vegetation were growing. Mars has frequent regional or global dust storms coat things with fine bright dust. In the [[THEMIS]] image below, white streaks are seen downwind of craters. The streaks are not too bright; they appear very bright because this area of Mars is extremely dark because of dark volcanic rock ([[basalt]]).<ref>http://themis.asu.edu/zoom-20020606a</ref>

== Inverted Relief ==
Some places on Mars show inverted relief. In these locations, a stream bed may be a raised feature, instead of a valley. The inverted former stream channels may be caused by the deposition of large rocks or due to cementation. In either case erosion would erode the surrounding land and leave the old channel as a raised ridge because the ridge would be more resistant to erosion. An image below, taken with [[HiRISE]] of [[Antoniadi Crater]] shows sinuous ridges that are old channels that have become inverted.<ref>http://hiroc.lpl.arizona.edu/images/PSP/diafotizo.php?ID=PSP_002279_1735</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Syrtis Major Map.JPG|Map of Syrtis Major quadrangle. The [[igneous rocks]] [[basalt]], [[granite]], and [[dacite]] have been discovered in this region.

Image:Wikiauquakuh.JPG|[[Auquakuh Valles]]. At one time a dark layer covered the whole area, now only a few pieces remain as [[buttes]]. Image was taken with [[THEMIS]].

Image:Huo Hsing Vallis in Syrtis Major.JPG|[[Huo Hsing Vallis]] in Syrtis Major, as seen by [[THEMIS]]. Straight ridges may be [[dikes]] in which liquid rock once flowed.

<gallery>
Image:Huo Hsing Vallis Ridges.JPG|[[Huo Hsing Vallis]] Ridges, as seen by [[HiRISE]]. Ridges may be caused by water moving along faults.

<gallery>
Image:Bright Streaks in Syrtis Major.JPG|Bright Streaks in Syrtis Major caused by the wind, as seen by [[THEMIS]].

<gallery>
Image:Antoniadi Crater Stream Channels.JPG|Inverted Stream Channels in [[Antoniadi Crater]], as seen by [[HiRISE]].

Image:Eroding mesa in Iapygia.JPG|Eroding mesa in Syrtis Major. It would be rough to walk across this feature. Image was taken with [[Mars Global Surveyor]].

<gallery>
Image:Arnus Vallis layers.JPG|[[Arnus Vallis]] layers, as seen by [[HiRISE]].

</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Mars quadrangle layout}}

[[Category:Syrtis Major quadrangle|*]]

Arabische Eroberung Ägyptens

2009-04-10T15:56:55Z

Keithh: fixed typo

{{FixHTML|beg}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|image=[[File:Giza Plateau - Great Sphinx with Pyramid of Khafre in background.JPG|290px]]
|caption=
|conflict=Muslim conquest of Egypt
|partof=the [[Muslim conquests]] and [[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
|date=639–642
|place=[[Egypt]], [[Libya]]
|result=Rashidun victory.
|territory=Muslim annexed [[Egypt]], [[Cyrenaica]], [[Tripolitania]] and [[Fezzan]].
|combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]
|combatant2=[[Rashidun Caliphate]]
|commander1=[[Heraclius|Emperor Heraclius]] 
[[Theodorus]] 
[[Cyrus of Alexandria]] 
|commander2=
[[Umar|Caliph Umar]] 
[[Amr ibn al-Aas]] 
[[Zubair ibn al-Awam]] 
[[Miqdad bin Al-Aswad]] 
[[Ubaida bin As-Samit]] 
[[Kharija bin Huzafa]] 
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
{{FixHTML|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab Wars}}
{{FixHTML|end}}
At the commencement of the '''Muslim conquest of Egypt''', [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] was part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] with its capital in [[Constantinople]]. However, it had been [[Siege of Alexandria (619)|Siege of Alexandria]]occupied just a decade before by the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian Empire]] under [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrau II]] (616 to 629 [[Anno Domini|AD]]). [[Heraclius|Emperor Heraclius]] re-captured Egypt after series of brilliant campaigns against the Sassanid Persians, only to once again lose it to the [[Rashidun army]] ten years later. Before the Muslim invasion of Egypt began, the Byzantine Empire had already lost the [[Levant]] and its Arab ally, the [[Ghassanids|Ghassanid Kingdom]], to the Muslims. This all left the Byzantine Empire dangerously exposed and vulnerable to the invaders.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:18 page no:453</ref>

==Byzantine Egypt==
Before the Muslim invasion of Egypt, Egypt was religiously alienated from most of the Byzantine Empire. The [[Dyophysitism]] of the Byzantines held to the doctrine of [[Christ]] having two natures, one divine and one human. In Egypt however, the [[christological]] position of [[Miaphysitism]] ([[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Christianity]]) prevailed, maintaining the doctrine of Christ having one united nature, where the Divinity and Humanity were inseparably united. Although the [[Council of Chalcedon]], held in 451 AD, had ruled in favor of the Dyophysite position, Egypt remained a stronghold of Miaphysitism. Thus, with the restoration of Byzantine political control in 629, Emperor [[Heraclius]] began persecuting the Egyptians, and expelled their [[Pope of Alexandria|Pope]].<ref>http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm</ref>

==Rise of the Caliphate==
[[Muhammad]], the prophet of [[Islam]], died in June 632, and [[Abu Bakr]] was appointed [[Caliph]] and political successor at [[Medina]]. Soon after [[Abu Bakr]]'s succession, several Arab tribes revolted against in the ''[[Ridda wars]]'' (the Wars of Apostasy). By March 18, 633, [[Arabia]] was united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.

The Muslim Arabs began their wars against neighboring territories with confrontations against the [[Lakhmids]], an Arab client of the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian Empire]] under the general [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]]. The [[Rashidun army|Rashidun armies]] launched an offense against the [[Byzantine Empire]] by attacking [[Syria]] in [[April]] [[634]]. The Byzantine armies were defeated in the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] fought in [[August]] [[636]], and by 638 all of the [[Levant]], [[Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia|Jazira]], most of [[Armenia]] and eastern [[Anatolia]] were under Muslim control. [[Heraclius|Emperor Heraclius]] who had once re-captured the Levant from the mighty [[Sassanid]] [[Persian]]s, was no longer able to attempt a military come back in the Levant after losing the bulk of his imperial troops at Yarmouk. Heraclius had already abandoned the forts west of [[Tarsus]] to create a no-man-zoon between Muslim controlled areas and [[Byzantine]] territory. Thus, the Muslims had captured the strategic trade routes and sea ports in the Levant, [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Iraq]].<ref>Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,</ref>

Anatolia was at the mercy of Caliph Umar, who rather than expanding his domain deeper into the Byzantine Empire, chose to consolidate his power in the Levant. Soon enough, Umar changed his non-offensive policy dramatically after the [[Battle of Nahāvand]], fought in late 641, into a completely offensive strategy that absorbed the Persian Empire within two years, from 642 to 644.<ref>http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm</ref> However, due to the dismissal of Khalid from the army, and following consecutive epidemics of [[plague]] and [[famine]], the Byzantines were able to hold on Anatolia and its African territories.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:18 page no:453</ref>

==Muslim Arab invasion of Egypt==
===Prologue===
[[Image:Maler der Grabkammer des Ramose 002.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth dynasty]] painting from the tomb of [[Thebes, Egypt|Theban]] governor [[Ramose]] in [[Deir el-Madinah]].]]
When Umar visited [[Jerusalem]] in 637 AD, [[Amr ibn al-Aas]] the military governor of [[Palestine]] tried to persuade him to invade Egypt. Umar rejected the proposal because the Levant was not firmly in Muslim hands, and the Byzantines were still in control of territories north of Syria.
The year [[638]] and [[639]] were marked by [[famine]] in [[Arabia]] and [[plague]] in Syria, respectively. After the great plague, in late 639, Caliph Umar visited Syria to re-organize its military and governmental structure.<ref>Al-Maqrizi, Al-Mawaez wal itibar fi zekr al-khetat wal athar</ref> [[Amr ibn al-Aas]], who was governor of Palestine and interim governor of the Levant, took the opportunity to once again convince Umar to invade Egypt.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:18 page no:453</ref> Umar was already aware of the fact that the southern borders were insecure, and that there was always a possibility of Roman incursion via Egypt. On the other hand, the northern borders were secured by the invasions of Anatolia and Armenia, and the Byzantines were kept on bay by annual raids and plundering by the Muslims in Anatolia.<ref>http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm</ref>. Thus, Amr managed to persuade Umar to secure the southern borders by invading Egypt, an easy target due to the fractionation of the Byzantine army in Egypt into several small garrisons, each of which was responsible to defend a small piece of land, and which lacked a centralized command.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:18 page no:453</ref> In addition to its strategic location, Egypt was desired by the Muslim Arabs for its richness and prosperity. Thus, in his attempts to convince Umar, Amr was quoted saying:

{{cquote|''O Commander of the Faithful, permit me to march on Egypt. It will be a source of strength and sustenance for the Muslims. '''It is the richest of lands on earth''' ''<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:18 page no:468</ref>.}}

Umar was not favorably inclined to the proposal of a whole scale invasion of Egypt, and rather preferred the same strategy of raids and plundering employed at the northern borders, aimed at diminishing the morale and resources of the Byzantines in Egypt, thus preemptively preventing any incursion against Palestine and the Levant. Amr however persisted. Ultimately, Umar gave way and decided to put the matter to [[Majlis al Shura]] at [[Madinah]].<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]], chapter no:19</ref>

In Madinah, the views and suggestions of the members of [[Majlis al Shura]] were mixed. While few supported the invasion, others perceived it as a dangerous decision of putting the Caliphate's army in the struggle of life and death.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]], chapter no:19</ref> Many were of the view that Amr had a thrust for the "throne", and therefore wanted to invade Egypt only to govern this rich land. [[Uthman]], who would become the thrid Caliph, was most prominent among those who opposed the invasion of Egypt. Nevertheless, Majlis al Shura, finally gave decision in favor of the invasion of Egypt. Caliph Umar, though still reluctant to expand his empire, wrote a historic letter to Amr to march on Egypt.<ref>Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,</ref>

===Arab Muslim army crossing the Egyptian border===
[[File:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Pyramids of Gizah.]]
In December 639 A.D., 4000 [[Arab]] soldiers led by [['Amr ibn al-'As]] reached the city of [[Rafah]] at the border between [[Egypt]] and [[Palestine]]. Most of the soldiers belonged to the Arab tribe of 'Ak, although [[Al-Kindi]] mentions that one third of the soldiers belonged to the Arab tribe of Ghamik. The Arab soldiers were also joined by some [[Byzantines]] and [[Persians]] who had converted to [[Islam]]. Once the army of the Muslims reached [[Rafah]], messangers from the Muslim caliph [[Umar ibn al-Khattāb]] handed [['Amr ibn al-'As]] a message from the caliph. The former realized that the message contained orders from ibn al-Khattāb to abandon the invasion of [[Egypt]], since the caliphs had always had his doubts about invading Egypt, and had only allowed the Muslim army to conquer it after 'Amr ibn al-'As strongly insisted. For this reason, [['Amr ibn al-'As]] decided not to open the message until he reached the little valley near the city of [[Arish]], which meant that he was definitely within the Egyptian border. At that point he read the message, then asked his soldiers "Are we in [[Egypt]] or in the [[Levant]]?" His soldeiers replied saying that they were in Egypt. So he read the caliph's message, which said "If you are still in Palestine then return back. If you are already in the land of Egypt then go ahead and invade that country with the blessing of Allah, and I will pray Allah that he may bestow victory upon you, and I will send you enough supplies".<ref>Alfred Butler, the invasion of Egypt, page 228 - 230</ref>

===Requisition of [[Pelusium]] and the fall of the fortress of [[Bilbeis]]===
In January 640 A.D., the Arab army reached the city of [[Pelusium]] (Per-Amun), which contained many Ancient Egyptian monuments, as well as many Christian churches and monasteries. After one month of siege, 2 Christian monks accompanied by [[Cyrus of Alexandria]] and a famous Byzantine general came out to negotiate with [['Amr ibn al-'As]]. Ibn al-'As gave them three options: to convert to [[Islam]], to pay [[Jizya]], or war. So they requested 3 days to reflect, then - as mentions [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|al-Tabari]] - requested 2 extra days. At the end of the 5 days, the 2 monks and the Byzantine general decided to reject [[Islam]] and to refuse to pay [[Jizya]], and chose to fight the invading Muslims. They thus disobeyed their ruler, [[Cyrus of Alexandria]], who wanted to surrender and pay [[Jizya]]. Cyrus subsequently left for the [[Babylon Fortress]], while the 2 monks and the Byzantine general came out and fought with the Muslims near the fortress of [[Bilbeis]]. The fight resulted in the victory of the Muslims and the death of the Byzantine general.<ref>Al-Kamil, page 451 - 452</ref><ref>Al-Gawzi, Al-Montazim, page 532 - 534</ref><ref>[[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|al-Tabari]], history of the kings, page 862</ref><ref>Alfred Butler, the invasion of Egypt, page 234</ref>

The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns like [[Babylon Fortress]], where they successfully held out for a year or more. But the Arabs sent for reinforcements and the invading army, joined by another 5,000 men in 640, defeated a Byzantine army at the [[Battle of Heliopolis]]. Amr next proceeded in the direction of [[Alexandria]], which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on [[November 8]], [[641]].
[[Image:Age-of-caliphs.png|300px|thumb|right|The Age of the Caliphs {{legend|#a1584e|Under Prophet Mohammad, 622-632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Under the Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Under the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750}}]]
The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the [[Byzantine Empire]] appears to have been due to the treachery of the governor of Egypt, [[Cyrus of Alexandria|Cyrus]] [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm], [[Melchite]] (i.e., Byzantine–Chalcedonian Orthodox, ''not'' Coptic) [[Patriarch of Alexandria]], and the incompetence of the generals of the Byzantine forces. Cyrus had persecuted the local [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Christians]]. He is one of the authors of [[monothelism]], a seventh century heresy, and some supposed him to have been secretly a convert to [[Islam]].

===Surrender of Thebaid (South eastern Egypt)===
[[File:Mohammad adil-Muslim conquest of Egypt.PNG|thumb|right|250px|Map detailing the route of Muslim's invasion of Egypt.]]
On the 22nd December, [[Cyrus of Alexandria]] of entered into a treaty with the Muslims.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:22</ref> By the treaty, Muslim suzerainty over the whole of Egypt, anf effectively on [[Thebaid]], was recognized, and the Egyptians agreed to pay Jizya at the rate of 2 diners per male adult.<ref>Butler, Alfred, ''The Arab Invasion of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion''</ref> The treaty was subject to the approval of the emperor Heraclius, but Cyrus of Alexandria stipulated that even if the emperor repudiated the treaty, he and the [[Copts]] of whom he was the High Priest would honor the terms of the treaty, recognize the supremacy of the Muslims and pay them [[Jizya]].<ref>"Umar (634-644)", The Islamic World to 1600 Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary. Last accessed 20 Oct 2006</ref> Cyrus of Alexandria submitted a report to Heraclius and asked for his approval to the terms of the treaty. He also offered reasons in justification of the acceptance of the terms of the treaty. Amr submitted a detailed report to Umar and asked for his further instructions. When Umar received the report of Amr bin Al-Aas about the invasion of Babylon and the treaty with Cyrus of Alexandria, he wrote back to say that he approved of the terms provided Heraclius agreed to submit to them.<ref>Butler, Alfred, ''The Arab Invasion of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion''</ref> He desired that as soon as the reactions of Heraclius were known, he should be informed so that further necessary instructions might be issued.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:22</ref>
Heraclius's reaction to the report of Cyrus of Alexandria was violent. He removed Cyrus of Alexandria from the Viceroyship of Egypt, but he remained the Head of the Coptic Church. This was a matter in which the emperor could not interfere. Heraclius sent strict orders to the Commander-in-chief of the Byzantine forces in Egypt that the Muslims should be driven from the soil of Egypt. Cyrus of Alexandria waited on Amr and told him that Heraclius had repudiated the treaty of Babylon. Cyrus of Alexandria assured Amr that so far as the Copts were concerned the terms of the treaty would be followed. Amr reported these developments to Umar, and Umar desired that before the Byzantines could gather further strength the Muslims should strike at them and drive them from Alexandria. It is recorded that Cyrus of Alexandria asked for three favors from the Muslims, namely:
#Do not break your treaty with the [[Copts]];
#If the Byzantines after this repudiation ask for peace, do not make peace with them, but treat them as captives and slaves; and
#When I am dead allow me to be buried in the [[Church]] of [[St. John]] at [[Alexandria]].<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:23</ref><ref>Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,</ref>
This position was to the advantage of the Muslims. The Copts were the real natives of the land of Egypt.<ref>"Umar (634-644)", The Islamic World to 1600 Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary. Last accessed 20 Oct 2006</ref> Both the Byzantines and the Muslims were strangers. Though some Copts from personal considerations continued to support the [[Byzantine]]s, the sympathies of the Copts were now by and large with the Muslims. The Copts were not supposed to fight against the Byzantines on behalf of the Muslims but they undertook to help the Muslims in the promotion of war effort, help them in the provision of stores; build roads and bridges for them; and provide them moral support.<ref>Butler, Alfred, ''The Arab Invasion of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion''</ref>

===Invasion of Alexandria===
[[File:Alexandrie 112004 02.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Ancient Roman theaters in Alexandria.]]
Byzantine commanders knew that after Babylon the next target of the Muslims will be [[Alexandria]]. They accordingly prepared for the siege to be laid on the city. Their strategy was to tie down Muslims at Alexandria and destroy their power through continues sallies and attacks from the fort, thus demoralizing them morally and physically. It would be more a war of patience then power.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:22</ref> In [[February]] [[641]], Amr set off with his army from Babylon and the destination was [[Alexandria]]. At each stage, Byzantines had left regiments to delay and if possible inflict heavy losses one the advancing Muslim troops.
On the third day of their march from [[Babylon]] the Muslims advance guard encountered a Byzantine detachment at Tarnut on the west bank of the [[Nile]].<ref>Butler, Alfred, ''The Arab Invasion of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion''</ref> Though Byzantines failed to inflict heavy losses, but nevertheless delayed the advance by one more day. Muslim high command decided to halt the main army at Tarnut and send the advance guard cavalry farward to clear the way from the possible Byzantine detechments. This was done so that with out further delay the main army could reach Alexandria as soon as possible with out being stopped mid way due to the Byzantine detachments. Twenty miles from Tarnut, Shareek, the Byzantine detachment that withdrew from Tarnut yesterday, joined the detachment already present at Shareek to form a strong offensive force, they attacked and routed the Muslim advance guard. The next day before The Byzantine could resume their offensive to annihilate the Muslim advance guard, the main Muslim army had arrived and the Byzantines found safety in withdrawal. At this point Muslim high command decided not to send forward the advance guard and whole army marched forward. The following day the Muslims resumed their march and reached [[Sulteis]] where they encountered a Byzantine detachment. Some hard fighting followed, but the Byzantine resistance soon broke down and they withdrew to Alexandria. The Muslims halted at Sulteis for a day and then resumed the march to Alexandria. Alexandria was still two day march from Sulteis. After one day's march the Muslim forces arrived at Kirayun twelve miles from Alexandria. Here the Muslim advance to Alexandria was blocked up by a [[Byzantine]] detachment about 20,000 strong. The strategy of the Byzantines was that the Muslims should be driven away before they actually arrived at Alexandria or to be weaken as much as possible. The two forces were deployed for action, and some hard fighting followed but the action remained indecisive.<ref>Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,</ref> This state of affairs persisted for ten days. On the last day the Muslims launched a vigorous assault. The Byzantine resistance broke down, and they withdrew to Alexandria. The way to Alexandria having been cleared, the Muslim forces resumed the march from Kirayun and reached the outskirts of Alexandria some time in [[March]] [[641]] A D. The Muslims appeared before Alexandria in [[March]] [[641]] and laid siege to the city.<ref>"Umar (634-644)", The Islamic World to 1600 Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary. Last accessed 20 Oct 2006</ref> Alexandria was heavily fortified. There were walls behind walls, and forts within forts. There was no dearth of provisions and food supply in the city. The city had direct access to the sea, and through the sea route help from [[Constantinople]] in men and material could come any time. As Amr surveyed the military situation, he felt that Alexandria would be a hard nut to crack.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:22</ref> The Byzantines had high stakes in Alexandria, and they were determined to offer stiff resistance to the Muslims. The Byzantines mounted [[catapult]]s on the walls of the city, and these engines pounded the Muslims with boulders. This caused considerable damage to the Muslims and Amr ordered his men back from the advance position so that they might be beyond the range of these missiles. A see-saw war followed.<ref>Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,</ref> When the Muslims tried to go close to the city they were pounded with missiles. When the Byzantines sallied from the fort, they were invariably beaten back by the Muslims. It is said that Heraclius the Byzantine emperor collected a large reinforcement at Constantinople. He intended to march at the head of this reinforcement personally to Alexandria. Before he could finalize the arrangements he died. The reinforcement mustered at Constantinople dispersed, and no help came to Alexandria. This demoralized Byzantines further. The siege dragged on for six months, and in [[Madinah]] [[Umar]] got impatient. In a letter addressed to Amr the Caliph expressed his concern at the inordinate delay in the invasion of Egypt. He further instructed that the new field commander will be Ubada, and would launch the assault at the fort of Alexandria. Ubada's assault was successful and [[Siege of Alexandria 641|Alexandria was captured]] by Muslims in [[September]] [[641]]. Thousand of Byzantine soldiers were killed or taken captive while other managed to flight to Constantinople through ships that stood anchored in the port. Some wealthy traders also left.<ref>Butler, Alfred, ''The Arab Invasion of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion''</ref>
On behalf of the Egyptians, Cyrus of Alexandria sued for peace, and peace was allowed. In his report to the Caliph, Amr reported:
After the invasion of Egypt Amr is reported to have written to Caliph Umar:
{{cquote|"We have conquered Alexandria. In this city there are 4,000 palaces, 400 places of entertainment, and untold wealth."}}
The permanent loss of the Egypt left the Byzantine Empire without an irreplaceable source of food and money. The loss of Egypt and Syria, followed later by the [[Umayyad invasion of North Africa|invasion of the Exarchate of Africa]] also meant that the Mediterranean, long a "Roman lake", was now contested between two powers: the Muslim Caliphate and the Byzantines. In the event, the Byzantine Empire, although sorely tested, would be able to hold on to [[Anatolia]], while the mighty [[walls of Constantinople]] would save it, during two great Arab sieges, from the fate of the Persian Empire.<ref>Kaegli, Walter. Heraclius: Emperor of Byzantium.</ref>

An attempt was made in the year 645 to regain Alexandria for the Byzantine Empire, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by [[Constans II]] was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.

===Invasion of Nubia===
The land of [[Nubia]] lay to the south of Egypt. It stretched from [[Aswan]] to [[Khartoum]] and from the [[Red Sea]] to the [[Libyan Desert]]. The Nubians were [[Christian]]s and were ruled by a king. The capital of the kingdom was [[Dongola]]. In the summer of [[642]], Amr bin Al-Aas sent an expedition to Nubia under the command of his cousin Uqba bin Nafe. The expedition was ordered by Amr bin Aas on his own account and it appears that the approval of Umar to the undertaking of the expedition was not sought.<ref>Butler, Alfred, ''The Arab Invasion of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion''</ref> Amr bin Al-Aas thought that the victory over the Nubians would be an easy affair and that he would inform the Caliph after he had conquered another land. Uqba bin Nafe who later made a great name for himself as the Conqueror of Africa, and led his horse to the Atlantic complaining that there were no lands left for him to conquer in the way of Allah came in for an unhappy experience in Nubia. In Nubia, no pitched battle was fought. There were only [[skirmish]]es and haphazard engagements and in such type of warfare the Nubians excelled the Muslims. The Nubians were skilful archers and subjected the Muslims to a merciless barrage of arrows. The arrows were aimed at the eyes and in the encounter 250 Muslims lost their eyes.
The Nubians were very fast in their movements.<ref>http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm</ref> The Muslim cavalry was known for its speed and mobility, but it was no match for the Nubian horse riders. The Nubians would strike hard against the Muslims, and then vanish before the Muslims could recover their balance and take counter action. The hit-and-run raids by the Nubians caused considerable damage to the Muslims. Uqba wrote to Amr bin Al-Aas of the state of affairs.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:22</ref> He said that the Nubians avoided pitched battle, and in the guerilla tactics that they followed the Muslims were the sufferers Uqba further came to know that Nubia was a very poor land, and there was nothing therein worth fighting for or to tempt by way of booty. Thereupon Amr bin Al-Aas asked Uqba to withdraw from Nubia. Uqba accordingly pulled out of Nubia with his forces.

===Invasion of North Africa===
After the failure of the campaign of [[Nubia]] in the south Amr bin Al-Aas decided to undertake campaigns in the west. Some time in September 642, Amr led his troops to the west. After one month of marching the Muslim forces reached the city of [[Pentapolis]]. From Burqa, Uqba bin Nafe was sent at the head of a column to undertake a campaign against [[Fezzan]]. Uqba marched to [[Zaweela]] the capital of Fezzan. No resistance was offered, and the entire district of Fezzan, what is present day north-western [[Libya]], submitted to the Muslims. After the invasion of Fezzan, Uqba returned to [[Burqa]], soon after the Muslim army marched westward from Burqa. They arrived at [[Tripoli]] in the spring of [[643]] A.D and laid siege to the city. After a siege of one month the city was captured by Muslims. From Tripoli, Amr sent a column to [[Sabrata]] a city forty miles from Tripoli. A feeble resistance was put up, and thereafter the city surrendered and agreed to pay [[Jizya]]. From Tripoli Amr is reported to have written to the Caliph the details of the operations in the following words:
{{cquote|"We have conquered Burqa, Tripoli and Sabrata. The way to the west is clear, and if the Commander of the Faithful wishes to conquer more lands, we could do so with the grace of God."}}
Umar however didn't approve of for the further invasion and ordered to consolidate position in Egypt, and issued strict orders that there should be no further campaigning. Amr bin Al-Aas accordingly abandoned [[Tripoli]] and [[Burqa]] and returned to [[Fustat]]. This was towards the close of the year [[643]] [[A.D]].<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:24</ref>

===Stance of the Egyptians towards the invading Arab Muslims===

There was a general misconception that the Muslims were assisted by some Copts, although a few of the Copts did find the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines. In return for a tribute of money and food for the troops of occupation, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders.[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm]

After the negotiated surrender, taxes were raised to a level which the [[Egyptians]] found unbearable, notably during the [[Umayyad]] era. Nevertheless, during Amr's lifetime the churches and people were not subjected to further assaults and were left in peace:<blockquote>On the twentieth of Maskaram Theodore and all his troops and officers [the Byzantines] set out and proceeded to the island of Cyprus, and abandoned the city of Alexandria. And thereupon 'Amr the chief of the Moslem made his entry without effort into the city of Alexandria. And the inhabitants received him with respect; for they were in great tribulation and affliction... And 'Amr became stronger every day in every field of his activity. And he exacted the taxes which had been determined upon, but he took none of the property of the churches, and he committed no act of spoliation or plunder, and he preserved them throughout all his days. ... And he increased the taxes to the extent of twenty-two batr of gold till all the people hid themselves owing to the greatness of the tribulation, and could not find the wherewithal to pay.... And none could recount the mourning and lamentation which took place in that city: they even gave their children in exchange for the great sums which they had to pay monthly. Basically, they were delivered into the hands of their enemies. [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm ''The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu''] Chapters CXX-CXXI</blockquote>

==Egypt under Muslim rule==
[[Image:Mohammad adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG|thumb|right|300px|Rashidun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman- 654 {{legend|#009900|Strongholds of Rashidun Caliphate}}]]
The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the [[Byzantine Empire]] appears to have been due to the treachery of the governor of Egypt, [[Cyrus of Alexandria|Cyrus]]<ref>http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm</ref>, [[Melchite]] (i.e., Byzantine–Chalcedonian Orthodox, ''not'' Coptic) [[Patriarch of Alexandria]], and the incompetence of the generals of the Byzantine forces. Cyrus had persecuted the local [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Christians]].<ref>Charles, R. H. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text, 1916. Reprinted 2007. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9.</ref> He is one of the authors of [[monothelism]], a seventh century heresy, and some supposed him to have been secretly a convert to [[Islam]]. An attempt was made in the year 645 to regain Alexandria for the Byzantine Empire, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by [[Constans II]] was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country. There was a general misconception that the Muslims were assisted by some [[Copts]], although a few of the Copts did find the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines.<ref>http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm</ref> In return for a tribute of money and food for the troops of occupation, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders.<ref>http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm</ref>

===Fusta, the new Capital===

With the fall of [[Alexandria]] the Muslims were the masters of Egypt. When the Muslims conquered Egypt, Alexandria was the capital of the country. When the Muslims conquered Alexandria, most of the Byzantine population evacuated the city. The vacant houses were occupied by the Muslims. Alexandria was the queen of cities. Amr bin Al-Aas and the other Muslims with him were much attracted by the city. Amr wanted to make Alexandria the capital of Muslim Egypt.<ref>Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,</ref> Amr wrote to Umar seeking his permission to make Alexandria the capital of the province. Umar rejected the proposal on the basis that Alexandria was a [[maritime]] city and there will always a danger of [[Byzantine Navy|Byzantine naval]] attacks.<ref>Butler, Alfred, ''The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion''</ref> He suggested that the capital should be established further inland at a central place, where no mass of water intervened between it and [[Arabia]].<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:22</ref> As per treaty with Cyrus of Alexandria, the wealth of Egyptians in Alexandria was spared and that of [[Roman]]s and [[Greeks|Greek]]s was taken as booty. Greek civilians were given a choice, whether a safe passage to return to Greek land with out their wealth, or stay in Alexandria and pay [[Jaziya]]. Some choose to stay, while others went to Byzantine lands. Amr next proceeded to choose a suitable site for the capital of Egypt. His choice fell on the site where he had pitched his tent at the time of the battle of [[Babylon]]. His tent had been fixed about a quarter of a mile north east of the fort. It is reported that after the battle was over, and the army was to march to Alexandria when the men began to pull down the tent and pack it for the journey it was found that a [[dove]] had nested on top of the tent and fail eggs. Amr ordered that the tent should remain standing where it was. The army marched away but the tent remained standing in the plain of Babylon. In this unusual episode of the dove and its nest, Amr saw a sign from the Heaven. He decided "Where the dove laid its nest, let the people build their city". As Amr's tent was to be the focal point of the city, the city was called [[Fustat]], which in Arabic means the [[tent]]. The first structure to be built was the [[mosque]] which later became famous as ''Mosque of Amr bin Al-Aas''.<ref>http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm</ref> The city of Fustat was built east of Babylon. In due course Fustat extended to include the old town of Babylon. It grew to become a bustling city and commercial center of Egypt.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:22</ref>

===Reforms of Caliph Umar===

To consolidate his rule in Egypt, Umar imposed very low [[Jizya]] ([[tribute]]) on Egyptians, as compare to [[Pharaohs]] and [[Roman]]s. Egyptians found them self economically at ease under the [[Rashidun]] rule. However during [[Umayyad]] rule unbearably high taxes were imposed on Egyptians.
Upon Umar's permission, Amr ibn al Aas decided to build a [[canal]] to join [[Nile]] with [[Red sea]], it would help the traders and [[Arabia]] will flourish through this new trade route. More over it will open new markets for the merchants of Egypt and open for them an easy route for the markets of [[Arabia]] and [[Iraq]]. The project was presented to Caliph Umar, who approved it. A canal was dug and with in few months was opened for merchants. The canal was named '''Naher Amir ul Momeneen''' i.e ''The canal of Commander of believers'' named after the title of Caliph [[Umar]].<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:22</ref>
Amr proposed an other project, digging of canal that will join [[Red sea]] and [[Mediterranean sea]].<ref>"Umar (634-644)", The Islamic World to 1600 Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary. Last accessed 20 Oct 2006</ref> The project was once again sent to Caliph Umar for approval, but Umar viewed it as a threat to national security and rejected on the basis that it will open a way for [[Byzantine navy]] to enter [[Red sea]] via that canal and it will be a continues threat to [[Madinah]].<ref>Al-Maqrizi, Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,</ref> This project however was completed in the form of what is now known as [[Suez Canal]] 1300 years later. The [[British Empire]], like Caliph Umar resisted the construction of Suez Canal on the same basis that it will threaten its rule over [[India]].<ref>http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm</ref>
Each year a large amount of [[Jizya]] according to Caliph's instructions use to be spent on building and repairing of canals and bridges.<ref>Al Farooq, Umar By [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]. chapter no:25</ref>
During Amr's lifetime the churches and people were not subjected to further assaults and were left in peace:<blockquote>On the twentieth of Maskaram Theodore and all his troops and officers [the Byzantines] set out and proceeded to the island of Cyprus, and abandoned the city of Alexandria. And thereupon 'Amr the chief of the Moslem made his entry without effort into the city of Alexandria. And the inhabitants received him with respect; for they were in great tribulation and affliction... And 'Amr became stronger every day in every field of his activity. And he exacted the taxes which had been determined upon, but he took none of the property of the churches, and he committed no act of spoliation or plunder, and he preserved them throughout all his days. ... And he increased the taxes to the extent of twenty-two batr of gold till all the people hid themselves owing to the greatness of the tribulation, and could not find the wherewithal to pay.... And none could recount the mourning and lamentation which took place in that city: they even gave their children in exchange for the great sums which they had to pay monthly. Basically, they were delivered into the hands of their enemies. [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm ''The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu''] Chapters CXX-CXXI</blockquote>
The Arab rulers remained in control of the country from [[History of Arab Egypt|this point]] until 1250, when it fell under the control of the [[Mameluks]] (however, the Ayyubids whom mamluki sultans replaced were Kurdish by their origins).

==References==
<references/>
* Charles, R. H. ''The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from [[Hermann Zotenberg|Zotenberg]]'s Ethiopic Text'', 1916. Reprinted 2007. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9. [http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE4]

== See also ==

*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]
*[[Aslim Taslam]]
*[[Muslim conquests]]
*[[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]
*[[Spread of Islam]]

== External links ==

* Edward Gibbon, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter51.html ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''] Chapter 51
* Bishop John NIkiou [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm ''The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu''] Chapters CXVI-CXXI

[[Category:7th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:History of Egypt]]
[[Category:Islam in Egypt]]
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]
[[Category:Early Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Wars involving Arab Egypt]]

[[ar:الفتح الإسلامي لمصر]]
[[it:Conquista musulmana dell'Egitto]]
[[pt:Invasão muçulmana do Egito]]
[[ru:Арабское завоевание Египта]]

Siam Park

2009-04-02T15:08:23Z

Keithh: fixed typo

[[File:Wave Palace Siam Park.jpg|200px|thumb|Wave Palace of Siam Park.]]
'''Siam Park''' is a [[Loro Parque]]-owned [[water park]] in [[Tenerife]]. It is located on the TF1 highway in [[Adeje|Costa Adeje]]. At 18.5 hectares.<ref name="channeledgas">{{cite web | title=Tenerife News | work=Adeje's "Siam Park" will use "channeled gas" | accessyear=2008 | accessdate=January 1 | url=http://www.tenerifenews.com/cms/front_content.php?idart=5976}}</ref> Siam Park features [[Siam]]ese theming and most of the [[ProSlide]] water rides.

==History==
Siam Park's construction started in 2004<ref name="tenerifesun">{{cite web | title=The Tenerife Sun | work=Parrot park for South is under way | accessyear=2008 | accessdate=January 1 | url=http://www.thetenerifesun.com/Issue%20167/page13.htm}}</ref> and cost 52 million [[euro]]s.<ref name="tenerifenews" /> Originally slated to open in May 2007, it has endured construction problems however, the park finally opened to the public on September 17th 2008.<ref name="oncourse">{{cite web | title=Tenerife News | work=Siam Park on course to give Tenerife an oriental boost | accessyear=2008 | accessdate=January 1 | url=http://www.tenerifenews.com/cms/front_content.php?client=1&lang=1&idcat=8&idart=7265}}</ref> The park's plans also originally included a roller coaster,<ref name="tenerifesun" /> but the park has opted to focus on developing the first phase of the park in order to open the park as soon as possible. <ref name="sensational">{{cite web | title=Tenerife News | work=Sharing the secrets of sensational Siam Park | accessyear=2008 | accessdate=January 1 | url=http://www.tenerifenews.com/cms/front_content.php?client=1&lang=1&idcat=69&idart=6937}}</ref>

Siam Park has full Thai theming, including theming on all of its rides, park buildings<ref name="tenerifenews">{{cite web | title=Tenerife News | work=Siam Park - A unique water theme park | accessyear=2008 | accessdate=January 1 | url=http://www.tenerifenews.com/cms/front_content.php?idart=4795}}</ref>, and restaurants. The park's 25 buildings are the largest collection of Thai-themed buildings outside Thailand.<ref name="oncourse" /> The park's designer, Christoph Keissling, received permission from the Thai royal family to use the park's name and theming; but, to respect the family's wishes, he did not copy royal palaces, temples, or statues of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in the park's theming.<ref name="sensational" />

In addition, the restaurants serve Thai food as well as family favourites. The park also has a Thai floating market.<ref name="tenerifenews" />

==Attractions==
The park features most of the rides in [[ProSlide]]'s catalog, including the following:
*'''The Volcano''', a four-person ProSlide Behemoth Bowl slide with a laser inside which produces a flashing image of a dragon<ref name="tenerifenews" />
*'''The Dragon''', a ProSlide Tornado with a light show inside the 20-meter-wide funnel. The first Tornado with a light show inside was Brain Wash, which opened in 2007 at [[Wet 'n Wild - Orlando]].
*'''Wave Palace''', a wave pool with an artificial white sand beach. At 3 meters high, its waves are the highest of any wave pool in the World. The waves are comparable to the {{convert|9|ft|m|sing=on}} waves in Poseidon's Rage at [[Mt. Olympus Water & Theme Park]]. The park's surfing school will give surfing lessons at the Wave Palace.<ref name="siamparktrivia">{{cite web | title=Siam Park | work=trivia | accessyear=2008 | accessdate=January 1 | url=http://www.siampark.net/ing/curiosidades.htm}}</ref>
*'''Naga Racer''', a six-lane racing slide
*'''The Giant''', which are twin ProSlide Cannon Bowls, one moving clockwise and one moving counterclockwise
*The '''Tower of Power''', a vertical, transparent slide which sends riders through an alligator pond, is similar to [[Atlantis Paradise Island#Mayan_temple_slides|Leap of Faith]] at [[Atlantis Paradise Island]].<ref name="tenerifetourism">{{cite web | author=Goodfellow, Emily | title=Tenerife Tourism Corporation | work=Siam Park - the biggest water theme park in Europe – due to open Spring 2007 in Tenerife! | accessyear=2008 | accessdate=January 1 | url=http://64.233.169.104/search?q=cache:qIrdJl1tH0sJ:www.aito.co.uk/ewebeditpro4/upload/TENERIFE_Siam_Park.doc+%22Christoph+Kiessling&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us&client=firefox-a}}</ref> Riders climb 235 steps to board the 28-meter-high slide.<ref name="sensational" />
*'''River Sawasdee''', the world's longest lazy river, which also has the highest elevation of any lazy river at 8 meters<ref name="oncourse" />
*'''Jungle Snake''', four twisting slides which follow the park's terrain
*'''The Lost City''', a children's play structure with 120 games<ref name="tenerifenews" />
*'''Mekong Rapids''', a [[river rafting ride]] with five-person rafts<ref name="oncourse" />
*An amphitheater
*A sea lion pool near the park's main entrance

==Technical information==
The park is built on a hill, which permits the slides to follow the park's terrain similar to [[terrain roller coaster]]s. Hence, they lack the prominent support structure present in most water slides.

Siam Park is the world's first green water park.<ref name="siamparktrivia" /> The park's water is heated to 25 degrees Celsius. Keissling calls Siam Park the "first air conditioned outdoor aquatic park in the world".<ref name="tenerifetourism" />
To conserve the island's water, Siam Park has a [[desalination]] plant on site, which de-salts 700 cubic meters of sea water per day.<ref name="tenerifetourism" /> After the water is used in the rides, the park recycles the water by using it to water the park's plants.<ref name="siamparktrivia" /> In addition, Siam Park has the first [[natural gas]] plant in the Canary Islands.<ref name="sensational" />

==References==
<references />

==External links==
*[http://www.siampark.net/ Official website]
*[http://www.tenerife-uncovered.com/ Siam Park Reviews and up to date information on Siam Park and other Tenerife related resources]
*[http://www.siam-park-tenerife.co.uk/ Unofficial site dedicated to provide information, Images and news about Siam Park and other attractions on Tenerife]
*[http://www.siamparktenerife.com/ Unofficial website with visitor comments and helpful information for visitors to the park]

{{coord missing|Spain}}

[[Category:Tenerife]]
[[Category:Water parks in Spain]]

Jonathan Miller

2009-04-01T22:41:01Z

Keithh: fixed typo

{{Otherpeople}}
{{Infobox actor
| name = Jonathan Miller
| birthname = Jonathan Wolfe Miller
| birthdate = {{birth date and age|1934|07|21|df=y}}
| birthplace = [[London]], [[England]]
| spouse = Helen Rachel Collet (1956-present)
| yearsactive =
| website =
| laurenceolivierawards = '''[[Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director|Best Director]]''' 1976 ''[[Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]''
| tonyawards = '''[[Special Tony Award]]''' 1963 ''[[Beyond the Fringe]]''
}}
'''Sir Jonathan Wolfe Miller''', [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[21 July]] [[1934]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[theatre]] and [[opera]] director, [[neurologist]], author, [[television]] presenter, humorist and sculptor. He first came to prominence in 1962 when his British comedy stage revue ''[[Beyond the Fringe]]'' came to [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]]. (It was written and performed by [[Peter Cook]], [[Dudley Moore]], [[Alan Bennett]], and himself.) Despite having seen only a few operas and not knowing how to read music, he began stage directing operas in the 1970s and has since become one of the world's leading opera directors with several classic productions to his credit. (Probably best known is his 1982 "Mafia" ''[[Rigoletto]]'', set in [[Little Italy, Manhattan|Little Italy]].) Along the way he has also become a well known and engaging [[television personality]] and familiar [[public intellectual]] in both the UK and the US.

==Biography==
=== Early life ===
Miller grew up in [[St John's Wood]], [[London]] in a well-connected [[Jew]]ish family. His father Emanuel (1892-1970) was a [[psychiatrist]] specialising in child development and his mother Betty Spiro (1910–1965) was a novelist and biographer. His sister Sarah (d. 2006) worked in television for many years and retained an involvement with Judaism that her brother, an atheist, has always eschewed.

He studied natural sciences and medicine at [[St John's College, Cambridge]] ([[MB BCh]], 1959), where he was a member of the [[Cambridge Apostles]], before going on to [[University College London]]. He qualified as a [[Doctor of Medicine]] in 1959 and worked as a hospital doctor for two years.

===1960s: ''Beyond the Fringe''===
He was, however, also involved in the university drama society and the [[Cambridge Footlights]] and in 1960 he helped write and produce a musical [[revue]], ''[[Beyond the Fringe]]'', at the [[Edinburgh Festival]] which launched the careers of [[Alan Bennett]], [[Peter Cook]] and [[Dudley Moore]]. Miller quit the show shortly after its move to [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in 1962 and took over as editor and presenter of the [[BBC]]'s flagship arts programme ''[[Monitor (arts programme)|Monitor]]''. All of these appointments were unsolicited invitations in which Miller was assured that he would "pick it up as he went along". In 1966, he wrote, produced and directed a film adaptation of ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1966 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' for the [[BBC]], and in 1968 ''Whistle and I'll Come to You'', an adaptation of [[M. R. James]]' ghost story, "Oh, Whistle, and I'll Come to You, My Lad". By 1970 his reputation was such in the British theatre world that he mounted a [[West End theatre|West End]] production of ''[[The Merchant of Venice]]'' starring [[Laurence Olivier]].

=== 1970s: Medical history and opera===
Miller held a research fellowship in the [[history of medicine]] at [[University College, London]] from 1970 to 1973. In 1974, he also started directing and producing operas for [[Kent Opera]] and [[Glyndebourne Festival Opera|Glyndebourne]], with a new production of ''The Marriage of Figaro'' for [[English National Opera]] in 1978. Despite only having seen a few operas and not knowing how to read music, he has become one of the world's leading opera directors with classic productions being ''[[Rigoletto]]'' and (operetta) ''[[The Mikado]]''. Miller drew upon his own experiences as a physician as writer and presenter of the BBC television series ''The Body in Question'' (1978), which caused some controversy for showing the dissection of a cadaver. For a time he was a vice president of the [[Campaign for Homosexual Equality]].<ref>{{cite news | author=Allan Horsfall and Ray Gosling | title=History of the Campaign for Homosexual Equality | url=http://www.gaymonitor.co.uk/chehistory2.htm | work=Gay Monitor | date=14 March, 2006 | accessdate=2008-09-02}}</ref>

===1980s: Shakespeare and neuropsychology===
[[Image:Jonathan Miller, 1986.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Jonathan Miller at the [[Miami Book Fair International]] of 1986]]
Miller was persuaded to join the troubled ''[[BBC Television Shakespeare]]'' project (1978-85) in 1980. He became producer (1980-82) and directed six of the plays himself, beginning with a well received ''[[Taming of the Shrew]]'' starring [[John Cleese]]. He also wrote and presented the BBC television series ''States of Mind'' (1983). In 1984, Miller studied [[neuropsychology]] with Dr. Sandra Wittleson at [[McMaster University]] in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada before becoming a neuropsychology research fellow at [[University of Sussex|Sussex University]] in 1985.

===1990s===
In the 1990s, Miller wrote and presented the television series, ''Madness'' (1991) and ''Jonathan Miller on Reflection'' (1998).
{{Expand-section|date=October 2008}}

===2000s: Atheism===
In 2004, he wrote and presented a series on [[atheism]], ''[[Atheism: A Rough History of Disbelief]]'' (on-screen title; but more commonly referred to as ''Jonathan Miller's Brief History of Disbelief'') for [[BBC Four]] TV, exploring the roots of his own atheism and investigating the history of atheism in the world. Individual conversations, debates and discussions for the series that could not be included, due to time constraints, were individually aired in a six-part series entitled ''[[The Atheism Tapes]]''. He also appeared on a BBC TWO programme in February 2004, called ''What the World Thinks of God'' appearing from New York. The original three-part series was slated to air on [[Public Television]] in the United States, starting May 4, 2007, cosponsored by the [[American Ethical Union]], [[American Humanist Association]], [[Centre for Inquiry]], the [[HKH Foundation]], and the [[Institute for Humanist Studies]].

Jonathan Miller directed ''[[The Cherry Orchard]]'' (2007) at [[Crucible Theatre|The Crucible, Sheffield]], his first work on the British stage for ten years. He also directed [[Claudio Monteverdi|Monteverdi's]] ''[[L'Orfeo]]'' in Manchester and Bristol, and ''[[Der Rosenkavalier]]'' in [[Tokyo]] and gave talks throughout Britain during 2007 called ''An Audience with Jonathan Miller'' in which he spoke about his life for an hour and then fielded questions from the audience. He also curated an exhibition on camouflage at the [[Imperial War Museum]]. His has appeared at the Royal Society of the Arts in London discussing humour (4 July 2007) and at the British Library on religion (3 September 2007).

In January 2009, he returned to the [[English National Opera]] after a break of twelve years to direct his own production of [[La Bohème]], notable for its 1930s setting.

Miller is the subject of a biography ''In Two Minds'' by ''[[The Independent on Sunday|The Independent on Sunday's]]'' theatre critic [[Kate Bassett]] to be published in November 2010. The title refers to Miller's career which has embraced both medicine and the arts, and to his riven feelings and deep regrets about having given up working as a doctor to become an internationally renowned drama and opera director.

Miller lives in [[Camden Town|Camden]], North London.

==Controversy==
*During the later 1960s, Miller had a major falling-out with the magazine ''[[Private Eye (magazine)|Private Eye]]'' that he attributes to implicit [[anti-semitism]].
*In 1996, The ''UK Sunday Express'' newspaper published under the headline "Chronic Bandwagon Disease", Miller's claim that [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]], was "the absolutely most fashionable disease", dismissing the illness as a "Chronic Fictitious Sickness".<ref>Jonathan Miller (in) The Sunday Express[http://www.express.backissuenewspapers.co.uk/Default.aspx], Foreign News (America), 5th May 1996</ref>

==Honours and accolades==
*Distinguished Supporter, [[British Humanist Association]]
*Honorary Associate, [[National Secular Society]]
*Honorary Fellow, [[St John's College, Cambridge]] (1982)
*[[Commander of the British Empire]] (CBE; 1983)
*Knighted for his services to the arts (2003)
*Fellow, [[Royal College of Physicians]] ([[London]] and [[Edinburgh]])
*Foreign Member, [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
*President, [[Rationalist Association]] (2006-present)<ref>{{cite journal | author=Editors | title=Viva el Presidente | journal=New Humanist Nnewsletter | issue=Issue #72 |date=5 September 2006 | url=http://newhumanist.org.uk/1373 | accessdate=2008-09-02}}</ref>

==Parodies and representations==
*''[[Private Eye (magazine)|Private Eye]]'' (which had a falling-out with Miller) occasionally lampooned him under the name 'Dr Jonathan', depicting him as a [[Dr Johnson]]-like self-important man of learning.
*The satirical television puppet show ''[[Spitting Image]]'' portrayed Miller as an anteater (lampooning his large nose), as well as featuring a segment entitled "Talking Bollocks" (the 'A' in 'Talking' combining with the 'ollo' in "Bollocks" below to create a penis), in which he discussed, with [[Bernard Levin]], various cultural matters in a ridiculously pretentious way.
* In the film for television ''Not Only But Always'' about the careers of [[Peter Cook]] and [[Dudley Moore]], [[Jonathan Aris]] played Jonathan Miller as a young man; Aris reprised the role in the BBC Radio 4 play ''Good Evening'' (2008), by Roy Smiles.

==Bibliography==
;Books
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=McLuhan | isbn= | year=1970 | publisher=Fontana Modern Masters series}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Censorship and the Limits of Personal Freedom | isbn= | year=1971 | publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Freud: The Man, His World and His Influence | isbn= | year=1972 | publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=The Uses of Pain (Conway memorial lecture) | isbn= | year=1974 | publisher=South Place Ethical Society}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=The Body in Question | isbn= | year=1978 | publisher=Jonathan Cape}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Darwin for Beginners | isbn=0375714588 | year=1982 | publisher=Writers and Readers Comic Book/2003 Pantheon Books (USA)}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=The Human Body | isbn= | year=1983 | publisher=Viking Press }} (1994 Jonathan Cape [pop-up book])
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=States of Mind. Conversations with Psychological Investigators | isbn= | year=1983 | publisher=BBC/Random House}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=The Facts of Life | isbn= | year=1984 | publisher=Jonathan Cape}} (pop-up book intended for children)
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Subsequent Performances | isbn= | year=1986 | publisher=Faber}}
* {{cite book | last=Miller, Jonathan & John Durrant | title=Laughing Matters: A Serious Look at Humour| isbn= | year=1989 | publisher=Longman}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Acting in Opera | isbn= | year=1990 | publisher=Applause Theatre & Cinema Books}} (The Applause Acting Series)
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=The Afterlife of Plays | isbn= | year=1992 | publisher=San Diego State Univ Press}} (University Research Lecture Series No. 5)
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Dimensional Man | isbn= | year=1998 | publisher=Jonathan Cape}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=On Reflection | isbn=0300077130 | year=1998 | publisher=National Gallery Publications/Yale University Press (USA)}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Nowhere in Particular | isbn=184000150X | year=1999 | publisher=Mitchell Beazley}} [collection of his photographs]

;Editor
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Harvey and the Circulation of Blood: A Collection of Contemporary Documents | isbn= | year=1968 | publisher=Jackdaw Publications}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | title=Don Giovanni Book. Myths of Seduction and Betrayal | isbn= | year=1990 | publisher=Faber}}

;Contributor
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | coauthors=[[Alan Bennett]]; [[Peter Cook]]; [[Dudley Moore]] | title=Beyond the Fringe. A Revue | isbn= | year=1963 | publisher=Souvenir Press/Samuel French}}
* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | coauthors=[[Margaret Drabble]]; [[Richard Hoggart]]; [[Adrian Mitchell]] ''et al.''| title=The Permissive Society | isbn= | year=1969 | publisher=Panther}}

* {{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Miller | coauthors=Alan Bennett; Peter Cook; Dudley Moore | title=The Complete Beyond the Fringe | isbn=0413146707 | year=1987 | publisher=Methuen}}
* {{cite book | first=B.J. (ed.) | last=Sokol| title=The undiscover'd country: New Essays on Psychoanalysis and Shakespeare | isbn=185343 1974| year=1993 | publisher=[[Free Association Books]]}} — Jonathan Miller: '''King Lear'' in Rehearsal: A Talk' and seven other essays
* {{cite book | first=Robert B. (ed.)| last=Silvers| coauthors=Jonathan Miller; [[Stephen Jay Gould]]; [[Daniel Kevles|Daniel J Kevles]]; [[Lewontin|RC Lewontin]]; [[Oliver Sacks]] | title=Hidden Histories of Science | isbn= | year=1997 | publisher=Granta Books}}
* {{cite book | first=Robert B. (ed.) | last=Silvers | title=Doing It : Five Performing Arts | isbn=0940322757 | year=2000 | publisher=New York Review of Books (USA)}} Essays by Jonathan Miller [[Geoffrey O'Brien]], [[Charles Rosen]], [[Tom Stoppard]] and [[Garry Wills]]

;Introductions and forewords
* {{cite book | first=Robert | last=Lowell | title=Old Glory, The: Endecott and the Red Cross; My Kinsman, Major Molineux; and Benito Cereno | isbn=| year=1966 | publisher=}} (directors note)
* {{cite book | first=Jim | last=Biz |coauthors=''et al.'' | title=More Viz Crap Jokes | isbn=1902212169 | year=1999 | publisher=John Brown Publishing}} (introduction)
* {{cite book | first=Julian | last=Rothenstein | title=The Paradox Box: Optical Illusions, Puzzling Pictures, Verbal Diversions | isbn=| year=2000 | publisher=Redstons Press / Shambhala Publications (USA)}}
* {{cite book | first=Linda | last=Scotson | title=Doran: Child of Courage | isbn=| year=2000 | publisher=Macmillan}}

==Filmography==
{{Expand list|date=January 2009}}
===Presenter===
*''[[Monitor (arts programme)|Monitor]]'', BBC's flagship arts programme (1962, also editor)
*''[[The Body in Question]]'' (1978)
*''[[Madness (TV series)|Madness]]'' (1991)
*''[[Jonathan Miller on Reflection]]'' (1998)
*''[[Atheism: A Rough History of Disbelief]]'' (2004)

===Director===
*''[[Alice in Wonderland (1966 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' (1966), BBC television drama (and writer/producer; Miller has a commentary track on the DVD)
*''[[Whistle and I'll Come to You]]'' (1968), BBC television drama
*The ''[[BBC Television Shakespeare]]'' (1978-85)
**''[[The Taming of the Shrew]]'' (1980), starring [[John Cleese]]
**''[[Timon of Athens]]'' (1981), starring [[Jonathan Pryce]]
**''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]'' (1981), starring [[Colin Blakely]]
**''[[Othello]]'' (1981), starring [[Anthony Hopkins]] and [[Bob Hoskins]]
**''[[Troilus and Cressida]]'' (1981)
**''[[King Lear]]'' (1982), starring [[Michael Hordern]]

===Interviewer===
*''[[The Atheism Tapes]]'' (2004)

===Interviewee===
*{{cite book | author = BBC | title = Great Composers of the World}} Miller appears on the Puccini and Bach DVDs of this BBC series. In the Bach episode, he discusses his affection for the famous "Erbarme Dich" aria of the ''[[St Matthew Passion (Bach)|St Matthew Passion]]''
*{{cite book | author = PBS | title = Vermeer: Master of Light}} Miller appears in this one-hour program on the painter

==Stage productions==
{{Expand list|date=January 2009}}
===Musical revue===
*''[[Beyond the Fringe]]'' (Performer, writer, producer); [[Edinburgh Festival]] (1960)
*''[[Beyond the Fringe]]'' (Performer, writer); [[John Golden Theatre]], (27 October 1962–30 May 1964; 667 performances)<ref>Title changed to ''Beyond The Fringe 1964'' on 8 January 1964 (a "new edition" of the show). By then Miller had long since left the production.</ref>

===Drama===
*''[[The Merchant of Venice]]'' (Director); [[Cambridge Theatre]] (1970), starring [[Laurence Olivier]]
*''[[Long Day's Journey Into Night]]'' (Director); [[Broadhurst Theatre]] (28 April–29 June 1986; 54 performances)
*''[[King Lear]]'' (Director); [[Vivian Beaumont Theatre]] (4 March–18 April 2004; 33 performances)
*''[[The Cherry Orchard]]'' (Director); [[Crucible Theatre]] (200?), Miller's return to the English stage after a 10 year absence

===Opera===
*''[[Così fan tutte]]'' (Stage director); [[Kent Opera]] (1974), first of seven operas Miller directed at the Kent
*????????? (Director); [[Glyndebourne Festival Opera]] (1970s)
*''[[Rigoletto]]'' (1975), set in the 19th century
*''[[Le Nozze di Figaro]]'' (Stage director); [[English National Opera]] (1978, also a televised version in 1991)
*''[[Rigoletto]]'' (Stage and video director); [[English National Opera]] (1982), set in Little Italy, New York City, in the 1950s
*''[[La Fanciulla del West]]'' (Stage and video director); (1991)
*''[[The Mikado]]'' (Stage and video director); English National Opera (1987), starring [[Eric Idle]]
*''[[Die Zauberflöte]]'' (Stage and video director); (2000)
*''[[Tamerlano]]'' (Stage and video director); (2001)
*''[[Die Entführung aus dem Serail]]'' (Stage and video director); (2003)
*''[[Jenufa]]'' (Stage director); [[Glimmerglass Opera]] (with [[New York City Opera]], [[Cooperstown, New York]]; 29 July–29 August, 2006)
*''[[L'Orfeo]]'' (Stage director); [[Manchester]] and [[Bristol]] (200?)
*''[[Der Rosenkavalier]]'' (Stage director); [[Tokyo]] (200?)

== References ==
===Citations===
<references/>

===Further reading===
'''Books about Miller'''
*{{cite book | author = Kate Bassett | title = In Two Minds | id = | year = November 2010 forthcoming | publisher = Methuen}}
*{{cite book | author = Ronald Bergan | title = Beyond the Fringe...and Beyond: A Critical Biography of Alan Bennett, Peter Cook, Jonathan Miller, Dudley Moore | isbn = 1-85227-175-2 | year = 1990 | publisher = Virgin Books}}
*{{cite book | author = Michael Romain (Ed) | title = A Profile of Jonathan Miller | isbn = 0-521-40953-5 | year = 1992 | publisher = Cambridge University Press}}

'''On Miller and the satire boom'''
*{{cite book | author = Humphrey Carpenter | title = That Was Satire, That Was: Beyond the Fringe, the Establishment Club, "Private Eye" and "That Was the Week That Was" | isbn = 0-575-06588-5 | year = 2000 | publisher = Weidenfeld & Nicolson}}
*{{cite book | author = Robert Hewison | title = Footlights! - A Hundred Years of Cambridge Comedy | isbn = 0-413-51150-2 | year = 1983 | publisher = Methuen}}
*{{cite book | author = Roger Wilmut | title = From Fringe to Flying Cirus - Celebrating a Unique Generation of Comedy 1960-1980 | isbn = 0-413-46950-6 | year = 1980 | publisher = Eyre Methuen}}

== See also==
* [[National Secular Society]]
* [[Rationalist Press Association|Rationalist Association]]
* [[Las Meninas]]

== External links ==
* {{ibdb|6928}}
* {{imdb|588664}}
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20041012212809/http://www.petercook.net/articles/Jonathan-Miller.htm Can English Satire Draw Blood?]
* [http://roycecarlton.com/admin/speakers/fileuploads/Miller_Info-Kit.pdf Jonathan Miller bio. - Miller's agents]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/features/atheism-tapes.shtml The Atheism Tapes]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/ What the World Thinks of God]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/selfmadethings_20050727.shtml Jonathan Miller radio series on the origin of life - "Self Made Things"]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/nationshealth.shtml A six-part history of Public Health in England (includes a spill-over interview series)]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/factual/desertislanddiscs_20050123.shtml Jonathan Miller's choices on "Desert Island Discs"]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/features/atheism.shtml Jonathan Miller's Brief History of Disbelief]
* [http://www.secularphilosophy.com/ Secular Philosophy]

{{OlivierAward Director}}

{{Lifetime|1934||Miller, Jonathan}}
[[Category:Academics of the University of Sussex]]
[[Category:Alumni of University College London]]
[[Category:Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Atheist thinkers and activists]]
[[Category:British television presenters]]
[[Category:British theatre directors]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:English atheists]]
[[Category:English humanists]]
[[Category:English Jews]]
[[Category:English satirists]]
[[Category:English writers]]
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]
[[Category:Materialists]]
[[Category:Olivier Award winners]]
[[Category:Opera directors]]
[[Category:Theatre directors]]
[[Category:Tony Award winners]]

[[he:ג'ונתן מילר]]

Take-Ichi-Konvoi

2009-03-31T15:02:06Z

Keithh: fixed typo

{{Infobox Military Conflict
| conflict = Take Ichi convoy
| partof = [[Pacific War]]
| image = [[File:Take Ichi convoy.jpg|300px|The route of the Take Ichi convoy]]
| caption = The Take Ichi convoy's route from Shanghai to Halmahera<ref name="Parillo_140">Parillo (1993), p. 140</ref>
| date = 17 April – 9 May 1944
| place = Off [[Luzon]] and [[Celebes]]
| coordinates =
| map_type =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| territory =
| result = United States victory
| status =
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|USA|1912}} [[United States]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Japan|alt}} [[Empire of Japan]]
| combatant3 =
| commander1 = {{flagicon|USA|1912}} [[Ralph Waldo Christie]] ([[United States Navy|USN]])
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Japan|naval}} [[Sadamichi Kajioka]] ([[Imperial Japanese Navy|IJN]])
| commander3 =
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| strength3 =
| casualties1 = None
| casualties2 = Four transports sunk 4,290 soldiers killed
| casualties3 =
| notes =
}}
The '''Take Ichi ('Bamboo No. 1') convoy''' was a [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] [[convoy]] of [[World War II]]. The convoy left [[Shanghai]] in April 1944 carrying two [[infantry]] [[Division (military)|divisions]] to reinforce the defense of the [[Philippines]] and western [[New Guinea]]. [[United States Navy]] (USN) [[submarine]]s attacked the convoy on 26 April and 6 May, sinking four transports and killing thousands of soldiers.

The Take Ichi convoy's losses had important strategic results. The failure to bring the two divisions to their destination without loss contributed to the Japanese [[Imperial General Headquarters]]'s decision to move Japan's defensive perimeter back by 600 miles. The divisions' combat power was also blunted by their losses, and while they both saw action against [[United States Army]] forces, they contributed little to the Japanese defense.

==Background==

In September 1943, the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (IJN) and [[Imperial Japanese Army]] (IJA) agreed to establish defensive positions along what was termed Japan's "absolute zone of national defense". The border of this zone was a perimeter reaching from the [[Marianas Islands]] and [[Caroline Islands]] to western [[New Guinea]] and the [[Banda Sea|Banda]] and [[Flores Sea]]s.<ref name="Willoughby_250">Willoughby (1966), p. 250</ref> At this time there were few Army units in the area, and it was decided to move combat units from [[China]] and [[Manchuria]] to protect the air bases which formed the basis of Japan's defensive plans. The movement of these troops was delayed by shipping shortages, however.<ref>Willoughby (1966), p. 251–252</ref> Efforts to reinforce the Marianas and Caroline islands were assigned the highest priority, and the units selected for western New Guinea remained in China until shipping became available in April 1944.<ref>Willoughby (1966), p. 257–258 and p. 272</ref>

By early 1944 Allied submarines [[Allied submarines in the Pacific War|were sinking large numbers]] of Japanese ships. Their activities were frequently guided by [[Intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] on ship movements collected by [[Cryptanalysis|decrypting]] Japanese radio transmissions. The IJN routinely broadcast the location and intended route of convoys under its protection, and decrypting these messages allowed Allied naval commanders to alert submarines in the vicinity of convoys. The submarine commanders were free to plan their interception and attack where conditions were most favourable.<ref>Parillo (1993), pp. 89–90</ref>

[[File:Kajioka Sadamichi.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Rear Admiral Kajioka in 1944]]

The IJN's faulty [[anti-submarine warfare|anti-submarine]] doctrine also contributed to Japan's shipping losses. The Navy had placed a low priority on protecting merchant shipping from submarine attack before and during the early years of the war and convoys were not routinely assembled until 1943.<ref>Parillo (1993), pp. 133–134</ref> The Grand Escort Headquarters was formed in late 1943 to coordinate convoys and implement a standard doctrine. The Escort-of-Convoy headquarters was also established in April 1944 to provide a pool of senior commanders who were available to command convoys, though none had any experience with convoy operations or anti-submarine warfare.<ref>Parillo (1993), pp. 135–136</ref>

Attacks on merchant shipping during February 1944 led the Japanese to change the composition of their convoys. During this month over ten percent of the Japanese merchant marine was sunk by submarines and air attack.<ref>Parillo (1993), p. 137</ref> These losses included several transport ships carrying reinforcements to the Marianas and Carolines.<ref name=Wise_46>Wise et al (2003), p. 46</ref><ref name="Morison_20">Morison (2001), p. 20</ref> In response, the Grand Escort Fleet Headquarters increased the average size of Japanese convoys from five ships to 'large' convoys of ten to twenty vessels. This change allowed the IJN to allocate more escort ships to each convoy and it was hoped that conducting fewer convoys would reduce the number of targets available to submarines. While Japanese officers attributed a drop in sinkings during March to the changed tactics, this was instead due to the [[United States Pacific Fleet|United States Pacific Fleet's]] submarines being diverted to support raids conducted by the [[Fast Carrier Task Force]].<ref>Parillo (1993), pp. 137–139</ref>

The Take Ichi convoy was assembled by the IJN's General Escort Command in April 1944. The convoy's task was to carry the [[32nd Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|32nd Division]] to [[Mindanao]] and the main body of the [[35th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|35th Division]] to western New Guinea.<ref>Willoughby (1966), p. 272</ref> Both divisions had been formed in 1939 and were veterans of fighting in China during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]].<ref>Madej (1981), p. 60 and pp. 62–63</ref> One of the 35th Division's three infantry [[regiment]]s was detached from the division in early April and sent to the [[Palau|Palau islands]], arriving there later that month without loss.<ref>Smith (1953), p. 459</ref>

The two divisions embarked on large transport ships protected by an unusually large escort force.<ref>Willoughby (1966), p. 272–273</ref> [[Rear Admiral]] [[Sadamichi Kajioka]], who was a veteran of several previous operations including the [[Battle of Wake Island]], was appointed to command the convoy.<ref name="Blair_622" /> The escort force was the newly-established 6th Escort Convoy Command and included Kajiokia's flagship, the coal burning [[minelayer]] {{Ship|Japanese minelayer|Shirataka||2}}, as well as [[destroyer]]s {{Ship|Japanese destroyer|Asakaze|1922|2}}, {{Ship|Japanese destroyer|Shiratsuyu||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese destroyer|Fujinami||2}}, [[frigate]] {{Ship|Japanese frigate|Kurahashi||2}}, ocean escort ships ('kaibokan') ''CD-20'' and ''CD-22'', minesweeper ''W-2'', [[subchaser]]s ''CH-37'' and ''CH-38'' and [[gunboat]]s ''Uji'', ''Ataka'' and ''Tama Maru No. 7''.<ref name="Combined_fleet_Shirataka">{{cite web|url=http://www.combinedfleet.com/Shirataka_t.htm|title=IJN Minelayer SHIRATAKA: Tabular Record of Movement|last=Hackett|first=Bob|coauthors=Kingsepp, Sander and Cundall, Peter|date=1998-2005|publisher=Combinedfleet.com|accessdate=15 March 2009}}</ref>

==Voyage==
===Shanghai to Manila===
[[File:USS Jack;0825901.jpg|thumb|USS ''Jack'' in December 1943]]

The Take Ichi convoy sailed from Shanghai bound for [[Manila]] on 17 April.<ref name="Parillo_139">Parillo (1993), p. 139</ref> It initially comprised 15 transports and the 6th Escort Convoy Command. Seven of the transports were traveling to Manila only and the 32nd and 35th Divisions were each carried by four vessels.<ref name="Combined_fleet_Shirataka" /> Allied codebreakers detected the convoy's sailing, and followed its progress south.<ref name="Blair_622">Blair (2001), p. 622</ref>

The convoy was first attacked on 26 April. US Navy signals intelligence analysts guided [[USS Jack (SS-259)|USS ''Jack'']] towards the convoy, and she made contact with it off the northwest coast of [[Luzon]] during the morning.<ref name="Drea_129">Drea (1992), p. 129</ref> The submarine's captain, Tommy Dkyer, attempted to maneuver into a position where he could attack the convoy but lost sight of it when he spotted a Japanese submarine and was attacked by an aircraft. He regained contact at midday after picking up ''Shirataka'''s heavy smoke exhaust and surfaced an hour before sunset to get into an attack position, but had to submerge after another aircraft attacked ''Jack''.<ref name="Blair_622" />

''Jack'' surfaced again after dark, and attacked the convoy after the moon set. Dyker found that the Japanese escorts were alert, and was unable to penetrate into the convoy. As a result, he attacked three times by firing a total of nineteen [[torpedo|torpedoes]] from long range into the mass of ships at the center of the convoy.<ref name="Blair_622" /> These attacks sank the 5,425 ton freighter ''[[Yoshida Maru]]'', which was carrying an entire regiment of the 32nd Division. All 3,000 soldiers drowned when the ship sank quickly.<ref name="Blair_623">Blair (2001), p. 623</ref> The remaining Japanese ships continued to Manila, arriving there on 29 April.<ref name="Willoughby_273">Willoughby (1966), p. 273</ref>

===Manila to Halmahera===

The 32nd Division's destination changed during the voyage from Shanghai to Manila. Imperial General Headquarters was concerned that the increasing difficulty of shipping units towards the front line meant that it would not be possible to complete the planned reinforcement of the 'absolute zone of national defense' before Allied forces reached the area. As a result, it was decided to use the division to reinforce the [[Japanese Second Army|Second Army]] in western New Guinea and the eastern NEI, which were under direct threat of attack, rather then send it to Mindanao.<ref name="Willoughby_273" />
[[File:USS Gurnard;0825404.jpg|thumb|left|upright|USS ''Gurnard'' in March 1944]]

The Take Ichi convoy resumed its journey to New Guinea on 1 May. Its composition was now eight transports (one of the Manila-bound transports having replaced ''Yoshida Maru'') under the protection of ''Shirataka'', ''Asakaze'', ''Shiratsuyu'', minesweeper ''W-22'', ''CH-37'' and ''CH-38''.<ref name="Combined_fleet_Shirataka" /> The convoy took a special route planned by the Third Southern Expeditionary Fleet to reduce the risk of submarine attack.<ref name="Willoughby_273" />

US signals intelligence operators again detected the convoy's departure. On 2 May analysts estimated its size as nine transports and seven escorts carrying 12,784 troops of the 32nd Division and an unknown number of men from the 35th Division. Decoded Japanese Army Water Transport Code messages also provided the Allies with the convoy's route, speed, daily noon positions and destination. This "extraordinary intelligence coup" was passed to the relevant commands on 2 May and the USN positioned submarines to ambush the Japanese ships.<ref name="Drea_130">Drea (1992), p. 130</ref>

The Take Ichi convoy suffered a devastating submarine attack on 6 May. On that day [[USS Gurnard (SS-254)|USS ''Gurnard'']] intercepted the Japanese ships in the [[Celebes Sea]] near the northeastern tip of the [[Celebes]]. ''Gurnard''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s commander, Herb Andrews, submerged his boat and made a cautious approach to avoid detection by aircraft. He reached a firing position four hours later and fired six torpedoes at two transports. Only one of these torpedoes hit a target, and a second salvo missed its intended targets but hit another transport. Andrews then turned his boat and fired more torpedoes from ''Gurnard''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s stern [[torpedo tube]]s and hit a third transport. Following this Andrews' dove to one hundred feet to avoid a counter attack from one of the Japanese destroyers.<ref name="Blair_623" /> The destroyer was traveling at too great a speed for its detection gear to function, however, and did not damage the submarine.<ref name="Parillo_141">Parillo (1993), p. 141</ref>

''Gurnard'' rose to [[periscope]] depth two hours later and found that a major effort to rescue troops and equipment from the torpedoed transports was under way. That night the submarine the submarine torpedoed one of the crippled transports which was still afloat. ''Gurnard''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s attack sank transports ''Aden Maru'' (5,825 tons) and ''Taijima Maru'' (6,995 tons) and the cargo ship ''Tenshinzan Marau'' (6,886 tons).<ref name="Blair_623" /> While the rescue effort was relatively successful, 1,290 troops were killed and much of their equipment was lost.<ref name="Willoughby_273" /><ref name="Drea_130" />

As a result of its heavy losses the Take Ichi convoy was ordered to dock at [[Halmahera]] in the eastern NEI rather than continue to New Guinea. The surviving ships arrived there on 9 May.<ref name="Willoughby_273" /> Both divisions and their equipment were unloaded and the convoy sailed for Manila on 13 May, arriving on 20 May without further loss.<ref name="Combined_fleet_Shirataka" />

==Aftermath==

The attacks on the Take Ichi convoy blunted the 32nd and 35th Divisions' fighting power. The 32nd Division's combat elements were reduced from nine to five infantry [[battalion]]s and four to one and half [[artillery]] battalions.<ref name="Willoughby_273" /><ref>Madej (1981), p. 60</ref> Only four of the six 35th Infantry Division infantry battalions which sailed in the convoy reached Halmahera and much of the division's artillery was lost.<ref name="Willoughby_273" />

The destruction of the Take Ichi convoy also forced the Japanese leadership to acknowledge that it was no longer possible to reinforce or defend most of western New Guinea. While the [[Japanese Second Area Army|Second Area Army's]] commander [[Lieutenant General]] [[Korechika Anami]] requested that the surviving ships attempt to carry the 35th Division to New Guinea, this was rejected by Imperial General Headquarters. The losses inflicted on the convoy also contributed to the Imperial General Headquarters' decision to move the perimeter of the 'absolute zone of national defense' back to a line extending from [[Sorong (city)|Sorong]] to Halmahera.<ref name="Willoughby_274">Willoughby (1966), p. 274.</ref> This represented a 600 mile strategic withdrawal from the perimeter which had been planned in March.<ref name="Smith_233">Smith (1953), p. 233</ref>

Japanese naval staff officers gathered in Manila in June to analyze the Take Ichi convoy. The officers believed that Japan's [[Code (cryptography)|communication codes]] were secure and proposed explanations such as the increase in radio signals at the time the convoy sailed being detected by Allied [[traffic analysis|radio traffic analysts]], a Japanese officer in Manila accidentally divulging information and Allied spies working on the Manila waterfront radioing messages about the convoy's composition and departure. The meeting concluded that Allied spies were responsible for the convoy's detection, and Japan's codes remained unchanged.<ref>Drea (1992), pp. 130–131</ref>

Some of the surviving elements of the 32nd and 35th divisions later saw action against American forces. The 35th Division was moved forward from Halmahera to Sorong in small ships during May.<ref name="Smith_233" /> The regiment which was sent to the Palaus in April was also successfully transferred to New Guinea.<ref>Smith (1953), p. 460</ref> Elements of the 35th Division subsequently fought in the [[Battle of Biak]] and [[Battle of Sansapor]], but most of the division was stationed on the [[Vogelkop Peninsula]] where it was was isolated from September 1944.<ref>Smith (1953), p. 263, pp. 443–444 and p. 449.</ref> The 32nd Division was retained at Halmahera to garrison the island.<ref name="Smith_233" /> Much of the division later saw action on the neighboring island of [[Morotai]], where it [[Battle of Morotai|suffered heavy losses]] while trying to counter-attack an Allied force which had established a base there during September and October 1944.<ref>Willoughby (1966), pp. 348–352</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Blair|first=Clay|title=Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War Against Japan|publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis|date=2001|isbn=978-1557502179}}
* {{cite book|last=Drea|first=Edward J.|title=MacArthur's ULTRA. Codebreaking and the war against Japan, 1942–1945|publisher=University of Kansas Press|location=Lawrence|date=1992|isbn=0700605045}}
* {{cite book|last=Madej|first=W. Victor|title=Japanese Armed Forces Order of Battle 1939 - 1945. Volume I|publisher=Game Marketing Company|location=Allentown|date=1981}}
* {{cite book|last=Morison|first=Samuel Eliot|title=New Guinea and the Marianas March 1944 – August 1944|publisher=Castle Books|location=Edison|date=2001|edition=Castle books|series=[[History of United States Naval Operations in World War II]] Volume VIII|isbn=0785813098}}
* {{cite book|last=Parillo|first=Mark P.|title=The Japanese Merchant Marine in World War II|publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis|year=1993|isbn=1557506779}}
* {{cite book |title=The Approach to the Philippines |last=Smith |first=Robert Ross |authorlink= |coauthors= |series=United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific |year=1953 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Approach/index.html |publisher=[[United States Army Center of Military History]] |location=Washington DC |isbn= }}
* {{cite book |last=Willoughby |first=Charles A. (editor in chief)|authorlink= |coauthors= |editor=|others= |title=Japanese Operations in the Southwest Pacific Area Volume II – Part I|origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url=http://www.army.mil/cmh/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V2%20P1/macarthurv2.htm |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series=Reports of General MacArthur |year=1966 |month= |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |location=Washington DC }}
* {{cite book|last=Wise|first=James E|coauthors=Baron, Scott|title=Soldiers Lost at Sea: A Chronicle of Troopship Disasters‎|publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis|date=2003|isbn=1591149665|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=KmtozaIf5QAC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=Take+Ichi+convoy&source=bl&ots=-JPYBPFVDT&sig=XK_qni-Sq2b5eh4zN2craGxmp1o&hl=en&ei=kzi8SeefAobAkAXjzs20CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA47,M1}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Far East naval theatre of World War II]]
[[Category:Convoys of World War II]]

Semporna

2009-02-09T16:10:26Z

Keithh: fixed typo

[[Image:SempornaLocation.PNG|right|thumb|250px|Location of Semporna town and district]]
'''Semporna''' is a town located in [[Tawau Division]], in the east coast of [[Sabah]], [[Malaysia]] on the island of [[Borneo]]. Its population was estimated to be around 133,000 in 2006.<ref>"Basic population characteristics by administrative districts - 2006", ''Department of Statistics, Malaysia''.</ref>

The population is mainly [[Bajau]], many of whom live in sprawling stilt villages over the water on the outskirts of town. Semporna is located at the tip of Semporna Peninsula around Lahad Datu Bay (also known as [[Darvel Bay]]), and is visited by tourists as a base for [[scuba diving]] or snorkeling trips to Pulau [[Sipadan]] (Sipadan Island), some 36 kilometers southeast of town. Semporna is also known for the '''Regatta Lepa''' traditional boat races which occur annually in April. Semporna was also the location of the finish line of Eco-Challenge: Borneo, held in 2000. Off the coast is a marine park called [[Tun Sakaran Marine Park]] also known as Semporna Islands Park. It was gazetted by [[Sabah Parks]] in 2004.

Semporna was founded soon after the [[British North Borneo Company]] established [[Sandakan]], and initially settled by [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] traders. The name ''Semporna'', means ''place of rest'', and was given after the British quelled resistance from the local Bajaus in the mid-1880s.

Marine products are still the mainstay of the local economy. [[Pearl]] culturing is a major component of this industry.

Semporna boasts of the only [[Chavacano language|Chavacano]]-speaking community in Malaysia, a language whose speakers can today only be found virtually in the neighboring [[Philippines|Philippine]] island of [[Mindanao]]. It has a status of official language here, along with Malay. another official language here is [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{Sabah}}

{{Sabah-geo-stub}}

{{coord|4|29|N|118|37|E|region:MY_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki|display=title}}
[[Category:Cities, towns and villages in Sabah]]

[[es:Semporna]]
[[id:Semporna]]
[[ms:Semporna]]
[[nl:Semporna]]

Bury Manor

2009-01-27T00:20:30Z

Keithh: fixed typos

[[File:Bury_Manor_Castle_Dec_2007.jpg|thumb|Thumbnailed image]][[File:Bury_Manor.jpg|thumb|Thumbnailed image]]

'''Bury Manor Castle''' is a [[English Heritage]] Site located in the village of [[Wick, Bristol|Wick]], [[South Gloucestershire]], England. The castle was rebuilt approximately 500 years ago on the original foundations (which date to c. 1200) over the cellars which date back over 800 years. The cellars were used during [[Oliver Cromwell|Cromwell's]] time (17th century) as an ammunition store and local rumours are strong about tunnels connecting the castle with the village of Wick and Doynton church. The 'Castle' as it is known, is said to have been built on bedrock. The village is situated at the foot of a rocky hill rising to the height of more than 200 feet, and consisting of alternate beds of limestone and petro-silex. The parish comprises about 2000 acres: it abounds with coal, which is raised in great quantities; and lead-ore is also found. The living is united, with that of Westerleigh, to the vicarage of Puckle-Church. Here is a camp, supposed to be of British origin; and Roman coins, urns, and bricks, have been dug up in the parish.

Although fairly secluded and easily unnoticed during the day, in the evening with it's lights on to the facade, this property is quite spectacular and visible for miles. There is a moat and moat house around the property and Bury Manor Farm, which sits to the rear of the Castle.

During the years 2002-2006 the castle was run as a luxury guest house, attracting guests from all over the world.

In August 2006, the castle was sold to a local private owner, who is currently converting it back into a glorious private home. Every attention to detail is being made whilst every mod con is being integrated without any sign of existing! When finished (anticipated June 2009) it will represent a quite dramatic and imposing building and demonstrate the original beauty and splendour of one the the finest properties in the South West. The immense restoration program is being overseen by architect Basil Woodward with local builder Tony James and C&R Builders, who have been appointed to carry out the work.

{{Bristol-struct-stub}}
{{UK-hist-stub}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in South Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Castles in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in Gloucestershire]]

An den Herbst

2009-01-23T15:52:35Z

Keithh: fix typo

[[File:W. J. Neatby - Keats - Autumn.jpg|thumb|right|W. J. Neatby's illustration for ''To Autumn'']]
''' To Autumn''' is a [[poem]] written by [[England|English]] [[Romanticism|Romantic]] poet [[John Keats]] on 19 September [[1819 in poetry|1819]] (published [[1820 in poetry|1820]]).

Keats was inspired to write '''To Autumn''' after walking through the water meadows of [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]], [[England]], in an early autumn evening of 1819. There is a story that Keats could not concentrate on his work in his rented rooms because the landlady's daughter was practicing the [[violin]]. Driven to distraction, he went out behind [[Winchester College]] to walk and to think. He returned and wrote the poem straight away.

The poem has three [[stanza]]s of eleven lines describing the taste, sights and sounds of autumn. Much of the third stanza, however, is dedicated to diction, symbolism, and [[literary device]]s with decisively negative [[connotation]]s, as it describes the end of the day and the end of autumn.

==Background==
During the spring of 1819, Keats wrote many of his major odes, including ''[[Ode on a Grecian Urn]]'', ''[[Ode on Indolence]]'', ''[[Ode on Melancholy]]'', ''[[Ode to a Nightingale]]'', and ''[[Ode to Psyche]]''. After May, he began to pursue other forms of poetry, including a play, some longer pieces, and a return to his unfinished epic. However, his poetic career was suffering from Keats's devotion to his brother, George, who, after travelling to America to settle, was in need of money. He spent very little time writing poetry, but on 19 September 1819 Keats set aside time to write ''To Autumn''. This marks the moment when Keats ended his career in poetry.<ref>Bate 1963 p. 562</ref>

On 19 September, Keats walked from Winchester to London along the River Itchen. In a letter to Reynolds written on 21 September, Keats described the influence of the scene upon his mind and his writing of ''To Autumn''<ref>Bate 1963 p. 580</ref>: "How beautiful the season is now-How fine the air. A temperate sharpness about it [...] I never lik'd stubble fields so much as now [...] Somehow a stubble plain looks warm-in the same way that some pictures look warm-this struck me so much in my sunday's walk that I composed upon it."<ref>Keats 2008 p. 184</ref> Not everything on Keats's mind at the time was bright, because Keats knew in September that he would have to finally abandon his epic, ''Hyperion''. Thus, in the letter that he wrote to Reynolds, he also included a note saying that he gave up on his great poem.<ref>Bate 1963 p. 585</ref> Keats did not send the poem to Reynolds, but did send the letter to Woodhouse and dated it on the same day.<ref>Evert 1965 pp. 296–297</ref>

==Structure==
Like many of Keats's other 1819 Odes, the structure of the poem is that of an odal hymn.<ref>Bate 1963 p. 499</ref> Furthermore, the earlier 1918 odes perfected techniques and allowed for variations that appear within ''To Autumn''. However, Keats removes many aspects of the previous poems, such as the narrator and ensures that the poem deals only with concrete concepts. There is no dramatic movement that is found in the earlier poems, and the poem unitues poetic process and temporal stasis, an idea that Keats termed as "stationing".<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 581–582</ref>

Keats relies heavily on monosyllabic words and consonantal sounds within ''To Autumn''. In particular, Keats relies on bilabial consonants for effect along with an emphasis on "Long" vowels. His syntax does not incorporate hiatus and only one medial inversion of an accent. However, he does rely on the Augustan inversion of accent approximately 4.2% of the time. Within his measure, Keats incorporates spondees in approximately 13.9% of his verses. The verse differentiates itself from his previous odes through reliance on 11 line stanzas, instead of 10, with a couplet placed before the concluding line of each stanza. The rhyme follows a pattern of starting with a Shakespearian abab pattern which is followed by cdedcce rhyme scheme.<ref>Bate 1962 pp. 182–184</ref>

==Poem==
There is a union of maturation and growth, two oppositional forces, within the poem, and this union instills an idea within nature that the season will not end:<ref>Bate 1963 p. 582</ref>
:Season of mist and mellow fruifulness
:Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun
:Conspiring with him how to load and bless
:With fruit the vines that roundt he thatch-eves run;
:To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees,
:And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;
:To swell the gourd, and plump the hael shells
:With a sweet kernel; to set budding more,
:And still more, later flowers for the bees,
:Until they think warm days will never cease,
:For Summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells. (lines 1-11)
However, within the final moments of the poem, there is an introduction of the harvest and Autumn is manifested in the role of a harvester. The end approaches within the final moments of the song and death is slowly approaching along side of the end of the year. However, Autumn is replaced by an image of life in general, and the songs of autumn becomes a song about life in general:<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 582–583</ref>
:Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they?
:Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,-
:While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day,
:And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue;
:Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn
:Among the river shallows, borne aloft
:Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;
:And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;
:Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft
:The red-breast whistles from a garden-croft;
:And gathering swallows twitter in the skies. (lines 23-33)

==Themes==
The theme of ''To Autumn'' builds off of the theme of Keats's ''Ode to Melancholy''; the earlier poem introduces the acceptance of the process of life.<ref>Bate 1962 p. 522</ref> There is a union between the ideal and the real which leads to fulfillment. Of all of Keats's poems, ''To Autumn'' most closely describes an actual paradise while focusing on the archetypal images that are connected with autumn. Within the poem, Autumn represents the growth, the maturation, and finally an approach death.<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 581–581</ref>

Although there is process and the suggestion of motion within the poem, there is a lack of action within the poem. Within the second stanza, Autumn is described through metaphor as an exausted female labourer. Near the end of the stanza, the weight upon the gleaner emphasizes a motionlessness within the poem. The individuals are burdened or merely watch the events surrounding them. The poem as a whole creates an image of death and a finality within the imagination that is welcomed. There are no contrary ideas that are common within the other odes of 1819. Instead, ''To Autumn'' puts forth the idea that progression is no longer necessary as maturation has taken over, and growth and death are in harmony.<ref>Bloom 1968 pp. 95–97</ref>

Within the poem, there is aspects of colonialism in the fact that other regions experienced variations on weather patterns. ''To Autumn'', according to Alan Bewell, "enacts a curing of space by tempering pathogenic extremes."<ref>Bewell 2008 pp. 635–636</ref> He continues to explain how Keats relies on the poem to praise the English climate through describing how the coming winter allows for a removal of the harvest that would overwise grow until excess. Such descriptives and language within the poem only verify the problems inherent int tropical climates. When this interpretation is combined with the possibility that Keats was influenced by Leigh Hunt's ''Examiner'' column, printed in 15 September and titled "The Calendar of Nature", ''To Autumn'' connects nature with Hunt's liberal political beliefs.<ref>Bewell 2008 pp. 636–638</ref>

There are other political interpretations of the poem: the poet [[Tom Paulin]] argues that the poem is a response to the [[Peterloo Massacre]] which occurred earlier that year<ref>[http://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/n02/paul01_.html LRB · Tom Paulin: In the Workshop]</ref>. The argument follows that the notoriously dark third [[stanza]] depicts a shift in the political climate of Keats' homeland towards a more sinister age when such public displays of brutality could happen. American-born British poet and critic [[Kelly Grovier]] uses the poem, alongside [[Geoffrey Hill]]'s poem [[September Song]], to illustrate the political implications of his literary theory of post-temporalism<ref>[http://litthe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/17/4/361?ck=nck Keats and the Holocaust: Notes Towards A Post-Temporalism - Grovier 17 (4): 361 - Literature and Theology]</ref>.

==Critical reception==
The poem widely has been considered a masterpiece of Romantic English poetry. Literary critic [[Harold Bloom]] described it as "the most perfect shorter poem in the English language." <ref> Bloom 1971 432</ref>

The approach in the odes is to deal with the subject in a direct manner instead of approaching the subject through a slow process of introduction. Normally, the slower approach is a necessary component to poetry, according to Walter Jackson Bate, "And alone among the major modern poets, Keats was able to get away with it. The ode "To Autumn" is a triumphant example."<ref>Bate 1963 p. 521</ref> Furthermore, Bate claims that "It is because 'To Autumn' is so uniquely a distillation, and at many different levels, that each generation has found it one of the most nearly perfect poems in English. We need not be afraid of continuing to use the adjective."<ref name="Bate p. 581">Bate 1963 p. 581</ref> In particular, "The distinctive appeal of 'To Autumn' lies not merely in the degree of resolution but in the fact that, in this short space, so many different kinds of resolution are attained."<ref name="Bate p. 581"/>

Walter Evert believes that "In this poem (and one wonders whether [Keats] realized it), he truly achieved a resolution in practice of the problems he had been unable to reconcile in theory."<ref>Evert 1965 p. 297</ref> To Everty, ''To Autumn'' is "the only perfect poem that Keats ever wrote-and if this should seem to take from him some measure of credit of credit for his extraordinary enrichment of the English poetic tradition, I would quickly add that I am thinking of absolute perfection in whole poems, in which every part is wholly relevant to and consistent in effect with every other part."<ref>Evert 1965 p. 298</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Bate, Walter Jackson. ''John Keats''. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963.
* Bate, Walter Jackson. ''The Stylistic Development of Keats''. New York: Humanities Press, 1962.
* Bewell, Alan. "'To Autumn' and the Curing of Space" in ''Keats's Poetry and Prose'' ed Jeffrey Cox, 634–642. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008.
* Bloom, Harold. ''The Visionary Company''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993.
* Bloom, Harold. "The Ode ''To Autumn''" in ''Keats's Odes'' ed. Jack Stillinger, 44-47. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968.
* Evert, Walter. Aesthetics and Myth in the Poetry of Keats. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965.
* Keats, John. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J-su12fRTngC The Life and Letters of John Keats]'' ed. Richard Houghton (reprint). Read Books, 2008.

==External links==
{{wikisource|To Autumn}}

[[Category:British poems]]
[[Category:Poetry by John Keats]]
[[Category:1819 works]]

[[cs:Podzimu]]
[[nl:To Autumn]]

Shah Berunai

2009-01-06T01:25:02Z

Keithh: fix typo

{{Unreferenced|date=November 2007}}'''Sultan Shah Brunei''' is the eighth [[Sultan of Brunei]]. He ascended the throne in 1581. He died in 1582 without any male descendants and was succeeded by his younger brother Pengiran Muda Tengah Muhammad Hassan.

During his reign, he was concerned with the activity of producing Cannon for the weaponary. In which Brunei at that time was preparing for defence from any attack of Spanish army that headquartered in Manila.

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before= [[Saiful Rijal]] |
title= [[List of Sultans of Brunei|Sultan of Brunei]] |
years= 1581 — 1582 |
after= [[Sultan Muhammad Hassan| Muhammad Hassan]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:1582 deaths]]
[[Category:Sultans of Brunei]]

{{brunei-stub}}

TVR Tasmin

2008-10-20T21:36:13Z

Keithh: fix typo

{{Infobox Automobile
| image = [[Image:Tvr.280i.arp.jpg|250px|TVR Tasmin 280i]]
| name = TVR Tasmin
| manufacturer = [[TVR]]
| aka = Tasmin, 280i, 200i
| production = 1981 - 1988
| predecessor = TVR M series
| class = [[Sports Car]]
| body_style = 2-door coupe, 2-door convertible
| layout = FR
| engine = [[Ford Cologne V6]], [[Ford Pinto]] Straight 4
| transmission = 4 spd [[manual gearbox|manual]], 5 spd [[manual gearbox|manual]], 3spd automatic [[gearbox|automatic]]
| designer = [[Oliver Winterbottom]]
}}

The '''TVR Tasmin''' or '''TVR 280i''' was a sports car designed and built by [[TVR]] from 1981 to 1988. It was available as a fixed head coupe or a drop head convertible. As with all TVR's, the running gear was located in a tubular [[spaceframe]] steel chassis which was longer and sturdier than that of the 'M' series. Much of the running gear is sourced from [[Ford|Ford's]] of the period. The suspension and steering was sourced from [[Ford Cortina|Ford Cortinas]], with a [[TVR]] engineered rear wishbones. Gearboxes were from [[Ford Cortina|Cortinas]] and [[Ford Sierra|Sierras]]. Brakes were discs all round, with the front ones from the [[Ford Granada]]. The engine was the [[Ford Cologne V6|Ford 2.8 Cologne V6]] with [[Bosch]] [[fuel injection]] producing about 150-160 bhp. An [[automatic gearbox]] was also an option, making it the first and last [[TVR]] to come with a automatic gearbox as an option. The styling of the car is credited to Oliver Winterbottom who had previously styled the [[Lotus Elite|Lotus Elite S2]]. Beside the [[Ford Cologne V6|V6 Cologne]] engine the Tasmin was also available with a 2.0 litre [[Ford Pinto]] engine. This car called the Tasmin 200i was made in an attempt to make a car cheaper than the standard Tasmin 280i, priced at under 10000 pounds. The car wasn't a big success mainly because of the engine which wasn't exactly powerful with about 100 bhp. In total only 16 Tasmin 200i coupes and 45 convertibles were made in total. In 1981 a series 2 car appeared, which was vastly improved over the series one car and in 1983 as the 350i was about to be launched the Tasmin name was dropped and the cars were called only 280i's.Also the Tasmin was the last TVR to be exported to the [[USA]]. [[TVR|TVR's]] inconsistent badging policy resulted in the cars appearing as Tasmins, Tasmin 280i's or 280i's (The Tasmin name was dropped in the UK). The last car was exported in 1987, this being a series II 280i. A number of reasons are cited for TVR's withdrawal from the US. These allegedly include a deteriorating relationship with the import agents and the distribution network, warranty problems and liability insurance premiums rising from $160K to over $1M.

== Specifications ==

'''Tasmin 280i'''

Engine: [[Ford Cologne V6]]
 Engine Capacity: 2792 c.c (2,8 Litres)
 Power Output: 160 bhp (Series 1),150bhp (Series 2)
 Torque Output: 162lbs/ft

'''Tasmin 200i'''

Engine: [[Ford Pinto]] straight 4
 Engine Capacity: 1993c.c (2,0 Litres)
 Power Output: 101 bhp
 Torque Output: 112lbs/ft

'''Transmission'''

Tasmin 200i,280i

Transmission: 4 speed Ford manual [[manual gearbox]], 5 spd Ford [[manual gearbox]], 3 spd Ford [[automatic gearbox]]

'''Suspension'''

Front: [[A-arm|Double Wishbones]]
 Rear: Semi trailing arms

'''Brakes'''

Front: [[Disc brakes]]
 Rear: Disc brakes

'''Chassis/Body'''

Chassis: Tubular [[spaceframe]] steel chassis
 Body: [[Fibreglass]] body panels

'''Performance'''

'''Tasmin 280i'''

Acceleration 0-60mph/0-100 km/h: 8.0 seconds , 8.2 seconds (automatic gearbox)
 Top Speed: 130mph/210km/h (Series 1), 121mph/195km/h

'''Weight'''

Weight: 1074 kgs

'''Tasmin 200i'''

Acceleration 0-60mph/0-100km/h: 9.0 seconds
 Top Speed: 110 mph/178km/h

'''Weight'''

Weight: 971 kgs

== External Links ==
[http://www.tvrwedgepages.co.uk/index.html] - TVR Wedgepages

[[Category:TVR vehicles|Tasmin]]
[[Category:Sports cars]]
[[Category:Rear wheel drive vehicles]]

Cameron Douglas

2008-09-09T18:27:47Z

Keithh: corrected disambiguous link

{{Infobox actor
|image = Replace this image male.svg  |
|imagesize = 150px |
| name = Cameron Douglas
| birthname = Cameron Morrell Douglas
| birthdate = {{birth date and age|1978|12|13}}
| location = [[Santa Barbara, California]], [[United States]]
}}

'''Cameron Morrell Douglas''' (born [[December 13]] [[1978]] in [[Santa Barbara, California]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]]. He is the son of actor [[Michael Douglas]] and Diandra Morrell Douglas and grandson of actor [[Kirk Douglas]] and [[Bermudian]] actress [[Diana Dill]].

He has appeared in three films: [[Jackie Chan]]'s ''[[Mr. Nice Guy (1997 film)|Mr. Nice Guy]]'' (1997), ''[[It Runs in the Family (2003 film)|It Runs in the Family]]'' (2003), and [[National Lampoon Inc|National Lampoon]]'s ''[[National Lampoon's Adam & Eve|Adam & Eve]]'' (2005). In ''It Runs in the Family'', he appeared with his father Michael Douglas and grandfather Kirk Douglas and grandmother Diana Dill, who is Michael's mother and was married to Kirk.

He was at one time attached to Jennifer Gatien, daughter of former nightlife impresario Peter Gatien.

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0234979|name=Cameron Douglas}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Douglas, Cameron}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:American film actors]]
[[Category:People from Santa Barbara, California]]

[[be-x-old:Кэмэран Дуґляс]]
[[fr:Cameron Douglas]]

Al Sarrantonio

2008-09-09T18:24:52Z

Keithh: /* Career */ corrected disambiguous link

{{Infobox Writer 
|image = Replace this image male.svg 
|imagesize = 150px |
| name = Al Sarrantonio
| caption =
| pseudonym =
| birthname =
| birthdate = {{Birth date and age|1952|5|25|mf=y}}
| birthplace = [[New York City]], [[United States]]
| deathdate =
| deathplace =
| occupation = [[Writer]], [[Copy editing|Editor]]
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| period = 1978-current
| genre = [[Horror fiction]], [[Fantasy]], [[Science Fiction]], [[Mystery (fiction)|Mysteries]], [[Westerns]]
| subject =
| movement =
| notableworks =
| influences =
| influenced =
| signature =
| website = http://www.alsarrantonio.com
}}

'''Al Sarrantonio''' (born [[May 25]], [[1952]], in [[New York City]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Horror fiction|horror]] and [[science fiction]] [[author]] who has published, over the past thirty years, more than forty books and sixty short stories. He has also edited numerous anthologies and has been called “a master anthologist” by Booklist.

==Background and education==
Sarrantonio was born in New York City and grew up in [[Hicksville, New York|Hicksville]], on [[Long Island]]. He began his professional career at the age of 16 with a nonfiction appearance in the legendary [[Raymond A. Palmer|Ray Palmer’s]] publication ''[[Flying Saucers (magazine)|Flying Saucers]]''. He continued to write throughout [[university]], and in [[1974]], after graduation from [[Manhattan College]] with a [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] in English, he attended the [[Clarion Workshop|Clarion Science Fiction Writers Workshop]] at [[Michigan State University]]. Other prominent attendees that year were [[Bruce Sterling]] and [[James Patrick Kelly]].

==Career==
In [[1976]] Sarrantonio began a professional editing career at a major New York publishing house. His first short fiction, “Ahead of the Joneses,” appeared in ''[[Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine|Isaac Asimov’s Science Fiction Magazine]]'' in [[1978]], followed by a story in ''[[Heavy Metal (magazine)|Heavy Metal]]'' magazine the following year. In [[1980]] he published 14 short stories. In [[1982]], after leaving publishing to become a full time writer, he began his first novel, ''The Worms'', followed by ''Campbell Wood'', ''Totentanz'' and ''The Boy with Penny Eyes''. He quickly established himself in the horror field with such much-anthologized stories as “Pumpkin Head”, “The Man With Legs”, “Father Dear,” “Wish”, and “Richard’s Head,” (all of which appear in his first [[short story]] collection, ''Toybox''). “Richard’s Head” brought him his first [[Bram Stoker Award]] nomination.

Sarrantonio is currently in the midst of a horror saga revolving around [[Halloween]], which takes place in the fictional [[upstate New York]] town of Orangefield (novels to date: ''Halloweenland'', ''Hallows Eve'' and ''Horrorween'', the last of which incorporates three shorter Orangefield pieces: the short novel ''Orangefield'', and [[novelette]]s
''Hornets'' and ''The Pumpkin Boy''). Other horror novels include ''Moonbane'', ''October'', ''House Haunted'' and ''Skeletons''. He has also written [[Western (genre)|Western]]s (''West Texas'' and ''Kitt Peak''), [[Mystery (fiction)|mysteries]] (''Cold Night'' and ''Summer Cool'') and [[science fiction]] (the [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]]-inflected trilogy ''Haydn of Mars'', ''Sebastian of Mars'' and ''Queen of Mars'', omnibused as ''Masters of Mars'' by the [[Science Fiction Book Club]], [[2006]]).

Sarrantonio was book reviewer for ''[[Night Cry]]'' magazine, the short-lived digest-sized offshoot of the ''[[Twilight Zone Magazine]]'', and has been a [[critic]] and [[columnist]] for other publications. Because he has worn so many hats ([[novelist]], [[short story]] [[writer]], critic, [[essayist]],[[editing|editor]],
[[anthologist]]) and worked in so many [[genres]] (he has even edited three collections of [[humor]], including ''The [[National Lampoon Inc|National Lampoon]] Treasury of Humor'') his work, always interesting and often brilliant, has not, perhaps, gained the attention it deserves.

===Select awards and honors===
Winner:
* [[2000]]: [[Bram Stoker Award]]–999: New Stories of Horror and Suspense
Nominated:
* [[2002]]: [[Locus Award]] – Best Editor
* [[2000]]: [[International Horror Guild Award]] - Toybox
* [[2000]]: [[World Fantasy Award]]– 999: New Stories of Horror and Suspense
* [[2000]]: [[British Fantasy Award]] - 999: New Stories of Horror and Suspense
* [[1991]]: [[Bram Stoker Award]] - "Richard's Head"
* [[1990]]: [[Shamus Award]] - Cold Night

==Select bibliography==
====Novels====
* ''Summer Cool'' (Walker, [[1993]])
* ''Kitt Peak'' (Evans, [[1993]]; Leisure, [[2006]])
* ''Skeletons'' (Bantam, [[1992]])
* ''House Haunted'' (Bantam, [[1991]])
* ''West Texas'' (Evans, [[1990]]; Leisure, [[2006]])
* ''October'' (Bantam, [[1990]])
* ''Moonbane'' (Bantam, [[1989]]); (Cemetery Dance, [[2008]])
* ''Cold Night'' (TOR, [[1989]])
* ''The Boy with Penny Eyes'' (TOR, [[1987]])
* ''Totentanz'' (TOR, [[1985]])
* ''Campbell Wood'' (Doubleday, [[1986]]; Berkley, [[1987]])
* ''The Worms'' (Doubleday, [[1985]]; Berkley, [[1988]])

====The Orangefield Cycle====
* ''Halloweenland'' ([[Leisure Books]] [[2007]]; [[Cemetery Dance]], [[2008]]) - A novel length book that includes elements of ''The Baby'' and much more new material (the Leisure paperback also includes the original version of ''The Baby'' as a bonus).
* ''Horrorween'' (Leisure, [[2006]]) - A retelling of "Hornets," ''The Pumpkin Boy,'' and ''Orangefield''.
* ''The Baby'' ([[Cemetery Dance Publications]], [[2006]]) - A novelette
* ''The Pumpkin Boy'' (Endeavor, [[2005]]) - A novelette
* ''Hallows Eve'' (Leisure, [[2004]]; [[Cemetery Dance Publications]], [[2006]])
* ''Orangefield'' (Cemetery Dance, [[2002]])
* "Hornets" (a short work that first appeared in ''Trick or Treat: A Collection of Halloween Novellas'' edited by [[Richard Chizmar]]) (Cemetery Dance, [[2001]])

====The "Five Worlds" science fiction trilogy====
* ''Return'' (ROC, [[1997]])
* ''Journey'' (ROC, [[1997]])
* ''Exile'' (ROC, [[1996]])

====The "Masters of Mars" science fiction trilogy====
* ''Masters of Mars'' ([[Science Fiction Book Club]] collection of all three titles in one hardcover, [[2006]])
* ''Queen of Mars'' (Ace, [[2006]])
* ''Sebastian of Mars'' (Ace, [[2005]])
* ''Haydn of Mars'' (Ace, [[2005]])

====[[Babylon 5]] series====
* ''[[Babylon 5: Personal Agendas]]'' ([[Dell Publishing|Dell]], [[1997]])

* ''[[Babylon 5: The Touch of Your Shadow, the Whisper of Your Name]]'' ([[Dell Publishing|Dell]], [[1996]]) (as by Neal Barrett, Jr. -- Sarrantonio took over and wrote this book after the cover had been printed)

====Short Story Collections====
* ''Halloween and Other Seasons'' (Cemetery Dance, [[2008]]).
* ''Hornets and Others'' (Cemetery Dance, [[2005]]). Includes:
:"The Ropy Thing"
:"The Only"
:"The Beat"
:"In the Corn"
:"Two"
:"The Coat"
:"The Haunting of Y-12"
:"Billy the Fetus"
:"Stars"
:"Bags"
:"The Red Wind"
:"The Green Face"
:"White Lightning"
:"The Glass Man"
:"Violets"
:"The Quiet Ones"
:"Hornets"
* ''A Little Yellow Book of Fevered Stories'' (Borderlands Press, [[2004]]). Includes:
:"Preface"
:"Father Dear"
:"The Ropy Thing"
:"The Electric Fat Boy"
:"Sleepover"
:"In the Corn"
:"Stars"
:"The New Kid"
:"Pumpkin Head"
* ''Toybox'' (Cemetery Dance, [[1999]]; Leisure, [[2003]]). Includes:
:"Pumpkin Head"
:"The Man With Legs"
:"The Spook Man"
:"Wish"
:"Under My Bed"
:"The Big House"
:"Bogy"
:"The Corn Dolly"
:"The Electric Fat Boy"
:"Snow"
:"Garden of Eden"
:"The Dust"
:"Father Dear"
:"Children of Cain"
:"Red Eve"
:"Pigs"
:"Richard's Head"
:"Boxes"

====Anthologies containing stories by Al Sarrantonio====
* ''[[Retro-Pulp Tales]]'', edited by [[Joe R. Lansdale]] (Subterranean Press, [[2006]]). Includes the short story, "Summer."
* ''Midnight Premiere'', edited by [[Tom Piccirilli]] (Cemetery Dance Publications [[2007]]). Includes the short story, "Baby Boss and the Underground Hamsters."
* ''Stalkers'', edited by [[Edward Gorman|Ed Gorman]] and [[Martin H. Greenberg]]. (Dark Harvest Books [[1989]]). Includes the short story, "Children of Cain."
* ''Cemetery Dance: a Fifteen Year Celebration'', edited by [[Richard Chizmar]]. (Cemetery Dance Publications, to be published in 2007). Scheduled to include the short story, "Landing Earl."
* ''Quietly Now'' (a tribute to [[Charles L. Grant]]), edited by [[Kealan Patrick Burke]] (Borderlands [[2004]]). Includes the short story, "Dust."
* ''Trick or Treat: A Collection of Halloween Novellas'' edited by Richard Chizmar. (Cemetery Dance [[2001]]). Includes the short story "Hornets"
* ''Shivers'', edited by [[Richard Chizmar]]. (Cemetery Dance [[2002]]). Includes the short story, "The Green Face."
* ''Shivers II'', edited by [[Richard Chizmar]] (Cemetery Dance [[2003]]). Includes the short story, "The New Kid."
* ''Shivers III'', edited by [[Richard Chizmar]] (Cemetery Dance [[2004]]). Includes the short story, "Hedges."
* ''Shivers IV'', edited by [[Richard Chizmar]] (Cemetery Dance [[2006]]). Includes the short story, "The Man in the Other Car."
* ''The Ultimate Halloween,'' edited by [[Marvin Kaye]]. (I Books [[2003]]). Includes the short story, "Pumpkin Head"
* ''Razored Saddles'' edited by Joe R. Landsdale and [[Pat LoBrutto]]. (Dark Harvest, [[1989]]). Includes the short story, "Trail of the Chromium Bandits."
* ''Bruce Coville's Book of Spine Tinglers: Tales to Make You Shiver,'' edited by [[Bruce Coville]] (Apple Paperbacks [[1996]]). Includes the short story, "Letters From Camp."
* ''The Mammoth Book of Comic Fantasy'', edited by Mike Ashley. (Carroll & Graf Pub [[1998]]). Includes the short story, "The Return of Mad Santa."
* ''[[Shadows (anthology)#Shadows 4|Shadows 4]]'' edited By [[Charles L. Grant]]. (Doubleday Science Fiction 1981). Includes the short story, "Under My Bed"
* ''[[Shadows (anthology)#Shadows 5|Shadows 5]]'' edited By [[Charles L. Grant]]. (Doubleday Science Fiction 1982). Includes the short story, "Boxes"
* ''[[Shadows (anthology)#Shadows 6|Shadows 6]]'' edited By [[Charles L. Grant]]. (Doubleday Science Fiction 1983). Includes the short story, "The Man With Legs"
* ''[[Shadows (anthology)#Shadows 8|Shadows 8]]'' edited By [[Charles L. Grant]]. (Doubleday Science Fiction 1985). Includes the short story, "Wish"
* ''[[Shadows (anthology)#Shadows 10|Shadows 10]]'' edited By [[Charles L. Grant]]. (Doubleday Science Fiction 1987). Includes the short story, "Pigs"
* ''Chrysalis 7,'' edited by Roy Torgeson ([[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]], [[1981]]). Contains the short story, "The Artist in the Small Room Above."
* ''Chrysalis 9,'' edited by Roy Torgeson ([[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]], [[1981]]). Contains the short story, "That They Be Saved."
* ''Weirdbook 18,'' published by W. Paul Ganley, 1983. Includes the short story "The Quiet Ones."
* ''Weirdbook 23/24,'' (Double issue) published by W. Paul Ganley, 1988. Includes the short story, "The Red Wind."

====Books Edited by Al Sarrantonio====
* ''Stories'' - co-edited with [[Neil Gaiman]]. Scheduled to be released February 2009.
* ''Flights: Extreme Visions of Fantasy'' (ROC, [[2004]]). Includes his short story "Sleepover."
* ''Redshift: Extreme Tales of Speculative Fiction'' (ROC, [[2001]])
* ''999: New Stories of Horror and Suspense'' (Avon, [[1999]]; Perennial, [[2001]])
* ''100 Hair-Raising Little Horror Stories'' (with Martin H. Greenberh, Barnes & Noble, [[1993]])
* ''The National Lampoon Treasury of Humor'' (Fireside/Simon & Schuster, [[1991]])
* ''The Fireside Treasury of New Humor'' (Fireside/Simon & Schuster, [[1989]])
* ''The Fireside Treasury of Great Humor'' (Fireside/Simon & Schuster, [[1987]])

====Magazine appearances====
* ''[[Cemetery Dance]]'', #46. Features the short story "Eels."
* ''Cemetery Dance'', #35, 2001. Features the short story "Violets."
* ''Cemetery Dance'', #22 Winter 1995 (Volume Six, Issue Four). Features the short story "Garden of Eden."
* ''Cemetery Dance'', #4 Spring 1990 (Volume 2 issue 2). Features the short story "The Meek."
* ''Spiderwebs'', Volume 1, Number 2; Spring 1982. Contains the short story "Sherlocks."
* ''[[Analog Science Fiction and Fact]]'' Volume 101 #13; December, 1981. Features the short story "There is a Home."
* ''[[Heavy Metal (magazine)|Heavy Metal]]'' May 1979. Features the short story "Roger in the Womb."
* ''[[Asimov's Science Fiction|Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine]]'' Volume 3 #3; March 1979. Features the short story "Ahead of the Joneses."

====Comic book adaptions====
* ''Cemetery Dance Presents: Grave Tales'' issue #2 (May, 2000). Features "The Corn Dolly" adapted by [[Glenn Chadbourne]].

==External links==
* [http://www.alsarrantonio.com] Al Sarrantonio's Official Website
* [http://www.robertmccammon.com/interviews/rrm-sarrantonio.html] Robert McCammon interview
* [http://www.cemeterydance.com/page/CDP/CTGY/SARRANTONIO] Cemetery Dance Publications
* [http://www.harpercollins.com/authors/18344/Al_Sarrantonio/index.aspx] HarperCollins Publisher

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sarrantonio, Al}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American horror writers]]
[[Category:American mystery writers]]
[[Category:American novelists]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers]]
[[Category:American short story writers]]
[[Category:People from Long Island]]
[[Category:People from New York City]]
[[Category:Western writers]]
[[Category:Manhattan College alumni]]

Paolo Porpora

2008-08-28T18:29:40Z

Keithh: added two img - Reptiles, Tortoise and Crab

[[Image:Tortue et crabe P Porpora Nancy 3018.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Paolo Porpora]], ''Tortoise and Crab'', Musée des Beaux-Arts de [[Nancy]], [[1656]]]]
[[Image:Tartapittura.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Paolo Porpora]], ''Reptiles'', [[Museo di Capodimonte]], [[Naples]]]]

'''Paolo Porpora''' ([[1617]] - [[1673]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] painter of the late-[[Baroque]], who was active mainly in [[Naples]] and specialized in floral [[still life|still lifes]]. He is documented as a pupil of Giacomo Recco, the father of [[Giuseppe Recco]], and said to have worked under [[Aniello Falcone]]. He joined the Roman [[Accademia di San Luca]] from 1656 to 1658. He appears to have been influenced in Rome by Netherlandish still life painters. Among his pupils was [[Giovan Battista Ruoppolo]].

==Sources==
*[http://www.wga.hu/bio/p/porpora/biograph.html| Web Gallery of Art Biography]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Porpora, Paolo}}

[[Category:1617 births]]
[[Category:1670 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Naples]]
[[Category:Italian painters]]
[[Category:Neapolitan painters]]
[[Category:Italian Baroque painters]]
[[Category:Italian still life painters]]

[[fr:Paolo Porpora]]

Francesco Furini

2008-08-11T20:37:26Z

Keithh: added media commons link

[[Image:Furini.jpg|thumb|Francesco Furini, Study of a Woman holding an Object, red chalk on white paper, c. 1640, private collection]]
[[Image:Artemisia Prepares to Drink the Ashes of her Husband, Mausolus.jpg|thumb|''[[Artemisia II of Caria|Artemisia]] Prepares to Drink the Ashes of her Husband, [[Mausolus]]'' (ca. 1630), attributed to Furini]]
{{commonscat}}

'''Francesco Furini''' (c. [[1600]] (or [[1603]]) – [[August 19]], [[1646]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Baroque]] painter of [[Florence]].

His early training was by [[Matteo Rosselli]] (whose other pupils include [[Lorenzo Lippi]] and [[Baldassare Franceschini]]), though Furini is also described as influenced by [[Domenico Passignano]] and [[Giovanni Biliverti]] (Cantelli 1972). He befriended [[Giovanni da San Giovanni]]. Traveling to [[Rome]] in 1619, he also would have been exposed to the influence of [[Caravaggio]] and his followers. Among his pupils are [[Simone Pignoni]] (1611-98)<ref> Wittkower p 1993:345</ref> and [[Giovanni Battista Galestruzzi]]. At the age of forty, he became a priest for the parish of Sant'Ansano in Mugello.

Furini's work reflects the tension faced by the conservative, [[Mannerism|mannerist]] style of Florence when confronting then novel [[Baroque]] styles. He is a painter of biblical and mythological set-pieces with a strong use of the misty [[sfumato]] technique. In the 1630s, when he became a priest, his style paralleled that of [[Guido Reni]].

Freedberg describes Furini's style as filled with "morbid sensuality". His frequent use of disrobed females is discordant with his excessive religious sentimentality, and his polished stylization and poses are at odds with his aim of expressing highly emotional states. His stylistic choices did not go unnoticed by more puritanical contemporary biographers like [[Filippo Baldinucci|Baldinucci]]. Pignoni also mirrored this style in his works.

One of his masterpieces, and not reflective of the style of his canvases, is the airy fresco in [[Palazzo Pitti]], where on order of [[Ferdinando II de Medici]], between 1639-1642, Furini frescoed two large lunettes depicting the ''[[Villa Medici at Careggi|Platonic Academy of Careggi]]'' and the ''Allegory of the Death of Lorenzo the Magnificent''. The frescoes can be seen as a response to [[Pietro da Cortona]], who was at work in the palazzo during these years (Cantelli 1972).

In [[Robert Browning|Robert Browning's]] series of poems titled ''Parleyings with certain people of importance in their day'', the poet envisions an explanation by Furini that refutes the published assertion by [[Filippo Baldinucci]] that (on his deathbed) he had ordered all his nude paintings be destroyed. For Browning, Furini's disrobement of his subjects is emblematic of a courageous search for the hidden truth. Modern research has demonstrated that Furini did not abandon his sensual painting subjects on entering the priesthood.

Furini was rediscovered in the early twentieth century by [[Arturo Stanghellini]].<ref>Stanghellini, ''Francesco Furini, ''Vita d'Arte'' '''13''' [1913). </ref> His scantily documented career was sketched by Elena Toesca (''Furini'', 1950) and brought into focus with an exhibition of his drawings at the [[Uffizi]], 1972.<ref>The exhibition catalogue by Giuseppe Cantelli , ''Disegni di Francesco Furini e del suo ambiente'' (Florence: Oschki) 1972. Cantelli attributed seventy-two drawings in the Uffizi to his hand. Documents published by Gino Corti in ''Antichità Viva'' (Match-April 1971) appeared too late to be assimilated in the exhibition. Soon after, A. Barsanti recovered more biographical detail to flesh out the modest armature of dates in "Una vita inedita del Furini", ''Paragone'' 289, (1974), pp. 67-86.</ref>

==Anthology of works==
*''Cephalus and Aurora'' (before 1626, Museo de Arte, Ponce)<ref>Often published as by Jacopo Vignali, reattributed to Furini by Cantelli 1972 (cat. no. 2).</ref>
*''Hylas and the Nymphs'', (shortly before 1633, Galleria Furini, Florence)
*''Faith'', (1638, [[Palazzo Pitti]])
*''St John the Evangelist'', (1630s, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon)
*''The Birth of Rachel'', ([[Alte Pinakothek]], Munich)
*''Judith and Holofernes'', (1636, [[Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica]], Rome)
*'' Lot and his Daughters'', ([[Museo del Prado]], Madrid)
*''Bound Andromeda'', ([[Hermitage Museum|Hermitage]], St Petersburg)
*''Bound Andromeda'', (National Galleries, Budapest, Hungary) [http://amweb.free.fr/andart/fr/txt/17_ita3.htm]
*''Crucifixion with angels, Saint Bartholemew, Saint John, and Mary Magdalen'', (San Bartolomeo, [[Todiano in Preci]])[http://www.umbrarte.com/list/160501.htm]
*''Penitent Magdalen'' [http://www.staatsgalerie.de/gemaeldeundskulpturen/ita_rundg.php?id=8]
* Frescoes, Salone, Palazzo Pitti (documented 1639-42, Museo degli Argenti)
*''The Three Graces'', (Hermitage, St Petersburg)
*''Saint Sebastian'' ([[Schleissheim Palace]])

==Notes==

<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references />
</div>

==References==
*Cantelli, G., & Furini, F. (1972). ''Disegni di Francesco Furini: e del suo ambiente''. Firenze: Olschki. {{OCLC|2045642}}
*{{cite book | first= Sydney J.| last= Freedberg| year=1993| title= Painting in Italy, 1500-1600| chapter= | editor= Pelican History of Art| others= | pages=344-345 Penguin Books Ltd| publisher= | id= | url= | authorlink= }}
*[http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/f/furini/ Web Gallery of Art entry.]
*{{cite book | first= Rudolf|last= [[Rudolf Wittkower|Wittkower]]| year=1993| title= Pelican History of Art, Art and Architecture Italy, 1600-1750| editor= | others=1980 | pages= 345 | publisher= Penguin Books Ltd| id= | url= | authorlink= }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Furini, Francesco}}
[[Category:1600s births]]
[[Category:1646 deaths]]
[[Category:Italian painters]]
[[Category:Tuscan painters]]
[[Category:Italian Baroque painters]]

[[fr:Francesco Furini]]
[[it:Francesco Furini]]
[[pt:Francesco Furini]]

Stanisław Samostrzelnik

2008-08-07T14:21:30Z

Keithh: added media commons link

{{Infobox Painting| image_file=Samostrzelnik PortraitOfPiotrTomicki.jpg
| title=Portrait of Piotr Tomicki
| artist=[[Stanislaw Samostrzelnik]]
| year=
| type=[[Tempera|Tempera on panel]]
| height=
| width=
| museum=[[Franciscan Church]], [[Kraków]]
}}
{{commonscat|Stanislaw Samostrzelnik}}

'''Stanisław Samostrzelnik''' (c. [[1490]] – [[1541]])<ref>[http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/s/samostrz/index.html Web Gallery of Art, image collection, virtual museum, searchable database of European fine arts (1100-1850)]</ref> was a [[Poland|Polish]] [[Renaissance]] painter and [[Cisterian]] [[monk]] from [[Kraków]]. He was the first Polish painter known by name who painted in the Renaissance style. There are many [[fresco]]s by him in the churches of southern [[Poland]]. Possibly his most well known work is that of the ''Portrait of Piotr Tomicki'', which, following a $12,000 donation, recently had restoration work carried out.

==Notes==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Samostrezelnik, Stanislaw}}
[[Category:1490s births]]
[[Category:1541 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Kraków]]
[[Category:Polish painters]]
[[Category:Renaissance painters]]
[[Category:Cistercians]]
[[Category:Polish Christian monks]]

{{Poland-painter-stub}}

[[pl:Stanisław Samostrzelnik]]

Halil Berktay

2008-07-30T15:43:41Z

Keithh: correcting ambiguity - Master of Arts

{{Infobox academic
|name = Halil Berktay
|box_width =
|image = HalilBerktay.jpg
|image_width = 131
|caption = Prof. Halil Berktay
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1947|08|27}}
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|residence =
|citizenship =
|nationality = Turkish
|ethnicity =
|field = Turkish history
|work_institutions = [[Sabanci University]], [[Ankara University]], [[Middle East Technical University]], [[Harvard University]]
|alma_mater = [[Yale University]], [[Birmingham University]]
|doctoral_advisor =
|doctoral_students =
|known_for =
|influences =
|influenced =
|prizes =
|religion =
|footnotes =
}}

'''Halil Berktay''' is a [[Turkish people|Turkish]] historian at [[Sabancı University]].<ref name=home>[http://people.sabanciuniv.edu/hberktay/eng/?home/index.html Home], personal Web site, Sabanci University.</ref>

==Biography==
After graduating from [[Robert College]] in 1964, Berktay studied economics at [[Yale University]] receiving his [[Bachelor of Arts]] in 1968 and [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|Master of Arts]] in 1969.<ref name=bio/> He went on to earn a PhD from [[Birmingham University]] in 1990.<ref name=bio/> He worked as lecturer at [[Ankara University]] between 1969–1971 and 1978–1983.<ref name=bio>[http://people.sabanciuniv.edu/hberktay/eng/?background/index.html Background], personal Web site, Sabanci University.</ref>

Between 1992–1997, he taught at both the [[Middle East Technical University]] and [[Bosphorus University]]. He was a visiting scholar at [[Harvard University]] in 1997, and taught at [[Sabancı University]] before returning to Harvard in 2006.

Berktay's research areas are the history and [[historiography]] of [[Turkish nationalism]] in the 20th century.<ref name=resint/> He studies social and economic history (including that of [[Europe]], and especially [[medieval history]]) from a [[Comparative history|comparative perspective]].<ref name=resint/> He has also written on the construction of Turkish national memory.<ref name=resint>[http://people.sabanciuniv.edu/hberktay/eng/?researchinterests/index.html Research Interests], personal Web site, Sabanci University.</ref>

In September 2005, Berktay and fellow historians, including [[Murat Belge]], [[Edhem Eldem]], [[Selim Deringil]], convened at a controversial conference to discuss the [[fall of the Ottoman Empire]].<ref name=conf>[http://people.sabanciuniv.edu/hberktay/eng/?conferences/index.html Conferences], personal Web site, Sabanci University.</ref>

==Excerpt from a newspaper interview==

{{quote|Preceding the Armenian events is the whole background of the 19th century. (...) With the Allies forcing the [[Dardanelles]] [in 1915], the [[Ottoman Empire]], that had suffered one defeat after the other in the [[Balkans]] and that had nothing left but the lands of [[Anatolia]], entered into a psychosis of (...) being cornered and squeezed, of helplessness. [At the same time], Armenian bands massacred large numbers of [[Muslims]]. During such a process, it is impossible to identify anyone as having thrown the first stone, deciding who committed the first crime. Everybody has a story. [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Bulgarians]], [[Greeks]], [[Armenians]], everybody. In each of these stories, those who tell them are always in the role of victims. They themselves have never committed injustices against others, and they were the only ones who have suffered. One can remark that the 1915 killings of Armenians are remembered and the [[Crete|Cretan]] massacres committed against the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] Muslim population of the island between 1896-1900 are not remembered. I come from a family of [[Cretan Turks|Cretan immigrants]] myself. I know that two of my great uncles were hanged from the tree in our garden by a band of Greeks.|Halil Berktay|[[Radikal gazetesi|Radikal]]<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.radikal.com.tr/2000/10/09/insan/erm.shtml
|title=Ermenileri özel örgüt öldürdü
|work=[[Radikal gazetesi|Radikal]],
|date=2000-10-09
|language=Turkish
|first=Neşe
|last=Düzel
}}</ref>}}

== Partial bibliography ==
* Kabileden Feodalizme, Kaynak Yayınları, 1983
* Cumhuriyet İdeolojisi ve Fuad Köprülü, Kaynak Yayınları, 1983
* Bir Dönem Kapanırken, Pencere Yayınları, 1991
* New Approaches to State and Peasant in Ottoman History / edited by Halil Berktay and Suraiya Faroqhi, ISBN 0714634689

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://people.sabanciuniv.edu/hberktay/eng/?home/index.html Personal Web site], Sabanci University {{en}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Berktay, Halil}}
[[Category:1947 births]]
[[Category:Robert College alumni]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Turkish academics]]
[[Category:Yale University alumni]]
[[Category:Turkish historians]]
[[Category:Turkish people]]

[[he:חליל ברקטאי]]
[[tr:Halil Berktay]]