Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Benutzer:Justus111/Steve Eisman

2019-11-23T06:01:19Z

Jprg1966: /* Personal life */

{{Infobox person
| name = Steve Eisman
| birth_name = Steven Eisman
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1962|07|08}}
|alma_mater = [[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) [[Harvard Law School]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])<ref>https://annual.cfainstitute.org/speakers/steven-eisman/</ref>{{dl|date=July 2019}}
| occupation = Managing Director and Portfolio Manager at [[Neuberger Berman]]
| known_for = Betting against subprime mortgages during the [[subprime mortgage crisis]]
| spouse = Valerie Feigen (m. 1989)
}}

'''Steven Eisman''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|s|m|ə|n}}; born July 8, 1962) is an American businessman and investor known for having [[shorting|shorted]] [[collateralized debt obligation]]s (CDOs), thereby profiting from the collapse of the US housing bubble in 2007–2008.

==Early life, education, and family==
Eisman grew up in New York City, where he attended [[Yeshiva]] schools. He attended the [[University of Pennsylvania]], graduating [[magna cum laude]] in 1984. <ref>{{cite journal|title=All of the Above: Education|journal=The Pennsylvania Gazette |date=January-February 2011 |page=35|url=http://www.upenn.edu/gazette/0111/PennGaz0111_feature1.pdf|accessdate=12 February 2016}}</ref> He then graduated from [[Harvard Law School]] with honors. His parents also worked in finance. They were brokers for [[Oppenheimer Holdings | Oppenhemimer]]. Eisman was unhappy with his work in law. His parents arranged a position for him at Oppenheimer working as an equity analyst. Oppenheimer's anti-nepotism rules required his parents to pay the first year of his salary.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lewis|first1=Michael|title=Excerpt from The Big Short: Inside the Doomsday Machine|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ef62b4ae-ca26-11df-87b8-00144feab49a.html|accessdate=February 12, 2016|work=[[Financial Times]]|date=September 27, 2010}}</ref><ref name="TheBigBook">{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Michael |title=The Big Short |date=1 February 2011 |publisher=W.W. Norton and Company |isbn=978-0393338829}}</ref>

==FrontPoint Partners==
Eisman rose to fame betting against [[collateralized debt obligations]] at Greenwich, Connecticut-based [[FrontPoint Partners]] LLC, a unit of [[Morgan Stanley]]. By 2010, he managed more than $1 billion for FrontPoint, and gained prominence after being profiled by [[Michael Lewis]] in his book ''[[The Big Short|The Big Short: Inside the Doomsday Machine]]''. In the movie adaptation of Lewis' book, ''[[The Big Short (film)|The Big Short]]'', Eisman's name was changed to Mark Baum, and was portrayed by actor [[Steve Carell]]. He left FrontPoint Partners in 2011 amid investor withdrawals following an investigation of illegal insider trading by portfolio manager [[Chip Skowron]].<ref name="AzamBook">{{cite news |last1=Ahmed |first1=Azam |title=Eisman to Leave FrontPoint Partners |url=https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2011/06/08/steve-eisman-to-leave-frontpoint/ |accessdate=7 November 2019 |work=The New York Times DealBook |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=8 June 2011}}</ref>

==Emrys Partners==
In 2012, Eisman founded [[Emrys Partners]] with $23 million in seed capital. The fund performed poorly in 2012, returning 3.6% and underperforming the market. It did better in 2013, returning 10.8% but still underperforming the market.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/emrys-partners-hedge-fund-shuts-down-1404413851|title=Emrys Partners Hedge Fund Shuts Down|date=July 3, 2014|work=Wall Street Journal|author=Juliet Chung}}</ref> In July 2014, he announced that he was shutting down the fund, explaining his decision by stating that "making investment decisions by looking solely at the fundamentals of individual companies is no longer a viable investment philosophy." The fund controlled an estimated $185 million in assets at the time of its dissolution.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last=Solin |first=Daniel |title=The Shocking Admission of This Shuttered Hedge Fund Manager |publisher=U.S. News & World Report |date=17 September 2014 |url=http://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/the-smarter-mutual-fund-investor/2014/09/17/the-shocking-admission-of-this-shuttered-hedge-fund-manager |accessdate=20 November 2014}}</ref> Emrys Partners stopped operating in mid-2014.<ref name="Svea">{{cite news |last1=Herbst-Bayliss |first1=Svea |title=Hedge fund manager Steve Eisman shuts down Emrys Partners |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hedgefunds-eisman/hedge-fund-manager-steve-eisman-shuts-down-emrys-partners-idUSKBN0F82K520140703 |accessdate=7 November 2019 |agency=REUTERS |publisher=The Thomson Reuters Trust |date=4 July 2014}}</ref>

==Neuberger Berman==
In September 2014, Eisman joined [[Neuberger Berman]] as a managing director and a portfolio manager for the Eisman Group within Neuberger Berman’s Private Asset Management division. The group, run by partners including Steve's parents, Elliott and Lillian Eisman, manages portfolios of stocks for wealthy clients.

==Campaign against for-profit colleges==
Eisman is a strong opponent of for-profit institutions of higher education. During a speech entitled "Subprime Goes to College" during the [[Sohn Conference Foundation#Sohn Investment Conference|Ira Sohn Conference]] in May 2010 Eisman attacked companies that run private colleges such as [[ITT Technical Institute|Think ITT Educational Services]], [[Corinthian Colleges]], and [[Education Management Corporation]].<ref name="Hibah1" /><ref name="nymag">{{Cite news|url=http://nymag.com/daily/intel/2010/08/no_more_free_lunch_for_morgan.html|title=Steve Eisman’s Outspokenness, Orchid Habit May Have Caused Rift With Morgan Stanley|author=[[Jessica Pressler]]|publisher=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]|date= 5 August 2010}}</ref> Eisman likened such companies to seedy mortgage brokers. From his presentation:

: "Until recently, I thought that there would never again be an opportunity to be involved with an industry as socially destructive and morally bankrupt as the subprime mortgage industry. I was wrong. The [[for-profit education]] industry has proven equal to the task."<ref name="mojo">{{Cite news|url=http://motherjones.com/mojo/2010/05/steve-eisman-big-short-michael-lewis|title=Steve Eisman's Next Big Short: For-Profit Colleges|first= Andy|last= Kroll|publisher=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]]|date=27 May 2010}}</ref>

After the [[United States Department of Education|Department of Education]] took action against for-profit colleges in 2010, the industry retaliated by accusing Eisman of attempting to illegally influence the government and calling for an investigation by the Secretary of Education. The allegations stem from a meeting that Eisman had with Department of Education officials David Bergeron and [[Robert Shireman]], two weeks before delivering his speech at the Ira Sohn Conference. Shireman was in charge of the department's efforts to toughen regulations on for-profit colleges.<ref name="fortune">Did Steve Eisman unduly influence the Education Dept.?, by David A. Kaplan, Fortune, 2 November 2010</ref><ref name="Hibah1" />

After offering testimony to [[United States Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions|Senate Health, Education and Labor Committee]] on problems with for-profit higher education, Eisman was criticized by progressive groups such as [[Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington]] on the grounds that he stood to profit from proposed regulations due to his short positions against private colleges.<ref name="american">Why Are Progressives Fighting Student-Loan Reform?, by Mike Elk, The American Prospect, 6 October 2010</ref> Harris Miller, president and chief executive of the Association of Private Sector Colleges and Universities said of him, "Eisman is a self-serving nutcase who got lucky. He's in the business of ruining the reputation of companies so he can make money when their stock prices drop."<ref name="Hibah1">{{cite news |last1=Yousuf |first1=Hibah |title=For-profit colleges fighting back hard |url=https://money.cnn.com/2011/04/21/markets/profit_education_eisman/index.htm |accessdate=7 November 2019 |work=CNN Money |publisher=WarnerMedia Company |date=21 April 2011}}</ref>

==Personal life==
He has been married to Valerie Feigen since 1989.<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/08/style/valerie-feigen-a-lawyer-weds.html|title=Valerie Feigen, A Lawyer, Weds|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=8 September 1989}}</ref> Valerie was also portrayed in ''[[The Big Short (film)|The Big Short]]'' under the name Cynthia, by [[Marisa Tomei]]. Feigen, who worked for J.P. Morgan, said of her husband, "Even on Wall Street people think he's rude and obnoxious and aggressive." While Eisman seems aware of his tendency to be rude he does not seem to be concerned by it. He once said to an interviewer on this topic, "I forget myself sometimes."<ref name="TheBigBook" />

Eisman's first-born son, Max, died after his night nurse rolled on top of him in her sleep. Eisman and his intimates describe the death of his son as a hugely influential event that affected him in many ways.<ref name="TheBigBook" />

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Eisman, Steve}}
[[Category:1962 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American money managers]]
[[Category:American venture capitalists]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from New York City]]
[[Category:Harvard Law School alumni]]
[[Category:New York (state) lawyers]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni]]

William Haines Lytle

2018-10-06T18:56:22Z

Jprg1966: Cleaned up using AutoEd

{{Infobox military person
|name= William Haines Lytle
|birth_date= {{birth date|1826|11|2}}
|death_date= {{death date and age|1863|9|20|1826|11|2}}
|birth_place= [[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]]
|death_place= [[Chickamauga Creek|Chickamauga]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
|placeofburial= [[Spring Grove Cemetery]], Cincinnati, Ohio
|placeofburial_label= Place of burial
|image= WHLytle.jpg
|caption= William Haines Lytle
|allegiance= [[United States of America]] [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]
|branch= [[United States Army]] [[Union Army]]
|serviceyears= 1846–1848; 1861–1863
|rank= [[File:Union Army brigadier general rank insignia.svg|35px]] [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier General]]
|commands= [[10th Ohio Infantry]]
|unit=
|battles= [[Mexican–American War]] [[American Civil War]]
|laterwork=
}}
'''William Haines Lytle''' (November 2, 1826 – September 20, 1863) was a politician in [[Ohio]], renowned [[poet]], and military officer in the [[United States Army]] during both the [[Mexican–American War]] and [[American Civil War]], where he was killed in action as a [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]].

==Biography==
Lytle was born in [[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]], the scion of a leading area family, the [[Lytle family]]. He graduated from [[University of Cincinnati|Cincinnati College]] and studied law. After passing the bar exam, he established a law firm in Cincinnati, but soon enlisted in the 2nd Ohio Volunteer Infantry and served as a [[Captain (United States)|captain]] in the [[Mexican–American War]]. After returning from [[Mexico]], Lytle resumed and expanded his legal practice. He was elected to the Ohio state legislature as a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]. He unsuccessfully ran for [[Lieutenant Governor]] in 1857, losing the election by just a few hundred votes. He was a celebrated American poet before the Civil War. Lytle's most famous poem, "Antony and Cleopatra" (published in 1857), was beloved by both [[Northern United States|North]] and [[Southern United States|South]] in [[Antebellum era|antebellum]] America.<ref>[http://www.civilwarpoetry.org/union/officers/egypt.html Civil War Poetry: Antony and Cleopatra]</ref> Lytle was appointed as a [[Major general (United States)|major general]] in the Ohio state [[militia]]. In 1860, he unsuccessfully sought the Democratic nomination for his district's seat in the [[United States House of Representatives]]. He campaigned in Ohio for the candidacy of [[Stephen A. Douglas]] in the 1860 Presidential Election.

When the Civil War erupted in 1861, through his political and military connections, Lytle was commissioned as colonel of the [[10th Ohio Infantry]]. He and his brigade were assigned to western [[Virginia]] (now [[West Virginia]]), where they engaged in a series of small engagements in a campaign that led to the withdrawal of [[Confederate States Army|Confederate]] forces in that region, helping pave the way for statehood. Lytle was given command of a [[brigade]] of infantry. He was severely wounded in his left calf muscle in a fight at [[Battle of Carnifex Ferry|Carnifex Ferry]] on September 10, 1861, and was sent home to recover. After a four-month recuperation, Lytle was assigned commander of the [[Bardstown, Kentucky]] military training camp. Returning to field duty, he led a brigade in Maj. Gen. [[Ormsby M. Mitchel]]'s [[Division (military)|division]]. He participated in Mitchel's operations along the Memphis and Chattanooga Railroad. Lytle was again wounded and taken prisoner at the [[Battle of Perryville]] in [[Kentucky]] on October 8, 1862. He was soon exchanged and rejoined the army. On November 29, Lytle was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers, and led his brigade in numerous engagements in the army of [[William S. Rosecrans]]. Admiring officers from his old 10th OVI presented him with a jeweled [[Maltese cross]] in September 1863, just eleven days before his death.

Lytle was mortally wounded at the [[Battle of Chickamauga]] in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] while leading a [[counterattack]] on horseback. Once his identity was known, respectful Confederates placed a guard around his body, and many recited his poetry over their evening campfires.<ref>[http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2003/11/02/loc_ohiodate1102.html ''Cincinnati Enquirer'', 11/2/2003]</ref> The hill where he died is now known as "Lytle Hill" in the [[Chickamauga National Military Park]].

His funeral was held in the early afternoon at [[Christ Church Cathedral, Cincinnati|Christ Church]] on Fourth Street in Cincinnati. So many people lined the streets that the funeral cortege did not reach [[Spring Grove Cemetery]] until dusk. Lytle's monument, one of the most impressive ones there, is near the entrance to the cemetery.

==Legacy==
Lytle never married, and left no direct descendants.

Fort Vinegar, on Vinegar Hill in Bowling Green, was renamed as [[Fort Lytle]] after Lytle's death. It is now on the [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Warren County, Kentucky|National Register of Historic Places in Warren County, Kentucky]].

[[Lytle Park]] in Cincinnati, [http://www.onelytle.com/ One Lytle Place] in Cincinnati, and Lytle Street at 1235 west in Chicago, are named for the fallen general or his family.

==Anthology==
* {{cite book
|title=Poems of William Haines Lytle
|first=William Haines
|last=Lytle
|authorlink=William Haines Lytle
|editor1-first=William H.
|editor1-last=Venable
|editor1-link=William Henry Venable
|year=1894
|publisher=[[The Robert Clarke Company]]
|page=
|location=Cincinnati
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNEWAAAAYAAJ
}}

==The shooter==
The alleged shooter of Lytle was never discovered, and to this day has never been discovered, all that is known is that the shooter was a Confederate sniper using a Whitworth .45 caliber percussion rifle.

However, according to history presented to The Daughters of The Confederacy, the shooter was Hillary Garrison Waldrep of Company B of the 16th Alabama Regiment of Infantry. In order to make the shot that was purportedly approved personally by General Bragg, Waldrep had to adjust the sights on his rifle for 200 yards beyond where they usually were. According to the account, once General Lytle fell to the ground, his horse was spooked and ran toward the Confederate soldiers. Bragg gave Hillary Garrison Waldrep General Lytle's horse, bed-roll and equipment. Waldrep later sold the horse for $100.

==''Antony and Cleopatra''==
Lytle's most famous poem, 1858:

{{quote|

I am dying, Egypt, dying!

Ebbs the crimson life-tide fast,

And the dark Plutonian shadows

Gather on the evening blast;

Let thine arm, oh Queen, enfold me,

Hush thy sobs and bow thine ear,

Listen to the great heart secrets

Thou, and thou alone, must hear.

Though my scarred and veteran legions

Bear their eagles high no more,

And my wrecked and scattered galleys

Strew dark Actium's fatal shore;

Though no glittering guards surround me,

Prompt to do their master's will,

I must perish like a Roman,

Die the great Triumvir still.

Let not Caesar's servile minions,

Mock the lion thus laid low;

'Twas no foeman's arm that felled him,

'Twas his own that struck the blow —

His who, pillowed on thy bosom,

Turned aside from glory's ray —

His who, drunk with thy caresses,

Madly threw a world away.

Should the base plebeian rabble

Dare assail my name at Rome,

Where the noble spouse, Octavia,

Weeps within her widowed home,

Seek her; say the gods bear witness, —

Altars, augurs, circling wings, —

That her blood, with mine commingled,

Yet shall mount the thrones of kings.

And for thee, star-eyed Egyptian —

Glorious sorceress of the Nile!

Light the path to Stygian horrors

With the splendors of thy smile;

Give the Caesar crowns and arches,

Let his brow the laurel twine,

I can scorn the senate's triumphs,

Triumphing in love like thine.

I am dying, Egypt, dying;

Hark! the insulting foeman's cry;

They are coming; quick, my falchion!

Let me front them ere I die.

Ah, no more amid the battle

Shall my heart exulting swell;

Isis and Osiris guard thee, —

Cleopatra, Rome, farewell!

}}

==See also==
{{Portal|United States Army|American Civil War}}
* [[List of American Civil War generals (Union)]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Carter, Ruth C., ''For Honor, Glory & Union: The Mexican & Civil War Letters of Brig. Gen. William Haines Lytle.'' Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1999. {{ISBN|0-8131-2108-6}}.
* [http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2003/04/03/tem_thulede03.html ''Cincinnati Enquirer'' biography]
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208215607/http://www.generalsandbrevets.com/ngl/lytle.htm |date=February 8, 2008 |title=Generals and Brevets: Lytle photo gallery }}
* [http://www.cincinnatimemory.org/gsdl/collect/greaterc/archives/HASH011e/e49f4163.dir/ocp002956pccnb.jpg The General Wm. H. Lytle Homestead]

==External links==
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=William Haines Lytle |birth=1826 |death=1864 |sopt=t}}
* {{Librivox author |id=1005}}
* {{Find a Grave|5843271|accessdate=2008-02-12}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lytle, William}}
[[Category:1826 births]]
[[Category:1864 deaths]]
[[Category:People of Ohio in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Writers from Cincinnati]]
[[Category:Union Army generals]]
[[Category:United States Army generals]]
[[Category:Union military personnel killed in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:19th-century American Episcopalians]]
[[Category:Politicians from Cincinnati]]
[[Category:Ohio Democrats]]
[[Category:Burials at Spring Grove Cemetery]]
[[Category:American Civil War prisoners of war]]
[[Category:Cincinnati in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Members of the Ohio House of Representatives]]
[[Category:19th-century American politicians]]

Chinesisch-pakistanische Beziehungen

2018-10-04T05:07:21Z

Jprg1966: /* Diplomatic relations */

{{Infobox bilateral relations|China–Pakistan
| party1 = Pakistan
| party2 = China
| map = Pakistan China Locator.svg
| filetype = 250px
| envoytitle1 = [[Ambassador]]
| envoy1 = Masood Khalid
| envoytitle2 = [[Ambassador]]
| envoy2 = Sun Weidong
| mission1 = [[Beijing|Pakistani Embassy, Beijing]]
| mission2 = [[Islamabad|Chinese Embassy, Islamabad]]
}}

'''China–Pakistan relations''' began in 1950 when Pakistan was among the first countries to enter into official diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] (on [[Taiwan]]) and recognize the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) regime on mainland China. Since then, both countries have placed considerable importance on the maintenance of an extremely close and supportive [[Special relationship (international relations)|special relationship]]<ref name="bbcnews">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13418957|title= Pakistani PM hails China as his country's 'best friend'|work=BBC News|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=17 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="nyt">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/13/world/asia/13pstan.html|title= Pakistan President to Visit China, a Valued Ally|work=New York Times|accessdate=12 October 2008|first=Salman|last=Masood|date=13 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-11/14/content_732562.htm|title=China-Pakistan relations|accessdate=14 November 2006|work=China Daily}}</ref> and the two countries have regularly exchanged high-level visits resulting in a variety of agreements. The PRC has provided economic, military, and technical assistance to Pakistan, and each country considers the other a close strategic ally.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-17/world/china.pakistan.friend_1_minister-yousuf-raza-gilani-chinese-president-hu-jintao-pakistani-counterpart?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Pakistan cements China ties amid tension with U.S|date=17 May 2011|accessdate=12 July 2011|work=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/7384378.html|title=China, Pakistan joined in bonds of brotherhood|accessdate=18 May 2011|work=People's Daily}}</ref>

Bilateral relations have evolved from an initial Chinese policy of neutrality to a partnership with a smaller but militarily powerful Pakistan. Diplomatic relations were established in 1950, boundary issues resolved in 1963, military assistance began in 1966, a strategic alliance was formed in 1972, and economic co-operation began in 1979. China has become Pakistan’s largest supplier of arms and its third-largest trading partner.<ref>{{cite web|agency=Reuters |url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/05/21/pakistan-says-wants-china-to-build-naval-base.html |title=Pakistan wants China to build it a naval base |publisher=Dawn.com |date=21 May 2011 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thecommongood.net/2011/05/china-to-fast-track-jets-for-pakistan/ |title=China to Fast-Track Jets for Pakistan |publisher=Thecommongood.net |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> China has given Pakistan a loan of $60 million which was later made a grant after [[East Pakistan|east Pakistan]] broke away. Recently, both nations have decided to cooperate in improving [[Pakistan's civil nuclear power sector]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10340642 |title=China says Pakistan nuclear deal 'peaceful' |publisher=BBC |date=17 June 2010 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref>

Maintaining close relations with China is a central part of [[Pakistan's foreign policy]]. In 1986, President [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] visited China to improve diplomatic relations, and Pakistan was one of only two countries, alongside Cuba, to offer crucial support to the PRC after the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]]. China and Pakistan also share close military relations, with China supplying a range of modern armaments to the Pakistani defence forces. China supports Pakistan's stance on [[Kashmir]], while Pakistan supports China on the issues of [[East Turkestan independence movement|Xinjiang]], [[Tibetan independence movement|Tibet]], and [[Taiwan independence|Taiwan]]. Military cooperation has deepened, with joint projects producing armaments ranging from [[fighter jet]]s to guided missile frigates.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1320868|title=China, Pakistan agree to further increase military cooperation|last=Dawn.com|date=2017-03-16|work=DAWN.COM|access-date=2017-11-17|language=en-US}}</ref>

Chinese cooperation with Pakistan has reached economic high points, with substantial Chinese investment in Pakistani infrastructural expansion including the Pakistani deep-water port at [[Gwadar]]. Both countries have an ongoing [[free trade]] agreement.

According to China's custom statistics the bilateral trade volume for the calendar year 2017 crossed the US$ 20 billion mark for the first time. In 2017 China's exports to Pakistan grew by 5.9% to reach US$ 18.25 billion whereas Pakistan's exports to China fell by 4.1% to US$ 1.83 billion.<ref>http://info.hktdc.com/hktdc_offices/mi/ccs/index_static_type/ExportsbyCountryofOriginFinalDestinationex.htm</ref> <ref>http://info.hktdc.com/hktdc_offices/mi/ccs/index_static_type/ImportsbyCountryofOriginFinalDestinationim.htm</ref>

Pakistan has served as China's main bridge to the [[Islamic world]], and also played an important role in bridging the communication gap between the PRC and the West by facilitating [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Richard Nixon]]'s [[Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China|historic 1972 visit]] to China. The relations between Pakistan and China have been described by Pakistan's ambassador to China as ''higher than the mountains, deeper than the oceans, stronger than steel, dearer than eyesight, sweeter than honey, and so on.'' <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/18682839|title=Sweet as can be?|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=12 February 2013|date=14 May 2011}}</ref> According to [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]], Pakistan is China's biggest arms buyer, counting for nearly 47% of Chinese arms exports.<ref>[http://books.sipri.org/product_info?c_product_id=475 Trends in international arms transfers, 2013 Siemon T. Wezeman and Pieter D. Wezeman]</ref> According to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 75% of [[Pakistanis]] view China's influence positively with only 15% expressing a negative view. In the Asia-Pacific region, [[Chinese people]] hold the third most positive opinions of Pakistan's influence in the world, behind Indonesia and Pakistan itself.<ref>http://www.globescan.com/images/images/pressreleases/bbc2014_country_ratings/2014_country_rating_poll_bbc_globescan.pdf</ref>

==Overview==
[[File:Passu Gojal hunza pakistan.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|[[Karakoram Highway]] connects the two states, it is also sometimes referred to as the Eighth Wonder of the World.]]

Pakistan has a long and strong relationship with China. The long-standing ties between the two countries have been mutually beneficial. A close identity of views and mutual interests remain the centre-point of bilateral ties. Since the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]], Pakistan has supported China on most issues of importance to the latter, especially those related to the question of China's sovereignty like [[Taiwan]], [[Xinjiang]], and [[Tibet]] and other sensitive issues such as human rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf |title=Eager Eyes Fixed on Eurasia Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis, Edited by IWASHITA Akihiro, Slavic Research Center, p 212 |format=PDF |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref>

The Chinese leadership has acknowledged Pakistan's steadfast support on key issues. Pakistan helped China in reestablishing formal ties with the West, where they helped make possible the [[1972 Nixon visit to China]].{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} Pakistan has collaborated with China in extensive military and economic projects, seeing China as a counterweight to [[India]] and the United States. Pakistan has also served as a conduit for China's influence in the Muslim world.

China also has a consistent record of supporting Pakistan in regional issues. Pakistan's military depends heavily on [[Equipment Development Department of the Central Military Commission|Chinese armaments]], and joint projects of both economic and militaristic importance are ongoing. China has supplied equipment to support Pakistan's nuclear program.

==Relations prior to the founding of the modern states of Pakistan and the PRC==
Buddhist monks from the area of what is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region of Pakistan were involved in the [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]] to [[Han dynasty]] China. The Han dynasty's [[Protectorate of the Western Regions]] bordered the [[Kushan Empire]]. [[Faxian]] traveled in what is now modern day Pakistan.

During World War II, the Hui Muslim Imam Da Pusheng [[w:zh:达浦生|达浦生]] toured the Middle East and South Asia to confront Japanese propagandists in Muslim countries and denounce their invasion to the Islamic world.<ref name="Luo1995">{{cite book|author=Zhufeng Luo|title=Religion Under Socialism in China|url=https://books.google.com/?id=cEfiZlUpI5oC&pg=PA50&lpg=PA50&dq=da+pusheng+1938#v=onepage&q=da%20pusheng%201938&f=false|date=January 1991|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-87332-609-4|pages=50–}}</ref> Misinformation on the war was spread in the Islamic Middle Eastern nations by Japanese agents. In response, in the World Islamic Congress in Hejaz, Imam Du openly confronted fake Muslim Japanese agents and exposed them as non-Muslims. Japan's history of imperialism was explained by Du to his fellow Muslims. [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the future founder of Pakistan, met with Imam Du. The [[Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War|Chinese Muslim's anti-Japanese war effort]] received a pledge of support from Jinnah.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.88dict.com/archives/485094/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-08-24 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20140613193920/http://www.88dict.com/archives/485094/ |archivedate=13 June 2014 |df=dmy-all }} {{cite web |url=http://archive |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-08-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712160429/http://archive/ |archivedate=12 July 2013 |df=dmy }}. is/jDCDc</ref> The Hindu leaders Tagore and Gandhi and Muslim Jinnah both discussed the war with the Chinese Muslim delegation under Ma Fuliang while in Turkey President [[İsmet İnönü]] also met the delegation.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.huizu360.com/huizu/news_view.asp?tid=5&id=19276 |title={title} |access-date=24 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919050140/http://www.huizu360.com/huizu/news_view.asp?tid=5&id=19276 |archive-date=19 September 2016 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Gandhi and Jinnah met with the Hui Ma Fuliang and his delegation as they denounced Japan.<ref>http://www.xzbu.com/7/view-1606508.htm</ref>

==Diplomatic relations==
[[File:Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Zhou Enlai signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing.jpg|thumb|right|Pakistani Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] and Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing in 1956.]]
Diplomatic relations between Pakistan and China were established on 21 May 1951, shortly after the [[Republic Of China]] lost power in [[Mainland China|the Mainland]] in 1949.<ref>[http://202.83.164.26/wps/portal/Mocul/!ut/p/c0/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os_hQN68AZ3dnIwML82BTAyNXTz9jE0NfQwNfA_2CbEdFAA2MC_Y!/?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/MoculCL/ministry/highlights/iap-pakchina-01 Pakistan and China Relations]{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> While initially ambivalent towards the idea of a Communist country on its borders, Pakistan hoped that China would serve as a counterweight to Indian influence. [[India]] had recognized China a year before, and Indian Prime Minister Nehru also hoped for closer relations with the Chinese. In 1956, Pakistani Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] and Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan, marking closer bilateral ties.

With escalating border tensions leading to the [[1962 Sino-Indian war]], China and Pakistan aligned with each other in a joint effort to counter India and the Soviet Union as both have border disputes with India. One year after China's border war with India, Pakistan ceded the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] to China to end border disputes and improve diplomatic relations.

Since then, an informal alliance that initially consisted of joint Indian opposition{{clarify|date=June 2013}} has grown into a lasting relationship that has benefited both nations on the diplomatic, economic and military frontiers. Along with diplomatic support, Pakistan served as a conduit for China to open up to the West. China has in turn provided extensive economic aid and political support to Pakistan.

[[File:Kashmir map big.jpg|thumb|200px|Disputed territory ceded to China in 1963.]]

[[File:Ambassador Hilaly receiving US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in Rawalpindi on 8 July 1971.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|[[Henry Kissinger]] was on a secret mission to China facilitated by the [[Government of Pakistan]], a fact known to very few people including [[Agha Hilaly|Ambassador Hilaly]].]]

Since the two sides established their "all-weather diplomatic relations", there have been frequent exchanges between the two countries' leadership and peoples. For example, former Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] received warm welcomes in all of his four visits to Pakistan. When Zhou died in 1976, then Pakistani's Ambassador to China rushed to the [[Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] at 8 in the morning without appointment. Upon arriving at the ministry, the ambassador cried due to his grief in front of Chinese diplomats. In 2004, a road in Pakistani capital [[Islamabad]] leading to the Diplomatic Enclave was named "Zhou Enlai Road". It is the first road in Pakistan that is named after foreign leaders. On 27 May 1976, then Chinese leader [[Mao Zedong]], aged 83, received his last foreign guest Pakistani president [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] despite his illness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2015/0417/c1001-26863311.html |title=中国与巴基斯坦高层交往的5则小故事 |publisher=[[People's Daily China]] |date=17 April 2015 |accessdate=18 April 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Eight Pakistan Air Force JF-17s escort Air China Boeing 747-400.jpg|thumb|right|The presidential plane of PRC President [[Xi Jinping]] escorted by eight JF-17s upon entering Pakistani airspace on a two-day official visit (2015).]]

On 22 May 2013, Chinese Premier [[Li Keqiang]]'s airplane was escorted by six JF-17 Thunder jets, jointly developed by the two countries, as it entered Pakistani airspace.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-22650591 |title=China media: Li Keqiang's Pakistan visit |publisher=BBC |date=24 May 2013 |accessdate=18 April 2015}}</ref> The premier was also received by both Pakistani president and prime minister upon his arrival at the airport. On 20 April 2015, Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]] visited Pakistan as his first foreign visit of the year, also the first by a Chinese president in 9 years. Before his arrival, he published an article praising the friendship on Pakistani newspapers like ''[[Daily Jang]]''. The Chinese president compared visiting Pakistan with visiting his brother's home.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2015/0420/c1001-26873284.html |title=解读：习近平为何说访巴就像到自己兄弟家中探访？ |publisher=People's Daily China |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref> Like previous visit by Premier Li, the airplane was escorted by 8 JF-17 Thunder jets. Xi was given a grand welcome upon his arrival at Noor Khan airbase, a 21-gun salute and guard of honour was presented to him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1177109/chinese-presidents-visit-to-usher-in-new-era-of-development-pm |title=Chinese president's visit to usher in new era of development: PM |publisher=[[DAWN News]] |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref>

{{quote|text=When I was young, I heard many touching stories about Pakistan and the friendship between our two countries. To name just a few, I learned that the Pakistani people were working hard to build their beautiful country, and that Pakistan opened an air corridor for China to reach out to the world and supported China in restoring its lawful seat in the United Nations. The stories have left me with a deep impression. I look forward to my upcoming state visit to Pakistan.|sign=[[Xi Jinping]], [[President of the People's Republic of China]] before his 2015 visit to Pakistan|source=<ref>[http://thediplomat.com/2015/04/xi-jinping-on-pakistan-i-feel-as-if-i-am-going-to-visit-the-home-of-my-own-brother/ Xi Jinping on Pakistan: 'I Feel as if I Am Going to Visit the Home of my Own Brother']</ref>}}

Pakistan's military initially depended almost entirely on American armaments and aid, which was increased during the covert U.S. support of Islamic militants in the [[Soviet–Afghan War]]. America under US President [[Richard Nixon]] supported Pakistan in the 1971 [[Bangladesh Liberation War]].<ref name="Shalom">Shalom, Stephen R., [http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue47/articles/a07.htm The Men Behind Yahya in the Indo-Pak War of 1971]</ref> However, the period following the Soviet withdrawal and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] led indirectly to the increasing realignment of America with the previously pro-Soviet India. The [[Pressler Amendment]] in 1990 suspended all American military assistance and any new economic aid amidst concerns that Pakistan was attempting to develop a nuclear weapon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=larry_pressler_1 |title=Larry Pressler |publisher=Historycommons.org |date=29 March 1993 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> Given the support that Pakistan had given them during the War in Afghanistan, many Pakistanis saw this as a betrayal that sold out Pakistani interests in favor of India. This belief was further strengthened as India had developed a nuclear weapon without significant American opposition, and Pakistan felt obligated to do the same. Consequently, the primarily geopolitical alliance between Pakistan and China has since 1990 branched out into military and economic cooperation, due to Pakistan's belief that America's influence and support in the region should be counterbalanced by the Chinese.

With the U.S.-led [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|war in Afghanistan]], there is a general sentiment in Pakistan to adopt a foreign policy which favors China over the United States.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/pakistan/2010/pakistan-100619-irna03.htm Global Security] and [http://pakobserver.net/201009/28/detailnews.asp?id=54483 Pakistan Foreign Policy Makers Urged to tie strongly with China compared to US]{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Washington has been accused deserting Pakistan in favor of a policy that favors stronger relations with India, while Pakistan sees China as a more reliable ally over the long term.<ref name="articles.cnn.com">{{Cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-17/world/china.pakistan.friend_1_minister-yousuf-raza-gilani-chinese-president-hu-jintao-pakistani-counterpart?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Pakistan cements China ties amid tension with U.S|date=17 May 2011|accessdate=12 July 2011|publisher=CNN}}</ref>

Since [[September 11 attacks]], Pakistan has increased the scope of Chinese influence and support by agreeing to a number of military projects, combined with extensive economic support and investment from the Chinese.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

==Military relations==
[[File:Pakistan Air Force Chengdu JF-17 Gu.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|The [[JF-17 Thunder]] is a joint Pakistan-China project.]]
There are strong military ties between China and Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/pakistan/2010/pakistan-100619-irna03.htm|title=Pakistan enjoys strong defense ties with China|date=19 June 2010|accessdate=30 December 2010|publisher=[[Islamic Republic News Agency|IRNA – Islamic Republic News Agency]]|first=IRNA|last=Islamic Republic News Agency}}</ref> This alliance between two neighbouring Asian nations is significant geo-politically. The strong military ties primarily aim to counter regional Indian and American influence, and was also to repel [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] influence in the area. In recent years this relationship has strengthened through ongoing military projects and agreements between Pakistan and China.

Since 1962, China has been a steady source of military equipment to the [[Pakistani Army]], helping establish ammunition factories, providing technological assistance and modernizing existing facilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070/chinapakistan_relations.html|title=China-Pakistan Relations|work=Backgrounder|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|date=6 July 2010|accessdate=16 July 2010|first1=Jamal|last1=Afridi|first2=Jayshree|last2=Bajoria|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100720031849/http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070/chinapakistan_relations.html|archive-date=20 July 2010|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
[[File:Pakistan airforce K8.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|[[Hongdu JL-8]] is co-produced by both Pakistan and China.]]

Most recently, the Chinese [[Chengdu J-10]]B fighter was compared to its closest American counterpart, the [[Lockheed Martin F-16]]C Block 52/60, the most advanced F-16, for orders on either aircraft for the [[Pakistan Air Force]], resulting in the wins of the Chinese [[Chengdu J-10]]B. Accordingly, the [[Chengdu J-10]]B had more advanced technology such as its radar and OLS targeting system, and its new generation stealthy features, such as its DSI intake gave it an edge over the [[Lockheed Martin F-16]].

China and Pakistan are involved in several projects to enhance military and weaponry systems, which include the joint development of the [[JF-17 Thunder]] fighter aircraft,<ref name="scmp">{{cite news |title=China-Pakistan military ties set to get even closer as ‘iron brothers’ eye new alliance |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2127106/china-pakistan-military-ties-set-get-even-closer-iron |date=January 7, 2018 |access-date=January 8, 2018 |first=Catherine |last=Wong |publisher=''[[South China Morning Post]]''}}</ref> [[K-8 Karakorum]] advance [[training aircraft]], a tailor made training aircraft for the [[Pakistan Air Force]] based on the Chinese domestic [[Hongdu L-15]], [[space technology]], [[Airborne Early Warning and Control|AWACS]] systems, [[Al-Khalid tank]]s, which China granted license production and tailor made modifications based on the initial Chinese Type 90 and/or MBT-2000. The Chinese has designed tailor made advanced weapons for Pakistan, making it a strong military power in the Asian region. The armies have a schedule for organising joint military exercises.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/mbt-2000.htm|title=Al Khalid MBT-2000 / Type 2000 Main Battle Tank|publisher=GlobalSecurity.org|accessdate=16 July 2010}}</ref>

China is the largest investor in Pakistan's [[Gwadar]] Deep Sea Port, which is strategically located at the mouth of the [[Strait of Hormuz]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/2528.html|title=Gwadar: China's Naval Outpost on the Indian Ocean|first=Tarique|last=Niazi|date=28 February 2005|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=Association for Asian Research}}</ref> It is viewed warily by both America and India as a possible launchpad for the Chinese Navy, giving them the ability to launch submarines and warships in the Indian Ocean. China has recently pledged to invest nearly $43 billion US dollars.

China’s leadership appreciated Pakistan’s fight against terrorism with a special mention of eliminating Al Qaeda, Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and the East Turkmenistan Islamic Movement (ETIM), added the ISPR statement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1320868|title=China, Pakistan agree to further increase military cooperation|last=|first=|date=March 16, 2017|website=DAWN News|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref> In 2008, Pakistan had purchased military equipment from China for an improved quality of defence arsenal and force to fight the constant attack from foreign militants.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeenews.com/news439060.html|title=China offers Pakistan military aid to fight terrorism|date=26 April 2008|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=[[Zee Entertainment Enterprises|Zee News Ltd]]}}</ref> This relationship still continues nine years later when Pakistan Army imported Chinese-built Low to Medium Altitude Air Defence System (LOMADS) LY-80 for its air defence system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1320053/army-inducts-chinese-built-air-defence-system-to-its-arsenal|title=Army inducts Chinese-built air defence system to its arsenal|last=|first=|date=March 12, 2017|website=DAWN News|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = If you love China, love Pakistan too.
|source = [[Li Keqiang]], [[Premier of the People's Republic of China]]<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-22650591 China media: Li Keqiang's Pakistan visit]</ref>
|width = 25%
|align = left
}}
In the past, China has played a major role in the development of Pakistan's nuclear infrastructure, especially when increasingly stringent export controls in [[Western countries]] made it difficult for Pakistan to acquire plutonium and uranium enriching equipment from elsewhere such as the Chinese help in building the [[Khushab]] reactor, which plays a key role in Pakistan's production of plutonium. A subsidiary of the [[China National Nuclear Corporation]] contributed in Pakistan's efforts to expand its uranium enrichment capabilities by providing 5,000 custom made ring magnets, which are a key component of the bearings that facilitate the high-speed rotation of centrifuges. China has also provided technical and material support in the completion of the [[Chashma Nuclear Power Complex]] and plutonium reprocessing facility, which was built in the mid-1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/|title=Pakistan Nuclear Weapons: A Brief History of Pakistan's Nuclear Program|date=11 December 2002|accessdate=16 July 2010|work=Strategic Security Project|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]}}</ref> China has become increasing concerned about al-Qaeda linked [[Terrorism in Pakistan|terrorism originating in Pakistan]] and sought help to set up military bases on Pakistani soil to deal with the problem.<ref>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/china-seeks-military-bases-in-paks-restive-tribal-region/articleshow/10497288.cms "China seeks military bases in Pak's restive tribal region."] ''PTI'', 26 October 2011.</ref>

On January 26, 2015, Chinese Foreign Minister [[Wang Yi (politician)|Wang Yi]] during a conclusion of a two-day visit of [[Raheel Sharif]] to [[Beijing]] called Pakistan China's 'irreplaceable, all-weather friend'. Sharif also met [[Yu Zhengsheng]], [[Meng Jianzhu]] and [[Xu Qiliang]].<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/827836/coas-visit-chinese-foreign-minister-terms-pakistan-chinas-irreplaceable-friend/ Pakistan an 'irreplaceable' friend, Chinese foreign minister tells army chief]</ref> On April 19, 2015, China concluded sale of eight conventional [[submarines]] worth $5bn, the biggest arms sale by China in its history.<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/world/xi-jinpings-sale-of-submarines-to-pakistan-raises-risk-of-indian-ocean-nuclear-clash-20150418-1mnt6i.html Xi Jinping's sale of submarines to Pakistan raises risk of Indian Ocean nuclear clash]</ref> The vessels are supplied by the China Shipbuilding Trading Company, and financed to Pakistan at a low [[interest rate]].<ref name="scmp"/>

===Counterterrorism===

China, Pakistan and Afghanistan have coordinated to increase regional stability.<ref name="scmp"/> Foreign Minister Wang Yi has said that China intends to use [[Xinjiang]] as a base of economic development for the region, increasing security and facilitating trade.<ref name="scmp"/>

==Economic relations==
{{See also|China–Pakistan Free Trade Agreement}}
Pakistan has been one of China’s major trade partners.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/95442/IPCS-Special-Report-30.pdf|title=China-Pakistan Economic Relations|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>

Recently though, economic trade between Pakistan and China is increasing, and a free trade agreement has been signed. Military and technological transactions continue to dominate the economic relationship between the two nations, and China has pledged to increase their investment in Pakistan's economy and infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/688389/top-ten-trading-partners |title=Top ten trading partners |publisher=Dawn |date=15 January 2012}}</ref>

In 2011 China Kingho Group canceled a $19 billion mining deal because of security concerns.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/8799596/US-finds-new-friend-in-Uzbekistan-after-Pakistan-fallout.html "US finds new friend in Uzbekistan after Pakistan fallout."] ''Telegraph Media Group Limited'', 30 September 2011.</ref>

On 26 April, ''[[China Mobile]]'' announced $1 billion of investment in [[Pakistan]] in telecommunication infrastructure and training of its officials within a period of three years.<ref>[http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/04/24/city/karachi/china-mobile-to-invest-1b-in-pakistan/ China Mobile to invest $ 1b in Pakistan]</ref> The announcement came a day after China Mobile subsidy [[Zong Pakistan|Zong]] emerged as the highest bidder in the 3G auction, claiming a 10 MHz 3G band licence, qualifying for the 4G licence.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/699257/spectrum-auction-live-updates/ Next-generation licence: Govt raises over $1.1 billion in spectrum auction]</ref>

On 22 April 2015, According to ''[[China Daily]]'', China released its first overseas investment project under the [[One Belt, One Road]] for developing a hydropower station near [[Jhelum]].<ref>[http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2015-04/22/content_20508778.htm Silk Road Fund makes first investment]</ref>

The biggest development off late to open up the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) has changed the situation completely as China has carved an enormous plan for economic growth and development in Pakistan as pointed out below in the next section.

===China–Pakistan Economic Corridor===
{{main|China–Pakistan Economic Corridor}}
[[File:Gwadar Port.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|Gwadar Port.]]
The CPEC will connect Pakistan with China and the Central Asian countries with highway connecting [[Kashgar]] to [[Khunjerab Pass|Khunjerab]] and [[Gwadar]].<ref>http://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/</ref> [[Gwadar port]] in southern Pakistan will serve as the trade nerve center for China, as most of its trade especially that of oil will be done through the port, which is operated by the China Overseas Port Holding Company, a state-owned Chinese company.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/589268/pak-china-ties-gawadar-port-one-part-of-a-larger-plan/ Pak-China ties: Gawadar port one part of a larger plan]</ref> Currently, sixty percent of China’s oil must be transported by ship from the [[Persian Gulf]] to the only commercial port in China, Shanghai, a distance of more than 16,000 kilometres. The journey takes two to three months, during which time the ships are vulnerable to pirates, bad weather, political rivals and other risks. Using Gwadar port instead would reduce the distance and possibly the cost.

The plan seeks to build on a market presence already established by Chinese enterprises, Haier in household appliances, ChinaMobile and Huawei in telecommunications and China Metallurgical Group Corporation (MCC) in mining and minerals. In other cases, such as textiles and garments, cement and building materials, fertiliser and agricultural technologies (among others) it calls for building the infrastructure and a supporting policy environment to facilitate fresh entry. According to the plan, a key element in this is the creation of industrial parks, or special economic zones, would be done with the provision of water, perfect infrastructure, sufficient supply of energy and the capacity of self-service power.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1333101|title=Exclusive: CPEC master plan revealed|last=Husain|first=Khurram|date=2017-05-14|work=Dawn|access-date=2017-11-03|language=en-US}}</ref>

But the main thrust of the plan actually lies in agriculture, contrary to the image of CPEC as a massive industrial and transport undertaking, involving power plants and highways. The plan acquires its greatest specificity, and lays out the largest number of projects and plans for their facilitation, in agriculture. For agriculture, the plan outlines an engagement that runs from one end of the supply chain all the way to the other. From provision of seeds and other inputs, like fertiliser, credit and pesticides, Chinese enterprises will also operate their own farms, processing facilities for fruits and vegetables and grain. Logistics companies will operate a large storage and transportation system for agrarian produce, as stated by the plan in DAWN News.<ref name=":1" />

The other common investment is expected in information and technology, a full system of monitoring and surveillance will be built in cities from Peshawar to Karachi, with 24 hour video recordings on roads and busy marketplaces for law and order. A national fibreoptic backbone will be built for the country not only for internet traffic, but also terrestrial distribution of broadcast TV, which will cooperate with Chinese media in the "dissemination of Chinese cultures".<ref name=":1" />

==Views==
{{externalvideo|video1=[http://money.cnn.com/2015/04/20/news/economy/pakistan-china-aid-infrastucture/ Pakistan lands $46 billion investment from China.]}}
The support that China and Pakistan give each other is considered significant in global diplomacy, and has been compared to [[Israel – United States relations]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Thalif Deen |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2010/10/20101028135728235512.html |title=China: 'Pakistan is our Israel' – Features |publisher=Al Jazeera English |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> According to a Pew survey of Pakistani public opinion in 2010, 84 percent of respondents said they had a favorable view of China and 16 percent had a favourable view of the United States.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/13/us-pakistan-china-idUSTRE6BC12D20101213 | work=Reuters | title=Pakistan-China ties to be strengthened in Wen visit | date=13 December 2010}}</ref> Similarly, the Chinese state-run media has portrayed Pakistan in a favorable light in regional issues. In 2013, this figure increased to 90% of Pakistanis having a favorable view of China.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afpak.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2013/03/25/could_pakistan_bridge_the_us_china_divide?wp_login_redirect=0 |title=Could Pakistan bridge the U.S.-China divide? - by Ziad Haider | The AfPak Channel |publisher=Afpak.foreignpolicy.com |date=2013-03-25 |accessdate=2013-05-23 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Pakistan and China have long praised the close ties the two countries have with each other. Pakistani President [[Pervez Musharraf]] referred to China as Pakistan's "time-tested and all-weather friend," while in return Chinese president [[Hu Jintao]] has referred to Pakistan as "a good friend and partner".<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/04/16/world/main4018992.shtml | work=CBS | title=Olympic Torch Hits China-Friendly Pakistan | date=11 February 2009}}</ref> Some observers have noted these statements as occurring after Pakistani relations with the United States or India have become strained, such as after [[Osama Bin Laden]] was killed by American forces without Pakistan's prior permission.<ref name="articles.cnn.com"/>

In July 2013, ''[[Pew Research Center]]'' as part of their ''Global Attitudes Project'' declared Pakistan to have the most positive view of China in the world. According to the research, 81% of Pakistanis responded favourably to China. On the other hand, only 11% of Pakistanis had a favorable view of the United States, the lowest in the world.<ref>http://www.pewglobal.org/database/indicator/33/country/166/</ref><ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/579055/pakistanis-increasingly-view-china-as-postive-over-us/ Pakistanis increasingly view China as positive over US]</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = Pakistan, with its strategic position, natural resources and warm-water ports, has long been an ally of Beijing. The Chinese see the south Asian state, the closest they have to a friend both in south Asia and in the Islamic world, as important to the security and development of their western, predominantly Muslim provinces, and as a useful aide in efforts to counter the influence of India. In recent years, links have grown closer.
|source = ''[[The Guardian]]''<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/22/china-pakistan Pakistan kept sweet by China's money – and shared strategic interests]</ref>
|width = 70%
|align = center
}}

A common quotation referred to Pak-China Friendship is, "A Friendship Higher than the Heights of Himalayas and deeper than the depths of Arabian Sea".

The author of the book ''[[The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics]]'' concludes the book by connecting the bilateral relationship to broader themes in Chinese foreign policy. According to the author, on the one hand, Pakistan is both a Chinese pawn (against India) and platform for power projection, but there are limits to this approach. For instance, as Small notes, 'Beijing's counterterrorism strategy has been essentially parasitic on the United States being a more important target for transnational militant groups than China'. It's unclear how long that can last.'<ref>[http://www.lowyinterpreter.org/post/2015/01/21/Book-review-China-Pakistan-Axis-Asias-New-Geopolitics-andrew-small.aspx Book review: The China-Pakistan Axis]</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = if there were recriminations they were not made public. Indeed China's ties with Pakistan, which were established during Mao's rule and are based on shared hostility towards India, thrive on many common interests. A long history of secret deals between their two armies--overrides the problems with Islamic extremism.
|source = Andrew Small, the author of ''[[The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics]]''<ref>[http://www.businessinsider.com/china-and-pakistan-are-geopolitical-friends-2015-1 China And Pakistan Are Geopolitical Friends]</ref>
|width = 70%
|align = center
}}

==Issues==

The [[East Turkestan Islamic Movement|ETIM]] is an Afghanistan-based terrorist organization and has also attacked Pakistan on several occasions. There is a deep sense in both the security officials in Pakistan and China that India over the years have used such terrorist networks to disrupt Chinese development efforts in the region. Both China and Pakistan believe that India could also use such terrorist networks to sabotage the CPEC project between China and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://waziristanhills.com/Taliban/MilitantOrganizations/EastTurkistanIslamicMovementETIM/tabid/141/language/en-GB/Default.aspx |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2010-12-30 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628070537/http://waziristanhills.com/Taliban/MilitantOrganizations/EastTurkistanIslamicMovementETIM/tabid/141/language/en-GB/Default.aspx |archivedate=28 June 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> As these militants are labeled as terrorists from the Chinese province of [[Xinjiang]], Pakistan and China strongly believe that India's intelligence services are behind such notorious terrorist organizations based in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Politics/03-Jun-2009/Hu-Jintao-urges-Zardari-to-crush-ETIM-extremists |title=Hu Jintao urges Zardari to crush ETIM extremists |publisher=The Nation |date=3 June 2009 |accessdate=13 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318083152/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/politics/03-Jun-2009/Hu-Jintao-urges-Zardari-to-crush-ETIM-extremists |archive-date=18 March 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/13/us-pakistan-china-idUSTRE6BC12D20101213?pageNumber=2 | work=Reuters | title=Pakistan-China ties to be strengthened in Wen visit | date=13 December 2010}}</ref>

==Timeline==
[[File:Pakistan embassy Beijing.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|Pakistan embassy in [[Beijing]], China.]]
[[File:PRC Towers and PNSC Building Karachi.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|People Republic of China '''PRC''' Tower in Karachi (left) has offices of many Chinese corporations.]]
Important events:
: '''1950''' – Pakistan becomes the third non-communist country, and first Muslim one, to recognize the People's Republic of China.
: '''1951''' – Beijing and [[Karachi]] establish diplomatic relations.
: '''1956''' – Pakistani Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] and Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing.
: '''1963''' – Pakistan cedes the Trans-Karakoram Tract to China, ending border disputes.
: '''1970''' – Pakistan helps the U.S. arrange the [[1972 Nixon visit to China]].
: '''1978''' – The [[Karakoram Highway]] linking the mountainous [[Northern Pakistan]] with Western China officially opens.
: '''1980'''s – China and the U.S. provide support through Pakistan to the [[Afghan mujahideen#Afghanistan|Afghan guerillas]] fighting [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces.
: '''1986''' – China and Pakistan reach a comprehensive nuclear co-operation agreement.
: '''1996''' – Chinese President [[Jiang Zemin]] pays a state visit to Pakistan.
: '''1999''' – A 300-megawatt nuclear power plant, built with Chinese help in [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab province]], is completed.
: '''2001''' – A joint-ventured Chinese-Pakistani tank, the [[MBT-2000]] (Al-Khalid) MBT is completed.
: '''2002''' – The building of the [[Gwadar]] deep sea port begins, with China as the primary investor.
: '''2003''' – Pakistan and China signed a $110 million contract for the construction of a housing project on Multan Road in Lahore<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/2004/12/16/top5.htm|title=China, Pakistan sign 7 accords in vital sectors: •Oil, gas exploration •high-level trade •Gwadar port improvement|author=Khan, Bahzad Alam|date=16 December 2004|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref>
: '''2007''' – The [[People's Republic of China|Sino-]]Pakistani joint-ventured [[multirole]] [[fighter aircraft]] – the [[JF-17 Thunder]] (FC-1 Fierce Dragon) is formally rolled out.
:'''2008''' – Pakistan welcomes the Chinese Olympic Torch in an Islamabad sports stadium, under heavy guard amidst security concerns.<ref name="cbsnews.com"/>
:'''2008''' – China and Pakistan sign a free trade agreement.
:'''2008''' – Pakistan and China to build a railway through the [[Karakoram Highway]], in order to link China's rail network to [[Gwadar Port]].
:'''2008''' – The [[F-22P]] frigate, comes into service with the [[Pakistani Navy]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/brothers-in-arms-china-gives-warship-to-pak/98275-2.html|title=Brothers in 'arms'? China gives warship to Pak|date=31 July 2009|accessdate=16 July 2010|work=[[Press Trust of India]]|publisher=[[CNN-IBN|IBN Live]]}}</ref>
:'''2009''' – The [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] arrest several suspected [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] terrorists seeking refuge in Pakistan.
:'''2010''' – Pakistan and China conduct a joint anti-terrorism drill.
:'''2010''' – China donates $260 million in dollars to flood-struck Pakistan and sends 4 military rescue helicopters to assist in rescue operations.
:'''2010''' – [[Wen Jiabao]] visits Pakistan. More than 30 billion dollars worth of deals were signed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://dailytimespakistan.com/china-pm-inaugurates-pak-china-friendship-centre/|title=Gilani, Jiabao inaugurate Pak-China Friendship Centre|date=18 December 2010|accessdate=30 December 2010|publisher=[[Associated Press of Pakistan|APP]]|first=APP|last=Express}}</ref>
:'''2011''' – Pakistan is expected to buy air-to-air SD 10 missiles from China for its 250 JF 17 thunder fighter fleet
:'''2013''' – Management of [[Gwadar port]] is handed over to state-run Chinese Overseas Port Holdings after previously being managed by Singapore’s PSA International,<ref>[http://dawn.com/2013/02/07/decision-to-hand-over-gwadar-port-to-china-worries-india/ "Decision to hand over Gwadar port to China worries India"], ''[[Dawn (newspaper)]]'', 7 February 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2013.</ref> and it becomes a matter of ''great concern'' for India.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/503373/india-concerned-over-china-running-gwadar-port/ "India 'concerned' over China running Gwadar port"], ''[[The Express Tribune]]'', 6 February 2013. Retrieved on 13 February 2013.</ref>
:'''2013''' – Chinese Premier Li Keqiang visits Pakistan. Trade between China and Pakistan hit a 12-month figure of $12 billion for the first time in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/article-101959-Chinese-PM-begins-Pakistan-visit |title=Chinese PM begins Pakistan visit |publisher=Thenews.com.pk |date=2013-05-16 |accessdate=2013-05-23}}</ref>
:'''2013''' – On 5 July 2013, Pakistan and China approved the '''Pak-China Economic corridor''' which will link Pakistan’s [[Gwadar Port]] on the [[Arabian Sea]] and Kashghar in [[Xinjiang]] in northwest China. The [[$]]18 billion project will also includes the construction of a 200km-long tunnel.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/572857/china-pakistan-friendship-sweeter-than-honey-nawaz/ Development projects: Nawaz signs $18 bn tunnel deal with China]</ref><ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/ Boosting trade: Pak-China economic corridor plan gets premier’s go-ahead]</ref>
:'''2013''' – On 24 December 2013, China announced a commitment $6.5 billion to finance the construction of a major nuclear power project in [[Karachi]], the project which will have two reactors with a capacity of 1,100 megawatts each.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/649908/china-commits-6-5-billion-for-nuclear-project-in-pakistan/ China commits $6.5 billion for nuclear project in Pakistan- The Express Tribune]</ref>
:'''2014''' – Chinese Premier announced investment of $31.5 billion in Pakistan mainly in countries energy, infrastructure and port expansion for [[Gwadar]]. According to ''[[The Express Tribune]]'' initially projects worth $15–20 billion will be started which include Lahore-Karachi motorway, Gwadar Port expansion and energy sector projects will be launched in [[Gadani]] and six coal projects near [[Thar coalfield]]. The newspaper further claimed that the government has also handed over to Pakistan Army the task of providing fool-proof security to Chinese officials in [[Balochistan, Pakistan]] in a bid to address [[Beijing]]’s concerns and execute the investment plan in the province, which will get 38% of the funds.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/683281/balochistan-to-receive-big-slice-of-chinese-funds/ Balochistan to receive big slice of Chinese funds]</ref>
:'''2014''' – On 22 May 2014, The governments of Pakistan and China on Thursday signed an agreement to start a metro train project in Lahore, Express News reported. The 27.1 kilometres long track – named Orange Line – will be built at the cost of $1.27 billion.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/711614/pakistan-china-sign-lahore-metro-train-agreement/ Pakistan, China sign Lahore metro train agreement]</ref>
:'''2014''' – On 8 November 2014, Pakistan and China signed 19 agreements particularly relating to [[China–Pakistan Economic Corridor]], China pledged a total investment worth of $42 billion. While Pakistan pledged to help China in its fight concerning the [[Xinjiang conflict]].<ref>[http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/11/08/national/pakistan-wins-42b-chinese-investment/ Pakistan wins $42b Chinese investment]</ref>
:'''2015''' – On 20 April 2015, Chinese President Xi Jinping, accompanied by the First Lady and a delegation of high-level officials and businessmen, visits Pakistan. It is the first visit to Pakistan by a Chinese president after a gap of 9 years and the first foreign trip of Xi in 2015. 51 Memorandums of Understanding are signed, including the plan of "Pakistan China Economic Corridor".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1177109/economic-corridor-in-focus-as-pakistan-china-sign-51-mous |title=Economic corridor in focus as Pakistan, China sign 51 MoUs |publisher=DAWN News |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref>
:'''2015''' – Pakistan began circulating the Rs. 20 coin with the Pakistan and China flags to commemorate the countries' lasting friendship.

==See also==
{{Portal|China|Pakistan|International relations}}
* [[Pakistan Embassy College Beijing]]
* [[Hong Kong–Pakistan relations]]

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last1=Small|first1=Andrew|title=The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics|date=2015|publisher=Hurst|location=London|isbn=1849043418|pages=288|edition=1|url=http://www.andrewsmall.org}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Cardenal|first1=Juan Pablo|authorlink1=Juan Pablo Cardenal|last2=Araújo|first2=Heriberto|authorlink2=Heriberto Araújo |title=La silenciosa conquista china |location=Barcelona|publisher=Crítica|year=2011|url=https://books.google.com/?id=jQ2fvBVpQpYC |pages=247ff|isbn=9788498922578|language=es}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://blogs.reuters.com/india-expertzone/2012/01/20/the-limits-of-the-pakistan-china-alliance/ The limits of the Pakistan-China alliance]
*[https://www.youtube.com/v/Ogqj5UZiWEs&list=UURPwLKbd4S960c7hkYVNahQ&index=1&feature=plcp China hints at ally Pakistan's hand in Xinjiang unrest]
*[http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-02-12/news/31052205_1_china-pakistan-relationship-countries-trade-and-business-relationship Ahmed Rashid on the Sino-Pakistani relationship]
*[http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf Eager Eyes Fixed on Eurasia Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis, Edited by IWASHITA Akihiro, Slavic Research Center]
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSISL9262520061124 CHRONOLOGY-Main events in Chinese-Pakistani relations]
*[http://www.hindustantimes.com/audio-news-video/AV-World/Pakistan-trained-militants-pose-a-threat-to-Xinjiang/Article2-841360.aspx Xinjiang-Pakistan]

{{China–Pakistan relations}}This is not a map of Pakistan{{Foreign relations of China}}
{{Foreign relations of Pakistan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:China-Pakistan Relations}}
[[Category:China–Pakistan relations| ]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of China|Pakistan]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of Pakistan]]

Chinesisch-pakistanische Beziehungen

2018-10-04T05:06:38Z

Jprg1966: /* China–Pakistan Economic Corridor */

{{Infobox bilateral relations|China–Pakistan
| party1 = Pakistan
| party2 = China
| map = Pakistan China Locator.svg
| filetype = 250px
| envoytitle1 = [[Ambassador]]
| envoy1 = Masood Khalid
| envoytitle2 = [[Ambassador]]
| envoy2 = Sun Weidong
| mission1 = [[Beijing|Pakistani Embassy, Beijing]]
| mission2 = [[Islamabad|Chinese Embassy, Islamabad]]
}}

'''China–Pakistan relations''' began in 1950 when Pakistan was among the first countries to enter into official diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] (on [[Taiwan]]) and recognize the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) regime on mainland China. Since then, both countries have placed considerable importance on the maintenance of an extremely close and supportive [[Special relationship (international relations)|special relationship]]<ref name="bbcnews">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13418957|title= Pakistani PM hails China as his country's 'best friend'|work=BBC News|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=17 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="nyt">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/13/world/asia/13pstan.html|title= Pakistan President to Visit China, a Valued Ally|work=New York Times|accessdate=12 October 2008|first=Salman|last=Masood|date=13 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-11/14/content_732562.htm|title=China-Pakistan relations|accessdate=14 November 2006|work=China Daily}}</ref> and the two countries have regularly exchanged high-level visits resulting in a variety of agreements. The PRC has provided economic, military, and technical assistance to Pakistan, and each country considers the other a close strategic ally.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-17/world/china.pakistan.friend_1_minister-yousuf-raza-gilani-chinese-president-hu-jintao-pakistani-counterpart?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Pakistan cements China ties amid tension with U.S|date=17 May 2011|accessdate=12 July 2011|work=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/7384378.html|title=China, Pakistan joined in bonds of brotherhood|accessdate=18 May 2011|work=People's Daily}}</ref>

Bilateral relations have evolved from an initial Chinese policy of neutrality to a partnership with a smaller but militarily powerful Pakistan. Diplomatic relations were established in 1950, boundary issues resolved in 1963, military assistance began in 1966, a strategic alliance was formed in 1972, and economic co-operation began in 1979. China has become Pakistan’s largest supplier of arms and its third-largest trading partner.<ref>{{cite web|agency=Reuters |url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/05/21/pakistan-says-wants-china-to-build-naval-base.html |title=Pakistan wants China to build it a naval base |publisher=Dawn.com |date=21 May 2011 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thecommongood.net/2011/05/china-to-fast-track-jets-for-pakistan/ |title=China to Fast-Track Jets for Pakistan |publisher=Thecommongood.net |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> China has given Pakistan a loan of $60 million which was later made a grant after [[East Pakistan|east Pakistan]] broke away. Recently, both nations have decided to cooperate in improving [[Pakistan's civil nuclear power sector]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10340642 |title=China says Pakistan nuclear deal 'peaceful' |publisher=BBC |date=17 June 2010 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref>

Maintaining close relations with China is a central part of [[Pakistan's foreign policy]]. In 1986, President [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] visited China to improve diplomatic relations, and Pakistan was one of only two countries, alongside Cuba, to offer crucial support to the PRC after the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]]. China and Pakistan also share close military relations, with China supplying a range of modern armaments to the Pakistani defence forces. China supports Pakistan's stance on [[Kashmir]], while Pakistan supports China on the issues of [[East Turkestan independence movement|Xinjiang]], [[Tibetan independence movement|Tibet]], and [[Taiwan independence|Taiwan]]. Military cooperation has deepened, with joint projects producing armaments ranging from [[fighter jet]]s to guided missile frigates.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1320868|title=China, Pakistan agree to further increase military cooperation|last=Dawn.com|date=2017-03-16|work=DAWN.COM|access-date=2017-11-17|language=en-US}}</ref>

Chinese cooperation with Pakistan has reached economic high points, with substantial Chinese investment in Pakistani infrastructural expansion including the Pakistani deep-water port at [[Gwadar]]. Both countries have an ongoing [[free trade]] agreement.

According to China's custom statistics the bilateral trade volume for the calendar year 2017 crossed the US$ 20 billion mark for the first time. In 2017 China's exports to Pakistan grew by 5.9% to reach US$ 18.25 billion whereas Pakistan's exports to China fell by 4.1% to US$ 1.83 billion.<ref>http://info.hktdc.com/hktdc_offices/mi/ccs/index_static_type/ExportsbyCountryofOriginFinalDestinationex.htm</ref> <ref>http://info.hktdc.com/hktdc_offices/mi/ccs/index_static_type/ImportsbyCountryofOriginFinalDestinationim.htm</ref>

Pakistan has served as China's main bridge to the [[Islamic world]], and also played an important role in bridging the communication gap between the PRC and the West by facilitating [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Richard Nixon]]'s [[Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China|historic 1972 visit]] to China. The relations between Pakistan and China have been described by Pakistan's ambassador to China as ''higher than the mountains, deeper than the oceans, stronger than steel, dearer than eyesight, sweeter than honey, and so on.'' <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/18682839|title=Sweet as can be?|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=12 February 2013|date=14 May 2011}}</ref> According to [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]], Pakistan is China's biggest arms buyer, counting for nearly 47% of Chinese arms exports.<ref>[http://books.sipri.org/product_info?c_product_id=475 Trends in international arms transfers, 2013 Siemon T. Wezeman and Pieter D. Wezeman]</ref> According to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 75% of [[Pakistanis]] view China's influence positively with only 15% expressing a negative view. In the Asia-Pacific region, [[Chinese people]] hold the third most positive opinions of Pakistan's influence in the world, behind Indonesia and Pakistan itself.<ref>http://www.globescan.com/images/images/pressreleases/bbc2014_country_ratings/2014_country_rating_poll_bbc_globescan.pdf</ref>

==Overview==
[[File:Passu Gojal hunza pakistan.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|[[Karakoram Highway]] connects the two states, it is also sometimes referred to as the Eighth Wonder of the World.]]

Pakistan has a long and strong relationship with China. The long-standing ties between the two countries have been mutually beneficial. A close identity of views and mutual interests remain the centre-point of bilateral ties. Since the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]], Pakistan has supported China on most issues of importance to the latter, especially those related to the question of China's sovereignty like [[Taiwan]], [[Xinjiang]], and [[Tibet]] and other sensitive issues such as human rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf |title=Eager Eyes Fixed on Eurasia Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis, Edited by IWASHITA Akihiro, Slavic Research Center, p 212 |format=PDF |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref>

The Chinese leadership has acknowledged Pakistan's steadfast support on key issues. Pakistan helped China in reestablishing formal ties with the West, where they helped make possible the [[1972 Nixon visit to China]].{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} Pakistan has collaborated with China in extensive military and economic projects, seeing China as a counterweight to [[India]] and the United States. Pakistan has also served as a conduit for China's influence in the Muslim world.

China also has a consistent record of supporting Pakistan in regional issues. Pakistan's military depends heavily on [[Equipment Development Department of the Central Military Commission|Chinese armaments]], and joint projects of both economic and militaristic importance are ongoing. China has supplied equipment to support Pakistan's nuclear program.

==Relations prior to the founding of the modern states of Pakistan and the PRC==
Buddhist monks from the area of what is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region of Pakistan were involved in the [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]] to [[Han dynasty]] China. The Han dynasty's [[Protectorate of the Western Regions]] bordered the [[Kushan Empire]]. [[Faxian]] traveled in what is now modern day Pakistan.

During World War II, the Hui Muslim Imam Da Pusheng [[w:zh:达浦生|达浦生]] toured the Middle East and South Asia to confront Japanese propagandists in Muslim countries and denounce their invasion to the Islamic world.<ref name="Luo1995">{{cite book|author=Zhufeng Luo|title=Religion Under Socialism in China|url=https://books.google.com/?id=cEfiZlUpI5oC&pg=PA50&lpg=PA50&dq=da+pusheng+1938#v=onepage&q=da%20pusheng%201938&f=false|date=January 1991|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-87332-609-4|pages=50–}}</ref> Misinformation on the war was spread in the Islamic Middle Eastern nations by Japanese agents. In response, in the World Islamic Congress in Hejaz, Imam Du openly confronted fake Muslim Japanese agents and exposed them as non-Muslims. Japan's history of imperialism was explained by Du to his fellow Muslims. [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the future founder of Pakistan, met with Imam Du. The [[Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War|Chinese Muslim's anti-Japanese war effort]] received a pledge of support from Jinnah.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.88dict.com/archives/485094/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-08-24 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20140613193920/http://www.88dict.com/archives/485094/ |archivedate=13 June 2014 |df=dmy-all }} {{cite web |url=http://archive |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-08-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712160429/http://archive/ |archivedate=12 July 2013 |df=dmy }}. is/jDCDc</ref> The Hindu leaders Tagore and Gandhi and Muslim Jinnah both discussed the war with the Chinese Muslim delegation under Ma Fuliang while in Turkey President [[İsmet İnönü]] also met the delegation.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.huizu360.com/huizu/news_view.asp?tid=5&id=19276 |title={title} |access-date=24 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919050140/http://www.huizu360.com/huizu/news_view.asp?tid=5&id=19276 |archive-date=19 September 2016 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Gandhi and Jinnah met with the Hui Ma Fuliang and his delegation as they denounced Japan.<ref>http://www.xzbu.com/7/view-1606508.htm</ref>

==Diplomatic relations==
[[File:Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Zhou Enlai signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing.jpg|thumb|right|Pakistani Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] and Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing in 1956.]]
Diplomatic relations between Pakistan and China were established on 21 May 1951, shortly after the [[Republic Of China]] lost power in [[Mainland China|the Mainland]] in 1949.<ref>[http://202.83.164.26/wps/portal/Mocul/!ut/p/c0/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os_hQN68AZ3dnIwML82BTAyNXTz9jE0NfQwNfA_2CbEdFAA2MC_Y!/?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/MoculCL/ministry/highlights/iap-pakchina-01 Pakistan and China Relations]{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> While initially ambivalent towards the idea of a Communist country on its borders, Pakistan hoped that China would serve as a counterweight to Indian influence. [[India]] had recognized China a year before, and Indian Prime Minister Nehru also hoped for closer relations with the Chinese. In 1956, Pakistani Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] and Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan, marking closer bilateral ties.

With escalating border tensions leading to the [[1962 Sino-Indian war]], China and Pakistan aligned with each other in a joint effort to counter India and the Soviet Union as both have border disputes with India. One year after China's border war with India, Pakistan ceded the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] to China to end border disputes and improve diplomatic relations.

Since then, an informal alliance that initially consisted of joint Indian opposition{{clarify|date=June 2013}} has grown into a lasting relationship that has benefited both nations on the diplomatic, economic and military frontiers. Along with diplomatic support, Pakistan served as a conduit for China to open up to the West. China has in turn provided extensive economic aid and political support to Pakistan.

[[File:Kashmir map big.jpg|thumb|200px|Disputed territory ceded to China in 1963.]]

[[File:Ambassador Hilaly receiving US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in Rawalpindi on 8 July 1971.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|[[Henry Kissinger]] was on a secret mission to China facilitated by the [[Government of Pakistan]], a fact known to very few people including [[Agha Hilaly|Ambassador Hilaly]].]]

Since the two sides established their "all-weather diplomatic relations", there have been frequent exchanges between the two countries' leadership and peoples. For example, former Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] received warm welcomes in all of his four visits to Pakistan. When Zhou died in 1976, then Pakistani's Ambassador to China rushed to the [[Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] at 8 in the morning without appointment. Upon arriving at the ministry, the ambassador cried due to his grief in front of Chinese diplomats. In 2004, a road in Pakistani capital [[Islamabad]] leading to the Diplomatic Enclave was named "Zhou Enlai Road". It is the first road in Pakistan that is named after foreign leaders. On 27 May 1976, then Chinese leader [[Mao Zedong]], aged 83, received his last foreign guest Pakistani president [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] despite his illness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2015/0417/c1001-26863311.html |title=中国与巴基斯坦高层交往的5则小故事 |publisher=[[People's Daily China]] |date=17 April 2015 |accessdate=18 April 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Eight Pakistan Air Force JF-17s escort Air China Boeing 747-400.jpg|thumb|right|The presidential plane of PRC President [[Xi Jinping]] escorted by eight JF-17s upon entering Pakistani airspace on a two-day official visit (2015).]]

On 22 May 2013, Chinese Premier [[Li Keqiang]]'s airplane was escorted by six JF-17 Thunder jets, jointly developed by the two countries, as it entered Pakistani airspace.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-22650591 |title=China media: Li Keqiang's Pakistan visit |publisher=BBC |date=24 May 2013 |accessdate=18 April 2015}}</ref> The premier was also received by both Pakistani president and prime minister upon his arrival at the airport. On 20 April 2015, Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]] visited Pakistan as his first foreign visit of the year, also the first by a Chinese president in 9 years. Before his arrival, he published an article praising the friendship on Pakistani newspapers like ''[[Daily Jang]]''. The Chinese president compared visiting Pakistan with visiting his brother's home.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2015/0420/c1001-26873284.html |title=解读：习近平为何说访巴就像到自己兄弟家中探访？ |publisher=People's Daily China |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref> Like previous visit by Premier Li, the airplane was escorted by 8 JF-17 Thunder jets. Xi was given a grand welcome upon his arrival at Noor Khan airbase, a 21-gun salute and guard of honour was presented to him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1177109/chinese-presidents-visit-to-usher-in-new-era-of-development-pm |title=Chinese president's visit to usher in new era of development: PM |publisher=[[DAWN News]] |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref>

{{quote|text=When I was young, I heard many touching stories about Pakistan and the friendship between our two countries. To name just a few, I learned that the Pakistani people were working hard to build their beautiful country, and that Pakistan opened an air corridor for China to reach out to the world and supported China in restoring its lawful seat in the United Nations. The stories have left me with a deep impression. I look forward to my upcoming state visit to Pakistan.|sign=[[Xi Jinping]], [[President of the People's Republic of China]] before his 2015 visit to Pakistan|source=<ref>[http://thediplomat.com/2015/04/xi-jinping-on-pakistan-i-feel-as-if-i-am-going-to-visit-the-home-of-my-own-brother/ Xi Jinping on Pakistan: 'I Feel as if I Am Going to Visit the Home of my Own Brother']</ref>}}

Pakistan's military initially depended almost entirely on American armaments and aid, which was increased during the covert U.S. support of Islamic militants in the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]. America under US President [[Richard Nixon]] supported Pakistan in the 1971 [[Bangladesh Liberation War]].<ref name="Shalom">Shalom, Stephen R., [http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue47/articles/a07.htm The Men Behind Yahya in the Indo-Pak War of 1971]</ref> However, the period following the Soviet withdrawal and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] led indirectly to the increasing realignment of America with the previously pro-Soviet India. The [[Pressler Amendment]] in 1990 suspended all American military assistance and any new economic aid amidst concerns that Pakistan was attempting to develop a nuclear weapon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=larry_pressler_1 |title=Larry Pressler |publisher=Historycommons.org |date=29 March 1993 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> Given the support that Pakistan had given them during the War in Afghanistan, many Pakistanis saw this as a betrayal that sold out Pakistani interests in favor of India. This belief was further strengthened as India had developed a nuclear weapon without significant American opposition, and Pakistan felt obligated to do the same. Consequently, the primarily geopolitical alliance between Pakistan and China has since 1990 branched out into military and economic cooperation, due to Pakistan's belief that America's influence and support in the region should be counterbalanced by the Chinese.

With the U.S.-led [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|war in Afghanistan]], there is a general sentiment in Pakistan to adopt a foreign policy which favors China over the United States.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/pakistan/2010/pakistan-100619-irna03.htm Global Security] and [http://pakobserver.net/201009/28/detailnews.asp?id=54483 Pakistan Foreign Policy Makers Urged to tie strongly with China compared to US]{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Washington has been accused deserting Pakistan in favor of a policy that favors stronger relations with India, while Pakistan sees China as a more reliable ally over the long term.<ref name="articles.cnn.com">{{Cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-17/world/china.pakistan.friend_1_minister-yousuf-raza-gilani-chinese-president-hu-jintao-pakistani-counterpart?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Pakistan cements China ties amid tension with U.S|date=17 May 2011|accessdate=12 July 2011|publisher=CNN}}</ref>

Since [[September 11 attacks]], Pakistan has increased the scope of Chinese influence and support by agreeing to a number of military projects, combined with extensive economic support and investment from the Chinese.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

==Military relations==
[[File:Pakistan Air Force Chengdu JF-17 Gu.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|The [[JF-17 Thunder]] is a joint Pakistan-China project.]]
There are strong military ties between China and Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/pakistan/2010/pakistan-100619-irna03.htm|title=Pakistan enjoys strong defense ties with China|date=19 June 2010|accessdate=30 December 2010|publisher=[[Islamic Republic News Agency|IRNA – Islamic Republic News Agency]]|first=IRNA|last=Islamic Republic News Agency}}</ref> This alliance between two neighbouring Asian nations is significant geo-politically. The strong military ties primarily aim to counter regional Indian and American influence, and was also to repel [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] influence in the area. In recent years this relationship has strengthened through ongoing military projects and agreements between Pakistan and China.

Since 1962, China has been a steady source of military equipment to the [[Pakistani Army]], helping establish ammunition factories, providing technological assistance and modernizing existing facilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070/chinapakistan_relations.html|title=China-Pakistan Relations|work=Backgrounder|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|date=6 July 2010|accessdate=16 July 2010|first1=Jamal|last1=Afridi|first2=Jayshree|last2=Bajoria|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100720031849/http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070/chinapakistan_relations.html|archive-date=20 July 2010|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
[[File:Pakistan airforce K8.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|[[Hongdu JL-8]] is co-produced by both Pakistan and China.]]

Most recently, the Chinese [[Chengdu J-10]]B fighter was compared to its closest American counterpart, the [[Lockheed Martin F-16]]C Block 52/60, the most advanced F-16, for orders on either aircraft for the [[Pakistan Air Force]], resulting in the wins of the Chinese [[Chengdu J-10]]B. Accordingly, the [[Chengdu J-10]]B had more advanced technology such as its radar and OLS targeting system, and its new generation stealthy features, such as its DSI intake gave it an edge over the [[Lockheed Martin F-16]].

China and Pakistan are involved in several projects to enhance military and weaponry systems, which include the joint development of the [[JF-17 Thunder]] fighter aircraft,<ref name="scmp">{{cite news |title=China-Pakistan military ties set to get even closer as ‘iron brothers’ eye new alliance |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2127106/china-pakistan-military-ties-set-get-even-closer-iron |date=January 7, 2018 |access-date=January 8, 2018 |first=Catherine |last=Wong |publisher=''[[South China Morning Post]]''}}</ref> [[K-8 Karakorum]] advance [[training aircraft]], a tailor made training aircraft for the [[Pakistan Air Force]] based on the Chinese domestic [[Hongdu L-15]], [[space technology]], [[Airborne Early Warning and Control|AWACS]] systems, [[Al-Khalid tank]]s, which China granted license production and tailor made modifications based on the initial Chinese Type 90 and/or MBT-2000. The Chinese has designed tailor made advanced weapons for Pakistan, making it a strong military power in the Asian region. The armies have a schedule for organising joint military exercises.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/mbt-2000.htm|title=Al Khalid MBT-2000 / Type 2000 Main Battle Tank|publisher=GlobalSecurity.org|accessdate=16 July 2010}}</ref>

China is the largest investor in Pakistan's [[Gwadar]] Deep Sea Port, which is strategically located at the mouth of the [[Strait of Hormuz]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/2528.html|title=Gwadar: China's Naval Outpost on the Indian Ocean|first=Tarique|last=Niazi|date=28 February 2005|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=Association for Asian Research}}</ref> It is viewed warily by both America and India as a possible launchpad for the Chinese Navy, giving them the ability to launch submarines and warships in the Indian Ocean. China has recently pledged to invest nearly $43 billion US dollars.

China’s leadership appreciated Pakistan’s fight against terrorism with a special mention of eliminating Al Qaeda, Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and the East Turkmenistan Islamic Movement (ETIM), added the ISPR statement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1320868|title=China, Pakistan agree to further increase military cooperation|last=|first=|date=March 16, 2017|website=DAWN News|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref> In 2008, Pakistan had purchased military equipment from China for an improved quality of defence arsenal and force to fight the constant attack from foreign militants.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeenews.com/news439060.html|title=China offers Pakistan military aid to fight terrorism|date=26 April 2008|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=[[Zee Entertainment Enterprises|Zee News Ltd]]}}</ref> This relationship still continues nine years later when Pakistan Army imported Chinese-built Low to Medium Altitude Air Defence System (LOMADS) LY-80 for its air defence system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1320053/army-inducts-chinese-built-air-defence-system-to-its-arsenal|title=Army inducts Chinese-built air defence system to its arsenal|last=|first=|date=March 12, 2017|website=DAWN News|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = If you love China, love Pakistan too.
|source = [[Li Keqiang]], [[Premier of the People's Republic of China]]<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-22650591 China media: Li Keqiang's Pakistan visit]</ref>
|width = 25%
|align = left
}}
In the past, China has played a major role in the development of Pakistan's nuclear infrastructure, especially when increasingly stringent export controls in [[Western countries]] made it difficult for Pakistan to acquire plutonium and uranium enriching equipment from elsewhere such as the Chinese help in building the [[Khushab]] reactor, which plays a key role in Pakistan's production of plutonium. A subsidiary of the [[China National Nuclear Corporation]] contributed in Pakistan's efforts to expand its uranium enrichment capabilities by providing 5,000 custom made ring magnets, which are a key component of the bearings that facilitate the high-speed rotation of centrifuges. China has also provided technical and material support in the completion of the [[Chashma Nuclear Power Complex]] and plutonium reprocessing facility, which was built in the mid-1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/|title=Pakistan Nuclear Weapons: A Brief History of Pakistan's Nuclear Program|date=11 December 2002|accessdate=16 July 2010|work=Strategic Security Project|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]}}</ref> China has become increasing concerned about al-Qaeda linked [[Terrorism in Pakistan|terrorism originating in Pakistan]] and sought help to set up military bases on Pakistani soil to deal with the problem.<ref>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/china-seeks-military-bases-in-paks-restive-tribal-region/articleshow/10497288.cms "China seeks military bases in Pak's restive tribal region."] ''PTI'', 26 October 2011.</ref>

On January 26, 2015, Chinese Foreign Minister [[Wang Yi (politician)|Wang Yi]] during a conclusion of a two-day visit of [[Raheel Sharif]] to [[Beijing]] called Pakistan China's 'irreplaceable, all-weather friend'. Sharif also met [[Yu Zhengsheng]], [[Meng Jianzhu]] and [[Xu Qiliang]].<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/827836/coas-visit-chinese-foreign-minister-terms-pakistan-chinas-irreplaceable-friend/ Pakistan an 'irreplaceable' friend, Chinese foreign minister tells army chief]</ref> On April 19, 2015, China concluded sale of eight conventional [[submarines]] worth $5bn, the biggest arms sale by China in its history.<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/world/xi-jinpings-sale-of-submarines-to-pakistan-raises-risk-of-indian-ocean-nuclear-clash-20150418-1mnt6i.html Xi Jinping's sale of submarines to Pakistan raises risk of Indian Ocean nuclear clash]</ref> The vessels are supplied by the China Shipbuilding Trading Company, and financed to Pakistan at a low [[interest rate]].<ref name="scmp"/>

===Counterterrorism===

China, Pakistan and Afghanistan have coordinated to increase regional stability.<ref name="scmp"/> Foreign Minister Wang Yi has said that China intends to use [[Xinjiang]] as a base of economic development for the region, increasing security and facilitating trade.<ref name="scmp"/>

==Economic relations==
{{See also|China–Pakistan Free Trade Agreement}}
Pakistan has been one of China’s major trade partners.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/95442/IPCS-Special-Report-30.pdf|title=China-Pakistan Economic Relations|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>

Recently though, economic trade between Pakistan and China is increasing, and a free trade agreement has been signed. Military and technological transactions continue to dominate the economic relationship between the two nations, and China has pledged to increase their investment in Pakistan's economy and infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/688389/top-ten-trading-partners |title=Top ten trading partners |publisher=Dawn |date=15 January 2012}}</ref>

In 2011 China Kingho Group canceled a $19 billion mining deal because of security concerns.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/8799596/US-finds-new-friend-in-Uzbekistan-after-Pakistan-fallout.html "US finds new friend in Uzbekistan after Pakistan fallout."] ''Telegraph Media Group Limited'', 30 September 2011.</ref>

On 26 April, ''[[China Mobile]]'' announced $1 billion of investment in [[Pakistan]] in telecommunication infrastructure and training of its officials within a period of three years.<ref>[http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/04/24/city/karachi/china-mobile-to-invest-1b-in-pakistan/ China Mobile to invest $ 1b in Pakistan]</ref> The announcement came a day after China Mobile subsidy [[Zong Pakistan|Zong]] emerged as the highest bidder in the 3G auction, claiming a 10 MHz 3G band licence, qualifying for the 4G licence.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/699257/spectrum-auction-live-updates/ Next-generation licence: Govt raises over $1.1 billion in spectrum auction]</ref>

On 22 April 2015, According to ''[[China Daily]]'', China released its first overseas investment project under the [[One Belt, One Road]] for developing a hydropower station near [[Jhelum]].<ref>[http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2015-04/22/content_20508778.htm Silk Road Fund makes first investment]</ref>

The biggest development off late to open up the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) has changed the situation completely as China has carved an enormous plan for economic growth and development in Pakistan as pointed out below in the next section.

===China–Pakistan Economic Corridor===
{{main|China–Pakistan Economic Corridor}}
[[File:Gwadar Port.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|Gwadar Port.]]
The CPEC will connect Pakistan with China and the Central Asian countries with highway connecting [[Kashgar]] to [[Khunjerab Pass|Khunjerab]] and [[Gwadar]].<ref>http://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/</ref> [[Gwadar port]] in southern Pakistan will serve as the trade nerve center for China, as most of its trade especially that of oil will be done through the port, which is operated by the China Overseas Port Holding Company, a state-owned Chinese company.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/589268/pak-china-ties-gawadar-port-one-part-of-a-larger-plan/ Pak-China ties: Gawadar port one part of a larger plan]</ref> Currently, sixty percent of China’s oil must be transported by ship from the [[Persian Gulf]] to the only commercial port in China, Shanghai, a distance of more than 16,000 kilometres. The journey takes two to three months, during which time the ships are vulnerable to pirates, bad weather, political rivals and other risks. Using Gwadar port instead would reduce the distance and possibly the cost.

The plan seeks to build on a market presence already established by Chinese enterprises, Haier in household appliances, ChinaMobile and Huawei in telecommunications and China Metallurgical Group Corporation (MCC) in mining and minerals. In other cases, such as textiles and garments, cement and building materials, fertiliser and agricultural technologies (among others) it calls for building the infrastructure and a supporting policy environment to facilitate fresh entry. According to the plan, a key element in this is the creation of industrial parks, or special economic zones, would be done with the provision of water, perfect infrastructure, sufficient supply of energy and the capacity of self-service power.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1333101|title=Exclusive: CPEC master plan revealed|last=Husain|first=Khurram|date=2017-05-14|work=Dawn|access-date=2017-11-03|language=en-US}}</ref>

But the main thrust of the plan actually lies in agriculture, contrary to the image of CPEC as a massive industrial and transport undertaking, involving power plants and highways. The plan acquires its greatest specificity, and lays out the largest number of projects and plans for their facilitation, in agriculture. For agriculture, the plan outlines an engagement that runs from one end of the supply chain all the way to the other. From provision of seeds and other inputs, like fertiliser, credit and pesticides, Chinese enterprises will also operate their own farms, processing facilities for fruits and vegetables and grain. Logistics companies will operate a large storage and transportation system for agrarian produce, as stated by the plan in DAWN News.<ref name=":1" />

The other common investment is expected in information and technology, a full system of monitoring and surveillance will be built in cities from Peshawar to Karachi, with 24 hour video recordings on roads and busy marketplaces for law and order. A national fibreoptic backbone will be built for the country not only for internet traffic, but also terrestrial distribution of broadcast TV, which will cooperate with Chinese media in the "dissemination of Chinese cultures".<ref name=":1" />

==Views==
{{externalvideo|video1=[http://money.cnn.com/2015/04/20/news/economy/pakistan-china-aid-infrastucture/ Pakistan lands $46 billion investment from China.]}}
The support that China and Pakistan give each other is considered significant in global diplomacy, and has been compared to [[Israel – United States relations]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Thalif Deen |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2010/10/20101028135728235512.html |title=China: 'Pakistan is our Israel' – Features |publisher=Al Jazeera English |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> According to a Pew survey of Pakistani public opinion in 2010, 84 percent of respondents said they had a favorable view of China and 16 percent had a favourable view of the United States.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/13/us-pakistan-china-idUSTRE6BC12D20101213 | work=Reuters | title=Pakistan-China ties to be strengthened in Wen visit | date=13 December 2010}}</ref> Similarly, the Chinese state-run media has portrayed Pakistan in a favorable light in regional issues. In 2013, this figure increased to 90% of Pakistanis having a favorable view of China.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afpak.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2013/03/25/could_pakistan_bridge_the_us_china_divide?wp_login_redirect=0 |title=Could Pakistan bridge the U.S.-China divide? - by Ziad Haider | The AfPak Channel |publisher=Afpak.foreignpolicy.com |date=2013-03-25 |accessdate=2013-05-23 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Pakistan and China have long praised the close ties the two countries have with each other. Pakistani President [[Pervez Musharraf]] referred to China as Pakistan's "time-tested and all-weather friend," while in return Chinese president [[Hu Jintao]] has referred to Pakistan as "a good friend and partner".<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/04/16/world/main4018992.shtml | work=CBS | title=Olympic Torch Hits China-Friendly Pakistan | date=11 February 2009}}</ref> Some observers have noted these statements as occurring after Pakistani relations with the United States or India have become strained, such as after [[Osama Bin Laden]] was killed by American forces without Pakistan's prior permission.<ref name="articles.cnn.com"/>

In July 2013, ''[[Pew Research Center]]'' as part of their ''Global Attitudes Project'' declared Pakistan to have the most positive view of China in the world. According to the research, 81% of Pakistanis responded favourably to China. On the other hand, only 11% of Pakistanis had a favorable view of the United States, the lowest in the world.<ref>http://www.pewglobal.org/database/indicator/33/country/166/</ref><ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/579055/pakistanis-increasingly-view-china-as-postive-over-us/ Pakistanis increasingly view China as positive over US]</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = Pakistan, with its strategic position, natural resources and warm-water ports, has long been an ally of Beijing. The Chinese see the south Asian state, the closest they have to a friend both in south Asia and in the Islamic world, as important to the security and development of their western, predominantly Muslim provinces, and as a useful aide in efforts to counter the influence of India. In recent years, links have grown closer.
|source = ''[[The Guardian]]''<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/22/china-pakistan Pakistan kept sweet by China's money – and shared strategic interests]</ref>
|width = 70%
|align = center
}}

A common quotation referred to Pak-China Friendship is, "A Friendship Higher than the Heights of Himalayas and deeper than the depths of Arabian Sea".

The author of the book ''[[The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics]]'' concludes the book by connecting the bilateral relationship to broader themes in Chinese foreign policy. According to the author, on the one hand, Pakistan is both a Chinese pawn (against India) and platform for power projection, but there are limits to this approach. For instance, as Small notes, 'Beijing's counterterrorism strategy has been essentially parasitic on the United States being a more important target for transnational militant groups than China'. It's unclear how long that can last.'<ref>[http://www.lowyinterpreter.org/post/2015/01/21/Book-review-China-Pakistan-Axis-Asias-New-Geopolitics-andrew-small.aspx Book review: The China-Pakistan Axis]</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = if there were recriminations they were not made public. Indeed China's ties with Pakistan, which were established during Mao's rule and are based on shared hostility towards India, thrive on many common interests. A long history of secret deals between their two armies--overrides the problems with Islamic extremism.
|source = Andrew Small, the author of ''[[The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics]]''<ref>[http://www.businessinsider.com/china-and-pakistan-are-geopolitical-friends-2015-1 China And Pakistan Are Geopolitical Friends]</ref>
|width = 70%
|align = center
}}

==Issues==

The [[East Turkestan Islamic Movement|ETIM]] is an Afghanistan-based terrorist organization and has also attacked Pakistan on several occasions. There is a deep sense in both the security officials in Pakistan and China that India over the years have used such terrorist networks to disrupt Chinese development efforts in the region. Both China and Pakistan believe that India could also use such terrorist networks to sabotage the CPEC project between China and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://waziristanhills.com/Taliban/MilitantOrganizations/EastTurkistanIslamicMovementETIM/tabid/141/language/en-GB/Default.aspx |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2010-12-30 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628070537/http://waziristanhills.com/Taliban/MilitantOrganizations/EastTurkistanIslamicMovementETIM/tabid/141/language/en-GB/Default.aspx |archivedate=28 June 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> As these militants are labeled as terrorists from the Chinese province of [[Xinjiang]], Pakistan and China strongly believe that India's intelligence services are behind such notorious terrorist organizations based in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Politics/03-Jun-2009/Hu-Jintao-urges-Zardari-to-crush-ETIM-extremists |title=Hu Jintao urges Zardari to crush ETIM extremists |publisher=The Nation |date=3 June 2009 |accessdate=13 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318083152/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/politics/03-Jun-2009/Hu-Jintao-urges-Zardari-to-crush-ETIM-extremists |archive-date=18 March 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/13/us-pakistan-china-idUSTRE6BC12D20101213?pageNumber=2 | work=Reuters | title=Pakistan-China ties to be strengthened in Wen visit | date=13 December 2010}}</ref>

==Timeline==
[[File:Pakistan embassy Beijing.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|Pakistan embassy in [[Beijing]], China.]]
[[File:PRC Towers and PNSC Building Karachi.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|People Republic of China '''PRC''' Tower in Karachi (left) has offices of many Chinese corporations.]]
Important events:
: '''1950''' – Pakistan becomes the third non-communist country, and first Muslim one, to recognize the People's Republic of China.
: '''1951''' – Beijing and [[Karachi]] establish diplomatic relations.
: '''1956''' – Pakistani Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] and Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing.
: '''1963''' – Pakistan cedes the Trans-Karakoram Tract to China, ending border disputes.
: '''1970''' – Pakistan helps the U.S. arrange the [[1972 Nixon visit to China]].
: '''1978''' – The [[Karakoram Highway]] linking the mountainous [[Northern Pakistan]] with Western China officially opens.
: '''1980'''s – China and the U.S. provide support through Pakistan to the [[Afghan mujahideen#Afghanistan|Afghan guerillas]] fighting [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces.
: '''1986''' – China and Pakistan reach a comprehensive nuclear co-operation agreement.
: '''1996''' – Chinese President [[Jiang Zemin]] pays a state visit to Pakistan.
: '''1999''' – A 300-megawatt nuclear power plant, built with Chinese help in [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab province]], is completed.
: '''2001''' – A joint-ventured Chinese-Pakistani tank, the [[MBT-2000]] (Al-Khalid) MBT is completed.
: '''2002''' – The building of the [[Gwadar]] deep sea port begins, with China as the primary investor.
: '''2003''' – Pakistan and China signed a $110 million contract for the construction of a housing project on Multan Road in Lahore<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/2004/12/16/top5.htm|title=China, Pakistan sign 7 accords in vital sectors: •Oil, gas exploration •high-level trade •Gwadar port improvement|author=Khan, Bahzad Alam|date=16 December 2004|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref>
: '''2007''' – The [[People's Republic of China|Sino-]]Pakistani joint-ventured [[multirole]] [[fighter aircraft]] – the [[JF-17 Thunder]] (FC-1 Fierce Dragon) is formally rolled out.
:'''2008''' – Pakistan welcomes the Chinese Olympic Torch in an Islamabad sports stadium, under heavy guard amidst security concerns.<ref name="cbsnews.com"/>
:'''2008''' – China and Pakistan sign a free trade agreement.
:'''2008''' – Pakistan and China to build a railway through the [[Karakoram Highway]], in order to link China's rail network to [[Gwadar Port]].
:'''2008''' – The [[F-22P]] frigate, comes into service with the [[Pakistani Navy]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/brothers-in-arms-china-gives-warship-to-pak/98275-2.html|title=Brothers in 'arms'? China gives warship to Pak|date=31 July 2009|accessdate=16 July 2010|work=[[Press Trust of India]]|publisher=[[CNN-IBN|IBN Live]]}}</ref>
:'''2009''' – The [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] arrest several suspected [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] terrorists seeking refuge in Pakistan.
:'''2010''' – Pakistan and China conduct a joint anti-terrorism drill.
:'''2010''' – China donates $260 million in dollars to flood-struck Pakistan and sends 4 military rescue helicopters to assist in rescue operations.
:'''2010''' – [[Wen Jiabao]] visits Pakistan. More than 30 billion dollars worth of deals were signed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://dailytimespakistan.com/china-pm-inaugurates-pak-china-friendship-centre/|title=Gilani, Jiabao inaugurate Pak-China Friendship Centre|date=18 December 2010|accessdate=30 December 2010|publisher=[[Associated Press of Pakistan|APP]]|first=APP|last=Express}}</ref>
:'''2011''' – Pakistan is expected to buy air-to-air SD 10 missiles from China for its 250 JF 17 thunder fighter fleet
:'''2013''' – Management of [[Gwadar port]] is handed over to state-run Chinese Overseas Port Holdings after previously being managed by Singapore’s PSA International,<ref>[http://dawn.com/2013/02/07/decision-to-hand-over-gwadar-port-to-china-worries-india/ "Decision to hand over Gwadar port to China worries India"], ''[[Dawn (newspaper)]]'', 7 February 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2013.</ref> and it becomes a matter of ''great concern'' for India.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/503373/india-concerned-over-china-running-gwadar-port/ "India 'concerned' over China running Gwadar port"], ''[[The Express Tribune]]'', 6 February 2013. Retrieved on 13 February 2013.</ref>
:'''2013''' – Chinese Premier Li Keqiang visits Pakistan. Trade between China and Pakistan hit a 12-month figure of $12 billion for the first time in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/article-101959-Chinese-PM-begins-Pakistan-visit |title=Chinese PM begins Pakistan visit |publisher=Thenews.com.pk |date=2013-05-16 |accessdate=2013-05-23}}</ref>
:'''2013''' – On 5 July 2013, Pakistan and China approved the '''Pak-China Economic corridor''' which will link Pakistan’s [[Gwadar Port]] on the [[Arabian Sea]] and Kashghar in [[Xinjiang]] in northwest China. The [[$]]18 billion project will also includes the construction of a 200km-long tunnel.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/572857/china-pakistan-friendship-sweeter-than-honey-nawaz/ Development projects: Nawaz signs $18 bn tunnel deal with China]</ref><ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/ Boosting trade: Pak-China economic corridor plan gets premier’s go-ahead]</ref>
:'''2013''' – On 24 December 2013, China announced a commitment $6.5 billion to finance the construction of a major nuclear power project in [[Karachi]], the project which will have two reactors with a capacity of 1,100 megawatts each.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/649908/china-commits-6-5-billion-for-nuclear-project-in-pakistan/ China commits $6.5 billion for nuclear project in Pakistan- The Express Tribune]</ref>
:'''2014''' – Chinese Premier announced investment of $31.5 billion in Pakistan mainly in countries energy, infrastructure and port expansion for [[Gwadar]]. According to ''[[The Express Tribune]]'' initially projects worth $15–20 billion will be started which include Lahore-Karachi motorway, Gwadar Port expansion and energy sector projects will be launched in [[Gadani]] and six coal projects near [[Thar coalfield]]. The newspaper further claimed that the government has also handed over to Pakistan Army the task of providing fool-proof security to Chinese officials in [[Balochistan, Pakistan]] in a bid to address [[Beijing]]’s concerns and execute the investment plan in the province, which will get 38% of the funds.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/683281/balochistan-to-receive-big-slice-of-chinese-funds/ Balochistan to receive big slice of Chinese funds]</ref>
:'''2014''' – On 22 May 2014, The governments of Pakistan and China on Thursday signed an agreement to start a metro train project in Lahore, Express News reported. The 27.1 kilometres long track – named Orange Line – will be built at the cost of $1.27 billion.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/711614/pakistan-china-sign-lahore-metro-train-agreement/ Pakistan, China sign Lahore metro train agreement]</ref>
:'''2014''' – On 8 November 2014, Pakistan and China signed 19 agreements particularly relating to [[China–Pakistan Economic Corridor]], China pledged a total investment worth of $42 billion. While Pakistan pledged to help China in its fight concerning the [[Xinjiang conflict]].<ref>[http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/11/08/national/pakistan-wins-42b-chinese-investment/ Pakistan wins $42b Chinese investment]</ref>
:'''2015''' – On 20 April 2015, Chinese President Xi Jinping, accompanied by the First Lady and a delegation of high-level officials and businessmen, visits Pakistan. It is the first visit to Pakistan by a Chinese president after a gap of 9 years and the first foreign trip of Xi in 2015. 51 Memorandums of Understanding are signed, including the plan of "Pakistan China Economic Corridor".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1177109/economic-corridor-in-focus-as-pakistan-china-sign-51-mous |title=Economic corridor in focus as Pakistan, China sign 51 MoUs |publisher=DAWN News |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref>
:'''2015''' – Pakistan began circulating the Rs. 20 coin with the Pakistan and China flags to commemorate the countries' lasting friendship.

==See also==
{{Portal|China|Pakistan|International relations}}
* [[Pakistan Embassy College Beijing]]
* [[Hong Kong–Pakistan relations]]

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last1=Small|first1=Andrew|title=The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics|date=2015|publisher=Hurst|location=London|isbn=1849043418|pages=288|edition=1|url=http://www.andrewsmall.org}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Cardenal|first1=Juan Pablo|authorlink1=Juan Pablo Cardenal|last2=Araújo|first2=Heriberto|authorlink2=Heriberto Araújo |title=La silenciosa conquista china |location=Barcelona|publisher=Crítica|year=2011|url=https://books.google.com/?id=jQ2fvBVpQpYC |pages=247ff|isbn=9788498922578|language=es}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://blogs.reuters.com/india-expertzone/2012/01/20/the-limits-of-the-pakistan-china-alliance/ The limits of the Pakistan-China alliance]
*[https://www.youtube.com/v/Ogqj5UZiWEs&list=UURPwLKbd4S960c7hkYVNahQ&index=1&feature=plcp China hints at ally Pakistan's hand in Xinjiang unrest]
*[http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-02-12/news/31052205_1_china-pakistan-relationship-countries-trade-and-business-relationship Ahmed Rashid on the Sino-Pakistani relationship]
*[http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf Eager Eyes Fixed on Eurasia Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis, Edited by IWASHITA Akihiro, Slavic Research Center]
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSISL9262520061124 CHRONOLOGY-Main events in Chinese-Pakistani relations]
*[http://www.hindustantimes.com/audio-news-video/AV-World/Pakistan-trained-militants-pose-a-threat-to-Xinjiang/Article2-841360.aspx Xinjiang-Pakistan]

{{China–Pakistan relations}}This is not a map of Pakistan{{Foreign relations of China}}
{{Foreign relations of Pakistan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:China-Pakistan Relations}}
[[Category:China–Pakistan relations| ]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of China|Pakistan]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of Pakistan]]

Chinesisch-pakistanische Beziehungen

2018-10-04T05:05:58Z

Jprg1966: /* Relations prior to the founding of the modern states of Pakistan and the PRC */

{{Infobox bilateral relations|China–Pakistan
| party1 = Pakistan
| party2 = China
| map = Pakistan China Locator.svg
| filetype = 250px
| envoytitle1 = [[Ambassador]]
| envoy1 = Masood Khalid
| envoytitle2 = [[Ambassador]]
| envoy2 = Sun Weidong
| mission1 = [[Beijing|Pakistani Embassy, Beijing]]
| mission2 = [[Islamabad|Chinese Embassy, Islamabad]]
}}

'''China–Pakistan relations''' began in 1950 when Pakistan was among the first countries to enter into official diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] (on [[Taiwan]]) and recognize the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) regime on mainland China. Since then, both countries have placed considerable importance on the maintenance of an extremely close and supportive [[Special relationship (international relations)|special relationship]]<ref name="bbcnews">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13418957|title= Pakistani PM hails China as his country's 'best friend'|work=BBC News|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=17 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="nyt">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/13/world/asia/13pstan.html|title= Pakistan President to Visit China, a Valued Ally|work=New York Times|accessdate=12 October 2008|first=Salman|last=Masood|date=13 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-11/14/content_732562.htm|title=China-Pakistan relations|accessdate=14 November 2006|work=China Daily}}</ref> and the two countries have regularly exchanged high-level visits resulting in a variety of agreements. The PRC has provided economic, military, and technical assistance to Pakistan, and each country considers the other a close strategic ally.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-17/world/china.pakistan.friend_1_minister-yousuf-raza-gilani-chinese-president-hu-jintao-pakistani-counterpart?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Pakistan cements China ties amid tension with U.S|date=17 May 2011|accessdate=12 July 2011|work=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/7384378.html|title=China, Pakistan joined in bonds of brotherhood|accessdate=18 May 2011|work=People's Daily}}</ref>

Bilateral relations have evolved from an initial Chinese policy of neutrality to a partnership with a smaller but militarily powerful Pakistan. Diplomatic relations were established in 1950, boundary issues resolved in 1963, military assistance began in 1966, a strategic alliance was formed in 1972, and economic co-operation began in 1979. China has become Pakistan’s largest supplier of arms and its third-largest trading partner.<ref>{{cite web|agency=Reuters |url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/05/21/pakistan-says-wants-china-to-build-naval-base.html |title=Pakistan wants China to build it a naval base |publisher=Dawn.com |date=21 May 2011 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thecommongood.net/2011/05/china-to-fast-track-jets-for-pakistan/ |title=China to Fast-Track Jets for Pakistan |publisher=Thecommongood.net |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> China has given Pakistan a loan of $60 million which was later made a grant after [[East Pakistan|east Pakistan]] broke away. Recently, both nations have decided to cooperate in improving [[Pakistan's civil nuclear power sector]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10340642 |title=China says Pakistan nuclear deal 'peaceful' |publisher=BBC |date=17 June 2010 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref>

Maintaining close relations with China is a central part of [[Pakistan's foreign policy]]. In 1986, President [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] visited China to improve diplomatic relations, and Pakistan was one of only two countries, alongside Cuba, to offer crucial support to the PRC after the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]]. China and Pakistan also share close military relations, with China supplying a range of modern armaments to the Pakistani defence forces. China supports Pakistan's stance on [[Kashmir]], while Pakistan supports China on the issues of [[East Turkestan independence movement|Xinjiang]], [[Tibetan independence movement|Tibet]], and [[Taiwan independence|Taiwan]]. Military cooperation has deepened, with joint projects producing armaments ranging from [[fighter jet]]s to guided missile frigates.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1320868|title=China, Pakistan agree to further increase military cooperation|last=Dawn.com|date=2017-03-16|work=DAWN.COM|access-date=2017-11-17|language=en-US}}</ref>

Chinese cooperation with Pakistan has reached economic high points, with substantial Chinese investment in Pakistani infrastructural expansion including the Pakistani deep-water port at [[Gwadar]]. Both countries have an ongoing [[free trade]] agreement.

According to China's custom statistics the bilateral trade volume for the calendar year 2017 crossed the US$ 20 billion mark for the first time. In 2017 China's exports to Pakistan grew by 5.9% to reach US$ 18.25 billion whereas Pakistan's exports to China fell by 4.1% to US$ 1.83 billion.<ref>http://info.hktdc.com/hktdc_offices/mi/ccs/index_static_type/ExportsbyCountryofOriginFinalDestinationex.htm</ref> <ref>http://info.hktdc.com/hktdc_offices/mi/ccs/index_static_type/ImportsbyCountryofOriginFinalDestinationim.htm</ref>

Pakistan has served as China's main bridge to the [[Islamic world]], and also played an important role in bridging the communication gap between the PRC and the West by facilitating [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Richard Nixon]]'s [[Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China|historic 1972 visit]] to China. The relations between Pakistan and China have been described by Pakistan's ambassador to China as ''higher than the mountains, deeper than the oceans, stronger than steel, dearer than eyesight, sweeter than honey, and so on.'' <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/18682839|title=Sweet as can be?|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=12 February 2013|date=14 May 2011}}</ref> According to [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]], Pakistan is China's biggest arms buyer, counting for nearly 47% of Chinese arms exports.<ref>[http://books.sipri.org/product_info?c_product_id=475 Trends in international arms transfers, 2013 Siemon T. Wezeman and Pieter D. Wezeman]</ref> According to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 75% of [[Pakistanis]] view China's influence positively with only 15% expressing a negative view. In the Asia-Pacific region, [[Chinese people]] hold the third most positive opinions of Pakistan's influence in the world, behind Indonesia and Pakistan itself.<ref>http://www.globescan.com/images/images/pressreleases/bbc2014_country_ratings/2014_country_rating_poll_bbc_globescan.pdf</ref>

==Overview==
[[File:Passu Gojal hunza pakistan.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|[[Karakoram Highway]] connects the two states, it is also sometimes referred to as the Eighth Wonder of the World.]]

Pakistan has a long and strong relationship with China. The long-standing ties between the two countries have been mutually beneficial. A close identity of views and mutual interests remain the centre-point of bilateral ties. Since the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]], Pakistan has supported China on most issues of importance to the latter, especially those related to the question of China's sovereignty like [[Taiwan]], [[Xinjiang]], and [[Tibet]] and other sensitive issues such as human rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf |title=Eager Eyes Fixed on Eurasia Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis, Edited by IWASHITA Akihiro, Slavic Research Center, p 212 |format=PDF |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref>

The Chinese leadership has acknowledged Pakistan's steadfast support on key issues. Pakistan helped China in reestablishing formal ties with the West, where they helped make possible the [[1972 Nixon visit to China]].{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} Pakistan has collaborated with China in extensive military and economic projects, seeing China as a counterweight to [[India]] and the United States. Pakistan has also served as a conduit for China's influence in the Muslim world.

China also has a consistent record of supporting Pakistan in regional issues. Pakistan's military depends heavily on [[Equipment Development Department of the Central Military Commission|Chinese armaments]], and joint projects of both economic and militaristic importance are ongoing. China has supplied equipment to support Pakistan's nuclear program.

==Relations prior to the founding of the modern states of Pakistan and the PRC==
Buddhist monks from the area of what is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region of Pakistan were involved in the [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]] to [[Han dynasty]] China. The Han dynasty's [[Protectorate of the Western Regions]] bordered the [[Kushan Empire]]. [[Faxian]] traveled in what is now modern day Pakistan.

During World War II, the Hui Muslim Imam Da Pusheng [[w:zh:达浦生|达浦生]] toured the Middle East and South Asia to confront Japanese propagandists in Muslim countries and denounce their invasion to the Islamic world.<ref name="Luo1995">{{cite book|author=Zhufeng Luo|title=Religion Under Socialism in China|url=https://books.google.com/?id=cEfiZlUpI5oC&pg=PA50&lpg=PA50&dq=da+pusheng+1938#v=onepage&q=da%20pusheng%201938&f=false|date=January 1991|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-87332-609-4|pages=50–}}</ref> Misinformation on the war was spread in the Islamic Middle Eastern nations by Japanese agents. In response, in the World Islamic Congress in Hejaz, Imam Du openly confronted fake Muslim Japanese agents and exposed them as non-Muslims. Japan's history of imperialism was explained by Du to his fellow Muslims. [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the future founder of Pakistan, met with Imam Du. The [[Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War|Chinese Muslim's anti-Japanese war effort]] received a pledge of support from Jinnah.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.88dict.com/archives/485094/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-08-24 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20140613193920/http://www.88dict.com/archives/485094/ |archivedate=13 June 2014 |df=dmy-all }} {{cite web |url=http://archive |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-08-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712160429/http://archive/ |archivedate=12 July 2013 |df=dmy }}. is/jDCDc</ref> The Hindu leaders Tagore and Gandhi and Muslim Jinnah both discussed the war with the Chinese Muslim delegation under Ma Fuliang while in Turkey President [[İsmet İnönü]] also met the delegation.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.huizu360.com/huizu/news_view.asp?tid=5&id=19276 |title={title} |access-date=24 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919050140/http://www.huizu360.com/huizu/news_view.asp?tid=5&id=19276 |archive-date=19 September 2016 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Gandhi and Jinnah met with the Hui Ma Fuliang and his delegation as they denounced Japan.<ref>http://www.xzbu.com/7/view-1606508.htm</ref>

==Diplomatic relations==
[[File:Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Zhou Enlai signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing.jpg|thumb|right|Pakistani Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] and Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing in 1956.]]
Diplomatic relations between Pakistan and China were established on 21 May 1951, shortly after the [[Republic Of China]] lost power in [[Mainland China|the Mainland]] in 1949.<ref>[http://202.83.164.26/wps/portal/Mocul/!ut/p/c0/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os_hQN68AZ3dnIwML82BTAyNXTz9jE0NfQwNfA_2CbEdFAA2MC_Y!/?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/MoculCL/ministry/highlights/iap-pakchina-01 Pakistan and China Relations]{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> While initially ambivalent towards the idea of a Communist country on its borders, Pakistan hoped that China would serve as a counterweight to Indian influence. [[India]] had recognized China a year before, and Indian Prime Minister Nehru also hoped for closer relations with the Chinese. In 1956, Pakistani Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] and Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan, marking closer bilateral ties.

With escalating border tensions leading to the [[1962 Sino-Indian war]], China and Pakistan aligned with each other in a joint effort to counter India and the Soviet Union as both have border disputes with India. One year after China's border war with India, Pakistan ceded the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] to China to end border disputes and improve diplomatic relations.

Since then, an informal alliance that initially consisted of joint Indian opposition{{clarify|date=June 2013}} has grown into a lasting relationship that has benefited both nations on the diplomatic, economic and military frontiers. Along with diplomatic support, Pakistan served as a conduit for China to open up to the West. China has in turn provided extensive economic aid and political support to Pakistan.

[[File:Kashmir map big.jpg|thumb|200px|Disputed territory ceded to China in 1963.]]

[[File:Ambassador Hilaly receiving US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in Rawalpindi on 8 July 1971.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|[[Henry Kissinger]] was on a secret mission to China facilitated by the [[Government of Pakistan]], a fact known to very few people including [[Agha Hilaly|Ambassador Hilaly]].]]

Since the two sides established their "all-weather diplomatic relations", there have been frequent exchanges between the two countries' leadership and peoples. For example, former Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] received warm welcomes in all of his four visits to Pakistan. When Zhou died in 1976, then Pakistani's Ambassador to China rushed to the [[Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] at 8 in the morning without appointment. Upon arriving at the ministry, the ambassador cried due to his grief in front of Chinese diplomats. In 2004, a road in Pakistani capital [[Islamabad]] leading to the Diplomatic Enclave was named "Zhou Enlai Road". It is the first road in Pakistan that is named after foreign leaders. On 27 May 1976, then Chinese leader [[Mao Zedong]], aged 83, received his last foreign guest Pakistani president [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] despite his illness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2015/0417/c1001-26863311.html |title=中国与巴基斯坦高层交往的5则小故事 |publisher=[[People's Daily China]] |date=17 April 2015 |accessdate=18 April 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Eight Pakistan Air Force JF-17s escort Air China Boeing 747-400.jpg|thumb|right|The presidential plane of PRC President [[Xi Jinping]] escorted by eight JF-17s upon entering Pakistani airspace on a two-day official visit (2015).]]

On 22 May 2013, Chinese Premier [[Li Keqiang]]'s airplane was escorted by six JF-17 Thunder jets, jointly developed by the two countries, as it entered Pakistani airspace.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-22650591 |title=China media: Li Keqiang's Pakistan visit |publisher=BBC |date=24 May 2013 |accessdate=18 April 2015}}</ref> The premier was also received by both Pakistani president and prime minister upon his arrival at the airport. On 20 April 2015, Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]] visited Pakistan as his first foreign visit of the year, also the first by a Chinese president in 9 years. Before his arrival, he published an article praising the friendship on Pakistani newspapers like ''[[Daily Jang]]''. The Chinese president compared visiting Pakistan with visiting his brother's home.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2015/0420/c1001-26873284.html |title=解读：习近平为何说访巴就像到自己兄弟家中探访？ |publisher=People's Daily China |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref> Like previous visit by Premier Li, the airplane was escorted by 8 JF-17 Thunder jets. Xi was given a grand welcome upon his arrival at Noor Khan airbase, a 21-gun salute and guard of honour was presented to him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1177109/chinese-presidents-visit-to-usher-in-new-era-of-development-pm |title=Chinese president's visit to usher in new era of development: PM |publisher=[[DAWN News]] |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref>

{{quote|text=When I was young, I heard many touching stories about Pakistan and the friendship between our two countries. To name just a few, I learned that the Pakistani people were working hard to build their beautiful country, and that Pakistan opened an air corridor for China to reach out to the world and supported China in restoring its lawful seat in the United Nations. The stories have left me with a deep impression. I look forward to my upcoming state visit to Pakistan.|sign=[[Xi Jinping]], [[President of the People's Republic of China]] before his 2015 visit to Pakistan|source=<ref>[http://thediplomat.com/2015/04/xi-jinping-on-pakistan-i-feel-as-if-i-am-going-to-visit-the-home-of-my-own-brother/ Xi Jinping on Pakistan: 'I Feel as if I Am Going to Visit the Home of my Own Brother']</ref>}}

Pakistan's military initially depended almost entirely on American armaments and aid, which was increased during the covert U.S. support of Islamic militants in the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]. America under US President [[Richard Nixon]] supported Pakistan in the 1971 [[Bangladesh Liberation War]].<ref name="Shalom">Shalom, Stephen R., [http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue47/articles/a07.htm The Men Behind Yahya in the Indo-Pak War of 1971]</ref> However, the period following the Soviet withdrawal and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] led indirectly to the increasing realignment of America with the previously pro-Soviet India. The [[Pressler Amendment]] in 1990 suspended all American military assistance and any new economic aid amidst concerns that Pakistan was attempting to develop a nuclear weapon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=larry_pressler_1 |title=Larry Pressler |publisher=Historycommons.org |date=29 March 1993 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> Given the support that Pakistan had given them during the War in Afghanistan, many Pakistanis saw this as a betrayal that sold out Pakistani interests in favor of India. This belief was further strengthened as India had developed a nuclear weapon without significant American opposition, and Pakistan felt obligated to do the same. Consequently, the primarily geopolitical alliance between Pakistan and China has since 1990 branched out into military and economic cooperation, due to Pakistan's belief that America's influence and support in the region should be counterbalanced by the Chinese.

With the U.S.-led [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|war in Afghanistan]], there is a general sentiment in Pakistan to adopt a foreign policy which favors China over the United States.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/pakistan/2010/pakistan-100619-irna03.htm Global Security] and [http://pakobserver.net/201009/28/detailnews.asp?id=54483 Pakistan Foreign Policy Makers Urged to tie strongly with China compared to US]{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Washington has been accused deserting Pakistan in favor of a policy that favors stronger relations with India, while Pakistan sees China as a more reliable ally over the long term.<ref name="articles.cnn.com">{{Cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-17/world/china.pakistan.friend_1_minister-yousuf-raza-gilani-chinese-president-hu-jintao-pakistani-counterpart?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Pakistan cements China ties amid tension with U.S|date=17 May 2011|accessdate=12 July 2011|publisher=CNN}}</ref>

Since [[September 11 attacks]], Pakistan has increased the scope of Chinese influence and support by agreeing to a number of military projects, combined with extensive economic support and investment from the Chinese.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

==Military relations==
[[File:Pakistan Air Force Chengdu JF-17 Gu.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|The [[JF-17 Thunder]] is a joint Pakistan-China project.]]
There are strong military ties between China and Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/pakistan/2010/pakistan-100619-irna03.htm|title=Pakistan enjoys strong defense ties with China|date=19 June 2010|accessdate=30 December 2010|publisher=[[Islamic Republic News Agency|IRNA – Islamic Republic News Agency]]|first=IRNA|last=Islamic Republic News Agency}}</ref> This alliance between two neighbouring Asian nations is significant geo-politically. The strong military ties primarily aim to counter regional Indian and American influence, and was also to repel [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] influence in the area. In recent years this relationship has strengthened through ongoing military projects and agreements between Pakistan and China.

Since 1962, China has been a steady source of military equipment to the [[Pakistani Army]], helping establish ammunition factories, providing technological assistance and modernizing existing facilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070/chinapakistan_relations.html|title=China-Pakistan Relations|work=Backgrounder|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|date=6 July 2010|accessdate=16 July 2010|first1=Jamal|last1=Afridi|first2=Jayshree|last2=Bajoria|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100720031849/http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070/chinapakistan_relations.html|archive-date=20 July 2010|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
[[File:Pakistan airforce K8.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|[[Hongdu JL-8]] is co-produced by both Pakistan and China.]]

Most recently, the Chinese [[Chengdu J-10]]B fighter was compared to its closest American counterpart, the [[Lockheed Martin F-16]]C Block 52/60, the most advanced F-16, for orders on either aircraft for the [[Pakistan Air Force]], resulting in the wins of the Chinese [[Chengdu J-10]]B. Accordingly, the [[Chengdu J-10]]B had more advanced technology such as its radar and OLS targeting system, and its new generation stealthy features, such as its DSI intake gave it an edge over the [[Lockheed Martin F-16]].

China and Pakistan are involved in several projects to enhance military and weaponry systems, which include the joint development of the [[JF-17 Thunder]] fighter aircraft,<ref name="scmp">{{cite news |title=China-Pakistan military ties set to get even closer as ‘iron brothers’ eye new alliance |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2127106/china-pakistan-military-ties-set-get-even-closer-iron |date=January 7, 2018 |access-date=January 8, 2018 |first=Catherine |last=Wong |publisher=''[[South China Morning Post]]''}}</ref> [[K-8 Karakorum]] advance [[training aircraft]], a tailor made training aircraft for the [[Pakistan Air Force]] based on the Chinese domestic [[Hongdu L-15]], [[space technology]], [[Airborne Early Warning and Control|AWACS]] systems, [[Al-Khalid tank]]s, which China granted license production and tailor made modifications based on the initial Chinese Type 90 and/or MBT-2000. The Chinese has designed tailor made advanced weapons for Pakistan, making it a strong military power in the Asian region. The armies have a schedule for organising joint military exercises.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/mbt-2000.htm|title=Al Khalid MBT-2000 / Type 2000 Main Battle Tank|publisher=GlobalSecurity.org|accessdate=16 July 2010}}</ref>

China is the largest investor in Pakistan's [[Gwadar]] Deep Sea Port, which is strategically located at the mouth of the [[Strait of Hormuz]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/2528.html|title=Gwadar: China's Naval Outpost on the Indian Ocean|first=Tarique|last=Niazi|date=28 February 2005|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=Association for Asian Research}}</ref> It is viewed warily by both America and India as a possible launchpad for the Chinese Navy, giving them the ability to launch submarines and warships in the Indian Ocean. China has recently pledged to invest nearly $43 billion US dollars.

China’s leadership appreciated Pakistan’s fight against terrorism with a special mention of eliminating Al Qaeda, Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and the East Turkmenistan Islamic Movement (ETIM), added the ISPR statement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1320868|title=China, Pakistan agree to further increase military cooperation|last=|first=|date=March 16, 2017|website=DAWN News|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref> In 2008, Pakistan had purchased military equipment from China for an improved quality of defence arsenal and force to fight the constant attack from foreign militants.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeenews.com/news439060.html|title=China offers Pakistan military aid to fight terrorism|date=26 April 2008|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=[[Zee Entertainment Enterprises|Zee News Ltd]]}}</ref> This relationship still continues nine years later when Pakistan Army imported Chinese-built Low to Medium Altitude Air Defence System (LOMADS) LY-80 for its air defence system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1320053/army-inducts-chinese-built-air-defence-system-to-its-arsenal|title=Army inducts Chinese-built air defence system to its arsenal|last=|first=|date=March 12, 2017|website=DAWN News|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = If you love China, love Pakistan too.
|source = [[Li Keqiang]], [[Premier of the People's Republic of China]]<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-22650591 China media: Li Keqiang's Pakistan visit]</ref>
|width = 25%
|align = left
}}
In the past, China has played a major role in the development of Pakistan's nuclear infrastructure, especially when increasingly stringent export controls in [[Western countries]] made it difficult for Pakistan to acquire plutonium and uranium enriching equipment from elsewhere such as the Chinese help in building the [[Khushab]] reactor, which plays a key role in Pakistan's production of plutonium. A subsidiary of the [[China National Nuclear Corporation]] contributed in Pakistan's efforts to expand its uranium enrichment capabilities by providing 5,000 custom made ring magnets, which are a key component of the bearings that facilitate the high-speed rotation of centrifuges. China has also provided technical and material support in the completion of the [[Chashma Nuclear Power Complex]] and plutonium reprocessing facility, which was built in the mid-1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/|title=Pakistan Nuclear Weapons: A Brief History of Pakistan's Nuclear Program|date=11 December 2002|accessdate=16 July 2010|work=Strategic Security Project|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]}}</ref> China has become increasing concerned about al-Qaeda linked [[Terrorism in Pakistan|terrorism originating in Pakistan]] and sought help to set up military bases on Pakistani soil to deal with the problem.<ref>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/china-seeks-military-bases-in-paks-restive-tribal-region/articleshow/10497288.cms "China seeks military bases in Pak's restive tribal region."] ''PTI'', 26 October 2011.</ref>

On January 26, 2015, Chinese Foreign Minister [[Wang Yi (politician)|Wang Yi]] during a conclusion of a two-day visit of [[Raheel Sharif]] to [[Beijing]] called Pakistan China's 'irreplaceable, all-weather friend'. Sharif also met [[Yu Zhengsheng]], [[Meng Jianzhu]] and [[Xu Qiliang]].<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/827836/coas-visit-chinese-foreign-minister-terms-pakistan-chinas-irreplaceable-friend/ Pakistan an 'irreplaceable' friend, Chinese foreign minister tells army chief]</ref> On April 19, 2015, China concluded sale of eight conventional [[submarines]] worth $5bn, the biggest arms sale by China in its history.<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/world/xi-jinpings-sale-of-submarines-to-pakistan-raises-risk-of-indian-ocean-nuclear-clash-20150418-1mnt6i.html Xi Jinping's sale of submarines to Pakistan raises risk of Indian Ocean nuclear clash]</ref> The vessels are supplied by the China Shipbuilding Trading Company, and financed to Pakistan at a low [[interest rate]].<ref name="scmp"/>

===Counterterrorism===

China, Pakistan and Afghanistan have coordinated to increase regional stability.<ref name="scmp"/> Foreign Minister Wang Yi has said that China intends to use [[Xinjiang]] as a base of economic development for the region, increasing security and facilitating trade.<ref name="scmp"/>

==Economic relations==
{{See also|China–Pakistan Free Trade Agreement}}
Pakistan has been one of China’s major trade partners.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/95442/IPCS-Special-Report-30.pdf|title=China-Pakistan Economic Relations|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>

Recently though, economic trade between Pakistan and China is increasing, and a free trade agreement has been signed. Military and technological transactions continue to dominate the economic relationship between the two nations, and China has pledged to increase their investment in Pakistan's economy and infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/688389/top-ten-trading-partners |title=Top ten trading partners |publisher=Dawn |date=15 January 2012}}</ref>

In 2011 China Kingho Group canceled a $19 billion mining deal because of security concerns.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/8799596/US-finds-new-friend-in-Uzbekistan-after-Pakistan-fallout.html "US finds new friend in Uzbekistan after Pakistan fallout."] ''Telegraph Media Group Limited'', 30 September 2011.</ref>

On 26 April, ''[[China Mobile]]'' announced $1 billion of investment in [[Pakistan]] in telecommunication infrastructure and training of its officials within a period of three years.<ref>[http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/04/24/city/karachi/china-mobile-to-invest-1b-in-pakistan/ China Mobile to invest $ 1b in Pakistan]</ref> The announcement came a day after China Mobile subsidy [[Zong Pakistan|Zong]] emerged as the highest bidder in the 3G auction, claiming a 10 MHz 3G band licence, qualifying for the 4G licence.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/699257/spectrum-auction-live-updates/ Next-generation licence: Govt raises over $1.1 billion in spectrum auction]</ref>

On 22 April 2015, According to ''[[China Daily]]'', China released its first overseas investment project under the [[One Belt, One Road]] for developing a hydropower station near [[Jhelum]].<ref>[http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2015-04/22/content_20508778.htm Silk Road Fund makes first investment]</ref>

The biggest development off late to open up the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) has changed the situation completely as China has carved an enormous plan for economic growth and development in Pakistan as pointed out below in the next section.

===China–Pakistan Economic Corridor===
{{main|China–Pakistan Economic Corridor}}
[[File:Gwadar Port.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|Gwadar Port.]]
The CPEC will connect Pakistan with China and the Central Asian countries with highway connecting [[Kashgar]] to [[Khunjerab Pass|Khunjerab]] and [[Gwadar]].<ref>http://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/</ref> [[Gwadar port]] in southern Pakistan will serve as the trade nerve center for China, as most of its trade especially that of oil will be done through the port, which is operated by the China Overseas Port Holding Company, a state-owned Chinese company.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/589268/pak-china-ties-gawadar-port-one-part-of-a-larger-plan/ Pak-China ties: Gawadar port one part of a larger plan]</ref> Currently, sixty percent of China’s oil must be transported by ship from the [[Persian Gulf]] to the only commercial port in China, Shanghai, a distance of more than 16,000 kilometres. The journey takes two to three months, during which time the ships are vulnerable to pirates, bad weather, political rivals and other risks. Using Gwadar port instead would reduce the distance and possibly the cost.

The plan seeks to build on a market presence already established by Chinese enterprises, Haier in household appliances, ChinaMobile and Huawei in telecommunications and China Metallurgical Group Corporation (MCC) in mining and minerals. In other cases, such as textiles and garments, cement and building materials, fertiliser and agricultural technologies (among others) it calls for building the infrastructure and a supporting policy environment to facilitate fresh entry. According to the plan, a key element in this is the creation of industrial parks, or special economic zones, would be done with the provision of water, perfect infrastructure, sufficient supply of energy and the capacity of self-service power.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1333101|title=Exclusive: CPEC master plan revealed|last=Husain|first=Khurram|date=2017-05-14|work=DAWN.COM|access-date=2017-11-03|language=en-US}}</ref>

But the main thrust of the plan actually lies in agriculture, contrary to the image of CPEC as a massive industrial and transport undertaking, involving power plants and highways. The plan acquires its greatest specificity, and lays out the largest number of projects and plans for their facilitation, in agriculture. For agriculture, the plan outlines an engagement that runs from one end of the supply chain all the way to the other. From provision of seeds and other inputs, like fertiliser, credit and pesticides, Chinese enterprises will also operate their own farms, processing facilities for fruits and vegetables and grain. Logistics companies will operate a large storage and transportation system for agrarian produce, as stated by the plan in DAWN News.<ref name=":1" />

The other common investment is expected in information and technology, a full system of monitoring and surveillance will be built in cities from Peshawar to Karachi, with 24 hour video recordings on roads and busy marketplaces for law and order. A national fibreoptic backbone will be built for the country not only for internet traffic, but also terrestrial distribution of broadcast TV, which will cooperate with Chinese media in the “dissemination of Chinese cultures”.<ref name=":1" />

==Views==
{{externalvideo|video1=[http://money.cnn.com/2015/04/20/news/economy/pakistan-china-aid-infrastucture/ Pakistan lands $46 billion investment from China.]}}
The support that China and Pakistan give each other is considered significant in global diplomacy, and has been compared to [[Israel – United States relations]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Thalif Deen |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2010/10/20101028135728235512.html |title=China: 'Pakistan is our Israel' – Features |publisher=Al Jazeera English |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> According to a Pew survey of Pakistani public opinion in 2010, 84 percent of respondents said they had a favorable view of China and 16 percent had a favourable view of the United States.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/13/us-pakistan-china-idUSTRE6BC12D20101213 | work=Reuters | title=Pakistan-China ties to be strengthened in Wen visit | date=13 December 2010}}</ref> Similarly, the Chinese state-run media has portrayed Pakistan in a favorable light in regional issues. In 2013, this figure increased to 90% of Pakistanis having a favorable view of China.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afpak.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2013/03/25/could_pakistan_bridge_the_us_china_divide?wp_login_redirect=0 |title=Could Pakistan bridge the U.S.-China divide? - by Ziad Haider | The AfPak Channel |publisher=Afpak.foreignpolicy.com |date=2013-03-25 |accessdate=2013-05-23 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Pakistan and China have long praised the close ties the two countries have with each other. Pakistani President [[Pervez Musharraf]] referred to China as Pakistan's "time-tested and all-weather friend," while in return Chinese president [[Hu Jintao]] has referred to Pakistan as "a good friend and partner".<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/04/16/world/main4018992.shtml | work=CBS | title=Olympic Torch Hits China-Friendly Pakistan | date=11 February 2009}}</ref> Some observers have noted these statements as occurring after Pakistani relations with the United States or India have become strained, such as after [[Osama Bin Laden]] was killed by American forces without Pakistan's prior permission.<ref name="articles.cnn.com"/>

In July 2013, ''[[Pew Research Center]]'' as part of their ''Global Attitudes Project'' declared Pakistan to have the most positive view of China in the world. According to the research, 81% of Pakistanis responded favourably to China. On the other hand, only 11% of Pakistanis had a favorable view of the United States, the lowest in the world.<ref>http://www.pewglobal.org/database/indicator/33/country/166/</ref><ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/579055/pakistanis-increasingly-view-china-as-postive-over-us/ Pakistanis increasingly view China as positive over US]</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = Pakistan, with its strategic position, natural resources and warm-water ports, has long been an ally of Beijing. The Chinese see the south Asian state, the closest they have to a friend both in south Asia and in the Islamic world, as important to the security and development of their western, predominantly Muslim provinces, and as a useful aide in efforts to counter the influence of India. In recent years, links have grown closer.
|source = ''[[The Guardian]]''<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/22/china-pakistan Pakistan kept sweet by China's money – and shared strategic interests]</ref>
|width = 70%
|align = center
}}

A common quotation referred to Pak-China Friendship is, "A Friendship Higher than the Heights of Himalayas and deeper than the depths of Arabian Sea".

The author of the book ''[[The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics]]'' concludes the book by connecting the bilateral relationship to broader themes in Chinese foreign policy. According to the author, on the one hand, Pakistan is both a Chinese pawn (against India) and platform for power projection, but there are limits to this approach. For instance, as Small notes, 'Beijing's counterterrorism strategy has been essentially parasitic on the United States being a more important target for transnational militant groups than China'. It's unclear how long that can last.'<ref>[http://www.lowyinterpreter.org/post/2015/01/21/Book-review-China-Pakistan-Axis-Asias-New-Geopolitics-andrew-small.aspx Book review: The China-Pakistan Axis]</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = if there were recriminations they were not made public. Indeed China's ties with Pakistan, which were established during Mao's rule and are based on shared hostility towards India, thrive on many common interests. A long history of secret deals between their two armies--overrides the problems with Islamic extremism.
|source = Andrew Small, the author of ''[[The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics]]''<ref>[http://www.businessinsider.com/china-and-pakistan-are-geopolitical-friends-2015-1 China And Pakistan Are Geopolitical Friends]</ref>
|width = 70%
|align = center
}}

==Issues==

The [[East Turkestan Islamic Movement|ETIM]] is an Afghanistan-based terrorist organization and has also attacked Pakistan on several occasions. There is a deep sense in both the security officials in Pakistan and China that India over the years have used such terrorist networks to disrupt Chinese development efforts in the region. Both China and Pakistan believe that India could also use such terrorist networks to sabotage the CPEC project between China and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://waziristanhills.com/Taliban/MilitantOrganizations/EastTurkistanIslamicMovementETIM/tabid/141/language/en-GB/Default.aspx |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2010-12-30 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628070537/http://waziristanhills.com/Taliban/MilitantOrganizations/EastTurkistanIslamicMovementETIM/tabid/141/language/en-GB/Default.aspx |archivedate=28 June 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> As these militants are labeled as terrorists from the Chinese province of [[Xinjiang]], Pakistan and China strongly believe that India's intelligence services are behind such notorious terrorist organizations based in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Politics/03-Jun-2009/Hu-Jintao-urges-Zardari-to-crush-ETIM-extremists |title=Hu Jintao urges Zardari to crush ETIM extremists |publisher=The Nation |date=3 June 2009 |accessdate=13 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318083152/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/politics/03-Jun-2009/Hu-Jintao-urges-Zardari-to-crush-ETIM-extremists |archive-date=18 March 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/13/us-pakistan-china-idUSTRE6BC12D20101213?pageNumber=2 | work=Reuters | title=Pakistan-China ties to be strengthened in Wen visit | date=13 December 2010}}</ref>

==Timeline==
[[File:Pakistan embassy Beijing.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|Pakistan embassy in [[Beijing]], China.]]
[[File:PRC Towers and PNSC Building Karachi.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|People Republic of China '''PRC''' Tower in Karachi (left) has offices of many Chinese corporations.]]
Important events:
: '''1950''' – Pakistan becomes the third non-communist country, and first Muslim one, to recognize the People's Republic of China.
: '''1951''' – Beijing and [[Karachi]] establish diplomatic relations.
: '''1956''' – Pakistani Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] and Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing.
: '''1963''' – Pakistan cedes the Trans-Karakoram Tract to China, ending border disputes.
: '''1970''' – Pakistan helps the U.S. arrange the [[1972 Nixon visit to China]].
: '''1978''' – The [[Karakoram Highway]] linking the mountainous [[Northern Pakistan]] with Western China officially opens.
: '''1980'''s – China and the U.S. provide support through Pakistan to the [[Afghan mujahideen#Afghanistan|Afghan guerillas]] fighting [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces.
: '''1986''' – China and Pakistan reach a comprehensive nuclear co-operation agreement.
: '''1996''' – Chinese President [[Jiang Zemin]] pays a state visit to Pakistan.
: '''1999''' – A 300-megawatt nuclear power plant, built with Chinese help in [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab province]], is completed.
: '''2001''' – A joint-ventured Chinese-Pakistani tank, the [[MBT-2000]] (Al-Khalid) MBT is completed.
: '''2002''' – The building of the [[Gwadar]] deep sea port begins, with China as the primary investor.
: '''2003''' – Pakistan and China signed a $110 million contract for the construction of a housing project on Multan Road in Lahore<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/2004/12/16/top5.htm|title=China, Pakistan sign 7 accords in vital sectors: •Oil, gas exploration •high-level trade •Gwadar port improvement|author=Khan, Bahzad Alam|date=16 December 2004|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref>
: '''2007''' – The [[People's Republic of China|Sino-]]Pakistani joint-ventured [[multirole]] [[fighter aircraft]] – the [[JF-17 Thunder]] (FC-1 Fierce Dragon) is formally rolled out.
:'''2008''' – Pakistan welcomes the Chinese Olympic Torch in an Islamabad sports stadium, under heavy guard amidst security concerns.<ref name="cbsnews.com"/>
:'''2008''' – China and Pakistan sign a free trade agreement.
:'''2008''' – Pakistan and China to build a railway through the [[Karakoram Highway]], in order to link China's rail network to [[Gwadar Port]].
:'''2008''' – The [[F-22P]] frigate, comes into service with the [[Pakistani Navy]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/brothers-in-arms-china-gives-warship-to-pak/98275-2.html|title=Brothers in 'arms'? China gives warship to Pak|date=31 July 2009|accessdate=16 July 2010|work=[[Press Trust of India]]|publisher=[[CNN-IBN|IBN Live]]}}</ref>
:'''2009''' – The [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] arrest several suspected [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] terrorists seeking refuge in Pakistan.
:'''2010''' – Pakistan and China conduct a joint anti-terrorism drill.
:'''2010''' – China donates $260 million in dollars to flood-struck Pakistan and sends 4 military rescue helicopters to assist in rescue operations.
:'''2010''' – [[Wen Jiabao]] visits Pakistan. More than 30 billion dollars worth of deals were signed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://dailytimespakistan.com/china-pm-inaugurates-pak-china-friendship-centre/|title=Gilani, Jiabao inaugurate Pak-China Friendship Centre|date=18 December 2010|accessdate=30 December 2010|publisher=[[Associated Press of Pakistan|APP]]|first=APP|last=Express}}</ref>
:'''2011''' – Pakistan is expected to buy air-to-air SD 10 missiles from China for its 250 JF 17 thunder fighter fleet
:'''2013''' – Management of [[Gwadar port]] is handed over to state-run Chinese Overseas Port Holdings after previously being managed by Singapore’s PSA International,<ref>[http://dawn.com/2013/02/07/decision-to-hand-over-gwadar-port-to-china-worries-india/ "Decision to hand over Gwadar port to China worries India"], ''[[Dawn (newspaper)]]'', 7 February 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2013.</ref> and it becomes a matter of ''great concern'' for India.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/503373/india-concerned-over-china-running-gwadar-port/ "India 'concerned' over China running Gwadar port"], ''[[The Express Tribune]]'', 6 February 2013. Retrieved on 13 February 2013.</ref>
:'''2013''' – Chinese Premier Li Keqiang visits Pakistan. Trade between China and Pakistan hit a 12-month figure of $12 billion for the first time in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/article-101959-Chinese-PM-begins-Pakistan-visit |title=Chinese PM begins Pakistan visit |publisher=Thenews.com.pk |date=2013-05-16 |accessdate=2013-05-23}}</ref>
:'''2013''' – On 5 July 2013, Pakistan and China approved the '''Pak-China Economic corridor''' which will link Pakistan’s [[Gwadar Port]] on the [[Arabian Sea]] and Kashghar in [[Xinjiang]] in northwest China. The [[$]]18 billion project will also includes the construction of a 200km-long tunnel.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/572857/china-pakistan-friendship-sweeter-than-honey-nawaz/ Development projects: Nawaz signs $18 bn tunnel deal with China]</ref><ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/ Boosting trade: Pak-China economic corridor plan gets premier’s go-ahead]</ref>
:'''2013''' – On 24 December 2013, China announced a commitment $6.5 billion to finance the construction of a major nuclear power project in [[Karachi]], the project which will have two reactors with a capacity of 1,100 megawatts each.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/649908/china-commits-6-5-billion-for-nuclear-project-in-pakistan/ China commits $6.5 billion for nuclear project in Pakistan- The Express Tribune]</ref>
:'''2014''' – Chinese Premier announced investment of $31.5 billion in Pakistan mainly in countries energy, infrastructure and port expansion for [[Gwadar]]. According to ''[[The Express Tribune]]'' initially projects worth $15–20 billion will be started which include Lahore-Karachi motorway, Gwadar Port expansion and energy sector projects will be launched in [[Gadani]] and six coal projects near [[Thar coalfield]]. The newspaper further claimed that the government has also handed over to Pakistan Army the task of providing fool-proof security to Chinese officials in [[Balochistan, Pakistan]] in a bid to address [[Beijing]]’s concerns and execute the investment plan in the province, which will get 38% of the funds.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/683281/balochistan-to-receive-big-slice-of-chinese-funds/ Balochistan to receive big slice of Chinese funds]</ref>
:'''2014''' – On 22 May 2014, The governments of Pakistan and China on Thursday signed an agreement to start a metro train project in Lahore, Express News reported. The 27.1 kilometres long track – named Orange Line – will be built at the cost of $1.27 billion.<ref>[http://tribune.com.pk/story/711614/pakistan-china-sign-lahore-metro-train-agreement/ Pakistan, China sign Lahore metro train agreement]</ref>
:'''2014''' – On 8 November 2014, Pakistan and China signed 19 agreements particularly relating to [[China–Pakistan Economic Corridor]], China pledged a total investment worth of $42 billion. While Pakistan pledged to help China in its fight concerning the [[Xinjiang conflict]].<ref>[http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/11/08/national/pakistan-wins-42b-chinese-investment/ Pakistan wins $42b Chinese investment]</ref>
:'''2015''' – On 20 April 2015, Chinese President Xi Jinping, accompanied by the First Lady and a delegation of high-level officials and businessmen, visits Pakistan. It is the first visit to Pakistan by a Chinese president after a gap of 9 years and the first foreign trip of Xi in 2015. 51 Memorandums of Understanding are signed, including the plan of "Pakistan China Economic Corridor".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1177109/economic-corridor-in-focus-as-pakistan-china-sign-51-mous |title=Economic corridor in focus as Pakistan, China sign 51 MoUs |publisher=DAWN News |date=20 April 2015 |accessdate=20 April 2015}}</ref>
:'''2015''' – Pakistan began circulating the Rs. 20 coin with the Pakistan and China flags to commemorate the countries' lasting friendship.

==See also==
{{Portal|China|Pakistan|International relations}}
* [[Pakistan Embassy College Beijing]]
* [[Hong Kong–Pakistan relations]]

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last1=Small|first1=Andrew|title=The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics|date=2015|publisher=Hurst|location=London|isbn=1849043418|pages=288|edition=1|url=http://www.andrewsmall.org}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Cardenal|first1=Juan Pablo|authorlink1=Juan Pablo Cardenal|last2=Araújo|first2=Heriberto|authorlink2=Heriberto Araújo |title=La silenciosa conquista china |location=Barcelona|publisher=Crítica|year=2011|url=https://books.google.com/?id=jQ2fvBVpQpYC |pages=247ff|isbn=9788498922578|language=es}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://blogs.reuters.com/india-expertzone/2012/01/20/the-limits-of-the-pakistan-china-alliance/ The limits of the Pakistan-China alliance]
*[https://www.youtube.com/v/Ogqj5UZiWEs&list=UURPwLKbd4S960c7hkYVNahQ&index=1&feature=plcp China hints at ally Pakistan's hand in Xinjiang unrest]
*[http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-02-12/news/31052205_1_china-pakistan-relationship-countries-trade-and-business-relationship Ahmed Rashid on the Sino-Pakistani relationship]
*[http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf Eager Eyes Fixed on Eurasia Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis, Edited by IWASHITA Akihiro, Slavic Research Center]
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSISL9262520061124 CHRONOLOGY-Main events in Chinese-Pakistani relations]
*[http://www.hindustantimes.com/audio-news-video/AV-World/Pakistan-trained-militants-pose-a-threat-to-Xinjiang/Article2-841360.aspx Xinjiang-Pakistan]

{{China–Pakistan relations}}This is not a map of Pakistan{{Foreign relations of China}}
{{Foreign relations of Pakistan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:China-Pakistan Relations}}
[[Category:China–Pakistan relations| ]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of China|Pakistan]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of Pakistan]]

Pakistan Navy

2018-09-13T04:50:05Z

Jprg1966: /* Cold war operations and post cold war: 1972–1998 */

{{short description|naval warfare branch of Pakistan Armed Forces}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = Pakistan Navy
| image = Pakistan Navy emblem.svg
| image_size = 100px
| caption = Pakistan Navy's Crest
| dates = 14 August 1947 – present
| country = {{PAK}}
| branch =
| type = [[Navy]]
| role =
| size = 23,800 active personnel (inclusive of 3,200 Marines and 2,000 [[Maritime Security Agency|MSA]])<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/?id=Vk8-vgAACAAJ&dq=IISS+2017 | title=The Military Balance 2017| isbn=9781857439007| last1=| author=International Institute for Strategic Studies| date=2017-02-14}}</ref> 63 [[Pakistan Navy#Fleet composition|ships]] & 101 aircraft<ref name="Flightglobal">[https://d1fmezig7cekam.cloudfront.net/VPP/Global/Flight/Airline%20Business/AB%20home/Edit/WorldAirForces2015.pdf Flightglobal - World Air Forces 2015] (PDF), [[Flightglobal.com]]</ref>
| command_structure = [[Ministry of Defence (Pakistan)|Ministry of Defence]] [[Pakistan Armed Forces]]
| garrison = [[Naval Headquarters (Pakistan Navy)|Naval Headquarters]] [[Islamabad]], Pakistan
| garrison_label = Naval Headquarters (NHQ)
| nickname = {{lang|ur|پاک بحریہ|rtl=yes}} or Pak Navy
| patron =
| motto = Urdu: ''Himmat ka alam, Allah ka karam, Moujon pay qadam ''English: "Of courage, God's grace, tread on the waves"
| colors = Navy blue and White {{color box|#041A2A}}{{color box|white}}
| colors_label = Colours
| march =
| mascot =
| equipment =
| equipment_label =
| battles = <div style="width: 220px;"> [[Indo-Pakistan war of 1965]] [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]] [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1999]] [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|2004 Tsunami Relief Operations]] [[2010 Pakistan floods|Operation Madad]] [[Piracy in Somalia|Operations Near the HOA]] [[War in North-West Pakistan]] [[Balochistan conflict]]
| anniversaries = Navy Day is on 8 September
| decorations = [[Awards and decorations of the Pakistan military|Military]] and [[Civil decorations of Pakistan|Civil decorations]] of [[Pakistan]].
| battle_honours = [[Nishan-e-Haider]]
| website = {{URL|www.paknavy.gov.pk}}
| commander1 = [[Admiral]] [[Zafar Mahmood Abbasi]]
| commander1_label = [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff]]
| commander2 = Vice-Admiral [[Kaleem Shaukat]]
| commander2_label = [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)#Vice Chief of Naval Staff|Vice Chief of Naval Staff]]
| commander3 =
| commander3_label =
| notable_commanders = Admiral [[Mohammad Shariff]] Admiral [[Iftikhar Ahmed Sirohey]] Vice-Admiral [[Syed Mohammad Ahsan]]
| identification_symbol = [[File:Naval Standard of Pakistan.svg|border|125px]]
| identification_symbol_label = Standard (flag) of the Navy
| identification_symbol_2 = [[File:Naval Jack of Pakistan.svg|125px]]
| identification_symbol_3 = [[File:Naval Ensign of Pakistan.svg|border|125px]]
| identification_symbol_4 =
| identification_symbol_2_label = Naval Jack of Pakistan
| identification_symbol_3_label = Naval Ensign of Pakistan
| identification_symbol_4_label = 
| aircraft_attack =
| aircraft_bomber = [[Mirage 5]]
| aircraft_electronic = [[Hawker 800|Hawker 850–XP]]
| aircraft_fighter =
| aircraft_helicopter = [[Westland Sea King]], [[Aérospatiale Alouette III|Aérospatiale SA-319B Alouette III]], [[Harbin Z-9]]
| aircraft_interceptor =
| aircraft_patrol = [[Lockheed P-3 Orion|Lockheed P-3C Orion]], [[Fokker F27 Friendship|Fokker F27-2000]], [[Breguet Atlantic|Breguet Atlantique I]], [[ATR-72-500]]
| aircraft_recon = [[GIDS Uqab]], [[Boeing Insitu ScanEagle|Boeing ScanEagle]], [[EMT Luna X-2000|EMT Luna X]]
| aircraft_trainer =
| aircraft_transport =
| native_name = {{Nastaliq|'''پاکستان بحریہ'''|rtl=yes}}
}}

The '''Pakistan Navy''' ({{lang-ur|{{Nastaliq|'''پاکستان بحریہ'''|rtl=yes}}}}; {{lang|ur-Latn|Pɑkistan Bahri'a}}) ([[reporting name]]: '''PN''') is the [[naval warfare]] branch of the [[Pakistan Armed Forces]], responsible for [[Pakistan]]'s {{Convert|1046|km|sigfig=3}} of coastline along the [[Arabian Sea]], and the defence of important civilian harbours and military bases. The Pakistan Navy came into the existence after the [[Independence of Pakistan|independence]] of Pakistan in 1947. The [[President of Pakistan]] serves as the Supreme Commander of the Navy under Article 243 (2) of the [[Constitution of Pakistan]], and the Chief of Naval Staff heads the Navy. [[Navy Day]] is celebrated on 8 September in commemoration of the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]].<ref>[http://pakistantimes.net/2005/09/06/top2.htm Pakistan Times | Top Story: Defence Day in Pakistan today; President, PM ask nation to imbibe spirit of ’65 War] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214201007/http://pakistantimes.net/2005/09/06/top2.htm |date=14 February 2009 }}</ref>

The Pakistan Navy's current and primary role is to protect the country's economic and military interests at home and abroad, executing the foreign and defence policies of the [[Government of Pakistan]] through the exercise of military effect, diplomatic activities and other activities in support of these objectives.<ref name="Pakistan Navy Public and Military Affairs">{{cite web| last =Pakistan Navy| title =Pakistan Navy: Roles and Function| website =Naval Inter-Service Public Relation (Naval ISPR)| publisher =Pakistan Navy Public and Military Affairs| date =18 March 2008| url =http://www.paknavy.gov.pk| doi =| accessdate =2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| last =Khan, Pakistan Navy (retired), current research officer at Pakistan Naval War College| first =Commander Muhammad Azam| title =Options for Pakistan Navy: § Pakistan Navy: A sentinel for energy and economic security| journal =| volume = | issue = | page =7 | publisher =Commander Muhammad Azam Khan, retired. Current, research officer at the Pakistan Naval War College| location =[[United States Naval Academy]]| year =2011| url =https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:07Y3Irx3AO8J:www.usnwc.edu/getattachment/cc6209f2-7f01-4bb7-ac24-8c301c62f015/S-2--Options-for-the-Pakistan-Navy+pakistan+navy+in+space+program&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESiCaTe2oeJ2JwqKQE0UX8j-cw-UPdVfozoMAwRfsYewXAXeayLVIPxn2TyMVcGTW9A_BdSqACZjpRhb8_u-EfL-kslbz7CXPTIr9PZBtAguv97XWyY4K4fsg2utDUL8dmXdtmjg&sig=AHIEtbTIXTgr9LKaJv5Fbgnj_ftn-1MQzw| accessdate = }}</ref> In the 21st century, the Pakistan Navy also focuses on limited overseas operations, and has played a vital role in the establishment of the [[Pakistan Antarctic Programme]].<ref>Mills, J.M. (2003). Exploring polar frontiers: a historical encyclopedia. 1 (A–M). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.</ref><ref>{{cite web| last =PN| first =Pakistan Navy| authorlink =| title =Pakistan Navy: Hydrography| website =Naval Inter-Service Public Relation (Naval ISPR)| publisher =Pakistan Navy Department of National Research and Hydrography| url =http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/hydro/h_intro.htm| doi =| accessdate =2011| deadurl =yes| archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20150924063443/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/hydro/h_intro.htm| archivedate =24 September 2015| df =dmy-all}}</ref>

As of 2017, per IISS, the Pakistan Navy has 23,800 active personnel inclusive of 3,200 Marines and 2,000 personnel of [[Maritime Security Agency]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Vk8-vgAACAAJ&dq=IISS+2017|title=The Military Balance 2017|last=(Iiss)|first=The International Institute of Strategic Studies|date=2017-02-14|publisher=Routledge, Chapman & Hall, Incorporated|isbn=9781857439007|language=en}}</ref> The Pakistan Navy is supported by the [[Pakistan Coast Guard]], and the [[Maritime Security Agency]] (MSA), the paramilitary forces of Pakistan.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

The Navy is undergoing extensive [[Pakistan Navy#Frigates|modernisation and expansion]] as part of [[Pakistan's role in the War on Terror]]. Since 2001, the Pakistan Navy has increased and expanded its operational scope, and has been given greater national and international responsibility in countering the threat of sea-based global terrorism, drug smuggling, and piracy.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} In 2004, Pakistan Navy became a member of the primarily [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]] Combined Task Forces [[CTF-150]] and [[CTF-151]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page%3D2009%5C07%5C21%5Cstory_21-7-2009_pg7_29 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-06-18 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202235725/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2009%5C07%5C21%5Cstory_21-7-2009_pg7_29 |archivedate=2 December 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref> The [[China-Pakistan Economic Corridor]] has significantly expanded the role of the navy, joint patrols with the Chinese navy as well as providing land and sea-based security to secure shipping lanes has become a priority.<ref>https://www.samaa.tv/pakistan/2016/11/pakistan-navy-providing-security-to-cpec-ships/</ref><ref>https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/two-chinese-frigates-arrive-pakistan-for-joint-drills-pakistan-navy/</ref> From December 2016 Pakistan's Navy established TF-88 a taskforce that is designed to ensure there is security for maritime trade, this will guard the shipping lane routes by protecting Gwadar Port.<ref>http://www.dawn.com/news/1302102/pakistan-navys-special-task-force-88-set-up-to-guard-gwadar-ports-sea-lanes</ref><ref>https://www.geo.tv/latest/123558-Pakistan-Navy-establishes-taskforce-for-Gwadars-protection</ref> The Pakistan Navy is the custodian of Pakistan's second strike capability with the launch of the submarine-based cruise missiles capable of carrying conventional as well as nuclear warheads.<ref>https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-missiles-idUSKBN14T1EL</ref>

The [[Constitution of Pakistan]] makes the [[President of Pakistan]] the civilian Commander-in-Chief. The Chief of Naval Staff (CNS), by statute a four star admiral, is appointed by the President with the consultation and confirmation needed from the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]]. The Chief of Naval Staff is subordinate to the civilian [[Defence Minister of Pakistan|Defence Minister]] and [[Defence Secretary of Pakistan|Secretary of Defence]], and commands the Navy.

On 10 June 2018, Pak Navy rescued eleven [[Iran|Iranian]] crew members on an sunken Iranian boat in the open Northern [[Arabian Sea]], about {{Convert|230|km}} away from [[Karachi]].The rescue operation lasted for about one and half hour resulting in safe recovery of all Iranian crew members to Pakistan Navy Air Base, PNS MEHRAN at [[Karachi]].The survived crew members thanked Pak Navy for prompt and professional response.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pak Navy Sea King Helicopters rescued eleven members on an Iranian Boat |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/327842-pak-navy-helicopters-rescue-11-iranian-crew-members |website=www.thenews.com.pk |accessdate=7 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=News on radio.gov.pk |url=http://www.radio.gov.pk/09-06-2018/pakistan-navy-rescues-11-people-on-iranian-boat |website=www.radio.gov.pk |accessdate=7 July 2018}}</ref>

==History==
{{quote|text= [[Fourteenth of August|Today]] is a historic day for Pakistan, doubly so for those of us in the Navy. The [[Dominion of Pakistan]] has come into being and with it a new Navy – the Royal Pakistan Navy – has been born. I am proud to have been appointed to command it and serve with you at this time. In the coming months, it will be my duty and yours to build up our Navy into a happy and efficient force|sign=[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the [[Quaid-e-Azam|founder]] of [[Pakistan]], addressing the [[Pakistan Naval Academy|Naval Academy]] in March 1948.|source=<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference"/> }}

The Pakistan Navy came into existence on the [[Independence Day (Pakistan)|Fourteenth of August]], 1947 with the [[Creation of Pakistan|establishment]] of the [[State of Pakistan]].<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference">{{cite web|last=GoPAK|first=Government of Pakistan|title=History|url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/history.htm|website=Electronic Government of Pakistan|publisher=Pakistan Navy, Historical reference|accessdate=6 April 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205154529/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/history.htm|archivedate=5 December 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Armed Forces Reconstitution Committee (AFRC) divided the shares and assets of the [[Royal Indian Navy]] (RIN) between the [[India and Pakistan]], with the Royal Pakistan Navy (RPN) was inherited with two [[sloop]]s, two [[frigate]]s, four minesweepers, two [[naval trawler]]s, four harbour launches.{{rp|45–46}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Because of the high percentage of [[river delta|delta]] areas on its coast, Pakistan also received a number of [[Harbour Defence Motor Launch|harbour defence motor launches]]. As part of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the prefix "Royal" was used until the state was proclaimed a republic in 1956.<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference"/>

The Navy endured a difficult history, only 200 officers and 3000 sailors were inherited to the Navy, the most senior being [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] [[HMS Choudri]] who had little experience in [[military staff]]ing.<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The Navy suffered perennial problems with inadequate staff, lack of operational bases, lack of financial support, and poor technological and personnel resources.{{rp|45}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Secondly, it grew out as the smallest [[Pakistan military|uniform branch]] that contributed in its lack of importance in [[Ministry of Finance, Revenue, Economic Affairs, Statistics and Privatization (Pakistan)|federal budgets]] as well as the problems relating to its institutional infrastructure.{{rp|46}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The [[Pakistan Army|Army]] and the [[Pakistan Air Force|Air Force]] were the dominant force where the defence problems were based wholly on army and air force point of view.{{rp|46}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> There were additional problems relating to the navy were the lack of facilities and maintenance machinery as the only [[naval dockyard]] in [[Indian Subcontinent|subcontinent]] was located in [[Bombay Dockyard|Bombay]] in [[India]].{{rp|46}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

To overcome these difficulties, the Navy launched a recruitment program for the young nation, starting in [[East Pakistan|East-Pakistan]] but it proved to be very difficult to sustain the program; therefore, was moved back to [[Pakistan]] to concentrate the preferred recruitments for the [[West Pakistani|Western Pakistanis]].{{rp|46}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Furthermore, the Navy's procurement was greatly determined by its war role and had to struggle for a role for itself throughout its history from its existence.{{rp|66}}<ref name="Springer, Siddiqa-Agha">{{cite book|last1=Siddiqa-Agha|first1=A.|title=Pakistan's Arms Procurement and Military Buildup, 1979-99: In Search of a Policy|publisher=Springer|isbn=9780230513525|url=https://books.google.com/?id=beJ8DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66&dq=Fasih+Bokhari+1990s#v=onepage&q=Fasih%20Bokhari%201990s&f=false|accessdate=17 January 2017|language=en|date=2001-03-20}}</ref>

===The beginning: 1947–64===
{{Main|United Kingdom-Pakistan relations|l1=Pakistan-United Kingdom military relations|Pakistan-United States military relations|Indo-Pakistani war of 1947|British Admiralty|Military Advisory Assistance Group}}
[[File:Shamsher Pakistan SLV Green 1951.jpg|thumb|left|350px|The [[frigate]] [[HMS Nadder (K392)|PNS ''Shamsher'']] in 1951.]]

During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|first war]] with [[India]] in 1947–48, the Navy saw no action as all fighting was restricted to [[Land Warfare|land]] and [[Air warfare|air]] combat missions. On operational planning, Captain [[HMS Choudri]] engaged on commanding a [[destroyer]] from [[Karachi]] to [[Mumbai]] to oversee the evacuation of [[Muhajir people|Indian emigrants]] to Pakistan.{{rp|474}}<ref name="W. W. Norton & Company">{{cite book|last1=Read|first1=Anthony|last2=Fisher|first2=David|title=The Proudest Day: India's Long Road to Independence|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=9780393318982|url=https://books.google.com/?id=q9ebuSG64dkC&pg=PA474&dq=HMS+choudhri#v=onepage&q=HMS%20choudhri&f=false|accessdate=3 November 2016|language=en|date=July 1999}}</ref> In 1948, Pakistan Navy engaged in humanitarian missions to evacuate [[Indian immigrant]]s trapped in disputed and hostile areas, with its frigates operating continuously.<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff]], [[Rear-Admiral]] [[James Wilfred Jefford]], had created a "Short-term Emergency Plan (STEP)" to work up the [[frigate]]s and naval defences in case of escalation of the war at sea.<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> In 1948, the directorate-general for [[Naval Intelligence of Pakistan|Naval Intelligence]] (DGNI), a staff corps, was established under [[Lieutenant (naval)|Lieutenant]] [[Syed Mohammad Ahsan]], who served as its first Director-General, in Karachi.<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference" /> When the first war came to an end in 1948, the Navy temporarily established its [[NHQ (Pakistan Navy)|Navy NHQ]] in Karachi and acquired its first [[O and P-class destroyer|O-class destroyer]] from the [[Royal Navy]].{{rp|49}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

The Pakistan Navy heavily relied its dependency on generous donations from the Royal Navy with two {{sclass2-|Battle|destroyer|2}}s, {{ship|PNS|Tippu Sultan|1941|6}} and {{ship|PNS|Tariq|1941|6}}.<ref name="PakDef Military Consortium">{{cite web|last1=PakDef Military Consortium|title=The First Destroyer|url=http://pakdef.org/the-first-destroyer/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060749/http://pakdef.org/the-first-destroyer/|dead-url=yes|archive-date=4 March 2016|website=pakdef.org|publisher=PakDef Military Consortium|accessdate=14 November 2016}}</ref> ''Tippu Sultan'' was [[Ship commissioning|commissioned]] on 30 September 1949, under Commander P.S. Evans, whilst ''Tariq'' was placed under the command of [[Lieutenant-Commander]] [[Afzal Rahman Khan]].<ref name="PakDef Military Consortium"/> The two destroyers formed the 25th Destroyer Squadron as [[HMIS Narbada (U40)|PNS ''Jhelum'']] and [[HMS Onslaught (G04)|PNS ''Tughril'']], under Commander [[Muzaffar Hassan|Muzaffar Hasan]], also joined the Royal Pakistan Navy.<ref name="PakDef Military Consortium"/>

In 1950, the Navy's [[Nationalization in Pakistan|nationalization]] took place when many officers from the air force and army volunteered to join the navy and [[Noncommissioned officer|NCOs]] gaining commission as an officers.{{rp|50–51}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Support from the army and air force to the navy led to the establishment of logistics and maintenance machinery with vigorous efforts directed towards integrating the navy presence in [[East Pakistan|East-Pakistan]], thereby creating opportunities for people in East-Pakistan to participate in the build-up.{{rp|51}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

In 1951, the [[Pakistan Government|Pakistan government]] called for appointing native chiefs of staff of the armed branches but it was not until 1953 when a native chief of naval staff was appointed by the government.{{rp|51–52}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The British [[Admiralty]], however, maintained the command of the Navy through Rear-Admiral Jefford who had native deputy chiefs of staff including [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] HMS Choudhri, Commodore Khalid Jamil, and [[Commander (rank)|Commander]] M.A. Alavi.{{rp|51–52}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

[[File:HMS Gabbard (D47).jpg|thumb|300px|right|PNS ''Badr'', a destroyer visiting Britain, 1957.]]

During this time, a number of goodwill missions were carried out by the navy's combatant ships, and non-combat missions were conducted under the auspices of the Royal Navy.<ref name="PakDef Military Consortium" /> In 1951, HMS Choudhri's promotion papers as naval chief were approved by [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] but it was not until 1953 when HMS Choudhri was promoted as [[vice admiral]] and naval chief with the support from [[Army Chief of Staff (Pakistan)|army chief]] [[Lieutenant-General]] [[Ayub Khan (general)|Ayub Khan]].{{rp|52}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> He handed over the command of 25th Destroyer squadron to a [[People of Poland|Polish]] naval officer, Commander [[:pl:Romuald Nalecz-Tyminsk|Romuald Nalecz-Tyminski]].<ref name="Polish Spirit">{{cite web|title=Admiral Romuald Nalecz-Tyminski|url=http://www.federacjapolek.ca/nowy/image/2009_images/polish_spirit_persons/nalecz-tyminski.pdf|website=federacjapolek.ca|publisher=Polish Spirit|accessdate=15 November 2016}}</ref>

In the mid 1950s, the [[Ministry of Finance (Pakistan)|Ministry of Finance]] awarded contracts to the [[Corps of Engineers, Pakistan Army|Corps of Engineers]] for the construction of the [[Karachi Naval Dockyard]].<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference" /> In 1954, several efforts were made to procure a [[British H-class submarine|Ch-class submarine]] from the Royal Navy but was rejected by [[Admiralty]] which agreed to loan the {{sclass2-|Ch|destroyer|1}}, {{HMS|Chivalrous|R21|6}}, which was renamed PNS ''Taimur''.{{rp|51–52}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> From 1953–56, HMS Choudri bitterly negotiated with the United States over the modernization of the navy and convinced the [[United States government|U.S. government]] to provide monetary support for modernization of aging O–class destroyers and [[minesweeper]]s, while commissioning the Ch–class destroyers from the Royal Navy.{{rp|54}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> British naval tradition was disbanded and cancelled when the [[United States Navy]]'s [[Military Assistance Advisory Group|advisers]] were dispatched to the [[Pakistan Armed Forces|Pakistani military]] in 1955.<ref name="Hamid Hussain, Defence Journal of Pakistan">{{cite web|last=Hamid Hussain|title=Tale of a love affair that never was: United States-Pakistan Defence Relations|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2002/june/loveaffair.htm|website=Hamid Hussain, Defence Journal of Pakistan|publisher=Hamid Hussain, Defence Journal of Pakistan|accessdate=12 February 2012}}</ref>

In 1956, the [[Constituent Assembly of Pakistan]] voted for promulgation of [[Constitution of Pakistan of 1956|Constitution of Pakistan]] and proclaimed the [[Dominion of Pakistan]] as an [[Islamic Republic]] under the new constitution.<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference" /> The prefix ''Royal'' was dropped, and the service was re-designated the Pakistan Navy ("'''PN'''") with the [[Naval jack|PN Jack]] replaced the [[Colours, standards and guidons#United Kingdom and other Commonwealth nations|Queen's colour]] and the [[White Ensign]] respectively.<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference" /> The order of precedence of the three services changed from Navy–Army–Air force to Army–Navy–Air Force.<ref name="AuthorHouse, 2013">{{cite book|last1=Fagoyinbo|first1=Joseph Babatunde|title=The Armed Forces: Instrument of Peace, Strength, Development and Prosperity|date=2013|publisher=AuthorHouse|location=Bloomington, Indiana|isbn=978-1477226476|pages=473|url=https://books.google.com/?id=qM0uxPH8RasC&pg=PA390&dq=army+navy+airforce+marines+pakistan#v=onepage&q=army%20navy%20airforce%20marines%20pakistan&f=true|accessdate=5 January 2015|format=Google Books|chapter=§The birth of Pakistan Armed Forces}}</ref>

In February 1956, the British government announced the transfer of several major surface combat warships to Pakistan Navy that included a cruiser and four destroyers to be purchased with funds made available under the U.S. [[Military Assistance Program]].{{rp|54}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> In 1957, the Navy finalized the sale of sale of a [[HMS Diadem (84)|cruiser]] warship from the United Kingdom, and used the government's own fund to induct the warship that caused a great ire against Admiral Choudhri by the Finance ministry in the country.{{rp|55}}<ref name="Lancer Publishers, Goldrick"/>

In 1958, the Navy made an unsuccessful attempt to induct the [[Neptun-class submarine|imported submarines]] from Sweden using the American funds that was halted by the United States and the Pakistan's own Finance ministry despite the fact that the idea had support from [[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|Army GHQ]].{{rp|57}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> In 1958–59, the [[NHQ (Pakistan Navy)|Navy NHQ]] staff began fighting with the Army GHQ staff and the [[Ministry of Defence (Pakistan)|Ministry of Defence]] (MoD) over the plans regarding the modernization of the navy that resulted in bitter [[interservice rivalry]] between army and navy which ended with Admiral Choudri's resignation to the [[Aiwan-e-Sadr|Presidency]] in 1959.{{rp|57}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> From 1956–63, the warships, two destroyers, eight coastal minesweepers, and an [[Replenishment oiler|oiler]] were procured from the United States and United Kingdom as a direct result of Pakistan's participation in the anti-Communist defence pacts [[SEATO]] and [[CENTO]].<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

===Indo-Pakistan war of 1965 and afterwards===
{{Main|Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|Operation Somnath|PNS Ghazi|l3=1967 PNS Ghazi's circumnavigation}}

In 1959, Vice-Admiral [[Afzal Rahman Khan]] was appointed the [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|naval chief]] and built-up his relations with [[President of Pakistan|President]] [[Ayub Khan (general)|Ayub Khan]] whilst the Navy retained hopes for procuring a submarine despite financial constraints.{{rp|58–59}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> The Royal Navy accepted the requests from the Pakistan Navy for a regular visit to [[Karachi Naval Dockyard]] to provide first hand experience in submarine operations in 1960–61.{{rp|58}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> The [[President Ayub Khan|Ayub administration]] did not increase the financial funding of the navy at the expense to army and air force but he did not object to American contributions to train the Pakistan Navy in submarine operations.{{rp|59}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> The U.S. Navy provided an insightful and crucial training support to Pakistan Navy enabling it to conduct operations in long range and the proposal of procuring the submarine was met with favourable views in 1963 due to the prospect of [[Soviet Navy]] leasing a submarine to [[Indian Navy]].{{rp|58}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> In 1963, the United Kingdom began providing training and education on submarine operations, and in 1964, {{ship|PNS|Ghazi}} was commissioned from the United States.{{rp|58}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" />

Even though, the navy nor air force was notified of the [[Operation Gibraltar|Kashmir incursion]] in 1965, the Navy was well-prepared at the time when the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1965|second war]] erupted between Pakistan and India in 1965.<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors">{{cite book|last=Goldrick|first=James|title=No Easy Answers|year=1997|publisher=Lancer's Publications and Distributors|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-1-897829-02-8|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6XW7kKHQeQoC&pg=PA45&dq=Pakistan+Navy#v=onepage&q&f=true}}</ref> The [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|naval chief]] Admiral [[Afzal Rahman Khan]] ordered all units of the Pakistan Navy to take up defensive positions off the coast, but did not order any offensive operations in the [[Bay of Bengal]].{{rp|60–61}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> As the [[Indian Air Force]]'s repeated sorties and raids disrupted [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF]] operations, the Navy assumed a more aggressive role in the conflict.{{rp|61}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> On 2 September, the Navy deployed its first long-range submarine, PNS ''Ghazi'' under [[Commander (rank)|Commander]] [[Karamat Rahman Niazi|K.R. Niazi]] which was charged with gathering intelligence on Indian naval movements that stalked the diverting threats posed by the aircraft carrier {{INS|Vikrant|R11|6}}.<ref name="Usman Tariq Pakdef">{{cite web|last1=Usman|first1=Tariq|title=1965 War|url=http://pakdef.org/1965-war-3/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330222928/http://pakdef.org/1965-war-3/|dead-url=yes|archive-date=30 March 2014|website=pakdef.org|publisher=Usman Tariq Pakdef|accessdate=15 November 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Ussdiablo.jpg|thumb|250px|{{ship|PNS|Ghazi}} in [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1965|1965 theatre]]. In 1968, she executed a [[circumnavigation]] of Africa and Southern Europe in order to be refit in Turkey. Sunk in 1971 under mysterious circumstances.]]

On the night of 7/8 September, a naval squadron comprising four destroyers, one frigate, one cruiser, and one submarine, under the command of Commodore S.M. Anwar, launched [[Operation Dwarka]], an attack on radar facilities used by the Indian Air Force in the small coastal town of [[Dwarka]].<ref name="Usman Tariq Pakdef"/> The operation ended with limited damage to the area.<ref name="Usman Tariq Pakdef"/> After gunnery bombardment, the ''[[PNS Ghazi|Ghazi]]'' was deployed against the Indian Navy's western fleet at [[Bombay]] on 22 September and ended her operations and reported back to [[Karachi Naval Dockyard]] on 23 September 1965.<ref name="Usman Tariq Pakdef"/>

The [[Operation Dwarka|naval operation]] in Dwarka had greatly increased the prestige of the Pakistan Navy and it had also alerted Indian Navy commanders to the significant threat posed by the Pakistan Navy, and to its own naval shortcomings.<ref name="Repro India Ltd."/> After the war, the United States imposed an arms embargo on Pakistan and Pakistani military began exploring options for military procurement from China, France, and [[Soviet Union]].{{rp|62}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The United Kingdom offered the Navy to jointly built the [[Type 21 frigate]] but was rejected by Ayub administration that would only allow the financial capital to be spent on submarine procurement.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

In 1966, the Pakistan Navy established its own [[special operations]] directorate, the [[Special Service Group Navy]] (SSG[N]) after the recommendations from the [[United States Navy]].<ref name="Global Security.org">{{cite web| last = | first = | authorlink = | title = Navy Special Forces| website = Global Security.org| publisher = | date = | url = http://www.specialoperations.com/Foreign/Pakistan/SSGN.htm| accessdate = 29 June 2011| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110629083756/http://www.specialoperations.com/Foreign/Pakistan/SSGN.htm| archive-date = 29 June 2011| dead-url = yes| df = dmy-all}}</ref> In 1966–70, Pakistan Navy had been well aware of massive [[Future of the Indian Navy|procurement and acquisitions]] of [[Weapon systems of the Indian Navy|weapon systems]] being acquired from the [[Soviet Union]] and [[United Kingdom]], and the danger it will posed to Pakistan.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> In 1968–69, there were series of unsuccessful talks of acquiring the warships from the [[Soviet Navy]] which ended with no yielding results.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Difficulties arose between and after the arms embargo was lifted by the United States which lifted based strictly on [[Cash and carry (wholesale)|cash-and-carry]] basis.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Pleas for strengthening the Navy in [[East Pakistan]] were ignored due to monetary issues and financial contraints restricted the Navy's capabilities to function more efficiently.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

In 1968, the {{sclass-|Daphné|submarine|2}}s were procured from France while operating {{sclass-|Tench|submarine|2}}s that was refitted and upgraded by the [[Turkish Navy]].{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Due to the Egyptian blockade of the [[Suez Canal]], the Navy had to execute a notable submerged [[circumnavigation]] operation from the Indian Ocean through the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in order to undergo a refit program at the [[Gölcük Naval Shipyard|Gölcük]] in Turkey which was the only facility to manage the [[refit]]ting and [[Mid-life update|mid-life upgrades]] of [[military computers]] of the ''Tench'' class]].<ref name="DefenceJournal, Ahmed" /> Despite reservations harboring by the Navy NHQ about the aging ''Ghazi'', she was sailed under the command of Commander [[Ahmed Tasnim]] starting from the [[Karachi coast]] in Indian Ocean to [[Cape of Good Hope]], [[South Africa]], through the Atlantic Ocean and ended at the east coast of the [[Sea of Marmara]] where the [[Gölcük Naval Shipyard]] was located.<ref name="DefenceJournal, Ahmed" />

In 1968–69, the Navy NHQ staff began its tussle with the [[AHQ (Pakistan Air Force)|Air AHQ]] staff over the issue establishing the [[Pakistan Naval Air Arm|naval aviation]] who feared the loss of fighter jets and their pilots in the sea and was hostile towards this idea.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The United States entered in discussing the transfer of [[List of Lockheed P-3 Orion variants|P3B Orion]] aircraft to the Navy in 1970 with [[President Yahya Khan|Yahya administration]] but were not procured until the end of the 1970s.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> In 1970, the [[foreign relations]] between Pakistan and East Pakistan further deteriorated and the Navy knew that it was impossible to defend East Pakistan from approaching Indian Navy.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Series of reforms were carried when Navy's serious reservations were considered by the Yahya administration and [[East Pakistani]]s were hastily recruited in what was known as [[Bangladesh Navy|East Pakistan Navy]] but this proved to be disaster for Navy when majority of East Pakistani naval officers and ~3,000 sailors [[Operation Jackpot|defected to India]] to join the [[Awami League]]'s military wing– the ''[[Mukti Bahini]]''.{{rp|64–65}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Such events had jeopardized the operational scope of the Navy and the Navy NHQ staffers and commanders knew very well that it (Navy) was ill-prepared for the war and Pakistan was about to have a sharp lesson from India in the consequences of disconnecting strategy from reality.{{rp|65}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

===Indo-Pakistan war of 1971===
{{Main|Operation Barisal|Operation Jackpot|Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971}}

By 1971, the Navy NHQ staffers and their commanders knew very well that the Pakistan Navy was poorly represented in East Pakistan (now [[Bangladesh]]) and there was no main infrastructure to conduct defensive operation against the [[Eastern Naval Command]] of Indian Navy in [[Bay of Bengal]].{{rp|64}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> The navy was only able conducted the [[Riverine Warfare|riverine]]-based operations that was being undertaken by the [[Pakistan Marines]] with the assistance from the [[Special Service Group Navy|Special Service Group [Navy] ]], codenamed [[Operation Barisal|Barisal]] in April 1971.<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference" /> Although, the Governor of East Pakistan, Vice-Admiral [[Syed Mohammad Ahsan|S.M. Ahsan]], made efforts to increase the naval presence and significance in 1969 but the Indian Navy's Eastern Naval Command continued to pose a significant threat since it had capability of conduct operations in long-range areas.<ref name="Inter Services Public Relations">{{cite book|last=Salik, PA|first=Siddique|title=Witness to Surrender|publisher=Inter Services Public Relations|location=Karachi, Pakistan|isbn=978-984-05-1374-1|pages=60–90|year=1997}}</ref>

Furthermore, the defections from [[Bangladesh Navy|East-Pakistan Navy]]'s officers and sailors had jeopardize the Navy's operational scope who went onto join the [[Awami League]]'s militant wing, the ''[[Mukti Bahini]]'' in a program known as ''Jackpot''.<ref name="Inter Services Public Relations"/> Though, the program was disrupted by the Navy from further annihilation but the naval facilities were severely damaged due to this operation on 15 March 1971.<ref name="Inter Services Public Relations"/> East-Pakistan's geography was surrounded by India on all three landward sides by the [[Indian Army]] as the Navy was in attempt to prevent India from blocking the coasts.<ref name="Inter Services Public Relations"/>

During this time, the Navy NHQ was housed in Karachi that decided to deploy the newly [[Mid-life update|MLU]] ''Ghazi'' submarine on East while the {{ship|PNS|Hangor||2}} in West for the intelligence gathering purposes.<ref name="Inter Services Public Relations"/>

{{quote|text=At the end of East-Pakistan crisis.... We (Pakistan Navy, Eastern Command) had no intelligence and hence, were both deaf and blind with the Indian Navy and Indian Air Force pounding us day and night.... |sign=Admiral Mohammad Sharif, to U.S. Admiral [[Elmo Zumwalt|Zumwalt]] in 1971|source=.<ref name="Lancer's Publishers and Distributions">{{cite book|last=Roy|first=Admiral Mihir K.|title=War in the Indian Ocean|year=1995|publisher=Lancer's Publishers and Distributions|location=United States|isbn=978-1-897829-11-0|pages=218–230|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Tqr8r7EB18wC&pg=PA218&dq=admiral+mohammad+shariff#v=onepage&q=admiral%20mohammad%20shariff&f=false}}</ref>}}

[[File:USS Wiltsie (DD-716).jpg|thumb|left|290px|[[USS Wiltsie (DD-716)|PNS ''Nazim'']], which previously took part in the [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] and [[Korean War]]s in the US Navy as USS ''Wiltsie''.]]

With no naval aviation service to guard the [[Karachi port]], the Indian Navy launched a naval attack, [[Operation Trident (Indo-Pakistani War)|Operation Trident]], consisting of 3 Soviet-built {{sclass2-|Osa|missile boat}}s escorted by two [[anti-submarine]] patrol vessels on 4 December 1971.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/> Nearing Karachi's port area, they launched [[SS-N-2 Styx]] anti-ship missiles, which the obsolescent Pakistan naval warships had no viable defense against.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal">{{cite web|last1=Tiwana|first1=M.A. Hussain|title=The Angry Sea|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/nov98/angrysea.htm|website=www.defencejournal.com|publisher=M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal|accessdate=15 November 2016|date=November 1998}}</ref> Two of the warships, {{ship|PNS|Muhafiz}} and {{ship|PNS|Khyber}}, were sunk, while {{ship|PNS|Shahjahan}} was damaged beyond repair.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/> Outcomes were stunning for both sides with Pakistan suffering the loss of imported warships, and while India sustained no damage to their attacking squadron.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/>

On 8 December 1971, ''Hangor'' led by its [[Commander (rank)|Commander]] [[Ahmed Tasnim]], sank the Indian frigate {{INS|Khukri|1958|6}} off the coast of Gujarat, India.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/> This was the first sinking of a warship by a submarine since [[World War II]], and resulted in the loss of 18 officers and 176 sailors of the Indian Navy while the inflicting severe damages to another warship, INS ''Kirpan'', by the same submarine.<ref name="gs">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/hangor.htm|title=Hangor Class (Fr Daphn|author=John Pike|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref> Pakistan Air Force that now acted as naval aviation made several attempted to counter the Indian [[missile boat]] threat by carrying out the aerial bombing raids over Okha harbour, the forward base of the missile boats.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/> The Indian Navy retaliated with an attack on the Pakistani coast, named ''[[Operation Python]]'', on the night of 8 December 1971. when a small [[flotilla]] of Indian vessels, consisting of a missile boat and two frigates, approached Karachi and launched a missile attack that sank the Panamanian vessel ''Gulf Star''. PNS ''Dacca'' and the British ship SS ''Harmattan'' were damaged.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/>

''Operation Python'' was a complete success for the Indian Navy, and a psychological trauma for Pakistan Navy, the human and material cost severely cutting into its combat capability, nearly 1,700 sailors perished at the barracks.<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi">{{cite web|last=IN|first=Indian Navt|title=Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/44-Attacks-On-Karachi.html|publisher=Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi|accessdate=9 April 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926174134/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/44-Attacks-On-Karachi.html|archivedate=26 September 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Civilian pilots from the [[Pakistan International Airlines]] volunteered to conduct air surveillance missions with the [[PAF]], but this proved less than helpful when they misidentified a Pakistan Navy frigate, {{ship|PNS|Zulfiqar|K265|6}}, as an Indian missile boat.<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi"/> The PAF planes made several attack runs before finally identifying ''Zulfiqar'' by the Navy NHQ.<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi"/> The friendly attack resulted in further loss of navy personnel, as well as the loss of the ship, which was severely damaged and the Pakistan Navy's operational capabilities were now virtually extinct, and morale plummeted.<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi"/> Indian Navy observers who watched the raid nearby later wrote in their [[War diary|war logs]] that the "PAF pilots failed to recognize the difference between a large PNS ''Zulfiqar'' frigate and a relatively small Osa missile boat."<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi"/> After the friendly attack, all naval surface operations came to a halt under the orders of chief of naval staff.<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi"/>

The Navy's only long range submarine, ''Ghazi'', was deployed to the area but, according to neutral sources, it sank en route under mysterious circumstances.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcejlMRYNAAC&pg=PA179&dq=PNS+Ghazi&ei=LKdDSKG0H4KijgGs1qG-BQ&sig=9YcFuLJttkAY3wIH965XTx6eU1Y#v=onepage&q=PNS%20Ghazi&f=false Seapower: A Guide for the Twenty-first Century - Geoffrey Till - Google Boeken]</ref> Pakistani authorities state that it sank either due to internal explosion or detonation of mines which it was laying at the time.<ref>{{cite news|last=Joseph|first=Josy |title=Now, no record of Navy sinking Pakistani submarine in 1971|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-05-12/india/28288237_1_submarine-ins-rajput-eastern-naval-command|work=TOI website|publisher=Times of India|accessdate=28 May 2010|date=12 May 2010|quote=Pakistani authorities say the submarine sank because of either an internal explosion or accidental blast of mines that the submarine itself was laying around Vizag harbour. }}</ref> The Indian Navy claims to have sunk the submarine.<ref>[http://openlibrary.org/b/OL4243900M/No-way-but-surrender No way but surrender: an account of the Indo-Pakistan War in the Bay of Bengal, 1971] By Vice Admiral N. Krishnan (Retd.)</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Jacob|first=Lt Gen JFR |title=The truth behind the Navy's 'sinking' of Ghazi|url=http://sify.com/news/the-truth-behind-the-navy-s-sinking-of-ghazi-news-columns-kfztj3bhjeh.html|website=sify news website|publisher=sify news}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Jacob|first=Lt Gen JFR |title=The truth behind the Navy's 'sinking' of Ghazi|url=http://sify.com/news/the-truth-behind-the-navy-s-sinking-of-ghazi-news-columns-kfztj3bhjeh.html|website=sify news website|publisher=sify news|accessdate=28 May 2010|date=25 May 2010|quote= On December 9, the Navy announced that they had sunk the Ghazi on December 4, after the start of the war. Later, officers were decorated for their role and the offensive action of their ships in the sinking of the Ghazi. After the war, however, teams of divers confirmed that it was an internal explosion that sank the Ghazi. The log of the Ghazi was recovered and the last entry as far as I can recall was on November 29, 1971. Sadly, that too has been destroyed. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jan/22inter.htm|title=The Rediff Interview/Admiral S M Nanda (retd) 'Does the US want war with India?' |last=Sengupta|first=Ramananda|date=22 January 2007|website=Interview|publisher=Rediff|accessdate=26 March 2010|location=India}}</ref>

The submarine's destruction enabled the Indian Navy to enforce a blockade on then East Pakistan.<ref name = Defencejournal>{{cite web | title=Maritime Awareness and Pakistan Navy | website=Defence Notes by Commander (Retd) Muhammad Azam Khan | url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/mar/maritime.htm | accessdate= 16 May 2005 }}</ref> According to the defence magazine, ''Pakistan Defence Journal'', the attack on Karachi, Dhaka, Chittagong and the loss of ''Ghazi'', the Navy no longer was able to match the threat of Indian Navy as it was already outclassed by the Indian Navy after the 1965 war.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal" />

The damage inflicted by the Indian Navy and [[Indian Air Force]] on the PN stood at seven [[gunboat]]s, one minesweeper, two destroyers, three [[patrol craft]] belonging to the [[Pakistan Coast Guard]], 18 cargo, supply and communication vessels, and large-scale damage inflicted on the naval base and docks in the coastal town of Karachi. Three merchant navy ships; Anwar Baksh, Pasni and Madhumathi;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/39_transfer%20of%20ships1.htm|title=Chapter-39|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301204938/http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/39_transfer%20of%20ships1.htm|archivedate=1 March 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and ten smaller vessels were captured.<ref name=Orbat>{{cite web |title=Damage Assessment – 1971 INDO-PAK Naval War |website=B. Harry |url=http://www.orbat.com/site/cimh/navy/kills(1971)-2.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=16 May 2005 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051030235952/http://www.orbat.com/site/cimh/navy/kills(1971)-2.pdf |archivedate=30 October 2005 |df=dmy }}</ref> Around 1900 personnel were lost, while 1413 servicemen were captured by Indian forces in [[Dhaka]].<ref name="losses">{{cite web | title=Military Losses in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War | website=Venik | url=http://www.aeronautics.ru/archive/vif2_project/indo_pak_war_1971.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020225045411/http://www.aeronautics.ru/archive/vif2_project/indo_pak_war_1971.htm | dead-url=yes | archive-date=25 February 2002 | accessdate=30 May 2005 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> The Indian Navy lost 18 officers and 176 sailors<ref name="gs"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=153894 |title=Express India |access-date=24 August 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425031811/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=153894 |archive-date=25 April 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and a frigate, while another frigate was damaged and a [[Breguet Alizé]] naval aircraft was shot down by the [[Pakistan Air Force]].

According to one Pakistan scholar, [[Tariq Ali]], the Pakistan Navy lost half its force in the war.<ref>{{cite book | author=Tariq Ali | author-link=Tariq Ali | year=1983 | title=Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of a State | publisher=Penguin Books | page=95 | isbn=978-0-14-02-2401-6 |quote=In a two-seek war, Pakistan lost half its navy.}}</ref> Despite the limited resources and manpower, the Navy performed its task diligently by providing support to inter-services (air force and army) until the end.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad">{{cite book|last=Shariff, PN|first=Admiral Mohammad|title=Admiral's Diary: Battling through stormy sea life for decades|year=2010|publisher=The Army Press, Islamabad|page=415|url=http://dawn.com/2010/10/24/excerpt-how-the-east-was-lost/}}</ref> The primary reason for this loss has been attributed to the central command's failure in defining a role for the Navy, or the military in general, in East Pakistan.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/> Since then the Navy has sought to improve the structure and fleet by putting special emphasis on sub-surface warfare capability as it allows for the most efficient way to deny the control of Pakistani sea lanes to an adversary.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/>

===Cold war operations and post cold war: 1972–1998===
{{See also|Operation Umeed-e-Nuh|Operation United Shield|Operation Parakram|Soviet–Afghan War|Revolt of the Admiral}}
{{quote|text=Pakistan fully endorse the requirements of a strong navy, capable of safeguarding Pakistan's sea frontiers and her Lines of Communication, monitoring and protecting her exclusive economic zone. Continuous efforts are at hand to provide the best available equipment to the Navy despite all economic constraints.|sign=[[Pervez Musharraf]], 1999|source=<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA," />}}

After [[Instrument of Surrender (1971)|surrendering]] of [[Pakistan Eastern Command]] in East and unilateral decision of ceasefire in West, Pakistan learned a sharp lesson from India in the consequences of disconnecting strategy from reality.{{rp|65}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> After the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]], the Navy had to rebuild from ground and the government came to realize its failure for ignoring the needs of navy at the expense of air force and army.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" />

By the end of 1971, the [[Pakistan Naval Air Arm|naval aviation]] was commissioned but it was not until 1974 when the aircraft joined the service that were procured from the donations from the Royal Navy.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" /> During the course of war, the co-ordination between [[Pakistan Armed Forces|inter-services]] was limited, lack of communication, poor execution of joint-operations, this led to the establishment of [[Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee]] headquartered in [[JS HQ (Pakistan)|JS HQ]].<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" /> In a small span of time, the navy facilities, manpower and profile of Navy was quickly arranged and raised by the coming and the first [[Four star admiral|four-star]] rank admiral and the [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff]] Admiral [[Mohammad Shariff]] reconstituted the Navy, and his services to Navy led him to be appointed as first navy admiral [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman]] of [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Joint Chiefs Committee]] of Pakistan Armed Forces.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" />

The Pakistan Navy came into public notice in 1974 after it had reportedly applied a [[naval blockade]] and played an integral role to stop the [[Iraqi support of Baloch rebels|arms smuggled]] in [[Balochistan conflict]] after the [[Arms discovery in Iraqi Embassy (Pakistan)|police raid]] [[Diplomatic missions of iraq|Iraqi Embassy]] in Islamabad in 1974.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" /> From 1974–77, the Navy provided logistical support to army and air force until [[Rahimuddin Khan's Stabilization of Balochistan|stabilization]] of the province.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" />

[[File:PNS Ghazi 134 DN-SC-92-03633.JPEG|thumb|left|290px|The [[Daphné-class submarine|Daphné]] ''Ghazi'' (S-134) deployed during the [[Operation Restore Hope]], 1991.]]

In the 1970s, the Navy sought to diversify its purchases instead of depending solely on the United States, which had placed an arms embargo on both India and Pakistan as the Navy sought warships deals with France and China.<ref name="Navy" /> The Navy acquired the land-based ballistic missile capable long range reconnaissance aircraft; it become the first navy in South Asia to acquire land-based ballistics missile capable long range reconnaissance aircraft.<ref name="Navy">South Asia's Nuclear Security Dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China By Lowell Dittmer, pp 77 ''</ref> In 1979–80, Pakistan procured the two [[PNS Hashmat|Agosta 70]]-class submarines, {{ship|PNS|Hurmat||2}} and {{ship|PNS|Hashmat||2}} from France.<ref name="DefenceJournal, Ahmed">{{cite web|last1=Tasnim|first1=Vice-Admiral Ahmed|title=Remembering Our Warriors – Vice Admiral Tasneem|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2001/may/tasneem.htm|website=www.defencejournal.com|publisher=Vice Admiral A. Tasnim, Defence Journal|accessdate=17 November 2016|language=Eng|date=May 2001}}</ref>

Dependency on the United States again fell in the 1980s and the Navy enjoyed unprecedented growth, doubling its surface fleet from 8 to 16 surface combatants in 1989. In 1982, the [[Reagan administration]] approved [[United States Dollar|US$]]3.2 billion military and economic aid to Pakistan with Pakistan acquiring eight {{sclass-|Brooke|frigate|5}} and {{sclass-|Garcia|frigate|0}} frigates from the United States Navy on a five-year lease in 1988.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" /> A [[military base|depot]] for repairs, {{USS|Hector|AR-7|6}} followed the lease of these ships in April 1989. This was done due to the [[Zia regime|Zia administration]]'s [[Operation Cyclone|cooperation]] with the [[Reagan administration]] against the Soviet Union's [[Soviet–Afghan War|invasion]] in Afghanistan.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" />

However, the [[Pressler amendment|arms embargo]] was again imposed after the Soviet [[Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan|troops withdrawal]] from [[Afghanistan]] in 1989 when the [[United States President|U.S. President]] [[George H. W. Bush]] was advised to no longer certify the existence of Pakistan's covert [[Pakistan and its Nuclear Deterrent Program|nuclear arsenals]] program and the [[Pressler amendment]] was invoked on 1 October 1990.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" /> The lease of the first ''Brooke''-class frigate expired in March 1993, the remaining in early 1994.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" /> This seriously impaired the Pakistan Navy, which was composed almost entirely of [[:Category:Ships transferred from the United States Navy to the Pakistan Navy|former U.S. origin warships]].<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" /> Despite the embargo, the Navy assisted the [[United Nations Operation in Somalia II|UNOSOM-II]] to conducted [[Operation United Shield|military operation]] against [[Civil war in Somalia]].<ref>Bush, George H., Address to the Nation on the Situation in Somalia, 4/12/92</ref> In 1991–41, the Navy became involved with the [[Operation Restore Hope]], dispatching one submarine and two destroyer frigates to support to the United States Navy's operation in the civil War in [[Somalia]], and extended its support in 1995 to took participation in [[Operation United Shield]] to concluded its side of operation after evacuating personnel and equipments of [[Pakistan Army|army]], [[Pakistan Marines|marines]], and air force.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bashir, PN|first1=Adm. Noman|authorlink1=Noman Bashir|title=The Pakistan Navy's Role in Peacetime Diplomacy: Emerging Scenario in the Indian Ocean|journal=Pakistan Horizon|date=July 2010|volume=63|issue=3|pages=7|jstor=24711004|language=English|issn=0030-980X}}</ref>

Realizing the [[Indo-US Relations|warming relations]] between the United States and India, the Pakistan Navy began concentrating on self-reliance for its operation needs when Prime Minister [[Benazir Bhutto]] successfully negotiating with [[France]] for the [[technology transfer]] of [[Agosta 90B-class submarine|Agosta 90B]] submarines in 1994–95.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad" /> This was a controversial agreement with millions of dollars were allegedly used for the purpose of [[Corruption charges against Benazir Bhutto and Asif Ali Zardari|corruption]] by both sides as the [[air-independent propulsion]] technology was transferred despite India's strong opposition.<ref name="NTI 1990" /> During the same time, the United Kingdom approved the sale of [[Westland Lynx]] and [[Westland Sea King|Sea King]] helicopters, equipped with [[Anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] missiles which further enhanced the capabilities of Pakistan Navy.<ref name="Naval Air Arm, Navy" />

After the [[List of nuclear weapons tests of Pakistan|nuclear tests]] conducted in 1998, there were several proposals made for Pakistan Navy's transformation into a [[nuclear navy]] as it was seen against Indian Navy's [[INS Arihant|nuclear ambition]].<ref name="NTI 1990" /> Earlier in 1990, the Navy began negotiations with [[People's Liberation Army Navy]] to lease a [[nuclear submarine]], a Chinese [[Type 091 submarine|Type 091 Han-class]] submarine after rival India Navy leased a Russian-based [[Charlie-class submarine|Charlie I-class]] nuclear submarine from the Soviet Union.<ref name="NTI 1990">{{cite web|last=NTI|title=Nuclear Submarine for Navy|url=http://www.nti.org/media/pdfs/pakistan_nuclear.pdf?_=1316466791|website=October 6, 1990|publisher=NTI 1990|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> However, the Navy cancelled the negotiations with the Chinese after the learning the Indian Navy had returned the Russian submarine in 1991.<ref name="NTI 1990" />

In 1999, the Navy saw serious disagreement with the civilian government over the issue of [[Kargil war]] that was launched solely by the [[Pakistan Army]]. Known as the [[Revolt of the Admiral]]s in Pakistan, [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff]] [[Admiral Fasih Bokhari]] and his Navy NHQ staff maintained that the both Navy and Air Force had been deactivated.<ref name="Repro India Ltd." /> However, when Indian Navy launched ''Operation Talwar'', Pakistan Navy had to respond by deploying the submarines and destroyers combatant ships to keep Indian Navy from Ports of Karachi and Baluchistan.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA," />

The [[Pakistan Naval Air Arm|Naval Air Arm]] maintained its reconnaissance and patrol operations near at the Arabian Sea.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA," /> In 1999, another proposal was raised to switched the [[air-independent propulsion]] of Agosta submarine to substitute with [[nuclear propulsion]], however the proposal was dismissed.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA,">{{cite web|last=Lodhi|first=F.S.|title=An Agosta Submarine for Pakistan|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/jan/agosta.htm|website=Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi|publisher=Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA,|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref>

===Engagement in 1999 and 2001 standoff===
{{Main|Atlantique Incident|Indo-Pakistani War of 1999|Revolt of the Admiral|2001–02 India–Pakistan standoff}}

In 1999, the [[Pakistan Army]] soldiers engaged with [[Indian Army]] and that fighting extended to the Navy who came under pressure to protect the coasts of Sindh and Balochistan while performing the non-combat missions. The [[Indian Navy]]'s rapid movement in the [[Arabian sea]] pushed the Navy to take the [[active measures]] and responded by deploying a large formation of submarines to gather intelligence on the movement of Indian naval vessels, their activities and presence.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA," /> Over the appointment of [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman Joint Chiefs]], Admiral [[Fasih Bokhari]] and his [[NHQ (PN)|Navy NHQ]] staff led to a serious disagreement with [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]], an event that is known as [[Revolt of the Admiral|Revolt of the Admiral Bokhari]], who resigned from his commission in protest.{{rp|35}}<ref name="AuthorHouse, Baig">{{cite book|last1=Anwar|first1=Muhammad|last2=Baig|first2=Ebad|title=Pakistan: Time for Change|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477250303|url=https://books.google.com/?id=mb6OOYcrIOYC&pg=PA35&dq=Admiral+Fasih+Bokhari#v=onepage&q=Admiral%20Fasih%20Bokhari&f=false|accessdate=16 November 2016|language=en|date=December 2012}}</ref>

In 1999, the Navy became involved in a military engagement with the [[Indian Air Force]] when the [[News channels in Pakistan|local news channels]] reported that the Navy had suffered serious casualty in a non-combat missions in terms of losing aircraft and personnel, roughly occurred just two weeks since the end of [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1999|Kargil debacle]].{{rp|62}}<ref name="AuthorHouse, Baig"/> On 10 August 1999, the [[Indian Air Force]]'s two [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21|MiG 21FL]] fired and shot down the reconnaissance navy plane, the [[Breguet Atlantic|''Atlantic'']], with sixteen personnel, including four naval fighter pilots on board.{{rp|62}}<ref name="AuthorHouse, Baig"/> All hands and the aircraft were lost when it was shot down in the border area of the [[Rann of Kutch]] region by [[Indian Air Force]], with both countries claiming the aircraft to be in their respective airspace.{{rp|62}}<ref name="AuthorHouse, Baig"/>

[[File:Pakistan Navy Orion Asuspine.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A Pakistan Navy [[Lockheed P-3C Orion|P3C Orion]] getting airborne in 2010.]]

The international observers noted that the wreckage fell well within Pakistan's territory, giving credence to the Pakistan's claim.{{rp|62–63}}<ref name="AuthorHouse, Baig"/> But the investigation conducted by the [[Naval Intelligence of Pakistan|Naval Intelligence]] revealed that the crash site was spread over 2 km on both sides of the border and the majority of the wreckage was on the Indian side. The [[Government of India|Indian government]] released the bodies of all the 16 personnel killed in the crash, asserting their point that the aircraft crashed in India.<ref name="The Independent"/> The Indian Air Force stated that "the ''Atlantique'' was trying to return to Pakistan's airspace after intruding more than {{convert|10|nmi|km}} and as such was headed towards Pakistan...." This incident resulted in escalated tensions between the two [[India-Pakistan relations|neighbouring countries]].<ref name="The Independent">{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/16-dead-as-india-shoots-down-pakistani-naval-plane-1112052.html|title=16 dead as India shoots down Pakistani naval plane|website=The Independent|accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref>

In October 1999, another mishap claimed the loss of Navy's [[P3C Orion]] ([[anti-submarine warfare|ASW]]) aircraft crashed while on routine exercise towards the coastal town of Pasni in the [[Balochistan Province]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/493254.stm | work=BBC News | title=Pakistan naval aircraft crashes | date=29 October 1999}}</ref> In this non-combat mission, the casualties stood with twenty one personnel, including two navy fighter pilots, eleven sailors and ten senior officers died in the incident—the cause of the incident was stated as a technical failure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lockheedmartin.com/products/p3/index.html|title=404 · Lockheed Martin|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103123212/http://www.lockheedmartin.com/products/p3/index.html|archivedate=3 January 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
During the 2001–2002 India-Pakistan Standoff, the Pakistan Navy was a put on high-alert and more than a dozen warships were deployed near at the Arabian Sea.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA,"/> In 2001, the Navy took serious consideration of deploying the [[nuclear weapon]]s on its submarines although none of the nuclear weapons were ever deployed in the submarines.<ref name="NTI 1990"/>

During the 2001–02, there was another [[2001–02 India–Pakistan standoff|military standoff]] and Navy again put on high alert with deployment of more than a dozen warships were deployed near at the Arabian Sea.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA,"/> In 2001, the Navy took serious consideration of deploying the [[nuclear weapon]]s on its submarines although none of the nuclear weapons were ever deployed in the submarines.<ref name="NTI 1990"/>

In 2003–04, there were several proposals made for acquiring the vintage [[aircraft carriers]] but the Navy itself had dismissed the idea since the country has not aspired to have an aircraft capability.{{rp|79}}<ref name="Routledge Dittmer">{{cite book|last1=Dittmer|first1=Lowell|title=South Asia's Nuclear Security Dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317459569|url=https://books.google.com/?id=02XxBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA79&dq=aircraft+carrier+pakistan#v=onepage&q=aircraft%20carrier%20pakistan&f=false|accessdate=17 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

===War on Terror and operations in North-West===
{{Main|PNS Mehran Operation|Operation Rah-e-Nijat|PNS Mehran Operation|Operation Black Thunderstorm|Operation Umeed-e-Nuh}}

[[File:US Navy 100323-N-0000X-003 Chief of Naval Staff of the Pakistan Navy Adm. Noman Bashir is greeted by Gen. David Petraeus, commander of U.S. Central Command.jpg|thumb|Admiral [[Noman Bashir|Bashir]] meets with the [[United States Army|US Army]] General [[David Petraeus]], top commander of [[International Security Assistance Force|US forces in Afghanistan]], to initiate peace initiatives and counter-terrorism operations against Taliban forces in Afghanistan.]]

Since 1995–97, the operational scope of Navy has increased, first participating in combat operation, [[Operation United Shield|United Shield]] with the [[United States Navy]]. Since 2007, the Navy has shifted into focusing the large-scale special operations and strike operations. The Navy plays an active role in the multinational [[United States Naval Forces Central Command|NAVCENT]], [[Combined Task Force 150|CTF-150]], [[Combined Task Force 151|CTF-151]], [[Operation Enduring Freedom]].<ref>{{cite web|last=PN |title=Pakistan Navy and Operation OEF |url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/cmcp1.html |publisher=PN Second |accessdate=11 April 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070726120430/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/cmcp1.html |archivedate=26 July 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> The command of the force was give to Pakistan from 24 March 2006, until 25 February 2008. Under Pakistan's leadership, CTF 150 coordinated patrols throughout their area of operations to help commercial shipping and fishing operate safely and freely in the region. Additionally, CTF 150 Coalition ships made 11 successful at-sea rescues and made the largest drug bust in the CTF 150 AOO since 2005.<ref>[http://www.cusnc.navy.mil/articles/2008/019.html Pakistan Navy Hands Command of CTF 150 to France] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003183518/http://www.cusnc.navy.mil/articles/2008/019.html |date=3 October 2008 }}</ref> Pakistan has contributed 13 different ships to CTF 150 and the current one being {{ship|PNS|Tariq|1973|6}}.<ref>[http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/cmcp1.html Pakistan Navy Participation In Coalition Maritime Campaign Plan] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070726120430/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/cmcp1.html |date=26 July 2007 }}</ref> Development continues on new warships, weapons, weapons technology, and as well as building the [[nuclear submarine]] for its current operational capabilities.<ref>{{cite news|last=Star Desk|title=Pakistan Navy to build nuclear submarine|url=http://www.arynews.tv/english/newsdetail.asp?nid=54527|archive-url=https://archive.is/20130418182536/http://www.arynews.tv/english/newsdetail.asp?nid=54527|dead-url=yes|archive-date=18 April 2013|accessdate=6 April 2012|newspaper=ARY News|date=10 February 2012}}</ref>

Since 2007, the Navy actively participated in Operation Black Thunderstorm, Operation Rah-e-Nijat, Operation Mehran, [[Operation Madad (Pakistan Navy)|Operation Maddad]], and is a major participant in [[War on Terror]] and the [[War in North-West Pakistan|War in tribal areas]] of Pakistan. Due to its operational capabilities and ability to project force far from coastal areas of Pakistan, for instance the [[Northern Pakistan]] and abroad, the Navy remains potent asset for the [[Commander-in-Chief]] (the [[President of Pakistan]]) as well as the chief executive of the country (the [[Prime minister of Pakistan]]).

[[File:Pakistan Navy Special Service Group member silhouetted aboard Pakistan Navy Ship PNS Babur.jpg|thumb|left|An elite member of Navy's [[Special Service Group Navy]] (SSGN) is silhouetted by the setting sun abroad PNS ''Babur'' while under way in the Arabian Sea 25 November 2007]]

Despite its [[Maritime Interdiction Operations|seaborne mission]], the Navy had played an active role in controlling the insurgency in [[War in North-West Pakistan|Tribal Belt]] in [[War in North-West Pakistan|Western Pakistan]], mostly taking roles in managing [[Military logistics|logistics]] and [[intelligence gathering]] as well as conducting ground operations with the army in Western areas to track down the [[al-Qaeda|al-Qaeda operatives]]. In 2011, the major terror bombing took place in Navy's assets in various locations of Karachi by [[Al-Qaeda]]; the first of the bombings took place on 21 April 2011 on two naval buses and second bombing incident on 28 April 2011 on a naval coaster. An estimated 12 lives have been lost since the start of the bombing.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/NewsDetail.aspx?ID=14800|title=Blast hits Pakistan Navy bus, third in a week|work=[[The News International]]|publisher=[[Jang Group of Newspapers]]|accessdate=19 May 2011}}</ref> A third bombing, and final bombing took place on 22 May 2011. The attack was on the PNS Mehran base in Karachi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=6183&Cat=13&dt=5/23/2011|title=A joint attack by al-Qaeda, TTP|work=[[The News International]]|publisher=[[Jang Group of Newspapers]]|accessdate=22 May 2011}}</ref>

Since 2004, the Navy has been readily used in overland counter-insurgency operations, to ease off the pressure to Army and Air Force.<ref name="The New York Times">{{cite web|last=Mackey|first=Robert|title=Before Attack, Pakistan's Navy Boasted of Role in Fight Against Taliban|url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/before-attack-pakistans-navy-boasted-of-role-in-fight-against-taliban/|website=NYTimes – The Lede (blog)|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=23 May 2011}}</ref> The Northern Command (COMNOR) under a [[rear-admiral]], conducted overland, [[signal intelligence]], and bombing missions in the Tribal belt while its navy fighter jets attacked the hidden secretive places of militants.<ref name="The New York Times"/> In the anti-terror, naval-based airborne missions using precision bombing tactics provided by the US Navy, the Pakistan Navy played a vital role in force-projection of its naval forces that played a significant role in controlling the insurgency, terrorism as well as proved the ability to conduct successful operations far from coastal areas won many presidential citations and praised by the government and the international recognition.<ref name="The New York Times"/>

The Navy has been active as early as 2006–07 to track down the terrorist elements and al-Qaeda operatives around the country as part of the campaign against the terrorism. To limit the pressure on army and air force, the Navy executed far more difficult operations in Northern Pakistan, and its combatant assets fought Taliban insurgency in Western border with the ground forces. On 22 May 2011, the Navy's first engagement with [[Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan|Pakistani Taliban]] took place in ''PNS Mehran'', the headquarters of the Navy's [[Pakistan Naval Air Arm|Naval Air Arm]] and the most populous Pakistani military installation, located near the PAF's [[PAF Base Faisal|Faisal Air Force Base]] of Karachi, Sindh. In the course of the event, around 15 attackers killed 18 naval personnel and wounded 16 in a sophisticated terrorist attack. According to the United States and Western intelligence sources, the attack was far more dangerous than the [[Operation Janbaz|2009 Pakistan Army General Headquarters attack]], and was better planned and more rehearsed than the previous attacks. It was the biggest attack on the Navy and its assets since 1971, and is believed to be the last major attack of militant mastermind Ilyas Kashmiri before being killed in the drone strike. The [[Special Service Group Navy]] (SSG(N)), carried out the counter-attack, which was the largest operation led by SSG(N) since [[Operation Jackpot]] of 1971.

==Involvement in civil society==
{{Main|Operation Madad (Pakistan Navy)}}
The Pakistan Navy has played an integral part in the civil society of Pakistan, almost since its inception.<ref name="Taylor and Francis-e-Library">{{cite book|last=Mazhar Aziz|title=Military control in Pakistan: the parallel state|year=2008|publisher=Taylor and Francis-e-Library|location=Milton Park, Didcot, Oxfordshire, UK|isbn=978-0-415-43743-1|pages=80–81|url=https://books.google.com/?id=tIwXnkZOyoMC&pg=PA81&lpg=PA81&dq=dismissal+of+general++karamat#v=onepage&q=dismissal%20of%20general%20%20karamat&f=false}}</ref> In 1996, General Jehangir Karamat described Pakistan armed forces' relations with the society:

{{quote|text=In my opinion, if we have to repeat of past events then we must understand that Military leaders can pressure only up to a point. Beyond that their own position starts getting undermined because the military is after all is a mirror image of the civil society from which it is drawn. |sign=General Jehangir Karamat on civil society–military relations |source=<ref name="Taylor and Francis-e-Library"/>}}

===Multi-national operations===
Between 11–21 May 2008, Pakistani warships [[HMS Alacrity (F174)|PNS ''Badr'' (D-182)]], [[HMS Alacrity (F174)|PNS ''Shahjahan'' (D 186)]], and PNS ''Nasr'' (A-47), as well as the Pakistan Air Force Explosive Ordnance Disposal team, participated in Exercise Inspired Union – multi-national exercises in the [[North Arabian Sea]] that also included the American destroyers {{USS|Curts|FFG-38|2}} and {{USS|Ross|DDG 71|2}}.<ref>{{cite web | author= Lt. (j.g.) Bryan Boggs, USN | title= USS ''Curts'', Pakistani Navy Participate in Officer Exchange Program | url= http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=37552 | website= NNS080602-12 | publisher= ''Abraham Lincoln'' Carrier Strike Group Public Affairs | date= 6 June 2008 | accessdate=2010-12-27}}</ref>

===Tsunami relief activities===
The Navy has been involved in some peacetime operations, most notably during the [[tsunami]] tragedy that struck on 26 December 2004. Pakistan sent her combatant vessels to [[Sri Lanka]], [[Bangladesh]], and the [[Maldives]] to help in rescue and relief work.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/2005/01/02/top5.htm|title=2 Pakistan Navy ships, C-130s to join rescue work|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref>

Pakistan Navy dispatched its two combatant vessels, [[PNS Tariq (1973)|PNS Tariq]], a destroyer, PNS ''Nasr'', a Logistic support ship, were deployed in the region. Under the tactical direction of former Chief of Naval Staff Admiral (retired) Shahid Karimullah, Pakistan Navy ships immediately rendered their assistance to Government of Maldives for evacuation of stranded tourists/locals from islands. Pakistan Navy continued this humanitarian assistance through rendering diplomatic and material support by sending two more ships with sizeable relief efforts to Indonesia and Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/spedition/defence_day_supp_05/p11.html|title=Jang Group Online Defence Day Supplement|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224165025/http://jang.com.pk/thenews/spedition/defence_day_supp_05/p11.html|archivedate=24 December 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Pakistan Navy later assigned another relief mission to Sri Lanka dispatching two more combatant vessels. PNS ''Khaiber'' and PNS ''Moawin'' were dispatched to assist Sri Lanka.<ref>[http://www.paktribune.com/news/print.php?id=91172 PN ships to arrive in Indonesia for relief operation in tsunami-hit areas]</ref> These vessels had three helicopters, a [[Pakistan Marines|140th Marine Expeditionary Force]], military and civilian doctors, and paramedics. Besides, relief goods – medicines, medical equipment, food supplies, tents, blankets- are being sent in huge quantities.<ref>[http://pakistantimes.net/2005/01/04/top.htm Quake-Tsunami Devastation: Pakistan Joins Global Task Force for Aid ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614084157/http://pakistantimes.net/2005/01/04/top.htm |date=14 June 2011 }}</ref> The diameter of relief operations were expanded to Bangladesh. And, Pakistan Naval vessels, carrying other Pakistan Armed Forces units, landed in Bangladesh for the first time since December 1971. The Navy, Army, and the Air Force had carried out the relief operations in the Bangladesh, where the Pakistani forces also anticipated reconstruction of civil infrastructure in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ispr.gov.pk/front/main.asp?o=t-article&id=3 |title=The role of Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh |access-date=31 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110318090424/http://www.ispr.gov.pk/front/main.asp?o=t-article&id=3 |archive-date=18 March 2011 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

===Operation Madad===
{{Main|Operation Madad (Pakistan Navy)|2010 Pakistan floods}}

As [[Pakistan Army|Army]] and [[Pakistan Air Force]] (PAF) gained momentum on militancy, the Navy took the whole responsibility of conducting the largest search and rescue operations in the [[2010 Pakistan floods|2010 floods]]. The Navy rescued and evacuated more than 352,291 people after launching the ''Operation Madad'' (English: "Help") throughout Pakistan in August 2010.<ref>[https://archive.is/20131116023136/http://www.pakistannews.com.pk/national/pakistan-flood-disaster/pak-navy-launches-operation-madad-sindh.html Pak Navy launches operation ‘Madad’ in Sindh]</ref> Since then, the Navy had provided 43,850 kg of food and relief goods to flood victims; 5,700 kg of ready-to-cook food, 1,000 kg of dates and 5,000 kg of food has been dispatched to Sukkur. The [[Pakistan Naval Air Arm]] had air dropped more than 500 kg of food and relief good in Thal, Ghospur and Mirpur areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=256553&Cat=4&dt=8/16/2010|title=Pakistan Navy continues relief operations|date=16 August 2010|website=The News International, Pakistan|accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2011|01}}, under the program ''PN Model Village'', the Navy is building the model houses in the affected areas. More than 87 houses were built and had been distributed to the local [[internally displaced person]] (IDPs). About 69,011 people have been treated in PN medical camps.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onepakistan.com/news/local/karachi/81137-pn-model-village-handed-over-to-idps.html|title=Karachi News|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009003349/http://www.onepakistan.com/news/local/karachi/81137-pn-model-village-handed-over-to-idps.html|archivedate=9 October 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Command structure==
According to the [[Constitution of Pakistan|Constitution]], the [[President of Pakistan]] is the civilian commander-in-chief of [[Pakistan Armed Forces]] while the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]] served as the chief executive of Pakistan Armed Forces, both the people-elected civilians, the President and Prime minister, maintains a [[civilian control of the military]].

The [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff]] (CNS), a four-star admiral, is a member of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee]] as well as the [[National Security Council of Pakistan|National Security Council]] (NSC) and the [[Pakistan National Command Authority|Nuclear Command Authority]], and is responsible for the sea defence of the country.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} They direct the non-combat and combatant operations from naval combatant headquarters (NHQ) in Islamabad, near army combatant headquarters (GHQ).

The Chief of Naval Staff has seven Deputy Chiefs of Naval Staff, ranging from Rear Admirals to Vice-Admirals; the Chief of Staff (COS) under whom the Naval Operations and Intelligence Directorates functions; the [[Naval Secretary]] (NS); the [[Quarter master general|Quarter-Master General]] (QMG); the [[Hydrographer of the Navy|Hydrographer of the Navy (HPN)]]; the Engineer-in-Chief; the [[Flag Officer Sea Training]] (FOST); the Director-General of Training and Joint Warfare (DG Trig); the Directorate-General for Naval Technologies Complex (NTC); and the Chief of Naval Logistics (CNL). The responsibilities of Deputy Chief of Naval Staff are listed below:{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

===Deputy chiefs of staff===
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Operations (DCNS Operations)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Training and Evaluation (DCNS Training and Evaluation)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Personnel (DCNS Personnel)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Materials (DCNS Materials)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Supplies (DCNS Supply)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Projects (DCNS Projects)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff Of Administration (DCNS Administration)

===Assistant chiefs of staff===
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Operations (ACNS Operations)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Training and Evaluation (ACNS Training and Evaluation)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Training and Personnel (ACNS Training and Personnel)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Materials (ACNS Materials)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Supplies (ACNS Supply)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Projects (ACNS Projects)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of [[Naval Strategic Forces Command (Pakistan)|Naval Strategic Forces Command]] (ACNS NSFC)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff Of Administration (ACNS Administration)

===Combatant commands===
The Pakistan Navy has six major combatant commands
*'''Commander of Pakistan Naval Fleet (COMPAK)''' – The command heads the surface, sub surface and aviation commands.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/compak.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=14 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224163721/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/compak.html |archive-date=24 December 2015 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> COMPAK is headquartered in Karachi, Sindh. Previously, it included the 25th and 18th Destroyer Squadron (with Gearing class D16O, D164-168).
**'''Commander Naval Air Arm (COMNAV)''' – Looks after the Naval air stations, and is the commander of the Naval Aviation, reporting into COMPAK.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/admin_Authorities.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=16 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103170112/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/admin_Authorities.html |archive-date=3 November 2016 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
**'''Commander Submarine Squadron (COMSUBS)'''– Looks after the submarine operations, and is the commander of the submarine commanders, reporting into COMPAK.<ref>{{cite web|title=Submarine History|url=https://www.paknavy.gov.pk/submarine_history.html|website=www.paknavy.gov.pk|accessdate=24 January 2017}}</ref>
*'''Commander Karachi (COMKAR)''' – The Commander Karachi is responsible for the command of the shore establishment, naval facilities within Karachi. The COMKAR also provide services and training facilities for the Navy. The COMKAR also looks after the military protocol at Karachi. This command's responsibilities also include harbour defence.
*''' Commander COAST (COMCOAST)''' – The special command of SSG(N), Marines and Coastal stations.
*'''Commander Central Punjab (COMCEP)''' – Looks after the naval and marine assets stationed in Punjab, and Southern skirts of Sindh.<ref name="PNOrg">{{cite web | url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/organization.html | title=PN ORGANIZATION | publisher=Pakistan Navy | accessdate=June 14, 2016 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531032003/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/organization.html | archivedate=31 May 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
*'''Commander Logistics (COMLOG)''' – This command looks after the repair, maintenance and logistic infrastructure of PN.
*'''Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST)''' Conducts all types of operational training at Sea
*'''Commander North (COMNOR)''' – Looks after the Naval installations in the north of Pakistan. The COMNOR commands the naval facilities in North-west Pakistan, Azad Kashmir, and Northern Areas of Pakistan. The COMNOR is also a major part of Pakistan's Northern Naval Command.
*'''Commander WEST (COMWEST )''' – Looks after the Naval installations in the west of Pakistan. The naval bases are [[Ormara]], [[Pasni City|Pasni]], [[Gwadar]] and [[Jiwani]]. The COMWEST is a major component of the Western Naval Command of Pakistan Navy.

===Depots command===
The Pakistan Navy has a major Depot command which consists of 11 units
**'''Commander Depots Group (COMDEP)'''- This is a Type Command of Supply Branch located in Karachi

===Headquarters===

The single headquarter for the Navy, the [[Naval Headquarters (Pakistan Navy)|Navy NHQ]], is located in [[Islamabad]] at the neighborhoods of the [[General Headquarters (Pakistan Army)|Army GHQ]], in the vicinity of [[JS HQ (Pakistan)|Joint Staff Headquarters]].

The NHQ function also includes the [[Judge Advocate General Branch|Judge Advocate General Corps of Navy]], and the Comptroller of Civilian Personnel, the [[Hydrographer of the Navy|Hydrographer of the Navy (HPN)]] of the [[Pakistan Navy Hydrographic Department|Hydrographic Corps]]; the Engineer-in-Chief of Naval Engineering Corps (NEC); Surgeon General of Navy; Quartermaster General of the Navy.

===Naval Strategic Force Command===
In August 2012, the Pakistan Navy inaugurated the Naval Strategic Force Command headquarters, described by the military as the "custodian of the [[Nation-state|nation]]'s nuclear [[second strike capability]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-05-20/pakistan/31788040_1_pakistan-navy-inaugurates-nuclear-arsenal|title= Pak's navy inaugurates new Strategic Force headquarters|date=9 August 2012}}</ref>

==Personnel==
{{See also|List of serving Admirals of the Pakistan Navy}}
[[File:Pakisan First.jpg|thumb|Pakistan Navy Officers on Guard By the Standard of the Navy and the Naval Jack]]
[[File:Change of command aboard PNS Tippu Sultan DVIDS78354.jpg|thumb|Then, Commodore, Khan Hasham Bin Saddique of Pakistan Navy, left, hands a spyglass to French navy Rear Adm. Jean L. Kerignard during a change of command ceremony aboard PNS Tippu Sultan (D 186) while in port at Mina Salman Pier, Bahrain, 25 February 2008.]]

As the estimates made in 2003 and 2009, the Navy had approximately 25,000 active duty personnel.<ref name="IISS2010">''The Military Balance 2010'', p. 367, [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] (London, 2010).</ref> With additional 1,200 [[Pakistan Marines|Marines]] and more than 2,500 [[Pakistan Coast Guard|Coast Guard]]; 2,000 active-duty Navy personnel in the Maritime Security Agency. In addition there were 5,000 reserves, total combined forces exceeding 35,700 personnel.<ref name="IISS2010"/>

In 2007, Navy gave commissioned to the first Baloch naval squadron, consisting of around 53 women officers and 72 Baloch sailors.<ref name="Dawn News, 19th March 2012">{{cite news|last=Dr. Mustaghis-ur-Rahman|title=Gender inequality in {{sic|nolink=y|coporates|expected=corporates}}|url=http://dawn.com/2012/03/19/gender-inequality-in-coporates/|accessdate=11 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn News, 19 March 2012|date=19 March 2012}}</ref> In 2012, the Navy pushed its personnel strength to Baluchistan after sending a large formation of Baloch university students to Navy Engineering Colleges and War College as well as staff schools to complete their officer training requirements.<ref name="Dawn News, 10th March 2012">{{cite news|last=Our Reporter|title=Pakistan Navy offers jobs to Balochistan youths|url=http://dawn.com/2012/03/10/pakistan-navy-offers-jobs-to-balochistan-youths/|accessdate=11 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn News, 10 March 2012|date=10 March 2012}}</ref> The Navy established three additional facilities in Balochistan to supervise the training to its personnel.<ref name="Dawn News, 10th March 2012"/> As of 2014 estimate, the Navy has a strength of 30,700 active duty personnel.<ref name="Penguin UK, Ahmed">{{cite book|last1=Ahmed|first1=Khaled|title=Sleepwalking to Surrender: Dealing with Terrorism in Pakistan|date=2014|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9789386057624|url=https://books.google.com/?id=TbzBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT95&lpg=PT95&dq=pakistan+navy+personnel#v=onepage&q=pakistan%20navy%20personnel&f=false|accessdate=17 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

=== Education and training ===
The Pakistan Navy maintains large educational organisations, accredited institutions and scientific organisations to support the combatant and non-combatant missions, operations and shores activities on land. Its academic and accredited four-year university, the [[Pakistan Naval Academy]], is the home of naval cadets for the future officers of Pakistan Navy, and offers academic degrees programmes at its academy. The Pakistan Naval Academy also has provided education, athletic programs and military training programmes to the officers of allied navies, among notables including the Chief of Staff of the [[Qatar Armed Forces|Qatar Royal Navy]] (QRN) and many high-ranking officers of [[Royal Saudi Navy]] (RSN) as well as other navies in the Gulf were graduates of the Pakistan Naval Academy. The academy is a full-fledged academic and scientific institution catering to the needs to Pakistan junior naval officers.

The Pakistan Navy also managed, administers, and managed the various academic research universities in the country, including the [[Pakistan Navy School|Naval Educational Establishment]] (NEE). The [[Pakistan Naval War College|Naval War College]] is a post-graduate and post-doctorate college that specialises in the techniques and developing ideas for naval warfare and passing them along to officers of the Navy.<ref>[http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/pnwc/main.htm New Page 2] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603221244/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/pnwc/main.htm |date=3 June 2012 }}</ref> Other college includes the [[Pakistan Navy School of Logistics and Management|College of Logistics and Management]] (conducts research in military logistics); and Strategic Institute for Naval Affairs which conducts research on specialising in imparting [[Naval Warfare]] techniques to officers of the Pakistan naval forces.

The senior training institution for all service branches is the [[National Defence University, Pakistan|National Defence University]] (NDU) at the Islamabad. Originally established in 1971 at Rawalpindi, the university is mandate to provide training in higher military strategy for senior officers, the institution was relocated to Islamabad in 1995. It also offers courses that allow civilians to explore the broader aspects of national security, defence policy and war studies. In a program begun in the 1980s to upgrade the intellectual standards of the army, air force, marines and naval officers and increase awareness of the wider world, a large group of officers, has been detailed to academic training, achieving master's degrees and even doctorates at universities in Pakistan and abroad.

== Pay grade and uniforms ==
{{Main|Naval ranks and insignia of Pakistan}}
The rank structure is patterned on the Royal Navy model. It consists of [[commissioned officers]] and the [[Junior Commissioned Officer]]s paygrade ranks only.

{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;"
{{Ranks and Insignia of Non NATO Navies/OF/Blank}}
{{Ranks and Insignia of Non NATO Navies/OF/Pakistan}}
|}

{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;"
{{Ranks and Insignia of Non NATO Navies/OR/Blank}}
{{Ranks and Insignia of Non NATO Navies/OR/Pakistan}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| '''Abbreviation'''
| colspan=3| MCPO
| colspan=3| FCPO
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2| CPO
| colspan=6| PO
| colspan=6 |
| colspan=4| LH
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=6| AS
| colspan=2| OS
|}

==Science and technology==
Apart from executing military operations, the Navy also maintains its own science and technology organisations and commands to promote scientific activities, knowledge, and engineering facilities in the navy. The Navy operates the [[Pakistan Navy Hydrographic Department|Naval Directorate for Hydrography]], served as the operational scientific naval oceanographic program for the Navy. The Navy also administer and operates the astronomical observatory known as [[Pakistan Naval Observatory]], with primary mission to produce Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) for the Navy and the [[Ministry of Defence (Pakistan)|Ministry of Defence]] (MoD), though the Navy has also played a vital role in nation's civilian space authority, the [[Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission|Space Research Commission]] in conducting studies on [[Astrophysics]], [[Astronomy]] and Mathematics. The [[Naval Strategic Forces Command (Pakistan)|Naval Strategic Forces Command]] served as the primary scientific and military organisation for the Navy, the command is charged with battling with naval-based nuclear weapons and controlling the operations of nuclear submarines.

[[File:PNEC.jpg|left|thumb|A campus of [[Pakistan Navy Engineering College|Navy Engineering College]] (PNEC) in Karachi.]]

The other educational facilities training institutions are included the PNS ''Bahadur'', that conducts weapon system specialist courses; the PNS ''Himalaya'', for providing the combat surface training courses for the [[Non-commissioned officer|NCO]], [[Junior commissioned officer|JCO]], and recruited sailors while the Higher Educational Training (HET) is a way to be commissioned officer from sailors.

The PNS ''Karsaz'' is the largest and most organised technical and naval combat training establishment of the Navy. The ''Karsaz'' has the privilege to host many heads of states since its commissioning. ''Karsaz'' served as a mother unit who gave birth to [[Pakistan Naval Station Mehran|Naval Air Station Mehran]], the [[Pakistan Navy Engineering College|Navy Engineering College]], PNS ''Bahadur'', and other Navy units and naval bases in that area. The unit celebrated its golden jubilee in 2003 under the command of [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] M. Bashir. Chaudhry. The PNS ''Karsaz'' also houses one of the most modern Special Children School which was built at the cost of [[Pakistan Rupee|Rs. 88.00 Millions]] during 2003–05. Cdre M. Bashir Chaudhry who was the commandant ''Karsaz'' during this period was the force behind this project who collected the funds through philanthropists, got the school designed through NESPAK and finally constructed & put it into operation. The Rangoon Vala Trust (RVT) contributed the most in the funding of this school and other Navy sponsored programmes.

The Navy Engineering College is one of the most recognised institute of the Navy and offers under-graduate, post-graduate, and doctoral programmes in engineering, science and technology disciplines. The Navy Engineering College is controlled by the Navy but it has been an affiliated with the [[National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan|National University of Sciences and Technology]] and has become its constituent [[Pakistan Navy Engineering College]], where officers and civilian students are offered degrees in Electrical, Mechanical, Electronics and industrial and manufacturing engineering.

==Special Operations Forces==

===Special Services Group (N)===
{{Main|Special Service Group Navy}}
[[File:US Navy 110613-N-OT964-118 Chief Navy Diver Aaron Knight, right, assigned to Commander, Task Group (CTG) 56.1, and Pakistani divers.jpg|thumb|Naval SSG conducting force-protection and under-water special forces training with their [[United States Navy]] counterparts, the [[United States Navy SEALs|US Navy SEALs.]] ]]

The [[Special Service Group Navy]] (reporting name: '''SSG-[N]''') are the principle and elite [[special operations force]] (SOF) of the Pakistan Navy, part of the [[Naval Strategic Forces Command (Pakistan)|Naval Strategic Forces Command]]. The unit was established by then-[[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|CNS]] Admiral [[S. M. Ahsan]] under the advice and guidance of [[United States Navy SEALs]], in 1966.

The SSG-N's first combat operation took place in 1971 and its operational diameter has increased since then. SSG-N training is extremely tough, one of the toughest courses offered by the Pakistan Armed Forces and in the world. The SSG-N train together first with the special forces of the Pakistan [[Special Service Group|army]] and [[Special Service Wing|air force]], then the special airborne, seaborne, and diving courses are taught by the instructors to the recruiters of the veteran Navy commandos and elite operatives. SSG-[N] personnel are often sent to the United States to complete their training with the [[United States Navy SEALs|US Navy SEALs]] in Colorado and California.

Due to its interminable nature, the SSG-[N] are a classified and clandestine unit and their history of operations has never been released in the public domain. Although the official strength of the unit remains classified, its estimated strength is thought to be between 1000 and 1240 personnel in three regiments.

==Relationships with other service branches==

===Marines===
{{Main|Pakistan Marines}}

The Navy established the [[Pakistan Marines]] on 1 June 1971, by Admiral S.M. Ahsan, but they were decommissioned in 1974 due to their poor performance. However, after the Navy first reorganised, re-established, and re-visioned itself, proposals to establish Pakistani marines roughly equivalent to the [[United States Marines Corps]] were kept under consideration.<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)">{{cite web|last=PN|title=Pakistan Marines and the Navy|url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/qasim.htm|website=Pakistan Navy.|publisher=Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)|accessdate=8 April 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060704062828/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/qasim.htm|archivedate=4 July 2006|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Finally on 14 April 1990, the Pakistan Marines were again re-commissioned in the Navy with about 2,000 men who were drafted<ref>[http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2007/05/marine_pakistan_delegation_070519/ Pakistani Marines tour East Coast bases – Marine Corps News, news from Iraq – Marine Corps Times] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213203941/http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2007/05/marine_pakistan_delegation_070519/ |date=13 February 2012 }}</ref> with plans to significantly expand the force to the size of a corps of approximately 45,000, by 2015. The Marines are under the control of the Pakistan Navy, using the same naval ranks. They are headquartered at [[PNS Qasim]] in Karachi.<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)"/>

[[File:US Navy 091012-N-8132M-245 Marines assigned to the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit (22nd MEU), along with Marines from Kuwait and Pakistan, conduct an amphibious assault demonstration during Exercise Bright Star 2009.jpg|thumb|Pakistan Marines dressed in operational camouflage uniforms, during training with [[United States Marine Corps|United States]] and Kuwaiti counterparts.]]

The first Officer Commanding of the Pakistan Marines was an [[United States Army officer rank insignia|OF-4]] rank officer, Commander M. Obaidullah.<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)"/> On 14 April 1990, a marine training base was commissioned to provide security cover to naval assets. The Navy decided to establish the Marines at [[Qasim fort|Qasim Fort]] which was at that time under the operational control of PNS ''Himalaya''. Finally on 25 November 1990, PNS Qasim was commissioned and became the marines' combatant headquarters, initially comprising eight naval officers, 67 [[Chief petty officer]]s and [[petty officer]]s, as well as 43 marine officers.<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)"/> The Marines specialise in seaborne operations, using the mobility of the Navy, although they are part of the Navy, not a separate branch. Marines wear camouflage uniforms when deployed to an operational environment but otherwise they wear Navy [[dress uniforms]].<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)"/> The size of the Marines were tripled by Admiral [[Shahid Karimullah]] who pursued the case of an additional battalion and its development plan. Since its inception, the Pakistan Marines have been deployed in the [[Sir Creek]] region of the Indo-Pakistan borders.<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)"/>

===Coast Guard===
{{Main|Pakistan Coast Guard|Maritime Security Agency}}
[[File:Pakistan Navy Ships2.jpeg|left|thumb|Pakistan Navy personnel conducting a [[Maritime interdiction|Maritime Interdiction Operation]] exercise with the [[United States Navy]].]]

The Navy also maintains a paramilitary division which prevents federal navy personnel from acting in a law enforcement capacity. The [[Maritime Security Agency]] (MSA) fulfils the law enforcement role in naval operations. The MSA has the capacity to conduct [[search and rescue]] operations in deep waters of Pakistan.<ref name="Maritime Security Agency of Pakistan">{{cite web|last=PN|title=Maritime Security Agency and the Navy|url=http://www.msa.org.pk/his.html|website=Pakistan Navy.|publisher=Maritime Security Agency of Pakistan|accessdate=8 April 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612175443/http://www.msa.org.pk/His.html|archivedate=12 June 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Agency was established after adopting the genesis at the [[UN Convention on the Law of the Sea]] in 1982.<ref name="Maritime Security Agency of Pakistan"/> Pakistan ratified the UN Convention in 1997 but established the MSA on 1 January 1987, for enforcement of national and international laws, policies and conventions at sea.<ref name="Maritime Security Agency of Pakistan"/>
[[File:Parallel steps.jpg|thumb|A unit of Pakistan Navy personnel marching in Karachi.]] The MSA gained its constitutional status in 1994 by the [[Parliament of Pakistan|Parliament]] and is now placed under the command of the Navy, commanded by an officer of [[Two-star rank|two-star]] rank, a [[Rear-Admiral]].

The [[Pakistan Coast Guard]] serves the same purpose as the Navy but, is a separate branch from it.<ref name="Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army">{{cite web|last=Pakistan Army|title=Pakistan Coast Guards|url=http://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/awpreview/ImageGallery.aspx?GalleryID=46|website=Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army|publisher=Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army|accessdate=8 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610020301/http://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/AWPReview/ImageGallery.aspx?GalleryID=46|archive-date=10 June 2012|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Coast Guard's duties include relief efforts in the coastal areas of Pakistan, riverine rescue operations, and distribution of [[military rations]].<ref name="Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army"/> The Coast Guard does not perform operations in deep waters, rather such operations are performed by the MSA.<ref name="Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army"/> However, it uses the mobility of the Pakistan Navy depending on the type of operations it conducts. The Coast Guard is under the command of the [[Pakistan Army]] and contains active-duty army members. It is commanded by a [[two-star rank|two-star]] rank [[Major-General]].<ref name="Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army"/>

==Branches==
*Operations
**Above Water Warfare
**Underwater Warfare
**Navigation, Operations and Hydrography
**Communication and Electronic Warfare
*Marine Engineering
**Mechanical/ Propulsion
**Electrical
**Hull/ Shipwright
*Weapon Engineering
**Radio
**Fire Control
**Ordnance
*Air Engineering
**Avionics
**Aerospace
*Logistics
*Medical Service
*Supply Branch
*Special Branch (IT)
*Executive Branch

==Naval fleet==
{{Main|List of active Pakistan Navy ships}}
[[File:F-22P PNS Zulfiquar.JPG|thumb|PNS Zulfiqar]]
[[File:080713-N-7949W-084 - USS Rodney M. Davis (FFG-60).jpg|thumb|PNS Alamgir]]
[[File:PNS Tippu Sultan former HMS Avenger.jpg|thumb|PNS Tippu Sultan]]
[[File:Larkana (PB 157)-090309-N-4774B-055.jpg|thumb|PNS Larkana Class Missile Boat]]
[[File:PNS-Badr-F184.jpg|thumb|PNS Badr with [[USS Tarawa (LHA-1)]]]]

=== Ships ===
The names of commissioned combat and non-combat ships of the Pakistan Navy are prefixed with the capital letters "PNS" ("Pakistan Naval Ships"). The names of ships are selected by the [[Ministry of Defence (Pakistan)|Ministry of Defence]], often to honour important people or places in the history of Pakistan.<ref name="Official Website - Frigates">[http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/frigate.htm Official Website – Frigates] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516085915/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/frigate.htm|date=16 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="Official Website - Missile Boats">[http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/SURFACE%20WARRIORS%20-%20PN.htm Official Website – Missile Boats] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527232149/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/SURFACE%20WARRIORS%20-%20PN.htm|date=27 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="Globalsecurity.org">[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/navy.htm Globalsecurity.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928154252/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/navy.htm|date=28 September 2006}}</ref>

The Navy currently operates 9 frigates, including a single former US Navy [[Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigate|''Oliver Hazard Perry''-class frigate]], four former [[Royal Navy]] [[Type 21 frigate|''Amazon'' class]] frigates and four [[Zulfiquar-class frigate|''Zulfiquar''-class frigates]], which are an improved version of the [[Type 053H3 frigate|Type 053H3 class frigates]]. Two of the [[Type 21 frigate|''Amazon'' class]] frigates, locally designated as [[Tariq-class destroyer|''Tariq''-class]] have been decommissioned. In June 2017, Pakistani Navy placed an order for two [[Type 054A frigate]]s with China to replace the existing [[Type 21 frigate]]s in service.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.defensenews.com/naval/2017/12/27/pakistan-shops-for-warships-to-replace-british-frigates-modernize-navy/|title=Pakistan shops for warships to replace British frigates, modernize Navy|last=Ansari|first=Usman|date=2017-12-27|work=Defense News|access-date=2018-06-01|language=en-US}}</ref> In June 2018, an additional order for two more frigates was placed with China Shipbuilding Trading Company. The Navy intends to replace [[Tariq-class destroyer|''Tariq''-class frigates]] with [[Type 054A frigate]]s by 2021.<ref>https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/324301-pakistan-navy-signs-contract-to-acquire-two-modern-warships-from-china</ref><ref>https://tribune.com.pk/story/1725496/1-navy-acquire-two-chinese-warships/</ref><ref name="DefenseNews">[http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=3472967&c=ASI&s=SEA Pakistan Gets New Chinese Frigate]{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Defence News</ref><ref name="DefenseNews" /> In addition, the Navy operates three former ''[[Tripartite-class minehunter|Tripartite]]'' [[Tripartite-class minehunter|class]] minehunters, locally designated as ''Munsif'' class.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYqnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA154#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Pakistan Intelligence, Security Activities and Operations Handbook|last=USA|first=IBP|date=2009-03-20|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781438737218|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:US Navy 100831-N-8590G-005 Pakistan sailors parade their country's colors during the decommissioning ceremony of USS McInerney (FFG 8) at Naval Station Mayport.jpg|thumb|The frigate PNS ''Alamgir'' (former guided-missile frigate [[USS McInerney (FFG-8)]], being handed over to Pakistan Navy on 31 August 2010 at US Naval Station Mayport, Fla.]]

The Navy also operates three [[Azmat-class|''Azmat'' class]] [[fast attack crafts]] based on the Chinese [[Type 037 corvette|''Type 037II Houjian'' class]] missile boat, two ''Jalalat II'' class produced using a German design, two ''Jurrat'' class missile boats, one ''Larkana'' class gun boat and two ''MRTP-33'' class attack craft from Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/72706/pakistan-commissions-third-azmat-class-patrol-vessel|title=Pakistan commissions third Azmat-class patrol vessel {{!}} Jane's 360|website=www.janes.com|access-date=2017-11-29}}</ref><ref>[http://www.yonca-onuk.com/mrtp_33.htm MRTP-33 missile boats] THE 33 METRE Fast Patrol / Attack Craft {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416163254/http://www.yonca-onuk.com/mrtp_33.htm|date=16 April 2008}}</ref> They are primarily divided among the 10th Patrol Craft Squadron and the Fast Patrol Craft Squadron.<ref name="paknavyfleet">{{cite web|url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/fleet.html#|title=PN DIMENSIONS: SURFACE WARRIORS|website=Pakistan Navy Official Website|publisher=Pakistan Navy|accessdate=30 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706124946/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/fleet.html|archive-date=6 July 2015|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2017, it was announced that Pakistan has signed a deal with Turkey to acquire four [[Milgem class corvette]]s, two 75m multi-purpose corvettes from American shipbuilder Swift and two offshore patrol vessels from Dutch shipbuilder [[Damen Group|Damen Shipyards]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-signs-deal-to-produce-4-corvettes-with-pakistan/815631|title=Turkey signs deal to produce 4 corvettes with Pakistan|access-date=2018-06-01}}</ref><ref>http://www.janes.com/article/79555/damen-begins-work-on-first-of-two-opvs-for-pakistan-navy</ref><ref>https://nation.com.pk/01-Nov-2017/pakistan-orders-two-corvettes-from-us-based-swiftships</ref>

===Submarines===
{{See also|Khalid class submarine|Karachi Shipyard|Karachi Naval Dockyard}}
The Submarines Service Force (SSF) is the major combatant command of Pakistan Navy, with primary mission including the commencing of peaceful engagement, surveillance and intelligence management, special operations, precision strikes, battle group operations, and the control of Pakistan's border seas. The Submarine command also takes responsibility to protect country's sea lanes of communication as well as to protect the economical interests, foreign trade and development of the country.<ref name="NIT Pakistan Directorate">{{cite web|url=http://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/pakistan-submarine-capabilities/|title=Pakistan Submarine Capabilities|last=NIT|website=Nuclear Threat Initiatives|publisher=NIT Pakistan Directorate|accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Defence Industry Daily">{{cite news|last=Khaliej Times|title=German Submarine Deal With Pakistan Goes Quiet|url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Report-German-Submarine-Deal-With-Pakistan-on-Hold-05432/|accessdate=8 April 2012|newspaper=Defence Industry Daily|date=19 May 2009}}</ref>

The Navy currently operates a total of five [[Diesel-electric submarine|diesel-electric]] submarines acquired from France, namely, two [[Agosta-class submarine|''Agosta-70'' class]] and three [[Agosta-class submarine|''Agosta-90B'' class]] equipped with [[air-independent propulsion]].<ref name="PN">Anon. (14 April 2007) [http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/ Pakistan Navy]. ''Pakistan Navy website''. {{webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/5hPNTIF3w?url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/|date=9 June 2009}}</ref> In April 2015, eight export version of [[Type 039A submarine|''Type 039B'' class]] submarines from [[China]] for $5 billion was approved. Four submarines are expected to be delivered by 2023 and the remainder delivered by 2028.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/1776522/beijing-eyes-bigger-arms-exports-experts-say|title=Beijing eyes bigger arms exports after Pakistan deal, experts say|work=South China Morning Post|access-date=2018-06-02|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:OuessantBrest2005.jpg|thumb|300px|In Picture, the French [[Agosta class submarine|Agosta–70A]] [[French submarine Ouessant|''Ouessant'']] in [[2005 in France|2005]], the [[Agosta class submarine|Agosta 90B (Khalid)]] are much larger than Agosta-70, and powered with [[Air-independent propulsion]].]]

In April 2014, the Pakistan Navy announced that it is in the process of shifting primary operations and naval assets, including its entire fleet of diesel-electric submarines (SSKs), from [[Karachi]] to the [[Jinnah Naval Base]] in [[Ormara]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/36959/pakistan-navy-to-shift-submarines-from-karachi-to-ormara|title=Pakistan Navy to shift submarines from Karachi to Ormara|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref> The Navy has been seeking to enhance its strategic strike and precision capability by developing naval variants of the [[Babur (cruise missile)|Babur]] crusie missile from submarines, surface combatants.<ref name="NIT Pakistan Directorate" />

=== Auxiliary ships ===
The Navy operates a former [[HNLMS Poolster (A835)|''Poolster'' class]] [[replenishment oiler]], called [[PNS Moawin (A20)|PNS ''Moawin'']] which was acquired from the [[Royal Netherlands Navy]] and a [[Fuqing class replenishment ship|Fuqing class]] replenishment oiler, PNS ''Nasr'', which was acquired from China. In addition, the Navy also operates two small tankers and two coast tankers which were locally built by KSEW.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.paknavy.gov.pk/stus.html|title=Pakistan Navy Official Website|website=www.paknavy.gov.pk|access-date=2018-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/a-nasr.htm|title=PNS Nasr (PRC Fuqing)|last=Pike|first=John|access-date=2018-06-02|language=en}}</ref>

A dredging vessel, a hydro-graphic vessel, a tall sail, a backhoe dredger, two split hoppers barges and two [[Landing Craft Mechanized]] are also operated by the Navy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.paknavy.gov.pk/21auxron.html|title=Pakistan Navy Official Website|website=www.paknavy.gov.pk|access-date=2018-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/78671/pakistan-navy-commissions-dredging-vessel|title=Pakistan Navy commissions dredging vessel {{!}} Jane's 360|website=www.janes.com|access-date=2018-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://navaltoday.com/2016/04/22/pakistan-navy-gets-2-landing-craft/|title=Pakistan Navy Gets 2 Landing Craft|work=Naval Today|access-date=2018-06-02|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Pakistan Naval Air Arm ==
{{Main|Pakistan Naval Air Arm}}
[[File:Pakistan Navy Orion Asuspine.jpg|thumb|A Pakistan Navy P-3C Orion in 2010]]
After realising the naval failure in the 1971 war, the Navy sought to modernise.<ref name="Naval Air Arm, Navy">{{cite web|last=PN|title=Naval Airwar|url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/naval_airarm.htm|publisher=Naval Air Arm, Navy|accessdate=8 April 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419133312/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/naval_airarm.htm|archivedate=19 April 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Navy took the research on using the aircraft at sea in 1971, after the war. Its aerial fighting unit is known as Naval Air Arm (also known as [[Pakistan Naval Aviation|Naval Aviation]]) apart from the PAF. The naval fighter pilot course was introduced by the Navy and trained its fighter pilots at the Pakistan Air Force Academy, furthermore the navy pilots later went to Combat Commander's School for fighter jet training. Since the 1970s, the naval air arm has become a full-fledged and potent service of the Navy. From 1993 to 1994, the Navy stepped in its efforts in sea-airborne operations when PAF donated and inducted five [[Mirage 5|Mirage 5 ROSE]] fighter jets, later transferred the entire squadron to Navy armed with [[Exocet|Exocet missiles]].<ref name="Repro India Ltd.">{{cite book|last=Anjali|first=Gosh|title=India's Foreign Policy The Pakistan Threat|year=2009|publisher=Repro India Ltd.|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1025-8|pages=176–180|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Y32u4JMroQgC&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&dq=MIRAGE+5+and+Pakistan+Navy#v=onepage&q=MIRAGE%205%20and%20Pakistan%20Navy&f=true}}</ref> Since then, the Mirage 5 are piloted by the navy fighter pilots after passing the course with PAF Academy and certifying a diploma from a weapons system and combat training school.<ref name="Repro India Ltd."/> The Mirage 5 belonged to the PAF as well as operated by the air force, but are piloted by the Navy fighter pilots who are under the command of senior ranking Navy officer.<ref name="Repro India Ltd."/> The Westland lynx helicopters have now been removed from active service and a tender has been issued for their removal.<ref>http://www.historyofpia.com/board/october_12/lynx_oct31.jpg</ref>

Pakistan Naval Air Arm Pakistan Naval Aviation is an important arm of the Pakistan Navy and assists in the surface and submarine flights to guarantee the safety of Pakistan sea borders.

===Pakistan Naval Air Defence===
{{Main|Pakistan Naval Air Arm}}

In 2010, the Navy established another command after launching an air defence system, using the [[infrared homing]] [[man-portable air-defense systems]] (MANPADs) system.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} The new command which is known as Pakistan Naval Air Defence (PNAD) are consisted the members of [[Pakistan Marines]] and Navy's ground officers after the first battalion graduated from the [[Special Service Group|Naval School of Weapon System Engineering]].<ref name="Press Release, PN">{{cite news|title=Pakistan Navy Air Defence System|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-JX_uLra0h8|accessdate=9 April 2012|newspaper=Press Release, PN|date=27 December 2010}}</ref> In 2010, the command air-launched and tested its first naval air defence system from [[Sonmiani (space facility)|Sonmiani Terminal]]— a space center of [[Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission|Space Research Commission]] (SRC) in the North Arabian Sea.<ref name="The News International, March 13, 2010">{{cite news|last=Our Correspondents|title=Pakistan Navy tests weapon system|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=228661&Cat=4&dt=3/13/2010|accessdate=9 April 2012|newspaper=The News International, 13 March 2010|date=13 March 2010}}</ref> Along with the members of Pakistan Marines, the PNAD members are deployed in all over the country to support the marine operations of Pakistan Navy.

*[[FN-6|FN16 Or HY-6 shoulder-fired surface-to-air missile]], tested on 25 December 2010 by Naval Marines with a range of 6 km and altitude ~ 3.5 km)
*[[Mistral (missile)|Mistral shoulder-fired surface-to-air missile]], test fired on 25 December 2010 by Naval marines.

==See also==
{{Portal|Pakistan|Military of Pakistan}}
* [[List of active Pakistan Navy ships]]
*[[Maritime Security Agency]]
*[[Pakistan Naval Academy]]
*[[Pakistan Navy War College]]
*[[Kalmat Naval Base]]
*[[PNS Ahsan|Ahsan Naval Base]]
*[[Jinnah Naval Base]]
*[[PNS Makran|Makran Naval Base]]
*[[PNS Mehran|Mehran Naval Base]]
*[[PNS Qasim|Qasim Marine Base]]

==References==
;Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}
;Internet
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite web | title=Orbat | website=Naval and Maritime Security Agency Warship Names 1947–2005 | url=http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/pakistan/warshipnames.html | accessdate=22 June 2005 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050406184550/http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/pakistan/warshipnames.html | archivedate=6 April 2005 | df=dmy-all }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.paknavy.gov.pk}}

{{Pakistani Armed Forces}}
{{Asia topic|Navy of|title=Navies of Asia}}

[[Category:Pakistan Navy|*]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1947]]
[[Category:Government of Pakistan]]
[[Category:1947 establishments in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Pakistan federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Military of Pakistan]]

Jehangir Karamat

2018-09-08T20:28:43Z

Jprg1966: /* Staff and war appointments */

{{EngvarB|date=April 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2013}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|honorific-prefix = [[General officer|General]]
|name = Jehangir Karamat جہانگیر کرامت
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|order =[[Pakistan Ambassador to the United States]]
|term_start =17 November 2004
|term_end =3 June 2006
|predecessor =[[Ashraf Qazi]]
|successor =[[Mahmud Ali Durrani]]
|president =[[Pervez Musharraf]]
|primeminister =[[Shaukat Aziz]]
|order2 =[[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (Pakistan)|Chairman]] of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee]]
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|term_start2 = 9 November 1997
|term_end2 =7 October 1998
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|predecessor2 =[[Air chief marshal|ACM]] [[Farooq Feroze Khan]]
|successor2 =[[General|Gen]] [[Pervez Musharraf]]
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|office3 =[[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Army Staff]]
|term_start3 = 12 January 1996
|term_end3 = 6 October 1998
|predecessor3 =[[General|Gen]] [[Abdul Waheed Kakar]]
|successor3 =[[General|Gen]] [[Pervez Musharraf]]
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|data2 =[[Political science]]
|blank3 =Notable students
|data3 =[[Pervez Musharraf]] [[Ali Kuli Khan Khattak|Ali Kuli Khan]] [[Abdul Aziz Mirza|Aziz Mirza]] [[Fasih Bokhari]]
|blank4 =Notable work(s)
|data4 =Work in [[civil-military relations]] and [[Decentralization]]
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|nickname =Spearhead ''JK''
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|serviceyears =1958–1998
|rank =[[File:OF-9 Pakistan Army.svg|10px]][[File:US-O10 insignia.svg|30px]][[General]]
|unit =[[File:13 Lancers2.jpg|20px]][[13th Lancers]], [[Pakistan Army Armoured Corps|Armoured Corps]]
|commands =[[Chief of General Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of General Staff]], [[GHQ (Pakistan Army)|Army GHQ]] [[II Corps (Pakistan)|II Strike Corps]], [[Multan]] [[Pakistan Army Armoured Corps|Armoured Corps]] [[Director general|DG]] [[Pakistan Army Rangers|Army Rangers]] [[Directorate-General|DG]] for Military Operations [[Pakistan Armed Forces International deployments|Pakistan Armed Forces–Middle East Command]]
|battles =[[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]
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[[General officer|General]] '''Jehangir Karamat''' ([[Urdu]]: جہانگیر کرامت; born 20 February 1941) {{small|[[Legion of Merit|LOM]], [[Nishan-e-Imtiaz|NI(M)]], [[Sitara-e-Basalat|SBt]]}}, is a retired [[four-star general|four-star]] rank [[Pak Fauj|army general]], [[Foreign Service of Pakistan|diplomat]], [[public intellectual]], and a former [[professor]] of [[political science]] at the [[National Defense University, Islamabad|National Defense University]].<ref name="ISPR (Army)" /> Appointed first to be served as the [[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Army Staff]] of the [[Pakistan Army]] in 1996, he was elevated as the [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (Pakistan)|Chairman]] of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee]] in 1997 until 1998.<ref name="Free Press">{{cite book|last1=Musharraf|first1=Pervez|title=In the line of fire : a memoir|date=2006|publisher=Free Press|location=New York [u.a.]|isbn=074-3283449|accessdate=}}</ref>

After joining the [[Pakistan Army]] in 1958, he entered in the [[Pakistan Military Academy]] at [[Kakul]], and [[Passing out (military)|passed out]] in 1961 to later serve in the combat in [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts|conflicts]] with [[India]] in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]] and in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971]]. In 1995, he came into national prominence after he notably exposed the [[1995 Pakistani coup d'état attempt|attempted ''coup d'état'']] against [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Benazir Bhutto]], and eventually appointed as an [[Army Chief of Staff (Pakistan)|army chief]] and later [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (Pakistan)|Chairman joint chiefs]]. His tenureship is regarded as his pivotal role in enhancing the [[Democracy in Pakistan|democracy]] and the [[Civilian control of the military|civilian control]] when he staunchly backed Prime Minister [[Nawaz Sharif]]'s authorisation of [[List of nuclear weapons tests of Pakistan|atomic-testing programme]] in 1998.<ref name="Stanford University Press" />

On 6 October 1998, Karamat was [[Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's relief of General Jehangir Karamat|forced to relieved]] from his four-star commands by Prime minister Nawaz Sharif over a disagreement on [[national security]] and reforms of the [[Pakistani intelligence community|intelligence community]].<ref name="Harvard University Press" /> He is also one of very few army generals in the military history of Pakistan to have [[Resignation of Jehangir Karamat|resigned over a disagreement with the civilian authorities]].<ref name="Macmillan [u.a.]" />

After his resignation, he accepted the [[professorship]] at the [[Stanford University]] in [[California]] and appointed as to head Pakistan's [[Embassy of Pakistan, Washington, D.C.|diplomatic mission]] as an [[Pakistan Ambassador to the United States|Ambassador]] but was later removed. Karamat has been credited for foresight prediction of the dangers of unbalanced [[Civil-Military Relations|civil-military]] relations and the rise of [[State-sponsored terrorism|foreign-supported]] [[Terrorism in Pakistan|homegrown terrorism]] in the country.<ref name="Harvard University Press"/> Many of his recommendations on [[National Security Council (Pakistan)|national security]] were eventually became part of counterterrorism policy by Prime Minister [[Nawaz Sharif]] in 2013.<ref name="Harvard University Press"/>

==Biography==

===Early and education===
Jehangir Karamat was born on 20 February 1941 in [[Karachi]], [[Sindh#British Raj|Sindh]] in [[British Indian Empire|India]], into a [[Kakazai]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://jang.com.pk/news/465587|title=اسپیشل ایڈیشن - باجوہ ڈاکٹرائن : قومی چیلنجز کا حل کیسے؟ - Magazine {{!}} Daily Jang|access-date=2018-06-09}}</ref> family who initially hailed from [[Montgomery (Pakistan)|Montgomery]] in [[Punjab, British India|Punjab]] (now [[Sahiwal]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]).<ref name="Deutsches Orient-Institut, 1996">{{cite journal|last1=Staff writer|title=General Karamat appointed new army chief|journal=Deutsches Orient-Institut, 1996|date=1995|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qa25AAAAIAAJ&q=jehangir+karamat++February+1941&dq=jehangir+karamat++February+1941&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7W2sVKKVOMKzogTfu4HQBg&ved=0CCIQ6wEwAQ|accessdate=|publisher=Deutsches Orient-Institut, 1996}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Beaumont|first1=edited by Christophe Jaffrelot ; translated by Gillian|title=A history of Pakistan and its origins|date=2004|publisher=Anthem|location=London|isbn=1843311496|edition=New|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9sI_Y2CKAcC&pg=PA36&dq=jehangir+karamat++born+Karachi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=52ysVIfaIozboASIrIHIAQ&ved=0CCUQuwUwAQ#v=onepage&q=jehangir%20karamat%20%20born%20Karachi&f=true|accessdate=|chapter=§No National Integration Yet?}}</ref>{{rp|59}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Daily Report: Near East & South Asia|date=1995|publisher=The Service|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aiQNiAhipC4C&q=Jehangir+Karamat+born&dq=Jehangir+Karamat+born&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjNyeGb5N3XAhUX92MKHU-9BCcQ6wEIKTAA|accessdate=27 November 2017|language=en}}</ref> His father, Karamat Ahmad, was an [[Civil Services of India|officer]] in the [[Indian Civil Service (British India)|Indian Civil Service]] with the [[Viceroy's Executive Council|Indian government]] who would later embarked his career as a [[Central Superior Services of Pakistan|bureaucrat]] in the [[Government of Pakistan]] after the [[Partition of India|partition]] of India in 1947.<ref name="Economist Publications, 1995">{{cite journal|last1=Staff writers and editors|title=Pakistan & Gulf Economist: Jehangir Karamat COAS|journal=Economist Publications, 1995|date=1995|volume=14|issue=40–52|publisher=Economist Publications, 1995}}</ref><ref name="The News International, 1996">{{cite news|last1=editorial|title=Jehangir Karamat, COAS|url=http://thenews.com.pk/|accessdate=|work=Biographical work published by the News International's editorial section in 1996|agency=The News International, 1996|publisher=The News International, 1996|date=1996}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Karamat Ahmed|url=https://www.geni.com/people/Karamat-Ahmed/6000000033821731653|website=geni_family_tree|accessdate=27 November 2017}}</ref>

After educating and graduating from the [[St Patrick's High School, Karachi|St.Patrick's High School]] in [[Karachi]] in 1958, Karamat joined the [[Pakistan Army]] when accepting at the [[Pakistan Military Academy]] (PMA) in [[Kakul]] in [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa]].<ref name="St Patrick's High School">{{cite web|title=DIstinguished old Patricians|url=http://theoldpatricians.org/illustrious.htm|publisher=St Patrick's High School|accessdate=7 January 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129092734/http://www.theoldpatricians.org/illustrious.htm|archivedate=29 November 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> His mother moved with him in [[Kakul]] to overlook his education, and passed out with a class of 24th PMA Long Course, standing as a top-ranking cadet at Kakul when he conferred with the [[Sword of Honour (Pakistan)|Sword of Honor]] in 1961.<ref name="Deutsches Orient-Institut, 1996"/><ref name="Pakistan Herald, 2015">{{cite news|last1=staff editor|title=A profile of a General|url=http://www.pakistanherald.com/profile/general-retd-jehangir-karamat-610|accessdate=7 January 2015|agency=Pakistan Herald|publisher=Pakistan Herald, 2015}}</ref>

In 1961, Karamat gained [[Commissioned officer|commissioned]] as [[Second Lieutenant|2nd-Lt]] in the [[13th Lancers]] of the [[Pakistan Army Armoured Corps|Corps of Armoured]].<ref name="Pakistan Army Museum">{{cite web|last1=Pakistan Army Museum|title=General Jehangir Karamat|url=http://www.pakarmymuseum.com/exhibits/general-jehangir-karamat-2/|publisher=Pakistan Army Museum|accessdate=7 January 2015}}</ref>

In 1969, [[Captain (army)|Capt.]] Karamat was directed to attend the [[Command and Staff College]] in [[Quetta]] where he was noted for his intellect and competence at every level of courses he took as required in the [[Curriculum|crriculum]].{{rp|533–534}}<ref name="Partridge Pub"/> In 1971, Capt. Karamat graduated and qualified as the [[psc (Military)|psc]].<ref name="ISPR (Army)">{{cite web|title=General Jehangir Karamat|url=https://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/AWPReview/TextContent.aspx?pId=154|website=www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk|publisher=ISPR (Army)|accessdate=27 November 2017}}</ref>

After the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971|third war]] with India in 1971, Major Karamat was among the one the last military officers who were sent to the [[United States]] to study at the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]]'s [[Command and General Staff College]] at [[Fort Leavenworth]] in [[Kansas]].{{rp|92–93}}<ref name="Springer, Aslan (2017)">{{cite book|last1=Aslan|first1=Ömer|title=The United States and Military Coups in Turkey and Pakistan: Between Conspiracy and Reality|date=2017|publisher=Springer|location=New York, U.S.|isbn=9783319660110|pages=270|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TK4-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA92&dq=karamat++Command+and+General+Staff+College&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjdwsK7teDXAhWLi1QKHcn-C88QuwUIMTAB#v=onepage&q=karamat%20%20Command%20and%20General%20Staff%20College&f=false|accessdate=28 November 2017|language=en|format=google books|chapter=External Support}}</ref> Upon his graduation from the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]]'s [[Command and General Staff College]], [[Major]] Karamat was then directed to attend the [[National Defence University, Pakistan|National Defence University]] where he graduated and gained the [[Master of Science|MSc]] in the [[International Relations]] in 1976–77.<ref>Constance Hale. [http://www.disam.dsca.mil/pubs/Indexes/v.23_1/hale.pdf "International Hallway Dedication Ceremony"] ''U.S. Army Command and General Staff College'', 14 September 2000</ref> In 1976, Karamat completed his MSc in [[International Relations]] from there; and following his return, Karamat completed his master's programme at the [[National Defence University, Pakistan|National Defence University]].<ref name=Spearhead>{{cite web|last1=Spearhead|title=Panel of Experts|url=http://spearheadresearch.org/SR_CMS/index.php/panel-of-experts|publisher=Spearhead|accessdate=7 January 2015}}</ref> In 1978–80, Major Karamat attained the [[Master of Science|MSc]] in [[War studies]] where his master's thesis argued and enlightened on the failure of performance of armed forces in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|third war]] with India 1971.<ref name="Macmillan [u.a.]">{{cite book|last1=Rizvi|first1=Hasan-Askari|title=Military, state and society in Pakistan|date=2000|publisher=Macmillan [u.a.]|location=Basingstoke [u.a.]|isbn=0312231938}}</ref><ref name="Brooklyn Institute">{{cite web|last1=staff writer|title=Former Chairman of the Pakistani Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Jehangir Karamat, arrives at Brookings|url=http://www.brookings.edu/about/media-relations/news-releases/2000/20000505karamat|publisher=Brooklyn Institute|accessdate=7 January 2015|date=5 May 2000}}</ref><ref name="Partridge Pub">{{cite book|last1=Bhattacharya|first1=Brigadier Samir|title=Nothing But!|date=2014|publisher=Partridge Pub|isbn=148281787X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7GrAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA553&dq=jehangir+karamat+lancer&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YWasVPPOEdLmoATQ4YCADw&ved=0CDMQuwUwAg#v=onepage&q=jehangir%20karamat%20lancer&f=true|accessdate=}}</ref>

===During the Indo-Pakistani wars===

In 1963, [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|Lt.]] Karamat was posted in his [[Pakistan Army Armoured Corps|Aromoured Corps]] to initially [[Command (military formation)|commanding]] a formation of [[main battle tank]]s.<ref name="Army Education Publishing House, Army Education Directorate GHQ">{{cite book|last1=Husain|first1=war despatches of Major General Abrar|title=Men of steel : 6 Armoured Division in the 1965 war|date=2005|publisher=Army Education Publishing House, Army Education Directorate GHQ|location=Rawalpindi|isbn=9698125191|accessdate=}}</ref> In 1965, [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|Lt.]] Karamat commanded an infantry [[Platoon (military)|platoon]] during the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1965|second war]] with India in the [[Akhnoor|Akhnur Sector]] in the [[Indian-held Kashmir]].{{rp|14–15}}<ref name="Pakistan & Gulf Economist, 1995">{{cite book|title=Karamat named COAS|date=1995|publisher=Economist Publications|accessdate=15 December 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Oxford University Press">{{cite book|last1=Ali|first1=Sartaj Aziz ; foreword by Syed Babar|title=Between dreams and realities : some milestones in Pakistan's history|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Karachi|isbn=0195477189|edition=1. publ.|accessdate=|chapter=Second War}}</ref> [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|Lt.]] Karamat's [[Platoon (military)|platoon]] was the first unit that had penetrated {{convert|23|mi|km}} into the enemy territory, which encouraged backup military companies to move forward into the enemy territory.<ref name="Defence Journal, 1999"/> In this war performance, the [[13th Lancers]] had suffered death of fourteen soldiers, including three officers, while twenty eight were wounded.<ref name="Oxford University Press"/> For this action, the 13th Lancers was awarded the battle honour, ''Dewa— Chumb and Jaurian of 1965'', and was also awarded the title of ''The Spearhead Regiment''.<ref name="Defence Journal, 1999">{{cite web|last1=Amin|first1=Agha H.|title=Battle of Barapind-Jarpal 16 Dec 1971|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/oct99/barapind.htm|publisher=Defence Journal, 1999|accessdate=6 January 2015|date=1999}}</ref>

He progressed well in the army, eventually promoted to [[Captain (army)|Captain]] in 1966; and elevated as [[Major]] in 1971.<ref name="Oup Pakistan"/> In 1971, [[Major]] Karamat commanded the [[Company (military unit)|company]] of the [[Pakistan Army Armoured Corps|Aromoured Corps]] on the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Western Front]] pf the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|third war]] with India, defending the territories of [[Punjab, Pakistan]] against the approaching [[Indian Army]].<ref name="Oup Pakistan">{{cite book|last1=Qureshi|first1=Hakeem Arshad|title=1971 indo-pak war : a soldier's narrative.|date=2013|publisher=Oup Pakistan|location=[S.l.] Pakistan|isbn=0199067147|accessdate=}}</ref>

During this time, [[Major|Maj.]] Karamat was the [[commanding officer]] in the [[15th Lancers]] attached to the [[Baloch Regiment]], alongside with the [[13th Lancers]] that was fighting in the [[Shakargarh]] area of [[Sialkot|Sialkot Sector]], which is now known as [[Battle of Basantar|Battle of Barapind]].<ref name="Strategicus and Tacticus">{{cite book|last1=Amin|first1=Agha Humayun|title=India Pakistan Wars-1947 to 1971-A Strategic and Operational Analysis|date=2010|publisher=Strategicus and Tacticus|location=London|isbn=9780557519842|pages=723|accessdate=}}</ref> The regiment was awarded battle honour of ''Bara Pind 1971''.<ref name="Work published by then-Brigadier J. Karamat at the Inspector General Training and Evaluation Branch, General Headquarters">{{cite journal|last1=Karamat|first1=J.|title=The Tank that Failed|journal=Hilal Magazine|date=1984|volume=2|issue=8|pages=69|accessdate=|publisher=Work published by then-Brigadier J. Karamat at the Inspector General Training and Evaluation Branch, General Headquarters}}</ref>{{rp|<ref>{{cite book|last1=ehgal|first1=Ikram ul-Majeed|title=Defence Journal: With Former COAS Watching Live-Fire Demonstration|date=2003|publisher=Ikram ul-Majeed Sehgal|accessdate=16 December 2017|language=en}}</ref>}}

===Staff and war appointments===
[[File:Saudi Arabia 2003 CIA map.jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[Brigadier (United Kingdom)|Brig.]] Karamat served as an [[Officer commanding|OC]] of the [[Pakistan Armed Forces International deployments|Pakistan Armed Forces–Middle East Command]] in 1980s near the [[Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Saudi–Jordanian border]].]]
In 1979–80, [[Lieutenant-Colonel|Lt-Col.]] Karamat was posted as an [[Professor|instructor]] at the [[National Defence University, Pakistan|Armed Forces War College]] (afwc) of the [[National Defence University, Pakistan|National Defence University]] (NDU), instructing on courses [[War studies]].{{rp|432}}<ref>{{cite book|title=The Gazette of Pakistan|date=1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=98pPAQAAMAAJ&q=jehangir+karamat+lt+col&dq=jehangir+karamat+lt+col&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjewuCKqI3YAhVY9mMKHfgkA1YQ6wEIMDAB|accessdate=16 December 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Pakistan Army Museum" /> In 1981–83, [[Colonel|Col.]] Karamat was moved at the [[PAF Air War College|Air War College]], and did not take participation in the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet intervention]] in [[Afghanistan]] during his teaching assignments beforing promoting as [[One star general|one-star]] rank army general in the Pakistan Army.<ref name="Penguin Press">{{cite book|last1=Coll|first1=Steve|title=Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001|date=2004|publisher=Penguin Press|location=New York|isbn=1-59420-007-6|accessdate=}}</ref>

In 1983–88, [[Brigadier (United Kingdom)|Brig.]] Karamat was appointed [[officer commanding]] of the [[Pakistan Armed Forces deployments|Pakistan Armed Forces–Middle East Command]], consisting of the joint [[Pakistani military|joint armed branches]] in the [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite book|last1=Hassner|first1=edited by Ron E.|title=Religion in the military worldwide|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=1-107-03702-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jtoaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA98&dq=Karamat+saudi+troops&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1IOsVKD4ONCvogTiv4HACQ&ved=0CDEQuwUwAw#v=onepage&q=Karamat%20saudi%20troops&f=false|accessdate=}}</ref> Initially stationed to cover the [[area of responsibility]] of [[Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Tabuk]] and [[Khamis Mushait]] in [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Brigadier (United Kingdom)|Brig.]] Karamat [[Pakistan Armed Forces deployments|Pakistan Armed Forces–Arab Contingent]] during the height of the [[Iran–Iraq War]], protecting the territorial sovereignty of the [[Saudi Arabia]].{{rp|xxiv}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sehgal|first1=Ikram ul-Majeed|title=Defence Journal|date=2006|publisher=Ikram ul-Majeed Sehgal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W67fAAAAMAAJ&dq=jehangir+karamat+saudi+1980s&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=jehangir+karamat|accessdate=18 December 2017|language=en}}</ref> {{rp|356–357}}<ref name="Brookings Institution Press, Cohen">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Stephen P.|title=The Idea of Pakistan|date=2004|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=0-8157-9761-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-78yjVybQfkC&pg=PA357&dq=jehangir+karamat+saudi+1980s&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjK6MvfuJLYAhVR9WMKHV-7BZUQuwUILDAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=18 December 2017|language=en}}</ref> In 1988, [[Brigadier (United Kingdom)|Brig.]] Karamat returned from his combat duty, promoting to the [[Two-star rank|two-star]] rank assignment at the [[GHQ (Pakistan Army)|Army GHQ]].{{rp|232}}<ref name="Partridge Publishing, Bhattacharya">{{cite book|last1=Bhattacharya|first1=Brigadier Samir|title=NOTHING BUT!|date=2014|publisher=Partridge Publishing|isbn=978-1-4828-1732-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7GrAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA232&dq=jehangir+karamat+DG+MO&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj8lpjhu5LYAhVQ9mMKHfcTC5oQuwUIMTAB#v=onepage&q=jehangir%20karamat%20DG%20MO&f=false|language=en}}</ref> From 1988–1991, [[Major-General]] Karamat served as the [[Director-General|DGl]] of the [[Directorate-General]] of the [[Military operations|Military Operations]] (DGMO), where he was credited with playing a crucial role in advancing the fighting capabilities of the Pakistan Army while he planned numerous military exercises for Pakistan Army, and reviewed the contingency operations in [[Kargil]] sector.{{rp|77}}<ref name="Cambridge University Press, Lavoy">{{cite book|last1=Lavoy|first1=Peter R.|title=Asymmetric warfare in South Asia : the causes and consequences of the Kargil Conflict|date=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-76721-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-vifpWqV2WYC&pg=PA77&dq=jehangir+karamat+DG+MO&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj8lpjhu5LYAhVQ9mMKHfcTC5oQ6wEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=jehangir%20karamat%20DG%20MO&f=false|accessdate=18 December 2017|language=en|format=googlebooks|chapter=Pakistan's motivations and calculations.}}</ref>

In 1991, [[Major-General|Maj-Gen.]] Karamat was appointed as [[Director-General]] of the [[Pakistan Army Rangers]] in [[Sindh]] but this appointment was short-lived when he was promoted to the [[Three-star rank|three-star]] rank in 1992.<ref name="Strategicus and Tacticus" /><ref name="Emirates Centre for Strategic Studies">{{cite web|title=A Profile on Educated General|url=http://www.ecssr.ac.ae/ECSSR/print/prf.jsp?lang=en&prfId=/Profile/Profiles_0856.xml|publisher=Emirates Centre for Strategic Studies|accessdate=7 January 2015}}</ref>

In 1992, [[Lieutenant-General]] Karamat was appointed as field command of the [[II Corps (Pakistan)|II Strike Corps]], stationed in [[Multan]], which he commanded until 1994.<ref name="Tranquebar Press">{{cite book|last1=Mir|first1=Amir|title=The Bhutto Murder Trail: from Waziristan to GHQ|date=2010|publisher=Tranquebar Press|location=Chennai |isbn=9380658613 |url=}}</ref> In 1994, [[Lieutenant-General|Lt-Gen.]] Karamat was eventually elevated as the [[Chief of General Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of General Staff]] (CGS) at the [[GHQ (Pakistan Army)|Army GHQ]] under then-[[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|chief of army staff]] General [[Abdul Waheed Kakar]].<ref name="Tranquebar Press" /> From 1993–96, Karamat continued to serve as honorary [[Colonel Commandant]], and then [[Colonel-in-Chief]]—both ceremonial posts—of the [[Pakistan Army Armoured Corps|Armoured Corps]] from 1996–98.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Staff|title=COLONEL IN CHIEF-ARMOURED CORPS-01|url=http://www.pakarmymuseum.com/exhibits/colonel-in-chief-armoured-corps-01/|accessdate=9 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=COLONEL COMMANDANTS- ARMOURED CORPS|url=http://www.pakarmymuseum.com/exhibits/colonel-commandants-armoured-corps/|accessdate=9 January 2015}}</ref>

In 1995, [[Lieutenant-General|Lt-Gen.]] Karamat rose to public prominence when he had the [[Military Intelligence (Pakistan)|Military Intelligence]] (MI) to infiltrate within the [[Pakistan Army]] to apprehend the rogue culprits for [[1995 Pakistani coup d'état attempt|attempting]] a [[Military coups in Pakistan|coup d'état]].<ref name="Tranquebar Press" /> Acting under orders from the General Karamat, [[Director-General|DG]][[Military Intelligence of Pakistan|MI]] [[Major-General]] [[Ali Kuli Khan Khattak|Ali Kuli Khan]] monitored the activities of [[Major-General]] [[Zaheerul Islam Abbasi]] who himself was posted at the [[GHQ (Pakistan Army)|Army GHQ]].<ref name="Tranquebar Press" /> The [[Military Intelligence of Pakistan|MI]] tapped the conversations and tracked down the culprits behind the coup.<ref name="Tranquebar Press" /> Upon revelation, [[Lieutenant-General]] Karamat forwarded the case and facilitated the high-ranking joint [[Judge Advocate General Branch|JAG court]] hearings at the specified military courts, and convened many proceedings while the hearings were heard by the military judges led by a [[Vice-Admiral]].<ref name="Routledge. 2007">{{cite book|last1=Aziz|first1=Mazhar|title=Military Control in Pakistan: The Parallel State|date=2007 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=1-134-07410-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FuPfooVvD48C&pg=PA81&dq=Karamat+military+control&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vJWsVN6XJtPVoATawYHoDg&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Karamat%20military%20control&f=false|accessdate=}}</ref> His actions were widely perceived in the country, and for his efforts, General Karamat was conferred with national honours in public conventions and state gatherings.<ref name="Routledge. 2007" />

==Chief of Army Staff==

After approving the retirement papers of General [[Abdul Waheed Kakar|Kakar]], [[Lieutenant-General]] Karamat was appointed the Chief of Army Staff by Prime Minister [[Benazir Bhutto|Benazir]] who approved the paperwork for this appointment on 18 December 1995.<ref name="A.P.H. Publ.">{{cite book|last1=Chengappa|first1=Bidanda M.|title=Pakistan, Islamisation, army and foreign policy|date=2004|publisher=A.P.H. Publ.|location=New Delhi|isbn=8176485489|accessdate=}}</ref> Per [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Benazir Bhutto]]'s approval, [[President of Pakistan|President]] [[Farooq Ahmed Leghari|Farooq Leghari]] confirmed the promotion of Lieutenant-General Karamat to the [[four star rank|four-star]] rank and was appointed as the [[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Army Staff]] when General [[Abdul Waheed Kakar|Kakar]] was due to retire on 12 January 1996.<ref name="A.P.H. Publ."/>

At the time of his promotion, he was the senior most general at that time, and therefore at promotion to four-star general, he superseded no one.<ref>Ihtashamul Haque. [http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/1995/21Dc95.html#kara "Karamat named COAS"] ''Daily Dawn'', 12 December 1995</ref> At the time of his promotion, there were four senior generals in the race to replace Kakar as Chief of Army Staff: Lieutenant-General Jehangir Karamat, chief of general staff (CGS); Lieutenant-General Nasir Akhtar, [[quartermaster general]] (QMG); Lieutenant-General Muhammad Tariq, [[inspector-general]] training and evaluation (IGT&E) at the GHQ; and Lieutenant-General [[Javed Ashraf Qazi]], commander [[XXX Corps (Pakistan)|XXX Corps]] stationed in [[Gujranwala]].<ref>Shuja Nawaz. ''Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within'' (Oxford University Press, 2008)</ref> As Chief of Army Staff, General Karamat tried to work with the Prime minister and President at once, but soon came to understand that the misconducts of politicians and [[bureaucrats]] would eventually lead to the dismissal of Benazir Bhutto's final government.<ref name="Taylor and Francis-e-Library">{{cite book|last=Mazhar Aziz|title=Military control in Pakistan: the parallel state|year=2008|publisher=Taylor and Francis-e-Library|location=Milton Park, Didcot, Oxfordshire, UK|isbn=978-0-415-43743-1|pages=80–81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tIwXnkZOyoMC&pg=PA81&lpg=PA81&dq=dismissal+of+general++karamat&source=bl&ots=-Uzb9PkhEc&sig=zwt4KeYFNGEPqpdmNqT4C17HMxI&hl=en&ei=niLgTs62EJSOigKgnpSeDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dismissal%20of%20general%20%20karamat&f=false}}</ref>

General Karamat reached to then-[[Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan|Speaker]] of the [[National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly]] [[Yousaf Raza Gillani]] and "leaked" an intelligence information and tried convincing Benazir Bhutto and President Leghari to resolve their issues, and emphasised on focused on [[good governance]]. At one point, General Karamat wrote:

{{quote|text=In my opinion, if we have to repeat of past events then we must understand that Military leaders can pressure only up to a point. Beyond that their own position starts getting undermined because the military is after all is a mirror image of the society from which it is drawn. |sign=General Jehangir Karamat commenting on Benazir's dismissal |source=<ref name="Taylor and Francis-e-Library"/>}}

==Chairman of Joint Chiefs==

In 1997, [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman joint chiefs]] [[Air Chief Marshal]] [[Farooq Feroze Khan]] was due retirement. On immediate basis, [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]] appeared in [[News channels in Pakistan|news channels]] to confirmed General Karamat as the new [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman joint chiefs]].<ref name="Authorhouse">{{cite book|last1=Hasanie|first1=Ali Abbas|title=Democracy in pakistan : crises, conflicts and hope for a change.|date=2013|publisher=Authorhouse|location=[S.l.]|isbn=1481790684|accessdate=}}</ref> The appointment was met no resistance in the [[Pakistani military|military]], and General Karamat appointed as [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman joint chiefs]]; he supersedes no one.

General Karamat drove [[Pakistan Armed Forces]] to focus on more professional duties rather than playing politics.<ref name="Authorhouse"/> Karamat worked on integrating Pakistan's military on a common platform, and had his staff worked on inter-services coordination in the battlefield.<ref name="Kalpaz Publ.">{{cite book|last1=Mishra|first1=Keshav|title=Rapprochement across the Himalayas : emerging India-China relations in post Cold War period (1947–2003)|date=2004|publisher=Kalpaz Publ.|location=New Delhi|isbn=817835294X|accessdate=}}</ref> Karamat strengthened the joint work coordination and joint logistics of the military at the war time situations, resolving many issues that would hampered the performances of the inter-services in the war or peacetime situations.<ref name="Yale University Press"/><ref name="Brookings Inst. Press">{{cite book|last1=Talbott|first1=Strobe|title=Engaging India : diplomacy, democracy, and the bomb|date=2004|publisher=Brookings Inst. Press|location=Washington, DC|isbn=0815783000|edition=[Advance uncorrected manuscript].|accessdate=}}</ref>

As an aftermath of India's [[Pokhran-II|nuclear tests]] in 1998, General Karamat acted as principle military adviser to the government, aiding the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]] on military platform.<ref name="United States Institute of Peace">{{cite book|last1=Schaffer|first1=Howard B.|last2=Schaffer|first2=Teresita C.|title=How Pakistan negotiates with the United States : riding the roller coaster|date=2011|publisher=United States Institute of Peace|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=1601270755|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=axT9i-FhO0UC&pg=PA103&dq=Jehangir+Karamat&hl=en&sa=X&ei=C7mrVP-3EY2xogTG3YHABw&ved=0CDgQuwUwBA#v=onepage&q=Jehangir%20Karamat&f=true|accessdate=|chapter=§Pakistan's politicians}}</ref> At the telephonic meeting with the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]], [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] offered lucrative aid to Pakistan for not testing its [[Nuclear device|devices]]; [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif|Sharif]]'s response was inconclusive. [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] described the meeting with the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]] to [[Strobe Talbott]]: "You can almost hear the guy [Sharif] wringing his hands and sweating."<ref name="United States Institute of Peace"/>

With requests made by [[Strobe Talbott]] [[USCENTCOM|CENTCOM]] commander, General [[Anthony Zinni]] and US [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff|Chairman Joint chiefs]] General [[Henry Shelton]], met with General Karamat to withdraw the decision to conduct [[nuclear weapon|nuclear test]].<ref name="United States Institute of Peace"/> Zinni'e meeting with Karamat was described by [[Strobe Talbott]] as less contentious. General Karamat and General Zinni were able to draw "soldier–to–soldier" bond.<ref name="United States Institute of Peace"/> General Karamat made it clear that the final decision would be carried out by the civilian government.<ref name="United States Institute of Peace"/> At the [[National Security Council (Pakistan)|NSC]] [[Cabinet Committee on National Security|cabinet meeting]], the Pakistani government, military, scientific, and civilian officials were participating in a debate, broadening, and complicating the decision-making process.<ref name="United States Institute of Peace"/> Although, General Karamat debated towards presenting the [[Cabinet Committee on National Security|national security]] and military point of view, the final decision was left on [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]]'s say.<ref name="United States Institute of Peace"/>

After the decision was made, General Karamat was notified of [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]]'s decision and asked the military to be stand-by orders. After providing the joint military logistics, the nuclear tests were eventually carried out on 28 May 1998, as [[Chagai-I]], and on 30 May 1998 as codename: [[Chagai-II]].<ref name="The Nation, 1998">{{cite news|last1=Azam |first1=Rai Muhammad Saleh |title=When Mountains Move – The Story of Chagai |url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/june/chagai.htm |accessdate=7 January 2015 |work=Article written by RMS Azam ives a detailed account of events and personalities leading to Pakistan first nuclear explosion |agency=The Nation, 1998 |publisher=The Nation, 1998 |date=2 June 2000 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401181303/http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/june/chagai.htm |archivedate= 1 April 2012 |df= }}</ref> As dawn broke over the Chagai mountains, Pakistan became the world's seventh nuclear power.<ref name="Yale University Press">{{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=Owen Bennett|title=Pakistan eye of the storm|date=2003|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, Conn.|isbn=0300101473|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ONZpltd6UZ8C&pg=PA193&dq=Karamat+Chagai&hl=en&sa=X&ei=y9OsVOqUKtjioASnsoG4Dw&ved=0CDcQ6wEwBA#v=onepage&q=Karamat%20Chagai&f=false|accessdate=}}</ref>

===Removal from Chairman joint chiefs===
{{Main|Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's relief of General Jehangir Karamat}}

As the [[nuclear test]]s were conducted, there was a strong feelings in the military all together that any concession to India on Kashmir policy and other related issues would lead to a decline in the prestige and standing of the [[Pakistani military|armed forces]]. After the failure to pass the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan|fifteenth amendment]] to the [[Constitution of Pakistan|Constitution]], there were concerns raised by [[Benazir Bhutto]] and the [[Pakistan Peoples Party]] on [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] Nawaz Sharif's absolute control over the [[Politics in Pakistan|politics]], [[National Security Council (Pakistan)|national security]], and [[Foreign policy of Pakistan|foreign policy]].<ref name="Tribune India,1998">{{cite news|last1=Jaisingh|first1=Hari|title=Beleaguered Sharif wins first round|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/1998/98oct09/head5.htm|accessdate=7 January 2015|agency=Tribune India|publisher=Tribune India, 1998|date=9 October 1998}}</ref>

On 6 October 1998, General Karamat lectured at the [[Pakistan Naval War College|Naval War College]] in [[Karachi]] on the [[Civil military relations|civic-military relations]] and presented the idea on reestablishing the official [[National Security Council (Pakistan)|National Security Council]] (NSC) where [[Pakistani military|military]] could have representation in the country's politics.<ref name="Times Megazine, 1998">{{cite news|last1=McGrik|first1=TIm|title=The General Speaks Out|url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2054276,00.html|accessdate=7 January 2015|agency=Times Magazine|publisher=Times Magazine, 1998|date=19 October 1998}}</ref> General Karamat openly spoke on the role of the [[Internal security|internal intelligences]], such as [[Federal Investigation Agency|FIA]] and [[Intelligence Bureau (Pakistan)|IB]], carrying out vendettas-like operations against political opponents and insecurity-driven and expedient policies while Pakistan capsized, at the behest of the politicians.<ref name="Times Megazine, 1998"/> Prime Minister [[Nawaz Sharif|Sharif]] and his cabinet members perceived this idea as [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman joint chiefs]]'s interference in [[Politics in Pakistan|national politics]], therefore Sharif forced to resign Karamat when he criticised Pakistan's political leadership and advocated a National Security Council that would give the military a constitutional role in running the country, similar to Turkey's.<ref name="Owen Bennett-Jones">.{{cite news|last1=Bennett-Jones|first1=Owen|title=Analysis:Resignation shifts balance of power|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/189233.stm |publisher=BBC News|date=8 October 1998|accessdate=19 February 2016}}</ref> In 1998, Prime Minister Sharif decided to relief General Karamat from the [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|chairmanship]] of [[Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|joint chiefs]], eventually had him tendering his signature resignation at the [[Prime Minister's Secretariat (Pakistan)|Prime Minister's Secretariat]].

The relief of the famous and famed general by the popular politician led to a storm of public controversy.<ref name="Owen Bennett-Jones"/><ref name="Oxford University Press, 2009">Aziz, PhD (Economics), Sartaj (2009) [2009], Between dreams and realities: some milestones in Pakistan's history (Illustrated ed.), Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 408, {{ISBN|978-0-19-547718-4}}</ref> Many influential ministers and advisers in Prime Minister Sharif's circle saw this decision as "ill-considered" and "blunder" made by the Prime Minister.<ref name="Stanford University Press">{{cite book|last1=Khan|first1=Feroze|title=Eating Grass: the making of Pakistan's atomic bomb|date=2010|publisher=§Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, Calif. [u.s.]|isbn=0804784809|accessdate=|chapter=CIvil-military relations and problems}}</ref> At the military, Admiral [[Fasih Bokhari]] ([[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff]] at that time) criticized General Karamat for resigning but Karamat defended his actions as "right thing" to do as he lost th confidence of a constitutionally and [[Elections in Pakistan|popularly elected]] [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]].<ref name="Brookings Institution Press, 2004">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Stephen Philip|title=The idea of Pakistan|date=2004|publisher=Brookings Institution Press, 2004|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=0815797613|edition=1st pbk.|accessdate=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-78yjVybQfkC&pg=PA150&dq=Jehangir+Karamat+National+Security+Council&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wNisVJSVG8rgoATkw4CYAw&ved=0CCYQuwUwAQ#v=onepage&q=Jehangir%20Karamat%20National%20Security%20Council&f=true}}</ref>

As General Karamat received a full [[guard of honour]] [[Honorable discharge|retirement]] in a colorful ceremony as [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman joint chiefs]] and [[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|chief of army staff]], Prime Minister Sharif's mandate plummeted and his popularity waned as the majority of the public disapproved of the decision to relieve Karamat.<ref name="Brookings Institution Press, 2004"/> Prime Minister Sharif's further suffered with wide public disapproval after appointing much-junior General [[Pervez Musharraf]] at the both capacity, overruling the Admiral [[Fasih Bokhari|Bokhari]]'s turn as the [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman joint chiefs]].<ref name="Brookings Institution Press, 2004"/> In 1999, Musharraf's unilateral initiation of the [[Kargil war]] against [[India]] nearly pushed Pakistan and India to the brink of an all-out war between the two [[Nuclear states]]. Eventually, in the same year, [[Pervez Musharraf|Musharraf]] staged a successful [[1999 Pakistani coup d'état|coup d'état]] and overthrew Prime Minister Sharif.<ref name="APH Pub. Corp.">{{cite book|last1=Dutt|first1=Sanjay|title=Inside Pakistan : 52 years outlook|date=2000|publisher=APH Pub. Corp.|location=New Delhi|isbn=8176481572|accessdate=}}</ref>

Upon winning the [[Pakistani general election, 2013|general elections]] in 2013, [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif|Sharif]] did exactly what General Karamat had called for; first reestablishing the [[National Security Council (Pakistan)|NSC]] with [[Pakistani military|military]] gaining representation in the country's politics; and further making more reforms in [[Pakistan Intelligence Community|intelligence community]].<ref name="Harvard University Press">{{cite book|last1=Shah|first1=Aqil|title=The Armed Forces and Democracy|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Harvard, U.S|isbn=0674419774|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShihAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA285&dq=Jehangir+Karamat+National+Security+Council&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wNisVJSVG8rgoATkw4CYAw&ved=0CDIQuwUwAw#v=onepage&q=Jehangir%20Karamat%20National%20Security%20Council&f=false|accessdate=|chapter=Conclusion}}</ref>

==Academic career==

Before elevating to four-star assignments, General Karamat was the full [[Full Professor|tenured professor]] of the [[Political science]] at the [[National Defense University, Islamabad|National Defense University]] and held the chair of military science at the Armed Forces War College.<ref name=Spearhead /> Among his notable students included [[Pervez Musharraf]], [[Ali Kuli Khan Khattak|Ali Kuli Khan]], [[Fasih Bokhari]] and [[Abdul Aziz Mirza]] who studied under his guidance. Karamat had significance influence on [[Fasih Bokhari|Bokhari]] and [[Pervez Musharraf|Musharraf's]] [[philosophy]] and [[critical thinking]].<ref name="Free Press" />

In 2000, Karamat accepted the [[professorship]] of [[War studies]] at the [[Center for International Security and Cooperation|CISAC Institute]] of the [[Stanford University]] in [[Stanford, California|Stanford]], [[California]], [[United States]].<ref name="Emirates Centre for Strategic Studies" /> In addition, he was selected as a scholar and awarded research associateship on [[civil military relations]] at the [[Brookings Institution]] based in [[Washington, D.C.]], [[United States]].<ref name="Emirates Centre for Strategic Studies" /> In 2001, Karamat joined the [[United Nations]] (UN) and was a part of the [[Area studies|area study]] on [[Afghanistan]].<ref name="Daily Times, 2004">{{cite news|last1=Staff reporter |title=Jehangir Karamat next ambassador to the US |url=http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/main/22-Aug-2004/jehangir-karamat-next-ambassador-to-the-us |accessdate=9 January 2015 |agency=Daily Times, 2004 |publisher=Daily Times, 2004 |date=22 August 2004 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109041645/http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/main/22-Aug-2004/jehangir-karamat-next-ambassador-to-the-us |archivedate= 9 January 2015 |df= }}</ref> Thereafter, Karamat joined the influential [[Islamabad Policy Research Institute]] (IPRI) as the chairman of the [[board of governors]].<ref name="Emirates Centre for Strategic Studies" />

==Ambassador to the United States==

In 2004, Karamat was first mentioned and named for the appointment as the [[Pakistan Ambassador to the United States|Pakistan Ambassador]] to the [[United States]]. His nomination came after the outgoing [[Pakistan Ambassador to the United States|Pakistan Ambassador]], [[Ashraf Qazi|Ashraf Jehangir Qazi]], termed was due expired. On 23 September 2004, [[Pakistan Ambassador to the United States|Pakistan Ambassador]] [[Ashraf Qazi|Qazi]] was appointed by then-[[United Nations Secretary-General|Secretary General of the United Nations]], [[Kofi Annan]], as [[Special Representative of the Secretary-General]] for the [[United Nations Assistance Mission in Iraq]].<ref name="The Hindu, 2004">{{cite news|last1=Reddy|first1=B. Muralidhar|title=Jehangir Karamat is new Pakistan envoy to U.S.|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2004/09/24/stories/2004092404551100.htm|accessdate=9 January 2015|agency=The Hindu, 2004|publisher=The Hindu, 2004|date=23 September 2004}}</ref> On 10 December 2004, Karamat presented his [[Diplomatic credentials|credentials]] to [[President of the United States|President]] [[President George W Bush|George W. Bush]].<ref name="Daily Times, Washington">{{cite news|last1=APP |title=Gen Karamat meets Bush |url=http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/national/10-Dec-2004/gen-karamat-meets-bush |accessdate=9 January 2015 |agency=Daily Times, Washington |publisher=Daily Times, Washington |date=10 December 2004 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109041348/http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/national/10-Dec-2004/gen-karamat-meets-bush |archivedate= 9 January 2015 |df= }}</ref>

On 23 March 2006, Pakistani [[News channels in Pakistan|news media]] reported that Ambassador Karamat was to be replaced by retired [[Major General]] [[Mahmud Ali Durrani]]. The reports further stated Ambassador Karamat, who took his post on a two-year contract, would be returning home after only a year and a half.<ref>Khalid Hasan. [http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006%5C03%5C23%5Cstory_23-3-2006_pg7_4 'Durrani in, Karamat out'] ''Daily Times'', 23 March 2006</ref> These speculations were confirmed by the [[Foreign Office of Pakistan|Foreign Office]] (FO) and noted that "Karamat will not be in the reception line at the [[Chaklala Airbase]] to welcome President George Bush.<ref name="Dawn News, 2006">{{cite news|last1=QA|title=Jehangir-Karamat-to-miss-bush-visit|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/181324/jehangir-karamat-to-miss-bush-visit|accessdate=9 January 2015|agency=Dawn News, 2006|publisher=Dawn News|date=3 March 2006}}</ref>

While his stint as [[Pakistan Ambassador to the United States|Pakistan Ambassador]], Karamat made the [[pro-democracy]] statements at the different [[Pakistani American]] gatherings, while passing critics to [[President of Pakistan|President]] [[Pervez Musharraf|Musharraf]]'s style of running the [[Government of Pakistan|civilian government]].<ref name="Pakistan Weekly, 2006"/> In private, Karamat confided in Washington based U.S. journalist that "General [[Musharraf]] had made up [[Pervez Musharraf#Nuclear scandals|this story to create wedge]] between [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]] and him to get him fired in 1998."<ref name="Pakistan Weekly, 2006">{{cite news|last1=Editorial|title=Why General Jehangir Karamat Falls From Grace?|url=http://www.pakistanweekly.com/Archive1/Ashraf45.htm|accessdate=9 January 2015|agency=Pakistan Weekly|publisher=Pakistan Weekly, 2006|date=24 October 2012}}</ref>

==Founding think tank==
After his ambassadorship, General Karamat founded a socio-political policy and analysis institute, ''Spearhead Research'', which focuses on social, economic, military and political issues concerning Pakistan and Afghanistan. General Karamat is the director and contributor to the Spearhead Research Institute.

==See also==
*[[Civilian control of the military]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/AWPReview/TextContent.aspx?pId=154 Official profile at Pakistan Army website]

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{{s-mil}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=Farrakh Khan}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Chief of General Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of General Staff]]|years=1994–1996}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Iftikhar Ali Khan (general)|Iftikhar Ali Khan]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Abdul Waheed Kakar]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Army Staff]]|years=1996–1998}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Pervez Musharraf]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Farooq Feroze Khan]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (Pakistan)|Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee]]|years=1997–1998}}
|-
{{s-dip}}
|-
{{succession box | before = [[Ashraf Jehangir Qazi]]| title = [[Pakistan Ambassador to the United States]] | years = 2004–2006 | after = [[Mahmud Ali Durrani]]}}
{{end}}

{{CJCSC Pakistan |state=expanded}}
{{Military of Pakistan}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Karamat, Jehangir}}
[[Category:1941 births]]
[[Category:Punjabi people]]
[[Category:People from Karachi]]
[[Category:St Patrick's High School, Karachi alumni]]
[[Category:Pakistan Military Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Pakistan Army Armored Corps officers]]
[[Category:Pakistani military personnel of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]
[[Category:National Defence University, Pakistan alumni]]
[[Category:Non-U.S. alumni of the Command and General Staff College]]
[[Category:National Defence University, Pakistan faculty]]
[[Category:Pakistani generals]]
[[Category:Chiefs of Army Staff, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Chairmen Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Nawaz Sharif administration]]
[[Category:Political theorists]]
[[Category:Pakistani academics]]
[[Category:Pakistani political scientists]]
[[Category:Stanford University faculty]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of Pakistan to the United States]]
[[Category:Pakistani democracy activists]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Karachi]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Pakistan Navy

2018-08-18T17:52:46Z

Jprg1966: /* Cold war operations and post cold war: 1972–1998 */

{{short description|naval warfare branch of Pakistan Armed Forces}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = Pakistan Navy
| image = Pakistan Navy emblem.svg
| image_size = 100px
| caption = Pakistan Navy's Crest
| dates = 14 August 1947 – present
| country = {{PAK}}
| branch =
| type = [[Navy]]
| role =
| size = 23,800 active personnel (inclusive of 3,200 Marines and 2,000 [[Maritime Security Agency|MSA]])<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=Vk8-vgAACAAJ&dq=IISS+2017&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUoJDCg-PZAhXNmOAKHddYBiMQ6AEIJzAA</ref> 63 [[Pakistan Navy#Fleet composition|ships]] & 101 aircraft<ref name="Flightglobal">[https://d1fmezig7cekam.cloudfront.net/VPP/Global/Flight/Airline%20Business/AB%20home/Edit/WorldAirForces2015.pdf Flightglobal - World Air Forces 2015] (PDF), [[Flightglobal.com]]</ref>
| command_structure = [[Ministry of Defence (Pakistan)|Ministry of Defence]] [[Pakistan Armed Forces]]
| garrison = [[Naval Headquarters (Pakistan Navy)|Naval Headquarters]] [[Islamabad]], Pakistan
| garrison_label = Naval Headquarters (NHQ)
| nickname = {{lang|ur|پاک بحریہ|rtl=yes}} or Pak Navy
| patron =
| motto = Urdu: ''Himmat ka alam, Allah ka karam, Moujon pay qadam ''English: "Of courage, God's grace, tread on the waves"
| colors = Navy blue and White {{color box|#041A2A}}{{color box|white}}
| colors_label = Colours
| march =
| mascot =
| equipment =
| equipment_label =
| battles = <div style="width: 220px;"> [[Indo-Pakistan war of 1965]] [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]] [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1999]] [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|2004 Tsunami Relief Operations]] [[2010 Pakistan floods|Operation Madad]] [[Piracy in Somalia|Operations Near the HOA]] [[War in North-West Pakistan]] [[Balochistan conflict]]
| anniversaries = Navy Day is on 8 September
| decorations = [[Awards and decorations of the Pakistan military|Military]] and [[Civil decorations of Pakistan|Civil decorations]] of [[Pakistan]].
| battle_honours = [[Nishan-e-Haider]]
| website = {{URL|www.paknavy.gov.pk}}
| commander1 = [[Admiral]] [[Zafar Mahmood Abbasi]]
| commander1_label = [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff]]
| commander2 = Vice-Admiral [[Kaleem Shaukat]]
| commander2_label = [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)#Vice Chief of Naval Staff|Vice Chief of Naval Staff]]
| commander3 =
| commander3_label =
| notable_commanders = Admiral [[Mohammad Shariff]] Admiral [[Iftikhar Ahmed Sirohey]] Vice-Admiral [[Syed Mohammad Ahsan]]
| identification_symbol = [[File:Naval Standard of Pakistan.svg|border|125px]]
| identification_symbol_label = Standard (flag) of the Navy
| identification_symbol_2 = [[File:Naval Jack of Pakistan.svg|125px]]
| identification_symbol_3 = [[File:Naval Ensign of Pakistan.svg|border|125px]]
| identification_symbol_4 =
| identification_symbol_2_label = Naval Jack of Pakistan
| identification_symbol_3_label = Naval Ensign of Pakistan
| identification_symbol_4_label = 
| aircraft_attack =
| aircraft_bomber = [[Mirage 5]]
| aircraft_electronic = [[Hawker 800|Hawker 850–XP]]
| aircraft_fighter =
| aircraft_helicopter = [[Westland Sea King]], [[Aérospatiale Alouette III|Aérospatiale SA-319B Alouette III]], [[Harbin Z-9]]
| aircraft_interceptor =
| aircraft_patrol = [[Lockheed P-3 Orion|Lockheed P-3C Orion]], [[Fokker F27 Friendship|Fokker F27-2000]], [[Breguet Atlantic|Breguet Atlantique I]], [[ATR-72-500]]
| aircraft_recon = [[GIDS Uqab]], [[Boeing Insitu ScanEagle|Boeing ScanEagle]], [[EMT Luna X-2000|EMT Luna X]]
| aircraft_trainer =
| aircraft_transport =
| native_name = {{Nastaliq|'''پاکستان بحریہ'''|rtl=yes}}
}}

The '''Pakistan Navy''' ({{lang-ur|{{Nastaliq|'''پاکستان بحریہ'''|rtl=yes}}}}; {{lang|ur-Latn|Pɑkistan Bahri'a}}) ([[reporting name]]: '''PN''') is the [[naval warfare]] branch of the [[Pakistan Armed Forces]], responsible for [[Pakistan]]'s {{Convert|1046|km|sigfig=3}} of coastline along the [[Arabian Sea]], and the defence of important civilian harbours and military bases. The Pakistan Navy came into the existence after the [[Independence of Pakistan|independence]] of Pakistan in 1947. The [[President of Pakistan]] serves as the Supreme Commander of the Navy under Article 243 (2) of the [[Constitution of Pakistan]], and the Chief of Naval Staff heads the Navy. [[Navy Day]] is celebrated on 8 September in commemoration of the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]].<ref>[http://pakistantimes.net/2005/09/06/top2.htm Pakistan Times | Top Story: Defence Day in Pakistan today; President, PM ask nation to imbibe spirit of ’65 War] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214201007/http://pakistantimes.net/2005/09/06/top2.htm |date=14 February 2009 }}</ref>

The Pakistan Navy's current and primary role is to protect the country's economic and military interests at home and abroad, executing the foreign and defence policies of the [[Government of Pakistan]] through the exercise of military effect, diplomatic activities and other activities in support of these objectives.<ref name="Pakistan Navy Public and Military Affairs">{{cite web| last =Pakistan Navy| title =Pakistan Navy: Roles and Function| work =Naval Inter-Service Public Relation (Naval ISPR)| publisher =Pakistan Navy Public and Military Affairs| date =18 March 2008| url =http://www.paknavy.gov.pk| doi =| accessdate =2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| last =Khan, Pakistan Navy (retired), current research officer at Pakistan Naval War College| first =Commander Muhammad Azam| title =Options for Pakistan Navy: § Pakistan Navy: A sentinel for energy and economic security| journal =| volume = | issue = | page =7 | publisher =Commander Muhammad Azam Khan, retired. Current, research officer at the Pakistan Naval War College| location =[[United States Naval Academy]]| year =2011| url =https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:07Y3Irx3AO8J:www.usnwc.edu/getattachment/cc6209f2-7f01-4bb7-ac24-8c301c62f015/S-2--Options-for-the-Pakistan-Navy+pakistan+navy+in+space+program&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESiCaTe2oeJ2JwqKQE0UX8j-cw-UPdVfozoMAwRfsYewXAXeayLVIPxn2TyMVcGTW9A_BdSqACZjpRhb8_u-EfL-kslbz7CXPTIr9PZBtAguv97XWyY4K4fsg2utDUL8dmXdtmjg&sig=AHIEtbTIXTgr9LKaJv5Fbgnj_ftn-1MQzw| accessdate = }}</ref> In the 21st century, the Pakistan Navy also focuses on limited overseas operations, and has played a vital role in the establishment of the [[Pakistan Antarctic Programme]].<ref>Mills, J.M. (2003). Exploring polar frontiers: a historical encyclopedia. 1 (A–M). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.</ref><ref>{{cite web| last =PN| first =Pakistan Navy| authorlink =| coauthors =| title =Pakistan Navy: Hydrography| work =Naval Inter-Service Public Relation (Naval ISPR)| publisher =Pakistan Navy Department of National Research and Hydrography| url =http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/hydro/h_intro.htm| doi =| accessdate =2011| deadurl =yes| archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20150924063443/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/hydro/h_intro.htm| archivedate =24 September 2015| df =dmy-all}}</ref>

As of 2017, per IISS, the Pakistan Navy has 23,800 active personnel inclusive of 3,200 Marines and 2,000 personnel of [[Maritime Security Agency]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vk8-vgAACAAJ&dq=IISS+2017&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUoJDCg-PZAhXNmOAKHddYBiMQ6AEIJzAA|title=The Military Balance 2017|last=(Iiss)|first=The International Institute of Strategic Studies|date=2017-02-14|publisher=Routledge, Chapman & Hall, Incorporated|isbn=9781857439007|language=en}}</ref> The Pakistan Navy is supported by the [[Pakistan Coast Guard]], and the [[Maritime Security Agency]] (MSA), the paramilitary forces of Pakistan.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

The Navy is undergoing extensive [[Pakistan Navy#Frigates|modernisation and expansion]] as part of [[Pakistan's role in the War on Terror]]. Since 2001, the Pakistan Navy has increased and expanded its operational scope, and has been given greater national and international responsibility in countering the threat of sea-based global terrorism, drug smuggling, and piracy.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} In 2004, Pakistan Navy became a member of the primarily [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]] Combined Task Forces [[CTF-150]] and [[CTF-151]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page%3D2009%5C07%5C21%5Cstory_21-7-2009_pg7_29 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-06-18 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202235725/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2009%5C07%5C21%5Cstory_21-7-2009_pg7_29 |archivedate=2 December 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref> The [[China-Pakistan Economic Corridor]] has significantly expanded the role of the navy, joint patrols with the Chinese navy as well as providing land and sea-based security to secure shipping lanes has become a priority.<ref>https://www.samaa.tv/pakistan/2016/11/pakistan-navy-providing-security-to-cpec-ships/</ref><ref>https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/two-chinese-frigates-arrive-pakistan-for-joint-drills-pakistan-navy/</ref> From December 2016 Pakistan's Navy established TF-88 a taskforce that is designed to ensure there is security for maritime trade, this will guard the shipping lane routes by protecting Gwadar Port.<ref>http://www.dawn.com/news/1302102/pakistan-navys-special-task-force-88-set-up-to-guard-gwadar-ports-sea-lanes</ref><ref>https://www.geo.tv/latest/123558-Pakistan-Navy-establishes-taskforce-for-Gwadars-protection</ref> The Pakistan Navy is the custodian of Pakistan's second strike capability with the launch of the submarine-based cruise missiles capable of carrying conventional as well as nuclear warheads.<ref>https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-missiles-idUSKBN14T1EL</ref>

The [[Constitution of Pakistan]] makes the [[President of Pakistan]] the civilian Commander-in-Chief. The Chief of Naval Staff (CNS), by statute a four star admiral, is appointed by the President with the consultation and confirmation needed from the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]]. The Chief of Naval Staff is subordinate to the civilian [[Defence Minister of Pakistan|Defence Minister]] and [[Defence Secretary of Pakistan|Secretary of Defence]], and commands the Navy.

On 10 June 2018, Pak Navy rescued eleven [[Iran|Iranian]] crew members on an sunken Iranian boat in the open Northern [[Arabian Sea]], about {{Convert|230|km}} away from [[Karachi]].The rescue operation lasted for about one and half hour resulting in safe recovery of all Iranian crew members to Pakistan Navy Air Base, PNS MEHRAN at [[Karachi]].The survived crew members thanked Pak Navy for prompt and professional response.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pak Navy Sea King Helicopters rescued eleven members on an Iranian Boat |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/327842-pak-navy-helicopters-rescue-11-iranian-crew-members |website=www.thenews.com.pk |accessdate=7 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=News on radio.gov.pk |url=http://www.radio.gov.pk/09-06-2018/pakistan-navy-rescues-11-people-on-iranian-boat |website=www.radio.gov.pk |accessdate=7 July 2018}}</ref>

==History==
{{quote|text= [[Fourteenth of August|Today]] is a historic day for Pakistan, doubly so for those of us in the Navy. The [[Dominion of Pakistan]] has come into being and with it a new Navy – the Royal Pakistan Navy – has been born. I am proud to have been appointed to command it and serve with you at this time. In the coming months, it will be my duty and yours to build up our Navy into a happy and efficient force|sign=[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the [[Quaid-e-Azam|founder]] of [[Pakistan]], addressing the [[Pakistan Naval Academy|Naval Academy]] in March 1948.|source=<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference"/> }}

The Pakistan Navy came into existence on the [[Independence Day (Pakistan)|Fourteenth of August]], 1947 with the [[Creation of Pakistan|establishment]] of the [[State of Pakistan]].<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference">{{cite web|last=GoPAK|first=Government of Pakistan|title=History|url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/history.htm|work=Electronic Government of Pakistan|publisher=Pakistan Navy, Historical reference|accessdate=6 April 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205154529/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/history.htm|archivedate=5 December 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Armed Forces Reconstitution Committee (AFRC) divided the shares and assets of the [[Royal Indian Navy]] (RIN) between the [[India and Pakistan]], with the Royal Pakistan Navy (RPN) was inherited with two [[sloop]]s, two [[frigate]]s, four minesweepers, two [[naval trawler]]s, four harbour launches.{{rp|45–46}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Because of the high percentage of [[river delta|delta]] areas on its coast, Pakistan also received a number of [[Harbour Defence Motor Launch|harbour defence motor launches]]. As part of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the prefix "Royal" was used until the state was proclaimed a republic in 1956.<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference"/>

The Navy endured a difficult history, only 200 officers and 3000 sailors were inherited to the Navy, the most senior being [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] [[HMS Choudri]] who had little experience in [[military staff]]ing.<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The Navy suffered perennial problems with inadequate staff, lack of operational bases, lack of financial support, and poor technological and personnel resources.{{rp|45}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Secondly, it grew out as the smallest [[Pakistan military|uniform branch]] that contributed in its lack of importance in [[Ministry of Finance, Revenue, Economic Affairs, Statistics and Privatization (Pakistan)|federal budgets]] as well as the problems relating to its institutional infrastructure.{{rp|46}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The [[Pakistan Army|Army]] and the [[Pakistan Air Force|Air Force]] were the dominant force where the defence problems were based wholly on army and air force point of view.{{rp|46}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> There were additional problems relating to the navy were the lack of facilities and maintenance machinery as the only [[naval dockyard]] in [[Indian Subcontinent|subcontinent]] was located in [[Bombay Dockyard|Bombay]] in [[India]].{{rp|46}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

To overcome these difficulties, the Navy launched a recruitment program for the young nation, starting in [[East Pakistan|East-Pakistan]] but it proved to be very difficult to sustain the program; therefore, was moved back to [[Pakistan]] to concentrate the preferred recruitments for the [[West Pakistani|Western Pakistanis]].{{rp|46}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Furthermore, the Navy's procurement was greatly determined by its war role and had to struggle for a role for itself throughout its history from its existence.{{rp|66}}<ref name="Springer, Siddiqa-Agha">{{cite book|last1=Siddiqa-Agha|first1=A.|title=Pakistan's Arms Procurement and Military Buildup, 1979-99: In Search of a Policy|publisher=Springer|isbn=9780230513525|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beJ8DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66&dq=Fasih+Bokhari+1990s&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2r4fO8cfRAhURyGMKHXIPCIoQuwUIHTAA#v=onepage&q=Fasih%20Bokhari%201990s&f=false|accessdate=17 January 2017|language=en}}</ref>

===The beginning: 1947–64===
{{Main|United Kingdom-Pakistan relations|l1=Pakistan-United Kingdom military relations|Pakistan-United States military relations|Indo-Pakistani war of 1947|British Admiralty|Military Advisory Assistance Group}}
[[File:Shamsher Pakistan SLV Green 1951.jpg|thumb|left|350px|The [[frigate]] [[HMS Nadder (K392)|PNS ''Shamsher'']] in 1951.]]

During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|first war]] with [[India]] in 1947–48, the Navy saw no action as all fighting was restricted to [[Land Warfare|land]] and [[Air warfare|air]] combat missions. On operational planning, Captain [[HMS Choudri]] engaged on commanding a [[destroyer]] from [[Karachi]] to [[Mumbai]] to oversee the evacuation of [[Muhajir people|Indian emigrants]] to Pakistan.{{rp|474}}<ref name="W. W. Norton & Company">{{cite book|last1=Read|first1=Anthony|last2=Fisher|first2=David|title=The Proudest Day: India's Long Road to Independence|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=9780393318982|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q9ebuSG64dkC&pg=PA474&dq=HMS+choudhri&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjMnNnu-IvQAhVMxWMKHZ87DCcQuwUIJzAB#v=onepage&q=HMS%20choudhri&f=false|accessdate=3 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> In 1948, Pakistan Navy engaged in humanitarian missions to evacuate [[Indian immigrant]]s trapped in disputed and hostile areas, with its frigates operating continuously.<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff]], [[Rear-Admiral]] [[James Wilfred Jefford]], had created a "Short-term Emergency Plan (STEP)" to work up the [[frigate]]s and naval defences in case of escalation of the war at sea.<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> In 1948, the directorate-general for [[Naval Intelligence of Pakistan|Naval Intelligence]] (DGNI), a staff corps, was established under [[Lieutenant (naval)|Lieutenant]] [[Syed Mohammad Ahsan]], who served as its first Director-General, in Karachi.<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference" /> When the first war came to an end in 1948, the Navy temporarily established its [[NHQ (Pakistan Navy)|Navy NHQ]] in Karachi and acquired its first [[O and P-class destroyer|O-class destroyer]] from the [[Royal Navy]].{{rp|49}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

The Pakistan Navy heavily relied its dependency on generous donations from the Royal Navy with two {{sclass2-|Battle|destroyer|2}}s, {{ship|PNS|Tippu Sultan|1941|6}} and {{ship|PNS|Tariq|1941|6}}.<ref name="PakDef Military Consortium">{{cite web|last1=PakDef Military Consortium|title=The First Destroyer «|url=http://pakdef.org/the-first-destroyer/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060749/http://pakdef.org/the-first-destroyer/|dead-url=yes|archive-date=4 March 2016|website=pakdef.org|publisher=PakDef Military Consortium|accessdate=14 November 2016}}</ref> ''Tippu Sultan'' was [[Ship commissioning|commissioned]] on 30 September 1949, under Commander P.S. Evans, whilst ''Tariq'' was placed under the command of [[Lieutenant-Commander]] [[Afzal Rahman Khan]].<ref name="PakDef Military Consortium"/> The two destroyers formed the 25th Destroyer Squadron as [[HMIS Narbada (U40)|PNS ''Jhelum'']] and [[HMS Onslaught (G04)|PNS ''Tughril'']], under Commander [[Muzaffar Hassan|Muzaffar Hasan]], also joined the Royal Pakistan Navy.<ref name="PakDef Military Consortium"/>

In 1950, the Navy's [[Nationalization in Pakistan|nationalization]] took place when many officers from the air force and army volunteered to join the navy and [[Noncommissioned officer|NCOs]] gaining commission as an officers.{{rp|50–51}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Support from the army and air force to the navy led to the establishment of logistics and maintenance machinery with vigorous efforts directed towards integrating the navy presence in [[East Pakistan|East-Pakistan]], thereby creating opportunities for people in East-Pakistan to participate in the build-up.{{rp|51}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

In 1951, the [[Pakistan Government|Pakistan government]] called for appointing native chiefs of staff of the armed branches but it was not until 1953 when a native chief of naval staff was appointed by the government.{{rp|51–52}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The British [[Admiralty]], however, maintained the command of the Navy through Rear-Admiral Jefford who had native deputy chiefs of staff including [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] HMS Choudhri, Commodore Khalid Jamil, and [[Commander (rank)|Commander]] M.A. Alavi.{{rp|51–52}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

[[File:HMS Gabbard (D47).jpg|thumb|300px|right|PNS ''Badr'', a destroyer visiting Britain, 1957.]]

During this time, a number of goodwill missions were carried out by the navy's combatant ships, and non-combat missions were conducted under the auspices of the Royal Navy.<ref name="PakDef Military Consortium" /> In 1951, HMS Choudhri's promotion papers as naval chief were approved by [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] but it was not until 1953 when HMS Choudhri was promoted as [[vice admiral]] and naval chief with the support from [[Army Chief of Staff (Pakistan)|army chief]] [[Lieutenant-General]] [[Ayub Khan (general)|Ayub Khan]].{{rp|52}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> He handed over the command of 25th Destroyer squadron to a [[People of Poland|Polish]] naval officer, Commander [[:pl:Romuald Nalecz-Tyminsk|Romuald Nalecz-Tyminski]].<ref name="Polish Spirit">{{cite web|title=Admiral Romuald Nalecz-Tyminski|url=http://www.federacjapolek.ca/nowy/image/2009_images/polish_spirit_persons/nalecz-tyminski.pdf|website=federacjapolek.ca|publisher=Polish Spirit|accessdate=15 November 2016}}</ref>

In the mid 1950s, the [[Ministry of Finance (Pakistan)|Ministry of Finance]] awarded contracts to the [[Corps of Engineers, Pakistan Army|Corps of Engineers]] for the construction of the [[Karachi Naval Dockyard]].<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference" /> In 1954, several efforts were made to procure a [[British H-class submarine|Ch-class submarine]] from the Royal Navy but was rejected by [[Admiralty]] which agreed to loan the {{sclass2-|Ch|destroyer|1}}, {{HMS|Chivalrous|R21|6}}, which was renamed PNS ''Taimur''.{{rp|51–52}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> From 1953–56, HMS Choudri bitterly negotiated with the United States over the modernization of the navy and convinced the [[United States government|U.S. government]] to provide monetary support for modernization of aging O–class destroyers and [[minesweeper]]s, while commissioning the Ch–class destroyers from the Royal Navy.{{rp|54}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> British naval tradition was disbanded and cancelled when the [[United States Navy]]'s [[Military Assistance Advisory Group|advisers]] were dispatched to the [[Pakistan Armed Forces|Pakistani military]] in 1955.<ref name="Hamid Hussain, Defence Journal of Pakistan">{{cite web|last=Hamid Hussain|title=Tale of a love affair that never was: United States-Pakistan Defence Relations|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2002/june/loveaffair.htm|work=Hamid Hussain, Defence Journal of Pakistan|publisher=Hamid Hussain, Defence Journal of Pakistan|accessdate=12 February 2012}}</ref>

In 1956, the [[Constituent Assembly of Pakistan]] voted for promulgation of [[Constitution of Pakistan of 1956|Constitution of Pakistan]] and proclaimed the [[Dominion of Pakistan]] as an [[Islamic Republic]] under the new constitution.<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference" /> The prefix ''Royal'' was dropped, and the service was re-designated the Pakistan Navy ("'''PN'''") with the [[Naval jack|PN Jack]] replaced the [[Colours, standards and guidons#United Kingdom and other Commonwealth nations|Queen's colour]] and the [[White Ensign]] respectively.<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference" /> The order of precedence of the three services changed from Navy–Army–Air force to Army–Navy–Air Force.<ref name="AuthorHouse, 2013">{{cite book|last1=Fagoyinbo|first1=Joseph Babatunde|title=The Armed Forces: Instrument of Peace, Strength, Development and Prosperity|date=2013|publisher=AuthorHouse|location=Bloomington, Indiana|isbn=1477226478|pages=473|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qM0uxPH8RasC&pg=PA390&dq=army+navy+airforce+marines+pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_FqqVM23GomcoQTfgILYDA&ved=0CCkQuwUwAA#v=onepage&q=army%20navy%20airforce%20marines%20pakistan&f=true|accessdate=5 January 2015|format=Google Books|chapter=§The birth of Pakistan Armed Forces}}</ref>

In February 1956, the British government announced the transfer of several major surface combat warships to Pakistan Navy that included a cruiser and four destroyers to be purchased with funds made available under the U.S. [[Military Assistance Program]].{{rp|54}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> In 1957, the Navy finalized the sale of sale of a [[HMS Diadem (84)|cruiser]] warship from the United Kingdom, and used the government's own fund to induct the warship that caused a great ire against Admiral Choudhri by the Finance ministry in the country.{{rp|55}}<ref name="Lancer Publishers, Goldrick"/>

In 1958, the Navy made an unsuccessful attempt to induct the [[Neptun-class submarine|imported submarines]] from Sweden using the American funds that was halted by the United States and the Pakistan's own Finance ministry despite the fact that the idea had support from [[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|Army GHQ]].{{rp|57}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> In 1958–59, the [[NHQ (Pakistan Navy)|Navy NHQ]] staff began fighting with the Army GHQ staff and the [[Ministry of Defence (Pakistan)|Ministry of Defence]] (MoD) over the plans regarding the modernization of the navy that resulted in bitter [[interservice rivalry]] between army and navy which ended with Admiral Choudri's resignation to the [[Aiwan-e-Sadr|Presidency]] in 1959.{{rp|57}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> From 1956–63, the warships, two destroyers, eight coastal minesweepers, and an [[Replenishment oiler|oiler]] were procured from the United States and United Kingdom as a direct result of Pakistan's participation in the anti-Communist defence pacts [[SEATO]] and [[CENTO]].<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

===Indo-Pakistan war of 1965 and afterwards===
{{Main|Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|Operation Somnath|PNS Ghazi|l3=1967 PNS Ghazi's circumnavigation}}

In 1959, Vice-Admiral [[Afzal Rahman Khan]] was appointed the [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|naval chief]] and built-up his relations with [[President of Pakistan|President]] [[Ayub Khan (general)|Ayub Khan]] whilst the Navy retained hopes for procuring a submarine despite financial constraints.{{rp|58–59}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> The Royal Navy accepted the requests from the Pakistan Navy for a regular visit to [[Karachi Naval Dockyard]] to provide first hand experience in submarine operations in 1960–61.{{rp|58}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> The [[President Ayub Khan|Ayub administration]] did not increase the financial funding of the navy at the expense to army and air force but he did not object to American contributions to train the Pakistan Navy in submarine operations.{{rp|59}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> The U.S. Navy provided an insightful and crucial training support to Pakistan Navy enabling it to conduct operations in long range and the proposal of procuring the submarine was met with favourable views in 1963 due to the prospect of [[Soviet Navy]] leasing a submarine to [[Indian Navy]].{{rp|58}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> In 1963, the United Kingdom began providing training and education on submarine operations, and in 1964, {{ship|PNS|Ghazi}} was commissioned from the United States.{{rp|58}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" />

Even though, the navy nor air force was notified of the [[Operation Gibraltar|Kashmir incursion]] in 1965, the Navy was well-prepared at the time when the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1965|second war]] erupted between Pakistan and India in 1965.<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors">{{cite book|last=Goldrick|first=James|title=No Easy Answers|year=1997|publisher=Lancer's Publications and Distributors|location=New Delhi|isbn=1-897829-02-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XW7kKHQeQoC&pg=PA45&dq=Pakistan+Navy&hl=en&ei=SpWDT4GQFfLciQKs05zzBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=8&ved=0CFQQ6wEwBw#v=onepage&q&f=true}}</ref> The [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|naval chief]] Admiral [[Afzal Rahman Khan]] ordered all units of the Pakistan Navy to take up defensive positions off the coast, but did not order any offensive operations in the [[Bay of Bengal]].{{rp|60–61}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> As the [[Indian Air Force]]'s repeated sorties and raids disrupted [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF]] operations, the Navy assumed a more aggressive role in the conflict.{{rp|61}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> On 2 September, the Navy deployed its first long-range submarine, PNS ''Ghazi'' under [[Commander (rank)|Commander]] [[Karamat Rahman Niazi|K.R. Niazi]] which was charged with gathering intelligence on Indian naval movements that stalked the diverting threats posed by the aircraft carrier {{INS|Vikrant|R11|6}}.<ref name="Usman Tariq Pakdef">{{cite web|last1=Usman|first1=Tariq|title=1965 War|url=http://pakdef.org/1965-war-3/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330222928/http://pakdef.org/1965-war-3/|dead-url=yes|archive-date=30 March 2014|website=pakdef.org|publisher=Usman Tariq Pakdef|accessdate=15 November 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Ussdiablo.jpg|thumb|250px|{{ship|PNS|Ghazi}} in [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1965|1965 theatre]]. In 1968, she executed a [[circumnavigation]] of Africa and Southern Europe in order to be refit in Turkey. Sunk in 1971 under mysterious circumstances.]]

On the night of 7/8 September, a naval squadron comprising four destroyers, one frigate, one cruiser, and one submarine, under the command of Commodore S.M. Anwar, launched [[Operation Dwarka]], an attack on radar facilities used by the Indian Air Force in the small coastal town of [[Dwarka]].<ref name="Usman Tariq Pakdef"/> The operation ended with limited damage to the area.<ref name="Usman Tariq Pakdef"/> After gunnery bombardment, the ''[[PNS Ghazi|Ghazi]]'' was deployed against the Indian Navy's western fleet at [[Bombay]] on 22 September and ended her operations and reported back to [[Karachi Naval Dockyard]] on 23 September 1965.<ref name="Usman Tariq Pakdef"/>

The [[Operation Dwarka|naval operation]] in Dwarka had greatly increased the prestige of the Pakistan Navy and it had also alerted Indian Navy commanders to the significant threat posed by the Pakistan Navy, and to its own naval shortcomings.<ref name="Repro India Ltd."/> After the war, the United States imposed an arms embargo on Pakistan and Pakistani military began exploring options for military procurement from China, France, and [[Soviet Union]].{{rp|62}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The United Kingdom offered the Navy to jointly built the [[Type 21 frigate]] but was rejected by Ayub administration that would only allow the financial capital to be spent on submarine procurement.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

In 1966, the Pakistan Navy established its own [[special operations]] directorate, the [[Special Service Group Navy]] (SSG[N]) after the recommendations from the [[United States Navy]].<ref name="Global Security.org">{{cite web| last = | first = | authorlink = | title = Navy Special Forces| work = Global Security.org| publisher = | date = | url = http://www.specialoperations.com/Foreign/Pakistan/SSGN.htm| accessdate = 29 June 2011| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110629083756/http://www.specialoperations.com/Foreign/Pakistan/SSGN.htm| archive-date = 29 June 2011| dead-url = yes| df = dmy-all}}</ref> In 1966–70, Pakistan Navy had been well aware of massive [[Future of the Indian Navy|procurement and acquisitions]] of [[Weapon systems of the Indian Navy|weapon systems]] being acquired from the [[Soviet Union]] and [[United Kingdom]], and the danger it will posed to Pakistan.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> In 1968–69, there were series of unsuccessful talks of acquiring the warships from the [[Soviet Navy]] which ended with no yielding results.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Difficulties arose between and after the arms embargo was lifted by the United States which lifted based strictly on [[Cash and carry (wholesale)|cash-and-carry]] basis.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Pleas for strengthening the Navy in [[East Pakistan]] were ignored due to monetary issues and financial contraints restricted the Navy's capabilities to function more efficiently.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

In 1968, the {{sclass-|Daphné|submarine|2}}s were procured from France while operating {{sclass-|Tench|submarine|2}}s that was refitted and upgraded by the [[Turkish Navy]].{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Due to the Egyptian blockade of the [[Suez Canal]], the Navy had to execute a notable submerged [[circumnavigation]] operation from the Indian Ocean through the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in order to undergo a refit program at the [[Gölcük Naval Shipyard|Gölcük]] in Turkey which was the only facility to manage the [[refit]]ting and [[Mid-life update|mid-life upgrades]] of [[military computers]] of the ''Tench'' class]].<ref name="DefenceJournal, Ahmed" /> Despite reservations harboring by the Navy NHQ about the aging ''Ghazi'', she was sailed under the command of Commander [[Ahmed Tasnim]] starting from the [[Karachi coast]] in Indian Ocean to [[Cape of Good Hope]], [[South Africa]], through the Atlantic Ocean and ended at the east coast of the [[Sea of Marmara]] where the [[Gölcük Naval Shipyard]] was located.<ref name="DefenceJournal, Ahmed" />

In 1968–69, the Navy NHQ staff began its tussle with the [[AHQ (Pakistan Air Force)|Air AHQ]] staff over the issue establishing the [[Pakistan Naval Air Arm|naval aviation]] who feared the loss of fighter jets and their pilots in the sea and was hostile towards this idea.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> The United States entered in discussing the transfer of [[List of Lockheed P-3 Orion variants|P3B Orion]] aircraft to the Navy in 1970 with [[President Yahya Khan|Yahya administration]] but were not procured until the end of the 1970s.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> In 1970, the [[foreign relations]] between Pakistan and East Pakistan further deteriorated and the Navy knew that it was impossible to defend East Pakistan from approaching Indian Navy.{{rp|63}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Series of reforms were carried when Navy's serious reservations were considered by the Yahya administration and [[East Pakistani]]s were hastily recruited in what was known as [[Bangladesh Navy|East Pakistan Navy]] but this proved to be disaster for Navy when majority of East Pakistani naval officers and ~3,000 sailors [[Operation Jackpot|defected to India]] to join the [[Awami League]]'s military wing– the ''[[Mukti Bahini]]''.{{rp|64–65}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/> Such events had jeopardized the operational scope of the Navy and the Navy NHQ staffers and commanders knew very well that it (Navy) was ill-prepared for the war and Pakistan was about to have a sharp lesson from India in the consequences of disconnecting strategy from reality.{{rp|65}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors"/>

===Indo-Pakistan war of 1971===
{{Main|Operation Barisal|Operation Jackpot|Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971}}

By 1971, the Navy NHQ staffers and their commanders knew very well that the Pakistan Navy was poorly represented in East Pakistan (now [[Bangladesh]]) and there was no main infrastructure to conduct defensive operation against the [[Eastern Naval Command]] of Indian Navy in [[Bay of Bengal]].{{rp|64}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> The navy was only able conducted the [[Riverine Warfare|riverine]]-based operations that was being undertaken by the [[Pakistan Marines]] with the assistance from the [[Special Service Group Navy|Special Service Group [Navy] ]], codenamed [[Operation Barisal|Barisal]] in April 1971.<ref name="Pakistan Navy, Historical reference" /> Although, the Governor of East Pakistan, Vice-Admiral [[Syed Mohammad Ahsan|S.M. Ahsan]], made efforts to increase the naval presence and significance in 1969 but the Indian Navy's Eastern Naval Command continued to pose a significant threat since it had capability of conduct operations in long-range areas.<ref name="Inter Services Public Relations">{{cite book|last=Salik, PA|first=Siddique|title=Witness to Surrender|publisher=Inter Services Public Relations|location=Karachi, Pakistan|isbn=984-05-1374-5|pages=60–90}}</ref>

Furthermore, the defections from [[Bangladesh Navy|East-Pakistan Navy]]'s officers and sailors had jeopardize the Navy's operational scope who went onto join the [[Awami League]]'s militant wing, the ''[[Mukti Bahini]]'' in a program known as ''Jackpot''.<ref name="Inter Services Public Relations"/> Though, the program was disrupted by the Navy from further annihilation but the naval facilities were severely damaged due to this operation on 15 March 1971.<ref name="Inter Services Public Relations"/> East-Pakistan's geography was surrounded by India on all three landward sides by the [[Indian Army]] as the Navy was in attempt to prevent India from blocking the coasts.<ref name="Inter Services Public Relations"/>

During this time, the Navy NHQ was housed in Karachi that decided to deploy the newly [[Mid-life update|MLU]] ''Ghazi'' submarine on East while the {{ship|PNS|Hangor||2}} in West for the intelligence gathering purposes.<ref name="Inter Services Public Relations"/>

{{quote|text=At the end of East-Pakistan crisis.... We (Pakistan Navy, Eastern Command) had no intelligence and hence, were both deaf and blind with the Indian Navy and Indian Air Force pounding us day and night.... |sign=Admiral Mohammad Sharif, to U.S. Admiral [[Elmo Zumwalt|Zumwalt]] in 1971|source=.<ref name="Lancer's Publishers and Distributions">{{cite book|last=Roy|first=Admiral Mihir K.|title=War in the Indian Ocean|year=1995|publisher=Lancer's Publishers and Distributions|location=United States|isbn=1-897829-11-6|pages=218–230|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tqr8r7EB18wC&pg=PA218&dq=admiral+mohammad+shariff&hl=en&ei=KFjyTsLUO4SjiALD64ynCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=4&ved=0CEEQ6wEwAw#v=onepage&q=admiral%20mohammad%20shariff&f=false}}</ref>}}

[[File:USS Wiltsie (DD-716).jpg|thumb|left|290px|[[USS Wiltsie (DD-716)|PNS ''Nazim'']], which previously took part in the [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] and [[Korean War]]s in the US Navy as USS ''Wiltsie''.]]

With no naval aviation service to guard the [[Karachi port]], the Indian Navy launched a naval attack, [[Operation Trident (Indo-Pakistani War)|Operation Trident]], consisting of 3 Soviet-built {{sclass2-|Osa|missile boat}}s escorted by two [[anti-submarine]] patrol vessels on 4 December 1971.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/> Nearing Karachi's port area, they launched [[SS-N-2 Styx]] anti-ship missiles, which the obsolescent Pakistan naval warships had no viable defense against.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal">{{cite web|last1=Tiwana|first1=M.A. Hussain|title=The Angry Sea|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/nov98/angrysea.htm|website=www.defencejournal.com|publisher=M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal|accessdate=15 November 2016|date=November 1998}}</ref> Two of the warships, {{ship|PNS|Muhafiz}} and {{ship|PNS|Khyber}}, were sunk, while {{ship|PNS|Shahjahan}} was damaged beyond repair.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/> Outcomes were stunning for both sides with Pakistan suffering the loss of imported warships, and while India sustained no damage to their attacking squadron.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/>

On 8 December 1971, ''Hangor'' led by its [[Commander (rank)|Commander]] [[Ahmed Tasnim]], sank the Indian frigate {{INS|Khukri|1958|6}} off the coast of Gujarat, India.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/> This was the first sinking of a warship by a submarine since [[World War II]], and resulted in the loss of 18 officers and 176 sailors of the Indian Navy while the inflicting severe damages to another warship, INS ''Kirpan'', by the same submarine.<ref name="gs">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/hangor.htm|title=Hangor Class (Fr Daphn|author=John Pike|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref> Pakistan Air Force that now acted as naval aviation made several attempted to counter the Indian [[missile boat]] threat by carrying out the aerial bombing raids over Okha harbour, the forward base of the missile boats.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/> The Indian Navy retaliated with an attack on the Pakistani coast, named ''[[Operation Python]]'', on the night of 8 December 1971. when a small [[flotilla]] of Indian vessels, consisting of a missile boat and two frigates, approached Karachi and launched a missile attack that sank the Panamanian vessel ''Gulf Star''. PNS ''Dacca'' and the British ship SS ''Harmattan'' were damaged.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal"/>

''Operation Python'' was a complete success for the Indian Navy, and a psychological trauma for Pakistan Navy, the human and material cost severely cutting into its combat capability, nearly 1,700 sailors perished at the barracks.<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi">{{cite web|last=IN|first=Indian Navt|title=Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/44-Attacks-On-Karachi.html|work=Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi|publisher=Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi|accessdate=9 April 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926174134/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/44-Attacks-On-Karachi.html|archivedate=26 September 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Civilian pilots from the [[Pakistan International Airlines]] volunteered to conduct air surveillance missions with the [[PAF]], but this proved less than helpful when they misidentified a Pakistan Navy frigate, {{ship|PNS|Zulfiqar|K265|6}}, as an Indian missile boat.<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi"/> The PAF planes made several attack runs before finally identifying ''Zulfiqar'' by the Navy NHQ.<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi"/> The friendly attack resulted in further loss of navy personnel, as well as the loss of the ship, which was severely damaged and the Pakistan Navy's operational capabilities were now virtually extinct, and morale plummeted.<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi"/> Indian Navy observers who watched the raid nearby later wrote in their [[War diary|war logs]] that the "PAF pilots failed to recognize the difference between a large PNS ''Zulfiqar'' frigate and a relatively small Osa missile boat."<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi"/> After the friendly attack, all naval surface operations came to a halt under the orders of chief of naval staff.<ref name="Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi"/>

The Navy's only long range submarine, ''Ghazi'', was deployed to the area but, according to neutral sources, it sank en route under mysterious circumstances.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcejlMRYNAAC&pg=PA179&dq=PNS+Ghazi&ei=LKdDSKG0H4KijgGs1qG-BQ&sig=9YcFuLJttkAY3wIH965XTx6eU1Y#v=onepage&q=PNS%20Ghazi&f=false Seapower: A Guide for the Twenty-first Century - Geoffrey Till - Google Boeken]</ref> Pakistani authorities state that it sank either due to internal explosion or detonation of mines which it was laying at the time.<ref>{{cite news|last=Joseph|first=Josy |title=Now, no record of Navy sinking Pakistani submarine in 1971|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-05-12/india/28288237_1_submarine-ins-rajput-eastern-naval-command|work=TOI website|publisher=Times of India|accessdate=28 May 2010|date=12 May 2010|quote=Pakistani authorities say the submarine sank because of either an internal explosion or accidental blast of mines that the submarine itself was laying around Vizag harbour. }}</ref> The Indian Navy claims to have sunk the submarine.<ref>[http://openlibrary.org/b/OL4243900M/No-way-but-surrender No way but surrender: an account of the Indo-Pakistan War in the Bay of Bengal, 1971] By Vice Admiral N. Krishnan (Retd.)</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Jacob|first=Lt Gen JFR |title=The truth behind the Navy's 'sinking' of Ghazi|url=http://sify.com/news/the-truth-behind-the-navy-s-sinking-of-ghazi-news-columns-kfztj3bhjeh.html|work=sify news website|publisher=sify news}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Jacob|first=Lt Gen JFR |title=The truth behind the Navy's 'sinking' of Ghazi|url=http://sify.com/news/the-truth-behind-the-navy-s-sinking-of-ghazi-news-columns-kfztj3bhjeh.html|work=sify news website|publisher=sify news|accessdate=28 May 2010|date=25 May 2010|quote= On December 9, the Navy announced that they had sunk the Ghazi on December 4, after the start of the war. Later, officers were decorated for their role and the offensive action of their ships in the sinking of the Ghazi. After the war, however, teams of divers confirmed that it was an internal explosion that sank the Ghazi. The log of the Ghazi was recovered and the last entry as far as I can recall was on November 29, 1971. Sadly, that too has been destroyed. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jan/22inter.htm|title=The Rediff Interview/Admiral S M Nanda (retd) 'Does the US want war with India?' |last=Sengupta|first=Ramananda|date=22 January 2007|work=Interview|publisher=Rediff|accessdate=26 March 2010|location=India}}</ref>

The submarine's destruction enabled the Indian Navy to enforce a blockade on then East Pakistan.<ref name = Defencejournal>{{cite web | title=Maritime Awareness and Pakistan Navy | work=Defence Notes by Commander (Retd) Muhammad Azam Khan | url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/mar/maritime.htm | accessdate= 16 May 2005 }}</ref> According to the defence magazine, ''Pakistan Defence Journal'', the attack on Karachi, Dhaka, Chittagong and the loss of ''Ghazi'', the Navy no longer was able to match the threat of Indian Navy as it was already outclassed by the Indian Navy after the 1965 war.<ref name="M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal" />

The damage inflicted by the Indian Navy and [[Indian Air Force]] on the PN stood at seven [[gunboat]]s, one minesweeper, two destroyers, three [[patrol craft]] belonging to the [[Pakistan Coast Guard]], 18 cargo, supply and communication vessels, and large-scale damage inflicted on the naval base and docks in the coastal town of Karachi. Three merchant navy ships; Anwar Baksh, Pasni and Madhumathi;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/39_transfer%20of%20ships1.htm|title=Chapter-39|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301204938/http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/39_transfer%20of%20ships1.htm|archivedate=1 March 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and ten smaller vessels were captured.<ref name=Orbat>{{cite web |title=Damage Assessment – 1971 INDO-PAK Naval War |work=B. Harry |url=http://www.orbat.com/site/cimh/navy/kills(1971)-2.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=16 May 2005 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051030235952/http://www.orbat.com/site/cimh/navy/kills(1971)-2.pdf |archivedate=30 October 2005 |df=dmy }}</ref> Around 1900 personnel were lost, while 1413 servicemen were captured by Indian forces in [[Dhaka]].<ref name="losses">{{cite web | title=Military Losses in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War | work=Venik | url=http://www.aeronautics.ru/archive/vif2_project/indo_pak_war_1971.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020225045411/http://www.aeronautics.ru/archive/vif2_project/indo_pak_war_1971.htm | dead-url=yes | archive-date=25 February 2002 | accessdate=30 May 2005 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> The Indian Navy lost 18 officers and 176 sailors<ref name="gs"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=153894 |title=Express India |access-date=24 August 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425031811/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=153894 |archive-date=25 April 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and a frigate, while another frigate was damaged and a [[Breguet Alizé]] naval aircraft was shot down by the [[Pakistan Air Force]].

According to one Pakistan scholar, [[Tariq Ali]], the Pakistan Navy lost half its force in the war.<ref>{{cite book | author=Tariq Ali | author-link=Tariq Ali | year=1983 | title=Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of a State | publisher=Penguin Books | page=95 | isbn=0-14-02-2401-7 |quote=In a two-seek war, Pakistan lost half its navy.}}</ref> Despite the limited resources and manpower, the Navy performed its task diligently by providing support to inter-services (air force and army) until the end.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad">{{cite book|last=Shariff, PN|first=Admiral Mohammad|title=Admiral's Diary: Battling through stormy sea life for decades|year=2010|publisher=The Army Press, Islamabad|page=415|url=http://dawn.com/2010/10/24/excerpt-how-the-east-was-lost/}}</ref> The primary reason for this loss has been attributed to the central command's failure in defining a role for the Navy, or the military in general, in East Pakistan.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/> Since then the Navy has sought to improve the structure and fleet by putting special emphasis on sub-surface warfare capability as it allows for the most efficient way to deny the control of Pakistani sea lanes to an adversary.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/>

===Cold war operations and post cold war: 1972–1998===
{{See also|Operation Umeed-e-Nuh|Operation United Shield|Operation Parakram|Soviet–Afghan War|Revolt of the Admiral}}
{{quote|text=Pakistan fully endorse the requirements of a strong navy, capable of safeguarding Pakistan's sea frontiers and her Lines of Communication, monitoring and protecting her exclusive economic zone. Continuous efforts are at hand to provide the best available equipment to the Navy despite all economic constraints.|sign=[[Pervez Musharraf]], 1999|source=<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA,"/>}}

After [[Instrument of Surrender (1971)|surrendering]] of [[Pakistan Eastern Command]] in East and unilateral decision of ceasefire in West, Pakistan learned a sharp lesson from India in the consequences of disconnecting strategy from reality.{{rp|65}}<ref name="Lancer's Publications and Distributors" /> After the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]], the Navy had to rebuild from ground and the government came to realize its failure for ignoring the needs of navy at the expense of air force and army.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/>

By the end of 1971, the [[Pakistan Naval Air Arm|naval aviation]] was commissioned but it was not until 1974 when the aircraft joined the service that were procured from the donations from the Royal Navy.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/> During the course of war, the co-ordination between [[Pakistan Armed Forces|inter-services]] was limited, lack of communication, poor execution of joint-operations, this led to the establishment of [[Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee]] headquartered in [[JS HQ (Pakistan)|JS HQ]].<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/> In a small span of time, the navy facilities, manpower and profile of Navy was quickly arranged and raised by the coming and the first [[Four star admiral|four-star]] rank admiral and the [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff]] Admiral [[Mohammad Shariff]] reconstituted the Navy, and his services to Navy led him to be appointed as first navy admiral [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman]] of [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Joint Chiefs Committee]] of Pakistan Armed Forces.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/>

The Pakistan Navy came into public notice in 1974 after it had reportedly applied a [[naval blockade]] and played an integral role to stop the [[Iraqi support of Baloch rebels|arms smuggled]] in [[Balochistan conflict]] after the [[Arms discovery in Iraqi Embassy (Pakistan)|police raid]] [[Diplomatic missions of iraq|Iraqi Embassy]] in Islamabad in 1974.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/> From 1974–77, the Navy provided logistical support to army and air force until [[Rahimuddin Khan's Stabilization of Balochistan|stabilization]] of the province.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/>

[[File:PNS Ghazi 134 DN-SC-92-03633.JPEG|thumb|left|290px|The [[Daphné-class submarine|Daphné]] ''Ghazi'' (S-134) deployed during the [[Operation Restore Hope]], 1991.]]

In the 1970s, the Navy sought to diversify its purchases instead of depending solely on the United States, which had placed an arms embargo on both India and Pakistan as the Navy sought warships deals with France and China.<ref name="Navy"/> The Navy acquired the land-based ballistic missile capable long range reconnaissance aircraft; it become the first navy in South Asia to acquire land-based ballistics missile capable long range reconnaissance aircraft.<ref name="Navy">South Asia's Nuclear Security Dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China By Lowell Dittmer, pp 77 ''</ref> In 1979–80, Pakistan procured the two [[PNS Hashmat|Agosta 70]]-class submarines, {{ship|PNS|Hurmat||2}} and {{ship|PNS|Hashmat||2}} from France.<ref name="DefenceJournal, Ahmed">{{cite web|last1=Tasnim|first1=Vice-Admiral Ahmed|title=Remembering Our Warriors - Vice Admiral Tasneem|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2001/may/tasneem.htm|website=www.defencejournal.com|publisher=Vice Admiral A. Tasnim, Defence Journal|accessdate=17 November 2016|language=Eng|date=May 2001}}</ref>

Dependency on the United States again fell in the 1980s and the Navy enjoyed unprecedented growth, doubling its surface fleet from 8 to 16 surface combatants in 1989. In 1982, the [[Reagan administration]] approved [[United States Dollar|US$]]3.2 billion military and economic aid to Pakistan with Pakistan acquiring eight {{sclass-|Brooke|frigate|5}} and {{sclass-|Garcia|frigate|0}} frigates from the United States Navy on a five-year lease in 1988.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/> A [[military base|depot]] for repairs, {{USS|Hector|AR-7|6}} followed the lease of these ships in April 1989. This was done due to the [[Zia regime|Zia administration]]'s [[Operation Cyclone|cooperation]] with the [[Reagan administration]] against the Soviet Union's [[Soviet war in Afganistan|invasion]] in Afghanistan.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/>

However, the [[Pressler amendment|arms embargo]] was again imposed after the Soviet [[Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan|troops withdrawal]] from [[Afghanistan]] in 1989 when the [[United States President|U.S. President]] [[George H. W. Bush]] was advised to no longer certify the existence of Pakistan's covert [[Pakistan and its Nuclear Deterrent Program|nuclear arsenals]] program and the [[Pressler amendment]] was invoked on 1 October 1990.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/> The lease of the first ''Brooke''-class frigate expired in March 1993, the remaining in early 1994.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/> This seriously impaired the Pakistan Navy, which was composed almost entirely of [[:Category:Ships transferred from the United States Navy to the Pakistan Navy|former U.S. origin warships]].<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/> Despite the embargo, the Navy assisted the [[United Nations Operation in Somalia II|UNOSOM-II]] to conducted [[Operation United Shield|military operation]] against [[Civil war in Somalia]].<ref>Bush, George H., Address to the Nation on the Situation in Somalia, 4/12/92</ref> In 1991–41, the Navy became involved with the [[Operation Restore Hope]], dispatching one submarine and two destroyer frigates to support to the United States Navy's operation in the civil War in [[Somalia]], and extended its support in 1995 to took participation in [[Operation United Shield]] to concluded its side of operation after evacuating personnel and equipments of [[Pakistan Army|army]], [[Pakistan Marines|marines]], and air force.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bashir, PN|first1=Adm. Noman|authorlink1=Noman Bashir|title=The Pakistan Navy's Role in Peacetime Diplomacy: Emerging Scenario in the Indian Ocean|journal=Pakistan Horizon|date=July 2010|volume=63|issue=3|pages=7|jstor=24711004|publisher=Pakistan Institute of International Affairs|location=Islamabad Pakistan|language=English|issn=0030-980X}}</ref>

Realizing the [[Indo-US Relations|warming relations]] between the United States and India, the Pakistan Navy began concentrating on self-reliance for its operation needs when Prime Minister [[Benazir Bhutto]] successfully negotiating with [[France]] for the [[technology transfer]] of [[Agosta 90B-class submarine|Agosta 90B]] submarines in 1994–95.<ref name="The Army Press, Islamabad"/> This was a controversial agreement with millions of dollars were allegedly used for the purpose of [[Corruption charges against Benazir Bhutto and Asif Ali Zardari|corruption]] by both sides as the [[air-independent propulsion]] technology was transferred despite India's strong opposition.<ref name="NTI 1990"/> During the same time, the United Kingdom approved the sale of [[Westland Lynx]] and [[Westland Sea King|Sea King]] helicopters, equipped with [[Anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] missiles which further enhanced the capabilities of Pakistan Navy.<ref name="Naval Air Arm, Navy" />

After the [[List of nuclear weapons tests of Pakistan|nuclear tests]] conducted in 1998, there were several proposals made for Pakistan Navy's transformation into a [[nuclear navy]] as it was seen against Indian Navy's [[INS Arihant|nuclear ambition]].<ref name="NTI 1990"/> Earlier in 1990, the Navy began negotiations with [[People's Liberation Army Navy]] to lease a [[nuclear submarine]], a Chinese [[Type 091 submarine|Type 091 Han-class]] submarine after rival India Navy leased a Russian-based [[Charlie-class submarine|Charlie I-class]] nuclear submarine from the Soviet Union.<ref name="NTI 1990">{{cite web|last=NTI|title=Nuclear Submarine for Navy|url=http://www.nti.org/media/pdfs/pakistan_nuclear.pdf?_=1316466791|work=October 6, 1990|publisher=NTI 1990|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> However, the Navy cancelled the negotiations with the Chinese after the learning the Indian Navy had returned the Russian submarine in 1991.<ref name="NTI 1990"/>

In 1999, the Navy saw serious disagreement with the civilian government over the issue of [[Kargil war]] that was launched solely by the [[Pakistan Army]]. Known as the [[Revolt of the Admiral]]s in Pakistan, [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff]] [[Admiral Fasih Bokhari]] and his Navy NHQ staff maintained that the both Navy and Air Force had been deactivated.<ref name="Repro India Ltd." /> However, when Indian Navy launched ''Operation Talwar'', Pakistan Navy had to respond by deploying the submarines and destroyers combatant ships to keep Indian Navy from Ports of Karachi and Baluchistan.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA,"/>

The [[Pakistan Naval Air Arm|Naval Air Arm]] maintained its reconnaissance and patrol operations near at the Arabian Sea.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA,"/> In 1999, another proposal was raised to switched the [[air-independent propulsion]] of Agosta submarine to substitute with [[nuclear propulsion]], however the proposal was dismissed.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA,">{{cite web|last=Lodhi|first=F.S.|title=An Agosta Submarine for Pakistan|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/jan/agosta.htm|work=Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi|publisher=Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA,|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref>

===Engagement in 1999 and 2001 standoff===
{{Main|Atlantique Incident|Indo-Pakistani War of 1999|Revolt of the Admiral|2001–02 India–Pakistan standoff}}

In 1999, the [[Pakistan Army]] soldiers engaged with [[Indian Army]] and that fighting extended to the Navy who came under pressure to protect the coasts of Sindh and Balochistan while performing the non-combat missions. The [[Indian Navy]]'s rapid movement in the [[Arabian sea]] pushed the Navy to take the [[active measures]] and responded by deploying a large formation of submarines to gather intelligence on the movement of Indian naval vessels, their activities and presence.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA," /> Over the appointment of [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman Joint Chiefs]], Admiral [[Fasih Bokhari]] and his [[NHQ (PN)|Navy NHQ]] staff led to a serious disagreement with [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Nawaz Sharif]], an event that is known as [[Revolt of the Admiral|Revolt of the Admiral Bokhari]], who resigned from his commission in protest.{{rp|35}}<ref name="AuthorHouse, Baig">{{cite book|last1=Anwar|first1=Muhammad|last2=Baig|first2=Ebad|title=Pakistan: Time for Change|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477250303|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mb6OOYcrIOYC&pg=PA35&dq=Admiral+Fasih+Bokhari&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwik7aLK56zQAhVM-GMKHTbGAhsQuwUIOTAE#v=onepage&q=Admiral%20Fasih%20Bokhari&f=false|accessdate=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

In 1999, the Navy became involved in a military engagement with the [[Indian Air Force]] when the [[News channels in Pakistan|local news channels]] reported that the Navy had suffered serious casualty in a non-combat missions in terms of losing aircraft and personnel, roughly occurred just two weeks since the end of [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1999|Kargil debacle]].{{rp|62}}<ref name="AuthorHouse, Baig"/> On 10 August 1999, the [[Indian Air Force]]'s two [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21|MiG 21FL]] fired and shot down the reconnaissance navy plane, the [[Breguet Atlantic|''Atlantic'']], with sixteen personnel, including four naval fighter pilots on board.{{rp|62}}<ref name="AuthorHouse, Baig"/> All hands and the aircraft were lost when it was shot down in the border area of the [[Rann of Kutch]] region by [[Indian Air Force]], with both countries claiming the aircraft to be in their respective airspace.{{rp|62}}<ref name="AuthorHouse, Baig"/>

[[File:Pakistan Navy Orion Asuspine.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A Pakistan Navy [[Lockheed P-3C Orion|P3C Orion]] getting airborne in 2010.]]

The international observers noted that the wreckage fell well within Pakistan's territory, giving credence to the Pakistan's claim.{{rp|62–63}}<ref name="AuthorHouse, Baig"/> But the investigation conducted by the [[Naval Intelligence of Pakistan|Naval Intelligence]] revealed that the crash site was spread over 2 km on both sides of the border and the majority of the wreckage was on the Indian side. The [[Government of India|Indian government]] released the bodies of all the 16 personnel killed in the crash, asserting their point that the aircraft crashed in India.<ref name="The Independent"/> The Indian Air Force stated that "the ''Atlantique'' was trying to return to Pakistan's airspace after intruding more than {{convert|10|nmi|km}} and as such was headed towards Pakistan...." This incident resulted in escalated tensions between the two [[India-Pakistan relations|neighbouring countries]].<ref name="The Independent">{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/16-dead-as-india-shoots-down-pakistani-naval-plane-1112052.html|title=16 dead as India shoots down Pakistani naval plane|work=The Independent|accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref>

In October 1999, another mishap claimed the loss of Navy's [[P3C Orion]] ([[anti-submarine warfare|ASW]]) aircraft crashed while on routine exercise towards the coastal town of Pasni in the [[Balochistan Province]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/493254.stm | work=BBC News | title=Pakistan naval aircraft crashes | date=29 October 1999}}</ref> In this non-combat mission, the casualties stood with twenty one personnel, including two navy fighter pilots, eleven sailors and ten senior officers died in the incident—the cause of the incident was stated as a technical failure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lockheedmartin.com/products/p3/index.html|title=404 · Lockheed Martin|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103123212/http://www.lockheedmartin.com/products/p3/index.html|archivedate=3 January 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
During the 2001–2002 India-Pakistan Standoff, the Pakistan Navy was a put on high-alert and more than a dozen warships were deployed near at the Arabian Sea.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA,"/> In 2001, the Navy took serious consideration of deploying the [[nuclear weapon]]s on its submarines although none of the nuclear weapons were ever deployed in the submarines.<ref name="NTI 1990"/>

During the 2001–02, there was another [[2001–02 India–Pakistan standoff|military standoff]] and Navy again put on high alert with deployment of more than a dozen warships were deployed near at the Arabian Sea.<ref name="Lieutenant-General F.S. Lodhi, PA,"/> In 2001, the Navy took serious consideration of deploying the [[nuclear weapon]]s on its submarines although none of the nuclear weapons were ever deployed in the submarines.<ref name="NTI 1990"/>

In 2003–04, there were several proposals made for acquiring the vintage [[aircraft carriers]] but the Navy itself had dismissed the idea since the country has not aspired to have an aircraft capability.{{rp|79}}<ref name="Routledge Dittmer">{{cite book|last1=Dittmer|first1=Lowell|title=South Asia's Nuclear Security Dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317459569|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02XxBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA79&dq=aircraft+carrier+pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi26L_wjrDQAhXLxFQKHcaNAUwQuwUIHjAA#v=onepage&q=aircraft%20carrier%20pakistan&f=false|accessdate=17 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

===War on Terror and operations in North-West===
{{Main|PNS Mehran Operation|Operation Rah-e-Nijat|PNS Mehran Operation|Operation Black Thunderstorm|Operation Umeed-e-Nuh}}

[[File:US Navy 100323-N-0000X-003 Chief of Naval Staff of the Pakistan Navy Adm. Noman Bashir is greeted by Gen. David Petraeus, commander of U.S. Central Command.jpg|thumb|Admiral [[Noman Bashir|Bashir]] meets with the [[United States Army|US Army]] General [[David Petraeus]], top commander of [[International Security Assistance Force|US forces in Afghanistan]], to initiate peace initiatives and counter-terrorism operations against Taliban forces in Afghanistan.]]

Since 1995–97, the operational scope of Navy has increased, first participating in combat operation, [[Operation United Shield|United Shield]] with the [[United States Navy]]. Since 2007, the Navy has shifted into focusing the large-scale special operations and strike operations. The Navy plays an active role in the multinational [[United States Naval Forces Central Command|NAVCENT]], [[Combined Task Force 150|CTF-150]], [[Combined Task Force 151|CTF-151]], [[Operation Enduring Freedom]].<ref>{{cite web|last=PN |title=Pakistan Navy and Operation OEF |url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/cmcp1.html |publisher=PN Second |accessdate=11 April 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070726120430/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/cmcp1.html |archivedate=26 July 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> The command of the force was give to Pakistan from 24 March 2006, until 25 February 2008. Under Pakistan's leadership, CTF 150 coordinated patrols throughout their area of operations to help commercial shipping and fishing operate safely and freely in the region. Additionally, CTF 150 Coalition ships made 11 successful at-sea rescues and made the largest drug bust in the CTF 150 AOO since 2005.<ref>[http://www.cusnc.navy.mil/articles/2008/019.html Pakistan Navy Hands Command of CTF 150 to France] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003183518/http://www.cusnc.navy.mil/articles/2008/019.html |date=3 October 2008 }}</ref> Pakistan has contributed 13 different ships to CTF 150 and the current one being {{ship|PNS|Tariq|1973|6}}.<ref>[http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/cmcp1.html Pakistan Navy Participation In Coalition Maritime Campaign Plan] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070726120430/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/cmcp1.html |date=26 July 2007 }}</ref> Development continues on new warships, weapons, weapons technology, and as well as building the [[nuclear submarine]] for its current operational capabilities.<ref>{{cite news|last=Star Desk|title=Pakistan Navy to build nuclear submarine|url=http://www.arynews.tv/english/newsdetail.asp?nid=54527|archive-url=https://archive.is/20130418182536/http://www.arynews.tv/english/newsdetail.asp?nid=54527|dead-url=yes|archive-date=18 April 2013|accessdate=6 April 2012|newspaper=ARY News|date=10 February 2012}}</ref>

Since 2007, the Navy actively participated in Operation Black Thunderstorm, Operation Rah-e-Nijat, Operation Mehran, [[Operation Madad (Pakistan Navy)|Operation Maddad]], and is a major participant in [[War on Terror]] and the [[War in North-West Pakistan|War in tribal areas]] of Pakistan. Due to its operational capabilities and ability to project force far from coastal areas of Pakistan, for instance the [[Northern Pakistan]] and abroad, the Navy remains potent asset for the [[Commander-in-Chief]] (the [[President of Pakistan]]) as well as the chief executive of the country (the [[Prime minister of Pakistan]]).

[[File:Pakistan Navy Special Service Group member silhouetted aboard Pakistan Navy Ship PNS Babur.jpg|thumb|left|An elite member of Navy's [[Special Service Group Navy]] (SSGN) is silhouetted by the setting sun abroad PNS ''Babur'' while under way in the Arabian Sea 25 November 2007]]

Despite its [[Maritime Interdiction Operations|seaborne mission]], the Navy had played an active role in controlling the insurgency in [[War in North-West Pakistan|Tribal Belt]] in [[War in North-West Pakistan|Western Pakistan]], mostly taking roles in managing [[Military logistics|logistics]] and [[intelligence gathering]] as well as conducting ground operations with the army in Western areas to track down the [[al-Qaeda|al-Qaeda operatives]]. In 2011, the major terror bombing took place in Navy's assets in various locations of Karachi by [[Al-Qaeda]]; the first of the bombings took place on 21 April 2011 on two naval buses and second bombing incident on 28 April 2011 on a naval coaster. An estimated 12 lives have been lost since the start of the bombing.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/NewsDetail.aspx?ID=14800|title=Blast hits Pakistan Navy bus, third in a week|work=[[The News International]]|publisher=[[Jang Group of Newspapers]]|accessdate=19 May 2011}}</ref> A third bombing, and final bombing took place on 22 May 2011. The attack was on the PNS Mehran base in Karachi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=6183&Cat=13&dt=5/23/2011|title=A joint attack by al-Qaeda, TTP|work=[[The News International]]|publisher=[[Jang Group of Newspapers]]|accessdate=22 May 2011}}</ref>

Since 2004, the Navy has been readily used in overland counter-insurgency operations, to ease off the pressure to Army and Air Force.<ref name="The New York Times">{{cite web|last=Mackey|first=Robert|title=Before Attack, Pakistan's Navy Boasted of Role in Fight Against Taliban|url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/before-attack-pakistans-navy-boasted-of-role-in-fight-against-taliban/|work=NYTimes – The Lede (blog)|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=23 May 2011}}</ref> The Northern Command (COMNOR) under a [[rear-admiral]], conducted overland, [[signal intelligence]], and bombing missions in the Tribal belt while its navy fighter jets attacked the hidden secretive places of militants.<ref name="The New York Times"/> In the anti-terror, naval-based airborne missions using precision bombing tactics provided by the US Navy, the Pakistan Navy played a vital role in force-projection of its naval forces that played a significant role in controlling the insurgency, terrorism as well as proved the ability to conduct successful operations far from coastal areas won many presidential citations and praised by the government and the international recognition.<ref name="The New York Times"/>

The Navy has been active as early as 2006–07 to track down the terrorist elements and al-Qaeda operatives around the country as part of the campaign against the terrorism. To limit the pressure on army and air force, the Navy executed far more difficult operations in Northern Pakistan, and its combatant assets fought Taliban insurgency in Western border with the ground forces. On 22 May 2011, the Navy's first engagement with [[Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan|Pakistani Taliban]] took place in ''PNS Mehran'', the headquarters of the Navy's [[Pakistan Naval Air Arm|Naval Air Arm]] and the most populous Pakistani military installation, located near the PAF's [[PAF Base Faisal|Faisal Air Force Base]] of Karachi, Sindh. In the course of the event, around 15 attackers killed 18 naval personnel and wounded 16 in a sophisticated terrorist attack. According to the United States and Western intelligence sources, the attack was far more dangerous than the [[Operation Janbaz|2009 Pakistan Army General Headquarters attack]], and was better planned and more rehearsed than the previous attacks. It was the biggest attack on the Navy and its assets since 1971, and is believed to be the last major attack of militant mastermind Ilyas Kashmiri before being killed in the drone strike. The [[Special Service Group Navy]] (SSG(N)), carried out the counter-attack, which was the largest operation led by SSG(N) since [[Operation Jackpot]] of 1971.

==Involvement in civil society==
{{Main|Operation Madad (Pakistan Navy)}}
The Pakistan Navy has played an integral part in the civil society of Pakistan, almost since its inception.<ref name="Taylor and Francis-e-Library">{{cite book|last=Mazhar Aziz|title=Military control in Pakistan: the parallel state|year=2008|publisher=Taylor and Francis-e-Library|location=Milton Park, Didcot, Oxfordshire, UK|isbn=978-0-415-43743-1|pages=80–81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tIwXnkZOyoMC&pg=PA81&lpg=PA81&dq=dismissal+of+general++karamat&source=bl&ots=-Uzb9PkhEc&sig=zwt4KeYFNGEPqpdmNqT4C17HMxI&hl=en&ei=niLgTs62EJSOigKgnpSeDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dismissal%20of%20general%20%20karamat&f=false}}</ref> In 1996, General Jehangir Karamat described Pakistan armed forces' relations with the society:

{{quote|text=In my opinion, if we have to repeat of past events then we must understand that Military leaders can pressure only up to a point. Beyond that their own position starts getting undermined because the military is after all is a mirror image of the civil society from which it is drawn. |sign=General Jehangir Karamat on civil society–military relations |source=<ref name="Taylor and Francis-e-Library"/>}}

===Multi-national operations===
Between 11–21 May 2008, Pakistani warships [[HMS Alacrity (F174)|PNS ''Badr'' (D-182)]], [[HMS Alacrity (F174)|PNS ''Shahjahan'' (D 186)]], and PNS ''Nasr'' (A-47), as well as the Pakistan Air Force Explosive Ordnance Disposal team, participated in Exercise Inspired Union – multi-national exercises in the [[North Arabian Sea]] that also included the American destroyers {{USS|Curts|FFG-38|2}} and {{USS|Ross|DDG 71|2}}.<ref>{{cite web | author= Lt. (j.g.) Bryan Boggs, USN | title= USS ''Curts'', Pakistani Navy Participate in Officer Exchange Program | url= http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=37552 | work= NNS080602-12 | publisher= ''Abraham Lincoln'' Carrier Strike Group Public Affairs | date= 6 June 2008 | accessdate=2010-12-27}}</ref>

===Tsunami relief activities===
The Navy has been involved in some peacetime operations, most notably during the [[tsunami]] tragedy that struck on 26 December 2004. Pakistan sent her combatant vessels to [[Sri Lanka]], [[Bangladesh]], and the [[Maldives]] to help in rescue and relief work.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/2005/01/02/top5.htm|title=2 Pakistan Navy ships, C-130s to join rescue work|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref>

Pakistan Navy dispatched its two combatant vessels, [[PNS Tariq (1973)|PNS Tariq]], a destroyer, PNS ''Nasr'', a Logistic support ship, were deployed in the region. Under the tactical direction of former Chief of Naval Staff Admiral (retired) Shahid Karimullah, Pakistan Navy ships immediately rendered their assistance to Government of Maldives for evacuation of stranded tourists/locals from islands. Pakistan Navy continued this humanitarian assistance through rendering diplomatic and material support by sending two more ships with sizeable relief efforts to Indonesia and Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jang.com.pk/thenews/spedition/defence_day_supp_05/p11.html|title=Jang Group Online Defence Day Supplement|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224165025/http://jang.com.pk/thenews/spedition/defence_day_supp_05/p11.html|archivedate=24 December 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Pakistan Navy later assigned another relief mission to Sri Lanka dispatching two more combatant vessels. PNS ''Khaiber'' and PNS ''Moawin'' were dispatched to assist Sri Lanka.<ref>[http://www.paktribune.com/news/print.php?id=91172 PN ships to arrive in Indonesia for relief operation in tsunami-hit areas]</ref> These vessels had three helicopters, a [[Pakistan Marines|140th Marine Expeditionary Force]], military and civilian doctors, and paramedics. Besides, relief goods – medicines, medical equipment, food supplies, tents, blankets- are being sent in huge quantities.<ref>[http://pakistantimes.net/2005/01/04/top.htm Quake-Tsunami Devastation: Pakistan Joins Global Task Force for Aid ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614084157/http://pakistantimes.net/2005/01/04/top.htm |date=14 June 2011 }}</ref> The diameter of relief operations were expanded to Bangladesh. And, Pakistan Naval vessels, carrying other Pakistan Armed Forces units, landed in Bangladesh for the first time since December 1971. The Navy, Army, and the Air Force had carried out the relief operations in the Bangladesh, where the Pakistani forces also anticipated reconstruction of civil infrastructure in the country.<ref>[http://www.ispr.gov.pk/front/main.asp?o=t-article&id=3 The role of Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh]</ref>

===Operation Madad===
{{Main|Operation Madad (Pakistan Navy)|2010 Pakistan floods}}

As [[Pakistan Army|Army]] and [[Pakistan Air Force]] (PAF) gained momentum on militancy, the Navy took the whole responsibility of conducting the largest search and rescue operations in the [[2010 Pakistan floods|2010 floods]]. The Navy rescued and evacuated more than 352,291 people after launching the ''Operation Madad'' (English: "Help") throughout Pakistan in August 2010.<ref>[https://archive.is/20131116023136/http://www.pakistannews.com.pk/national/pakistan-flood-disaster/pak-navy-launches-operation-madad-sindh.html Pak Navy launches operation ‘Madad’ in Sindh]</ref> Since then, the Navy had provided 43,850 kg of food and relief goods to flood victims; 5,700 kg of ready-to-cook food, 1,000 kg of dates and 5,000 kg of food has been dispatched to Sukkur. The [[Pakistan Naval Air Arm]] had air dropped more than 500 kg of food and relief good in Thal, Ghospur and Mirpur areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=256553&Cat=4&dt=8/16/2010|title=Pakistan Navy continues relief operations|date=16 August 2010|work=The News International, Pakistan|accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2011|01}}, under the program ''PN Model Village'', the Navy is building the model houses in the affected areas. More than 87 houses were built and had been distributed to the local [[internally displaced person]] (IDPs). About 69,011 people have been treated in PN medical camps.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onepakistan.com/news/local/karachi/81137-pn-model-village-handed-over-to-idps.html|title=Karachi News|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009003349/http://www.onepakistan.com/news/local/karachi/81137-pn-model-village-handed-over-to-idps.html|archivedate=9 October 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Command structure==
According to the [[Constitution of Pakistan|Constitution]], the [[President of Pakistan]] is the civilian commander-in-chief of [[Pakistan Armed Forces]] while the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]] served as the chief executive of Pakistan Armed Forces, both the people-elected civilians, the President and Prime minister, maintains a [[civilian control of the military]].

The [[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Naval Staff]] (CNS), a four-star admiral, is a member of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee]] as well as the [[National Security Council of Pakistan|National Security Council]] (NSC) and the [[Pakistan National Command Authority|Nuclear Command Authority]], and is responsible for the sea defence of the country.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} They direct the non-combat and combatant operations from naval combatant headquarters (NHQ) in Islamabad, near army combatant headquarters (GHQ).

The Chief of Naval Staff has seven Deputy Chiefs of Naval Staff, ranging from Rear Admirals to Vice-Admirals; the Chief of Staff (COS) under whom the Naval Operations and Intelligence Directorates functions; the [[Naval Secretary]] (NS); the [[Quarter master general|Quarter-Master General]] (QMG); the [[Hydrographer of the Navy|Hydrographer of the Navy (HPN)]]; the Engineer-in-Chief; the [[Flag Officer Sea Training]] (FOST); the Director-General of Training and Joint Warfare (DG Trig); the Directorate-General for Naval Technologies Complex (NTC); and the Chief of Naval Logistics (CNL). The responsibilities of Deputy Chief of Naval Staff are listed below:{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

===Deputy chiefs of staff===
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Operations (DCNS Operations)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Training and Evaluation (DCNS Training and Evaluation)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Personnel (DCNS Personnel)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Materials (DCNS Materials)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Supplies (DCNS Supply)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff of Projects (DCNS Projects)
*Deputy Chief of Naval Staff Of Administration (DCNS Administration)

===Assistant chiefs of staff===
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Operations (ACNS Operations)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Training and Evaluation (ACNS Training and Evaluation)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Training and Personnel (ACNS Training and Personnel)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Materials (ACNS Materials)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Naval Supplies (ACNS Supply)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of Projects (ACNS Projects)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff of [[Naval Strategic Forces Command (Pakistan)|Naval Strategic Forces Command]] (ACNS NSFC)
*Assistant Chief of Naval Staff Of Administration (ACNS Administration)

===Combatant commands===
The Pakistan Navy has six major combatant commands
*'''Commander of Pakistan Naval Fleet (COMPAK)''' – The command heads the surface, sub surface and aviation commands.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/compak.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=14 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224163721/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/compak.html |archive-date=24 December 2015 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> COMPAK is headquartered in Karachi, Sindh. Previously, it included the 25th and 18th Destroyer Squadron (with Gearing class D16O, D164-168).
**'''Commander Naval Air Arm (COMNAV)''' – Looks after the Naval air stations, and is the commander of the Naval Aviation, reporting into COMPAK.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/admin_Authorities.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=16 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103170112/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/admin_Authorities.html |archive-date=3 November 2016 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
**'''Commander Submarine Squadron (COMSUBS)'''– Looks after the submarine operations, and is the commander of the submarine commanders, reporting into COMPAK.<ref>{{cite web|title=Submarine History|url=https://www.paknavy.gov.pk/submarine_history.html|website=www.paknavy.gov.pk|accessdate=24 January 2017}}</ref>
*'''Commander Karachi (COMKAR)''' – The Commander Karachi is responsible for the command of the shore establishment, naval facilities within Karachi. The COMKAR also provide services and training facilities for the Navy. The COMKAR also looks after the military protocol at Karachi. This command's responsibilities also include harbour defence.
*''' Commander COAST (COMCOAST)''' – The special command of SSG(N), Marines and Coastal stations.
*'''Commander Central Punjab (COMCEP)''' – Looks after the naval and marine assets stationed in Punjab, and Southern skirts of Sindh.<ref name="PNOrg">{{cite web | url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/organization.html | title=PN ORGANIZATION | publisher=Pakistan Navy | accessdate=June 14, 2016 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531032003/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/organization.html | archivedate=31 May 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
*'''Commander Logistics (COMLOG)''' – This command looks after the repair, maintenance and logistic infrastructure of PN.
*'''Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST)''' Conducts all types of operational training at Sea
*'''Commander North (COMNOR)''' – Looks after the Naval installations in the north of Pakistan. The COMNOR commands the naval facilities in North-west Pakistan, Azad Kashmir, and Northern Areas of Pakistan. The COMNOR is also a major part of Pakistan's Northern Naval Command.
*'''Commander WEST (COMWEST )''' – Looks after the Naval installations in the west of Pakistan. The naval bases are [[Ormara]], [[Pasni City|Pasni]], [[Gwadar]] and [[Jiwani]]. The COMWEST is a major component of the Western Naval Command of Pakistan Navy.

===Depots command===
The Pakistan Navy has a major Depot command which consists of 11 units
**'''Commander Depots Group (COMDEP)'''- This is a Type Command of Supply Branch located in Karachi

===Headquarters===

The single headquarter for the Navy, the [[Naval Headquarters (Pakistan Navy)|Navy NHQ]], is located in [[Islamabad]] at the neighborhoods of the [[General Headquarters (Pakistan Army)|Army GHQ]], in the vicinity of [[JS HQ (Pakistan)|Joint Staff Headquarters]].

The NHQ function also includes the [[Judge Advocate General Branch|Judge Advocate General Corps of Navy]], and the Comptroller of Civilian Personnel, the [[Hydrographer of the Navy|Hydrographer of the Navy (HPN)]] of the [[Pakistan Navy Hydrographic Department|Hydrographic Corps]]; the Engineer-in-Chief of Naval Engineering Corps (NEC); Surgeon General of Navy; Quartermaster General of the Navy.

===Naval Strategic Force Command===
In August 2012, the Pakistan Navy inaugurated the Naval Strategic Force Command headquarters, described by the military as the "custodian of the [[Nation-state|nation]]'s nuclear [[second strike capability]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-05-20/pakistan/31788040_1_pakistan-navy-inaugurates-nuclear-arsenal|title= Pak's navy inaugurates new Strategic Force headquarters|date=9 August 2012}}</ref>

==Personnel==
{{See also|List of serving Admirals of the Pakistan Navy}}
[[File:Pakisan First.jpg|thumb|Pakistan Navy Officers on Guard By the Standard of the Navy and the Naval Jack]]
[[File:Change of command aboard PNS Tippu Sultan DVIDS78354.jpg|thumb|Then, Commodore, Khan Hasham Bin Saddique of Pakistan Navy, left, hands a spyglass to French navy Rear Adm. Jean L. Kerignard during a change of command ceremony aboard PNS Tippu Sultan (D 186) while in port at Mina Salman Pier, Bahrain, 25 February 2008.]]

As the estimates made in 2003 and 2009, the Navy had approximately 25,000 active duty personnel.<ref name="IISS2010">''The Military Balance 2010'', p. 367, [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] (London, 2010).</ref> With additional 1,200 [[Pakistan Marines|Marines]] and more than 2,500 [[Pakistan Coast Guard|Coast Guard]]; 2,000 active-duty Navy personnel in the Maritime Security Agency. In addition there were 5,000 reserves, total combined forces exceeding 35,700 personnel.<ref name="IISS2010"/>

In 2007, Navy gave commissioned to the first Baloch naval squadron, consisting of around 53 women officers and 72 Baloch sailors.<ref name="Dawn News, 19th March 2012">{{cite news|last=Dr. Mustaghis-ur-Rahman|title=Gender inequality in {{sic|nolink=y|coporates|expected=corporates}}|url=http://dawn.com/2012/03/19/gender-inequality-in-coporates/|accessdate=11 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn News, 19 March 2012|date=19 March 2012}}</ref> In 2012, the Navy pushed its personnel strength to Baluchistan after sending a large formation of Baloch university students to Navy Engineering Colleges and War College as well as staff schools to complete their officer training requirements.<ref name="Dawn News, 10th March 2012">{{cite news|last=Our Reporter|title=Pakistan Navy offers jobs to Balochistan youths|url=http://dawn.com/2012/03/10/pakistan-navy-offers-jobs-to-balochistan-youths/|accessdate=11 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn News, 10 March 2012|date=10 March 2012}}</ref> The Navy established three additional facilities in Balochistan to supervise the training to its personnel.<ref name="Dawn News, 10th March 2012"/> As of 2014 estimate, the Navy has a strength of 30,700 active duty personnel.<ref name="Penguin UK, Ahmed">{{cite book|last1=Ahmed|first1=Khaled|title=Sleepwalking to Surrender: Dealing with Terrorism in Pakistan|date=2014|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9789386057624|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TbzBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT95&lpg=PT95&dq=pakistan+navy+personnel&source=bl&ots=9mfLYMN46o&sig=LTziFjHArHCl-iH9w8ZRLy2mWfI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi28LSMlLDQAhXMy1QKHasyBA84ChDoAQgkMAI#v=onepage&q=pakistan%20navy%20personnel&f=false|accessdate=17 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

=== Education and training ===
The Pakistan Navy maintains large educational organisations, accredited institutions and scientific organisations to support the combatant and non-combatant missions, operations and shores activities on land. Its academic and accredited four-year university, the [[Pakistan Naval Academy]], is the home of naval cadets for the future officers of Pakistan Navy, and offers academic degrees programmes at its academy. The Pakistan Naval Academy also has provided education, athletic programs and military training programmes to the officers of allied navies, among notables including the Chief of Staff of the [[Qatar Armed Forces|Qatar Royal Navy]] (QRN) and many high-ranking officers of [[Royal Saudi Navy]] (RSN) as well as other navies in the Gulf were graduates of the Pakistan Naval Academy. The academy is a full-fledged academic and scientific institution catering to the needs to Pakistan junior naval officers.

The Pakistan Navy also managed, administers, and managed the various academic research universities in the country, including the [[Pakistan Navy School|Naval Educational Establishment]] (NEE). The [[Pakistan Naval War College|Naval War College]] is a post-graduate and post-doctorate college that specialises in the techniques and developing ideas for naval warfare and passing them along to officers of the Navy.<ref>[http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/pnwc/main.htm New Page 2] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603221244/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/pnwc/main.htm |date=3 June 2012 }}</ref> Other college includes the [[Pakistan Navy School of Logistics and Management|College of Logistics and Management]] (conducts research in military logistics); and Strategic Institute for Naval Affairs which conducts research on specialising in imparting [[Naval Warfare]] techniques to officers of the Pakistan naval forces.

The senior training institution for all service branches is the [[National Defence University, Pakistan|National Defence University]] (NDU) at the Islamabad. Originally established in 1971 at Rawalpindi, the university is mandate to provide training in higher military strategy for senior officers, the institution was relocated to Islamabad in 1995. It also offers courses that allow civilians to explore the broader aspects of national security, defence policy and war studies. In a program begun in the 1980s to upgrade the intellectual standards of the army, air force, marines and naval officers and increase awareness of the wider world, a large group of officers, has been detailed to academic training, achieving master's degrees and even doctorates at universities in Pakistan and abroad.

== Pay grade and uniforms ==
The rank structure is patterned on the Royal Navy model. It consists of [[commissioned officers]] and the [[Junior Commissioned Officer]]s paygrade ranks only.
{{Main|Naval ranks and insignia of Pakistan}}

{| style="border:1px solid #001A57; background-color:white; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px; text-align:center;"
|+ '''Structure of the Commissioned officer rank of the Pakistan Navy'''
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Pay grade !! OF-10 !! OF-9 !! OF-8 !! OF-7 !! OF-6 !! OF-5 !! OF-4 !! OF-3 !! OF-2 !! OF-1 !! OF-1 !!
|-
| '''Insignia'''
| [[File:Fleet Admiral Pakistan Navy Insignia.jpg|45px]] [[File:US-O11 insignia.svg|30px]]
| [[File:Admiral Pakistan Navy insignia.svg|55px]] [[File:US-O10 insignia.svg|55px]]
| [[File:Vice admiral Pakistan Navy insignia.svg|60px]] [[File:US-O9 insignia.svg|55px]]
| [[File:Rear admiral Pakistan Navy insignia.svg|60px]] [[File:US-O8 insignia.svg|35px]]
|[[File:Commodore insignia full.jpg|110x110px]] [[File:US-O7 insignia.svg|20px]]
| [[File:Captain Pakistan Navy Insignia.JPG|45px]] 
| [[File:Commander Pakistan Navy Insignia.JPG|45px]] 
| [[File:Lieutenant Commander Pakistan Navy Insignia.JPG|45px]] 
| [[File:Lieutenant Pakistan Navy Insignia.JPG|45px]] 
| [[File:Sub Lieutenant Pakistan Navy Insignia.JPG|45px]] 
| [[File:Midshipman Pakistan Navy Insignia.JPG|45px]]
|-
| '''Title'''
|[[Admiral of the fleet|Admiral of the Fleet]] {{small|Grade authorized but never awarded to date}}
|[[Admiral]]
|[[Vice-Admiral]]
|[[Rear-Admiral]]
|[[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]]
|[[Captain (naval)|Captain]]
|[[Commander (rank)|Commander]]
|[[Lieutenant-Commander]]
|[[Lieutenant (naval)|Lieutenant]]
|[[Sub-lieutenant]]
|[[Midshipman]]
|-
| '''Rank Hierarchy'''
|[[Five-star rank|Five-star Admiral]]
|[[Four-star rank|Four-star Admiral]]
|[[Three-star rank|Three-star Admiral]]
|[[Two-star rank|Two-star Admiral]]
|[[One-star rank|One-star Flag Officer]]

|}

{| style="border:1px solid #001A57; background-color:white; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px; text-align:center;"
|+ '''Structure of the Enlisted rank of the Pakistan Navy'''
|
| '''Insignia'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| '''Title'''
| [[Master Chief Petty Officer]]
| [[Fleet Chief Petty Officer]]
| [[Chief Petty Officer]]
| No Equivalent

| [[Petty Officer]]
| No Equivalent
| [[Leading Rate]]
| [[Able Seaman]]
| [[Ordinary Rate]]
|-
| '''Abbreviation'''
| MCPO||FCPO||CPO||NE||PO||NE||LH||AS||OS
|-
|}

==Science and technology==
Apart from executing military operations, the Navy also maintains its own science and technology organisations and commands to promote scientific activities, knowledge, and engineering facilities in the navy. The Navy operates the [[Pakistan Navy Hydrographic Department|Naval Directorate for Hydrography]], served as the operational scientific naval oceanographic program for the Navy. The Navy also administer and operates the astronomical observatory known as [[Pakistan Naval Observatory]], with primary mission to produce Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) for the Navy and the [[Ministry of Defence (Pakistan)|Ministry of Defence]] (MoD), though the Navy has also played a vital role in nation's civilian space authority, the [[Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission|Space Research Commission]] in conducting studies on [[Astrophysics]], [[Astronomy]] and Mathematics. The [[Naval Strategic Forces Command (Pakistan)|Naval Strategic Forces Command]] served as the primary scientific and military organisation for the Navy, the command is charged with battling with naval-based nuclear weapons and controlling the operations of nuclear submarines.

[[File:PNEC.jpg|left|thumb|A campus of [[Pakistan Navy Engineering College|Navy Engineering College]] (PNEC) in Karachi.]]

The other educational facilities training institutions are included the PNS ''Bahadur'', that conducts weapon system specialist courses; the PNS ''Himalaya'', for providing the combat surface training courses for the [[Non-commissioned officer|NCO]], [[Junior commissioned officer|JCO]], and recruited sailors while the Higher Educational Training (HET) is a way to be commissioned officer from sailors.

The PNS ''Karsaz'' is the largest and most organised technical and naval combat training establishment of the Navy. The ''Karsaz'' has the privilege to host many heads of states since its commissioning. ''Karsaz'' served as a mother unit who gave birth to [[Pakistan Naval Station Mehran|Naval Air Station Mehran]], the [[Pakistan Navy Engineering College|Navy Engineering College]], PNS ''Bahadur'', and other Navy units and naval bases in that area. The unit celebrated its golden jubilee in 2003 under the command of [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] M. Bashir. Chaudhry. The PNS ''Karsaz'' also houses one of the most modern Special Children School which was built at the cost of [[Pakistan Rupee|Rs. 88.00 Millions]] during 2003–05. Cdre M. Bashir Chaudhry who was the commandant ''Karsaz'' during this period was the force behind this project who collected the funds through philanthropists, got the school designed through NESPAK and finally constructed & put it into operation. The Rangoon Vala Trust (RVT) contributed the most in the funding of this school and other Navy sponsored programmes.

The Navy Engineering College is one of the most recognised institute of the Navy and offers under-graduate, post-graduate, and doctoral programmes in engineering, science and technology disciplines. The Navy Engineering College is controlled by the Navy but it has been an affiliated with the [[National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan|National University of Sciences and Technology]] and has become its constituent [[Pakistan Navy Engineering College]], where officers and civilian students are offered degrees in Electrical, Mechanical, Electronics and industrial and manufacturing engineering.

==Special Operations Forces==

===Special Services Group (N)===
{{Main|Special Service Group Navy}}
[[File:US Navy 110613-N-OT964-118 Chief Navy Diver Aaron Knight, right, assigned to Commander, Task Group (CTG) 56.1, and Pakistani divers.jpg|thumb|Naval SSG conducting force-protection and under-water special forces training with their [[United States Navy]] counterparts, the [[United States Navy SEALs|US Navy SEALs.]] ]]

The [[Special Service Group Navy]] (reporting name: '''SSG-[N]''') are the principle and elite [[special operations force]] (SOF) of the Pakistan Navy, part of the [[Naval Strategic Forces Command (Pakistan)|Naval Strategic Forces Command]]. The unit was established by then-[[Chief of Naval Staff (Pakistan)|CNS]] Admiral [[S. M. Ahsan]] under the advice and guidance of [[United States Navy SEALs]], in 1966.

The SSG-N's first combat operation took place in 1971 and its operational diameter has increased since then. SSG-N training is extremely tough, one of the toughest courses offered by the Pakistan Armed Forces and in the world. The SSG-N train together first with the special forces of the Pakistan [[Special Service Group|army]] and [[Special Service Wing|air force]], then the special airborne, seaborne, and diving courses are taught by the instructors to the recruiters of the veteran Navy commandos and elite operatives. SSG-[N] personnel are often sent to the United States to complete their training with the [[United States Navy SEALs|US Navy SEALs]] in Colorado and California.

Due to its interminable nature, the SSG-[N] are a classified and clandestine unit and their history of operations has never been released in the public domain. Although the official strength of the unit remains classified, its estimated strength is thought to be between 1000 and 1240 personnel in three regiments.

==Relationships with other service branches==

===Marines===
{{Main|Pakistan Marines}}

The Navy established the [[Pakistan Marines]] on 1 June 1971, by Admiral S.M. Ahsan, but they were decommissioned in 1974 due to their poor performance. However, after the Navy first reorganised, re-established, and re-visioned itself, proposals to establish Pakistani marines roughly equivalent to the [[United States Marines Corps]] were kept under consideration.<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)">{{cite web|last=PN|title=Pakistan Marines and the Navy|url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/qasim.htm|work=Pakistan Navy.|publisher=Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)|accessdate=8 April 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060704062828/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/qasim.htm|archivedate=4 July 2006|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Finally on 14 April 1990, the Pakistan Marines were again re-commissioned in the Navy with about 2,000 men who were drafted<ref>[http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2007/05/marine_pakistan_delegation_070519/ Pakistani Marines tour East Coast bases – Marine Corps News, news from Iraq – Marine Corps Times] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213203941/http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2007/05/marine_pakistan_delegation_070519/ |date=13 February 2012 }}</ref> with plans to significantly expand the force to the size of a corps of approximately 45,000, by 2015. The Marines are under the control of the Pakistan Navy, using the same naval ranks. They are headquartered at [[PNS Qasim]] in Karachi.<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)"/>

[[File:US Navy 091012-N-8132M-245 Marines assigned to the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit (22nd MEU), along with Marines from Kuwait and Pakistan, conduct an amphibious assault demonstration during Exercise Bright Star 2009.jpg|thumb|Pakistan Marines dressed in operational camouflage uniforms, during training with [[United States Marine Corps|United States]] and Kuwaiti counterparts.]]

The first Officer Commanding of the Pakistan Marines was an [[United States Army officer rank insignia|OF-4]] rank officer, Commander M. Obaidullah.<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)"/> On 14 April 1990, a marine training base was commissioned to provide security cover to naval assets. The Navy decided to establish the Marines at [[Qasim fort|Qasim Fort]] which was at that time under the operational control of PNS ''Himalaya''. Finally on 25 November 1990, PNS Qasim was commissioned and became the marines' combatant headquarters, initially comprising eight naval officers, 67 [[Chief petty officer]]s and [[petty officer]]s, as well as 43 marine officers.<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)"/> The Marines specialise in seaborne operations, using the mobility of the Navy, although they are part of the Navy, not a separate branch. Marines wear camouflage uniforms when deployed to an operational environment but otherwise they wear Navy [[dress uniforms]].<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)"/> The size of the Marines were tripled by Admiral [[Shahid Karimullah]] who pursued the case of an additional battalion and its development plan. Since its inception, the Pakistan Marines have been deployed in the [[Sir Creek]] region of the Indo-Pakistan borders.<ref name="Pakistan Naval Inter-Services Public Relations (Naval ISPR)"/>

===Coast Guard===
{{Main|Pakistan Coast Guard|Maritime Security Agency}}
[[File:Pakistan Navy Ships2.jpeg|left|thumb|Pakistan Navy personnel conducting a [[Maritime interdiction|Maritime Interdiction Operation]] exercise with the [[United States Navy]].]]

The Navy also maintains a paramilitary division which prevents federal navy personnel from acting in a law enforcement capacity. The [[Maritime Security Agency]] (MSA) fulfils the law enforcement role in naval operations. The MSA has the capacity to conduct [[search and rescue]] operations in deep waters of Pakistan.<ref name="Maritime Security Agency of Pakistan">{{cite web|last=PN|title=Maritime Security Agency and the Navy|url=http://www.msa.org.pk/his.html|work=Pakistan Navy.|publisher=Maritime Security Agency of Pakistan|accessdate=8 April 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612175443/http://www.msa.org.pk/His.html|archivedate=12 June 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Agency was established after adopting the genesis at the [[UN Convention on the Law of the Sea]] in 1982.<ref name="Maritime Security Agency of Pakistan"/> Pakistan ratified the UN Convention in 1997 but established the MSA on 1 January 1987, for enforcement of national and international laws, policies and conventions at sea.<ref name="Maritime Security Agency of Pakistan"/>
[[File:Parallel steps.jpg|thumb|A unit of Pakistan Navy personnel marching in Karachi.]] The MSA gained its constitutional status in 1994 by the [[Parliament of Pakistan|Parliament]] and is now placed under the command of the Navy, commanded by an officer of [[Two-star rank|two-star]] rank, a [[Rear-Admiral]].

The [[Pakistan Coast Guard]] serves the same purpose as the Navy but, is a separate branch from it.<ref name="Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army">{{cite web|last=Pakistan Army|title=Pakistan Coast Guards|url=http://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/awpreview/ImageGallery.aspx?GalleryID=46|work=Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army|publisher=Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army|accessdate=8 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610020301/http://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/AWPReview/ImageGallery.aspx?GalleryID=46|archive-date=10 June 2012|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Coast Guard's duties include relief efforts in the coastal areas of Pakistan, riverine rescue operations, and distribution of [[military rations]].<ref name="Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army"/> The Coast Guard does not perform operations in deep waters, rather such operations are performed by the MSA.<ref name="Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army"/> However, it uses the mobility of the Pakistan Navy depending on the type of operations it conducts. The Coast Guard is under the command of the [[Pakistan Army]] and contains active-duty army members. It is commanded by a [[two-star rank|two-star]] rank [[Major-General]].<ref name="Pakistan Coast Guards, Pakistan Army"/>

==Branches==
*Operations
**Above Water Warfare
**Underwater Warfare
**Navigation, Operations and Hydrography
**Communication and Electronic Warfare
*Marine Engineering
**Mechanical/ Propulsion
**Electrical
**Hull/ Shipwright
*Weapon Engineering
**Radio
**Fire Control
**Ordnance
*Air Engineering
**Avionics
**Aerospace
*Logistics
*Medical Service
*Supply Branch
*Special Branch (IT)
*Executive Branch

==Naval fleet==
{{Main|List of active Pakistan Navy ships}}
[[File:F-22P PNS Zulfiquar.JPG|thumb|PNS Zulfiqar]]
[[File:080713-N-7949W-084 - USS Rodney M. Davis (FFG-60).jpg|thumb|PNS Alamgir]]
[[File:PNS Tippu Sultan former HMS Avenger.jpg|thumb|PNS Tippu Sultan]]
[[File:Larkana (PB 157)-090309-N-4774B-055.jpg|thumb|PNS Larkana Class Missile Boat]]
[[File:PNS-Badr-F184.jpg|thumb|PNS Badr with [[USS Tarawa (LHA-1)]]]]

=== Ships ===
The names of commissioned combat and non-combat ships of the Pakistan Navy are prefixed with the capital letters "PNS" ("Pakistan Naval Ships"). The names of ships are selected by the [[Ministry of Defence (Pakistan)|Ministry of Defence]], often to honour important people or places in the history of Pakistan.<ref name="Official Website - Frigates">[http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/frigate.htm Official Website – Frigates] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516085915/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/frigate.htm|date=16 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="Official Website - Missile Boats">[http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/SURFACE%20WARRIORS%20-%20PN.htm Official Website – Missile Boats] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527232149/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/SURFACE%20WARRIORS%20-%20PN.htm|date=27 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="Globalsecurity.org">[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/navy.htm Globalsecurity.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928154252/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/navy.htm|date=28 September 2006}}</ref>

The Navy currently operates 9 frigates, including a single former US Navy [[Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigate|''Oliver Hazard Perry''-class frigate]], four former [[Royal Navy]] [[Type 21 frigate|''Amazon'' class]] frigates and four [[Zulfiquar-class frigate|''Zulfiquar''-class frigates]], which are an improved version of the [[Type 053H3 frigate|Type 053H3 class frigates]]. Two of the [[Type 21 frigate|''Amazon'' class]] frigates, locally designated as [[Tariq-class destroyer|''Tariq''-class]] have been decommissioned. In June 2017, Pakistani Navy placed an order for two [[Type 054A frigate]]s with China to replace the existing [[Type 21 frigate]]s in service.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.defensenews.com/naval/2017/12/27/pakistan-shops-for-warships-to-replace-british-frigates-modernize-navy/|title=Pakistan shops for warships to replace British frigates, modernize Navy|last=Ansari|first=Usman|date=2017-12-27|work=Defense News|access-date=2018-06-01|language=en-US}}</ref> In June 2018, an additional order for two more frigates was placed with China Shipbuilding Trading Company. The Navy intends to replace [[Tariq-class destroyer|''Tariq''-class frigates]] with [[Type 054A frigate]]s by 2021.<ref>https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/324301-pakistan-navy-signs-contract-to-acquire-two-modern-warships-from-china</ref><ref>https://tribune.com.pk/story/1725496/1-navy-acquire-two-chinese-warships/</ref><ref name="DefenseNews">[http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=3472967&c=ASI&s=SEA Pakistan Gets New Chinese Frigate]{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Defence News</ref><ref name="DefenseNews" /> In addition, the Navy operates three former ''[[Tripartite-class minehunter|Tripartite]]'' [[Tripartite-class minehunter|class]] minehunters, locally designated as ''Munsif'' class.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYqnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA154#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Pakistan Intelligence, Security Activities and Operations Handbook|last=USA|first=IBP|date=2009-03-20|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781438737218|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:US Navy 100831-N-8590G-005 Pakistan sailors parade their country's colors during the decommissioning ceremony of USS McInerney (FFG 8) at Naval Station Mayport.jpg|thumb|The frigate PNS ''Alamgir'' (former guided-missile frigate [[USS McInerney (FFG-8)]], being handed over to Pakistan Navy on 31 August 2010 at US Naval Station Mayport, Fla.]]

The Navy also operates three [[Azmat-class|''Azmat'' class]] [[fast attack crafts]] based on the Chinese [[Type 037 corvette|''Type 037II Houjian'' class]] missile boat, two ''Jalalat II'' class produced using a German design, two ''Jurrat'' class missile boats, one ''Larkana'' class gun boat and two ''MRTP-33'' class attack craft from Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/72706/pakistan-commissions-third-azmat-class-patrol-vessel|title=Pakistan commissions third Azmat-class patrol vessel {{!}} Jane's 360|website=www.janes.com|access-date=2017-11-29}}</ref><ref>[http://www.yonca-onuk.com/mrtp_33.htm MRTP-33 missile boats] THE 33 METRE Fast Patrol / Attack Craft {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416163254/http://www.yonca-onuk.com/mrtp_33.htm|date=16 April 2008}}</ref> They are primarily divided among the 10th Patrol Craft Squadron and the Fast Patrol Craft Squadron.<ref name="paknavyfleet">{{cite web|url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/fleet.html#|title=PN DIMENSIONS: SURFACE WARRIORS|website=Pakistan Navy Official Website|publisher=Pakistan Navy|accessdate=30 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706124946/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/fleet.html|archive-date=6 July 2015|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2017, it was announced that Pakistan has signed a deal with Turkey to acquire four [[Milgem class corvette]]s, two 75m multi-purpose corvettes from American shipbuilder Swift and two offshore patrol vessels from Dutch shipbuilder [[Damen Group|Damen Shipyards]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-signs-deal-to-produce-4-corvettes-with-pakistan/815631|title=Turkey signs deal to produce 4 corvettes with Pakistan|access-date=2018-06-01}}</ref><ref>http://www.janes.com/article/79555/damen-begins-work-on-first-of-two-opvs-for-pakistan-navy</ref><ref>https://nation.com.pk/01-Nov-2017/pakistan-orders-two-corvettes-from-us-based-swiftships</ref>

===Submarines===
{{See also|Khalid class submarine|Karachi Shipyard|Karachi Naval Dockyard}}
The Submarines Service Force (SSF) is the major combatant command of Pakistan Navy, with primary mission including the commencing of peaceful engagement, surveillance and intelligence management, special operations, precision strikes, battle group operations, and the control of Pakistan's border seas. The Submarine command also takes responsibility to protect country's sea lanes of communication as well as to protect the economical interests, foreign trade and development of the country.<ref name="NIT Pakistan Directorate">{{cite web|url=http://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/pakistan-submarine-capabilities/|title=Pakistan Submarine Capabilities|last=NIT|work=Nuclear Threat Initiatives|publisher=NIT Pakistan Directorate|accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Defence Industry Daily">{{cite news|last=Khaliej Times|title=German Submarine Deal With Pakistan Goes Quiet|url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Report-German-Submarine-Deal-With-Pakistan-on-Hold-05432/|accessdate=8 April 2012|newspaper=Defence Industry Daily|date=19 May 2009}}</ref>

The Navy currently operates a total of five [[Diesel-electric submarine|diesel-electric]] submarines acquired from France, namely, two [[Agosta-class submarine|''Agosta-70'' class]] and three [[Agosta-class submarine|''Agosta-90B'' class]] equipped with [[air-independent propulsion]].<ref name="PN">Anon. (14 April 2007) [http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/ Pakistan Navy]. ''Pakistan Navy website''. {{webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/5hPNTIF3w?url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/|date=9 June 2009}}</ref> In April 2015, eight export version of [[Type 039A submarine|''Type 039B'' class]] submarines from [[China]] for $5 billion was approved. Four submarines are expected to be delivered by 2023 and the remainder delivered by 2028.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/1776522/beijing-eyes-bigger-arms-exports-experts-say|title=Beijing eyes bigger arms exports after Pakistan deal, experts say|work=South China Morning Post|access-date=2018-06-02|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:OuessantBrest2005.jpg|thumb|300px|In Picture, the French [[Agosta class submarine|Agosta–70A]] [[French submarine Ouessant|''Ouessant'']] in [[2005 in France|2005]], the [[Agosta class submarine|Agosta 90B (Khalid)]] are much larger than Agosta-70, and powered with [[Air-independent propulsion]].]]

In April 2014, the Pakistan Navy announced that it is in the process of shifting primary operations and naval assets, including its entire fleet of diesel-electric submarines (SSKs), from [[Karachi]] to the [[Jinnah Naval Base]] in [[Ormara]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/36959/pakistan-navy-to-shift-submarines-from-karachi-to-ormara|title=Pakistan Navy to shift submarines from Karachi to Ormara|publisher=|accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref> The Navy has been seeking to enhance its strategic strike and precision capability by developing naval variants of the [[Babur (cruise missile)|Babur]] crusie missile from submarines, surface combatants.<ref name="NIT Pakistan Directorate" />

=== Auxiliary ships ===
The Navy operates a former [[HNLMS Poolster (A835)|''Poolster'' class]] [[replenishment oiler]], called [[PNS Moawin (A20)|PNS ''Moawin'']] which was acquired from the [[Royal Netherlands Navy]] and a [[Fuqing class replenishment ship|Fuqing class]] replenishment oiler, PNS ''Nasr'', which was acquired from China. In addition, the Navy also operates two small tankers and two coast tankers which were locally built by KSEW.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.paknavy.gov.pk/stus.html|title=Pakistan Navy Official Website|website=www.paknavy.gov.pk|access-date=2018-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/a-nasr.htm|title=PNS Nasr (PRC Fuqing)|last=Pike|first=John|access-date=2018-06-02|language=en}}</ref>

A dredging vessel, a hydro-graphic vessel, a tall sail, a backhoe dredger, two split hoppers barges and two [[Landing Craft Mechanized]] are also operated by the Navy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.paknavy.gov.pk/21auxron.html|title=Pakistan Navy Official Website|website=www.paknavy.gov.pk|access-date=2018-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/78671/pakistan-navy-commissions-dredging-vessel|title=Pakistan Navy commissions dredging vessel {{!}} Jane's 360|website=www.janes.com|access-date=2018-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://navaltoday.com/2016/04/22/pakistan-navy-gets-2-landing-craft/|title=Pakistan Navy Gets 2 Landing Craft|work=Naval Today|access-date=2018-06-02|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Pakistan Naval Air Arm ==
{{Main|Pakistan Naval Air Arm}}
[[File:Pakistan Navy Orion Asuspine.jpg|thumb|A Pakistan Navy P-3C Orion in 2010]]
After realising the naval failure in the 1971 war, the Navy sought to modernise.<ref name="Naval Air Arm, Navy">{{cite web|last=PN|title=Naval Airwar|url=http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/naval_airarm.htm|publisher=Naval Air Arm, Navy|accessdate=8 April 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419133312/http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/naval_airarm.htm|archivedate=19 April 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Navy took the research on using the aircraft at sea in 1971, after the war. Its aerial fighting unit is known as Naval Air Arm (also known as [[Pakistan Naval Aviation|Naval Aviation]]) apart from the PAF. The naval fighter pilot course was introduced by the Navy and trained its fighter pilots at the Pakistan Air Force Academy, furthermore the navy pilots later went to Combat Commander's School for fighter jet training. Since the 1970s, the naval air arm has become a full-fledged and potent service of the Navy. From 1993 to 1994, the Navy stepped in its efforts in sea-airborne operations when PAF donated and inducted five [[Mirage 5|Mirage 5 ROSE]] fighter jets, later transferred the entire squadron to Navy armed with [[Exocet|Exocet missiles]].<ref name="Repro India Ltd.">{{cite book|last=Anjali|first=Gosh|title=India's Foreign Policy The Pakistan Threat|year=2009|publisher=Repro India Ltd.|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1025-8|pages=176–180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y32u4JMroQgC&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&dq=MIRAGE+5+and+Pakistan+Navy&source=bl&ots=Ic1oORApBI&sig=3prKb5O9VjFQca7uXn_alCal8bg&hl=en&sa=X&ei=J-iBT4HLKuTgiAL06u2KAw&ved=0CCQQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=MIRAGE%205%20and%20Pakistan%20Navy&f=true}}</ref> Since then, the Mirage 5 are piloted by the navy fighter pilots after passing the course with PAF Academy and certifying a diploma from a weapons system and combat training school.<ref name="Repro India Ltd."/> The Mirage 5 belonged to the PAF as well as operated by the air force, but are piloted by the Navy fighter pilots who are under the command of senior ranking Navy officer.<ref name="Repro India Ltd."/> The Westland lynx helicopters have now been removed from active service and a tender has been issued for their removal.<ref>http://www.historyofpia.com/board/october_12/lynx_oct31.jpg</ref>

Pakistan Naval Air Arm Pakistan Naval Aviation is an important arm of the Pakistan Navy and assists in the surface and submarine flights to guarantee the safety of Pakistan sea borders.

===Pakistan Naval Air Defence===
{{Main|Pakistan Naval Air Arm}}

In 2010, the Navy established another command after launching an air defence system, using the [[infrared homing]] [[man-portable air-defense systems]] (MANPADs) system.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} The new command which is known as Pakistan Naval Air Defence (PNAD) are consisted the members of [[Pakistan Marines]] and Navy's ground officers after the first battalion graduated from the [[Special Service Group|Naval School of Weapon System Engineering]].<ref name="Press Release, PN">{{cite news|title=Pakistan Navy Air Defence System|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-JX_uLra0h8|accessdate=9 April 2012|newspaper=Press Release, PN|date=27 December 2010}}</ref> In 2010, the command air-launched and tested its first naval air defence system from [[Sonmiani (space facility)|Sonmiani Terminal]]— a space center of [[Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission|Space Research Commission]] (SRC) in the North Arabian Sea.<ref name="The News International, March 13, 2010">{{cite news|last=Our Correspondents|title=Pakistan Navy tests weapon system|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=228661&Cat=4&dt=3/13/2010|accessdate=9 April 2012|newspaper=The News International, 13 March 2010|date=13 March 2010}}</ref> Along with the members of Pakistan Marines, the PNAD members are deployed in all over the country to support the marine operations of Pakistan Navy.

*[[FN-6|FN16 Or HY-6 shoulder-fired surface-to-air missile]], tested on 25 December 2010 by Naval Marines with a range of 6 km and altitude ~ 3.5 km)
*[[Mistral (missile)|Mistral shoulder-fired surface-to-air missile]], test fired on 25 December 2010 by Naval marines.

==See also==
{{Portal|Pakistan|Military of Pakistan}}
* [[List of active Pakistan Navy ships]]
*[[Maritime Security Agency]]
*[[Pakistan Naval Academy]]
*[[Pakistan Navy War College]]
*[[Kalmat Naval Base]]
*[[PNS Ahsan|Ahsan Naval Base]]
*[[Jinnah Naval Base]]
*[[PNS Makran|Makran Naval Base]]
*[[PNS Mehran|Mehran Naval Base]]
*[[PNS Qasim|Qasim Marine Base]]

==References==
;Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}
;Internet
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite web | title=Orbat | work=Naval and Maritime Security Agency Warship Names 1947–2005 | url=http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/pakistan/warshipnames.html | accessdate=22 June 2005 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050406184550/http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/pakistan/warshipnames.html | archivedate=6 April 2005 | df=dmy-all }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.paknavy.gov.pk}}

{{Pakistani Armed Forces}}
{{Comparative military ranks (Pakistan)}}
{{Asia topic|Navy of|title=Navies of Asia}}

[[Category:Pakistan Navy|*]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1947]]
[[Category:Government of Pakistan]]
[[Category:1947 establishments in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Pakistan federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Military of Pakistan]]

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2018-08-02T01:10:23Z

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'''QAnon''' refers to a [[conspiracy theory]] centered on '''Q''', an [[online handle]] used on several [[image board]]s by a presumably [[Americans|American]]<ref name="nymag" /> pseudonymous individual or group of individuals<ref name=":5">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theepochtimes.com/the-q-phenomenon_2581642.html|title=The 'Q' Phenomenon|last=Philipp|first=Joshua|date=July 2, 2018|work=The Epoch Times|access-date=July 14, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reviewjournal.com/crime/courts/suspect-in-hoover-dam-standoff-writes-trump-cites-conspiracy-in-letters/|title=Suspect in Hoover Dam standoff writes Trump, cites conspiracy in letters|last=Brean|first=Henry|date=July 13, 2018|work=Las Vegas Review-Journal|access-date=July 14, 2018|language=en-US|issn=1097-1645}}</ref> claiming to have access to classified information involving the [[Presidency of Donald Trump|Trump administration]] and its opponents in the [[United States]], and detailing a supposed secret counter-coup against the alleged "[[Deep state in the United States|deep state]]".

The [[conspiracy theory]], mainly popularized by supporters of U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] under the names ''The Storm'' and ''The Great Awakening'', has been widely characterized as a "baseless",<ref name="nyt">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/01/us/politics/what-is-qanon.html|title=What Is QAnon: Explaining the Internet Conspiracy Theory That Showed Up at a Trump Rally|last=Bank|first=Justin|last2=Stack|first2=Liam|last3=Victor|first3=Daniel|date=August 1, 2018|access-date=August 1, 2018|website=The New York Times|language=en|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/business/business-news/fringe-conspiracy-theory-qanon-there-s-plenty-merch-sale-amazon-n892561|title=Like the fringe conspiracy theory Qanon? There’s plenty of merch for sale on Amazon|last=Zadrozny|first=Brandy|last2= Collins|first2=Ben|date=July 18, 2018|work=NBC News|access-date=July 30, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://thinkprogress.org/roseanne-barr-terrible-tweets-racist-abc-stays-silent-0bfe7cdc7996/|title=ABC cancels Roseanne Barr’s show after she posts racist, conspiratorial tweets|last=Rupar|first=Aaron|date=May 29, 2018|work=ThinkProgress|access-date=July 5, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> "unhinged",<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danidiplacido/2018/05/29/roseanne-ruined-roseanne/|title=Roseanne Ruined 'Roseanne'|last=Di Placido|first=Dani|date=May 29, 2018|work=Forbes|access-date=July 5, 2018|language=en|issn=0015-6914}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://thinkprogress.org/rosanne-barr-promotes-pro-trump-conspiracy-theory-d52a65887183/|title=Roseanne Barr promotes an unhinged pro-Trump conspiracy theory on Twitter|last=Culp-Ressler|first=Tara|date=March 31, 2018|work=ThinkProgress|access-date=July 5, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> and "deranged conspiracy cult".<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2018/08/01/we-are-q-a-deranged-conspiracy-cult-leaps-from-the-internet-to-the-crowd-at-trumps-maga-tour/|title=‘We are Q’: A deranged conspiracy cult leaps from the Internet to the crowd at Trump’s ‘MAGA’ tour|last=Stanley-Becker|first=Isaac|date=August 1, 2018|website=Washington Post|language=en|issn=0190-8286|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=August 1, 2018}}</ref>

Prominent adherents to the conspiracy theory include [[Roseanne Barr]],<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> [[Curt Schilling]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/curt-schilling-backs-pro-trump-qanon-conspiracy-theory|title=Curt Schilling Backs Pro-Trump ‘QAnon’ Conspiracy Theory|last=Sommer|first=Will|date=June 26, 2018|work=The Daily Beast|access-date=July 5, 2018|language=en}}</ref> [[Ben Garrison]],<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=http://www.rightwingwatch.org/post/a-new-wave-of-qanon-activists-emerge-from-the-cult-of-maga/|title=A New Wave Of ‘QAnon’ Activists Emerge From The Cult Of MAGA|last=Holt|first=Jared|date=July 9, 2018|work=Right Wing Watch|access-date=July 13, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Laura Loomer]],<ref name=":4" /> [[Cheryl Sullenger]]<ref name=":2" /> and [[Lionel (radio personality)|Michael "Lionel" Lebron]].<ref group="tweet">{{cite tweet|number=995277257466896385|user=LionelNation|title=I'm a Proud Dedicated #QAnon Believer|author=The Lionel Nation|author-link=Lionel (radio personality)|date=May 12, 2018}}</ref> Personalities such as [[James Woods]]<ref group="tweet">{{cite tweet|number=990653477218017280|user=RealJamesWoods|title=I’m holding back my thoughts on #Q. Let’s see where the wind blows.|author=James Woods|author-link=James Woods|date=April 29, 2018}}</ref> and [[Jenna Jameson]]<ref group="tweet">{{cite tweet|number=947331329288368128|user=jennajameson|title=This hashtag though ——> #QAnon|author=Jenna Jameson|author-link=Jenna Jameson|date=December 31, 2017}}</ref> have publicly acknowledged the topic.

==History==
===Origin===
A person identifying as "Q Clearance Patriot" first appeared on the [[/pol/]] board of [[4chan]] on October 28, 2017, posting messages in a thread entitled "Calm Before the Storm",<ref name="nymag">{{cite news|url=http://nymag.com/selectall/2017/12/qanon-4chan-the-storm-conspiracy-explained.html|title=The Storm Is the New Pizzagate — Only Worse|last=Martineau|first=Paris|date=December 19, 2017|work=New York Magazine|access-date=March 26, 2018|issn=0028-7369}}</ref> which was a reference to Trump's cryptic description of a gathering of military leaders as "the calm before the storm".<ref name="nymag" /><ref name="newsweek" /> The poster later moved to [[8chan]], citing alleged security concerns.<ref name=":5" />

The handle implied that the anonymous poster held [[Q clearance]],<ref name="avclub">{{cite web|url=https://www.avclub.com/theres-a-new-insane-conspiracy-theory-tearing-up-4chan-1821432397|title=There's a new, insane conspiracy theory tearing up 4chan|last=Colburn|first=Randall|date=December 19, 2017|work=AV Club}}</ref><ref name="ibt" /> a [[United States Department of Energy]] [[security clearance]] with access to classified information.

===False claims===
{{Expand section|date=July 2018}}
QAnon's posting campaign has a history of false, baseless and unsubstantiated claims. For example, QAnon has claimed on multiple occasions that [[North Korea]]n [[List of leaders of North Korea|Supreme Leader]] [[Kim Jong-un]] is a [[puppet ruler]] installed by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/ywex8v/what-is-qanon-conspiracy-theory|title=A Guide to QAnon, the New King of Right-Wing Conspiracy Theories|last=Caffier|first=Justin|date=June 12, 2018|work=Vice|access-date=July 15, 2018|language=en-us|issn=1077-6788}}</ref>

On February 16, 2018, QAnon falsely accused [[U.S. Representative]] and former [[Democratic National Committee]] chairwoman [[Debbie Wasserman Schultz]] of hiring [[El Salvador]]ian gang [[MS-13]] to murder DNC staffer [[Seth Rich]].<ref name="newsweek" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailydot.com/layer8/qanon-the-storm/|title=The QAnon Conspiracy Is the Oldest Scam Out There|last=Rothschild|first=Mike|date=March 19, 2018|work=The Daily Dot|access-date=July 14, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Identity==
There has been much speculation regarding the motive and the identity of the poster, with theories ranging from the poster being a military intelligence officer to the posting campaign being an [[alternate reality game]] by [[Cicada 3301]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailydot.com/layer8/who-is-q-anon/|title=Who is Q Anon, the internet's most mysterious poster?|last=Rothschild|first=Mike|date=May 29, 2018|work=The Daily Dot|access-date=July 5, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Reactions==
[[Fox News]] commentator [[Sean Hannity]] has tweeted about QAnon, and the Russian government-funded network [[RT News]] has discussed the topic.<ref name=ibt>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/what-storm-conspiracy-theory-that-mysterious-white-house-official-qanon-leaking-secrets-1655194|title=What is The Storm? Conspiracy theory that mysterious White House official leaks secrets|first=Kashmira|last=Gander|date=January 15, 2018|work=International Business Times}}</ref>

The conspiracy theory was initially promoted by [[Alex Jones]] and [[Jerome Corsi]],<ref name="newsweek">{{cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/how-storm-biggest-fake-news-story-796725|title=How 'the Storm' Became the Biggest Fake News Story of 2018|last=Hayden|first=Michael Edison|date=February 1, 2018|work=Newsweek|issn=0028-9604|access-date=April 5, 2018}}</ref> but in May 2018 [[Right Wing Watch]] reported that Jones and Corsi had ceased to support QAnon, declaring the source to now be "completely compromised".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.rightwingwatch.org/post/stick-a-fork-in-qanon-alex-jones-and-jerome-corsi-claim-that-qanon-has-been-completely-compromised/|title=Stick A Fork In QAnon: Alex Jones And Jerome Corsi Claim That QAnon Has Been ‘Completely Compromised’|last=Mantyla|first=Kyle|date=May 11, 2018|work=Right Wing Watch|access-date=July 5, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

In March 2018, [[Reddit]] banned one of its communities discussing QAnon, /r/CBTS_Stream, for "encouraging or inciting violence and posting personal and confidential information". Following this, some followers moved to [[Discord (software)|Discord]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.polygon.com/2018/3/15/17123964/reddit-discord-server-bans-cbts-uncensored-news|title=How closely do Discord and Reddit work together?|last=Alexander|first=Julia|date=March 15, 2018|website=Polygon|access-date=April 5, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailydot.com/layer8/reddit-bans-r-cbts_stream/|title=Reddit bans popular deep state conspiracy forum for 'inciting violence'|first=Andrew|last=Wyrich|date=March 15, 2018|access-date=April 5, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

On March 13, 2018, [[Operation Rescue (Kansas)|Operation Rescue]] vice president and pro-life activist [[Cheryl Sullenger]] referred to QAnon as a "small group of insiders close to President Donald J. Trump" and called his internet postings the "highest level of intelligence to ever be dropped publicly in our known history".<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=http://www.rightwingwatch.org/post/operation-rescue-hypes-qanon-blockbuster-intel-drop-about-planned-parenthood/|title=Operation Rescue Hypes QAnon ‘Blockbuster Intel Drop’ About Planned Parenthood|last=Blue|first=Miranda|date=March 15, 2018|work=Right Wing Watch|access-date=April 5, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.operationrescue.org/archives/blockbuster-intel-drop-reveals-trump-is-trying-to-end-planned-parenthood-twitter-attempts-censorship/|title=Blockbuster Intel Drop Reveals Trump is Trying to “End” Planned Parenthood – Twitter Attempts Censorship|date=March 13, 2018|first=Cheryl|last=Sullenger|author-link=Cheryl Sullenger|work=Operation Rescue|access-date=April 5, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

On March 15, 2018, [[Kiev]]-based ''[[:uk:Рабочая газета|Rabochaya Gazeta]]'', the official newspaper of the [[Communist Party of Ukraine]], published an article calling QAnon a "military intelligence group".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://rg.kiev.ua/page5/article41143|title=Доживают ли Гавайи свои последние дни?|last=Gamma|first=Viktor|date=May 25, 2018|work=Rabochaya Gazeta|access-date=July 5, 2018|trans-title=Are we witnessing the final days of Hawaii?|lang=ru}}</ref>

On March 31, 2018, U.S. actress [[Roseanne Barr]] appeared to promote the conspiracy theory, which was subsequently covered by [[CNN]], ''[[The Washington Post]]'', and ''[[The New York Times]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/03/31/politics/roseanne-barr-conspiracy-tweets/index.html|title=Roseanne tweets support of Trump conspiracy theory, confuses Twitter|last=Cole|first=Devan|work=CNN|access-date=April 1, 2018|date=December 19, 2017}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2018/03/31/the-conspiracy-theory-behind-a-curious-roseanne-barr-tweet-explained/|title=Analysis {{!}} The conspiracy theory behind a curious Roseanne Barr tweet, explained|last=Weigel|first=David|author-link=David Weigel|date=March 31, 2018|work=Washington Post|access-date=April 1, 2018|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://thehill.com/homenews/media/381123-roseanne-barr-faces-social-media-backlash-over-trump-conspiracy-theory-tweet |title= Roseanne Barr faces backlash over Trump conspiracy theory tweet |last=Bowden |first= Tohn |work=The Hill |access-date=March 31, 2018|date=March 31, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/06/opinion/qanon-trump-conspiracy-theory.html|title=Opinion {{!}} The Conspiracy Theory That Says Trump Is a Genius|date=April 6, 2018|work=The New York Times|access-date=April 6, 2018|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|first=Michelle|last=Goldberg|author-link=Michelle Goldberg}}</ref>

On June 15, 2018, a man armed with an [[Colt AR-15|AR-15]] was arrested after driving an armored vehicle to the [[Hoover Dam]] and blocking traffic on what he said was a mission from QAnon: to demand that the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] "release the [[United States Department of Justice Office of the Inspector General|OIG]] report" on the conduct of FBI agents during the investigation into [[Hillary Clinton email controversy|Hillary Clinton's use of a private email server]].<ref name="nyt" /><ref name="tampabay">{{Cite news|url=http://www.tampabay.com/florida-politics/buzz/2018/07/16/conspiracy-theorist-qanon-promoted-then-deleted-by-hillsborough-county-gop/|title=Conspiracy theorist QAnon promoted, then deleted, by Hillsborough County GOP|last=March|first=William|date=July 16, 2018|work=Tampa Bay Times|access-date=July 16, 2018|issn=2327-9052}}</ref> The report had actually been released the day before, but followers of the conspiracy theory believe a secret, more damning report exists.<ref name="nyt" />

On June 26, 2018, [[WikiLeaks]] publicly accused QAnon of "leading anti-establishment Trump voters to embrace regime change and neo-conservatism".<ref group="tweet">{{cite tweet|number=1011441579565953025|user=wikileaks|title=Why is "Qanon" leading anti-establishment Trump voters to embrace regime change and neo-conservatism?|author=WikiLeaks|author-link=WikiLeaks|date=June 26, 2016}}</ref> QAnon had previously pushed for regime change in Iran.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.mintpressnews.com/pro-trump-conspiracy-monger-qanon-calls-for-regime-change-in-iran/244686/|title=Pro-Trump Conspiracy-Monger “QAnon” Calls for Regime Change in Iran|last=Webb|first=Whitney|date=June 25, 2018|work=MintPress News|access-date=July 5, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> Two days later, the whistleblower organization shared an analysis by [[Internet Party (New Zealand)|Internet Party]] president Suzie Dawson, claiming that QAnon's posting campaign is an "intelligence agency-backed [[Psychological warfare|psyop]]" aiming to "round up people that are otherwise dangerous to the Deep State (because they are genuinely opposed to it) usurp time & attention, & trick them into serving its aims".<ref group="tweet">{{cite tweet|number=1000795757983780865|user=wikileaks|title=
This analysis, unfortunately, increasingly appears that it may be correct|author=WikiLeaks|author-link=WikiLeaks|date=June 28, 2016}}</ref>

On June 28, 2018, a [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] article listed the anonymous "Q" among the 25 Most Influential People on the Internet in 2018. Counting more than 130,000 related discussion videos on YouTube, ''Time'' cited the wide range of this conspiracy theory and its more prominent followers and spreading news coverage.<ref name="timemag">{{cite news |url=http://time.com/5324130/most-influential-internet/ |title=25 Most Influential People on the Internet|issn=0040-781X |last=Chan |first=Melissa |date=June 28, 2018 |work=Time |access-date=June 28, 2018}}</ref>

On July 4, 2018, the [[Hillsborough County, Florida|Hillsborough County]] [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] shared on its official Facebook and Twitter accounts a YouTube video on QAnon, calling QAnon a "mysterious anonymous inside leaker of deep state activities and counter activities by President Trump". The posts were then deleted.<ref name="tampabay" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Thomsen |first=Jacqueline |url=http://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/news/397615-florida-county-gop-promoted-conspiracy-theory-on-twitter |title=Florida county GOP promoted, then deleted, conspiracy theory on Twitter |date=July 18, 2018 |work=The Hill |accessdate=July 21, 2018}}</ref>

An app called "QDrops" which promoted the conspiracy theory was published on the [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] [[App Store (iOS)|App Store]] and [[Google Play]]. It became the most popular paid app in the "entertainment" section of Apple's online store in April 2018, and the tenth most popular paid app overall. Apple pulled the app after an inquiry from [[NBC News]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/exclusive-apple-google-cashed-pizzagate-offshoot-conspiracy-app-n891726 |title=Apple, Google cashed in on Pizzagate-offshoot conspiracy app |last=Collins |first=Ben|date=July 16, 2018 |publisher=NBC News |access-date=July 19, 2018 |last2=Zadrozny |first2=Brandy |language=en-US}}</ref>

On August 1, 2018, following the ''en masse'' presence of QAnon supporters at the July 31, 2018 [[List of post-election Donald Trump rallies|Trump rally]] in [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], [[Florida]],<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newsweek.com/what-qanon-conspiracy-theorists-showed-support-trump-tampa-rally-1051708|title=QAnon: Conspiracy theorists determined to expose a “deep state” child abuse ring show up to support Trump in Tampa|last=Porter|first=Tom|date=August 1, 2018|work=Newsweek|access-date=August 1, 2018|language=en}}</ref> [[MSNBC]] chief [[White House correspondent]] [[Hallie Jackson]] dedicated a portion of her Wednesday show to the conspiracy theory.<ref>{{Cite AV media|url=https://www.msnbc.com/hallie-jackson/watch/-we-are-q-conspiracy-cult-leaps-from-the-internet-to-trump-rally-1289927747781|title=Who is 'QAnon'? Bizarre conspiracy cult leaps from web to Trump rally|last=Jackson|first=Hallie|date=August 1, 2018|publisher=MSNBC|access-date=August 1, 2018|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mediaite.com/tv/msnbcs-hallie-jackson-covers-insane-qanon-conspiracy-theories-pizzagate-on-bath-salts/|title=MSNBC’s Hallie Jackson Holds Insane Segment on QAnon Conspiracy Theories: ‘Pizzagate on Bath Salts’|last=Meyer|first=Ken|date=August 1, 2018|website=Mediaite|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=August 1, 2018}}</ref> Responding to a question by [[David Martosko]] of ''[[Daily Mail|The Daily Mail]]'' asking if the White House encouraged the support of "QAnon fringe groups"—in light of their apparent hostile behavior toward [[CNN]] chief [[White House correspondent]] Jim Acosta<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/trump-florida-rally-supporters-cnn-jim-acosta-tampa-maga-a8472436.html|title=Trump supporters filmed hurling sustained abuse at journalists following 'Make America Great Again' rally|last=Embury-Dennis|first=Tom|date=August 1, 2018|work=The Independent|access-date=August 1, 2018|language=en-GB|issn=0951-9467}}</ref>—[[White House Press Secretary]] [[Sarah Huckabee Sanders]] denounced "any group that would incite violence against another individual", without specifically responding to the QAnon mention.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nypost.com/2018/08/01/sanders-denounces-media-hecklers-at-trump-rally-then-slams-the-media/|title=Sanders denounces media hecklers at Trump rally – then slams the media|last=Fredericks|first=Bob|date=July 1, 2018|work=New York Post|access-date=July 1, 2018|language=en|issn=1090-3321}}</ref> She added that President Trump "certainly doesn't support groups that would support that type of behavior".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/08/01/politics/qanon-trump/|title=QAnon is the one conspiracy theory to rule them all|last=Cillizza|first=Chris|date=August 1, 2018|publisher=CNN|access-date=August 1, 2018}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Commons}}
* [[Pizzagate conspiracy theory]]
* [[Murder of Seth Rich]]
* [[Operation Mockingbird]]

==References==
===Sources===
{{reflist|30em}}
===Tweets===
{{reflist|group=tweet|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/01/us/politics/what-is-qanon.html|title=What Is QAnon: Explaining the Internet Conspiracy Theory That Showed Up at a Trump Rally|last=Bank|first=Justin|last2=Stack|first2=Liam|last3=Victor|first3=Daniel|date=August 1, 2018|website=The New York Times|language=en|issn=0362-4331}}
* {{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/politics/wp/2018/08/01/why-the-qanon-conspiracy-is-the-natural-culmination-of-the-trump-era/|title=Why the QAnon conspiracy is the natural culmination of the Trump era|last=Bump|first=Philip|date=August 1, 2018|website=Washington Post|language=en|issn=0190-8286}}
* {{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/as-the-bizarre-qanon-group-emerges-trump-rallies-go-from-nasty-to-dangerous/2018/08/01/063ed6f8-9585-11e8-a679-b09212fb69c2_story.html|title=As the bizarre QAnon group emerges, Trump rallies go from nasty to dangerous|last=Sullivan|first=Margaret|author-link=Margaret Sullivan (journalist)|date=August 1, 2018|website=Washington Post|language=en|issn=0190-8286}}
* {{Cite news|url=https://www.tabletmag.com/scroll/264627/the-story-of-q|title=The Story of Q|last=Mann|first=Ted|author-link=Ted Mann (writer)|date=June 19, 2018|website=Tablet|language=en|issn=2381-5663}}

{{Conspiracy theories}}
{{Alt-right}}

[[Category:Unidentified people]]
[[Category:Anonymous bloggers]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories in the United States]]
[[Category:2010s controversies in the United States]]
[[Category:Fringe theories]]
[[Category:4chan phenomena]]
[[Category:Classified information in the United States]]
[[Category:Internet manipulation and propaganda]]
[[Category:Psychological warfare]]
[[Category:Propaganda in the United States]]
[[Category:Satanic ritual abuse hysteria in the United States]]

Benutzer:D1rkW4ll/Jezail

2018-07-23T01:58:10Z

Jprg1966: /* Contemporary use */

[[File:Jezail.jpg|thumb|200px|Jezail musket]]The '''jezail''' (sometimes ''Jezzail'' from the [[Pashto language]]) was a simple, cost-efficient and often handmade [[muzzle-loading]] long arm commonly used in [[British India]], [[Central Asia]] and parts of the [[Middle East]] in the past.

==Features==
[[File:Mir Alam of Kohistan region in Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|upright|Lithograph dated during the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] of a [[Kohistani people|Kohistani]] and his jezail.]]
Jezails were generally handmade weapons, and consequently they widely varied in their construction. Jezails were seen as very personal weapons, and unlike the typical military weapons of the time which were very plain and utilitarian, jezails tended to be well crafted and were usually intricately decorated.

Jezails tended to have very long barrels. Such lengths were never common in European rifles (with the exception of the Spanish "espingarda" circa 15th century), but were more common in American rifles like the [[Kentucky Rifle]]. The American rifles were used for hunting, and tended to be of a smaller caliber (.35 to .45 or so being typical). Jezails were usually designed for warfare, and therefore tended to be of larger calibers than the American rifles, with .50 to .75 caliber and larger being common. Larger calibers were possible because the long length of the typical jezail meant that it was heavier than typical muskets of the time. Jezails typically weighed around 12 to 14 pounds, compared to 9 to 10 pounds for a typical musket. The heavy weight of the jezail allowed the rifle itself to absorb more energy from the round, imparting less recoil to the weapon's user.

Many jezails were smooth bore weapons, but some had their barrels rifled. The rifling, combined with the barrel's long length, made these weapons very accurate for their time.

The firing mechanism was typically either a [[matchlock]] or a [[flintlock]]. Since flintlock mechanisms were complex and difficult to manufacture, many jezails used the lock mechanism from captured or broken [[Brown Bess]] muskets.

The stocks were handmade and ornately decorated, featuring a distinctive curve which is not seen in the stocks of other muskets. The function of this curve is debated; it may be purely decorative, or it may have allowed the jezail to be tucked under the arm and cradled tightly against the body, as opposed to being held to the shoulder like a typical musket or rifle. The argument against this method of firing is that the flash pan would be dangerously close to the face and the weapon would be harder to aim. It is more likely that the rifle was only tucked under the arm whilst riding a horse or a camel. The curve may also have saved weight; by shaving away some of the heavy wood used for the stock through employment of the new curved shape, whilst maintaining the same structural integrity of the stock it could still be fired from the shoulder safely whilst also being lighter. The weapon was fired by grasping the stock near the trigger, like a pistol, while the curved portion is tucked under the shooter's forearm, allowing the rifle to be fired with one hand while mounted.

Jezails were often fired from a forked rest, or a horn or metal bi-pod.

==Anglo-Afghan Wars==
[[File:Group of Afridi fighters in 1878.jpg|thumb|Group of [[Afridi]] fighters in 1878, pictured with their jezails, during the [[Second Afghan War]].]]
During this period the jezail was the primary ranged weapon of Afghan warriors and was used with great effect against British troops. British Brown Bess smoothbore muskets were effective at only 150 yards and accurate at 50 yards. Because of their advantage in range, Afghan rebels typically used the jezail from the tops of cliffs along valleys and [[defile (geography)|defile]]s during ambushes. This tactic repeatedly devastated the British during [[Massacre of Elphinstone's Army|their doomed retreat]] from [[Kabul]] to [[Jalalabad]]. Despite the advantages over the Brown Bess, British forces were typically able to defeat jezail armed Afghans when they fought on relatively flat terrain.

In the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] the British established a [[cantonment]] outside of Kabul with dirt walls approximately waist high. Surrounding the cantonment were several abandoned forts which, although out of range of British muskets, were close enough for jezail fire. When [[ghazi warriors|ghazi]] and other Afghan forces besieged Kabul and the cantonment, they occupied the forts and used them to snipe British forces from a safe range.

A description from the [[British Library]] dating to the First Anglo-Afghan War:<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019xzz000000562u00012000.html Ko-i-staun foot soldiery in summer costume (lithograph, British Library)]</ref>
{{Quotation|Afghan snipers were expert marksmen and their juzzails fired roughened bullets, long iron nails or even pebbles over a range of some 250 metres. The Afghans could fling the large rifles across their shoulders as if they were feathers and spring nimbly from rock to rock. They loved to decorate their rifles: [Lieutenant James] Rattray writes of finding one adorned with human teeth.}}

==In British literature==
The jezail is most notable, at least in Western literature, as the weapon which wounded [[Dr. Watson]]—the fictional biographer of the fictional detective [[Sherlock Holmes]]—in the [[Battle of Maiwand]] during his military service in Afghanistan. In ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]'', Watson mentions being wounded in the shoulder.<ref>Doyle, Arthur Conan. ''A Study in Scarlet'', 1887</ref> However, in ''[[The Sign of the Four]]'', Watson gives the location of the wound as in his leg.<ref>Doyle, Arthur Conan. ''The Sign of the Four'', 1890</ref> In "[[The Noble Bachelor]]" Watson refers to the Jezail bullet being "in one of my limbs." These discrepancies have caused debate by Sherlock Holmes fans about which of these locations is the "correct" location of the wound.

The jezail is mentioned repeatedly in some of Wilbur Smith's books, most notably "Monsoon". It was also mentioned in the [[George MacDonald Fraser]] adventure ''[[Flashman (novel)|Flashman]]'', whose protagonist describes the awful slaughter of British Army troops retreating from [[Kabul]] to [[Jalalabad]] by Afghan jezailchis.

It appears in [[Rudyard Kipling]] 1886 poem ''Arithmetic on the Frontier'', where the low cost of the weapon is contrasted with the relatively expensive training and education of British officers:
:''A scrimmage in a Border Station''
:''A canter down some dark defile''
:''Two thousand pounds of education''
:''Drops to a ten-rupee jezail.''

Another reference to the jezail occurs in Kipling's novel ''[[The Man Who Would Be King]]'', where the Kohat Jezail is mentioned in the same paragraph as the more advanced Snider and Martini rifles of the British. Kohat is a region of modern Pakistan.

[[P. G. Wodehouse]] in ''[[The Little Warrior]]'' (1920, English title ''Jill the Reckless'') describes how the character Uncle Chris, in India during his first hill-campaign, would "walk up and down in front of his men under a desultory shower of jezail-bullets".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wodehouse |first=P.G. |title=The Little Warrior |year=1920 |chapter=XX, part 3}}</ref>

==Contemporary use==
The jezail no longer sees widespread use in warfare of any nature. Limited numbers were, however, used by [[Mujahideen]] rebels during the [[Soviet–Afghan War]]. Derivatives of the jezail, barely recognizable, and usually termed 'country-made weapons', are in use in rural [[India]]—especially in the state of [[Uttar Pradesh]].{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
* Tanner, Stephen, (2002) ''Afghanistan: A Military History From Alexander the Great to the Fall of the Taliban'', Da Capo Press, {{ISBN|0-306-81233-9}}
* "Firearms of the Islamic world in the Tareq Rajab Museum, Kuwait" By Robert Elgood

{{Early firearms}}
[[Category:Indo-Persian weaponry]]
[[Category:Muskets]]
[[Category:18th-century weapons]]
[[Category:Weapons of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Rifles of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Rifles of India]]

Benutzer:D1rkW4ll/Jezail

2018-07-23T01:57:43Z

Jprg1966: /* In British literature */

[[File:Jezail.jpg|thumb|200px|Jezail musket]]The '''jezail''' (sometimes ''Jezzail'' from the [[Pashto language]]) was a simple, cost-efficient and often handmade [[muzzle-loading]] long arm commonly used in [[British India]], [[Central Asia]] and parts of the [[Middle East]] in the past.

==Features==
[[File:Mir Alam of Kohistan region in Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|upright|Lithograph dated during the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] of a [[Kohistani people|Kohistani]] and his jezail.]]
Jezails were generally handmade weapons, and consequently they widely varied in their construction. Jezails were seen as very personal weapons, and unlike the typical military weapons of the time which were very plain and utilitarian, jezails tended to be well crafted and were usually intricately decorated.

Jezails tended to have very long barrels. Such lengths were never common in European rifles (with the exception of the Spanish "espingarda" circa 15th century), but were more common in American rifles like the [[Kentucky Rifle]]. The American rifles were used for hunting, and tended to be of a smaller caliber (.35 to .45 or so being typical). Jezails were usually designed for warfare, and therefore tended to be of larger calibers than the American rifles, with .50 to .75 caliber and larger being common. Larger calibers were possible because the long length of the typical jezail meant that it was heavier than typical muskets of the time. Jezails typically weighed around 12 to 14 pounds, compared to 9 to 10 pounds for a typical musket. The heavy weight of the jezail allowed the rifle itself to absorb more energy from the round, imparting less recoil to the weapon's user.

Many jezails were smooth bore weapons, but some had their barrels rifled. The rifling, combined with the barrel's long length, made these weapons very accurate for their time.

The firing mechanism was typically either a [[matchlock]] or a [[flintlock]]. Since flintlock mechanisms were complex and difficult to manufacture, many jezails used the lock mechanism from captured or broken [[Brown Bess]] muskets.

The stocks were handmade and ornately decorated, featuring a distinctive curve which is not seen in the stocks of other muskets. The function of this curve is debated; it may be purely decorative, or it may have allowed the jezail to be tucked under the arm and cradled tightly against the body, as opposed to being held to the shoulder like a typical musket or rifle. The argument against this method of firing is that the flash pan would be dangerously close to the face and the weapon would be harder to aim. It is more likely that the rifle was only tucked under the arm whilst riding a horse or a camel. The curve may also have saved weight; by shaving away some of the heavy wood used for the stock through employment of the new curved shape, whilst maintaining the same structural integrity of the stock it could still be fired from the shoulder safely whilst also being lighter. The weapon was fired by grasping the stock near the trigger, like a pistol, while the curved portion is tucked under the shooter's forearm, allowing the rifle to be fired with one hand while mounted.

Jezails were often fired from a forked rest, or a horn or metal bi-pod.

==Anglo-Afghan Wars==
[[File:Group of Afridi fighters in 1878.jpg|thumb|Group of [[Afridi]] fighters in 1878, pictured with their jezails, during the [[Second Afghan War]].]]
During this period the jezail was the primary ranged weapon of Afghan warriors and was used with great effect against British troops. British Brown Bess smoothbore muskets were effective at only 150 yards and accurate at 50 yards. Because of their advantage in range, Afghan rebels typically used the jezail from the tops of cliffs along valleys and [[defile (geography)|defile]]s during ambushes. This tactic repeatedly devastated the British during [[Massacre of Elphinstone's Army|their doomed retreat]] from [[Kabul]] to [[Jalalabad]]. Despite the advantages over the Brown Bess, British forces were typically able to defeat jezail armed Afghans when they fought on relatively flat terrain.

In the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] the British established a [[cantonment]] outside of Kabul with dirt walls approximately waist high. Surrounding the cantonment were several abandoned forts which, although out of range of British muskets, were close enough for jezail fire. When [[ghazi warriors|ghazi]] and other Afghan forces besieged Kabul and the cantonment, they occupied the forts and used them to snipe British forces from a safe range.

A description from the [[British Library]] dating to the First Anglo-Afghan War:<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019xzz000000562u00012000.html Ko-i-staun foot soldiery in summer costume (lithograph, British Library)]</ref>
{{Quotation|Afghan snipers were expert marksmen and their juzzails fired roughened bullets, long iron nails or even pebbles over a range of some 250 metres. The Afghans could fling the large rifles across their shoulders as if they were feathers and spring nimbly from rock to rock. They loved to decorate their rifles: [Lieutenant James] Rattray writes of finding one adorned with human teeth.}}

==In British literature==
The jezail is most notable, at least in Western literature, as the weapon which wounded [[Dr. Watson]]—the fictional biographer of the fictional detective [[Sherlock Holmes]]—in the [[Battle of Maiwand]] during his military service in Afghanistan. In ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]'', Watson mentions being wounded in the shoulder.<ref>Doyle, Arthur Conan. ''A Study in Scarlet'', 1887</ref> However, in ''[[The Sign of the Four]]'', Watson gives the location of the wound as in his leg.<ref>Doyle, Arthur Conan. ''The Sign of the Four'', 1890</ref> In "[[The Noble Bachelor]]" Watson refers to the Jezail bullet being "in one of my limbs." These discrepancies have caused debate by Sherlock Holmes fans about which of these locations is the "correct" location of the wound.

The jezail is mentioned repeatedly in some of Wilbur Smith's books, most notably "Monsoon". It was also mentioned in the [[George MacDonald Fraser]] adventure ''[[Flashman (novel)|Flashman]]'', whose protagonist describes the awful slaughter of British Army troops retreating from [[Kabul]] to [[Jalalabad]] by Afghan jezailchis.

It appears in [[Rudyard Kipling]] 1886 poem ''Arithmetic on the Frontier'', where the low cost of the weapon is contrasted with the relatively expensive training and education of British officers:
:''A scrimmage in a Border Station''
:''A canter down some dark defile''
:''Two thousand pounds of education''
:''Drops to a ten-rupee jezail.''

Another reference to the jezail occurs in Kipling's novel ''[[The Man Who Would Be King]]'', where the Kohat Jezail is mentioned in the same paragraph as the more advanced Snider and Martini rifles of the British. Kohat is a region of modern Pakistan.

[[P. G. Wodehouse]] in ''[[The Little Warrior]]'' (1920, English title ''Jill the Reckless'') describes how the character Uncle Chris, in India during his first hill-campaign, would "walk up and down in front of his men under a desultory shower of jezail-bullets".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wodehouse |first=P.G. |title=The Little Warrior |year=1920 |chapter=XX, part 3}}</ref>

==Contemporary use==
The jezail no longer sees widespread use in warfare of any nature. Limited numbers were, however, used by [[Mujahideen]] rebels during the [[Soviet War in Afghanistan]]. Derivatives of the jezail, barely recognizable, and usually termed 'country-made weapons', are in use in rural [[India]] - especially in the state of [[Uttar Pradesh]].{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
* Tanner, Stephen, (2002) ''Afghanistan: A Military History From Alexander the Great to the Fall of the Taliban'', Da Capo Press, {{ISBN|0-306-81233-9}}
* "Firearms of the Islamic world in the Tareq Rajab Museum, Kuwait" By Robert Elgood

{{Early firearms}}
[[Category:Indo-Persian weaponry]]
[[Category:Muskets]]
[[Category:18th-century weapons]]
[[Category:Weapons of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Rifles of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Rifles of India]]

Reed Smith

2018-05-05T02:38:34Z

Jprg1966:

{{advert|date=May 2018}}
{{third-party|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox Law Firm
| firm_name = Reed Smith LLP
| firm_logo = [[File:Reed Smith logo.jpg|260px|Reed Smith]]
| num_offices = 27
| num_attorneys = 1,800+
| practice_areas = Finance, Life Sciences & Health, Energy & Natural Resources, Entertainment & Media, Shipping & Transportation
| revenue = {{profit}} $1.12 billion (2018)<ref name="Reed Smith boosts revenue and profits">{{cite web|title=Reed Smith boosts revenue and profits as London base closes in on $200m mark|url=http://www.legalweek.com/sites/legalweek/2018/02/28/reed-smith-grows-revenue-profits-as-head-count-stays-flat/|publisher=Legal Week|accessdate=1 March 2018|date=28 February 2018}}</ref>
| profit_per_equity_partner = {{gain}} $1.18 million (2018)<ref name="Reed Smith boosts revenue and profits"/>
| date_founded = 1877 ([[Pittsburgh]])
| founder = [[Philander Knox]] and [[James Hay Reed]]
| company_type = [[Limited liability partnership]]
| firm_slogan = Driving Progress Through Partnership.
| homepage = [http://www.reedsmith.com www.reedsmith.com]}}
'''Reed Smith LLP''' is a global law firm headquartered in [[Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]], with more than 1,800 [[lawyer]]s in 27 offices throughout the [[United States]], [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Asia]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Organizational Profile of Reed Smith at the National Law Review|journal=The National Law Review|date=May 16, 2012|url=http://www.natlawreview.com/organization/reed-smith-llp}}</ref> In 2017, Reed Smith was listed by [[Law360]] as one of the top Global 20 Firms, which includes firms that have the biggest global presence and handle the largest, most groundbreaking international and cross-border matters.<ref name="law360_20_firms">https://www.law360.com/articles/961879/law360-reveals-the-global-20-firms-of-2017</ref> Its lawyers advise on all corporate and finance matters, litigation and other dispute resolution services, deliver regulatory counsel, and execute strategic domestic and cross-border transactions.<ref name="reedsmith1">[http://www.reedsmith.com/aboutus/ Reed Smith Profile]</ref>

Reed Smith is an advisor to industries including [[financial services]], [[life sciences]], [[health care]], [[advertising]], [[technology]] and [[Media (communication)|media]], [[shipping]], [[energy]] and [[natural resources]], [[real estate]], [[manufacturing]], and [[education]].<ref name="reedsmith1"/> The firm counsels 13 of the world's 15 largest commercial and savings banks; 25 of the world's 35 largest oil and gas companies; and the world's three largest pharmaceutical distribution and wholesale companies. Reed Smith's shipping practice has been designated among the most preeminent in the world, and its advertising law practice is regarded as among the legal industry's finest.

In 2018, revenues at Reed Smith reached a record-breaking $1.12 billion. Profits per partner grew 6% to $1,180,000.00, while revenue per lawyer increased by 3% to $722,000.00.<ref>{{cite web|title=Reed Smith boosts revenue and profits as London base closes in on $200m mark
|url=http://www.legalweek.com/sites/legalweek/2018/02/28/reed-smith-grows-revenue-profits-as-head-count-stays-flat/|work=Legal Week|accessdate=2 March 2018|date=28 February 2018}}</ref> The firm's [[London]] office is the firm's largest.

==History==
Reed Smith was founded in Pittsburgh in 1877 by [[Philander C. Knox]] and [[James H. Reed]].<ref name="History">{{cite web|title=History|url=http://www.reedsmith.com/aboutus/history/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=6 March 2015|date=4 March 2015}}</ref> The two partners soon created a symbiotic relationship with the American industrial tycoon, [[Andrew Carnegie]], the creator of [[U.S. Steel]], the world's first billion-dollar corporation. Soon after, other large businesses such as, [[Heinz (company)]], Mellon and Frick joined the firm's client roster. In the 1880s, Edwin W. Smith and other partners joined the firm and in 1922 the firm adopted the name Reed Smith Shaw & McClay, a name that would stand until being shortened in 2000. During the New Deal era, Reed Smith established a securities practice and partner [[Ralph H. Demmler]] became chair of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]].<ref name="History"/>

[[File: 599 Lexington Avenue.jpg|thumb|Reed Smith's New York offices at 599 Lexington Avenue|310px]]

Through 1970 to the present, the firm engaged in a series of strategic mergers & acquisitions, as well as new offices, to create one of the largest law firms in the world. In the 1970s, Reed Smith domestically grew with new offices beyond Pittsburgh. It set up an office in Washington, DC and in 1989, merged with Beltway firm Pierson, Ball & Dowd, thereby obtaining a well-regarded health care practice. Reed Smith opened new offices in New York and New Jersey in the 1990s and acquired a leading [[Northern Virginia]] firm, Hazel & Thomas.

During the 2000s Reed Smith experienced rapid international growth, both organically and through mergers. Acquiring the UK law firm Warner Cranston turned Reed Smith transatlantic in 2001 and opened offices in Paris and Munich four years later. Domestically, it opened an office in Delaware and combined with a California law firm, Crosby, Heafey, Roach & May, which moved the firm to a rank among the 20 largest law firms.<ref name="History"/> In 2007 Reed Smith merged with UK law firm, Richards Butler, which added offices in France, Greece, the Middle East and Hong Kong one year later.<ref>{{cite web|title=Reed Smith Richards Butler completes merger|url=http://www.thelawyer.com/reed-smith-richards-butler-completes-merger/123584.article|work=The Lawyer|accessdate=6 March 2015|date=2 January 2007}}</ref>

Since 2009 their office has been located in Reed Smith Centre, a LEED-certified workspace that helped jumpstart the modernization of the City's "Fifth Avenue ," on the perimeter of Pittsburgh's Cultural District. More than 275 lawyers comprise the Pittsburgh office, making it the largest law office in the city and the largest Reed Smith office in the United States. Pittsburgh also is home to the firm's Global Customer Center, which provides service to Reed Smith's lawyers and offices around the world.

Reed Smith opened their second German office in 2015 in Frankfurt, Germany's financial center, to meet growing client demand in the German market.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reedsmith.com/en/about-us/history |title=Reed Smith opens second Germany office |publisher=Reed Smith}}</ref>

In 2016, Reed Smith entered into a formal alliance with Singapore firm Resource Law.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thelawyer.com/reed-smith-seals-alliance-with-singapore-firm-resource-law/|title=Reed Smith seals alliance with Singapore firm Resource Law |work=The Lawyer|date=2016-07-18|language=en-GB|access-date=2016-07-21}}</ref>

A year later in 2017 the firm opened a new office in Miami, strengthening their connections to clients in Central and South America.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.reedsmith.com/en/about-us/history |title=Reed Smith opens new office in Miami}}</ref>

On April 30th, 2018 Reed Smith hired Lewis Zirogiannis (GE’s former [[Chief compliance officer|Chief Compliance Officer]]) as a partner for its global regulatory enforcement practice in [[San Francisco]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.law.com/therecorder/2018/04/26/reed-smith-hires-ge-digitals-chief-compliance-officer/|title=Reed Smith Hires GE Digital’s Chief Compliance Officer |work=The Recorder|access-date=2018-05-01}}</ref>
[[File:3 pnc plaza.jpg|thumb|Reed Smith's Pittsburgh offices in the Three PNC Plaza building|350px]]

==Recognition==
*Reed Smith has been ranked a Top-tier Firm in Legal 500 German 2018 Rankings in seven categories, and 12 of the German partners received recommendations in their areas of specialty, in the Legal 500 Germany 2018 handbook.<ref>http://www.legal500.com/firms/3469-reed-smith-llp/23338-frankfurt-germany</ref>
*Reed Smith received 18 practice rankings and 42 individual lawyer recommendations in the 2018 edition of The Legal 500 Asia Pacific.<ref>https://www.reedsmith.com/en/news/2017/12/reed-smith-recognized-by-the-legal-500-asia-pacific-2018</ref>
*The firm has been named Best Law Firm for Global Weather Risk Management in Environmental Finance’s Annual Market Rankings in 2018. The firm has retained the title since 2014, and was also named runner-up for Best Law Firm in the EU Emissions Trading System category this year.
*In 2017, Reed Smith was listed by [[Law360]] as one of the top Global 20 Firms, which includes firms that have the biggest global presence and handle the largest, most groundbreaking international and cross-border matters.<ref name="law360_20_firms"/>
*Reed Smith named Private Equity Team of the Year at British Legal Awards 2017.<ref>https://www.reedsmith.com/en/news/2017/11/reed-smith-private-equity-team-of-the-year-at-british-legal-awards-2017</ref>
*Ranked 17th on Law360’s Global 20 Ranking in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law360.com/articles/807403/law360-reveals-the-global-20-firms-of-2016|title=Law360 Reveals The Global 20 Firms Of 2016|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
*Legal Week's 2013 annual Client Satisfaction Report ranks Reed Smith #5 in the U.S. International firms category. The firm was especially recognized for the quality of its legal and commercial advice as well as personal/partner relationships.<ref>http://www.legalweek.com</ref>
* Reed Smith ranked 8th on the 2013 inaugural "Social Index" of Am Law 50 Firms in survey ranking use of social media technologies.<ref>http://abovethelaw.com/2014/01/the-social-law-firm-index-biglaws-new-media-mavens-2/#more-296346</ref>
*Reed Smith advances eight spots on Acritas’ Sharplegal US Law Firm Brand Index 2014, earning recognition as a lTop 20 U.S. brand.<ref>http://www.acritas.com/SharplegalUSLawFirmBrandIndex2014</ref>
* Ranked 19th among American law firms with the most gross revenue by [[AmLaw 100]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Am Law 100 2010|url=http://www.law.com/jsp/tal/PubArticleTAL.jsp?id=1202489360193|publisher=ALM Legal Intelligence|accessdate=10 April 2012|year=2010}}</ref>
* Ranked 1st out of 411 law firms by The BTI Client Relationship Scorecard for building and maintaining client relationships, June 2009.<ref>{{cite web|title=The BTI Client Relationship Scorecard: Ranking Law Firm-Client Relationships 2009, Executive summary|url=http://www.bticonsulting.com/PDFs/CRS/TheBTIClientRelationshipScorecard_ExecSumm.pdf|publisher=BTI Consulting Group|accessdate=10 April 2012|year=2009}}</ref>

==Notable cases and transactions==
* Reed Smith successfully defended artist Curtis Jackson better known as [[50 Cent]] in a number of disputes including a suit accusing him of stealing content from a third party protected under copyright law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/406796/3rd-circ-clears-50-cent-of-copying-gangster-book|title=3rd Circ. Clears 50 Cent Of Copying Gangster Book|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Represented French luxury perfumes and cosmetics house [[Lancôme]], part of the [[L'Oréal]] Luxury Products division, against actress [[Uma Thurman]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/no-making-lancome-takes-uma-thurman-court-article-1.328715|title=No making up? Lancome takes Uma Thurman to court|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Advised [[Wells Fargo]] Bank and other mortgage lenders, servicers and trustees in "robo-signing" and other foreclosure-related matters.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1007512/wells-fargo-beats-nj-fraud-suit-over-foreclosure-action|title=Wells Fargo Beats NJ Fraud Suit Over Foreclosure Action|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Reed Smith represented [[BNY Mellon]] to fend off a $539 million bondholder attack against the bank in the Argentina bond default litigation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law360.com/articles/590925/bny-doesn-t-have-to-turn-over-539m-to-argentina-creditors|title=BNY Doesn't Have To Turn Over $539M To Argentina Creditors|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Represented [[Toyota]] Motor Credit Corp. in securing $15 billion in financing through a syndicated credit facility.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reedsmith.com/Reed-Smith-Advises-Toyota-Motor-Credit-Corporation-in-15-Billion-Financing-11-24-2015/|title=Reed Smith Advises Toyota Motor Credit Corporation in $15 Billion Financing|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Advised the [[Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)]] pension scheme on a buy-in worth over £1.6 billion with specialist insurer Rothesay Life.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pensionsworld.co.uk/article/rothesay-life-completes-%C2%A316bn-buy-caaps|title=Rothesay Life completes £1.6bn buy-in with CAAPS|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Represented [[BMW]] Financial Services in a number of suits and obtained dismissal on the basis of the voluntary payment rule of putative nationwide class action alleging a violation of the [[Uniform Commercial Code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mondaq.com/unitedstates/x/29233/Corporate+Tax/The+Voluntary+Payment+Rule+A+Powerful+Defense+Tool+In+An+Appropriate+Case|title=The Voluntary Payment Rule: A Powerful Defense Tool In An Appropriate Case|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Reed Smith successfully defended [[Nintendo]] against a number of patent disputes by Motion Games.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law360.com/articles/794489/fed-circ-backs-nintendo-s-ptab-win-on-game-patent|title=Fed. Circ. Backs Nintendo's PTAB Win On Game Patent|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Reed Smith successfully defended the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club members, whose alleged lack of maintenance to the South Fork Dam caused the [[Johnstown Flood#Investigation of the cause of the 1889 dam breach and flood|Johnstown Flood]], resulting in the death of 2,209 people

==Notable alumni==
Individuals who have worked at Reed Smith include:
*[[Rip Sullivan]], Northern Virginia community activist and a member of the Virginia House of Delegates from Virginia's 48th district
*[[Philander C. Knox]], American lawyer, bank director and politician who served as United States Attorney General, a Senator from Pennsylvania and Secretary of State
*[[Jack McGregor]], former Pennsylvania State Senator from Pittsburgh and the founder of the National Hockey League's [[Pittsburgh Penguins]]
*[[James Hay Reed]], founding member of the law firm Reed, Smith, Shaw & Beal and a [[United States federal judge]]
*[[Cathy Bissoon]], American lawyer and judge who serves on the [[United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania]]
*[[David W. Marston]], lawyer, author and [[United States Attorney]] for the [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania]]
*[[Paul Martha]], former American football safety who played seven seasons in the National Football League and was CEO of [[Pittsburgh Penguins]]
*[[Sheryl H. Lipman]], [[United States District Judge]] of the [[United States District Court for the Western District of Tennessee]] and former Counsel to the [[University of Memphis]]
*[[Thomas Hardiman]], a federal judge on the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]] and former [[United States District Court]] judge
*[[Ralph H. Demmler]], an American lawyer specializing in corporate banking law and an appointed [[United States government]] official
*[[Ronald D. Castille]], served on the [[Supreme Court of Pennsylvania]] from 1994 to 2014, and was [[Chief Justice]] from 2008 to 2014

==Popular culture==
The firm is depicted in [[Laurence Leamer]]'s book ''The Price of Justice''.<ref>http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/business/news/leamer-book-recounts-how-attorneys-tackled-wva-coal-campaigns-and-cash-687857/</ref>

==Offices==
As of January 2018, Reed Smith has 27 offices across three continents. London is the largest office with over 350 attorneys, while Pittsburgh is the founding office.<ref>{{cite web|title=London|url=http://www.reedsmith.com/London-England/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=10 March 2015|date=4 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Pittsburgh|url=http://www.reedsmith.com/Pittsburgh-United-States-of-America/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=10 March 2015|date=4 March 2014}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=Top 10: Largest Pittsburgh-area law firms|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/slideshow/2013/01/18/top-10-largest-pittsburgh-area-law-firms.html|publisher=Pittsburgh Business Times|accessdate=10 March 2015|date=18 January 2013}}</ref>

As well as numerous offices, Reed Smith has the Global Customer Centre, also located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It houses Reed Smith's 24/7/365 firm-wide administrative operations, including the Network Operating Center, IT Help Desk and the Business Centre.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Customer Centre|url=http://www.reedsmith.com/Global-Customer-Centre-United-States-of-America/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=10 March 2015|date=4 March 2014}}</ref>

==Compensation==
In June 2016, Reed Smith announced that it would raise attorney salaries to match market rates set earlier that month by the New York based law firm [[Cravath, Swaine & Moore]].<ref>{{cite web|title= Higher Associate Salaries|url=https://abovethelaw.com/2016/06/biglaw-firm-does-right-by-junior-associates-mid-levels-and-senior-associates-not-so-much/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=10 March 2018}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Salary
|-
|1st year associate
|$180,000
|-
|2nd year associate
|$190,000
|-
|3rd year associate
|merit-based
|-
|4th year associate
|merit-based
|-
|5th year associate
|merit-based
|-
|6th year associate
|merit-based
|-
|7th year associate
|merit-based
|-
|8th year associate
|merit-based
|}

==Main practice areas==
Reed Smith has five industry-focused groups: Energy & Natural Resources, Entertainment & Media, Financial Industry, Life Sciences Health Industry Group, and Shipping & Transportation. The main practice areas include:<ref>{{cite web|title=Learn About Our Practices & Industries|url=http://www.reedsmith.com/practices_and_industries/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=10 March 2015|date=4 March 2014}}</ref>

{{colbegin|3}}
*Advertising, Technology & Media
*Antitrust & Competition
*Bankruptcy & Commercial Restructuring
*Construction and Engineering
*Corporate & Securities
*Education
*Energy & Natural Resources
*Environmental Law
*Executive Compensation & Employee Benefits
*Financial Services
*Government Contracts & Grants
*Government Investigations & White Collar Criminal Defense
*Health Care
*Hedge Funds
*Information Technology, Privacy & Data Security
*Insurance
*Intellectual Property
*International Arbitration
*International Trade & National Security
*Labor & Employment
*Litigation & Dispute Resolution
*Pensions
*Public Policy & Infrastructure
*State and Local Taxation
*Product Liability
*Real estate
*Securities Litigation & Enforcement
*Sovereign Wealth Funds
*Sports Law
*Shipping
*Wealth Planning
{{colend}}

==See also==
* [[Johnstown Flood]]
* [[List of 100 largest law firms globally]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.reedsmith.com/ Official website]
*[http://www.americanlawyer.com/search-results-layout-page?query=reed+smith+&publication=TAL+2008 The American Lawyer]
*[http://www.martindale.com/Results.aspx?ft=2&frm=freesearch&lfd=Y&afs=reed%20smith Martindale]
*[http://www.natlawreview.com/organization/reed-smith-llp Organizational Profile at the ''National Law Review'']

[[Category:Law firms established in 1877]]
[[Category:Law firms based in Pittsburgh]]
[[Category:Foreign law firms with offices in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:1877 establishments in Pennsylvania]]

Reed Smith

2018-05-05T02:36:28Z

Jprg1966: Added {{advert}} and {{third-party}} tags to article (TW)

{{advert|date=May 2018}}
{{third-party|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox Law Firm
| firm_name = Reed Smith LLP
| firm_logo = [[File:Reed Smith logo.jpg|260px|Reed Smith]]
| num_offices = 27
| num_attorneys = 1,800+
| practice_areas = Finance, Life Sciences & Health, Energy & Natural Resources, Entertainment & Media, Shipping & Transportation
| revenue = {{profit}} $1.12 billion (2018) <ref name="Reed Smith boosts revenue and profits">{{cite web|title=Reed Smith boosts revenue and profits as London base closes in on $200m mark|url=http://www.legalweek.com/sites/legalweek/2018/02/28/reed-smith-grows-revenue-profits-as-head-count-stays-flat/|publisher=Legal Week|accessdate=1 March 2018|date=28 February 2018}}</ref>
| profit_per_equity_partner = {{gain}} $1.18 million (2018) <ref name="Reed Smith boosts revenue and profits"/>
| date_founded = 1877 ([[Pittsburgh]])
| founder = [[Philander Knox]] and [[James Hay Reed]]
| company_type = [[Limited liability partnership]]
| firm_slogan = Driving Progress Through Partnership.
| homepage = [http://www.reedsmith.com www.reedsmith.com]}}
'''Reed Smith LLP''' is a global law firm headquartered in [[Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]], with more than 1,800 [[lawyer]]s in 27 offices throughout the [[United States]], [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Asia]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Organizational Profile of Reed Smith at the National Law Review|journal=The National Law Review|date=May 16, 2012|url=http://www.natlawreview.com/organization/reed-smith-llp}}</ref> In 2017, Reed Smith was listed by [[Law360]] as one of the top Global 20 Firms, which includes firms that have the biggest global presence and handle the largest, most groundbreaking international and cross-border matters.<ref name="law360_20_firms">https://www.law360.com/articles/961879/law360-reveals-the-global-20-firms-of-2017</ref> Its lawyers advise on all corporate and finance matters, litigation and other dispute resolution services, deliver regulatory counsel, and execute strategic domestic and cross-border transactions.<ref name="reedsmith1">[http://www.reedsmith.com/aboutus/ Reed Smith Profile]</ref>

Reed Smith is an advisor to industries including [[financial services]], [[life sciences]], [[health care]], [[advertising]], [[technology]] and [[Media (communication)|media]], [[shipping]], [[energy]] and [[natural resources]], [[real estate]], [[manufacturing]], and [[education]].<ref name="reedsmith1"/>The firm counsels 13 of the world's 15 largest commercial and savings banks; 25 of the world's 35 largest oil and gas companies; and the world's three largest pharmaceutical distribution and wholesale companies. Reed Smith's shipping practice has been designated among the most preeminent in the world, and its advertising law practice is regarded as among the legal industry's finest.

In 2018, revenues at Reed Smith reached a record-breaking $1.12 billion. Profits per partner grew 6% to $1,180,000.00, while revenue per lawyer increased by 3% to $722,000.00.<ref>{{cite web|title=Reed Smith boosts revenue and profits as London base closes in on $200m mark
|url=http://www.legalweek.com/sites/legalweek/2018/02/28/reed-smith-grows-revenue-profits-as-head-count-stays-flat/|publisher=Legal Week|accessdate=2 March 2018|date=28 February 2018}}</ref> The firm's [[London]] office is the firm's largest.

==History==
Reed Smith was founded in Pittsburgh in 1877 by [[Philander C. Knox]] and [[James H. Reed]].<ref name="History">{{cite web|title=History|url=http://www.reedsmith.com/aboutus/history/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=6 March 2015|date=4 March 2015}}</ref> The two partners soon created a symbiotic relationship with the American industrial tycoon, [[Andrew Carnegie]], the creator of [[U.S. Steel]], the world's first billion-dollar corporation. Soon after, other large businesses such as, [[Heinz (company)]], Mellon and Frick joined the firm's client roster. In the 1880s, Edwin W. Smith and other partners joined the firm and in 1922 the firm adopted the name Reed Smith Shaw & McClay, a name that would stand until being shortened in 2000. During the New Deal era, Reed Smith established a securities practice and partner [[Ralph H. Demmler]] became chair of the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]].<ref name="History"/>

[[File: 599 Lexington Avenue.jpg|thumb|Reed Smith's New York offices at 599 Lexington Avenue|310px]]

Through 1970 to the present, the firm engaged in a series of strategic mergers & acquisitions, as well as new offices, to create one of the largest law firms in the world. In the 1970s, Reed Smith domestically grew with new offices beyond Pittsburgh. It set up an office in Washington, DC and in 1989, merged with Beltway firm Pierson, Ball & Dowd, thereby obtaining a well-regarded health care practice. Reed Smith opened new offices in New York and New Jersey in the 1990s and acquired a leading [[Northern Virginia]] firm, Hazel & Thomas.

During the 2000s Reed Smith experienced rapid international growth, both organically and through mergers. Acquiring the UK law firm Warner Cranston turned Reed Smith transatlantic in 2001 and opened offices in Paris and Munich four years later. Domestically, it opened an office in Delaware and combined with a California law firm, Crosby, Heafey, Roach & May, which moved the firm to a rank among the 20 largest law firms.<ref name="History"/> In 2007 Reed Smith merged with UK law firm, Richards Butler, which added offices in France, Greece, the Middle East and Hong Kong one year later.<ref>{{cite web|title=Reed Smith Richards Butler completes merger|url=http://www.thelawyer.com/reed-smith-richards-butler-completes-merger/123584.article|publisher=The Lawyer|accessdate=6 March 2015|date=2 January 2007}}</ref>

Since 2009 their office has been located in Reed Smith Centre, a LEED-certified workspace that helped jumpstart the modernization of the City's "Fifth Avenue ," on the perimeter of Pittsburgh's Cultural District. More than 275 lawyers comprise the Pittsburgh office, making it the largest law office in the city and the largest Reed Smith office in the United States. Pittsburgh also is home to the firm's Global Customer Center, which provides service to Reed Smith's lawyers and offices around the world.

Reed Smith opened their second German office in 2015 in Frankfurt, Germany’s financial center, to meet growing client demand in the German market.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reedsmith.com/en/about-us/history |title=Reed Smith opens second Germany office}}</ref>

In 2016, Reed Smith entered into a formal alliance with Singapore firm Resource Law.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thelawyer.com/reed-smith-seals-alliance-with-singapore-firm-resource-law/|title=Reed Smith seals alliance with Singapore firm Resource Law - The Lawyer {{!}} Legal News and Jobs {{!}} Advancing the business of law|date=2016-07-18|language=en-GB|access-date=2016-07-21}}</ref>

A year later in 2017 the firm opened a new office in Miami, strengthening their connections to clients in Central and South America.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reedsmith.com/en/about-us/history |title=Reed Smith opens new office in Miami}}</ref>

On April 30th, 2018 Reed Smith hired Lewis Zirogiannis (GE’s former [[Chief compliance officer|Chief Compliance Officer]]) as a partner for its global regulatory enforcement practice in [[San Francisco]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.law.com/therecorder/2018/04/26/reed-smith-hires-ge-digitals-chief-compliance-officer/|title=Reed Smith Hires GE Digital’s Chief Compliance Officer {{!}} The Recorder|work=The Recorder|access-date=2018-05-01}}</ref>
[[File:3 pnc plaza.jpg|thumb|Reed Smith's Pittsburgh offices in the Three PNC Plaza building|350px]]

==Recognition==
*Reed Smith has been ranked a Top-tier Firm in Legal 500 German 2018 Rankings in seven categories, and 12 of the German partners received recommendations in their areas of specialty, in the Legal 500 Germany 2018 handbook.<ref>http://www.legal500.com/firms/3469-reed-smith-llp/23338-frankfurt-germany</ref>
*Reed Smith received 18 practice rankings and 42 individual lawyer recommendations in the 2018 edition of The Legal 500 Asia Pacific.<ref>https://www.reedsmith.com/en/news/2017/12/reed-smith-recognized-by-the-legal-500-asia-pacific-2018</ref>
*The firm has been named Best Law Firm for Global Weather Risk Management in Environmental Finance’s Annual Market Rankings in 2018. The firm has retained the title since 2014, and was also named runner-up for Best Law Firm in the EU Emissions Trading System category this year.
*In 2017, Reed Smith was listed by [[Law360]] as one of the top Global 20 Firms, which includes firms that have the biggest global presence and handle the largest, most groundbreaking international and cross-border matters.<ref name="law360_20_firms"/>
*Reed Smith named Private Equity Team of the Year at British Legal Awards 2017.<ref>https://www.reedsmith.com/en/news/2017/11/reed-smith-private-equity-team-of-the-year-at-british-legal-awards-2017</ref>
*Ranked 17th on Law360’s Global 20 Ranking in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law360.com/articles/807403/law360-reveals-the-global-20-firms-of-2016|title=Law360 Reveals The Global 20 Firms Of 2016|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
*Legal Week's 2013 annual Client Satisfaction Report ranks Reed Smith #5 in the U.S. International firms category. The firm was especially recognized for the quality of its legal and commercial advice as well as personal/partner relationships.<ref>http://www.legalweek.com</ref>
* Reed Smith ranked 8th on the 2013 inaugural "Social Index" of Am Law 50 Firms in survey ranking use of social media technologies.<ref>http://abovethelaw.com/2014/01/the-social-law-firm-index-biglaws-new-media-mavens-2/#more-296346</ref>
*Reed Smith advances eight spots on Acritas’ Sharplegal US Law Firm Brand Index 2014, earning recognition as a lTop 20 U.S. brand.<ref>http://www.acritas.com/SharplegalUSLawFirmBrandIndex2014</ref>
* Ranked 19th among American law firms with the most gross revenue by [[AmLaw 100]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Am Law 100 2010|url=http://www.law.com/jsp/tal/PubArticleTAL.jsp?id=1202489360193|publisher=ALM Legal Intelligence|accessdate=10 April 2012|year=2010}}</ref>
* Ranked 1st out of 411 law firms by The BTI Client Relationship Scorecard for building and maintaining client relationships, June 2009.<ref>{{cite web|title=The BTI Client Relationship Scorecard: Ranking Law Firm-Client Relationships 2009, Executive summary|url=http://www.bticonsulting.com/PDFs/CRS/TheBTIClientRelationshipScorecard_ExecSumm.pdf|publisher=BTI Consulting Group|accessdate=10 April 2012|year=2009}}</ref>

==Notable cases and transactions==
* Reed Smith successfully defended artist Curtis Jackson better known as [[50 Cent]] in a number of disputes including a suit accusing him of stealing content from a third party protected under copyright law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/406796/3rd-circ-clears-50-cent-of-copying-gangster-book|title=3rd Circ. Clears 50 Cent Of Copying Gangster Book|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Represented French luxury perfumes and cosmetics house [[Lancôme]], part of the [[L'Oréal]] Luxury Products division, against actress [[Uma Thurman]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/no-making-lancome-takes-uma-thurman-court-article-1.328715|title=No making up? Lancome takes Uma Thurman to court|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Advised [[Wells Fargo]] Bank and other mortgage lenders, servicers and trustees in "robo-signing" and other foreclosure-related matters.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1007512/wells-fargo-beats-nj-fraud-suit-over-foreclosure-action|title=Wells Fargo Beats NJ Fraud Suit Over Foreclosure Action|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Reed Smith represented [[BNY Mellon]] to fend off a $539 million bondholder attack against the bank in the Argentina bond default litigation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law360.com/articles/590925/bny-doesn-t-have-to-turn-over-539m-to-argentina-creditors|title=BNY Doesn't Have To Turn Over $539M To Argentina Creditors|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Represented [[Toyota]] Motor Credit Corp. in securing $15 billion in financing through a syndicated credit facility.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reedsmith.com/Reed-Smith-Advises-Toyota-Motor-Credit-Corporation-in-15-Billion-Financing-11-24-2015/|title=Reed Smith Advises Toyota Motor Credit Corporation in $15 Billion Financing|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Advised the [[Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)]] pension scheme on a buy-in worth over £1.6 billion with specialist insurer Rothesay Life.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pensionsworld.co.uk/article/rothesay-life-completes-%C2%A316bn-buy-caaps|title=Rothesay Life completes £1.6bn buy-in with CAAPS|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Represented [[BMW]] Financial Services in a number of suits and obtained dismissal on the basis of the voluntary payment rule of putative nationwide class action alleging a violation of the [[Uniform Commercial Code]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mondaq.com/unitedstates/x/29233/Corporate+Tax/The+Voluntary+Payment+Rule+A+Powerful+Defense+Tool+In+An+Appropriate+Case|title=The Voluntary Payment Rule: A Powerful Defense Tool In An Appropriate Case|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Reed Smith successfully defended [[Nintendo]] against a number of patent disputes by Motion Games.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law360.com/articles/794489/fed-circ-backs-nintendo-s-ptab-win-on-game-patent|title=Fed. Circ. Backs Nintendo's PTAB Win On Game Patent|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Reed Smith successfully defended the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club members, whose alleged lack of maintenance to the South Fork Dam caused the [[Johnstown Flood#Investigation of the cause of the 1889 dam breach and flood|Johnstown Flood]], resulting in the death of 2,209 people

==Notable alumni==
Individuals who have worked at Reed Smith include:

*[[Rip Sullivan]], Northern Virginia community activist and a member of the Virginia House of Delegates from Virginia's 48th district
*[[Philander C. Knox]], American lawyer, bank director and politician who served as United States Attorney General, a Senator from Pennsylvania and Secretary of State
*[[Jack McGregor]], former Pennsylvania State Senator from Pittsburgh and the founder of the National Hockey League's [[Pittsburgh Penguins]]
*[[James Hay Reed]], founding member of the law firm Reed, Smith, Shaw & Beal and a [[United States federal judge]]
*[[Cathy Bissoon]], American lawyer and judge who serves on the [[United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania]]
*[[David W. Marston]], lawyer, author and [[United States Attorney]] for the [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania]]
*[[Paul Martha]], former American football safety who played seven seasons in the National Football League and was CEO of [[Pittsburgh Penguins]]
*[[Sheryl H. Lipman]], [[United States District Judge]] of the [[United States District Court for the Western District of Tennessee]] and former Counsel to the [[University of Memphis]]
*[[Thomas Hardiman]], a federal judge on the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]] and former [[United States District Court]] judge
*[[Ralph H. Demmler]], an American lawyer specializing in corporate banking law and an appointed [[United States government]] official
*[[Ronald D. Castille]], served on the [[Supreme Court of Pennsylvania]] from 1994 to 2014, and was [[Chief Justice]] from 2008 to 2014

==Popular culture==
The firm is depicted in [[Laurence Leamer]]'s book ''The Price of Justice''.<ref>http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/business/news/leamer-book-recounts-how-attorneys-tackled-wva-coal-campaigns-and-cash-687857/</ref>

==Offices==
As of January 2018, Reed Smith has 27 offices across three continents. London is the largest office with over 350 attorneys, while Pittsburgh is the founding office.<ref>{{cite web|title=London|url=http://www.reedsmith.com/London-England/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=10 March 2015|date=4 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Pittsburgh|url=http://www.reedsmith.com/Pittsburgh-United-States-of-America/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=10 March 2015|date=4 March 2014}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=Top 10: Largest Pittsburgh-area law firms|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/slideshow/2013/01/18/top-10-largest-pittsburgh-area-law-firms.html|publisher=Pittsburgh Business Times|accessdate=10 March 2015|date=18 January 2013}}</ref>

As well as numerous offices, Reed Smith has the Global Customer Centre, also located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It houses Reed Smith's 24/7/365 firm-wide administrative operations, including the Network Operating Center, IT Help Desk and the Business Centre.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Customer Centre|url=http://www.reedsmith.com/Global-Customer-Centre-United-States-of-America/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=10 March 2015|date=4 March 2014}}</ref>

== Compensation ==
In June 2016, Reed Smith announced that it would raise attorney salaries to match market rates set earlier that month by the New York based law firm [[Cravath, Swaine & Moore]].<ref>{{cite web|title= Higher Associate Salaries|url=https://abovethelaw.com/2016/06/biglaw-firm-does-right-by-junior-associates-mid-levels-and-senior-associates-not-so-much/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=10 March 2018}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Salary
|-
|1st year associate
|$180,000
|-
|2nd year associate
|$190,000
|-
|3rd year associate
|merit-based
|-
|4th year associate
|merit-based
|-
|5th year associate
|merit-based
|-
|6th year associate
|merit-based
|-
|7th year associate
|merit-based
|-
|8th year associate
|merit-based
|}

==Main practice areas==

Reed Smith has five industry-focused groups: Energy & Natural Resources, Entertainment & Media, Financial Industry, Life Sciences Health Industry Group, and Shipping & Transportation. The main practice areas include:<ref>{{cite web|title=Learn About Our Practices & Industries|url=http://www.reedsmith.com/practices_and_industries/|publisher=Reed Smith|accessdate=10 March 2015|date=4 March 2014}}</ref>

{{colbegin|3}}
*Advertising, Technology & Media
*Antitrust & Competition
*Bankruptcy & Commercial Restructuring
*Construction and Engineering
*Corporate & Securities
*Education
*Energy & Natural Resources
*Environmental Law
*Executive Compensation & Employee Benefits
*Financial Services
*Government Contracts & Grants
*Government Investigations & White Collar Criminal Defense
*Health Care
*Hedge Funds
*Information Technology, Privacy & Data Security
*Insurance
*Intellectual Property
*International Arbitration
*International Trade & National Security
*Labor & Employment
*Litigation & Dispute Resolution
*Pensions
*Public Policy & Infrastructure
*State and Local Taxation
*Product Liability
*Real estate
*Securities Litigation & Enforcement
*Sovereign Wealth Funds
*Sports Law
*Shipping
*Wealth Planning
{{colend}}

==See also==
* [[Johnstown Flood]]
* [[List of 100 largest law firms globally]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.reedsmith.com/ Official website]
*[http://www.americanlawyer.com/search-results-layout-page?query=reed+smith+&publication=TAL+2008 The American Lawyer]
*[http://www.martindale.com/Results.aspx?ft=2&frm=freesearch&lfd=Y&afs=reed%20smith Martindale]
*[http://www.natlawreview.com/organization/reed-smith-llp Organizational Profile at the National Law Review]

[[Category:Law firms established in 1877]]
[[Category:Law firms based in Pittsburgh]]
[[Category:Foreign law firms with offices in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:1877 establishments in Pennsylvania]]

Martin Van Buren National Historic Site

2018-04-28T20:34:15Z

Jprg1966: /* History */

{{Redirect|Lindenwald|the Polish village with the German name of Lindenwald|Wąwelno}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox NRHP
| name =Lindenwald Martin Van Buren National Historic Site
| nrhp_type=nhl
| nrhp_type2=nhs
| image =Lindenwald2006.jpg
| caption =Front of the house facing the [[Albany Post Road]]
| location = [[Kinderhook (town), New York|Town of Kinderhook]], [[Columbia County, New York]]
| nearest_city= [[Kinderhook, New York]]
| coordinates = {{coord|42|22|10.94|N|73|42|15.14|W|display=inline,title}}
| locmapin = New York#USA
| area = {{convert|125|acre}}

| built =1841
| architect= [[Peter Van Ness]]; [[Richard Upjohn]]
| architecture= [[Federal architecture|Federal]]; [[Gothic Revival]]
| designated_nrhp_type= July 4, 1961<ref name="nhlsum">{{cite web|url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=366&ResourceType=Building|title=Martin Van Buren Home (Lindenwald)|date=September 15, 2007|work=National Historic Landmark summary listing|publisher=National Park Service|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606135927/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=366&ResourceType=Building|archivedate=June 6, 2011|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
| added = October 15, 1966<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|2007a}}</ref>
| designated_nrhp_type2 = October 26, 1974
| increase = July 11, 2012<ref name="2012 boundary increase">{{cite web|title=National Register of Historic Places listings for August 3, 2012|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/listings/20120803.htm|publisher=[[National Park Service]]|date=August 3, 2012|accessdate=August 4, 2012}}</ref>
| increase_refnum = 12000406
| visitation_num = 13,617
| visitation_year = 2004
| governing_body = [[National Park Service]]
| website = [http://www.nps.gov/mava Martin Van Buren National Historic Site]
| refnum=66000510
}}
'''Martin Van Buren National Historic Site''' is a unit of the [[United States]] [[National Park Service]] located {{convert|20|mi}} south of [[Albany, New York]], or two miles south of the village of [[Kinderhook, New York]] in [[Columbia County, New York|Columbia County]]. The [[National Historic Sites (United States)|National Historic Site]] preserves the estate and thirty-six room mansion of [[Martin Van Buren]], the eighth [[President of the United States]]. Van Buren purchased the estate, which he named '''Lindenwald''', in 1839 during his one term as President and it became his home and farm during his retirement.

==History==
Van Buren, a founder of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], purchased the home and approximately {{convert|125|acre}} of land in 1839 for $14,000 (equal to ${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|14000|1839}}}} today) while he was still President. However, Van Buren did not move into the home until 1841 (after he was defeated for his second term by the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] candidate [[William Henry Harrison]] in 1840). Eventually, his four living sons, [[Abraham Van Buren|Abraham]], [[John Van Buren|John]], Martin Jr., and Smith, had rooms in the mansion. The home was previously owned by the Van Ness family and was where [[Washington Irving]] wrote most of his book ''[[A History of New York]]''. Irving and Van Buren later became friends.<ref>Jones, Brian Jay. ''Washington Irving: An American Original''. New York: Arcade Publishing, 2008: 311. {{ISBN|978-1-55970-836-4}}</ref>

Van Buren ran two United States Presidential campaigns from Lindenwald. In 1844, he based his ultimately unsuccessful run for the Democratic nomination at the estate. That year, Van Buren lost a hotly contested fight to nominee and eventual President [[James Knox Polk]]. In 1848, in opposition to the extension of slavery into territories captured from Mexico as a result of the [[Mexican–American War]], Van Buren ran for President on a third-party ticket (The [[Free Soil Party]]), again directing his campaign from Lindenwald. Van Buren's campaign drew enough votes away from the Democratic nominee, [[Lewis Cass]], to allow Whig candidate [[Zachary Taylor]] to prevail.

Van Buren named the estate Lindenwald, which is German for "linden forest", after the American Linden (American Basswood or ''[[Tilia]] americana'') trees lining the [[Albany Post Road|Albany-to-New York Post Road]], which is still located in front of the home. The section of the road on the property remains unimproved to this day. Some replanted Linden trees also remain by the side of the road.

Van Buren died at Lindenwald on July 24, 1862. He was 79.

==Recognition==
Lindenwald was declared a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1961.<ref name="nhlsum"/><ref name="nrhpinv">{{Cite journal|title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Lindenwald|url={{NHLS url|id=66000510}} |format=pdf|author=Bronwyn Krog|date=January 31, 1979 |publisher=National Park Service}} and {{NHLS url|id=66000510|title=Accompanying 31 photos, exterior and interior, various dates.|photos=y}} {{small|(2.79 [[Mebibyte|MiB]])}}</ref>

The Martin Van Buren National Historic Site was established on October 26, 1974, and today, Lindenwald is under the care of the [[National Park Service]].

==Today==
The site can be found on Route 9H, about {{convert|2|mi}} south of Van Buren's hometown of Kinderhook, New York. A visitor center operated by the National Park Service is located at the site. Access to the Lindenwald mansion is by ranger-guided tour only. The tower cannot be visited due to fire safety codes. In addition, the grounds contain educational signs which tell of the history of the Lindenwald Estate. During Van Buren's lifetime, the site also contained two gatehouses, a north one and a south one. The north gatehouse was demolished in the 1950s, but today the site is outlined with a stone foundation.<ref>http://presidentryan.weebly.com/8-martin-van-buren.html</ref>

==Further reading==
*''Great Houses of the Hudson River'', [[Michael Middleton Dwyer]], editor, with preface by [[Mark Rockefeller]], Boston, MA: [[Little, Brown and Company]], published in association with [[Historic Hudson Valley]], 2001. {{ISBN|0-8212-2767-X}}.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Lindenwald}}
*[http://www.nps.gov/mava/index.htm Official Site]
*[http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/39vanburen/39vanburen.htm ''Martin Van Buren's "Return to the Soil",'' a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=pphhphoto&fileName=ny/ny0500/ny0557/photos/browse.db&action=browse&recNum=0&title2=Lindenwald,%201013%20Old%20Post%20Road,%20Kinderhook%20vicinity,%20Columbia%20County,%20NY&displayType=1&itemLink=D?hh:1:./temp/~pp_Gh8u:: 89 b&w photos], *[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=pphhsheet&action=browse&fileName=ny/ny0500/ny0557/sheet/browse.db&recNum=0&itemLink=D?hh:1:./temp/~pp_Gh8u::&title2=Lindenwald,%201013%20Old%20Post%20Road,%20Kinderhook%20vicinity,%20Columbia%20County,%20NY&displayType=1&maxCols=2 27 drawings], *[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=pphhcolor&action=browse&fileName=ny/ny0500/ny0557/color/browse.db&recNum=0&itemLink=D?hh:1:./temp/~pp_Gh8u::&title2=Lindenwald,%201013%20Old%20Post%20Road,%20Kinderhook%20vicinity,%20Columbia%20County,%20NY&displayType=1 22 color images], and *[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=pphhdatapage&fileName=ny/ny0500/ny0557/data/hhdatapage.db&recNum=1&itemLink=D?hh:1:./temp/~pp_Gh8u:: 2 data pages] on Lindenwald at [[Historic American Buildings Survey]]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=pphhphoto&fileName=ny/ny1800/ny1827/photos/browse.db&action=browse&recNum=0&title2=Lindenwald,%20Gate%20House,%201013%20Old%20Post%20Road,%20Kinderhook%20vicinity,%20Columbia%20County,%20NY&displayType=1&itemLink=D?hh:2:./temp/~pp_Gh8u:: 4 photos], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=pphhsheet&action=browse&fileName=ny/ny1800/ny1827/sheet/browse.db&recNum=0&itemLink=D?hh:2:./temp/~pp_Gh8u::&title2=Lindenwald,%20Gate%20House,%201013%20Old%20Post%20Road,%20Kinderhook%20vicinity,%20Columbia%20County,%20NY&displayType=1&maxCols=2 5 drawings] of Gatehouse, Lindenwald, at HABS.
*[http://www.kinderhookconnection.com/history2.htm Kinderhook information]
*[http://www.c-span.org/video/?122988-1/life-portrait-martin-van-buren "Life Portrait of Martin Van Buren"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', broadcast from the Martin Van Buren National Historic Site, May 3, 1999

{{Protected areas of New York}}
{{National Register of Historic Places in New York}}
{{Portal bar|Hudson Valley}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Van Buren, Martin National Historic Site}}
[[Category:National Historic Landmarks in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Presidential homes in the United States]]
[[Category:National Historic Sites in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Museums in Columbia County, New York]]
[[Category:Presidential museums in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Houses in Columbia County, New York]]
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places in Columbia County, New York]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1974]]
[[Category:1974 establishments in New York (state)]]

Korruption in Russland

2018-03-18T17:53:34Z

Jprg1966:

{{Political corruption sidebar|image=[[File:Flag of Russia.svg|150 px]]}}

Political corruption is perceived to be a significant problem in [[Russia]],<ref name="CPI2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2014|publisher=Transparency International|accessdate=2015-12-04}}</ref> impacting all aspects of life, including public administration,<ref name="Suhara"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia lost 4 billion dollars on unfavorable state procurement contracts in the last year|url=https://meduza.io/en/news/2015/12/07/russia-lost-4-billion-dollars-on-unfavorable-state-procurement-contracts-in-the-last-year|website=Meduza|accessdate=2015-12-07|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Law enforcement in Russia|law enforcement]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.economist.com/node/15731344 |title=Cops for hire |publisher=Economist |date=2010 |accessdate=2015-12-04}}</ref> [[Healthcare in Russia|healthcare]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iza.org/conference_files/worldb2010/zelenska_t5300.pdf |title=Corruption in Russian Health Care: The Determinants and Incidence of Bribery |date=2010 |accessdate=2015-12-04 |author1=Klara Sabirianova Peter |author2=Tetyana Zelenska }}</ref> and [[Education in Russia|education]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ethics.harvard.edu/blog/corruption-universities-common-disease-russia-and-ukraine |title=Corruption at Universities is a Common Disease for Russia and Ukraine |publisher=Harvard University |date=2014 |accessdate=2015-12-04 |author1=Elena Denisova-Schmidt |author2=Elvira Leontyeva |author3=Yaroslav Prytula }}</ref> The phenomenon of corruption is strongly established in the historical model of public governance in Russia and attributed to general weakness of [[rule of law]] in Russia.<ref name="Suhara">{{cite web |url=https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/03september/pdf/M_Suhara.pdf |title=Corruption in Russia: A Historical Perspective |accessdate=2015-12-04 |author=Suhara, Manabu}}</ref> Transparency International's 2016 Corruption Perception Index ranks the country in 131st place out of 176 countries.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2016|publisher=Transparency International|access-date=2017-03-24}}</ref>

==Spread of corruption==
{{Essay-like|section|date=July 2017}}

A notable worsening of this ranking for Russia—from 90th place to 126th—occurred at the beginning of [[Vladimir Putin]]'s second term as president: a drop of 36 places in only one year. An equally pessimistic picture emerges from the estimates of the average size of bribes which has substantially increased over the last five years. For example, according to the Interior Ministry's Department for Combating Economic Crimes, the average bribe amounted to 9,000 Rubles in 2008; 23,000 Rubles in 2009; 61,000 rubles in 2010; and 236,000 rubles in 2011. In other words, the average bribe in 2011 was 26 times greater than the average bribe in 2008, many times the inflation rate for the same period.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.imrussia.org/ru/society/1376-corruption-in-russia-as-a-business|title=Коррупция в России как бизнес|last=Kalinina|first=Alexandra|date=2013-01-29|work=Институт современной России|access-date=2018-01-09|language=ru-RU}}</ref>

According to [[Sergei Ivanov]], the Kremlin chief of staff, the most corrupt spheres in Russia (in terms of household corruption) are healthcare, education,<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2012). "Loyalty as Rent: Corruption and Politicization of Russian Universities." International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 32(3/4), pp. 153-167.]</ref> housing and communal services.<ref>May 2008 – December 2011, Deputy prime minister of Russia, since December 2011, the head of Russian Presidential Administration</ref> In comparison, independent experts from ''RBC magazine'' name law-enforcement agencies (including the State Traffic Safety Inspectorate) as the most corrupt sphere in Russia, which is followed by healthcare, education, housing and communal services, and social security services.<ref>{{cite web|author=Автор статьи: Максим Легуенко, Екатерина Трофимова |url=http://magazine.rbc.ru/2012/01/25/trends/562949982589258.shtml |title=Взятки в России: кто, где, сколько и можно ли с этим бороться? :: Деловой журнал :: РБК daily |publisher=Magazine.rbc.ru |date=2014-06-17 |accessdate=2014-07-14}}</ref> At the government level, however, the five top areas for corruption are as follows: Government contracts and purchases; Issuance of permits and certificates; Law-enforcement agencies; Land distribution and land relations; Construction.

There are many different estimates of the actual cost of corruption.<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2012). "Education Corruption, Reform, and Growth: Case of Post-Soviet Russia." ''Journal of Eurasian Studies'', 3(1), pp. 20–29.]</ref> According to official government statistics from Rosstat, the "shadow economy" occupied only 15% of Russia's GDP in 2011, and this included unreported salaries (to avoid taxes and social payments) and other types of tax evasion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://interfax.ru/txt.asp?id=242603&sec=1476&sw=%F0%E0%E7%EC%E5%F0+%F2%E5%ED%E5%E2%EE%E9+%FD%EA%E |title=Доля теневой экономики в РФ снизилась почти до 15%, таблицы "затраты-выпуск"... - Пресс-центр - Интерфакс |publisher=Interfax.ru |date= |accessdate=2014-07-14}}</ref> According to Rosstat's estimates, corruption in 2011 amounted to only 3.5 to 7% of GDP. In comparison, some independent experts maintain that corruption consumes as much of 25% of Russia's GDP.<ref>Source: Milov, Nemtsov, Ryzhkov, Shorina (2011). "Putin. Corruption. Independent expert report", p. 6.</ref> A World Bank report puts this figure at 48%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsland.ru/news/detail/id/580475/ |title=Коррупция в России как система "распилки" ВВП - новость из рубрики Общество, актуальная информация, обсуждение новости, дискуссии на Newsland |publisher=Newsland.ru |date= |accessdate=2014-07-14}}</ref> There is also an interesting shift in the main focus of bribery: whereas previously officials took bribes to shut their eyes to legal infractions, they now take them simply to perform their duties.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ria.ru/economy/20110201/329132334.html |title=Средний размер взятки в России в 2010 году вырос с 27 до 47 тысяч руб |publisher=РИА Новости (RIA Novosti) |date= |accessdate=2014-07-14}}</ref> Many experts admit that in recent years corruption in Russia has become a business. In the 1990s, businessmen had to pay different criminal groups to provide a "''krysha''" (literally, a "roof", i.e., protection). Nowadays, this "protective" function is performed by officials. Corrupt hierarchies characterize different sectors of the economy,<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2010). "Corrupt Organizational Hierarchies in the Former Soviet Bloc." ''Transition Studies Review'', 17(4), pp. 822–836.]</ref> including education.<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2009). "Corruption Hierarchies in Higher Education in the Former Soviet Bloc." ''International Journal of Educational Development'', 29(3), pp. 321–330.]</ref>

In the end, the Russian population pays for this corruption.<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2012). "Who is Guilty and What to Do? Popular Opinion and Public Discourse of Corruption in Russian Higher Education." ''Canadian and International Education Journal'', 41(1), pp. 81–95.]</ref> For example, some experts believe that the rapid increases in tariffs for housing, water, gas and electricity, which significantly outpace the rate of inflation, are a direct result of high volumes of corruption at the highest levels.<ref>Milov et al., Op,cit., 2011, p. 6.</ref> In the recent years the reaction to corruption has changed: starting from Putin's second term, very few corruption cases have been the subject of outrage. Putin's system is remarkable for its ubiquitous and open merging of the civil service and business, as well as its use of relatives, friends, and acquaintances to benefit from budgetary expenditures and take over state property. Corporate, property, and land raiding is commonplace.<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2012). "Predatory Raiding in Russia: Institutions and Property Rights after the Crisis." ''Journal of Economic Issues'', 46(2), pp. 469–479.]</ref>

==Anti-corruption efforts==
{{Further|Russian anti-corruption campaign|Combating Corruption}}

An anticorruption campaign in modern Russia began on April 4, 1992, when President [[Boris Yeltsin]] issued a decree entitled "The fight against corruption in the public service". This document prohibited officials from engaging in business activities. Moreover, state employees were required to provide information about their income, personal property and real estate holdings, bank deposits and securities, as well as financial liabilities. The implementation of the decree, which formed the basis of the laws on combating corruption and on civil service, was vested in the presidential control directorate. Russia passed the first package of anti-corruption laws in 2008 in response to its ratification of the UN's [[United Nations Convention against Corruption|Convention against Corruption]] and the [[Council of Europe]]'s "[[Criminal Law Convention on Corruption]]". The decree "On Anti-Corruption Measures" was signed by former President and current Prime Minister [[Medvedev]] in May of that year. Since then, numerous changes have been implemented to the Russia’s anti-corruption legislation with the purpose of combating bribery and improving its business climate. The [[Russian anti-corruption campaign]] is an ongoing effort by the Russian government to curb corruption, which has been recognized as one of Russia's most serious problems. Central documents in the campaign include the [[National Anti-Corruption Plan]], introduced by Medvedev in 2009, and the [[National Anti-Corruption Strategy]], introduced in 2010. The central organ in the campaign is the Anti-Corruption Council, established in 2008. Medvedev has made fighting corruption one of the top agendas of his presidency. In the first meeting of the Council on 30 September 2008, Medvedev said: "I will repeat one simple, but very painful thing. Corruption in our country has become rampant. It has become commonplace and characterises the life of the Russian society."<ref>Sakwa 2011, p. 329</ref>

In 2012, the government adopted a new law requiring public servants and employees of state organisations to disclose their source of funds and both their and their families’ acquisitions of property, including real estate, securities, stock and vehicles. The legislation has also, for the first time, defined conflict of interest in connection to public officials and extended anti-corruption legislation to the military. The last modification to the Federal Anti-Corruption Law No. 273 was made in December 2012 and it was implemented on January 1, 2013. By upgrading the Anti-Corruption Law with Article 13.3, Russia has made a significant step towards strengthening the framework of its anti-corruption legislation, aligning it with the best practices recognized on the international level, such as the [[UK Bribery Act]] and the U.S. [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]]. This articles 13.3 of the Anti-corruption Law requires organizations to develop and implement anti-corruption measures such as (i) appointing a specific department or an official to be responsible for preventing corruption and related offences; (ii) cooperating with enforcement authorities; (iii) developing and implementing standards and procedures for ethical business practices; (iv) establishing an ethical code of conduct for personnel; (v) preventing and resolving conflicts of interest; and (vi) preventing the filing of false or off-the-record reports and the use of forged documents. Russia also joined the [[OECD Anti-Bribery Convention]] in 2012 and has the G20 Presidency in 2013, where fighting corruption is one of three main issues on the agenda. Companies should therefore actively ensure that they stay compliant with the new amendment to the Anti-Corruption Law.

===The anti-money-laundering initiative===
Corruption has an obvious connection with [[money laundering]] as the stolen assets of a corrupt public official are useless unless they are placed, layered and integrated into the global financial network in a manner that does not raise suspicion. The proceeds of corruption may be laundered in jurisdictions which have not enacted strict anti-money laundering measures and in countries which uphold very strict bank-secretary laws or regulations. This is the reason why the "de-offshorization" policy endorsed by President Putin in 2012 and 2013 (after the Cyprus Affaire) is often considered to be a new anti-corruption measure. The government's recent initiatives for gradually strengthening control over financial operations of organisations and citizens have been the subject of The [[Russian Federal Financial Monitoring Service]] ("Rosfinmonitoring"). A law has been drafted, which introduced amendments to a number of legal acts and aimed at increasing the transparency of currency transactions and at strengthening anti-money laundering measures in Russia. This respective law, with corresponding amendments, was passed on 30 June 2013. The law introduces changes to a variety of legislative acts and ensures the overall enhancement of control over businesses and citizens with respect to financial operations.

The most important amendments for businesses are those that modify the regulation of banking activity. The amendments considerably affect credit organizations which would most likely be required to amend their internal anti money laundering policies and procedures for identification of customers. On one hand, they allow the bankers to demand disclosure of the transaction purpose from the client. On the other hand, this might raise substantial risks in terms of optimizing business, including potential delay in completing payments.

===National Plan to Counter Corruption===
Russian President Vladimir Putin approved a new national anti-corruption plan for the period from 2014 to 2015. The president ordered executive and legislative authorities by July 1, 2014 to make relevant amendments to their anti-corruption plans and to ensure control over their execution. A relevant order was included in the National Plan to Counter Corruption for 2014–2015.

The governor of the Komi republic was arrested for stealing money from state funds.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/leonid-bershidsky-oil-crash-results-in-moscow-warning-to-russias-comfortably-corrupt|first=Leonid |last=Bershidsky |title=Oil crash results in Moscow warning to Russia’s comfortably corrupt | publisher=Bloomberg News via National Post| date=September 22, 2015}}</ref>

==Research==
Transparency International Russia's report from 2012 shows a variety of activities that give citizens a chance to monitor corruption. It collaborated with the Youth Human Rights movement on a large-scale campaign in 20 cities to check police officers' identification tags. This is a proactive exercise to stop petty corruption. If an officer can be identified, he or she is less likely to ask for a bribe. Transparency International Russia also monitors the income statements of Russian public officials with the help of students and publishes the results and monitored the use of 600 million rubles (US$19 million) of public funds to socially oriented NGOs, and found several cases of conflict of interests. It provided analysis and recommendations on making this process more transparent and accountable. the NGO works cooperatively with all individuals and groups, with for-profit and not-for-profit corporations and organisations, and with bodies committed to the fight against corruption. It undertakes professional analysis and papers on corruption-related issues trying to explain the reasons of the spread of corruption, its political and social implications and trying to analyse the possible scenarios for the future.

On 9 December 2014 Novosti agency reported that the head of the National Anti-Corruption Committee Kirill Kabanov admitted on air that a third of Russian officials were corrupt.<ref>[http://rusnovosti.ru/news/356354/ "Каждый третий чиновник в России берёт взятки, заявили в НАК"], ''life.ru'', 9 декабря 2014.</ref> As of 2015, Russian officials are periodically accused of spending on luxury cars, mansions or clothes worth significantly more than their declared income.<ref>{{Cite web|title=New Investigation Exposes Glam Life Of Vladimir Putin's Bling Ring|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/maxseddon/new-investigation-exposes-glam-life-of-vladimir-putins-bling#.ctYJBMn8p|accessdate=2015-09-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Corruption Fatigue {{!}} Opinion|url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/opinion/article/corruption-fatigue/436298.html|accessdate=2015-09-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia’s Prisoner Dilemma {{!}} Russia! Magazine|url=http://readrussia.com/2015/11/25/russias-prisoner-dilemma/|accessdate=2015-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Corruption in Russia as a Business |url=http://imrussia.org/en/society/376-corruption-in-russia-as-a-business|website=Institute of Modern Russia|accessdate=2015-12-04|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Russia’s mafia state {{!}} Alexey Navalny’s group publishes startling revelations linking the Attorney General’s son to the mob |url=https://meduza.io/en/feature/2015/12/01/russia-s-mafia-state|website=Meduza|accessdate=2015-12-04|language=en-US}}</ref>

A 2018 study of state corruption in Russia during the 1750s–1830s found that "as far as we could tell on the basis of our sample of records, the volume of resources extracted from the population through ‘routine’ corruption appears to have been surprisingly low."<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Korchmina|first=Elena|last2=Fedyukin|first2=Igor|title=Extralegal payments to state officials in Russia, 1750s–1830s: assessing the burden of corruption|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ehr.12666/abstract|journal=The Economic History Review|language=en|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1111/ehr.12666|issn=1468-0289}}</ref> The authors write, "every little interaction with state officials involved paying a fee to the clerks, and such fees, although technically illegal, were so common and commonly accepted as to be entered in the account books alongside other operational expenses. On the other hand, these ‘routine’ payments were really quite small, especially if apportioned on a per capita basis among the entire commune... Such fees appear to have been largely customary in nature, a part of the traditional economy of gift-giving, demonstrating respect, and maintaining informal relationships (‘good disposition’). Yet, even such a low level of per capita extraction would have allowed key district officials to amass significant amounts, at a very minimum tripling their salaries."<ref name=":0" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Russia}}
* [[List of people convicted of bribery in Russia]]
* [[2017 Russian protests]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* Transparency International Russia (English Version) http://transparency.org.ru/en/
* "Corruption and institutions in Russia" Mark Levin, Georgy Satarov, Foundation for Information on Democracy http://www.indem.ru/satarov/satarov_levin/corruption.htm#1

{{Asia in topic|Corruption in}}
{{Europe in topic|Corruption in}}
{{Russia topics}}
{{Economy of Russia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Corruption In Russia}}
[[Category:Corruption in Russia| ]]
[[Category:Politics of Russia]]
[[Category:Economy of Russia]]
[[Category:Corruption in Europe|Russia]]
[[Category:Corruption by country|Russia]]

Korruption in Russland

2018-03-18T17:53:09Z

Jprg1966:

{{Political corruption sidebar|image=[[File:Flag of Russia.svg|150 px]]}}

Political corruption is perceived to be a significant problem in [[Russia]],<ref name="CPI2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2014|publisher=Transparency International|accessdate=2015-12-04}}</ref> impacting all aspects of life, including public administration,<ref name="Suhara"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia lost 4 billion dollars on unfavorable state procurement contracts in the last year|url=https://meduza.io/en/news/2015/12/07/russia-lost-4-billion-dollars-on-unfavorable-state-procurement-contracts-in-the-last-year|website=Meduza|accessdate=2015-12-07|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Law enforcement in Russia|law enforcement]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.economist.com/node/15731344 |title=Cops for hire |publisher=Economist |date=2010 |accessdate=2015-12-04}}</ref> [[Healthcare in Russia|healthcare]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iza.org/conference_files/worldb2010/zelenska_t5300.pdf |title=Corruption in Russian Health Care: The Determinants and Incidence of Bribery |date=2010 |accessdate=2015-12-04 |author1=Klara Sabirianova Peter |author2=Tetyana Zelenska }}</ref> and [[Education in Russia|education]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ethics.harvard.edu/blog/corruption-universities-common-disease-russia-and-ukraine |title=Corruption at Universities is a Common Disease for Russia and Ukraine |publisher=Harvard University |date=2014 |accessdate=2015-12-04 |author1=Elena Denisova-Schmidt |author2=Elvira Leontyeva |author3=Yaroslav Prytula }}</ref> The phenomenon of corruption is strongly established in the historical model of public governance in Russia and attributed to general weakness of [[rule of law]] in Russia.<ref name="Suhara">{{cite web |url=https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/03september/pdf/M_Suhara.pdf |title=Corruption in Russia: A Historical Perspective |accessdate=2015-12-04 |author=Suhara, Manabu}}</ref> Transparency International's 2016 Corruption Perception Index ranks the country in 131st place out of 176 countries<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2016|last=e.V.|first=Transparency International |publisher=Transparency International|access-date=2017-03-24}}</ref>

==Spread of corruption==
{{Essay-like|section|date=July 2017}}

A notable worsening of this ranking for Russia—from 90th place to 126th—occurred at the beginning of [[Vladimir Putin]]'s second term as president: a drop of 36 places in only one year. An equally pessimistic picture emerges from the estimates of the average size of bribes which has substantially increased over the last five years. For example, according to the Interior Ministry's Department for Combating Economic Crimes, the average bribe amounted to 9,000 Rubles in 2008; 23,000 Rubles in 2009; 61,000 rubles in 2010; and 236,000 rubles in 2011. In other words, the average bribe in 2011 was 26 times greater than the average bribe in 2008, many times the inflation rate for the same period.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.imrussia.org/ru/society/1376-corruption-in-russia-as-a-business|title=Коррупция в России как бизнес|last=Kalinina|first=Alexandra|date=2013-01-29|work=Институт современной России|access-date=2018-01-09|language=ru-RU}}</ref>

According to [[Sergei Ivanov]], the Kremlin chief of staff, the most corrupt spheres in Russia (in terms of household corruption) are healthcare, education,<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2012). "Loyalty as Rent: Corruption and Politicization of Russian Universities." International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 32(3/4), pp. 153-167.]</ref> housing and communal services.<ref>May 2008 – December 2011, Deputy prime minister of Russia, since December 2011, the head of Russian Presidential Administration</ref> In comparison, independent experts from ''RBC magazine'' name law-enforcement agencies (including the State Traffic Safety Inspectorate) as the most corrupt sphere in Russia, which is followed by healthcare, education, housing and communal services, and social security services.<ref>{{cite web|author=Автор статьи: Максим Легуенко, Екатерина Трофимова |url=http://magazine.rbc.ru/2012/01/25/trends/562949982589258.shtml |title=Взятки в России: кто, где, сколько и можно ли с этим бороться? :: Деловой журнал :: РБК daily |publisher=Magazine.rbc.ru |date=2014-06-17 |accessdate=2014-07-14}}</ref> At the government level, however, the five top areas for corruption are as follows: Government contracts and purchases; Issuance of permits and certificates; Law-enforcement agencies; Land distribution and land relations; Construction.

There are many different estimates of the actual cost of corruption.<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2012). "Education Corruption, Reform, and Growth: Case of Post-Soviet Russia." ''Journal of Eurasian Studies'', 3(1), pp. 20–29.]</ref> According to official government statistics from Rosstat, the "shadow economy" occupied only 15% of Russia's GDP in 2011, and this included unreported salaries (to avoid taxes and social payments) and other types of tax evasion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://interfax.ru/txt.asp?id=242603&sec=1476&sw=%F0%E0%E7%EC%E5%F0+%F2%E5%ED%E5%E2%EE%E9+%FD%EA%E |title=Доля теневой экономики в РФ снизилась почти до 15%, таблицы "затраты-выпуск"... - Пресс-центр - Интерфакс |publisher=Interfax.ru |date= |accessdate=2014-07-14}}</ref> According to Rosstat's estimates, corruption in 2011 amounted to only 3.5 to 7% of GDP. In comparison, some independent experts maintain that corruption consumes as much of 25% of Russia's GDP.<ref>Source: Milov, Nemtsov, Ryzhkov, Shorina (2011). "Putin. Corruption. Independent expert report", p. 6.</ref> A World Bank report puts this figure at 48%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsland.ru/news/detail/id/580475/ |title=Коррупция в России как система "распилки" ВВП - новость из рубрики Общество, актуальная информация, обсуждение новости, дискуссии на Newsland |publisher=Newsland.ru |date= |accessdate=2014-07-14}}</ref> There is also an interesting shift in the main focus of bribery: whereas previously officials took bribes to shut their eyes to legal infractions, they now take them simply to perform their duties.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ria.ru/economy/20110201/329132334.html |title=Средний размер взятки в России в 2010 году вырос с 27 до 47 тысяч руб |publisher=РИА Новости (RIA Novosti) |date= |accessdate=2014-07-14}}</ref> Many experts admit that in recent years corruption in Russia has become a business. In the 1990s, businessmen had to pay different criminal groups to provide a "''krysha''" (literally, a "roof", i.e., protection). Nowadays, this "protective" function is performed by officials. Corrupt hierarchies characterize different sectors of the economy,<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2010). "Corrupt Organizational Hierarchies in the Former Soviet Bloc." ''Transition Studies Review'', 17(4), pp. 822–836.]</ref> including education.<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2009). "Corruption Hierarchies in Higher Education in the Former Soviet Bloc." ''International Journal of Educational Development'', 29(3), pp. 321–330.]</ref>

In the end, the Russian population pays for this corruption.<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2012). "Who is Guilty and What to Do? Popular Opinion and Public Discourse of Corruption in Russian Higher Education." ''Canadian and International Education Journal'', 41(1), pp. 81–95.]</ref> For example, some experts believe that the rapid increases in tariffs for housing, water, gas and electricity, which significantly outpace the rate of inflation, are a direct result of high volumes of corruption at the highest levels.<ref>Milov et al., Op,cit., 2011, p. 6.</ref> In the recent years the reaction to corruption has changed: starting from Putin's second term, very few corruption cases have been the subject of outrage. Putin's system is remarkable for its ubiquitous and open merging of the civil service and business, as well as its use of relatives, friends, and acquaintances to benefit from budgetary expenditures and take over state property. Corporate, property, and land raiding is commonplace.<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/araratosipian/ Osipian, Ararat. (2012). "Predatory Raiding in Russia: Institutions and Property Rights after the Crisis." ''Journal of Economic Issues'', 46(2), pp. 469–479.]</ref>

==Anti-corruption efforts==
{{Further|Russian anti-corruption campaign|Combating Corruption}}

An anticorruption campaign in modern Russia began on April 4, 1992, when President [[Boris Yeltsin]] issued a decree entitled "The fight against corruption in the public service". This document prohibited officials from engaging in business activities. Moreover, state employees were required to provide information about their income, personal property and real estate holdings, bank deposits and securities, as well as financial liabilities. The implementation of the decree, which formed the basis of the laws on combating corruption and on civil service, was vested in the presidential control directorate. Russia passed the first package of anti-corruption laws in 2008 in response to its ratification of the UN's [[United Nations Convention against Corruption|Convention against Corruption]] and the [[Council of Europe]]'s "[[Criminal Law Convention on Corruption]]". The decree "On Anti-Corruption Measures" was signed by former President and current Prime Minister [[Medvedev]] in May of that year. Since then, numerous changes have been implemented to the Russia’s anti-corruption legislation with the purpose of combating bribery and improving its business climate. The [[Russian anti-corruption campaign]] is an ongoing effort by the Russian government to curb corruption, which has been recognized as one of Russia's most serious problems. Central documents in the campaign include the [[National Anti-Corruption Plan]], introduced by Medvedev in 2009, and the [[National Anti-Corruption Strategy]], introduced in 2010. The central organ in the campaign is the Anti-Corruption Council, established in 2008. Medvedev has made fighting corruption one of the top agendas of his presidency. In the first meeting of the Council on 30 September 2008, Medvedev said: "I will repeat one simple, but very painful thing. Corruption in our country has become rampant. It has become commonplace and characterises the life of the Russian society."<ref>Sakwa 2011, p. 329</ref>

In 2012, the government adopted a new law requiring public servants and employees of state organisations to disclose their source of funds and both their and their families’ acquisitions of property, including real estate, securities, stock and vehicles. The legislation has also, for the first time, defined conflict of interest in connection to public officials and extended anti-corruption legislation to the military. The last modification to the Federal Anti-Corruption Law No. 273 was made in December 2012 and it was implemented on January 1, 2013. By upgrading the Anti-Corruption Law with Article 13.3, Russia has made a significant step towards strengthening the framework of its anti-corruption legislation, aligning it with the best practices recognized on the international level, such as the [[UK Bribery Act]] and the U.S. [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]]. This articles 13.3 of the Anti-corruption Law requires organizations to develop and implement anti-corruption measures such as (i) appointing a specific department or an official to be responsible for preventing corruption and related offences; (ii) cooperating with enforcement authorities; (iii) developing and implementing standards and procedures for ethical business practices; (iv) establishing an ethical code of conduct for personnel; (v) preventing and resolving conflicts of interest; and (vi) preventing the filing of false or off-the-record reports and the use of forged documents. Russia also joined the [[OECD Anti-Bribery Convention]] in 2012 and has the G20 Presidency in 2013, where fighting corruption is one of three main issues on the agenda. Companies should therefore actively ensure that they stay compliant with the new amendment to the Anti-Corruption Law.

===The anti-money-laundering initiative===
Corruption has an obvious connection with [[money laundering]] as the stolen assets of a corrupt public official are useless unless they are placed, layered and integrated into the global financial network in a manner that does not raise suspicion. The proceeds of corruption may be laundered in jurisdictions which have not enacted strict anti-money laundering measures and in countries which uphold very strict bank-secretary laws or regulations. This is the reason why the "de-offshorization" policy endorsed by President Putin in 2012 and 2013 (after the Cyprus Affaire) is often considered to be a new anti-corruption measure. The government's recent initiatives for gradually strengthening control over financial operations of organisations and citizens have been the subject of The [[Russian Federal Financial Monitoring Service]] ("Rosfinmonitoring"). A law has been drafted, which introduced amendments to a number of legal acts and aimed at increasing the transparency of currency transactions and at strengthening anti-money laundering measures in Russia. This respective law, with corresponding amendments, was passed on 30 June 2013. The law introduces changes to a variety of legislative acts and ensures the overall enhancement of control over businesses and citizens with respect to financial operations.

The most important amendments for businesses are those that modify the regulation of banking activity. The amendments considerably affect credit organizations which would most likely be required to amend their internal anti money laundering policies and procedures for identification of customers. On one hand, they allow the bankers to demand disclosure of the transaction purpose from the client. On the other hand, this might raise substantial risks in terms of optimizing business, including potential delay in completing payments.

===National Plan to Counter Corruption===
Russian President Vladimir Putin approved a new national anti-corruption plan for the period from 2014 to 2015. The president ordered executive and legislative authorities by July 1, 2014 to make relevant amendments to their anti-corruption plans and to ensure control over their execution. A relevant order was included in the National Plan to Counter Corruption for 2014–2015.

The governor of the Komi republic was arrested for stealing money from state funds.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/leonid-bershidsky-oil-crash-results-in-moscow-warning-to-russias-comfortably-corrupt|first=Leonid |last=Bershidsky |title=Oil crash results in Moscow warning to Russia’s comfortably corrupt | publisher=Bloomberg News via National Post| date=September 22, 2015}}</ref>

==Research==
Transparency International Russia's report from 2012 shows a variety of activities that give citizens a chance to monitor corruption. It collaborated with the Youth Human Rights movement on a large-scale campaign in 20 cities to check police officers' identification tags. This is a proactive exercise to stop petty corruption. If an officer can be identified, he or she is less likely to ask for a bribe. Transparency International Russia also monitors the income statements of Russian public officials with the help of students and publishes the results and monitored the use of 600 million rubles (US$19 million) of public funds to socially oriented NGOs, and found several cases of conflict of interests. It provided analysis and recommendations on making this process more transparent and accountable. the NGO works cooperatively with all individuals and groups, with for-profit and not-for-profit corporations and organisations, and with bodies committed to the fight against corruption. It undertakes professional analysis and papers on corruption-related issues trying to explain the reasons of the spread of corruption, its political and social implications and trying to analyse the possible scenarios for the future.

On 9 December 2014 Novosti agency reported that the head of the National Anti-Corruption Committee Kirill Kabanov admitted on air that a third of Russian officials were corrupt.<ref>[http://rusnovosti.ru/news/356354/ "Каждый третий чиновник в России берёт взятки, заявили в НАК"], ''life.ru'', 9 декабря 2014.</ref> As of 2015, Russian officials are periodically accused of spending on luxury cars, mansions or clothes worth significantly more than their declared income.<ref>{{Cite web|title=New Investigation Exposes Glam Life Of Vladimir Putin's Bling Ring|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/maxseddon/new-investigation-exposes-glam-life-of-vladimir-putins-bling#.ctYJBMn8p|accessdate=2015-09-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Corruption Fatigue {{!}} Opinion|url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/opinion/article/corruption-fatigue/436298.html|accessdate=2015-09-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia’s Prisoner Dilemma {{!}} Russia! Magazine|url=http://readrussia.com/2015/11/25/russias-prisoner-dilemma/|accessdate=2015-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Corruption in Russia as a Business |url=http://imrussia.org/en/society/376-corruption-in-russia-as-a-business|website=Institute of Modern Russia|accessdate=2015-12-04|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Russia’s mafia state {{!}} Alexey Navalny’s group publishes startling revelations linking the Attorney General’s son to the mob |url=https://meduza.io/en/feature/2015/12/01/russia-s-mafia-state|website=Meduza|accessdate=2015-12-04|language=en-US}}</ref>

A 2018 study of state corruption in Russia during the 1750s–1830s found that "as far as we could tell on the basis of our sample of records, the volume of resources extracted from the population through ‘routine’ corruption appears to have been surprisingly low."<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Korchmina|first=Elena|last2=Fedyukin|first2=Igor|title=Extralegal payments to state officials in Russia, 1750s–1830s: assessing the burden of corruption|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ehr.12666/abstract|journal=The Economic History Review|language=en|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1111/ehr.12666|issn=1468-0289}}</ref> The authors write, "every little interaction with state officials involved paying a fee to the clerks, and such fees, although technically illegal, were so common and commonly accepted as to be entered in the account books alongside other operational expenses. On the other hand, these ‘routine’ payments were really quite small, especially if apportioned on a per capita basis among the entire commune... Such fees appear to have been largely customary in nature, a part of the traditional economy of gift-giving, demonstrating respect, and maintaining informal relationships (‘good disposition’). Yet, even such a low level of per capita extraction would have allowed key district officials to amass significant amounts, at a very minimum tripling their salaries."<ref name=":0" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Russia}}
* [[List of people convicted of bribery in Russia]]
* [[2017 Russian protests]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* Transparency International Russia (English Version) http://transparency.org.ru/en/
* "Corruption and institutions in Russia" Mark Levin, Georgy Satarov, Foundation for Information on Democracy http://www.indem.ru/satarov/satarov_levin/corruption.htm#1

{{Asia in topic|Corruption in}}
{{Europe in topic|Corruption in}}
{{Russia topics}}
{{Economy of Russia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Corruption In Russia}}
[[Category:Corruption in Russia| ]]
[[Category:Politics of Russia]]
[[Category:Economy of Russia]]
[[Category:Corruption in Europe|Russia]]
[[Category:Corruption by country|Russia]]

Neville Francis Fitzgerald Chamberlain

2018-02-10T20:44:00Z

Jprg1966: Cleaned up using AutoEd

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}}
{{Infobox military person
| name= Sir Neville Francis Fitzgerald Chamberlain
| image= Neville Francis Fitzgerald Chamberlain.png
| caption= Sir Neville Francis Fitzgerald Chamberlain
| birth_date= 1856
| death_date= 28 May 1944
| placeofburial_label=
| placeofburial=
| birth_place=
| death_place=
| placeofburial_coordinates= 
| nickname=
| allegiance= {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| branch= {{army|United Kingdom}}
| serviceyears= 1873–1901
| rank= [[Colonel (United Kingdom)|Colonel]]
| unit=
| commands=
| battles= [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]]
| awards= [[Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath]] [[Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order]]
| relations=
| laterwork=
}}
'''Sir Neville Francis Fitzgerald Chamberlain''', {{postnominals|country=GBR|sep=,|KCB|KCVO|KPM}} (1856 – 28 May 1944) was a [[British Army]] officer, and later Inspector-General of the [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] who resigned in the aftermath of the 1916 [[Easter Rising]] in [[Ireland]]. He is credited with having invented the game of [[snooker]] while serving in Jubbulpore ([[Jabalpur]]), [[British Raj|India]], in 1875.

==Early life==
Chamberlain was born into a military family, the son of Charles Francis Falcon Chamberlain and nephew of [[Neville Bowles Chamberlain]]. He was educated at [[Brentwood School (England)|Brentwood School]], and the [[Royal Military College, Sandhurst]].<ref name=ODNB>T. R. Moreman, [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/73766 ‘Chamberlain, Sir Neville Francis Fitzgerald (1856–1944)] (subscription required), [[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]], [[Oxford University Press]], September 2004; online edition, May 2006, {{doi|10.1093/ref:odnb/73766}}. Accessed 11 February 2008</ref>

==Military career==
Chamberlain was commissioned a [[second lieutenant|sub-lieutenant]] in the [[11th Foot]] on 9 August 1873,<ref name="ReferenceA">{{London Gazette|issue=24909|page=6539|date=3 December 1880}}</ref> and promoted to [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|lieutenant]] on 9 August 1874.<ref name=ODNB /> In 1878, during the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]], he joined the staff of [[Field Marshal (United Kingdom)|Field Marshal]] Sir [[Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts|Frederick Roberts]], Commander-in-Chief of the British Army in [[Afghanistan]]. He was wounded slightly at the [[Battle of Kandahar]].<ref name=ODNB /><ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="ibsf">[http://www.ibsf.info/pdf/origin-of-snooker.pdf Peter Ainsworth, ''The Origin of Snooker: The Neville Chamberlain Story''], [[International Billiards and Snooker Federation]]</ref> He served with Roberts at [[Ootacamund]] between 1881 and 1884.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=25096|page=1741|date=18 April 1882}}</ref> He was promoted to [[Captain (BARM)|captain]] on 9 August 1885,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=25520|page=4787|date=16 October 1885}}</ref> to [[brevet (military)|brevet]] [[major (United Kingdom)|major]] on 7 November 1885,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=25527|page=5081|date=6 November 1885}}</ref> and to brevet [[Lieutenant colonel (British Army and Royal Marines)|lieutenant-colonel]] on 1 July 1887.<ref name=Hart>Hart′s Army list, 1901</ref> In 1890 he became [[Military Secretary (United Kingdom)|Military Secretary]] to the [[Kashmir]] Government.<ref name=ODNB /> He was promoted to brevet [[colonel (United Kingdom)|colonel]] on 6 January 1894,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=26591|page=416|date=22 January 1895}}</ref> while his actual rank was still that of captain. Substantive promotion to major followed on 9 August 1894, and the promotion to colonel was made substantive on 6 February 1899,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=27085|page=3521|date=2 June 1899}}</ref> when he was appointed Colonel on the Staff in [[Delhi]].<ref name=Hart />

Following the outbreak of the [[Second Boer War]], Lord Roberts had been appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in South Africa. Chamberlain rejoined Lord Roberts in South Africa in December 1899, as "First [[Aide-de-Camp]] and Private Secretary",<ref name="ibsf"/><ref>{{London Gazette|issue=27146|page=8542|date=22 December 1899}}</ref> and was highly commended by Roberts in [[Mentioned in Despatches|despatches]] from the war (despatch dated 31 March 1900<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=27282 |page=844 |date=8 February 1901}}</ref>). He was made a [[Companion of the Order of the Bath]] (CB) in 1900.<ref name=ODNB />

==Royal Irish Constabulary==
In 1900 Chamberlain was appointed Inspector-General of the [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] (RIC), the police force for the whole of [[Ireland]] except [[Dublin]]. The force, which was armed, was under the direct control of the Irish Administration in [[Dublin Castle]]. It was responsible for intelligence gathering as well as maintaining order, and was seen as the "eyes and ears" of the government.<ref>W. J. McCormack, ''The Blackwell Companion to Modern Irish Culture'', Blackwell, 1999, {{ISBN|0-631-22817-9}}, p. 477</ref> He formally resigned from the Army on 1 November 1901.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=27380|page=8095|date=26 November 1901}}</ref> He was appointed [[Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath]] (KCB) during a royal visit to Ireland in August 1903,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=27586|page=5058|date=11 August 1903}}</ref> [[Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order]] (KCVO) in 1911<ref name=ODNB /> and Knight of Grace in the [[Venerable Order of Saint John]] in April 1914,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=28818|page=2874|date=29 December 1914}}</ref> and was awarded the [[King's Police Medal]] in the 1915 [[New Year Honours]].<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=29024|supp=y|page=4|date=3 April 1914}}</ref> Chamberlain's years in the RIC coincided with the rise of a number of political, cultural and sporting organisations with the common aim of asserting Ireland's separateness from the UK, which were often collectively referred to as ''Sinn Féin'',<ref>Brian Feeney, ''Sinn Féin. A Hundred Turbulent Years'', O'Brien, 2002, {{ISBN|0-86278-695-9}}, p. 38</ref> culminating in the formation of the [[Irish Volunteers]] in 1913. In reports to the [[Chief Secretary for Ireland]], [[Augustine Birrell]], and the [[Under-Secretary for Ireland|Under-Secretary]], Sir [[Matthew Nathan]], Chamberlain warned that the Volunteers were preparing to stage an insurrection and proclaim Irish independence.<ref>Michael Foy and Brian Barton, ''The Easter Rising'', Sutton, 2004, {{ISBN|0-7509-3433-6}}, p. 51</ref> However, in April 1916, when Nathan showed him a letter from the army commander in the south of Ireland telling of an expected landing of arms on the south-west coast and a rising planned for [[Easter]], they were both "doubtful whether there was any foundation for the rumour".<ref>Leon Ó Broin, ''Dublin Castle and the 1916 Rising'', Sidgwick & Jackson, 1966, p. 79</ref> The [[Easter Rising]] began on Easter Monday, 24 April 1916, and lasted for six days, ending only when much of [[O'Connell Street]] had been destroyed by artillery fire. Although the [[Royal Commission]] on the 1916 Rebellion (the [[Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst|Hardinge]] commission) cleared the RIC of any blame for the Rising, Chamberlain was eventually forced to resign following continued criticism of the force's intelligence handling.<ref name=ODNB />

==Later life==
After his retirement Chamberlain lived in [[Ascot, Berkshire]], [[England]]. On 19 March 1938 he had a letter published in ''[[The Field (magazine)|The Field]]'' in which he claimed to have invented the game of [[snooker]] at the officers' mess of the 11th [[Devonshire Regiment]] in Jubbulpore ([[Jabalpur]]), [[British Raj|India]] in 1875. His claim was supported by the author [[Compton Mackenzie]] in a letter to ''The Billiard Player'' in 1939, and has been accepted ever since.<ref name="ibsf"/>

The ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'' describes the circumstances in which the new game came about:<ref name=ODNB />

{{quote|While serving at Jubbulpore in 1875 Chamberlain developed a new variation of black pool by introducing coloured balls into the game. It was dubbed snooker—a derogatory nickname given to first-year cadets studying at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich that Chamberlain had heard about from a young Royal Artillery subaltern visiting the mess. Chamberlain later retorted to a fellow player who had failed to pot a coloured ball: "Why, you're a regular snooker". While explaining the term to his fellow officers Chamberlain, to mollify the officer concerned, remarked that they were all "snookers at the game" and the name snooker or snooker's pool immediately stuck.}}

Chamberlain died on 28 May 1944 aged 88.<ref name=ODNB />

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chamberlain, Neville Francis Fitzgerald}}
[[Category:1856 births]]
[[Category:1944 deaths]]
[[Category:Devonshire Regiment officers]]
[[Category:Inspectors-General of the Royal Irish Constabulary]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]
[[Category:Snooker coaches, managers and promoters]]
[[Category:Cue sports inventors and innovators]]

Yūko Mita

2018-01-06T23:17:49Z

Jprg1966: Reverted 1 edit by 37.152.246.61 (talk): Unnecessary change. (TW)

{{Infobox person
| image =
| name = Yūko Mita 三田ゆう子
| image_caption =
| image_size = 120
| landscape = yes
| birthname = Yūko Iguchi 井口友子
| alias =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1954|8|14}}
| birth_place = [[Setagaya, Tokyo]], [[Japan]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Seiyū|Voice actress]]
| yearsactive = 1976-present
| spouse =
| parents =
| children =
| credits = ''[[Akuma-kun]]'' as '''Akuma-kun''' ''[[Magical Princess Minky Momo]]'' as '''[[Pipiru]]''' ''[[Urusei Yatsura]]'' as '''[[Benten (Urusei Yatsura)|Benten]]''' ''[[Dr. Slump]]'' as '''[[Tsururin Tsun]]''' and '''[[Turbo Norimaki]]''' ''[[GeGeGe no Kitaro|GeGeGe no Kitaro (3rd)]]'' as '''[[Neko Musume]]''' ''[[Maison Ikkoku]]'' as '''[[Akemi Roppongi]]''' ''Susume Gojirando'' as '''[[Godzilla]]'''
| website =
}}
{{nihongo|'''Yūko Mita'''|三田ゆう子|Mita Yūko|born {{nihongo|'''Yūko Iguchi'''|井口友子|Iguchi Yūko}}, August 14, 1954 in [[Setagaya, Tokyo|Setagaya]], [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]}} is a Japanese [[Seiyū|voice actress]]. She is known for playing gentle, sexy [[bishōjo]] (such as Akemi in ''Maison Ikkoku'') as well as many roles of young boys. Her hobbies include [[tennis]] and [[skiing]].<ref>See [http://www.aoni.co.jp/talent/0427232.html Aoni Production] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630015330/http://www.aoni.co.jp/talent/0427232.html |date=June 30, 2006 }}. Accessed July 2, 2006.</ref> She is employed by the talent management firm [[Aoni Production]].

==Anime==
===TV===
*''[[Anmitsu Hime]]'' (Amaguri no Suke)
*''[[Ai Shite Knight|Aishite Night]]'' (Hashizō)
*''[[Akuma-kun]]'' (Akuma-kun)
*''[[Anpanman]]'' (Eclair-san, Bananaman, Popo, Penguin-kun)
*''[[Captain Tsubasa]]'' (Andre)
*''[[Cinderella Monogatari]]'' (Palette)
*''[[City Hunter]]'' (Sayaka Isegami (ep.10))
*''[[Detective Conan]]'' (Kazuki Kinukawa)
*''[[Dr. Slump]]'' (Turbo, Tsururin)
*''[[Dragon Ball (anime)|Dragon Ball]]'' (Turbo)
*''[[Bardock: The Father of Goku|Dragon Ball Z Special 1: Bardock, The Father of Goku]]'' (Seripa)
*''[[Dragon Quest (TV series)|Dragon Quest]]'' (Daisy)
*''[[Edokko Boy Gatten Tasuke]]'' (Bonten Marutasuke, Daisuke)
*''[[Fighting Foodons]]'' (Pitan)
*''[[GeGeGe no Kitaro]]'' (3rd series) (Neko Musume)
*''GeGeGe no Kitaro'' (4th series) (Ubume)
*''[[Gu Gu Ganmo]]'' (Linda)
*''[[Guru Guru Town Hanamaru-kun]]'' (Mother)
*''[[Hello! Lady Lin]]'' (Sophy)
*''[[Highschool! Kimen-gumi]]'' (Ippei Kawa)
*''[[Hoka Hoka Kazoku]]'' (Midori Yamano)
*''[[The Irresponsible Captain Tylor]]'' (Shia Has)
*''[[The Kabocha Wine]]'' (Akemi (ep.94), Kōhei)
*''[[Zatch Bell!|Konjiki no Gash Bell!!]]'' (Sekkoro)
*''[[Little Lulu to Chitcha na Nakama]]'' (Willie)
*''[[Magic Idol Pastel Yumi]]'' (Momoko Hanazono)
*''[[Magic Star Magical Emi]]'' (Misaki Kazuki)
*''[[Magical Angel Creamy Mami]]'' (Posi)
*''[[Magical Fairy Persia]]'' (Puri Puri, Tsutomu (young))
*''[[Magical Princess Minky Momo]]'' (Pipiru)
*''[[Maison Ikkoku]]'' (Akemi Roppongi)
*''[[Maple Town Stories]]'' (Cindy, Karl)
*''[[Mirai Robo Daltanious]]'' (Ochame)
*''[[Ninja Hattori-kun]]'' (Shinzō Hattori)
*''[[Norakuro-kun]]'' (Keita Kinoshita)
*''[[Obake no Q-tarō]]'' (P-ko)
*''[[One Piece]]'' (Charlotte Brulee,Young Vinsmoke Niji)
*''[[Plawres Sanshiro]]'' (Aya)
*''[[Pokonyan!]]'' (Pokonyan)
*''[[List of Pokémon: The Johto Journeys episodes|Pocket Monsters: Episode Gold & Silver]]'' (Ibuki)
*''[[List of Pokemon: Diamond and Pearl episodes|Pocket Monsters: Diamond and Pearl]]'' (Kengo)
*''[[List of Pokémon: Black & White: Adventures in Unova and Beyond episodes|Pocket Monsters: Best Wishes! Season 2: Decolora Adventure]]'' (Ibuki)
*''[[Ranma ½]]'' (Madame Sanpōru, Ori)
*''[[Robin Hood no Daibōken]]'' (Will)
*''[[Sailor Moon]]'' (Higure Akiyama)
*''[[Sasuga no Sarutobi]]'' (Mika Ishikawa)
*''[[Shin Bikkuriman]]'' (Saracchi)
*''[[Soar High! Isami]]'' (Kei Tsukikage)
*''[[Stitch!|Stitch! ~Best Friends Forever~]]'' (Brag/Flute)
*''[[Stop! Hibari-kun]]'' (Jun)
*''[[Super Bikkuriman]]'' (Rock Princess Dinas)
*''[[Super Doll★Licca-chan]]'' (Dai Takabayashi)
*''[[Tokimeki Tonight]]'' (Tsuppari)
*''[[Ultra B]]'' (Ultra B)
*''[[Urusei Yatsura]]'' (Benten, Kaede (ep.55, spring special), Juliet (ep.17))
*''[[YAT Anshin! Uchū Ryokō]]'' (Bukkī, MAM, Tsuyoko, others)

===OVA===
*''[[Dominion (manga)|Dominion]]'' (Annapuma)
*''[[Dream Dimension Hunter Fandora]]'' (Sōto)
*''[[Recommend! Godzilland]]'' (Godzilla)
*''[[Magical Princess Minky Momo|Magical Princess Minky Momo: Yume no Naka no Rondo]]'' (Pipiru)
*''[[Ningen Kakumei]]'' (Ikue Toda)
*''[[Tenamonya Voyagers]]'' (Space Trash Paraila)
*''[[Urusei Yatsura]]'' series (Benten)
*''[[Vampire Wars]]'' (Brigit)

===Movies===
*''[[Anpanman|Soreike! Anpanman: Lyrical★Magical Mahō no Gakkō]]'' (Popo)
*''[[Crayon Shin-chan: The Storm Called: The Adult Empire Strikes Back]]'' (Hiroshi (as a child))
*''[[Maison Ikkoku|Maison Ikkoku Kanketsuhen]]'' (Akemi Roppongi)
*''[[Make-Up! Sailor Senshi]]'' (Katarina)
*''[[Ninja Hattori-kun|Ninja Hattori-kun: Nin Nin Ninpō Enikki no Maki]]'' (Shinzō Hattori)
*''[[Pokonyan!|Pokonyan! Kyūryū ga Ugoitanyan]]'' (Pokonyan)
*''[[Urusei Yatsura]]'' series (Benten)
*''[[A Wind Named Amnesia]]'' (Sue)

==Games==
* ''Abalaburn'' (Rose, Aquila/Yura)
*''[[Gensō Senshi Valis]]'' (Reiko)
*''[[Sentimental Graffiti|Sentimental Graffiti 2]]'' (Emiko Sugihara)
*''[[YU-NO|Kono Yo no Hate de Koi wo Utau Shōjo YU-NO]]'' (Amanda)

==Tokusatsu==
*''[[Tetsuwan Tantei Robotakku]]'' (Mogurakkī (voice))

==Drama CDs==
*''[[Saint Elza Crusaders]]'' (Manami Oguri)

==Dubbing==
*''[[Babar (TV series)]]'' (Young Babar)
*''[[Tugs (TV series)|TUGS]]'' ([[Sunshine (Tugs character)|Sunshine]], [[Sally Seaplane]] and [[List of Tugs characters#The Buoys|a bell buoy]])
*''[[Budgie The Little Helicopter]] (Pippa Patsy and Enivieve)

==Other==
*''Shin Dotchi no Ryōri Show'' (Yellow Kitchen "Which-kun" (voice))

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*{{ja icon}} [http://www.aoni.co.jp/actress/ma/mita-yuko.html Aoni Production]
* {{ann|people|928}}

{{TUGS series}}

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mita, Yuko}}
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Japanese voice actresses]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Setagaya]]

Kathedrale von St. Augustine

2017-10-07T19:08:20Z

Jprg1966: Cleaned up using AutoEd

{{for|the basilica in Algeria|Basilique Saint Augustin}}
{{Infobox NRHP
| name = Cathedral Basilica of St. Augustine
| nrhp_type = nhl
| image = Cathedral-Basilica in St. Augustine.JPG
| caption =
| location = [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]], [[Florida]], [[United States|USA]]
| coordinates = {{coord|29|53|34|N|81|18|45|W|display=inline,title}}
| locmapin = Florida#USA
| built = 1793–1797<ref name=fhtic>{{cite web|url=http://www.flheritage.com/services/sites/fht/record_t.cfm?ID=892&type=c&index=55|title=Cathedral of St. Augustine|date=2007-09-23|work=Florida Heritage Tourism Interactive Catalog|publisher=Florida's Office of Cultural and Historical Programs}}</ref><ref name=fhm>[http://www.flheritage.com/preservation/markers/markers.cfm?ID=st.%20johns St. Johns County markers]</ref><ref name=fpsa>[http://www.thefirstparish.org/about.html History of the Cathedral Parish] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213231329/http://www.thefirstparish.org/about.html |date=2007-02-13}} at [http://www.thefirstparish.org The Cathedral Parish of St. Augustine]</ref>
| architect =
| architecture = [[Spanish Colonial Revival Style architecture|Spanish Colonial]] and [[Neo-Renaissance|Renaissance Revival]]<ref name=fhtic/>
| designated_nrhp_type = April 15, 1970<ref name=nhl>[http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=1025&ResourceType=Building Cathedral Of St. Augustine] at [http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl National Historic Landmarks Program]</ref>
| added = April 15, 1970
| refnum = 70000844<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}}</ref>
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body = Private
}}
The '''Cathedral Basilica of St. Augustine''' is a historic [[cathedral]] in [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]], [[Florida]], and the seat of the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine|Bishop of St. Augustine]]. It is located at Cathedral Street between Charlotte and St. George Streets. Constructed over five years (1793–1797),<ref name=fhm /><ref name=fpsa /> it was designated a U.S. [[National Historic Landmark]] on April 15, 1970. Originally established in 1565 and re-built in the 18th century, it is the oldest church in Florida.

==History==
[[File:Saint Augustine Basilica, St. Augustine, Florida.jpg|thumb|left|A historic image of the Basilica]]
During the mid-1560s, the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish Empire]] expanded from its [[Caribbean]] strongholds northward, to what is Florida today. The first colony which was founded and remained continuously occupied was St. Augustine. Spanish settlers began immediately to establish a Catholic church. The [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] was integral to the [[Spanish monarchy]] and to Spain's history. In fact, from the mid-1500s to the mid-1600s, [[Spain|the kingdom]] was in the midst of a [[Counter-Reformation|Catholic Revival]], in opposition to the [[Protestant Reformation]].

The settlement's cathedral was completed rapidly. However, given that the early colonists were mostly [[Spanish Navy|sailors]] or [[Spanish Army|soldiers]] and had little experience in architecture, the first Cathedral of St. Augustine was very simple, with a variety of materials and overall hurried confusion about the building. As the [[Kingdom of England|English]] would have it, the original [[parish]] would be short-lived. In 1586, an attack on St. Augustine led by [[Francis Drake|Sir Francis Drake]] resulted in the cathedral burning down.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kapitzke |first=R. |title=Religion, Power, and Politics in Colonial St. Augustine |publisher=University Press of Florida |year=1958 |location=Gainesville}}</ref> As determinedly as they had done two decades previously, the colonists began rebuilding the cathedral and completed the second construction in a matter of months. Once again though, the cathedral was rather poorly constructed out of primarily straw and palmetto, which proved to be a very non-durable and temporary material in such a humid climate. Regardless of construction quality of the second structure, history would repeat itself in 1599; because the second cathedral suffered the same fate of burning, except this time the fire was due to natural conditions.

Shortly after news of the second cathedral's demise reached Spain, a [[tithe]] was placed for several years; and in 1605, the third attempt was made to construct the church. By this time, more experienced architects and builders from Europe had begun to make their way to the [[New World]], and the third cathedral was built with permanence in mind. It was constructed from timber, and it would stay intact for the next 95 years.

Some years after the timber cathedral had been completed, the church began to deteriorate due to lack of maintenance, climatic conditions, and severe fluctuation in the congregation's size. Consequently, in 1702 when the church was again burned down, during a failed [[Kingdom of England|English]] effort to take over the city led by South Carolina colonist [[James Moore (South Carolina politician)|James Moore]], the cathedral would vanish from the town for over ninety years. Undoubtedly, there were attempts throughout to rebuild, the most notable in 1707.

The [[Philip V of Spain|King]] had sent a large sum of money for the cathedral to be rebuilt. The funds never made it to the cathedral because the colony was in poor shape; the money was spent on goods, back pay for soldiers, and public officials taking a cut. (A similar misappropriation of funds had occurred in almost the same manner about a century earlier.) During the first half of the 18th century, priests held [[Mass (Roman Rite)|mass]] in what was a portion of St. Augustine's hospital. This became detrimental to the size and morale of the congregation, as well as to the relations with [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], many of whom had converted to Catholicism.

From 1763 to 1784, Florida fell under [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] rule, and concern for reconstruction dwindled into nonexistence. However, only two years after Spain regained control of the colony, a new sense of pride was instilled in the citizenry and a plan for a grand Cathedral was put into motion. As planned, in 1793 the beginnings of the Cathedral of St. Augustine as we know it today were created, and this rendition of the project, being the longest-running in the [[parish]]'s history, finally reached completion in August 1797.

==Architecture==
[[File:Cathedral Basilica of St. Augustine FL, Nave 20160707 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Cathedral interior]]
The cathedral's eclectic facade is a combination of [[architecture of the California missions|Spanish mission]] and [[neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] styles. Spanish mission features include curving bell [[gable]]s, limited [[fenestration (architecture)|fenestration]], clay roof tiles, a semicircular [[tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]], prominent statuary [[niche (architecture)|niche]], and comparatively unadorned walls. Neoclassical details surround the entry door; an [[entablature]] embellished with [[triglyph]]s is topped with a broken [[pediment]] above and supported by pairs of [[Doric order|Doric]] columns below.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dewhurst|first1=William|title=History of St. Augustine, Florida|date=1885|publisher=GP Putnam's Sons}}</ref>
[[File:St. Augustine Cathedral, St. Augustine, Florida, USA1.jpg|thumb|right|Main facade with [[neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] elements surrounding the doorway and [[architecture of the California missions|Spanish mission]] styling at the gables]]
In 1887, just as fire had plagued the cathedral in the past, the structure burned once again. The damage was not total, however, and the exterior shell of the building was still salvageable because the [[coquina]] and cement used to build the masonry walls were fireproof. Reconstruction was started through donations from [[Henry Flagler]] and funds from the congregation. At this time the congregation hired New York architect [[James Renwick, Jr.]] to restore the burned cathedral.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Register travel itinerary |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/travel/geo-flor/25.htm |publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> Upon restoration, many improvements were made; to start the church was enlarged, particularly the addition of a transept to give the church a more European style. Also, as the truss system before was somewhat plain, Renwick devised a roof system that still relied on timber, but decided to decorate the timbers and leave an exposed ceiling, which today makes for a beautiful view upon entering the church seeing the decorated and varnished chords in the upper portion of the structure.

One possible misconception of the history of the Cathedral of St. Augustine is the well-known bell tower that graces the top of the building. This was not the first time in the U.S. that an exposed bell tower had been placed on a church, or Spanish type of religious structure. In fact, by this point, Spanish missions had already moved far west, and had built cathedrals in Arizona, New Mexico, California, Texas, and Mexico. The bell tower was placed on the Cathedral of St. Augustine because the exposed bell at the front of the cathedral had become a well known symbol of the Spanish mission. Despite the technique being used elsewhere, a certain grandeur was still associated with this specific cathedral. As such, four bells were placed at the Cathedral of St. Augustine; one of which is still thought to be the oldest bell in the United States to this day because it is thought to have been salvaged from a previous church.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fairbanks |first=George R. |title=History and Antiquities of St. Augustine, Florida |year=1820}}</ref> As for the other bells, one of the more ironic features of the cathedral, one of the bells was taken from a British cathedral, the very empire that had burned this church more than once in the past.

The last rebuilding of the cathedral (not the remodelling) included an idea for building materials that was remarkably innovative. Since fire had demonstrated to be a problem in the past, the notion arose to use a nonflammable material, and with a reasonably modest budget coupled with constraints of transport, a solution was not so clear. In the end, however, apparently due to Amerindian construction knowledge, coquina stone was used for the exterior walls.<ref>{{cite book |last=Howe |first=Jeffery |title=Houses of Worship: An Identification Guide to the History and Styles of American Religious Architecture |publisher=PRC Publishing |year=2003 |pages=99}}</ref> The great aspect of this material was it is a sedimentary rock, created primarily from the decomposition of seashells. As St. Augustine is a city near the coast, the stone could be quarried and transported with minimal distance to travel, and it was easy to quarry because the stone was saturated with seawater when quarried. After pulled out of an extremely wet environment, the stone hardens to a regular stone consistency when dry. This served the exact purpose that was required and was done with minimal effort and cost.
[[File:Main altar .jpg|left|thumb|Main Altar]]
[[File:Ambo and Cathedra.jpg|none|thumb|[[Ambon (liturgy)|Ambo]] and Bishop's [[Cathedra]], with his [[Coat of arms|Coat of Arms]] above|299x299px]]
[[File:Side chapel .jpg|thumb|252x252px|Side Chapel with Mosiac|left]]
[[File:Holy doors Cathedral-Basilica of St. Augustine.jpg|none|thumb|[[Holy door|Holy Doors]] for the Year of Mercy at Cathedral-Basilica of St. Augustine]]
[[File:Catholic Heritage Plaque.jpg|none|thumb|Catholic Heritage of Florida Plaque in Cathedral-Basilica located in [[narthex]]]]

==See also==
* [[List of Catholic cathedrals in the United States]]
* [[List of cathedrals in the United States]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.thefirstparish.org/ Official Cathedral Site]
* [http://www.dosafl.com Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine Official Site]
* [http://www.flheritage.com/facts/reports/places/index.cfm?fuseaction=ListAreas&county=st.%20johns St. Johns County listings] at [http://www.flheritage.com Florida's Office of Cultural and Historical Programs] at [http://www.flheritage.com Florida's Office of Cultural and Historical Programs]
* {{HABS |survey=FL-15-7 |id=fl0347 |title=The Cathedral, St. George & Cathedral Streets, Saint Augustine, St. Johns County, FL |photos=1 |dwgs=17 |data=6 |supp=yes}}
* {{HABS |survey=FL-15-7-A |id=fl0204 |title=The Cathedral Rectory |photos=2 |cap=1 |link=no}}

{{Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine}}
{{National Register of Historic Places in Florida}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cathedral-Basilica of St. Augustine}}
[[Category:Basilica churches in Florida|Augustine, Cathedral Basilica of]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches in Florida]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint Augustine]]
[[Category:National Historic Landmarks in Florida]]
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places in St. Johns County, Florida]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Florida]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic cathedrals in Florida|Augustine, Cathedral Basilica of]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches in St. Augustine, Florida]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in St. Augustine, Florida]]
[[Category:Historic American Buildings Survey in Florida]]
[[Category:Churches in St. Johns County, Florida]]
[[Category:Spanish-American culture in Florida]]
[[Category:Churches completed in 1797]]
[[Category:1797 establishments in North America]]

Silent Parade

2017-08-19T19:53:47Z

Jprg1966: /* Organizers and Leadership */

{{Infobox civil conflict
| title = Silent Parade
| partof =
| image = 1917 Silent Parade men H.tiff
| caption = The 1917 Silent Parade in New York
| date = July 28, 1917
| place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[United States]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|40.762960|-73.973946}}
| causes = [[Black people]] deaths during the [[East St. Louis riots]]
| goals = To protest murders, [[lynching|lynchings]], and other anti-Black violence; to promote anti-lynching legislation, and promote Black causes
| methods = Parade / public demonstration
| status =
| result = [[Woodrow Wilson]] did not implement anti-lynching legislation
| side1 =
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| side3 =
| leadfigures1 =
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}}

The '''Negro Silent Protest Parade'''<ref name="NatlHumanitiesSilentProtestPDF">{{cite web |url=https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/maai2/forward/text4/silentprotest.pdf |title=The NEGRO SILENT PROTEST PARADE organized by the NAACP Fifth Ave., New York City July 28, 1917 |date=2014 |website=National Humanities Center, Research Triangle Park, NC |publisher=National Humanities Center |access-date=July 28, 2017}} </ref> was a [[silent protest|silent march]] of about 10,000 [[African American]]s along Fifth Avenue starting at 57th Street in [[New York City]] on July 28, 1917. The event was organized by the [[NAACP]], church, and community leaders to protest violence directed towards African Americans, such as recent lynchings in [[Lynching of Jesse Washington|Waco]] and [[Lynching of Ell Persons|Memphis]]. The parade was precipitated by the [[East St. Louis riots]] in May and July 1917 where at least 40 black people were killed by white mobs, in part touched off by a labor dispute where blacks were used for [[strike breaking]].<ref name="HarlemRennaissanceKY">{{cite book |date=2004 |title=Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance: K–Y |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&pg=PA752&dq=1917+Silent+Parade&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiGu7Koo6zVAhUCLmMKHdDEBmYQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=1917%20Silent%20Parade&f=false |publisher=Routledge |page=752 |isbn=157958389X }}</ref><ref name=Smithsonian>{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/east-st-louis-race-riot-left-dozens-dead-devastating-community-on-the-rise-180963885/ |title=The East St. Louis Race Riot Left Dozens Dead, Devastating a Community on the Rise |date=June 30, 2017|website=Smithsonian.com |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |access-date=July 28, 2017}}</ref>

== East St. Louis riots ==
{{Main|East St. Louis riots}}

Prior to May of 1917, there began [[Great_Migration_(African_American)|a migration of blacks]] fleeing threats to life and liberty in [[The Southern States (of the U.S.A.)|the South]]. Tensions in [[East St. Louis, Illinois]], were brewing between white and black workers. Many black workers had found work in the local industry. In Spring 1917, the mostly white workers of the Aluminum Ore Company voted for a [[strike action|labor strike]] and the Company recruited hundreds of black workers to replace them.<ref name=Smithsonian/> The situation exploded after rumors of black men and white women fraternizing began to circulate.<ref name="Rudwick">Rudwick, ''Race Riot at East St. Louis,'' 1964.</ref><ref>Leonard, "E. St. Louis Riot", ''St. Louis Post-Dispatch'', January 13, 2004.</ref> Thousands of white men descended on East St. Louis and began attacking African Americans. They destroyed buildings and beat people. The rioting died down, only to rise with vigor again several weeks later. After an incident in which a police officer was shot by black residents of the city, thousands of whites marched and rioted in the city again. The ''[[Encyclopedia_of_the_Harlem_Renaissance|Encyclopedia of the Harlem Rennaissance]]'' states that "Eyewitnesses likened the mob to a manhunt, describing how rioters sought out blacks to beat, mutilate, stab, shoot, hang, and burn."<ref name="HarlemRennaissanceKY" />

The brutality of the attacks by mobs of white people and the refusal by the authorities to protect innocent lives contributed to the responsive measures taken by some African Americans in St. Louis and the nation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iSAjTDHiC4MC&printsec=copyright&dq=The+Horror+of+the+East+St.+Louis+Massacre.&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=Garvey%20East%20St.%20Louis%20Massacre&f=false|title=Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-century America|last=James|first=Winston|date=1998|publisher=Verso|year=|isbn=9781859841402|location=|pages=94-96|language=en}}</ref> [[Marcus Garvey]] declared in a speech that the riot was "one of the bloodiest outrages against mankind" and a "wholesale massacre of our people", insisting that "This is no time for fine words, but a time to lift one's voice against the savagery of a people who claim to be the dispensers of democracy."<ref>Herbert Shapiro, ''White Violence and Black Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery'', University of Massachusetts Press, 1988, p. 163.</ref><ref name="Marcus Garvey Speech, 8 Jul 1917">[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/garvey/filmmore/ps_riots.html "Speech by Marcus Garvey, July 8, 1917"]. Excerpts from [[Robert A. Hill (Jamaican historian)|Robert A. Hill]], ed. ''The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers'', Volume I, 1826 – August 1919. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983, accessed 1 February 2009, PBS, ''American Experience''.</ref> After the riots, many black people felt that there was little "possibility of the United States ever permitting black people to enjoy full citizenship, equal rights and dignity."<ref name=":3" />

Writers and civil rights activists, [[W. E. B. Du Bois|W.E.B DuBois]] and [[Martha Gruening]] visited the city after the riot on July 2 in order to speak to witnesses and survivors.<ref name=":9" /> They wrote an essay describing the riots in "gruesome detail" for ''[[The Crisis]]'', an NAACP publication.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=http://time.com/4828991/east-saint-louis-riots-1917/|title=The Forgotten March That Started the National Civil Rights Movement Took Place 100 Years Ago|last=Waxman|first=Olivia B.|website=Time|access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref><ref name="CrisisMagSept1917MESL">{{Cite journal|last=|first=|first2=|date=September 1917|title=The Massacre of East St. Louis|url=http://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1292426769648500.pdf|journal=The Crisis|volume=14|issue=5|pages=219-238|via=}}</ref>

==Planning a response==
[[File:Negroes' Protest a Silent Parade 1917.webm|thumb|350px|''Negroes' Protest a Silent Parade 1917'', [[Universal Newsreel|Universal Animated Weekly]], [[newsreel]]]]
[[File:1917 Silent Parade large sharp E.jpg|alt=Children in the silent parade.|thumb|Children in the silent parade.|350x350px]]
[[James Weldon Johnson]], the Field Secretary of the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP),<ref>{{cite journal|title=Opening Credits|journal=The Crisis|url=http://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1292425234476625.pdf|date=June 1917|volume=14|issue=2|page=1|accessdate=2 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Opening Credits|journal=The Crisis|url=http://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1292426769648500.pdf|date=September 1917|volume=14|issue=5|page=1|accessdate=2 August 2017}}</ref> worked with a group of influential community leaders at the [[St. Philip's Episcopal Church (Manhattan)|St. Philip's Church]] in New York to decide how to protest the riots.<ref name="findingCharitysFolks">{{cite web|last1=Milward|first1=Jessica|title=Finding Charity's Folks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgboCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70&lpg=PA70&dq=hutchens+chew+bishop+obituary&source=bl&ots=AZjMKz2rKQ&sig=pPytNlH-rwaatZBDzMf6u2bugbA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjj17uFqbLVAhXhlVQKHVhZB8IQ6AEIQTAH#v=onepage&q=hutchens%20chew%20bishop%20obituary&f=false|website=Google Books|accessdate=31 July 2017}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.blackpast.org/aah/naacp-silent-protest-parade-new-york-city-1917|title=NAACP Silent Protest Parade, New York City (1917)|last=Newman|first=Alexis|date=|website=The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed|language=en|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> The idea of a silent protest had first been suggested in a 1916 NAACP Conference by [[Oswald Garrison Villard]].<ref name=":0" /> Black women in New York had also participated in earlier silent parades with white women, like the June 1917 silent parade in support of the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12696455/|title=Colored Women Take Part in "Silent Parde" on Fifth Avenue for Red Cross|last=|first=|date=28 June 1917|work=The New York Age|access-date=28 July 2017|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Villard's mother, [[Fanny Garrison Villard]], had organized a silent march for suffragettes in New York in 1913.<ref name=":3">{{cite book|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/9151|title=Race, War, and Surveillance: African Americans and the United States Government during World War I|last=Ellis|first=Mark|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-253-10932-3 |location=Bloomington, Indiana|pages=43|subscription=yes |via=Project MUSE}}</ref> However, for this protest, organizers felt that it was important that only black people participate because they were the main victims of the recent violence.<ref name=":0" />

Two prominent members of the local clergy were tapped to serve as the executives for the parade. [[Hutchens Chews Bishop|Rev. Dr. Hutchens C. Bishop]], rector of the city's oldest Black [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal]] parish, and [[Charles D Martin|Rev. Dr. Charles D. Martin]], founder of the Fourth [[Moravian Church in North America|Moravian Church]], respectively, served as the President, and Secretary for the parade.<ref name="NatlHumanitiesSilentProtestPDF" /> With "righteous indignation", Dr. Martin wrote the call to action entitled simply "Why We March". It laid out the rationale for the protest, and was distributed before<ref name="NatlHumanitiesSilentProtestPDF" /> and during<ref name=":4" /> the parade.

The parade was advertised in ''[[New York Age|The New York Age]]'' where it was described as a "mute but solemn protest against the atrocities and discrimination practiced against the race in various parts of the country."<ref name=":1">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12696534/|title=The Silent Parade proposed to|last=|first=|date=19 July 1917|work=The New York Age|access-date=28 July 2017|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Men, women and children alike were invited to take part. It was hoped that around ten thousand people would be able to participate, and that African Americans in other cities might hold their own parades.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12698371/|title=The Silent Parade|last=|first=|date=26 July 1917|work=The New York Age|access-date=28 July 2017|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> The New York parade was announced ahead of time in other cities as well.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12696673/|title=Negroes to Hold a Silent Parade|last=|first=|date=25 July 1917|work=The Daily Times|access-date=28 July 2017 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12696804/|title=To Have Silent Parade|last=|first=|date=25 July 1917|work=Palladium-Item|access-date=28 July 2017|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12696852/|title=New York Negro to Protest Riots|last=|first=|date=25 July 1917|work=The Oklahoma City Times|access-date=28 July 2017|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>

== Protest in New York ==
In the midst of record heat<ref name="NewYorkAgeAug21917">{{cite web|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12690498/silent_negro_protest1917/|title=Nearly Ten Thousand Take Part In Big Silent Protest Parade Down Fifth Avenue|last=Walton|first=Lester A.|date=Aug 2, 1917|website=New York Age|publisher=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=July 28, 2017|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> in [[New York City]] on July 28, an estimated 8,000 to 15,000 African Americans<ref name="NYTimesJuly291917">{{cite web |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9A05E7DD103BE03ABC4151DFB166838C609EDE |title=NEGROES IN PROTEST MARCH IN FIFTH AV.; 8,000 Men, Women, and Children Demand That Discrimination and Oppression End. TELL WOES ON BANNERS Parade in Silence While Thousands of Their Race Look On with Never a Cheer. |date=July 29, 1917 |website=The New York Times |publisher=The New York Times |access-date=July 28, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7389461/silent_parade/|title=15,000 Negroes in Anti-Riot Parade|last=|first=|date=29 July 1917|work=New York Herald|access-date=28 July 2017|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> marched in silent protest to the lynchings, as in [[Lynching of Jesse Washington|Waco]], [[Lynching of Ell Persons|Memphis]], and especially the East St. Louis riots. The march began at 57th Street, down Fifth Avenue, to its end at 23rd Street.<ref name="NewYorkAgeAug21917"/> Protesters carried signs that highlighted their discontent. Some signs and banners appealed directly to President [[Woodrow Wilson]].<ref name=":3" /> A mounted police escort led the parade. Women and children were next, dressed in white. They were followed by the men, dressed in black.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="HarlemRennaissanceKY" /> People of all races looked on from both sides of Fifth Avenue. ''The New York Age'' estimated that "fully fifteen thousand Negroes, who should have taken an active part, looked on."<ref name="NewYorkAgeAug21917" /> Black [[Scout (Scouting)|boy scouts]] handed out fliers describing why they were marching.<ref name=":4" /> During the parade, white people stopped to listen to black people explain the reasons for the march and other white bystanders expressed support and sympathy.<ref name="NewYorkAgeAug21917" /> The parade marked the first large black-only protest parade in New York.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.boweryboyshistory.com/2017/07/listening-silent-parade-1917-forgotten-civil-rights-march.html|title=Listening to the Silent Parade of 1917: The Forgotten Civil Rights March|last=|first=|date=27 July 2017|website=The Bowery Boys: New York City History|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref>

''[[The New York Times]]'' described it the following day<ref name="NYTimesJuly291917" />: {{Quote|text=To the beat of muffled drums 8,000 negro men, women and children marched down Fifth Avenue yesterday in a parade of "silent protest against acts of discrimination and oppression" inflicted upon them in this country, and in other parts of the world. Without a shout or a cheer they made their cause known through many banners which they carried, calling attention to "[[Jim Crow]]ism," segregation, disenfranchisement, and the riots of Waco, Memphis, and East St. Louis. | Author=New York Times}}

Media coverage of the march helped to counter the [[dehumanization]] of black people in the United States.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/52068|title=Black Movements: Performance and Cultural Politics|last=Colbert|first=Soyica Diggs|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=2017|isbn=9780813588544|location=New Brunswick|pages=145-146|subscription=yes|via=Project MUSE}}</ref> The parade and its coverage helped depict the NAACP as a "well-organized and mannerly group" and also helped increase its visibility both among white and black people alike.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/16613|title=Invisible Activists: Women of the Louisiana NAACP and the Struggle for Civil Rights, 1915–1945|last=Sartain|first=Lee|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=2007|isbn=9780807135761|location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana|pages=20|subscription=yes|via=Project MUSE}}</ref>

Marchers hoped to influence Democratic President Wilson to carry through on his election promises to African American voters to implement anti-lynching legislation and promote Black causes. Four days after the silent parade, black leaders involved in the protest, including [[Madam C. J. Walker|Madame C.J. Walker]], went to Washington D.C. for a planned appointment with the president.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5Y5Kk12xkkC&lpg=PA78&dq=%22silent%20march%22%201917&pg=PA80#v=onepage&q=%22silent%20march%22%201917&f=false|title=Madam C.J. Walker: Entrepreneur and Millionaire|last=Stille|first=Darlene R.|publisher=Compass Point Books|year=2007|isbn=9780756518837|location=Minneapolis, Minnesota|pages=78-80}}</ref> The appointment was not kept, as the group of leaders were told that Wilson had "another appointment."<ref name=":8" /> They left their [[petition]] for Wilson, which reminded him of African Americans serving in [[World War I]] and urged him to prevent riots and lynchings in the future.<ref name=":8" /> Wilson did not do so and repudiated his promises. Federal discrimination against African Americans increased during Wilson's presidency.<ref name="auto">{{cite encyclopedia |last=King |encyclopedia=W. E. B. Du Bois: An Encyclopedia |isbn=0-313-29665-0 |first=William |publisher=Greenwood Press |title=Silent Protest Against Lynching |location=Westport, Connecticut |pages=191 |date=2001}}</ref>

==Organizers and leadership==
While the parade was put on under the banner of the Harlem branch of the [[NAACP]], a who's who of the Church and business community helped plan the event. The issue of the NAACP ''The Crisis'' magazine which described the parade quotes the ''New York World'' this way:<ref name="CrisisMagSept1917NSP">{{cite journal|date=September 1917|title=The Negro Silent Parade|url=http://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1292426769648500.pdf|journal=The Crisis|volume=14|issue=5|pages=241–244}}</ref> {{Quote|text=The [[Hutchens_Chew_Bishop|Rev. Dr. H. C. Bishop]] was President of the parade. The [[Charles_D_Martin|Rev. Dr. Charles D. Martin]] was Secretary. The [[Frederick_Asbury_Cullen|Rev. F. A. Cullen]] was Vice President. The first Deputy Marshal was [[J. Rosamond Johnson]]. Others were [[Alfred_Bonito_Cosey|A. B. Cosey]], [[Christopher_Payne|C. H. Payne]], formerly a member of Troop A, Ninth Cavalry; the [[Everard_W._Daniel|Rev. E. W. Daniels]] {{sic}}, Allen Wood, [[James_Weldon_Johnson|James W. Johnson]] and [[John_E._Nail|John Nail, Jr]]. [[George_Marshall_Plaskett|Rev. G. M. Plaskett]] and Dr. [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] were in the line of officers.}}

==Legacy==
The parade was the very first protest of its kind in New York, and the second instance of African Americans publicly demonstrating for civil rights.<ref>[[David Levering Lewis]], ''W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography'' (Henry Holt & Company, 2009), p. 352. The first instance was picketing against the 1915 film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]''.</ref> The Silent Parade evoked empathy by [[Jews|Jewish]] people who remembered [[pogrom]]s against them and inspired the media to express support of African Americans in their struggle against lynching and oppression.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3UeAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PA164&dq=%22silent%20parade%22&pg=PA164#v=onepage&q=%22silent%20parade%22&f=false|title=Changing the World: American Progressives in War and Revolution|last=Dawley|first=Alan|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2003|isbn=9781400850594|location=Princeton, New Jersey|pages=164}}</ref>

Another large silent parade took place in [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]] in 1918. On the day before the parade, members of the NAACP spoke at local churches about the parade and the [[Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/49201|title=Black Women’s Christian Activism: Seeking Social Justice in a Northern Suburb|last=Adams|first=Betty Livingston|publisher=NYU Press|year=2016|isbn=9781479880324|location=New York|pages=86|subscription=yes|via=Project MUSE}}</ref> Women from the New Jersey Federation of Colored Women's Clubs (NJFCWC) marched along with men and other women carrying signs.<ref name=":5" /> A large meeting was held in the Newark Armory when the parade was complete.<ref name=":5" /> Another NAACP-sponsored silent march happened on August 26, 1989 to protest recent [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] decisions. The U.S. Park Service estimated over 35,000 people participated.<ref name=":7a">{{cite web |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1989-08-27/news/mn-1753_1_supreme-court-decisions| title=Thousands Stage Silent March on Capitol : Civil Rights Gathering Protests Recent Supreme Court Decisions | publisher=Los Angeles Times | date=1989-08-27 | access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> The march was encouraged by NAACP director, [[Benjamin Hooks|Benjamin L. Hooks]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=21 August 1989|title=NAACP to Hold Silent March in Washington to Protest New Supreme Court Ruling|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=orsDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA6&dq=%22silent%20march%22%201917&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q=%22silent%20march%22%201917&f=false|journal=Jet|volume=76|issue=20|pages=6|via=}}</ref>

In East St. Louis, there was a week-long commemoration of the riots and march in the weeks prior to the 100th anniversary on July 28, 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.bnd.com/news/local/article159379064.html|title=March in memory of race riot victims gives voice to history and healing|last=Johnson|first=Kaley|date=2 July 2017|work=Bellevile News-Democrat|access-date=2017-07-28|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|language=en}}</ref> Around 300 people marched from the [[SIUE]] East St. Louis Higher Learning Center to the [[Eads Bridge]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite news|url=http://www.stlamerican.com/news/local_news/esl-commemorated-th-anniversary-of-unparalleled-racial-terror/article_3fd5d24c-61e0-11e7-ba6b-d76f6593c28c.html|title=ESL commemorated 100th anniversary of unparalleled racial terror|last=Vaughn|first=Kenya|date=6 July 2017|work=St. Louis American|access-date=2017-07-28|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|language=en}}</ref> Everyone marched in silence, with many women in white and men wearing black suits. Those who couldn't walk followed by car.<ref name=":6" />

On the 100th anniversary, [[Google]] commemorated the parade in a [[Google Doodle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://time.com/4877904/google-doodle-100th-anniversary-silent-parade/|title=Google Doodle Commemorates 100th Anniversary of the Silent Parade|last=Samuelson|first=Kate|date=28 July 2017|website=Time|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> Many people in 2017 expressed online that they first learned about the Silent Parade through the day's Google Doodle.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://atlantablackstar.com/2017/07/29/many-learn-of-silentparade-for-first-time-after-google-honors-iconic-civil-rights-march/|title=Many Learn of #SilentParade For First Time After Google Honors Iconic Civil Rights March|last=Kenney|first=Tanasia|date=2017-07-29|website=Atlanta Black Star|access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref>

A group of artists, along with the NAACP, planned a re-enactment of the silent march in New York for the evening on July 28, 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://theartnewspaper.com/news/arts-group-to-restage-historic-civil-rights-protest-in-new-york/|title=Arts group to restage historic civil rights protest in New York|last=Angeleti|first=Gabriella|date=28 July 2017|work=The Art Newspaper|access-date=28 July 2017|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=}}</ref> The event, with around 100 people and many participants wearing white, was not able to march down Fifth Avenue because the city would not grant access due to [[Trump Tower]] being located there.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jul/29/naacp-silent-parade-100th-anniversary-march-new-york-city|title=Activists marking 100th anniversary of NAACP's silent parade see scary parallels|last=Lartey|first=Jamiles|date=2017-07-29|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-07-29|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The commemoration took place on Sixth Avenue instead, and the group held up portraits of contemporary victims of violence by both police and vigilantes in the United States.<ref name=":10" />

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons|Category:1917_Silent_Parade| Silent Parade}}

* [http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/about/blogs/african-american-studies-beinecke-library-yale-collection-american-literature/2017/07/26 "Centennial of the 1917 Negro Silent Protest Parade: Marching Mission to Petition Congress for Progress"], by Dante Haughton, (Nancy Kuhl), Yale University Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library website, 26 July 2017.
* [http://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1292426769648500.pdf The Crisis (NAACP Magazine) September 1917] with articles on ''The Massacre of East St. Louis'' and ''The Negro Silent Protest Parade, New York City''.

[[Category:Civil rights protests in the United States]]
[[Category:Protest marches in New York City]]
[[Category:African-American history in New York City]]
[[Category:African-American history between emancipation and the Civil Rights Movement]]
[[Category:History of African-American civil rights]]
[[Category:Racially motivated violence against African Americans]]
[[Category:Lynching in the United States]]
[[Category:1917 in New York (state)]]
[[Category:United States home front during World War I]]
[[Category:July 1917 events]]

Silent Parade

2017-08-19T19:53:05Z

Jprg1966: /* Planning a Response */

{{Infobox civil conflict
| title = Silent Parade
| partof =
| image = 1917 Silent Parade men H.tiff
| caption = The 1917 Silent Parade in New York
| date = July 28, 1917
| place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[United States]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|40.762960|-73.973946}}
| causes = [[Black people]] deaths during the [[East St. Louis riots]]
| goals = To protest murders, [[lynching|lynchings]], and other anti-Black violence; to promote anti-lynching legislation, and promote Black causes
| methods = Parade / public demonstration
| status =
| result = [[Woodrow Wilson]] did not implement anti-lynching legislation
| side1 =
| side2 =
| side3 =
| leadfigures1 =
| leadfigures2 =
| leadfigures3 =
| howmany1 =
| howmany2 =
| howmany3 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| casualties3 =
| fatalities =
| injuries =
| arrests =
| detentions =
| charged =
| fined =
| casualties_label =
| notes =
| sidebox =
}}

The '''Negro Silent Protest Parade'''<ref name="NatlHumanitiesSilentProtestPDF">{{cite web |url=https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/maai2/forward/text4/silentprotest.pdf |title=The NEGRO SILENT PROTEST PARADE organized by the NAACP Fifth Ave., New York City July 28, 1917 |date=2014 |website=National Humanities Center, Research Triangle Park, NC |publisher=National Humanities Center |access-date=July 28, 2017}} </ref> was a [[silent protest|silent march]] of about 10,000 [[African American]]s along Fifth Avenue starting at 57th Street in [[New York City]] on July 28, 1917. The event was organized by the [[NAACP]], church, and community leaders to protest violence directed towards African Americans, such as recent lynchings in [[Lynching of Jesse Washington|Waco]] and [[Lynching of Ell Persons|Memphis]]. The parade was precipitated by the [[East St. Louis riots]] in May and July 1917 where at least 40 black people were killed by white mobs, in part touched off by a labor dispute where blacks were used for [[strike breaking]].<ref name="HarlemRennaissanceKY">{{cite book |date=2004 |title=Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance: K–Y |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&pg=PA752&dq=1917+Silent+Parade&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiGu7Koo6zVAhUCLmMKHdDEBmYQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=1917%20Silent%20Parade&f=false |publisher=Routledge |page=752 |isbn=157958389X }}</ref><ref name=Smithsonian>{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/east-st-louis-race-riot-left-dozens-dead-devastating-community-on-the-rise-180963885/ |title=The East St. Louis Race Riot Left Dozens Dead, Devastating a Community on the Rise |date=June 30, 2017|website=Smithsonian.com |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |access-date=July 28, 2017}}</ref>

== East St. Louis riots ==
{{Main|East St. Louis riots}}

Prior to May of 1917, there began [[Great_Migration_(African_American)|a migration of blacks]] fleeing threats to life and liberty in [[The Southern States (of the U.S.A.)|the South]]. Tensions in [[East St. Louis, Illinois]], were brewing between white and black workers. Many black workers had found work in the local industry. In Spring 1917, the mostly white workers of the Aluminum Ore Company voted for a [[strike action|labor strike]] and the Company recruited hundreds of black workers to replace them.<ref name=Smithsonian/> The situation exploded after rumors of black men and white women fraternizing began to circulate.<ref name="Rudwick">Rudwick, ''Race Riot at East St. Louis,'' 1964.</ref><ref>Leonard, "E. St. Louis Riot", ''St. Louis Post-Dispatch'', January 13, 2004.</ref> Thousands of white men descended on East St. Louis and began attacking African Americans. They destroyed buildings and beat people. The rioting died down, only to rise with vigor again several weeks later. After an incident in which a police officer was shot by black residents of the city, thousands of whites marched and rioted in the city again. The ''[[Encyclopedia_of_the_Harlem_Renaissance|Encyclopedia of the Harlem Rennaissance]]'' states that "Eyewitnesses likened the mob to a manhunt, describing how rioters sought out blacks to beat, mutilate, stab, shoot, hang, and burn."<ref name="HarlemRennaissanceKY" />

The brutality of the attacks by mobs of white people and the refusal by the authorities to protect innocent lives contributed to the responsive measures taken by some African Americans in St. Louis and the nation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iSAjTDHiC4MC&printsec=copyright&dq=The+Horror+of+the+East+St.+Louis+Massacre.&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=Garvey%20East%20St.%20Louis%20Massacre&f=false|title=Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-century America|last=James|first=Winston|date=1998|publisher=Verso|year=|isbn=9781859841402|location=|pages=94-96|language=en}}</ref> [[Marcus Garvey]] declared in a speech that the riot was "one of the bloodiest outrages against mankind" and a "wholesale massacre of our people", insisting that "This is no time for fine words, but a time to lift one's voice against the savagery of a people who claim to be the dispensers of democracy."<ref>Herbert Shapiro, ''White Violence and Black Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery'', University of Massachusetts Press, 1988, p. 163.</ref><ref name="Marcus Garvey Speech, 8 Jul 1917">[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/garvey/filmmore/ps_riots.html "Speech by Marcus Garvey, July 8, 1917"]. Excerpts from [[Robert A. Hill (Jamaican historian)|Robert A. Hill]], ed. ''The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers'', Volume I, 1826 – August 1919. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983, accessed 1 February 2009, PBS, ''American Experience''.</ref> After the riots, many black people felt that there was little "possibility of the United States ever permitting black people to enjoy full citizenship, equal rights and dignity."<ref name=":3" />

Writers and civil rights activists, [[W. E. B. Du Bois|W.E.B DuBois]] and [[Martha Gruening]] visited the city after the riot on July 2 in order to speak to witnesses and survivors.<ref name=":9" /> They wrote an essay describing the riots in "gruesome detail" for ''[[The Crisis]]'', an NAACP publication.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=http://time.com/4828991/east-saint-louis-riots-1917/|title=The Forgotten March That Started the National Civil Rights Movement Took Place 100 Years Ago|last=Waxman|first=Olivia B.|website=Time|access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref><ref name="CrisisMagSept1917MESL">{{Cite journal|last=|first=|first2=|date=September 1917|title=The Massacre of East St. Louis|url=http://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1292426769648500.pdf|journal=The Crisis|volume=14|issue=5|pages=219-238|via=}}</ref>

==Planning a response==
[[File:Negroes' Protest a Silent Parade 1917.webm|thumb|350px|''Negroes' Protest a Silent Parade 1917'', [[Universal Newsreel|Universal Animated Weekly]], [[newsreel]]]]
[[File:1917 Silent Parade large sharp E.jpg|alt=Children in the silent parade.|thumb|Children in the silent parade.|350x350px]]
[[James Weldon Johnson]], the Field Secretary of the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP),<ref>{{cite journal|title=Opening Credits|journal=The Crisis|url=http://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1292425234476625.pdf|date=June 1917|volume=14|issue=2|page=1|accessdate=2 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Opening Credits|journal=The Crisis|url=http://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1292426769648500.pdf|date=September 1917|volume=14|issue=5|page=1|accessdate=2 August 2017}}</ref> worked with a group of influential community leaders at the [[St. Philip's Episcopal Church (Manhattan)|St. Philip's Church]] in New York to decide how to protest the riots.<ref name="findingCharitysFolks">{{cite web|last1=Milward|first1=Jessica|title=Finding Charity's Folks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgboCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70&lpg=PA70&dq=hutchens+chew+bishop+obituary&source=bl&ots=AZjMKz2rKQ&sig=pPytNlH-rwaatZBDzMf6u2bugbA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjj17uFqbLVAhXhlVQKHVhZB8IQ6AEIQTAH#v=onepage&q=hutchens%20chew%20bishop%20obituary&f=false|website=Google Books|accessdate=31 July 2017}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.blackpast.org/aah/naacp-silent-protest-parade-new-york-city-1917|title=NAACP Silent Protest Parade, New York City (1917)|last=Newman|first=Alexis|date=|website=The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed|language=en|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> The idea of a silent protest had first been suggested in a 1916 NAACP Conference by [[Oswald Garrison Villard]].<ref name=":0" /> Black women in New York had also participated in earlier silent parades with white women, like the June 1917 silent parade in support of the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12696455/|title=Colored Women Take Part in "Silent Parde" on Fifth Avenue for Red Cross|last=|first=|date=28 June 1917|work=The New York Age|access-date=28 July 2017|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Villard's mother, [[Fanny Garrison Villard]], had organized a silent march for suffragettes in New York in 1913.<ref name=":3">{{cite book|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/9151|title=Race, War, and Surveillance: African Americans and the United States Government during World War I|last=Ellis|first=Mark|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-253-10932-3 |location=Bloomington, Indiana|pages=43|subscription=yes |via=Project MUSE}}</ref> However, for this protest, organizers felt that it was important that only black people participate because they were the main victims of the recent violence.<ref name=":0" />

Two prominent members of the local clergy were tapped to serve as the executives for the parade. [[Hutchens Chews Bishop|Rev. Dr. Hutchens C. Bishop]], rector of the city's oldest Black [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal]] parish, and [[Charles D Martin|Rev. Dr. Charles D. Martin]], founder of the Fourth [[Moravian Church in North America|Moravian Church]], respectively, served as the President, and Secretary for the parade.<ref name="NatlHumanitiesSilentProtestPDF" /> With "righteous indignation", Dr. Martin wrote the call to action entitled simply "Why We March". It laid out the rationale for the protest, and was distributed before<ref name="NatlHumanitiesSilentProtestPDF" /> and during<ref name=":4" /> the parade.

The parade was advertised in ''[[New York Age|The New York Age]]'' where it was described as a "mute but solemn protest against the atrocities and discrimination practiced against the race in various parts of the country."<ref name=":1">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12696534/|title=The Silent Parade proposed to|last=|first=|date=19 July 1917|work=The New York Age|access-date=28 July 2017|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Men, women and children alike were invited to take part. It was hoped that around ten thousand people would be able to participate, and that African Americans in other cities might hold their own parades.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12698371/|title=The Silent Parade|last=|first=|date=26 July 1917|work=The New York Age|access-date=28 July 2017|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> The New York parade was announced ahead of time in other cities as well.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12696673/|title=Negroes to Hold a Silent Parade|last=|first=|date=25 July 1917|work=The Daily Times|access-date=28 July 2017 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12696804/|title=To Have Silent Parade|last=|first=|date=25 July 1917|work=Palladium-Item|access-date=28 July 2017|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12696852/|title=New York Negro to Protest Riots|last=|first=|date=25 July 1917|work=The Oklahoma City Times|access-date=28 July 2017|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>

== Protest in New York ==
In the midst of record heat<ref name="NewYorkAgeAug21917">{{cite web|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/12690498/silent_negro_protest1917/|title=Nearly Ten Thousand Take Part In Big Silent Protest Parade Down Fifth Avenue|last=Walton|first=Lester A.|date=Aug 2, 1917|website=New York Age|publisher=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=July 28, 2017|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> in [[New York City]] on July 28, an estimated 8,000 to 15,000 African Americans<ref name="NYTimesJuly291917">{{cite web |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9A05E7DD103BE03ABC4151DFB166838C609EDE |title=NEGROES IN PROTEST MARCH IN FIFTH AV.; 8,000 Men, Women, and Children Demand That Discrimination and Oppression End. TELL WOES ON BANNERS Parade in Silence While Thousands of Their Race Look On with Never a Cheer. |date=July 29, 1917 |website=The New York Times |publisher=The New York Times |access-date=July 28, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/7389461/silent_parade/|title=15,000 Negroes in Anti-Riot Parade|last=|first=|date=29 July 1917|work=New York Herald|access-date=28 July 2017|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> marched in silent protest to the lynchings, as in [[Lynching of Jesse Washington|Waco]], [[Lynching of Ell Persons|Memphis]], and especially the East St. Louis riots. The march began at 57th Street, down Fifth Avenue, to its end at 23rd Street.<ref name="NewYorkAgeAug21917"/> Protesters carried signs that highlighted their discontent. Some signs and banners appealed directly to President [[Woodrow Wilson]].<ref name=":3" /> A mounted police escort led the parade. Women and children were next, dressed in white. They were followed by the men, dressed in black.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="HarlemRennaissanceKY" /> People of all races looked on from both sides of Fifth Avenue. ''The New York Age'' estimated that "fully fifteen thousand Negroes, who should have taken an active part, looked on."<ref name="NewYorkAgeAug21917" /> Black [[Scout (Scouting)|boy scouts]] handed out fliers describing why they were marching.<ref name=":4" /> During the parade, white people stopped to listen to black people explain the reasons for the march and other white bystanders expressed support and sympathy.<ref name="NewYorkAgeAug21917" /> The parade marked the first large black-only protest parade in New York.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.boweryboyshistory.com/2017/07/listening-silent-parade-1917-forgotten-civil-rights-march.html|title=Listening to the Silent Parade of 1917: The Forgotten Civil Rights March|last=|first=|date=27 July 2017|website=The Bowery Boys: New York City History|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref>

''[[The New York Times]]'' described it the following day<ref name="NYTimesJuly291917" />: {{Quote|text=To the beat of muffled drums 8,000 negro men, women and children marched down Fifth Avenue yesterday in a parade of "silent protest against acts of discrimination and oppression" inflicted upon them in this country, and in other parts of the world. Without a shout or a cheer they made their cause known through many banners which they carried, calling attention to "[[Jim Crow]]ism," segregation, disenfranchisement, and the riots of Waco, Memphis, and East St. Louis. | Author=New York Times}}

Media coverage of the march helped to counter the [[dehumanization]] of black people in the United States.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/52068|title=Black Movements: Performance and Cultural Politics|last=Colbert|first=Soyica Diggs|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=2017|isbn=9780813588544|location=New Brunswick|pages=145-146|subscription=yes|via=Project MUSE}}</ref> The parade and its coverage helped depict the NAACP as a "well-organized and mannerly group" and also helped increase its visibility both among white and black people alike.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/16613|title=Invisible Activists: Women of the Louisiana NAACP and the Struggle for Civil Rights, 1915–1945|last=Sartain|first=Lee|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=2007|isbn=9780807135761|location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana|pages=20|subscription=yes|via=Project MUSE}}</ref>

Marchers hoped to influence Democratic President Wilson to carry through on his election promises to African American voters to implement anti-lynching legislation and promote Black causes. Four days after the silent parade, black leaders involved in the protest, including [[Madam C. J. Walker|Madame C.J. Walker]], went to Washington D.C. for a planned appointment with the president.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5Y5Kk12xkkC&lpg=PA78&dq=%22silent%20march%22%201917&pg=PA80#v=onepage&q=%22silent%20march%22%201917&f=false|title=Madam C.J. Walker: Entrepreneur and Millionaire|last=Stille|first=Darlene R.|publisher=Compass Point Books|year=2007|isbn=9780756518837|location=Minneapolis, Minnesota|pages=78-80}}</ref> The appointment was not kept, as the group of leaders were told that Wilson had "another appointment."<ref name=":8" /> They left their [[petition]] for Wilson, which reminded him of African Americans serving in [[World War I]] and urged him to prevent riots and lynchings in the future.<ref name=":8" /> Wilson did not do so and repudiated his promises. Federal discrimination against African Americans increased during Wilson's presidency.<ref name="auto">{{cite encyclopedia |last=King |encyclopedia=W. E. B. Du Bois: An Encyclopedia |isbn=0-313-29665-0 |first=William |publisher=Greenwood Press |title=Silent Protest Against Lynching |location=Westport, Connecticut |pages=191 |date=2001}}</ref>

==Organizers and Leadership==
While the parade was put on under the banner of the Harlem branch of the [[NAACP]], a who's who of the Church and business community helped plan the event. The issue of the NAACP ''The Crisis'' magazine which described the parade quotes the ''New York World'' this way:<ref name="CrisisMagSept1917NSP">{{Cite journal|last=|first=|first2=|date=September 1917|title=The Negro Silent Parade|url=http://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1292426769648500.pdf|journal=The Crisis|volume=14|issue=5|pages=241-244|via=}}</ref> {{Quote|text=The [[Hutchens_Chew_Bishop|Rev. Dr. H. C. Bishop]] was President of the parade. The [[Charles_D_Martin|Rev. Dr. Charles D. Martin]] was Secretary. The [[Frederick_Asbury_Cullen|Rev. F. A. Cullen]] was Vice President. The first Deputy Marshal was [[J. Rosamond Johnson]]. Others were [[Alfred_Bonito_Cosey|A. B. Cosey]], [[Christopher_Payne|C. H. Payne]], formerly a member of Troop A, Ninth Cavalry; the [[Everard_W._Daniel|Rev. E. W. Daniels]] {{sic}}, Allen Wood, [[James_Weldon_Johnson|James W. Johnson]] and [[John_E._Nail|John Nail, Jr]]. [[George_Marshall_Plaskett|Rev. G. M. Plaskett]] and Dr. [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] were in the line of officers.}}

==Legacy==
The parade was the very first protest of its kind in New York, and the second instance of African Americans publicly demonstrating for civil rights.<ref>[[David Levering Lewis]], ''W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography'' (Henry Holt & Company, 2009), p. 352. The first instance was picketing against the 1915 film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]''.</ref> The Silent Parade evoked empathy by [[Jews|Jewish]] people who remembered [[pogrom]]s against them and inspired the media to express support of African Americans in their struggle against lynching and oppression.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3UeAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PA164&dq=%22silent%20parade%22&pg=PA164#v=onepage&q=%22silent%20parade%22&f=false|title=Changing the World: American Progressives in War and Revolution|last=Dawley|first=Alan|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2003|isbn=9781400850594|location=Princeton, New Jersey|pages=164}}</ref>

Another large silent parade took place in [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]] in 1918. On the day before the parade, members of the NAACP spoke at local churches about the parade and the [[Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/49201|title=Black Women’s Christian Activism: Seeking Social Justice in a Northern Suburb|last=Adams|first=Betty Livingston|publisher=NYU Press|year=2016|isbn=9781479880324|location=New York|pages=86|subscription=yes|via=Project MUSE}}</ref> Women from the New Jersey Federation of Colored Women's Clubs (NJFCWC) marched along with men and other women carrying signs.<ref name=":5" /> A large meeting was held in the Newark Armory when the parade was complete.<ref name=":5" /> Another NAACP-sponsored silent march happened on August 26, 1989 to protest recent [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] decisions. The U.S. Park Service estimated over 35,000 people participated.<ref name=":7a">{{cite web |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1989-08-27/news/mn-1753_1_supreme-court-decisions| title=Thousands Stage Silent March on Capitol : Civil Rights Gathering Protests Recent Supreme Court Decisions | publisher=Los Angeles Times | date=1989-08-27 | access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> The march was encouraged by NAACP director, [[Benjamin Hooks|Benjamin L. Hooks]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=21 August 1989|title=NAACP to Hold Silent March in Washington to Protest New Supreme Court Ruling|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=orsDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA6&dq=%22silent%20march%22%201917&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q=%22silent%20march%22%201917&f=false|journal=Jet|volume=76|issue=20|pages=6|via=}}</ref>

In East St. Louis, there was a week-long commemoration of the riots and march in the weeks prior to the 100th anniversary on July 28, 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.bnd.com/news/local/article159379064.html|title=March in memory of race riot victims gives voice to history and healing|last=Johnson|first=Kaley|date=2 July 2017|work=Bellevile News-Democrat|access-date=2017-07-28|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|language=en}}</ref> Around 300 people marched from the [[SIUE]] East St. Louis Higher Learning Center to the [[Eads Bridge]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite news|url=http://www.stlamerican.com/news/local_news/esl-commemorated-th-anniversary-of-unparalleled-racial-terror/article_3fd5d24c-61e0-11e7-ba6b-d76f6593c28c.html|title=ESL commemorated 100th anniversary of unparalleled racial terror|last=Vaughn|first=Kenya|date=6 July 2017|work=St. Louis American|access-date=2017-07-28|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|language=en}}</ref> Everyone marched in silence, with many women in white and men wearing black suits. Those who couldn't walk followed by car.<ref name=":6" />

On the 100th anniversary, [[Google]] commemorated the parade in a [[Google Doodle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://time.com/4877904/google-doodle-100th-anniversary-silent-parade/|title=Google Doodle Commemorates 100th Anniversary of the Silent Parade|last=Samuelson|first=Kate|date=28 July 2017|website=Time|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2017-07-28}}</ref> Many people in 2017 expressed online that they first learned about the Silent Parade through the day's Google Doodle.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://atlantablackstar.com/2017/07/29/many-learn-of-silentparade-for-first-time-after-google-honors-iconic-civil-rights-march/|title=Many Learn of #SilentParade For First Time After Google Honors Iconic Civil Rights March|last=Kenney|first=Tanasia|date=2017-07-29|website=Atlanta Black Star|access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref>

A group of artists, along with the NAACP, planned a re-enactment of the silent march in New York for the evening on July 28, 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://theartnewspaper.com/news/arts-group-to-restage-historic-civil-rights-protest-in-new-york/|title=Arts group to restage historic civil rights protest in New York|last=Angeleti|first=Gabriella|date=28 July 2017|work=The Art Newspaper|access-date=28 July 2017|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=}}</ref> The event, with around 100 people and many participants wearing white, was not able to march down Fifth Avenue because the city would not grant access due to [[Trump Tower]] being located there.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jul/29/naacp-silent-parade-100th-anniversary-march-new-york-city|title=Activists marking 100th anniversary of NAACP's silent parade see scary parallels|last=Lartey|first=Jamiles|date=2017-07-29|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-07-29|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The commemoration took place on Sixth Avenue instead, and the group held up portraits of contemporary victims of violence by both police and vigilantes in the United States.<ref name=":10" />

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons|Category:1917_Silent_Parade| Silent Parade}}

* [http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/about/blogs/african-american-studies-beinecke-library-yale-collection-american-literature/2017/07/26 "Centennial of the 1917 Negro Silent Protest Parade: Marching Mission to Petition Congress for Progress"], by Dante Haughton, (Nancy Kuhl), Yale University Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library website, 26 July 2017.
* [http://library.brown.edu/pdfs/1292426769648500.pdf The Crisis (NAACP Magazine) September 1917] with articles on ''The Massacre of East St. Louis'' and ''The Negro Silent Protest Parade, New York City''.

[[Category:Civil rights protests in the United States]]
[[Category:Protest marches in New York City]]
[[Category:African-American history in New York City]]
[[Category:African-American history between emancipation and the Civil Rights Movement]]
[[Category:History of African-American civil rights]]
[[Category:Racially motivated violence against African Americans]]
[[Category:Lynching in the United States]]
[[Category:1917 in New York (state)]]
[[Category:United States home front during World War I]]
[[Category:July 1917 events]]

Quincy (Washington)

2017-03-15T14:33:58Z

Jprg1966: /* Geography */

{{for|the winner of the BBC reality show ''Election''|Election (TV series)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Quincy, Washington
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|nickname =
|motto = Where Agriculture Meets Technology Motto: Opportunities Unlimited
|image_skyline = House in Crescent Bar WA.jpg
|imagesize = 300px
|image_caption = House in Crescent Bar resort, near Quincy
|image_flag =
|image_seal =
|image_map = Grant_County_Washington_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Quincy_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250px
|map_caption = Location of Quincy, Washington
|image_map1 =
|mapsize1 =
|map_caption1 =
|subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Washington (state)|Washington]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Washington|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Grant County, Washington|Grant]]
|government_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|title=Welcome to the City of Quincy, "Opportunities Unlimited"!|url=http://quincywashington.us/quincy/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=5&Itemid=27|accessdate=May 14, 2014}}</ref>
|government_type =
|leader_title = Mayor
|leader_name = Jim Hemberry
|leader_title1 = Chief of Police
|leader_name1 = Bob Heimbach
|established_title =
|established_date =
|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes = <ref name ="Gazetteer files"/>
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 13.05
|area_land_km2 = 12.85
|area_water_km2 = 0.21
|area_total_sq_mi = 5.04
|area_land_sq_mi = 4.96
|area_water_sq_mi = 0.08
|population_as_of = [[2010 United States Census|2010]]
|population_est = 7365
|pop_est_as_of = 2015
|pop_est_footnotes = <ref name="2015 Pop Estimate">{{cite web|title=Population Estimates|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2015/SUB-EST2015-3.html|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=June 30, 2016}}</ref>
|population_footnotes = <ref name ="FactFinder"/>
|population_total = 6750
|population_density_km2 = 525.4
|population_density_sq_mi = 1360.9
|timezone = [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific (PST)]]
|utc_offset = -8
|timezone_DST = PDT
|utc_offset_DST = -7
|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m = 397
|elevation_ft = 1302
|coordinates = {{coord|47|14|1|N|119|51|8|W|region:US_type:city|display=inline,title}}
|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 98848
|area_code = [[Area code 509|509]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 53-57115
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 1512590<ref name="GR3">{{cite gnis|id=1512590|name=Quincy}}</ref>
|website = [http://quincywashington.us/ City of Quincy]
}}

'''Quincy''' is a city in [[Grant County, Washington|Grant County]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[United States]]. The population was 6,750 at the [[2010 United States Census|2010 census]].

==History==

===Geologic history===
The [[Missoula Floods]] had their outlet at Trinidad, close to Quincy. [[Glacial erratic]]s carried from as far away as Montana can be found nearby. The area also has an abundance of [[rimrock]].

===Pre-American history===

===Great Northern Railway===
Quincy was founded as a railroad camp during construction of the [[Great Northern Railway (U.S.)|Great Northern Railway]] in 1892, and was incorporated on March 27, 1907. It was named after [[Quincy, Illinois]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epodunk.com/cgi-bin/genInfo.php?locIndex=24964|title=Profile for Quincy, Washington|publisher=[[ePodunk]]|accessdate=May 28, 2010}}</ref>

===Homestead Act===

===Grand Coulee Dam===
The arrival of the water from the Grand Coulee Dam in 1952 changed the town.
*''See also:'' [[Columbia Basin Reclamation Project#History]]

==Geography==
Quincy is located at {{coord|47|14|1|N|119|51|8|W|type:city}} (47.233691, −119.852296).<ref name="GR1">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/gazette.html|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=April 23, 2011|date=February 12, 2011|title=US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990}}</ref>

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of {{convert|5.04|sqmi|sqkm|2}}, of which, {{convert|4.96|sqmi|sqkm|2}} is land and {{convert|0.08|sqmi|sqkm|2}} is water.<ref name="Gazetteer files">{{cite web|title=US Gazetteer files 2010 |url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |accessdate=December 19, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/64vfLAeJ2 |archivedate=January 24, 2012 }}</ref>

==Climate==
Quincy has a [[cold semi-arid climate]] (BSk) according to the [[Köppen climate classification]] system.
<div style="width:75%">
{{Weather box
|location = Quincy
|single line = Y
| Jan record high F = 63
| Feb record high F = 73
| Mar record high F = 78
| Apr record high F = 92
| May record high F = 99
| Jun record high F = 106
| Jul record high F = 109
| Aug record high F = 107
| Sep record high F = 100
| Oct record high F = 89
| Nov record high F = 75
| Dec record high F = 64
| year record high F = 109
| Jan high F = 34.2
| Feb high F = 43
| Mar high F = 54.2
| Apr high F = 63.7
| May high F = 72.5
| Jun high F = 79.3
| Jul high F = 87.5
| Aug high F = 86.1
| Sep high F = 77.8
| Oct high F = 63.2
| Nov high F = 45.7
| Dec high F = 35.7
| year high F = 61.9
| Jan low F = 19.1
| Feb low F = 25.4
| Mar low F = 30.7
| Apr low F = 37.3
| May low F = 45.5
| Jun low F = 52
| Jul low F = 57.2
| Aug low F = 55.9
| Sep low F = 48.1
| Oct low F = 37.3
| Nov low F = 28.5
| Dec low F = 21.6
| year low F = 38.2
| Jan record low F = -29
| Feb record low F = -25
| Mar record low F = 0
| Apr record low F = 14
| May record low F = 23
| Jun record low F = 33
| Jul record low F = 36
| Aug record low F = 37
| Sep record low F = 26
| Oct record low F = 9
| Nov record low F = -15
| Dec record low F = -19
| year record low F = -29
| precipitation colour=green
| Jan precipitation inch = 0.9
| Feb precipitation inch = 0.73
| Mar precipitation inch = 0.61
| Apr precipitation inch = 0.56
| May precipitation inch = 0.67
| Jun precipitation inch = 0.59
| Jul precipitation inch = 0.24
| Aug precipitation inch = 0.27
| Sep precipitation inch = 0.37
| Oct precipitation inch = 0.58
| Nov precipitation inch = 1.1
| Dec precipitation inch = 1.17
| year precipitation inch = 7.78
| Jan precipitation days = 7
| Feb precipitation days = 5
| Mar precipitation days = 5
| Apr precipitation days = 4
| May precipitation days = 4
| Jun precipitation days = 4
| Jul precipitation days = 2
| Aug precipitation days = 2
| Sep precipitation days = 3
| Oct precipitation days = 4
| Nov precipitation days = 7
| Dec precipitation days = 8
| Jan snow inch = 4.8
| Feb snow inch = 1.5
| Mar snow inch = 0.3
| Apr snow inch = 0
| May snow inch = 0
| Jun snow inch = 0
| Jul snow inch = 0
| Aug snow inch = 0
| Sep snow inch = 0
| Oct snow inch = 0
| Nov snow inch = 1.2
| Dec snow inch = 5
| year snow inch = 12.8

|source 1 = <ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?wa6880 |title=QUINCY 1 S, WASHINGTON (456880) |accessdate=November 18, 2015 |publisher=Western Regional Climate Center }}</ref>
|date=November 2015
}}
</div>

==Demographics==
{{US Census population
|1910= 264
|1920= 285
|1930= 266
|1940= 318
|1950= 804
|1960= 3269
|1970= 3237
|1980= 3525
|1990= 3738
|2000= 5044
|2010= 6750
|estyear=2015
|estimate=7365
|estref=<ref name="USCensusEst2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2015/SUB-EST2015.html|title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2015|accessdate=July 2, 2016}}</ref>
|align-fn=center
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html |title=Census of Population and Housing |author=[[United States Census Bureau]] |accessdate=October 2, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6YSasqtfX |archivedate=May 11, 2015 }}</ref> 2015 Estimate<ref name="2015 Pop Estimate"/>
}}

[[File:Quincy Lake 1971.JPG|left|thumb|Fishing, hiking and bird-watching occur at nearby Quincy Lake, a remnant of the temporary Pleistocene lakes that were created by flood waters from glacial [[Lake Missoula]].]]

===2010 census===
As of the [[census]]<ref name ="FactFinder">{{cite web|title=American FactFinder|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=December 19, 2012}}</ref> of 2010, there were 6,750 people, 1,915 households, and 1,541 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was {{convert|1360.9|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|1}}. There were 2,020 housing units at an average density of {{convert|407.3|/sqmi|/km2|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 54.9% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.4% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.9% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.7% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.2% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 40.6% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.4% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 74.3% of the population.

There were 1,915 households of which 55.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.2% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 16.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 9.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 19.5% were non-families. 15.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.51 and the average family size was 3.87.

The median age in the city was 26.2 years. 36.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 11.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.9% were from 25 to 44; 16.6% were from 45 to 64; and 8.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.7% male and 49.3% female.

===2000 census===
As of the [[census]] of 2000, there were 5,044 people, 1,470 households, and 1,176 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 2,252.8 people per square mile (869.4/km²). There were 1,552 housing units at an average density of 693.2 per square mile (267.5/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 75.1% White, 12.3% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.9% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 3.6% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.1% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 5.5% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 2.4% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 12.5% of the population.

There were 1,470 households out of which 50.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.0% were non-families. 17.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.38 and the average family size was 3.79.

In the city, the population was spread out with 36.0% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 28.3% from 25 to 44, 16.1% from 45 to 64, and 9.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 27 years. For every 100 females there were 106.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $32,181, and the median income for a family was $31,847. Males had a median income of $27,813 versus $18,750 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $12,649. About 18.4% of families and 20.9% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 24.5% of those under age 18 and 6.3% of those age 65 or over.

==Activities==
The City of Quincy is located in [[Central Washington]] with close proximity to winter and summer activities. The area offers boating, water skiing, hunting, fishing, snow skiing, and concerts. The [[Gorge Amphitheatre]] brings a variety of people through the Quincy Valley.

Quincy has several parks including an [[aqua park]] with a [[waterslide]] with 2 water fed half tubes, heated pools, and special areas for kids. The park is also home to a large field with a baseball diamond, playground, picnic area, and small skate-park.

Every 2nd Saturday in September, Quincy celebrates Farmer-Consumer Awareness Day. For a month beforehand, the roads leading to town are decorated with signs showing local crops and products made with them. On the day of the celebration, floats created by local schools and farm equipment parade through town. Free agricultural and geology tours are offered, as well as a produce sale, tractor pull, Farm-to-Market fun run, and many other activities.

Quincy celebrated its [[centennial]] in 2007.

Quincy High School won the 2A State Baseball Championship in 1998 and the 1A State Soccer Championship in 2014. In 2005, the Boys Basketball team took second in state. Every year Quincy has an annual Dru Gimlin 3 on 3 basketball tournament.

==Economy==

===Farming===
Quincy has long had an agricultural economy, which was enhanced by irrigation made possible with the [[Grand Coulee Dam]]. Major crops include potatoes, wheat, and timothy.

Orchards and vineyards are also appearing in Quincy. Washington State is a large provider of apples.

===Technology===
Technology companies such as [[Microsoft]], [[Yahoo!]], [[Dell]] and [[Intuit]] have located large [[data center]]s within the Quincy area since 2007.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stewart |first=Ashley |date=November 11, 2015 |title=This tiny town in Central Washington is home to some of the biggest tech companies. Here's why |url=http://www.bizjournals.com/seattle/blog/techflash/2015/11/this-tiny-town-in-central-washington-is-home-to.html |newspaper=[[Puget Sound Business Journal]] |accessdate=November 11, 2015}}</ref> The centers, attracted to the area because of its abundant and cheap [[hydroelectricity]], have been criticized for dodging fines from the [[Grant County Public Utility District]] for overusing electricity and for creating [[air pollution]] through their diesel backup generators.<ref>{{cite news |last=Glanz |first=James |date=September 23, 2012 |title=Data Barns in a Farm Town, Gobbling Power and Flexing Muscle |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/24/technology/data-centers-in-rural-washington-state-gobble-power.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=November 11, 2015}}</ref>

The data centers are incentivized by [[tax credit]]s offered by the state of Washington to stimulate economic development in the city. Two additional [[electrical substation]]s are being built to handle expected demand from current and future companies.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stewart |first=Ashley |date=June 15, 2016 |title=Microsoft's LinkedIn acquisition could have big benefits for a tiny Washington town |url=http://www.bizjournals.com/seattle/blog/techflash/2016/06/microsofts-linkedin-acquisition-could-have-big.html |newspaper=Puget Sound Business Journal |accessdate=June 16, 2016}}</ref>

===Tourism===
Although George is the closest town to [[the Gorge Amphitheatre]], Quincy is the closest town that offers services such as motels and a full grocery store. Quincy sees an uptick in population during concerts.

The semi-arid climate allows Quincy to go for weeks or months without rain during the summer. This makes nearby water recreation such as Crescent Bar a major draw. Quincy is the closest town with services to Crescent Bar.

==Controversy==
The book ''[[Fateful Harvest]]'' is written about Quincy, and the realities of corporations dumping toxic waste onto farmland by relabeling it and [[Fertilizer#Heavy metal accumulation|selling it as fertilizer]].

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite news |last=Burrows |first=Peter |url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_24/b3988087.htm |title=Servers As High As An Elephant's Eye |work=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]] |date=June 12, 2006 |accessdate=January 4, 2013}}
* {{cite news |last=Harden |first=Blaine |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/08/AR2006070800973.html |title=Tech Firms Go Mining for Megawatts |work=The Washington Post |date=July 9, 2006 |accessdate=January 4, 2013}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://quincywashington.us/}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/North_America/United_States/Washington/Localities/Q/Quincy}}

{{Grant County, Washington}}

[[Category:Cities in Grant County, Washington]]
[[Category:Cities in Washington (state)]]

John Leverett

2017-01-18T02:36:12Z

Jprg1966: /* Military command and governorship */

{{good article}}
{{Infobox Governor
| name = John Leverett
| image = JohnLeverettInMilitaryUniform.jpg
|imagesize=200px
|caption=Engraved portrait of Leverett in his military uniform (artist unknown)
| signature = John Leverett (1616-1679) (signature).png
| office = [[List of governors of Acadia|Governor of Acadia]] (military)
| term_start = 1654
| term_end = 1657
| predecessor = [[Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour]]
| successor = Sir [[Thomas Temple]] (as proprietor of [[Nova Scotia]])
| order2 = 19th
| office2 = Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony
| term_start2 = 1673
| term_end2 = 1679
| lieutenant2 =
| predecessor2 = [[Richard Bellingham]]
| successor2 = [[Simon Bradstreet]]
| birth_date = baptized 7 July 1616
| birth_place = [[Boston, Lincolnshire]], England
| death_date = 16 March {{death year and age|df=yes|1679|1616}}
| death_place = [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]]
| party =
| spouse =
| profession =
| religion = [[Puritan]]ism
| allegiance = [[Roundhead|Parliament army]] [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] militia
| serviceyears = 1644–1648 (Parliament army) 1649–1673 (Massachusetts militia)
| rank = Captain (Parliament army) Major-general (Massachusetts militia)
| commands = Massachusetts militia
| battles = [[English Civil War]]
|}}

'''John Leverett''' (baptized 7 July 1616 – 16 March 1678/9<ref name=dates>In the [[Julian calendar]], then in use in England, the year began on March 25. To avoid confusion with dates in the [[Gregorian calendar]], then in use in other parts of Europe, dates between January and March were often written with both years. Dates in this article are in the Julian calendar unless otherwise noted.</ref>) was an English colonial magistrate, merchant, soldier and governor of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]]. Born in England, he came to Massachusetts as a teenager. He was a leading merchant in the colony, and served in its military. In the 1640s he went back to England to fight in the [[English Civil War]].

He was opposed to the strict Puritan religious orthodoxy in the colony. He also believed the colonial government was not within the power of the English crown and government, a politically hardline position that contributed to the eventual revocation of the colonial charter in 1684. His business and military activities were sometimes intermingled, leading some in the colony to view him unfavorably. However, he was popular with his troops, and was repeatedly elected governor of the colony from 1673 until his death in 1679. He oversaw the colonial actions in [[King Philip's War]], and expanded the colony's territories by purchasing land claims in present-day [[Maine]].

==Early life==
John Leverett was baptized 7 July 1616 at [[St Botolph's Church, Boston|St Botolph's Church]] in [[Boston, Lincolnshire]].<ref>Leverett, p. 49</ref> His father, Thomas Leverett, was a close associate of [[John Cotton (Puritan)|John Cotton]], the church's [[Puritan]] pastor, and served as one of the church's elders.<ref>Leverett, p. 23</ref> Nothing is known of his mother, Anne Fisher, beyond that she bore her husband 16 children.<ref>Leverett, p. 24</ref> Of John Leverett's youth nothing is known prior to the family's departure for the [[New World]] in 1633.<ref>Leverett, p. 50</ref> By the early 1630s Leverett's father was an alderman in Boston, and had acquired, in partnership with John Beauchamp of the [[Plymouth Council for New England]], a grant now known as the [[Waldo Patent]] for land in what is now the state of [[Maine]].<ref>Leverett, p. 19</ref> When the family arrived in the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] it settled in the capital, also called [[Boston]]. Leverett married Hannah Hudson in 1639. She bore him a son, Hudson, in 1640, and died in 1643.<ref>Bridgeman, pp. 43–44</ref><ref name=L55>Leverett, p. 55</ref> In 1640 Leverett was made a [[freeman (Colonial)|freeman]].

In 1639 he joined the [[Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company|Artillery Company of Massachusetts]].<ref>Moore (1851), p. 368</ref> The Artillery Company was a focal point in the colony for people who disagreed with the orthodoxy of the colony's Puritan leaders. Many of its leading members, Leverett among them, opposed the colonial crackdowns on religious dissenters.<ref>Breen, p. 5</ref> Its members also engaged in trade. Leverett frequently partnered with Edward Gibbons and Major General [[Robert Sedgwick]] in trading ventures.<ref>Breen, p. 11</ref> He was, for example, part owner with Gibbons of a ship lost off the Virginia coast.<ref name=L56>Leverett, p. 56</ref> The mixture of military leadership and commercial enterprise sometimes led to conflicts of interest. In the 1640s, Gibbons convinced Governor [[John Winthrop]] to allow Massachusetts volunteers to assist French Acadian Governor [[Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour|Charles de la Tour]] in [[Acadian Civil War|his dispute]] with [[Charles de Menou d'Aulnay]]. Gibbons had negotiated exclusive trading privileges with la Tour in exchange for this help,<ref>Breen, 134</ref> and Leverett was also able to secure preferential trading privileges with the French.<ref>Breen, p. 139</ref>

==English Civil War==
In about 1644 Leverett went to England, where he fought in the [[Roundhead|Parliamentary cause]] for [[Oliver Cromwell]] in the [[English Civil War]]. He had a military command in the cavalry of [[Thomas Rainsborough]], where he supposedly served with distinction.<ref>Leverett, p. 57</ref> He returned home in 1645, but may have gone back to England in the following years.<ref>Moore (2007), p. 65</ref> He married Robert Sedgwick's daughter Sarah in 1645. The couple had 12 children, of whom only six survived to adulthood.<ref name=L55/>

Leverett's time in England brought him to a belief in the need for more religious tolerance.<ref name=Breen116>Breen, p. 116</ref> He would pursue the idea politically, often in the face of opposition from the conservative Puritan leadership of Massachusetts that opposed religious views that did not accord with their narrow views.<ref>Breen, pp. 11,116</ref> He specifically opposed the [[Cambridge Platform]] describing New England church orthodoxy, and opposed punishments of nonconforming individuals when he sat as a deputy in the Massachusetts general court (the colonial legislature).<ref name=Breen116/> John Winthrop, in writing about the 1648 synod that adopted the platform, noted that those "who came lately from England" were strongly opposed to its resolutions.<ref>Breen, p. 117</ref>

==Massachusetts politics==
Leverett became active in local politics after becoming a freeman in 1640. In 1642 Leverett and [[Edward Hutchinson (captain)|Edward Hutchinson]] were sent as diplomatic envoys to negotiate with the [[Narragansett people|Narragansett]] chief [[Miantonomoh]] amid concerns that all of the local Indian tribes were conspiring to wage war on the English colonists. Miantonomoh came to Boston and convinced Governor Winthrop that the rumors they had heard were groundless.<ref>Moore (1851), pp. 369–370</ref> Leverett would be called on for diplomatic missions in future administrations as well.<ref name=L56/>

Following his return from England, he resumed his political activities. He was elected as one of Boston's two representatives in the colony's general court in 1651, and served a brief stint as Speaker of the House.<ref name="Leverett, p. 58">Leverett, p. 58</ref> Throughout the 1650s and 1660s he served five terms on the general court.<ref name=Moore370/>

Leverett was a popular leader of the colonial militia, something that resulted in an unusual situation caused by the colony's militia laws. The colony had voted to limit the size of its militia companies, and restricted their officers to hold only one post. In 1652, when Leverett was captain of a [[Suffolk County, Massachusetts|Suffolk County]] company of horse, he was also elected as a captain of one of Boston infantry companies as well as captain of the Artillery Company of Massachusetts.<ref>Breen, p. 92</ref> The colonial magistrates refused to grant him an exemption from the rule, and he was required to give up the Boston post.<ref>Breen, p. 93</ref> He was, apparently, allowed to retain his captaincy of the Artillery Company as the company was exempt from regulations governing the militia.

[[File:JohnEndecottPortrait.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Governor [[John Endecott]]]]
Governor [[John Endecott]] in 1652 sent a survey party to determine the colony's northern boundary, which was specified by the charter to be {{convert|3|mi|km}} north of the [[Merrimack River]]. This survey party discovered (incorrectly) that the northern limit of the Merrimack was near what is now known as [[Lake Winnipesaukee]] in [[New Hampshire]].<ref>Mayo, pp. 221–223</ref> An east-west boundary at this latitude was found to include a number small settlements in what is now southern Maine.<ref>Mayo, pp. 225–226</ref> Endecott sent Leverett as one of several commissioners to negotiate the inclusion of these settlements into the colonial government, which resulted in the eventual formation of [[York County, Massachusetts]].<ref name=Moore370>Moore (1851), p. 370</ref> Leverett became interested in developing more land in Maine as result of this and other official visits, and invested in a significant amount of land there, over and above the lands inherited from his father.<ref>Martin, pp. 106–107</ref>

In 1655 he was formally appointed as the Massachusetts colony's agent in England. It is unclear, given the overlap with his governance in Acadia, when he actually went to England, but he served in this capacity until 1662.<ref name="Leverett, p. 62">Leverett, p. 62</ref> During the 1650s when Cromwell was [[Lord Protector]] the colony benefited from the relationship he had cultivated with Cromwell during the civil war. In particular, Cromwell took no steps to enforce the [[Navigation Acts|1651 Navigation Act]] against the colony's merchants,<ref>Hill, p. 25</ref> and also overlooked complaints about the colony's repressive tactics against religious nonconformists.<ref name="Leverett, p. 62"/> The latter occurred despite Leverett's personal opposition to the colony's extreme stance on religion.<ref name=L63>Leverett, p. 63</ref> A common claim that Leverett was knighted by Charles II<ref>Seen in Moore (1851), p. 373, and other sources</ref> lacks a solid foundation in the documentary record.<ref>''Report of its Heraldic Committee'', pp. 12–15</ref>

==Military rule of Acadia==
In 1651 England and the Netherlands [[First Anglo-Dutch War|went to war]]. Word of this arrived in the New World in 1652,<ref>Klein, p. 92</ref> and rumors flew around the English colonies of New England that the Dutch in [[New Amsterdam]] were conspiring with all of the region's Indians to make war against them.<ref name=K93/> Leverett and Robert Sedgwick both saw a significant benefit for their trading operations if the Dutch could be eliminated as competitors, and lobbied for military action against New Amsterdam, although religious moderates like [[Simon Bradstreet]] were opposed to it.<ref>Breen, pp. 122124</ref> New Amsterdam's [[Director-General of New Netherland|Director-General]] [[Peter Stuyvesant]] invited a delegation from New England colonies to New Amsterdam to discuss the matter. Leverett was one of the commissioners sent in 1653; he took careful note of the colony's defenses while he was there.<ref name=K93>Klein, p. 93</ref> The [[New Haven Colony]] petitioned the [[English Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] government of Oliver Cromwell for assistance against the Dutch threat,<ref>Klein, p. 95</ref> a position supported by Leverett, who went to England with Sedgwick in 1653 to press the colonial case for war.<ref>Breen, p. 130</ref>

[[File:Oliver Cromwell by Robert Walker.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Oliver Cromwell]], with whom Leverett had good relations]]
Cromwell responded by giving Sedgwick a commission as military commander of the New England coast, and sent him and Leverett with several ships and some troops to make war on the Dutch. The fleet was to be augmented by a force of 500 New Englanders under Leverett's command. By the time the New England force was raised in 1654, [[Treaty of Westminster (1654)|peace had been made]] between the English and Dutch. Sedgwick took advantage of his commission to act instead against the French in neighboring [[Acadia]], which was home to [[privateer]]s who preyed on English shipping. He captured the principal Acadian ports of [[Habitation at Port-Royal|Port Royal]] and [[Fort Pentagouet]] in July 1654.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=264|title=Biography of Robert Sedgwick|publisher=Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online|accessdate=2011-03-07|last=Roberts III|first=William I}}</ref> Sedgwick gave military command of the province to Leverett. Leverett governed Nova Scotia for three years, turning command over to Sir [[Thomas Temple]] in May 1657.<ref name=DCB/> During this time he and Sedgwick enforced a virtual trade monopoly on French Acadia for their benefit, leading some in the colony to view Leverett as a predatory opportunist.<ref>Breen, p. 141</ref> Leverett funded much of the cost of the occupation himself, and then petitioned Cromwell's government for reimbursement. Although Cromwell authorized payment, he made it contingent on the colony performing an audit of Leverett's finances, which never took place.<ref>Breen, p. 142</ref> Leverett was consequently still petitioning for compensation after the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] (1660).<ref name=DCB>{{cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=410|title=Biography of John Leverett|publisher=Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online|accessdate=2011-03-07|last=Fergusson|first=C. Bruce}}</ref>

==Military command and governorship==
From 1663 to 1673 he held the rank of major-general of the [[Massachusetts militia]],<ref>Leverett, p. 60</ref> and was repeatedly elected as a deputy to the general court or to the council of assistants.<ref name=L63 /> During this time he oversaw the strengthening of Boston's defenses.<ref>Roberts, p. 202</ref> He was also again sent to the colonial settlements of New Hampshire and southern Maine, where some colonists had objected to Massachusetts rule and arrested colonial officials.<ref name="Leverett, p. 58" />

Following the restoration of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] to the throne, all of England's colonies came under his scrutiny. In 1665 Charles sent four commissioners to Massachusetts. They were instructed to gain the colony's agreement to terms demanded by Charles in a letter he sent to the colonial government in 1662, in which he instructed the colony to adopt more tolerant religious laws, and to enforce the Navigation Acts.<ref>Lucas, p. 98</ref> The arrival of the commissioners was of some concern to the government, and Leverett was placed on a committee to draft a petition to the king demanding the commission's recall. The document they drafted characterized the commissioners as "agents of evil sent to Massachusetts to subvert its charter and destroy its independence."<ref>Lucas, p. 100</ref>

[[File:CaptureOfKingPhillipsFort.jpg|thumb|left|Engraving depicting the capture of the Wampanoag fort at [[Mount Hope (Rhode Island)|Mount Hope]] in 1675 during [[King Philip's War]]]]
Leverett served as deputy governor under governor [[Richard Bellingham]] in 1671–1672, and succeeded to his position after the governor's death.<ref>Moore (1851), p. 371</ref> His tenure as governor was chiefly notable because of [[King Philip's War]], and the rising threats to the colonial charter that culminated in its revocation in 1684. The colony angered the king by purchasing the claims of Sir [[Ferdinando Gorges]] to portions of Maine in 1677, a territory Charles had intended to acquire for his son, [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth|the Duke of Monmouth]].<ref>Hall, p. 42</ref><ref>Moore (1851), p. 372</ref> [[Edward Randolph (colonial administrator)|Edward Randolph]], sent by Charles to report on the New England colonies, reported in 1676 that Leverett believed the colony to be beyond the crown's reach: "He freely declared to me that the ''laws made by your Majesty and your Parliament obligeth them in nothing'' but what consists with the interest of that colony".<ref>Hall, p. 24</ref>

Although Leverett favored religious tolerance, there were still many in the colony who did not. Baptists were able to openly begin worship in Boston during his tenure, but he has also been criticized by Quaker historians for harsh anti-Quaker laws passed in 1677.<ref>Holifield, pp. 193–194</ref> (The Baptists' time in Boston did not last—they were thrown out in 1680 after Simon Bradstreet became governor.)<ref>Holifield, p. 197</ref>

==Death and legacy==
Leverett died in office, reportedly from complications of [[kidney stones]], on 16 March 1678/9, and was interred at the [[King's Chapel Burying Ground]] in Boston.<ref>Leverett, p. 85</ref><ref>Moore (1851), p. 374</ref> His descendants include his grandson [[John Leverett the Younger|John]], the seventh President of [[Harvard College]], and [[Leverett Saltonstall]], a 19th-century governor of [[Massachusetts]].<ref>Leverett, pp. 92, 118</ref> [[Leverett, Massachusetts]] is named for his grandson.<ref>Nason, p. 293</ref>

[[Cotton Mather]] wrote of Leverett that he was "one to whom the affections of the freemen were signalised his quick advances through the lesser stages of honor and office, unto the highest in the country; and one whose courage had been as much recommended by martial actions abroad in his younger years, as his wisdom and justice were now at home in his elder."<ref>Moore, p. 373</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
*{{cite book|last=Breen|first=Louise A|title=Transgressing the Bounds: Subversive Enterprises Among the Puritan Elite in Massachusetts, 1630–1692|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-19-513800-9|oclc=213296589|location=Oxford}}
*{{cite book |title= The Pilgrims of Boston and their Descendants|last=Bridgeman |first=Thomas |coauthors= |year= 1856|publisher=D. Appleton and Company |location=New York |isbn= |page= |pages=43–44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oPQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover |accessdate=29 April 2009 }}
*{{cite book|last=Hall|first=Michael Garibaldi|title=Edward Randolph and the American Colonies|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill, NC|year=1960|oclc=181784}}
*{{cite book|last=Hill|first=Hamilton Andrews|title=The Trade and Commerce of Boston, 1630 to 1890|publisher=Damrell and Upham|year=1895|location=Boston, MA|oclc=7676661|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajUaAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover}}
*{{cite journal|last=Holifield|first=E. Brooks|title=On Toleration in Massachusetts|journal=Church History|jstor=3162706|issue=Volume 38, No. 2|date=June 1969|publisher=American Society of Church History|pages=188–200|volume=38|doi=10.2307/3162706}}
*{{cite book|last=Klein|first=Milton|title=The Empire State: A History of New York|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2006|location=Ithaca, NY|isbn=978-0-8014-8991-4|oclc=65285709}}
*{{cite book|last=Leverett|first=Charles Edward|title=A Memoir Biographical and Genealogical, of Sir John Leverett, Knt., Governor of Massachusetts, 1673–79|publisher=Crosby, Nichols|year=1856|location=Boston, MA|oclc=7387840|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dfgOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
*{{cite journal|last=Lucas|first=Paul|title=Colony or Commonwealth: Massachusetts Bay, 1661–1666|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|date=January 1967|issue=Third Series, Volume 24, No. 1|publisher=Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture|jstor=1920563|pages=88–107|volume=24|doi=10.2307/1920563}}
*{{cite book|last=Martin|first=John Frederick|title=Profits in the Wilderness: Entrepreneurship and the Founding of New England Towns in the Seventeenth Century|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=1991|location=Chapel Hill, NC|isbn=978-0-8078-2001-8|oclc=231347624}}
*{{cite book|last=Mayo|first=Lawrence Shaw|title=John Endecott|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1936|location=Cambridge, MA|oclc=1601746}}
*{{cite book|last=Moore|first=Jacob Bailey|title=Lives of the Governors of New Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay|location=Boston|year=1851|publisher=C. D. Strong|oclc=11362972|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ssDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA367#v=onepage&f=false}}
*{{cite book|last=Moore|first=Susan Hardman|title=Pilgrims: New World Settlers & the Call of Home|year=2007|location=New Haven, CT|isbn=978-0-300-11718-9|oclc=122337947|publisher=Yale University Press}}
*{{cite book|last=Nason|first=Elias|title=A Gazetteer of the State of Massachusetts|publisher=B. B. Russell|year=1874|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TIc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA293#v=onepage&f=false|oclc=1728892|location=Boston, MA}}
*{{cite book|title=Report of its Heraldic Committee on the Subject: Was Gov. Leverett a Knight?|publisher=New England Historic Genealogical Society|year=1881|location=Boston|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3yYAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA13#v=onepage&f=false|oclc=558014968}}
*{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=Oliver Ayers|title=History of the Military Company of the Massachusetts, Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CWUUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover|publisher=A. Mudge and son|year=1895|location=Boston, MA|oclc=1394719}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-gov}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of governors of Acadia|Governor of Acadia]] (military) | years=1654–1657 }}
{{s-aft | after=Sir [[Thomas Temple]]|as=proprietor of [[Nova Scotia]] }}
{{s-bef | before=[[Richard Bellingham]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony]] | years=1673–1679}}
{{s-aft | after=[[Simon Bradstreet]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Governors of Massachusetts}}
{{Lieutenant Governors of Massachusetts}}
{{Governors of Acadia}}
{{Authority control}}
{{use dmy dates|date=October 2010}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Leverett, John}}
[[Category:Colonial governors of Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Lieutenant Governors of colonial Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Governors of Acadia]]
[[Category:Roundheads]]
[[Category:People from Boston, Lincolnshire]]
[[Category:People from colonial Boston]]
[[Category:1616 births]]
[[Category:1679 deaths]]

Katherine Ryan

2017-01-09T06:16:35Z

Jprg1966: /* Filmography */

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Infobox comedian 
| name = Katherine Ryan
| image = Katherine Ryan 2014.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| pseudonym =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1983|6|30}}
| birth_place = [[Sarnia]], Ontario, Canada
| death_date =
| death_place =
| medium =
| nationality = Canadian<ref name=BTJ713/>
| active =
| children = 1
| genre =
| subject =
| influences =
| influenced =
| spouse =
| domesticpartner =
| notable_work =
| signature =
| website = {{URL|http://www.katherineryan.co.uk/}}
| footnotes =
| module =
}}
'''Katherine Ryan''' (born 30 June 1983) is a Canadian<ref name=BTJ713/> comedian, writer, presenter and actress, based in London, UK.

She has appeared on British [[panel show]]s including ''[[Mock the Week]]'', ''[[Never Mind the Buzzcocks]]'', ''[[A League of Their Own (UK game show)|A League of Their Own]]'', ''[[8 Out of 10 Cats]]'', ''[[QI]]'', ''[[Just a Minute]], [[Safeword (game show)|Safeword]] '', ''[[Have I Got News For You]]'', and in a youtube video called "Consent" made by Jack and Dean. In 2015, she replaced [[Steve Jones (presenter)|Steve Jones]] as the presenter of ''[[Hair (TV series)|Hair]]'' on [[BBC Two]]. As an actress, she has appeared in the [[Channel 4]] sitcom ''[[Campus (TV series)|Campus]]'',<ref>{{cite web|first=Louisa |last=Mellor |url=http://www.denofgeek.com/tv/10360/campus-episode-2-review-the-culling-fields |title=Campus episode 2 review: The Culling Fields |publisher=Den of Geek |date=12 April 2011 |accessdate=10 December 2012}} </ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chortle.co.uk/news/2011/06/29/13552/channel_4_goes_off_campus |title=Channel 4 goes off Campus : News 2011 |publisher=''Chortle'' |date=29 June 2011 |accessdate=10 December 2012}}</ref> [[BBC Two]] sitcom ''[[Episodes (TV series)|Episodes]]''<ref name="thenews">{{cite web|url=http://www.portsmouth.co.uk/lifestyle/the-guide/arts-and-comedy/slipping-makes-her-smile-1-4744494 |title=Slipping makes her smile – Arts and Comedy |work=[[The News (Portsmouth)|The News]] |date=1 February 2013 |accessdate=1 February 2013}}</ref> and ''Don't Sit in the Front Row'' with [[Jack Dee]].<ref name="thenews"/>

As a stand-up comedian, Ryan has appeared on the BBC's ''[[Live At The Apollo]]'', both as a featured act and as a lead act.

Ryan won the Nivea [[Funny Women]]<ref name="thesun.co.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/showbiz/bizarre/1335475/Katherine-Ryan-wins-Nivea-Funny-Women-Award.html|title=Female comic is tickled pink|work=thesun.co.uk}}</ref> Award, a comedy competition in the UK and was also runner-up in the Amused Moose Laugh-Off competition in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/comedy-review-katherine-ryan-1-1503455 |title=Comedy review: Katherine Ryan – News |publisher=Scotsman.com |date=2 March 2011 |accessdate=4 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/bristol/hi/things_to_do/newsid_8660000/8660264.stm |title=BBC – Funny Women Awards head to Bath for talent show heat |publisher=BBC News |date=4 May 2010 |accessdate=4 December 2012}}</ref>

==Early life==
The daughter of an [[Irish people|Irish]]-immigrant [[draughtsman]] father who owns an engineering company,<ref name=BTJ713/> and a [[Canadians|Canadian]]-born mother of Irish/English descent who owns an IT Consulting company,<ref name=BTJ713/><ref name=LonStand9654725/><ref>Was It Something I Said? (Series 1, Episode 4)</ref> Ryan and her two younger sisters were born and raised in [[Sarnia, Ontario]].<ref name=BTJ713>{{cite web|url=http://www.beyondthejoke.co.uk/content/713/new-interview-katherine-ryan|title=New Interview: Katherine Ryan|work=Beyond The Joke}}</ref><ref name=LonStand9654725/> The three siblings spent time in [[Cork (city)|Cork]], Ireland visiting their paternal grandparents.

Her parents split up when she was 15. When she was 18 years old, she decided to leave home and chose to study [[city planning]] at university in Toronto.<ref name="manchestereveningnews1">{{cite web|author=Denise Evans |url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/comedy-gigs/comic-katherine-ryan-tom-play-1302262 |title=Comic Katherine Ryan tom play The Lowry after appearances on Mock The Week and Never mind The Buzzcocks |publisher=Manchester Evening News |date=8 February 2013 |accessdate=2 December 2013}}</ref> While attending university, she worked at [[Hooters]] and then began training other waitresses. In her spare time, she undertook [[open mic]] nights as an alternative form of personal entertainment and by graduation had developed a basic comedic routine.<ref name=LonStand9654725/>

==Career==
After graduation, Ryan continued working for Hooters as a corporate trainer, travelling around Canada to train other waitresses,<ref name="manchestereveningnews1"/> and helping to open the only UK branch in [[Nottingham]].<ref name=BTJ713/>

Her partner at the time wanted to explore London, so she agreed to do so for an initial month from summer 2007,<ref name=LonStand9654725/> moving there permanently from January 2008.<ref name=BTJ713/>

Ryan won the 2008 [[Nivea]] [[Funny Women]] Award<ref name="thesun.co.uk"/> at the [[Comedy Store]]. Ryan was featured on the [[Whitney Cummings]] [[Just for Laughs]] 2013 Gala that was taped before a live audience on 28 July 2013.<ref>{{cite web|last=Duguay |first=Denise |url=http://www.montrealgazette.com/entertainment/festival-central/Just+Laughs+closes+with/8719156/story.html |title=Just for Laughs closes with ... sex |work=[[Montreal Gazette]] |date=29 July 2013 |accessdate=2 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hahaha.com/en/show/whitney-cummings-gala |title=Whitney Cummings Gala Press Release |publisher=Hahaha.com |date= |accessdate=2 August 2013}}</ref> She has since taken new routines to the [[Edinburgh Festival]].<ref name=LonStand9654725>{{cite web|url=http://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/esmagazine/meet-the-queen-of-confessional-comedy-katherine-ryan-9654725.htmlM|title=Meet the queen of confessional comedy: Katherine Ryan|author=Viv Groskop|date=7 August 2014|work=Evening Standard}}</ref>

Ryan first appeared on television on [[Channel 4]]'s ''[[8 Out of 10 Cats]]'' in 2012. Soon after, she gained acting roles in Channel 4’s ''Campus'' and in the [[BBC Two]] sitcom ''Episodes'', playing the blonde assistant to TV executive Merc and star [[Matt LeBlanc]]. On 23 February 2013, she appeared as a celebrity contestant on BBC One's ''[[Let's Dance for Comic Relief]]'' as [[Nicki Minaj]] dancing to "[[Starships (song)|Starships]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unrealitytv.co.uk/lets-dance-for-comic-relief/lets-dance-for-comic-relief-2013-katherine-ryan-goes-all-nicki-minaj-with-starships-video/ |title=Let's Dance For Comic Relief 2013: Katherine Ryan steals the show with Nicki Minaj's 'Starships'(VIDEO) |publisher=www.unrealitytv.co.uk |date=23 February 2013 |accessdate=23 February 2013}}</ref> Ryan reached the final, and finished in fourth place.

In 2015, Ryan replaced [[Steve Jones (presenter)|Steve Jones]] as the presenter of ''[[Hair (TV series)|Hair]]'' on [[BBC Two]].

Also in 2015, Ryan became a panellist for [[Tinie Tempah]]'s team on [[Sky 1]]'s music/comedy panel show ''[[Bring the Noise (game show)|Bring the Noise]]'' and on the [[ITV2]] show, ''[[Safeword (game show)|Safeword]]''.

Ryan has a weekly column in the British entertainment magazine ''[[NME]]''.

In 2016, Ryan appeared on series 2 of ''[[Taskmaster (TV series)|Taskmaster]]''. She beat [[Doc Brown (rapper)|Doc Brown]], [[Joe Wilkinson]], [[Richard Osman]] and [[Jon Richardson (comedian)|Jon Richardson]], to win the entire series.

==Personal life==
Ryan has a daughter, Violet, by an ex-boyfriend. She has faced two bouts of [[skin cancer]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Oscar |last=Harding |url=http://whatculture.com/tv/exclusive-interview-with-katherine-ryan.php |title=Exclusive interview with Katherine Ryan |publisher=What Culture |accessdate= 26 August 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.readingchronicle.co.uk/whatson/goingout/articles/2013/02/23/86936-comic-katherine-ryan-looks-on-the-bright-side/ |title=Comic Katherine Ryan looks on the bright side |work=[[Reading Chronicle]] | publisher = Berkshire Media Group |date= 23 February 2013 | accessdate = 26 August 2014 }}</ref> She and her daughter live in [[Crouch End]], London.<ref>{{cite news | last1 = Moore-Bridger | first1 = Benedict | last2 = Groskop | first2 = Viv | title = TV comedian Katherine Ryan gives her cheating boyfriend a star role in new show | date = 7 August 2014 | accessdate = 8 June 2015 | url = http://www.standard.co.uk/showbiz/celebrity-news/tv-comedian-katherine-ryan-gives-her-cheating-boyfriend-a-star-role-in-new-show-9653298.html | work = [[London Evening Standard]] | publisher = [[Alexander Lebedev]], [[Evgeny Lebedev]] and [[Daily Mail and General Trust]] }}</ref>

==Filmography==
*''[[Episodes (TV series)|Episodes]]'' (2012) – Merc's Assistant
*''[[Mock the Week]]'' (2012–15) – Guest
*''[[Never Mind the Buzzcocks]]'' (2012–14) – Guest
*''[[8 Out of 10 Cats]]'' (2012–14) – Guest
*''[[Sweat the Small Stuff]]'' (2013–14) – Guest
*''[[Let's Dance for Comic Relief]]'' (2013) – Contestant
*''[[Fake Reaction]]'' (2013) – Guest
*''[[QI]]'' (2013) – Guest
*''[[Have I Got News for You]]'' (2013–16) – Guest panelist and presenter
*''[[Celebrity Squares]]'' (2014, 2015) – Guest
*''[[The Dog Ate My Homework (TV series)|The Dog Ate My Homework]]'' (2015) – Guest
*''[[Room 101 (TV series)|Room 101]]'' (2015) – Guest
*''[[8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown]]'' (2015) – Guest
*''[[Hair (TV series)|Hair]]'' (2015) – Presenter
*''[[Safeword (game show)|Safeword]]'' (2015–present) – Team captain
*''[[The Cube (game show)|The Cube: Celebrity Special]]'' (2015) – Contestant
*''[[The Last Leg]]'' (2015) – Guest
*''[[Bring the Noise (game show)|Bring the Noise]]'' (2015) – Regular panellist
*''[[Lip Sync Battle UK]]'' (2016) – Contestant
*''[[Let's Play Darts]]'' (2016) – Contestant
*''[[Counterfeit Cat]]'' (2016) – Ranceford (voice)
*''[[Taskmaster (TV series)|Taskmaster]]'' (2016) – Contestant
*''[[It's Not Me, It's You (game show)|It's Not Me, It's You]]'' (2016) – Guest & guest team captain
*''[[Sunday Brunch]]'' (2016) – Stand-in presenter
*''[[Would I Lie to You? (TV series)|Would I Lie to You?]]'' (2016) – Guest
*''[[The Chase (UK game show)|The Chase: Celebrity Special]]'' (2016) – Contestant
*''[[The Big Fat Quiz of Everything – New Year Special]]'' (2017) – Guest

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.katherineryan.co.uk}}
*{{IMDb name|1789329}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ryan, Katherine}}
[[Category:1983 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Sarnia]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Irish descent]]
[[Category:Canadian women comedians]]
[[Category:Comedians from Ontario]]
[[Category:Canadian expatriates in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Irish people of Canadian descent]]
[[Category:Irish women comedians]]
[[Category:Irish expatriates in England]]
[[Category:Skin cancer survivors]]
[[Category:University of Toronto alumni]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Medium.com

2016-06-08T20:18:16Z

Jprg1966: /* Reception */

{{Infobox website
| logo = [[File:Medium (publishing platform) Logo 2015.png|100px]]
| logo_caption =
| screenshot =[[File:Medium Screenshot.JPG|center|275px]]
| collapsible =
| caption = '''Top:''' The current logo for Medium as of May 2016. '''Bottom:''' The homepage for Medium as of May 2016.
| url = {{URL|https://medium.com}}
| slogan =
| commercial = Yes
| type = {{flatlist|
*[[Blog publishing system|Blog host]]
*[[social network|social platform]]
*[[publisher]]
}}
| registration = Mostly [[free access]] to articles written by registered accounts, but required for publishing and writing articles.
| language =
| owner = A Medium Corporation
| revenue =
| alexa = {{decrease}} 404 ({{as of|2016|05|27|alt=May 2016}})<ref name="alexa">{{cite web |url=http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/medium.com |title=medium.com Site Info |publisher=[[Alexa Internet]] |accessdate= 2016-03-06}}</ref>
| name = Medium
| developer = [[Evan Williams]] {{small|(founder)}}
| launch date = {{start date|2012|8}}
| current status = Active
}}

'''Medium''' is an [[Electronic publishing|online publishing platform]] developed by [[Twitter]] co-founder [[Evan Williams (Internet entrepreneur)|Evan Williams]] on August 2012, and owned by A Medium Corporation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Twitter Co-Founder Evan Williams' Blogging Platform Medium Opens Signups To All |url=http://social.techcrunch.com/2013/10/25/twitter-co-founder-evan-williams-blogging-platform-medium-opens-signups-to-all/ |website=TechCrunch|accessdate=2015-09-10|first=Matthew|last=Panzarino}}</ref> The platform is an example of evolved [[social journalism]], having a hybrid collection of amateur and professional people and publications, or exclusive blogs or publishers on Medium<ref>{{cite web|last=Sussman|first=Ed|title=The New Rules of Social Journalism|url=http://pando.com/2014/03/29/the-new-rules-of-social-journalism-a-proposal/|work=Pando Daily|accessdate=29 March 2014}}</ref> and is regularly regarded as a [[Blog|blog host]].

Williams developed Medium as a way to publish writings and documents longer than Twitter's 140-character maximum. It eventually grew into a separate platform independent of Twitter's brand.

Medium also has its own publications, including the online music magazine ''Cuepoint'', edited by [[Jonathan Shecter]], ''NewCo Shift'' led by entrepreneur, author and journalist [[John Battelle]], and the technology publication ''[[Backchannel (blog)|Backchannel]]'', edited by [[Steven Levy]].

== Background ==
Williams created Medium from the ground up, with the idea of encouraging users to create longer posts than the 140-character standard of Twitter. Williams stated, "There's been less progress toward raising the quality of what's produced."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2012/08/15/twitter-founders-unveil-new-publishing-medium/|title=Twitter Founders Unveil New Publishing ‘Medium’|first=John|last=Letzing|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=15 August 2012|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> By April 2013, Williams reported there were 30 full-time staff working on the platform,<ref name="techcrunch13"/> including a vacancy for a "Storyteller" role,<ref name="techcrunch">{{cite web|url=http://techcrunch.com/2012/11/15/ev-williams-takes-to-medium-to-discuss-the-true-purpose-of-his-new-publishing-tool/|title=True Purpose Of His New Publishing Tool|last=Olanoff|first=Drew|date=15 November 2012|publisher=TechCrunch|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> and that it was taking "98 percent" of his time.<ref name="techcrunch13">{{cite web|url=http://techcrunch.com/2013/04/05/the-obvious-corp-takes-backseat-as-ev-williams-biz-stone-and-jason-goldman-shift-focus-to-individual-startups/|title=Williams, Biz Stone, And Jason Goldman Shift Focus To Individual Startups|first=Colleen|last=Taylor|publisher=TechCrunch|date=5 April 2013|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> By August, Williams reported that the site was still small, though he was still optimistic about it, saying "We are trying to make it as easy as possible for people who have thoughtful things to say".<ref name="businessweek">{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-08-22/twitter-co-creator-ev-williams-stretches-the-medium|title=Twitter Co-Creator Ev Williams Stretches the Medium|first=Brad|last=Stone|date=22 August 2013|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> Users can create a new account using an email address or a Twitter, [[Facebook]], or [[Google]] account.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@Medium/login-faq-27a103f5b914|title=Medium Login FAQ|last=|first=|date=|website=medium.com|publisher=|accessdate=2014-10-25}}</ref>

== User information and features ==

=== Platform ===

==== Writing ====
The platform software provides a full [[WYSIWYG]] user interface when editing online, with various options for formatting provided as the user edits over [[Rich Text Format|rich text format]].

==== Sharing ====
Once an entry is posted, it can be recommended and shared by other people, in a similar manner to Twitter.<ref name="techcrunch" /> Posts can be upvoted in a similar manner to [[Reddit]], and content can be assigned a specific theme, in the same way as [[Tumblr]].

=== Tag system ===
A specific difference from Williams' earlier service [[Blogger (service)|Blogger]] is that posts are sorted by topic rather than writer.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/biz-stone-evan-williams-and-jason-goldman-launch-medium-2012-8|title=The Cofounders Of Twitter Launch A New Blog Platform, Medium|last=Shontell|first=Alyson|date=15 August 2012|work=Business Insider|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> The platform uses the system of recommendations, similar to "likes" on Facebook, to up vote the best articles and stories, called the Tag system, and divides the stories into different categories to let the audiences choose.

=== Publications ===
Publications on Medium are distributing hosts that carry articles and blog posts like a [[newspaper]] or [[magazine]]. The articles published or saved on can be assigned [[Editing|editors]], and can be saved as drafts.

''Cuepoint'', Medium's music publication, is edited by [[Jonathan Shecter]], a music industry entrepreneur and co-founder of ''[[The Source (magazine)|The Source]]'' magazine. It publishes essays on artists, trends, and releases, written by Medium community contributors, major record executives, and music journalists,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ofa.fas.harvard.edu/event/music-producer-jonathan-shecter-and-musicianproducer-dan-freemanentrepreneurship-digital|title=music producer JONATHAN SHECTER and musician/producer DAN FREEMAN: Entrepreneurship in the Digital Music Industry|work=[[Harvard University|The Office for the Arts at Harvard]]|accessdate=October 2, 2015|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6bzSgksRW|archivedate=October 3, 2015|deadurl=no}}</ref> including [[Robert Christgau]], who contributed his "Expert Witness" [[capsule review]] column.<ref>{{cite web|last=Christgau|first=Robert|authorlink=Robert Christgau|date=August 14, 2015|url=http://noisey.vice.com/blog/expert-witness-with-robert-christgau-1|title=Welcome to Expert Witness, a New Weekly Column by the Dean of American Rock Critics|work=[[Noisey]]|accessdate=August 14, 2015}}</ref> Medium also publishes a technology publication called ''Backchannel'', edited by [[Steven Levy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/backchannel/why-i-started-backchannel-2e1a14f689d1|title=Why I Started Backchannel|author=Steven Levy|work=Medium|accessdate=3 July 2015}}</ref>

On February 23rd 2016 it was announced that Medium had reached a deal to host the new [[Bill Simmons]] website "The Ringer".<ref>{{Cite web|title = Medium: Home of The Ringer|url = https://medium.com/@el/medium-home-of-the-ringer-829dd263f955#.ngt4txhz0|website = Medium|date = 2016-02-23|access-date = 2016-02-23|first = Edward|last = Lichty}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Reviewing the service, ''[[The Guardian]]'' enjoyed some of the collections that had been created, particularly a collection of nostalgic photographs created by Williams.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2012/aug/15/twitter-founders-new-branch-medium |title=Twitter founders launch two new websites, Medium and Branch|work=The Guardian|date=15 August 2012|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> [[TechCrunch]]'s Drew Olanoff suggested the platform might have taken its name from being a "medium" sized platform in between Twitter and full-scale blogging platforms such as Blogger.<ref name="techcrunch"/>

[[Lawrence Lessig]] welcomed the platform's affordance of [[Creative Commons]] licensing for user content,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lessig|first1=Lawrence|authorlink1=Lawrence Lessig|title=Why I'm Excited for Medium's Partnership with Creative Commons |url=https://medium.com/@lessig/why-i-m-excited-for-medium-s-partnership-with-creative-commons-127b0ef02b03 |publisher=Medium|accessdate=2015-09-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911161848/https://medium.com/@lessig/why-i-m-excited-for-medium-s-partnership-with-creative-commons-127b0ef02b03 |archivedate=2015-09-11|date=May 6, 2015}}</ref> a feature demonstrated in a Medium project with ''[[The Public Domain Review]]''—an interactive online edition of ''Alice's Adventures In Wonderland'', annotated by a dozen Carroll scholars, allowing free [[remixes]] of the [[public domain]] and [[Creative Commons]] licensed text and art resources with reader-supplied commentaries and artwork.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Park|first1=Jane|title=Happy 150th, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland!|url=http://creativecommons.org/tag/alice-in-wonderland|publisher=[[Creative Commons]]|accessdate=2015-09-16|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20150905185023/http://creativecommons.org/tag/alice-in-wonderland |archivedate=2015-09-05|date=July 28, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Editor|title=About 'Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'|url=https://medium.com/alice-s-adventures-in-wonderland/about|publisher=Medium.com|accessdate=2015-09-16}}</ref>

However, the service has suffered criticism from writers, with some confused about exactly what it is expected to provide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://upstart.bizjournals.com/companies/media/2013/08/23/questions-about-medium-and-content.html?page=all|title=Mysterious Medium has writers moderately freaked out |first=Alex |last=Dalenberg |work=Upstart Business Journal|date=23 August 2013|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref>

== Controversy ==

=== Censorship ===

==== Malaysia ====
In January 2016, Medium received a take down notice from the [[Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission]] for one of the articles published by the [[Sarawak Report]]. The ''Sarawak Report'' had been hosting its articles on Medium since July 2015, when its own website was blocked by the Malaysian government.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Sarawak Report whistleblowing website blocked by Malaysia after PM allegations|url = http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/20/sarawak-report-whistleblowing-website-blocked-by-malaysia-over-pm-allegations|newspaper = The Guardian|date = 2015-07-20|access-date = 2016-01-27|issn = 0261-3077|language = en-GB|first = Beh Lih|last = Yi}}</ref>

Medium's legal team responded to the commission's request with a demand for further information, and declined to take the content down.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Post Stays Up|url = https://medium.com/medium-legal/the-post-stays-up-d222e34cb7e7#.ktxnppicb|website = Medium|date = 2016-01-26|access-date = 2016-01-27|first = Medium|last = Legal}}</ref> In response, as of January 27, 2016 all content on Medium has been unavailable for Malaysian Internet users.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{Official website}}

[[Category:Blog hosting services]]
[[Category:Blog software]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2012]]
[[Category:Social networking services]]
[[Category:Twitter services and applications]]
[[Category:Virtual communities]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Medium.com

2016-06-08T20:17:01Z

Jprg1966: /* Tag System */

{{Infobox website
| logo = [[File:Medium (publishing platform) Logo 2015.png|100px]]
| logo_caption =
| screenshot =[[File:Medium Screenshot.JPG|center|275px]]
| collapsible =
| caption = '''Top:''' The current logo for Medium as of May 2016. '''Bottom:''' The homepage for Medium as of May 2016.
| url = {{URL|https://medium.com}}
| slogan =
| commercial = Yes
| type = {{flatlist|
*[[Blog publishing system|Blog host]]
*[[social network|social platform]]
*[[publisher]]
}}
| registration = Mostly [[free access]] to articles written by registered accounts, but required for publishing and writing articles.
| language =
| owner = A Medium Corporation
| revenue =
| alexa = {{decrease}} 404 ({{as of|2016|05|27|alt=May 2016}})<ref name="alexa">{{cite web |url=http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/medium.com |title=medium.com Site Info |publisher=[[Alexa Internet]] |accessdate= 2016-03-06}}</ref>
| name = Medium
| developer = [[Evan Williams]] {{small|(founder)}}
| launch date = {{start date|2012|8}}
| current status = Active
}}

'''Medium''' is an [[Electronic publishing|online publishing platform]] developed by [[Twitter]] co-founder [[Evan Williams (Internet entrepreneur)|Evan Williams]] on August 2012, and owned by A Medium Corporation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Twitter Co-Founder Evan Williams' Blogging Platform Medium Opens Signups To All |url=http://social.techcrunch.com/2013/10/25/twitter-co-founder-evan-williams-blogging-platform-medium-opens-signups-to-all/ |website=TechCrunch|accessdate=2015-09-10|first=Matthew|last=Panzarino}}</ref> The platform is an example of evolved [[social journalism]], having a hybrid collection of amateur and professional people and publications, or exclusive blogs or publishers on Medium<ref>{{cite web|last=Sussman|first=Ed|title=The New Rules of Social Journalism|url=http://pando.com/2014/03/29/the-new-rules-of-social-journalism-a-proposal/|work=Pando Daily|accessdate=29 March 2014}}</ref> and is regularly regarded as a [[Blog|blog host]].

Williams developed Medium as a way to publish writings and documents longer than Twitter's 140-character maximum. It eventually grew into a separate platform independent of Twitter's brand.

Medium also has its own publications, including the online music magazine ''Cuepoint'', edited by [[Jonathan Shecter]], ''NewCo Shift'' led by entrepreneur, author and journalist [[John Battelle]], and the technology publication ''[[Backchannel (blog)|Backchannel]]'', edited by [[Steven Levy]].

== Background ==
Williams created Medium from the ground up, with the idea of encouraging users to create longer posts than the 140-character standard of Twitter. Williams stated, "There's been less progress toward raising the quality of what's produced."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2012/08/15/twitter-founders-unveil-new-publishing-medium/|title=Twitter Founders Unveil New Publishing ‘Medium’|first=John|last=Letzing|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=15 August 2012|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> By April 2013, Williams reported there were 30 full-time staff working on the platform,<ref name="techcrunch13"/> including a vacancy for a "Storyteller" role,<ref name="techcrunch">{{cite web|url=http://techcrunch.com/2012/11/15/ev-williams-takes-to-medium-to-discuss-the-true-purpose-of-his-new-publishing-tool/|title=True Purpose Of His New Publishing Tool|last=Olanoff|first=Drew|date=15 November 2012|publisher=TechCrunch|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> and that it was taking "98 percent" of his time.<ref name="techcrunch13">{{cite web|url=http://techcrunch.com/2013/04/05/the-obvious-corp-takes-backseat-as-ev-williams-biz-stone-and-jason-goldman-shift-focus-to-individual-startups/|title=Williams, Biz Stone, And Jason Goldman Shift Focus To Individual Startups|first=Colleen|last=Taylor|publisher=TechCrunch|date=5 April 2013|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> By August, Williams reported that the site was still small, though he was still optimistic about it, saying "We are trying to make it as easy as possible for people who have thoughtful things to say".<ref name="businessweek">{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-08-22/twitter-co-creator-ev-williams-stretches-the-medium|title=Twitter Co-Creator Ev Williams Stretches the Medium|first=Brad|last=Stone|date=22 August 2013|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> Users can create a new account using an email address or a Twitter, [[Facebook]], or [[Google]] account.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@Medium/login-faq-27a103f5b914|title=Medium Login FAQ|last=|first=|date=|website=medium.com|publisher=|accessdate=2014-10-25}}</ref>

== User information and features ==

=== Platform ===

==== Writing ====
The platform software provides a full [[WYSIWYG]] user interface when editing online, with various options for formatting provided as the user edits over [[Rich Text Format|rich text format]].

==== Sharing ====
Once an entry is posted, it can be recommended and shared by other people, in a similar manner to Twitter.<ref name="techcrunch" /> Posts can be upvoted in a similar manner to [[Reddit]], and content can be assigned a specific theme, in the same way as [[Tumblr]].

=== Tag system ===
A specific difference from Williams' earlier service [[Blogger (service)|Blogger]] is that posts are sorted by topic rather than writer.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/biz-stone-evan-williams-and-jason-goldman-launch-medium-2012-8|title=The Cofounders Of Twitter Launch A New Blog Platform, Medium|last=Shontell|first=Alyson|date=15 August 2012|work=Business Insider|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> The platform uses the system of recommendations, similar to "likes" on Facebook, to up vote the best articles and stories, called the Tag system, and divides the stories into different categories to let the audiences choose.

=== Publications ===
Publications on Medium are distributing hosts that carry articles and blog posts like a [[newspaper]] or [[magazine]]. The articles published or saved on can be assigned [[Editing|editors]], and can be saved as drafts.

''Cuepoint'', Medium's music publication, is edited by [[Jonathan Shecter]], a music industry entrepreneur and co-founder of ''[[The Source (magazine)|The Source]]'' magazine. It publishes essays on artists, trends, and releases, written by Medium community contributors, major record executives, and music journalists,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ofa.fas.harvard.edu/event/music-producer-jonathan-shecter-and-musicianproducer-dan-freemanentrepreneurship-digital|title=music producer JONATHAN SHECTER and musician/producer DAN FREEMAN: Entrepreneurship in the Digital Music Industry|work=[[Harvard University|The Office for the Arts at Harvard]]|accessdate=October 2, 2015|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6bzSgksRW|archivedate=October 3, 2015|deadurl=no}}</ref> including [[Robert Christgau]], who contributed his "Expert Witness" [[capsule review]] column.<ref>{{cite web|last=Christgau|first=Robert|authorlink=Robert Christgau|date=August 14, 2015|url=http://noisey.vice.com/blog/expert-witness-with-robert-christgau-1|title=Welcome to Expert Witness, a New Weekly Column by the Dean of American Rock Critics|work=[[Noisey]]|accessdate=August 14, 2015}}</ref> Medium also publishes a technology publication called ''Backchannel'', edited by [[Steven Levy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/backchannel/why-i-started-backchannel-2e1a14f689d1|title=Why I Started Backchannel|author=Steven Levy|work=Medium|accessdate=3 July 2015}}</ref>

On February 23rd 2016 it was announced that Medium had reached a deal to host the new [[Bill Simmons]] website "The Ringer".<ref>{{Cite web|title = Medium: Home of The Ringer|url = https://medium.com/@el/medium-home-of-the-ringer-829dd263f955#.ngt4txhz0|website = Medium|date = 2016-02-23|access-date = 2016-02-23|first = Edward|last = Lichty}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Reviewing the service, ''[[The Guardian]]'' enjoyed some of the collections that had been created, particularly a collection of nostalgic photographs created by Williams.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2012/aug/15/twitter-founders-new-branch-medium |title=Twitter founders launch two new websites, Medium and Branch|work=The Guardian|date=15 August 2012|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> [[TechCrunch]]'s Drew Olanoff suggested the platform might have taken its name from being a "medium" sized platform in between Twitter and full-scale blogging platforms such as Blogger.<ref name="techcrunch"/>

[[Lawrence Lessig]] welcomed the platform's affordance of [[Creative Commons]] licensing for user content,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lessig|first1=Lawrence|authorlink1=Lawrence Lessig|title=Why I’m Excited for Medium’s Partnership with Creative Commons|url=https://medium.com/@lessig/why-i-m-excited-for-medium-s-partnership-with-creative-commons-127b0ef02b03|publisher=Medium|accessdate=2015-09-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911161848/https://medium.com/@lessig/why-i-m-excited-for-medium-s-partnership-with-creative-commons-127b0ef02b03|archivedate=2015-09-11|date=May 6, 2015}}</ref> a feature demonstrated in a Medium project with [[The Public Domain Review]] — an interactive online edition of ''Alice’s Adventures In Wonderland'', annotated by a dozen Carroll scholars, allowing free [[remixes]] of the [[public domain]] and [[Creative Commons]] licensed text and art resources with reader-supplied commentaries and artwork.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Park|first1=Jane|title=Happy 150th, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland!|url=http://creativecommons.org/tag/alice-in-wonderland|publisher=[[Creative Commons]]|accessdate=2015-09-16|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20150905185023/http://creativecommons.org/tag/alice-in-wonderland|archivedate=2015-09-05|date=July 28, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Editor|title=About 'Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'|url=https://medium.com/alice-s-adventures-in-wonderland/about|publisher=Medium.com|accessdate=2015-09-16}}</ref>

However, the service has suffered criticism from writers, with some confused about exactly what it is expected to provide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://upstart.bizjournals.com/companies/media/2013/08/23/questions-about-medium-and-content.html?page=all|title=Mysterious Medium has writers moderately freaked out |first=Alex |last=Dalenberg |publisher=Upstart Business Journal|date=23 August 2013|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref>

== Controversy ==

=== Censorship ===

==== Malaysia ====
In January 2016, Medium received a take down notice from the [[Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission]] for one of the articles published by the [[Sarawak Report]]. The ''Sarawak Report'' had been hosting its articles on Medium since July 2015, when its own website was blocked by the Malaysian government.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Sarawak Report whistleblowing website blocked by Malaysia after PM allegations|url = http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/20/sarawak-report-whistleblowing-website-blocked-by-malaysia-over-pm-allegations|newspaper = The Guardian|date = 2015-07-20|access-date = 2016-01-27|issn = 0261-3077|language = en-GB|first = Beh Lih|last = Yi}}</ref>

Medium's legal team responded to the commission's request with a demand for further information, and declined to take the content down.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Post Stays Up|url = https://medium.com/medium-legal/the-post-stays-up-d222e34cb7e7#.ktxnppicb|website = Medium|date = 2016-01-26|access-date = 2016-01-27|first = Medium|last = Legal}}</ref> In response, as of January 27, 2016 all content on Medium has been unavailable for Malaysian Internet users.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{Official website}}

[[Category:Blog hosting services]]
[[Category:Blog software]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2012]]
[[Category:Social networking services]]
[[Category:Twitter services and applications]]
[[Category:Virtual communities]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Medium.com

2016-06-08T20:14:30Z

Jprg1966:

{{Infobox website
| logo = [[File:Medium (publishing platform) Logo 2015.png|100px]]
| logo_caption =
| screenshot =[[File:Medium Screenshot.JPG|center|275px]]
| collapsible =
| caption = '''Top:''' The current logo for Medium as of May 2016. '''Bottom:''' The homepage for Medium as of May 2016.
| url = {{URL|https://medium.com}}
| slogan =
| commercial = Yes
| type = {{flatlist|
*[[Blog publishing system|Blog host]]
*[[social network|social platform]]
*[[publisher]]
}}
| registration = Mostly [[free access]] to articles written by registered accounts, but required for publishing and writing articles.
| language =
| owner = A Medium Corporation
| revenue =
| alexa = {{decrease}} 404 ({{as of|2016|05|27|alt=May 2016}})<ref name="alexa">{{cite web |url=http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/medium.com |title=medium.com Site Info |publisher=[[Alexa Internet]] |accessdate= 2016-03-06}}</ref>
| name = Medium
| developer = [[Evan Williams]] {{small|(founder)}}
| launch date = {{start date|2012|8}}
| current status = Active
}}

'''Medium''' is an [[Electronic publishing|online publishing platform]] developed by [[Twitter]] co-founder [[Evan Williams (Internet entrepreneur)|Evan Williams]] on August 2012, and owned by A Medium Corporation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Twitter Co-Founder Evan Williams' Blogging Platform Medium Opens Signups To All |url=http://social.techcrunch.com/2013/10/25/twitter-co-founder-evan-williams-blogging-platform-medium-opens-signups-to-all/ |website=TechCrunch|accessdate=2015-09-10|first=Matthew|last=Panzarino}}</ref> The platform is an example of evolved [[social journalism]], having a hybrid collection of amateur and professional people and publications, or exclusive blogs or publishers on Medium<ref>{{cite web|last=Sussman|first=Ed|title=The New Rules of Social Journalism|url=http://pando.com/2014/03/29/the-new-rules-of-social-journalism-a-proposal/|work=Pando Daily|accessdate=29 March 2014}}</ref> and is regularly regarded as a [[Blog|blog host]].

Williams developed Medium as a way to publish writings and documents longer than Twitter's 140-character maximum. It eventually grew into a separate platform independent of Twitter's brand.

Medium also has its own publications, including the online music magazine ''Cuepoint'', edited by [[Jonathan Shecter]], ''NewCo Shift'' led by entrepreneur, author and journalist [[John Battelle]], and the technology publication ''[[Backchannel (blog)|Backchannel]]'', edited by [[Steven Levy]].

== Background ==
Williams created Medium from the ground up, with the idea of encouraging users to create longer posts than the 140-character standard of Twitter. Williams stated, "There's been less progress toward raising the quality of what's produced."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2012/08/15/twitter-founders-unveil-new-publishing-medium/|title=Twitter Founders Unveil New Publishing ‘Medium’|first=John|last=Letzing|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=15 August 2012|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> By April 2013, Williams reported there were 30 full-time staff working on the platform,<ref name="techcrunch13"/> including a vacancy for a "Storyteller" role,<ref name="techcrunch">{{cite web|url=http://techcrunch.com/2012/11/15/ev-williams-takes-to-medium-to-discuss-the-true-purpose-of-his-new-publishing-tool/|title=True Purpose Of His New Publishing Tool|last=Olanoff|first=Drew|date=15 November 2012|publisher=TechCrunch|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> and that it was taking "98 percent" of his time.<ref name="techcrunch13">{{cite web|url=http://techcrunch.com/2013/04/05/the-obvious-corp-takes-backseat-as-ev-williams-biz-stone-and-jason-goldman-shift-focus-to-individual-startups/|title=Williams, Biz Stone, And Jason Goldman Shift Focus To Individual Startups|first=Colleen|last=Taylor|publisher=TechCrunch|date=5 April 2013|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> By August, Williams reported that the site was still small, though he was still optimistic about it, saying "We are trying to make it as easy as possible for people who have thoughtful things to say".<ref name="businessweek">{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-08-22/twitter-co-creator-ev-williams-stretches-the-medium|title=Twitter Co-Creator Ev Williams Stretches the Medium|first=Brad|last=Stone|date=22 August 2013|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> Users can create a new account using an email address or a Twitter, [[Facebook]], or [[Google]] account.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@Medium/login-faq-27a103f5b914|title=Medium Login FAQ|last=|first=|date=|website=medium.com|publisher=|accessdate=2014-10-25}}</ref>

== User information and features ==

=== Platform ===

==== Writing ====
The platform software provides a full [[WYSIWYG]] user interface when editing online, with various options for formatting provided as the user edits over [[Rich Text Format|rich text format]].

==== Sharing ====
Once an entry is posted, it can be recommended and shared by other people, in a similar manner to Twitter.<ref name="techcrunch" /> Posts can be upvoted in a similar manner to [[Reddit]], and content can be assigned a specific theme, in the same way as [[Tumblr]].

=== Tag System ===
A specific difference from Williams' earlier service [[Blogger (service)|Blogger]] is that posts are sorted by topic rather than writer.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/biz-stone-evan-williams-and-jason-goldman-launch-medium-2012-8|title=The Cofounders Of Twitter Launch A New Blog Platform, Medium|last=Shontell|first=Alyson|date=15 August 2012|work=Business Insider|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> The platform uses the system of recommendations, similar to "likes" on Facebook, to up vote the best articles and stories, called the Tag system, and divides the stories into different categories to let the audiences choose.

=== Publications ===
Publications on Medium are distributing hosts that carry articles and blog posts like a [[newspaper]] or [[magazine]]. The articles published or saved on can be assigned [[Editing|editors]], and can be saved as drafts.

''Cuepoint'', Medium's music publication, is edited by [[Jonathan Shecter]], a music industry entrepreneur and co-founder of ''[[The Source (magazine)|The Source]]'' magazine. It publishes essays on artists, trends, and releases, written by Medium community contributors, major record executives, and music journalists,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ofa.fas.harvard.edu/event/music-producer-jonathan-shecter-and-musicianproducer-dan-freemanentrepreneurship-digital|title=music producer JONATHAN SHECTER and musician/producer DAN FREEMAN: Entrepreneurship in the Digital Music Industry|work=[[Harvard University|The Office for the Arts at Harvard]]|accessdate=October 2, 2015|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6bzSgksRW|archivedate=October 3, 2015|deadurl=no}}</ref> including [[Robert Christgau]], who contributed his "Expert Witness" [[capsule review]] column.<ref>{{cite web|last=Christgau|first=Robert|authorlink=Robert Christgau|date=August 14, 2015|url=http://noisey.vice.com/blog/expert-witness-with-robert-christgau-1|title=Welcome to Expert Witness, a New Weekly Column by the Dean of American Rock Critics|work=[[Noisey]]|accessdate=August 14, 2015}}</ref> Medium also publishes a technology publication called ''Backchannel'', edited by [[Steven Levy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/backchannel/why-i-started-backchannel-2e1a14f689d1|title=Why I Started Backchannel|author=Steven Levy|work=Medium|accessdate=3 July 2015}}</ref>

On February 23rd 2016 it was announced that Medium had reached a deal to host the new [[Bill Simmons]] website "The Ringer".<ref>{{Cite web|title = Medium: Home of The Ringer|url = https://medium.com/@el/medium-home-of-the-ringer-829dd263f955#.ngt4txhz0|website = Medium|date = 2016-02-23|access-date = 2016-02-23|first = Edward|last = Lichty}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Reviewing the service, ''[[The Guardian]]'' enjoyed some of the collections that had been created, particularly a collection of nostalgic photographs created by Williams.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2012/aug/15/twitter-founders-new-branch-medium |title=Twitter founders launch two new websites, Medium and Branch|work=The Guardian|date=15 August 2012|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> [[TechCrunch]]'s Drew Olanoff suggested the platform might have taken its name from being a "medium" sized platform in between Twitter and full-scale blogging platforms such as Blogger.<ref name="techcrunch"/>

[[Lawrence Lessig]] welcomed the platform's affordance of [[Creative Commons]] licensing for user content,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lessig|first1=Lawrence|authorlink1=Lawrence Lessig|title=Why I’m Excited for Medium’s Partnership with Creative Commons|url=https://medium.com/@lessig/why-i-m-excited-for-medium-s-partnership-with-creative-commons-127b0ef02b03|publisher=Medium|accessdate=2015-09-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911161848/https://medium.com/@lessig/why-i-m-excited-for-medium-s-partnership-with-creative-commons-127b0ef02b03|archivedate=2015-09-11|date=May 6, 2015}}</ref> a feature demonstrated in a Medium project with [[The Public Domain Review]] — an interactive online edition of ''Alice’s Adventures In Wonderland'', annotated by a dozen Carroll scholars, allowing free [[remixes]] of the [[public domain]] and [[Creative Commons]] licensed text and art resources with reader-supplied commentaries and artwork.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Park|first1=Jane|title=Happy 150th, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland!|url=http://creativecommons.org/tag/alice-in-wonderland|publisher=[[Creative Commons]]|accessdate=2015-09-16|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20150905185023/http://creativecommons.org/tag/alice-in-wonderland|archivedate=2015-09-05|date=July 28, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Editor|title=About 'Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'|url=https://medium.com/alice-s-adventures-in-wonderland/about|publisher=Medium.com|accessdate=2015-09-16}}</ref>

However, the service has suffered criticism from writers, with some confused about exactly what it is expected to provide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://upstart.bizjournals.com/companies/media/2013/08/23/questions-about-medium-and-content.html?page=all|title=Mysterious Medium has writers moderately freaked out |first=Alex |last=Dalenberg |publisher=Upstart Business Journal|date=23 August 2013|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref>

== Controversy ==

=== Censorship ===

==== Malaysia ====
In January 2016, Medium received a take down notice from the [[Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission]] for one of the articles published by the [[Sarawak Report]]. The ''Sarawak Report'' had been hosting its articles on Medium since July 2015, when its own website was blocked by the Malaysian government.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Sarawak Report whistleblowing website blocked by Malaysia after PM allegations|url = http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/20/sarawak-report-whistleblowing-website-blocked-by-malaysia-over-pm-allegations|newspaper = The Guardian|date = 2015-07-20|access-date = 2016-01-27|issn = 0261-3077|language = en-GB|first = Beh Lih|last = Yi}}</ref>

Medium's legal team responded to the commission's request with a demand for further information, and declined to take the content down.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Post Stays Up|url = https://medium.com/medium-legal/the-post-stays-up-d222e34cb7e7#.ktxnppicb|website = Medium|date = 2016-01-26|access-date = 2016-01-27|first = Medium|last = Legal}}</ref> In response, as of January 27, 2016 all content on Medium has been unavailable for Malaysian Internet users.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{Official website}}

[[Category:Blog hosting services]]
[[Category:Blog software]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2012]]
[[Category:Social networking services]]
[[Category:Twitter services and applications]]
[[Category:Virtual communities]]

Benutzer:Curnait/All the Way (play)

2016-05-16T20:58:38Z

Jprg1966: /* Synopsis */

{{Infobox play
| name = All the Way
| image = File:Lyndon Johnson signing Civil Rights Act, July 2, 1964.jpg
| image_alt =
| caption = Johnson signing the {{nowrap|[[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]}}
| writer = [[Robert Schenkkan]]
| chorus =
| characters = [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] [[Lady Bird Johnson]] {{nowrap|[[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]}} [[Hubert Humphrey]] [[J. Edgar Hoover]] [[Richard Russell, Jr.|Richard Russell]]
| mute =
| setting = [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]], [[Mississippi]], [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], November 1963 to November 1964
| premiere = {{Start date|2012|07|28}}
| place = [[Oregon Shakespeare Festival]]
| orig_lang = English
| series = American Revolutions: The United States History Cycle
| subject = Politics
| genre = Drama
}}
'''''All the Way''''' is a play by [[Robert Schenkkan]], depicting President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]'s efforts to maneuver members of the [[88th United States Congress]] to enact, and civil rights leaders including [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] to support, the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]. The play takes its name from [[United States presidential election, 1964|Johnson's 1964 campaign]] slogan, "All the Way with LBJ."<ref name="Observer">{{cite news | url=http://observer.com/2014/03/and-the-prize-goes-to-the-puppet-all-the-way-is-riveting-and-the-directorial-vision-behind-antony-and-cleopatra-is-brilliant/ | title=And the Prize Goes to the Puppet: ‘All the Way’ Is Riveting, and the Directorial Vision Behind ‘Antony and Cleopatra’ Is Brilliant | work=New York Observer | date=March 11, 2014 | accessdate=March 15, 2014 | last=Oxfeld |first=Jesse}}</ref>

The play was commissioned by the [[Oregon Shakespeare Festival]] and premiered there in 2012, in a production directed by [[Bill Rauch]], with Jack Willis originating the role of LBJ. It premiered on Broadway in March 2014, in a production also directed by Rauch, which won the [[68th Tony Awards|2014 Tony Award]] and [[Drama Desk Award]] for Outstanding Play. [[Bryan Cranston]] won the [[Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play]] for his performance.

==History==
''All the Way'' was commissioned by the [[Oregon Shakespeare Festival]] (OSF) as part of its "American Revolutions: The United States History Cycle."<ref name="OSF"/> It [[Production history of the Oregon Shakespeare Festival|premiered at OSF]] on July 28, 2012, directed by [[Bill Rauch]], with Jack Willis originating the role of LBJ.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.osfashland.org/en/press-room/press-releases/all-the-way-tony-win.aspx |title= 'All the Way' Wins Two Tony Awards | date= June 9, 2014 | work= News Release | publisher=Oregon Shakespeare Festival |accessdate=10 June 2014}}</ref>

A reading of ''All the Way'' was held in January 2013 at [[Seattle Repertory Theatre]], as part of the theater's New Play Festival;<ref name="srt"/><ref name="srtread"/> it was paired with ''The Great Society'', also by [[Robert Schenkkan]]<ref name="srt">{{cite web| url= http://www.seattlerep.org/About/Press/PressKit/Kit_Production_History.pdf | title= Production History| format =[[PDF]] | publisher= Seattle Repertory Theatre | accessdate=27 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="srtread">{{cite web| url= http://www.seattlerep.org/Plays/1213/NPF/Alltheway| title= All the Way and The Great Society| publisher= Seattle Repertory Theatre | accessdate=27 June 2015}}</ref>

The play was produced in September 2013, at the [[American Repertory Theater]] (ART) in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], directed by Rauch, with [[Bryan Cranston]] as LBJ.<ref>Hetrick, Adam. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/182053-Bryan-Cranston-Is-Lyndon-B-Johnson-in-All-The-Way-Premiering-Sept-13-at-the-American-Repertory-Theater "Bryan Cranston Is Lyndon B. Johnson in ''All The Way'', Premiering Sept. 13 at the American Repertory Theater"] playbill.com, September 13, 2013</ref> The ART production premiered on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] at the [[Neil Simon Theatre]] for a limited run on March 6, 2014, where it ran through until June 29, 2014.<ref>Hetrick, Adam. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/192849-Tony-Winning-Hit-All-The-Way-Starring-Bryan-Cranston-Ends-Broadway-Run?tsrc=nx "Tony-Winning Hit 'All The Way', Starring Bryan Cranston, Ends Broadway Run"] playbill.com, June 29, 2014</ref>

The Broadway and ART productions starred [[Bryan Cranston]] as LBJ, and the cast included [[John McMartin]], Betsy Aidem, [[Christopher Liam Moore]], [[Robert Petkoff]], Brandon J. Dirden, [[Michael McKean]], and [[Bill Timoney]].<ref>{{IBDB title|495850|All the Way}}. {{retrieved|accessdate=10 June 2014}}</ref>

The play sold out its American Repertory Theater showing, and strong sales were reported for previews of its limited Broadway run at the Neil Simon Theatre.<ref name="Artery" /><ref name="NYT sales">{{cite news | url=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/02/18/strong-sales-for-all-the-way-in-previews/ | title=Strong Sales for ‘All the Way’ in Previews | work=The New York Times | date=February 18, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | author=Healy, Patrick}}</ref> On June 5, 2014, the producers announced that the play had recouped its $3.9 million investment in under four months.<ref>Hetrick, Adam. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/191987-Broadway-Drama-All-The-Way-Starring-Bryan-Cranston-Recoups-Investment "Broadway Drama ''All The Way'', Starring Bryan Cranston, Recoups Investment"] playbill.com, June 5, 2014</ref>

''All the Way'' is the first of two plays by Schenkkan on Johnson's presidency. The second part, ''The Great Society'', premiered at the OSF on July 27, 2014. Jack Willis, who played Johnson at its Oregon premiere, again plays Johnson in ''The Great Society'' in Oregon.<ref>[http://www.robertschenkkan.com/oregon-shakespeare-festival-announces-great-society-2014-season "Oregon Shakespeare Festival Announces ''Great Society'' For 2014 Season"] robertschenkkan.com, accessed June 6, 2014</ref><ref>Purcell, Carey. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/193856-Robert-Schenkkans-The-Great-Society-Reuniting-Original-OSF-Cast-of-All-The-Way-Opens "Robert Schenkkan's ''The Great Society'', Reuniting Original OSF Cast of All The Way, Opens"] playbill.com, July 27, 2014</ref> The sequel, also directed by Rauch, continues the Johnson story from 1964 to 1968.<ref name="Artery" /><ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

==Synopsis==
[[File:CivilRightsAct1964-HouseRollCall-HR7152.jpg|thumb|upright|left|House roll call for the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]]]
The play opens shortly after the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy]] on November 22, 1963. and continues through Johnson's landslide reelection on November 3, 1964. In his first year as president, Johnson engineers passage of [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]. Johnson has Senator [[Hubert Humphrey]] of Minnesota reach out to liberal congressmen and civil rights groups, while Johnson personally deals with Southern congressmen, who are deeply opposed to the legislation. At the end of Act One, the civil rights act passes the Senate, using cajolery, arm-twisting and blackmail to get his way. Johnson himself is from the south, and he is close to the recalcitrant southern congressmen, and he uses homespun and sometimes off-color stories to persuade them.<ref name="Observer" /><ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" /> A reviewer noted that "Johnson seems just to be shooting the breeze when really he's riding herd on friend and foe alike in anxious pursuit of his goals." Throughout, the play makes copious reference to congressional terminology unusual in Broadway plays, such as "[[cloture]]" and "[[filibuster]]," which are mechanisms used to extract bills from committee.<ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

Johnson is portrayed as emotionally needy and vulnerable, even as he rides roughshod over other people such as his wife, [[Lady Bird Johnson]], and his longtime aide [[Walter Jenkins]], who he abandons after he is arrested on a morals charge. He is disdainful of Humphrey, and promises the vice-presidency to him in the 1964 elections if he goes along with Johnson.<ref name="Observer" /><ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

Johnson engages in spirited conversations with Sen. [[Richard Russell, Jr.|Richard Russell]] of Georgia, who strongly opposes the legislation but finds that his ability to stop the bill has ebbed because of Johnson's tactics.<ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

On the other side, Dr. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] must contend with more conservative leaders such as [[Roy Wilkins]] who oppose civil rights marches and militant leaders like [[Stokely Carmichael]], who favor strong action. The more activist leaders prevail, and launch the "[[Freedom Summer]]," in which young college students ride buses into the south to desegregate facilities. Three [[Freedom Rider]]<nowiki/>s, [[Michael Schwerner]], [[Andrew Goodman]] and [[James Chaney]], are slain, forcing Johnson to send in the FBI and further inflaming emotions. [[J. Edgar Hoover]] is shown eavesdropping on Dr. King.<ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

In the second act, the action shifts to [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]], where a battle is brewing at the [[1964 Democratic Convention|1964 Democratic National Convention]]. The segregated Mississippi delegation is challenged by the integrated [[Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party]].<ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

==Themes==
Schenkkan describes ''All the Way'' as a play about "the morality of politics and power. Where do you draw the line in terms of intentions and action. How much leeway does a good intention give you to violate the law?".<ref name="Artery">{{cite web|last=Siegel|first=Ed|title='All The Way With LBJ - Did He Break Bad, Too?|url=http://artery.wbur.org/2013/09/09/lbj-schenkkan|publisher=The Artery|accessdate=14 March 2014}}</ref>

The play's set is a semi-circular dais surrounding the central portion of the stage. The ''[[New York Observer]]'' said that the surrounding seats "serve as Congressional hearing rooms, and as spots for ever-present observers to sit and watch, but mostly they render the stage a coliseum, with everything that happens a battle, or maybe a courtroom: L.B.J. is always on trial."<ref name="Observer"/>

Unlike previous dramatic depictions of Johnson, such as [[Barbara Garson]]'s satirical 1967 play ''[[MacBird!]]'', Johnson is portrayed sympathetically. Writing in ''[[The New York Times]]'', [[Sam Tanenhaus]] said that ''All the Way'' portrays Johnson "as something far more interesting and even inspiring: the last and perhaps greatest of all legislative presidents, with his wizardly grip on the levers of governance at a time when it was still possible for deals to be brokered and favors swapped and for combatants to clash in an atmosphere of respect, if not smiling concord."<ref name="Tanenhaus">{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/09/theater/bryan-cranston-is-playing-lyndon-johnson-on-broadway.html | title=Presidential Chemistry: Bryan Cranston Is Playing Lyndon Johnson on Broadway | work=The New York Times | date=February 5, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | last=Tanenhaus | first=Sam}}</ref>

==Broadway production==
In preparing for the role, Cranston sought to meet [[Robert Caro]], author of a multipart biography of Johnson (''[[The Years of Lyndon Johnson]]''). But Caro refused, telling ''The New York Times'': "I didn’t want to see someone playing Lyndon Johnson or talk to the actor playing him because I was afraid that image would become blurred for me. The better the actor the more danger there would be that that would happen.”<ref name="Caro">{{cite news | url=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/02/10/robert-caro-l-b-j-and-all-the-way/ | title=Robert Caro, L.B.J. and ‘All The Way’ | work=The New York Times | date=February 10, 2014 | accessdate=March 15, 2014 | last=Tanenhaus | first=Sam}}</ref>

===Cast===
*[[Lyndon B. Johnson]], played by [[Bryan Cranston]]
*[[Lady Bird Johnson]]/[[Katharine Graham]], played by [[Betsy Aidem]]
*[[Walter Jenkins]], played by [[Christopher Liam Moore]]
*[[Hubert Humphrey]], played by [[Robert Petkoff]]
*[[Richard Russell, Jr.|Richard Russell]], played by [[John McMartin]]
*[[Martin Luther King]], played by [[Brandon J. Dirden]]
*[[J. Edgar Hoover]], played by [[Michael McKean]]
*[[Stanley Levison]]/[[John William McCormack|John McCormack]], played by [[Ethan Phillips]]
*[[Karl Mundt]], played by [[Bill Timoney]]

==Critical reception==
The Broadway production received generally favorable reviews, with Bryan Cranston's performance singled out for praise.

Writing in ''[[The New York Times]]'', [[Charles Isherwood]] called ''All the Way'' a "dense but mostly absorbing drama, set during the tense first year of Johnson’s presidency following the assassination of President John F. Kennedy." Isherwood praised Cranston as Johnson, saying his "heat-generating performance galvanizes the production. Even when Johnson is offstage or the writing sags with exposition, the show, directed solidly by Bill Rauch, retains the vitalizing imprint of his performance." Other characters such as Hoover and [[George Wallace]] are "merely sketched in," and the play "sorely needs streamlining."<ref name="Isherwood-Broadway">{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/07/theater/bryan-cranston-as-president-johnson-in-all-the-way.html | title=Washington Power Play: Bryan Cranston as President Johnson in ‘All the Way’ | work=The New York Times | date=March 6, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | author=Isherwood, Christopher}}</ref> In his review of the American Repertory Theater production, also starring Cranston, Isherwood said the play "ultimately accrues minimal dramatic momentum."<ref name="Isherwood-ART">{{cite news | url= http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/26/theater/reviews/all-the-way-stars-bryan-cranston-as-lyndon-b-johnson.html | title=An Arm-Twister in the Oval Office: ‘All the Way’ Stars Bryan Cranston as Lyndon B. Johnson | work=The New York Times | date=September 25, 2013 | accessdate=March 15, 2014 | author=Isherwood, Charles}}</ref>

The Broadway production was called "juicy" by the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', which said that Cranston "offers up a restless, hypnotically intense physicality coupled with an intimately forged vulnerability." It said that the lead actor "does not disappoint for a moment, driving the show with a truly riveting life-force and, it seems, painting every up and down in this insecure but notably self-aware president's life on his visage, which he seems to pull and stretch in limitless directions. "<ref name="ChicTribune">{{cite news | url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/theater/sc-ent-0309-all-way-broadway-review-2-20140310,0,3692603.column | title='Breaking Bad' star Bryan Cranston gets his hooks into LBJ | work=The Chicago Tribune | date=March 10, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | author=Jones, Chris}}</ref>

''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' called ''All the Way'' a "jaw-dropping political drama" and a "beautifully built dramatic piece,"<ref name="Variety">{{cite news | url=http://variety.com/2014/legit/reviews/broadway-review-bryan-cranston-lbj-all-the-way-1201127585/ | title=Bryan Cranston owns the role of LBJ in this beautifully built dramatic piece. | work=Variety | date=March 7, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | author=Stasio, Marilyn}}</ref> while New York's ''[[Daily News (New York)|Daily News]]'' said that the play was "talky but terrifically acted."<ref name="Daily News ">{{cite news | url=http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music-arts/theater-review-article-1.1712861 | title='All the Way': Theater review | work=New York Daily News | date=March 6, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | author=Dziemiamowicz, Joe}}</ref>

==Awards and nominations==
''All the Way'' received four nominations for the 2014 [[Outer Critics Circle Award]]s: Outstanding New Broadway Play, Outstanding Director Of A Play, Outstanding Actor In A Play (Bryan Cranston), and Outstanding Featured Actor In A Play (John McMartin).<ref>{{cite web| last=Gans | first=Andrew | url= http://www.playbill.com/news/article/190274-64th-Annual-Outer-Critics-Circle-Awards-Nominations-Announced-A-Gentlemans-Guide-to-Love-and-Murder-Leads-the-Pack |title=64th Annual Outer Critics Circle Awards Nominations Announced; 'A Gentleman's Guide to Love and Murder' Leads the Pack| work= [[Playbill]] |date=April 22, 2014| accessdate=30 April 2014}}</ref> The play won two awards: Outstanding New Broadway Play and Outstanding Actor In A Play (Bryan Cranston).<ref>Gans, Andrew.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/191022-64th-Annual-Outer-Critics-Circle-Award-Winners-Announced-Gentlemans-Guide-Wins-Four-Awards 64th Annual Outer Critics Circle Award Winners Announced; 'Gentleman's Guide' Wins Four Awards"] playbill.com, May 12, 2014</ref>

The play won the 2014 [[Drama League Award]], Distinguished Production of a Play.<ref>Gans, Andrew. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/191235-80th-Annual-Drama-League-Award-Winners-Announced-Neil-Patrick-Harris-Wins-Distinguished-Performance-Honor "80th Annual Drama League Award Winners Announced; Neil Patrick Harris Wins Distinguished Performance Honor"] playbill.com, May 16, 2014</ref>

The play received five nominations for the 2014 [[Drama Desk Award]]s: Outstanding Play; Outstanding Actor in a Play (Bryan Cranston); Outstanding Director of a Play (Bill Rauch); Outstanding Projection Design (Shawn Sagady); and Outstanding Sound Design in a Play (Paul James Prenderagst) It won the awards for Outstanding Play and Outstanding Actor in a Play.<ref>Gans, Andrew. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/191799-Winners-of-59th-Annual-Drama-Desk-Awards-Announced-Gentlemans-Guide-and-All-the-Way-Win-Top-Prizes "Winners of 59th Annual Drama Desk Awards Announced; 'Gentleman's Guide' and 'All the Way' Win Top Prizes"] playbill.com, June 1, 2014</ref>

The play received two nominations for the [[68th Tony Awards]]: [[Tony Award for Best Play|Best Play]] and [[Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play|Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play]] for Bryan Cranston, winning both.<ref>Staff.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/192094-Just-the-Winners-Please-Who-Won-the-68th-Annual-Tony-Awards "Just the Winners, Please: Who Won the 68th Annual Tony Awards"] playbill.com, June 8, 2014</ref>

==Film adaptation==
{{main|All the Way (film)}}
A television film based on the play starring Cranston, written by Schenkkan, and directed by [[Jay Roach]] will premiere on [[HBO]] on May 21, 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comingsoon.net/tv/news/471601-hbo-goes-all-the-way-with-bryan-cranston |title=HBO Goes All the Way with Bryan Cranston |date=August 13, 2015 |publisher=Comingsoon.net |accessdate=September 19, 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1954–68) in popular culture|African-American Civil Rights Movement in popular culture]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=32em|refs=
<ref name="OSF">{{cite web| url= http://www.osfashland.org/productions/plays/all-the-way.aspx |title= All the Way |year=2012 |publisher= [[Oregon Shakespeare Festival]]| accessdate= 30 March 2014}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
*[http://www.osfashland.org/productions/plays/all-the-way.aspx Official website] of the OSF production
*[http://allthewaybroadway.com/ Official website] of the Broadway production
*{{IBDB title|495850|All the Way}}
*{{cite web| url=http://playbill.com/events/event_detail/26967-All-the-Way-at-Neil-Simon-Theatre | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140330021820/http://playbill.com/events/event_detail/26967-All-the-Way-at-Neil-Simon-Theatre | title= All the Way| archivedate= 30 March 2014 | publisher= [[Playbill]]}}

{{DramaDesk Play 2001–2025}}
{{TonyAward Play 2001–2025}}
{{Lyndon B. Johnson}}
{{Martin Luther King, Jr.|state=collapsed}}
{{African-American Civil Rights Movement}}

[[Category:American plays]]
[[Category:Broadway plays]]
[[Category:2012 plays]]
[[Category:Plays set in the 20th century]]
[[Category:African-American Civil Rights Movement (1954–68)]]
[[Category:88th United States Congress]]
[[Category:Historical plays]]
[[Category:Tony Award winning plays]]
[[Category:Drama Desk Award-winning plays]]
[[Category:African-American Civil Rights Movement (1954–68) in popular culture]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Lyndon B. Johnson]]

Benutzer:Curnait/All the Way (play)

2016-05-16T20:58:06Z

Jprg1966: /* Synopsis */

{{Infobox play
| name = All the Way
| image = File:Lyndon Johnson signing Civil Rights Act, July 2, 1964.jpg
| image_alt =
| caption = Johnson signing the {{nowrap|[[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]}}
| writer = [[Robert Schenkkan]]
| chorus =
| characters = [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] [[Lady Bird Johnson]] {{nowrap|[[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]}} [[Hubert Humphrey]] [[J. Edgar Hoover]] [[Richard Russell, Jr.|Richard Russell]]
| mute =
| setting = [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]], [[Mississippi]], [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], November 1963 to November 1964
| premiere = {{Start date|2012|07|28}}
| place = [[Oregon Shakespeare Festival]]
| orig_lang = English
| series = American Revolutions: The United States History Cycle
| subject = Politics
| genre = Drama
}}
'''''All the Way''''' is a play by [[Robert Schenkkan]], depicting President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]'s efforts to maneuver members of the [[88th United States Congress]] to enact, and civil rights leaders including [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] to support, the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]. The play takes its name from [[United States presidential election, 1964|Johnson's 1964 campaign]] slogan, "All the Way with LBJ."<ref name="Observer">{{cite news | url=http://observer.com/2014/03/and-the-prize-goes-to-the-puppet-all-the-way-is-riveting-and-the-directorial-vision-behind-antony-and-cleopatra-is-brilliant/ | title=And the Prize Goes to the Puppet: ‘All the Way’ Is Riveting, and the Directorial Vision Behind ‘Antony and Cleopatra’ Is Brilliant | work=New York Observer | date=March 11, 2014 | accessdate=March 15, 2014 | last=Oxfeld |first=Jesse}}</ref>

The play was commissioned by the [[Oregon Shakespeare Festival]] and premiered there in 2012, in a production directed by [[Bill Rauch]], with Jack Willis originating the role of LBJ. It premiered on Broadway in March 2014, in a production also directed by Rauch, which won the [[68th Tony Awards|2014 Tony Award]] and [[Drama Desk Award]] for Outstanding Play. [[Bryan Cranston]] won the [[Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play]] for his performance.

==History==
''All the Way'' was commissioned by the [[Oregon Shakespeare Festival]] (OSF) as part of its "American Revolutions: The United States History Cycle."<ref name="OSF"/> It [[Production history of the Oregon Shakespeare Festival|premiered at OSF]] on July 28, 2012, directed by [[Bill Rauch]], with Jack Willis originating the role of LBJ.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.osfashland.org/en/press-room/press-releases/all-the-way-tony-win.aspx |title= 'All the Way' Wins Two Tony Awards | date= June 9, 2014 | work= News Release | publisher=Oregon Shakespeare Festival |accessdate=10 June 2014}}</ref>

A reading of ''All the Way'' was held in January 2013 at [[Seattle Repertory Theatre]], as part of the theater's New Play Festival;<ref name="srt"/><ref name="srtread"/> it was paired with ''The Great Society'', also by [[Robert Schenkkan]]<ref name="srt">{{cite web| url= http://www.seattlerep.org/About/Press/PressKit/Kit_Production_History.pdf | title= Production History| format =[[PDF]] | publisher= Seattle Repertory Theatre | accessdate=27 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="srtread">{{cite web| url= http://www.seattlerep.org/Plays/1213/NPF/Alltheway| title= All the Way and The Great Society| publisher= Seattle Repertory Theatre | accessdate=27 June 2015}}</ref>

The play was produced in September 2013, at the [[American Repertory Theater]] (ART) in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], directed by Rauch, with [[Bryan Cranston]] as LBJ.<ref>Hetrick, Adam. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/182053-Bryan-Cranston-Is-Lyndon-B-Johnson-in-All-The-Way-Premiering-Sept-13-at-the-American-Repertory-Theater "Bryan Cranston Is Lyndon B. Johnson in ''All The Way'', Premiering Sept. 13 at the American Repertory Theater"] playbill.com, September 13, 2013</ref> The ART production premiered on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] at the [[Neil Simon Theatre]] for a limited run on March 6, 2014, where it ran through until June 29, 2014.<ref>Hetrick, Adam. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/192849-Tony-Winning-Hit-All-The-Way-Starring-Bryan-Cranston-Ends-Broadway-Run?tsrc=nx "Tony-Winning Hit 'All The Way', Starring Bryan Cranston, Ends Broadway Run"] playbill.com, June 29, 2014</ref>

The Broadway and ART productions starred [[Bryan Cranston]] as LBJ, and the cast included [[John McMartin]], Betsy Aidem, [[Christopher Liam Moore]], [[Robert Petkoff]], Brandon J. Dirden, [[Michael McKean]], and [[Bill Timoney]].<ref>{{IBDB title|495850|All the Way}}. {{retrieved|accessdate=10 June 2014}}</ref>

The play sold out its American Repertory Theater showing, and strong sales were reported for previews of its limited Broadway run at the Neil Simon Theatre.<ref name="Artery" /><ref name="NYT sales">{{cite news | url=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/02/18/strong-sales-for-all-the-way-in-previews/ | title=Strong Sales for ‘All the Way’ in Previews | work=The New York Times | date=February 18, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | author=Healy, Patrick}}</ref> On June 5, 2014, the producers announced that the play had recouped its $3.9 million investment in under four months.<ref>Hetrick, Adam. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/191987-Broadway-Drama-All-The-Way-Starring-Bryan-Cranston-Recoups-Investment "Broadway Drama ''All The Way'', Starring Bryan Cranston, Recoups Investment"] playbill.com, June 5, 2014</ref>

''All the Way'' is the first of two plays by Schenkkan on Johnson's presidency. The second part, ''The Great Society'', premiered at the OSF on July 27, 2014. Jack Willis, who played Johnson at its Oregon premiere, again plays Johnson in ''The Great Society'' in Oregon.<ref>[http://www.robertschenkkan.com/oregon-shakespeare-festival-announces-great-society-2014-season "Oregon Shakespeare Festival Announces ''Great Society'' For 2014 Season"] robertschenkkan.com, accessed June 6, 2014</ref><ref>Purcell, Carey. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/193856-Robert-Schenkkans-The-Great-Society-Reuniting-Original-OSF-Cast-of-All-The-Way-Opens "Robert Schenkkan's ''The Great Society'', Reuniting Original OSF Cast of All The Way, Opens"] playbill.com, July 27, 2014</ref> The sequel, also directed by Rauch, continues the Johnson story from 1964 to 1968.<ref name="Artery" /><ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

==Synopsis==
[[File:CivilRightsAct1964-HouseRollCall-HR7152.jpg|thumb|upright|left|House roll call for the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]]]
The play opens shortly after the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy]] on November 22, 1963. and continues through Johnson's landslide reelection on November 3, 1964. In his first year as president, Johnson engineers passage of [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]. Johnson has Senator [[Hubert Humphrey]] of Minnesota reach out to liberal congressmen and civil rights groups, while Johnson personally deals with Southern congressmen, who are deeply opposed to the legislation. At the end of Act One, the civil rights act passes the Senate, using cajolery, arm-twisting and blackmail to get his way. Johnson himself is from the south, and he is close to the recalcitrant southern congressmen, and he uses homespun and sometimes off-color stories to persuade them.<ref name="Observer"/ ><ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" /> A reviewer noted that "Johnson seems just to be shooting the breeze when really he's riding herd on friend and foe alike in anxious pursuit of his goals." Throughout, the play makes copious reference to congressional terminology unusual in Broadway plays, such as "[[cloture]]" and "[[filibuster]]," which are mechanisms used to extract bills from committee.<ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

Johnson is portrayed as emotionally needy and vulnerable, even as he rides roughshod over other people such as his wife, [[Lady Bird Johnson]], and his longtime aide [[Walter Jenkins]], who he abandons after he is arrested on a morals charge. He is disdainful of Humphrey, and promises the vice-presidency to him in the 1964 elections if he goes along with Johnson.<ref name="Observer" /><ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

Johnson engages in spirited conversations with Sen. [[Richard Russell, Jr.|Richard Russell]] of Georgia, who strongly opposes the legislation but finds that his ability to stop the bill has ebbed because of Johnson's tactics.<ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

On the other side, Dr. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] must contend with more conservative leaders such as [[Roy Wilkins]] who oppose civil rights marches and militant leaders like [[Stokely Carmichael]], who favor strong action. The more activist leaders prevail, and launch the "[[Freedom Summer]]," in which young college students ride buses into the south to desegregate facilities. Three [[Freedom Rider]]<nowiki/>s, [[Michael Schwerner]], [[Andrew Goodman]] and [[James Chaney]], are slain, forcing Johnson to send in the FBI and further inflaming emotions. [[J. Edgar Hoover]] is shown eavesdropping on Dr. King.<ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

In the second act, the action shifts to [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]], where a battle is brewing at the [[1964 Democratic Convention|1964 Democratic National Convention]]. The segregated Mississippi delegation is challenged by the integrated [[Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party]].<ref name="Isherwood-Broadway" />

==Themes==
Schenkkan describes ''All the Way'' as a play about "the morality of politics and power. Where do you draw the line in terms of intentions and action. How much leeway does a good intention give you to violate the law?".<ref name="Artery">{{cite web|last=Siegel|first=Ed|title='All The Way With LBJ - Did He Break Bad, Too?|url=http://artery.wbur.org/2013/09/09/lbj-schenkkan|publisher=The Artery|accessdate=14 March 2014}}</ref>

The play's set is a semi-circular dais surrounding the central portion of the stage. The ''[[New York Observer]]'' said that the surrounding seats "serve as Congressional hearing rooms, and as spots for ever-present observers to sit and watch, but mostly they render the stage a coliseum, with everything that happens a battle, or maybe a courtroom: L.B.J. is always on trial."<ref name="Observer"/>

Unlike previous dramatic depictions of Johnson, such as [[Barbara Garson]]'s satirical 1967 play ''[[MacBird!]]'', Johnson is portrayed sympathetically. Writing in ''[[The New York Times]]'', [[Sam Tanenhaus]] said that ''All the Way'' portrays Johnson "as something far more interesting and even inspiring: the last and perhaps greatest of all legislative presidents, with his wizardly grip on the levers of governance at a time when it was still possible for deals to be brokered and favors swapped and for combatants to clash in an atmosphere of respect, if not smiling concord."<ref name="Tanenhaus">{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/09/theater/bryan-cranston-is-playing-lyndon-johnson-on-broadway.html | title=Presidential Chemistry: Bryan Cranston Is Playing Lyndon Johnson on Broadway | work=The New York Times | date=February 5, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | last=Tanenhaus | first=Sam}}</ref>

==Broadway production==
In preparing for the role, Cranston sought to meet [[Robert Caro]], author of a multipart biography of Johnson (''[[The Years of Lyndon Johnson]]''). But Caro refused, telling ''The New York Times'': "I didn’t want to see someone playing Lyndon Johnson or talk to the actor playing him because I was afraid that image would become blurred for me. The better the actor the more danger there would be that that would happen.”<ref name="Caro">{{cite news | url=http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/02/10/robert-caro-l-b-j-and-all-the-way/ | title=Robert Caro, L.B.J. and ‘All The Way’ | work=The New York Times | date=February 10, 2014 | accessdate=March 15, 2014 | last=Tanenhaus | first=Sam}}</ref>

===Cast===
*[[Lyndon B. Johnson]], played by [[Bryan Cranston]]
*[[Lady Bird Johnson]]/[[Katharine Graham]], played by [[Betsy Aidem]]
*[[Walter Jenkins]], played by [[Christopher Liam Moore]]
*[[Hubert Humphrey]], played by [[Robert Petkoff]]
*[[Richard Russell, Jr.|Richard Russell]], played by [[John McMartin]]
*[[Martin Luther King]], played by [[Brandon J. Dirden]]
*[[J. Edgar Hoover]], played by [[Michael McKean]]
*[[Stanley Levison]]/[[John William McCormack|John McCormack]], played by [[Ethan Phillips]]
*[[Karl Mundt]], played by [[Bill Timoney]]

==Critical reception==
The Broadway production received generally favorable reviews, with Bryan Cranston's performance singled out for praise.

Writing in ''[[The New York Times]]'', [[Charles Isherwood]] called ''All the Way'' a "dense but mostly absorbing drama, set during the tense first year of Johnson’s presidency following the assassination of President John F. Kennedy." Isherwood praised Cranston as Johnson, saying his "heat-generating performance galvanizes the production. Even when Johnson is offstage or the writing sags with exposition, the show, directed solidly by Bill Rauch, retains the vitalizing imprint of his performance." Other characters such as Hoover and [[George Wallace]] are "merely sketched in," and the play "sorely needs streamlining."<ref name="Isherwood-Broadway">{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/07/theater/bryan-cranston-as-president-johnson-in-all-the-way.html | title=Washington Power Play: Bryan Cranston as President Johnson in ‘All the Way’ | work=The New York Times | date=March 6, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | author=Isherwood, Christopher}}</ref> In his review of the American Repertory Theater production, also starring Cranston, Isherwood said the play "ultimately accrues minimal dramatic momentum."<ref name="Isherwood-ART">{{cite news | url= http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/26/theater/reviews/all-the-way-stars-bryan-cranston-as-lyndon-b-johnson.html | title=An Arm-Twister in the Oval Office: ‘All the Way’ Stars Bryan Cranston as Lyndon B. Johnson | work=The New York Times | date=September 25, 2013 | accessdate=March 15, 2014 | author=Isherwood, Charles}}</ref>

The Broadway production was called "juicy" by the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', which said that Cranston "offers up a restless, hypnotically intense physicality coupled with an intimately forged vulnerability." It said that the lead actor "does not disappoint for a moment, driving the show with a truly riveting life-force and, it seems, painting every up and down in this insecure but notably self-aware president's life on his visage, which he seems to pull and stretch in limitless directions. "<ref name="ChicTribune">{{cite news | url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/theater/sc-ent-0309-all-way-broadway-review-2-20140310,0,3692603.column | title='Breaking Bad' star Bryan Cranston gets his hooks into LBJ | work=The Chicago Tribune | date=March 10, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | author=Jones, Chris}}</ref>

''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' called ''All the Way'' a "jaw-dropping political drama" and a "beautifully built dramatic piece,"<ref name="Variety">{{cite news | url=http://variety.com/2014/legit/reviews/broadway-review-bryan-cranston-lbj-all-the-way-1201127585/ | title=Bryan Cranston owns the role of LBJ in this beautifully built dramatic piece. | work=Variety | date=March 7, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | author=Stasio, Marilyn}}</ref> while New York's ''[[Daily News (New York)|Daily News]]'' said that the play was "talky but terrifically acted."<ref name="Daily News ">{{cite news | url=http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music-arts/theater-review-article-1.1712861 | title='All the Way': Theater review | work=New York Daily News | date=March 6, 2014 | accessdate=14 March 2014 | author=Dziemiamowicz, Joe}}</ref>

==Awards and nominations==
''All the Way'' received four nominations for the 2014 [[Outer Critics Circle Award]]s: Outstanding New Broadway Play, Outstanding Director Of A Play, Outstanding Actor In A Play (Bryan Cranston), and Outstanding Featured Actor In A Play (John McMartin).<ref>{{cite web| last=Gans | first=Andrew | url= http://www.playbill.com/news/article/190274-64th-Annual-Outer-Critics-Circle-Awards-Nominations-Announced-A-Gentlemans-Guide-to-Love-and-Murder-Leads-the-Pack |title=64th Annual Outer Critics Circle Awards Nominations Announced; 'A Gentleman's Guide to Love and Murder' Leads the Pack| work= [[Playbill]] |date=April 22, 2014| accessdate=30 April 2014}}</ref> The play won two awards: Outstanding New Broadway Play and Outstanding Actor In A Play (Bryan Cranston).<ref>Gans, Andrew.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/191022-64th-Annual-Outer-Critics-Circle-Award-Winners-Announced-Gentlemans-Guide-Wins-Four-Awards 64th Annual Outer Critics Circle Award Winners Announced; 'Gentleman's Guide' Wins Four Awards"] playbill.com, May 12, 2014</ref>

The play won the 2014 [[Drama League Award]], Distinguished Production of a Play.<ref>Gans, Andrew. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/191235-80th-Annual-Drama-League-Award-Winners-Announced-Neil-Patrick-Harris-Wins-Distinguished-Performance-Honor "80th Annual Drama League Award Winners Announced; Neil Patrick Harris Wins Distinguished Performance Honor"] playbill.com, May 16, 2014</ref>

The play received five nominations for the 2014 [[Drama Desk Award]]s: Outstanding Play; Outstanding Actor in a Play (Bryan Cranston); Outstanding Director of a Play (Bill Rauch); Outstanding Projection Design (Shawn Sagady); and Outstanding Sound Design in a Play (Paul James Prenderagst) It won the awards for Outstanding Play and Outstanding Actor in a Play.<ref>Gans, Andrew. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/191799-Winners-of-59th-Annual-Drama-Desk-Awards-Announced-Gentlemans-Guide-and-All-the-Way-Win-Top-Prizes "Winners of 59th Annual Drama Desk Awards Announced; 'Gentleman's Guide' and 'All the Way' Win Top Prizes"] playbill.com, June 1, 2014</ref>

The play received two nominations for the [[68th Tony Awards]]: [[Tony Award for Best Play|Best Play]] and [[Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play|Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play]] for Bryan Cranston, winning both.<ref>Staff.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/192094-Just-the-Winners-Please-Who-Won-the-68th-Annual-Tony-Awards "Just the Winners, Please: Who Won the 68th Annual Tony Awards"] playbill.com, June 8, 2014</ref>

==Film adaptation==
{{main|All the Way (film)}}
A television film based on the play starring Cranston, written by Schenkkan, and directed by [[Jay Roach]] will premiere on [[HBO]] on May 21, 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comingsoon.net/tv/news/471601-hbo-goes-all-the-way-with-bryan-cranston |title=HBO Goes All the Way with Bryan Cranston |date=August 13, 2015 |publisher=Comingsoon.net |accessdate=September 19, 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1954–68) in popular culture|African-American Civil Rights Movement in popular culture]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=32em|refs=
<ref name="OSF">{{cite web| url= http://www.osfashland.org/productions/plays/all-the-way.aspx |title= All the Way |year=2012 |publisher= [[Oregon Shakespeare Festival]]| accessdate= 30 March 2014}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
*[http://www.osfashland.org/productions/plays/all-the-way.aspx Official website] of the OSF production
*[http://allthewaybroadway.com/ Official website] of the Broadway production
*{{IBDB title|495850|All the Way}}
*{{cite web| url=http://playbill.com/events/event_detail/26967-All-the-Way-at-Neil-Simon-Theatre | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140330021820/http://playbill.com/events/event_detail/26967-All-the-Way-at-Neil-Simon-Theatre | title= All the Way| archivedate= 30 March 2014 | publisher= [[Playbill]]}}

{{DramaDesk Play 2001–2025}}
{{TonyAward Play 2001–2025}}
{{Lyndon B. Johnson}}
{{Martin Luther King, Jr.|state=collapsed}}
{{African-American Civil Rights Movement}}

[[Category:American plays]]
[[Category:Broadway plays]]
[[Category:2012 plays]]
[[Category:Plays set in the 20th century]]
[[Category:African-American Civil Rights Movement (1954–68)]]
[[Category:88th United States Congress]]
[[Category:Historical plays]]
[[Category:Tony Award winning plays]]
[[Category:Drama Desk Award-winning plays]]
[[Category:African-American Civil Rights Movement (1954–68) in popular culture]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Lyndon B. Johnson]]

Melrose High School (Massachusetts)

2016-02-07T02:57:27Z

Jprg1966: /* Notable alumni and faculty */

{{For|other schools of a similar name|Melrose High School (disambiguation){{!}}Melrose High School}}
{{infobox School
|name=Melrose High School
|image=Melrose high school (partial front).jpg
|type=Public
|location=360 [[Lynn Fells Parkway]], [[Melrose, Massachusetts|Melrose]], [[Massachusetts]] 02176
|coordinates={{coord|42|27|52|N|71|3|57|W|type:edu_region:US-MA|display=inline, title}}
|mascot=Red Raider
|colors=Red & White {{colorbox|red}} {{colorbox|white}}
|rivals=[[Wakefield High School (Massachusetts)|Wakefield High School]] ([[Wakefield, Massachusetts|Wakefield, MA]]; borders Melrose to the north)
|grades=[[ninth grade|9]]–[[twelfth grade|12]]
|website=[http://www.melroseschools.com/mhs www.melroseschools.com/mhs]
|district=[[Melrose Public Schools]]
|students=987<ref name="enrollment">{{ cite web | title = FY2011 Budget | url = http://melroseschools.com/msc/budget_reports/FY2011/FY2011_Budget.pdf|date=2010-07-01|publisher=''Melrose Public Schools''|accessdate=2010-08-27}}</ref>
|SAT=523 verbal 522 math 509 writing 1554 total (2014-2015)<ref>http://profiles.doe.mass.edu/state_report/sat_perf.aspx</ref>
|principal=Marianne A. Farrell (Interim)
|free_label=School Type
|free_text=Non-vocational high school
}}
'''Melrose High School''' (MHS) is a [[public high school]] serving children in grades [[ninth grade|9]]–[[twelfth grade|12]]. It is located at 360 [[Lynn Fells Parkway]] in [[Melrose, Massachusetts]] and is Melrose's only high school. Enrollment for the 2010–2011 school year is 987 students.<ref name=enrollment/> The school is accredited by the New England Association of Schools & Colleges (NEASC) and is a member of the [[METCO]] program.

==History==

===1868–1897: first high school===
Melrose High School began teaching children in the 1800s and has called several buildings home. The oldest known location is on West Emerson Street where the Melrose Public Library now stands. On March 30, 1868, Melrose appropriated $20,000 for the construction of the high school on a {{convert|30000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} lot located on the corner of West Emerson Street and Lake Avenue. An Additional $7,500 was added to the price tag of the school on January 19, 1869 and on July 15, 1869, the school was finished and dedicated. Almost thirty years later on January 25, 1897, a fire destroyed the building.<ref name=histmel>{{cite book|last=Goss|first=Elbridge Henry||title=The History of Melrose|publisher=A. W. Dunton & Co.|year=1902|location=[[Melrose, Massachusetts|Melrose, MA]]|pages=192–200|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MA98PsSsa9oC&pg=RA5-PA341&lpg=RA5-PA341&dq=%22history+of+melrose+hospital%22%22&source=web&ots=0QKeKtbDhw&sig=kQIlzWKFYhqL7mERnOaasO5RjLQ&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPP8,M1}}</ref>

[[File:Coolidgeapartments.JPG|170px|thumb|left|Melrose High School (1898–1931)]]

===1898–1931: second high school===
The building on West Emerson Street quickly became too small for the growing community and so at the [[town meeting]] held on February 24, 1896, the town allocated $100,000 for the building of a new high school. The town selected a lot of land known as the "Old Burial Ground" on Main Street across from the Central Fire Station as the location for the new school building. On August 1, 1898, an additional $3,000 was appropriated for site work around the building. The school was dedicated on September 17, 1898 and at the time, was one of the "finest school buildings to be found in [[New England]]".<ref name=histmel /> Two additional wings were added to the main building and opened in 1909.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/csmonitor_historic/access/176238932.html?dids=176238932:176238932&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&date=Sep+02%2C+1909&author=&pub=Christian+Science+Monitor&desc=MELROSE+HIGH+SCHOOL+OPENING.&pqatl=google|title=Melrose High School Opening|date=September 2, 1909|work=[[Christian Science Monitor]]|accessdate=September 28, 2010|author=Staff}}</ref>

===1932–1974: third high school===
[[File:melrose middle school.jpg|170px|thumb|left|Melrose High School (1932–1974)]]
In 1932, another new school was built and the previous school building became the [[Calvin Coolidge]] Elementary School. This time the new building was built on swamp land taken from Ell Pond on [[Lynn Fells Parkway]]. It was a very large school, featuring a 900-seat Auditorium and a full size gymnasium. 1961 saw the addition of the Daffinee Gymnasium which contained new locker rooms for both basketball and football and also extra classroom space. The addition also included the construction of a three-floor annex attached by a bridge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cityofmelrose.org/departments/opcd/Plan_elements/schools.htm |title=Schools Section of the Master Plan |year=2002 |publisher=[[Melrose, Massachusetts|City of Melrose]] |accessdate=2008-08-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20060820063643/http://www.cityofmelrose.org:80/departments/opcd/Plan_elements/schools.htm |archivedate=August 20, 2006}}</ref> Many historians praised the main building for its period design and architectural beauty.

===1975–2004: fourth high school===
[[File:Melrose high school (whole front).jpg|170px|thumb|left|Melrose High School (1975–present)]]
In 1975, a new "modern" Melrose High School opened next-door to the old one, which became the middle school. This building is renowned for its "open spaces," which were large open areas with movable walls.<ref name="plan">{{cite web|url=http://www.melroseschools.com/frame_news.asp?thefile=administration/Strategic_Plan/Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010.pdf&thetitle=Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010 |title=Melrose Public Schools – Strategic Plan |date=2005-12-o1 |publisher=[[Melrose Public Schools]] |accessdate=2008-08-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20061017221606/http://www.melroseschools.com/frame_news.asp?thefile=administration/Strategic_Plan/Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010.pdf&thetitle=Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010 |archivedate=October 17, 2006}}</ref> Less than half of the buildings classrooms were in open spaces and the rest were triangular in shape. The school was supposedly built by an architect who also designed prisons and the building style reflects this. Numerous classrooms contain no windows and masonry is the main building material. Windows appear in a select few classrooms and are plentiful, yet most don't open. There is a constantly running air circulation system to combat the window problem and this also cools the building in the summer.

===2005–present: renovations===
In Summer 2005, walls were constructed in the second- and third-floor open spaces creating fourteen separate classrooms. The work was done in conjunction with the project to build a new middle school on the site of the third high school and done as a requirement of an NEASC accreditation report.<ref name="plan" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=BG&p_theme=bg&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=10EA9123609E4BC8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=Development Discussed|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|date=2005-12-18|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> For two years while the construction of the new middle school occurred, eighth-graders occupied the new classrooms. After Summer 2007, regular high school classes resumed in the former open space.

On October 16, 2007, [[Robert J. Dolan (politician)|Mayor Robert Dolan]] announced that the building would undergo major renovations within the next four years. The [[United States dollar|$]]3–4 million renovation will include the installation of "SmartBoards" in all 78 classrooms, improved lighting, roof replacement, and repainting the entire school.<ref name=renovations>{{ cite web |title=Mayor announces plan to revitalize high school|url=http://www.wickedlocal.com/melrose/archive/x1633047500|work=Melrose Free Press|publisher=[[GateHouse Media]]|date=2007-10-18|accessdate=2008-01-25|author=Demaina, Daniel}}</ref> The first phase, with construction that occurred in Summer 2008, costing $1.44 million and was for the installation and purchase of the "SmartBoards" and the electrical work needed to accommodate the additional technology for the boards. This phase also added or improved internet, phone, and cable television connections throughout the school.<ref name=renovations /> By the start of the 2008-09 school year, September 4, 2008, 70 fixed position smart boards and four portable ones were ready for use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wickedlocal.com/melrose/news/x1001331870/BACK-TO-SCHOOL|title=Schools' physical changes: Technology upgrades, Franklin renovations highlight summer changes|last=DeMaina|first=Daniel|date=2008-09-03|work=Melrose Free Press|publisher=[[GateHouse Media]]|accessdate=2008-09-04}}</ref>

During the year 2012 to 2013 the high school underwent major renovation of its science classrooms. The school put money into replacing all of its dated science classrooms with ones that include updated appliances and labs. The classrooms were finished and ready for use in September 2013. The newly renovated classrooms were completed with new computers and state of the art labs.

==School life==
The school has several successful sports programs, the most notable being the recent success of the girls volleyball, boys football, and girls lacrosse. In 2014, the girls varsity lacrosse team made the playoffs, the first time in the programs history. Also notable are its wide array of clubs, many of which are active within the community.

==Notable alumni and faculty==
*[[Elizabeth Dole]] worked as a student teacher at MHS during the 1959–60 school year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=BG&p_theme=bg&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EADDDE3B2F98FA4&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=Dole Returns to Melrose Classroom|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|date=1999-09-21|accessdate=2008-07-20|author=Leonard, Mary}}</ref>
*[[Ryan Johnson (soccer)|Ryan Johnson]], a 2002 graduate, plays [[Major League Soccer]] for the [[San Jose Earthquakes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mlssoccer.com/player/ryan-johnson|title=Players - Ryan Johnson|last=Staff|publisher=[[Major League Soccer]]|accessdate=April 18, 2010}}</ref>
*[[Ken Reid (comedian)]], a 1998 graduate, is a stand up comedian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ikenreid.com|title=IKenReid.com}}</ref>
*Nick DeVita, a 2004 graduate, an actor who has appeared in numerous commercial campaigns for [[Best Buy]] and for [[Sony]]. He is also an Artistic Associate and actor for the [[Hudson Warehouse]] theater company in New York City. He also serves on their board of directors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.NickDeVita.com|title=NickDeVita.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hudsonwarehouse.net|title=Hudson Warehouse}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Massachusetts Public High Schools}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Melrose, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Schools in Middlesex County, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Public high schools in Massachusetts]]

Melrose High School (Massachusetts)

2016-02-07T02:56:55Z

Jprg1966: /* School Life */

{{For|other schools of a similar name|Melrose High School (disambiguation){{!}}Melrose High School}}
{{infobox School
|name=Melrose High School
|image=Melrose high school (partial front).jpg
|type=Public
|location=360 [[Lynn Fells Parkway]], [[Melrose, Massachusetts|Melrose]], [[Massachusetts]] 02176
|coordinates={{coord|42|27|52|N|71|3|57|W|type:edu_region:US-MA|display=inline, title}}
|mascot=Red Raider
|colors=Red & White {{colorbox|red}} {{colorbox|white}}
|rivals=[[Wakefield High School (Massachusetts)|Wakefield High School]] ([[Wakefield, Massachusetts|Wakefield, MA]]; borders Melrose to the north)
|grades=[[ninth grade|9]]–[[twelfth grade|12]]
|website=[http://www.melroseschools.com/mhs www.melroseschools.com/mhs]
|district=[[Melrose Public Schools]]
|students=987<ref name="enrollment">{{ cite web | title = FY2011 Budget | url = http://melroseschools.com/msc/budget_reports/FY2011/FY2011_Budget.pdf|date=2010-07-01|publisher=''Melrose Public Schools''|accessdate=2010-08-27}}</ref>
|SAT=523 verbal 522 math 509 writing 1554 total (2014-2015)<ref>http://profiles.doe.mass.edu/state_report/sat_perf.aspx</ref>
|principal=Marianne A. Farrell (Interim)
|free_label=School Type
|free_text=Non-vocational high school
}}
'''Melrose High School''' (MHS) is a [[public high school]] serving children in grades [[ninth grade|9]]–[[twelfth grade|12]]. It is located at 360 [[Lynn Fells Parkway]] in [[Melrose, Massachusetts]] and is Melrose's only high school. Enrollment for the 2010–2011 school year is 987 students.<ref name=enrollment/> The school is accredited by the New England Association of Schools & Colleges (NEASC) and is a member of the [[METCO]] program.

==History==

===1868–1897: first high school===
Melrose High School began teaching children in the 1800s and has called several buildings home. The oldest known location is on West Emerson Street where the Melrose Public Library now stands. On March 30, 1868, Melrose appropriated $20,000 for the construction of the high school on a {{convert|30000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} lot located on the corner of West Emerson Street and Lake Avenue. An Additional $7,500 was added to the price tag of the school on January 19, 1869 and on July 15, 1869, the school was finished and dedicated. Almost thirty years later on January 25, 1897, a fire destroyed the building.<ref name=histmel>{{cite book|last=Goss|first=Elbridge Henry||title=The History of Melrose|publisher=A. W. Dunton & Co.|year=1902|location=[[Melrose, Massachusetts|Melrose, MA]]|pages=192–200|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MA98PsSsa9oC&pg=RA5-PA341&lpg=RA5-PA341&dq=%22history+of+melrose+hospital%22%22&source=web&ots=0QKeKtbDhw&sig=kQIlzWKFYhqL7mERnOaasO5RjLQ&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPP8,M1}}</ref>

[[File:Coolidgeapartments.JPG|170px|thumb|left|Melrose High School (1898–1931)]]

===1898–1931: second high school===
The building on West Emerson Street quickly became too small for the growing community and so at the [[town meeting]] held on February 24, 1896, the town allocated $100,000 for the building of a new high school. The town selected a lot of land known as the "Old Burial Ground" on Main Street across from the Central Fire Station as the location for the new school building. On August 1, 1898, an additional $3,000 was appropriated for site work around the building. The school was dedicated on September 17, 1898 and at the time, was one of the "finest school buildings to be found in [[New England]]".<ref name=histmel /> Two additional wings were added to the main building and opened in 1909.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/csmonitor_historic/access/176238932.html?dids=176238932:176238932&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&date=Sep+02%2C+1909&author=&pub=Christian+Science+Monitor&desc=MELROSE+HIGH+SCHOOL+OPENING.&pqatl=google|title=Melrose High School Opening|date=September 2, 1909|work=[[Christian Science Monitor]]|accessdate=September 28, 2010|author=Staff}}</ref>

===1932–1974: third high school===
[[File:melrose middle school.jpg|170px|thumb|left|Melrose High School (1932–1974)]]
In 1932, another new school was built and the previous school building became the [[Calvin Coolidge]] Elementary School. This time the new building was built on swamp land taken from Ell Pond on [[Lynn Fells Parkway]]. It was a very large school, featuring a 900-seat Auditorium and a full size gymnasium. 1961 saw the addition of the Daffinee Gymnasium which contained new locker rooms for both basketball and football and also extra classroom space. The addition also included the construction of a three-floor annex attached by a bridge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cityofmelrose.org/departments/opcd/Plan_elements/schools.htm |title=Schools Section of the Master Plan |year=2002 |publisher=[[Melrose, Massachusetts|City of Melrose]] |accessdate=2008-08-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20060820063643/http://www.cityofmelrose.org:80/departments/opcd/Plan_elements/schools.htm |archivedate=August 20, 2006}}</ref> Many historians praised the main building for its period design and architectural beauty.

===1975–2004: fourth high school===
[[File:Melrose high school (whole front).jpg|170px|thumb|left|Melrose High School (1975–present)]]
In 1975, a new "modern" Melrose High School opened next-door to the old one, which became the middle school. This building is renowned for its "open spaces," which were large open areas with movable walls.<ref name="plan">{{cite web|url=http://www.melroseschools.com/frame_news.asp?thefile=administration/Strategic_Plan/Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010.pdf&thetitle=Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010 |title=Melrose Public Schools – Strategic Plan |date=2005-12-o1 |publisher=[[Melrose Public Schools]] |accessdate=2008-08-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20061017221606/http://www.melroseschools.com/frame_news.asp?thefile=administration/Strategic_Plan/Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010.pdf&thetitle=Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010 |archivedate=October 17, 2006}}</ref> Less than half of the buildings classrooms were in open spaces and the rest were triangular in shape. The school was supposedly built by an architect who also designed prisons and the building style reflects this. Numerous classrooms contain no windows and masonry is the main building material. Windows appear in a select few classrooms and are plentiful, yet most don't open. There is a constantly running air circulation system to combat the window problem and this also cools the building in the summer.

===2005–present: renovations===
In Summer 2005, walls were constructed in the second- and third-floor open spaces creating fourteen separate classrooms. The work was done in conjunction with the project to build a new middle school on the site of the third high school and done as a requirement of an NEASC accreditation report.<ref name="plan" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=BG&p_theme=bg&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=10EA9123609E4BC8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=Development Discussed|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|date=2005-12-18|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> For two years while the construction of the new middle school occurred, eighth-graders occupied the new classrooms. After Summer 2007, regular high school classes resumed in the former open space.

On October 16, 2007, [[Robert J. Dolan (politician)|Mayor Robert Dolan]] announced that the building would undergo major renovations within the next four years. The [[United States dollar|$]]3–4 million renovation will include the installation of "SmartBoards" in all 78 classrooms, improved lighting, roof replacement, and repainting the entire school.<ref name=renovations>{{ cite web |title=Mayor announces plan to revitalize high school|url=http://www.wickedlocal.com/melrose/archive/x1633047500|work=Melrose Free Press|publisher=[[GateHouse Media]]|date=2007-10-18|accessdate=2008-01-25|author=Demaina, Daniel}}</ref> The first phase, with construction that occurred in Summer 2008, costing $1.44 million and was for the installation and purchase of the "SmartBoards" and the electrical work needed to accommodate the additional technology for the boards. This phase also added or improved internet, phone, and cable television connections throughout the school.<ref name=renovations /> By the start of the 2008-09 school year, September 4, 2008, 70 fixed position smart boards and four portable ones were ready for use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wickedlocal.com/melrose/news/x1001331870/BACK-TO-SCHOOL|title=Schools' physical changes: Technology upgrades, Franklin renovations highlight summer changes|last=DeMaina|first=Daniel|date=2008-09-03|work=Melrose Free Press|publisher=[[GateHouse Media]]|accessdate=2008-09-04}}</ref>

During the year 2012 to 2013 the high school underwent major renovation of its science classrooms. The school put money into replacing all of its dated science classrooms with ones that include updated appliances and labs. The classrooms were finished and ready for use in September 2013. The newly renovated classrooms were completed with new computers and state of the art labs.

==School life==
The school has several successful sports programs, the most notable being the recent success of the girls volleyball, boys football, and girls lacrosse. In 2014, the girls varsity lacrosse team made the playoffs, the first time in the programs history. Also notable are its wide array of clubs, many of which are active within the community.

==Notable alumni and faculty==
*[[Elizabeth Dole]] worked as a student teacher at MHS during the 1959-1960 school year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=BG&p_theme=bg&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EADDDE3B2F98FA4&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=Dole Returns to Melrose Classroom|publisher=''[[The Boston Globe]]''|date=1999-09-21|accessdate=2008-07-20|author=Leonard, Mary}}</ref>
*[[Ryan Johnson (soccer)|Ryan Johnson]], a 2002 graduate, plays [[Major League Soccer]] for the [[San Jose Earthquakes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mlssoccer.com/player/ryan-johnson|title=Players - Ryan Johnson|last=Staff|publisher=[[Major League Soccer]]|accessdate=April 18, 2010}}</ref>
*[[Ken Reid (comedian)]], a 1998 graduate, is a stand up comedian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ikenreid.com|title=IKenReid.com}}</ref>
*Nick DeVita, a 2004 graduate, an actor who has appeared in numerous commercial campaigns for [[Best Buy]] and for [[Sony]]. He is also an Artistic Associate and actor for the [[Hudson Warehouse]] theater company in New York City. He also serves on their board of directors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.NickDeVita.com|title=NickDeVita.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hudsonwarehouse.net|title=Hudson Warehouse}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Massachusetts Public High Schools}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Melrose, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Schools in Middlesex County, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Public high schools in Massachusetts]]

Melrose High School (Massachusetts)

2016-02-07T02:56:33Z

Jprg1966: /* History */

{{For|other schools of a similar name|Melrose High School (disambiguation){{!}}Melrose High School}}
{{infobox School
|name=Melrose High School
|image=Melrose high school (partial front).jpg
|type=Public
|location=360 [[Lynn Fells Parkway]], [[Melrose, Massachusetts|Melrose]], [[Massachusetts]] 02176
|coordinates={{coord|42|27|52|N|71|3|57|W|type:edu_region:US-MA|display=inline, title}}
|mascot=Red Raider
|colors=Red & White {{colorbox|red}} {{colorbox|white}}
|rivals=[[Wakefield High School (Massachusetts)|Wakefield High School]] ([[Wakefield, Massachusetts|Wakefield, MA]]; borders Melrose to the north)
|grades=[[ninth grade|9]]–[[twelfth grade|12]]
|website=[http://www.melroseschools.com/mhs www.melroseschools.com/mhs]
|district=[[Melrose Public Schools]]
|students=987<ref name="enrollment">{{ cite web | title = FY2011 Budget | url = http://melroseschools.com/msc/budget_reports/FY2011/FY2011_Budget.pdf|date=2010-07-01|publisher=''Melrose Public Schools''|accessdate=2010-08-27}}</ref>
|SAT=523 verbal 522 math 509 writing 1554 total (2014-2015)<ref>http://profiles.doe.mass.edu/state_report/sat_perf.aspx</ref>
|principal=Marianne A. Farrell (Interim)
|free_label=School Type
|free_text=Non-vocational high school
}}
'''Melrose High School''' (MHS) is a [[public high school]] serving children in grades [[ninth grade|9]]–[[twelfth grade|12]]. It is located at 360 [[Lynn Fells Parkway]] in [[Melrose, Massachusetts]] and is Melrose's only high school. Enrollment for the 2010–2011 school year is 987 students.<ref name=enrollment/> The school is accredited by the New England Association of Schools & Colleges (NEASC) and is a member of the [[METCO]] program.

==History==

===1868–1897: first high school===
Melrose High School began teaching children in the 1800s and has called several buildings home. The oldest known location is on West Emerson Street where the Melrose Public Library now stands. On March 30, 1868, Melrose appropriated $20,000 for the construction of the high school on a {{convert|30000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} lot located on the corner of West Emerson Street and Lake Avenue. An Additional $7,500 was added to the price tag of the school on January 19, 1869 and on July 15, 1869, the school was finished and dedicated. Almost thirty years later on January 25, 1897, a fire destroyed the building.<ref name=histmel>{{cite book|last=Goss|first=Elbridge Henry||title=The History of Melrose|publisher=A. W. Dunton & Co.|year=1902|location=[[Melrose, Massachusetts|Melrose, MA]]|pages=192–200|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MA98PsSsa9oC&pg=RA5-PA341&lpg=RA5-PA341&dq=%22history+of+melrose+hospital%22%22&source=web&ots=0QKeKtbDhw&sig=kQIlzWKFYhqL7mERnOaasO5RjLQ&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPP8,M1}}</ref>

[[File:Coolidgeapartments.JPG|170px|thumb|left|Melrose High School (1898–1931)]]

===1898–1931: second high school===
The building on West Emerson Street quickly became too small for the growing community and so at the [[town meeting]] held on February 24, 1896, the town allocated $100,000 for the building of a new high school. The town selected a lot of land known as the "Old Burial Ground" on Main Street across from the Central Fire Station as the location for the new school building. On August 1, 1898, an additional $3,000 was appropriated for site work around the building. The school was dedicated on September 17, 1898 and at the time, was one of the "finest school buildings to be found in [[New England]]".<ref name=histmel /> Two additional wings were added to the main building and opened in 1909.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/csmonitor_historic/access/176238932.html?dids=176238932:176238932&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&date=Sep+02%2C+1909&author=&pub=Christian+Science+Monitor&desc=MELROSE+HIGH+SCHOOL+OPENING.&pqatl=google|title=Melrose High School Opening|date=September 2, 1909|work=[[Christian Science Monitor]]|accessdate=September 28, 2010|author=Staff}}</ref>

===1932–1974: third high school===
[[File:melrose middle school.jpg|170px|thumb|left|Melrose High School (1932–1974)]]
In 1932, another new school was built and the previous school building became the [[Calvin Coolidge]] Elementary School. This time the new building was built on swamp land taken from Ell Pond on [[Lynn Fells Parkway]]. It was a very large school, featuring a 900-seat Auditorium and a full size gymnasium. 1961 saw the addition of the Daffinee Gymnasium which contained new locker rooms for both basketball and football and also extra classroom space. The addition also included the construction of a three-floor annex attached by a bridge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cityofmelrose.org/departments/opcd/Plan_elements/schools.htm |title=Schools Section of the Master Plan |year=2002 |publisher=[[Melrose, Massachusetts|City of Melrose]] |accessdate=2008-08-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20060820063643/http://www.cityofmelrose.org:80/departments/opcd/Plan_elements/schools.htm |archivedate=August 20, 2006}}</ref> Many historians praised the main building for its period design and architectural beauty.

===1975–2004: fourth high school===
[[File:Melrose high school (whole front).jpg|170px|thumb|left|Melrose High School (1975–present)]]
In 1975, a new "modern" Melrose High School opened next-door to the old one, which became the middle school. This building is renowned for its "open spaces," which were large open areas with movable walls.<ref name="plan">{{cite web|url=http://www.melroseschools.com/frame_news.asp?thefile=administration/Strategic_Plan/Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010.pdf&thetitle=Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010 |title=Melrose Public Schools – Strategic Plan |date=2005-12-o1 |publisher=[[Melrose Public Schools]] |accessdate=2008-08-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20061017221606/http://www.melroseschools.com/frame_news.asp?thefile=administration/Strategic_Plan/Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010.pdf&thetitle=Strategic%20Plan%202005-2010 |archivedate=October 17, 2006}}</ref> Less than half of the buildings classrooms were in open spaces and the rest were triangular in shape. The school was supposedly built by an architect who also designed prisons and the building style reflects this. Numerous classrooms contain no windows and masonry is the main building material. Windows appear in a select few classrooms and are plentiful, yet most don't open. There is a constantly running air circulation system to combat the window problem and this also cools the building in the summer.

===2005–present: renovations===
In Summer 2005, walls were constructed in the second- and third-floor open spaces creating fourteen separate classrooms. The work was done in conjunction with the project to build a new middle school on the site of the third high school and done as a requirement of an NEASC accreditation report.<ref name="plan" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=BG&p_theme=bg&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=10EA9123609E4BC8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=Development Discussed|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|date=2005-12-18|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> For two years while the construction of the new middle school occurred, eighth-graders occupied the new classrooms. After Summer 2007, regular high school classes resumed in the former open space.

On October 16, 2007, [[Robert J. Dolan (politician)|Mayor Robert Dolan]] announced that the building would undergo major renovations within the next four years. The [[United States dollar|$]]3–4 million renovation will include the installation of "SmartBoards" in all 78 classrooms, improved lighting, roof replacement, and repainting the entire school.<ref name=renovations>{{ cite web |title=Mayor announces plan to revitalize high school|url=http://www.wickedlocal.com/melrose/archive/x1633047500|work=Melrose Free Press|publisher=[[GateHouse Media]]|date=2007-10-18|accessdate=2008-01-25|author=Demaina, Daniel}}</ref> The first phase, with construction that occurred in Summer 2008, costing $1.44 million and was for the installation and purchase of the "SmartBoards" and the electrical work needed to accommodate the additional technology for the boards. This phase also added or improved internet, phone, and cable television connections throughout the school.<ref name=renovations /> By the start of the 2008-09 school year, September 4, 2008, 70 fixed position smart boards and four portable ones were ready for use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wickedlocal.com/melrose/news/x1001331870/BACK-TO-SCHOOL|title=Schools' physical changes: Technology upgrades, Franklin renovations highlight summer changes|last=DeMaina|first=Daniel|date=2008-09-03|work=Melrose Free Press|publisher=[[GateHouse Media]]|accessdate=2008-09-04}}</ref>

During the year 2012 to 2013 the high school underwent major renovation of its science classrooms. The school put money into replacing all of its dated science classrooms with ones that include updated appliances and labs. The classrooms were finished and ready for use in September 2013. The newly renovated classrooms were completed with new computers and state of the art labs.

==School Life==
The school has several successful sports programs, the most notable being the recent success of the girls volleyball, boys football, and girls lacrosse. In 2014, the girls varsity lacrosse team made the playoffs, the first time in the programs history. Also notable are its wide array of clubs, many of which are active within the community.

==Notable alumni and faculty==
*[[Elizabeth Dole]] worked as a student teacher at MHS during the 1959-1960 school year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=BG&p_theme=bg&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EADDDE3B2F98FA4&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=Dole Returns to Melrose Classroom|publisher=''[[The Boston Globe]]''|date=1999-09-21|accessdate=2008-07-20|author=Leonard, Mary}}</ref>
*[[Ryan Johnson (soccer)|Ryan Johnson]], a 2002 graduate, plays [[Major League Soccer]] for the [[San Jose Earthquakes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mlssoccer.com/player/ryan-johnson|title=Players - Ryan Johnson|last=Staff|publisher=[[Major League Soccer]]|accessdate=April 18, 2010}}</ref>
*[[Ken Reid (comedian)]], a 1998 graduate, is a stand up comedian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ikenreid.com|title=IKenReid.com}}</ref>
*Nick DeVita, a 2004 graduate, an actor who has appeared in numerous commercial campaigns for [[Best Buy]] and for [[Sony]]. He is also an Artistic Associate and actor for the [[Hudson Warehouse]] theater company in New York City. He also serves on their board of directors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.NickDeVita.com|title=NickDeVita.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hudsonwarehouse.net|title=Hudson Warehouse}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Massachusetts Public High Schools}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Melrose, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Schools in Middlesex County, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Public high schools in Massachusetts]]

Disposition Matrix

2016-02-03T03:26:33Z

Jprg1966: /* Drone strike casualties */

{{redirect|Kill list|the 2011 British horror film|Kill List}}
[[File:Predator and Hellfire.jpg|thumb|[[General Atomics MQ-1 Predator|Predator drone]] launching a [[AGM-114 Hellfire|Hellfire]] missile of the kind used to kill terrorism suspects.]]
The '''Disposition Matrix''' is a database that United States officials describe as a "next-generation capture/kill list".<ref name=wp1023>{{cite news |title=Plan for hunting terrorists signals U.S. intends to keep adding names to kill lists |first=Greg |last=Miller |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/plan-for-hunting-terrorists-signals-us-intends-to-keep-adding-names-to-kill-lists/2012/10/23/4789b2ae-18b3-11e2-a55c-39408fbe6a4b_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=23 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BhgBoJsz |archivedate=26 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Developed by the [[Presidency of Barack Obama|Obama Administration]] beginning in 2010, the "Disposition Matrix" goes beyond existing kill lists, and creates a blueprint for tracking, capturing, [[Extraordinary rendition|rendering]], or killing suspected enemies of the US government. It is intended to become a permanent fixture of American policy.<ref name=wp1023 /> The process determining criteria for killing is not public, but has been heavily shaped by presidential counterterrorism adviser and CIA director [[John O. Brennan|John Brennan]].<ref name=wp1024>{{cite news |title=A CIA veteran transforms U.S. counterterrorism policy |first=Karen |last=DeYoung |authorlink=Karen DeYoung |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/cia-veteran-john-brennan-has-transformed-us-counterterrorism-policy/2012/10/24/318b8eec-1c7c-11e2-ad90-ba5920e56eb3_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=24 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BhkFh90y |archivedate=26 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

Though [[White House]], [[National Counterterrorism Center]] (NCTC) and [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) spokesmen have declined to comment on the database, officials have stated privately that kill lists will expand "for at least another decade", if not indefinitely. One official stated, "It’s a necessary part of what we do."<ref name=wp1023 /> [[Paul R. Pillar]], the former deputy director of the CIA’s counterterrorism center, has stated, "We are looking at something that is potentially indefinite."<ref name=wp1023 />

The database's existence was revealed by a three part series published in ''[[The Washington Post]]''. The ''Post'' noted that as of their publication, the number of civilian and militant casualties resulting from American [[drone strike]]s would soon exceed the number of people killed in the [[September 11th attacks]].<ref name=wp1023 />

==Purpose==
{{Quote box
| quote = "We can’t possibly kill everyone who wants to harm us... It’s a necessary part of what we do. . . . We’re not going to wind up in 10 years in a world of everybody holding hands and saying, ‘We love America.’"
| source = – Unnamed senior Obama Administration official, ''[[Washington Post]],'' 23 October 2012.<ref name=wp1023 />
| width = 40%
| align = right
}}

The creation of the Disposition Matrix database is part of an effort embraced by U.S. [[United States Homeland Security Council|Homeland Security]] adviser [[John O. Brennan]] to codify the targeted killing policies developed by President [[Barack Obama|Obama]]. Under the [[Presidency of George W. Bush]], Brennan served as top aide to CIA director [[George Tenet]], where he defended the administration's use of [[extraordinary rendition]], [[enhanced interrogation techniques|enhanced interrogation]] and [[torture]] by definition according to international standards.<ref name=ws1025>{{cite news |title=Obama institutionalizes state assassinations |first=Bill |last=Van Auken |authorlink=Bill Van Auken |url=http://wsws.org/articles/2012/oct2012/dron-o25.shtml |newspaper=World Socialist Web Site |date=25 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BhOZ74aQ |archivedate=26 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Brennan's association with the CIA's interrogation program was controversial, and forced him to withdraw his candidacy for directorship of the CIA or National Intelligence in 2008.<ref name=withdraw>{{cite news |title=Brennan Withdraws From Consideration for Administration Post |first=Joby |last=Warrick |authorlink=Joby Warrick |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/11/25/AR2008112501028.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=25 November 2008 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BhkHwZ5Q |archivedate=26 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

According to the ''[[New York Times]]'', Brennan has been the "principal coordinator" of American kill lists. Former Obama administration counter-terrorism official Daniel Benjamin has stated that Brennan "probably had more power and influence than anyone in a comparable position in the last 20 years."<ref name=nyt20130205a>{{cite news|newspaper=The New York Times|date=5 February 2013|accessdate=5 February 2013|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/06/world/middleeast/with-brennan-pick-a-light-on-drone-strikes-hazards.html|title=Drone Strikes’ Dangers to Get Rare Moment in Public Eye|first1=Robert|last1=Worth|first2=Mark|last2=Mazzetti|first3=Scott|last3=Shane}}</ref>

The database's creation also accompanies an expansion of the drone fleet, turning the CIA into a "paramilitary force" according to the ''Washington Post''. It is associated with increased [[Joint Special Operations Command]] (JSOC) operations in Africa, and increased JSOC involvement in forming kill lists.<ref name=wp1023 /> The database has unified originally separate but overlapping kill lists maintained by both JSOC and the CIA, and was originally proposed by former NCTC director [[Michael Leiter]].<ref name=wp1023 />

==Scope==
[[File:John Brennan.jpg|thumb|right|[[John O. Brennan]], current director of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and chief counter-terrorism advisor to U.S. President [[Barack Obama]].]]
The Disposition Matrix database catalogues biographies, locations, associates, and affiliations of suspects. It also catalogues strategies for finding, capturing, or killing suspects, or subjecting them to extraordinary rendition.<ref name=wp1023 /> The database continues to direct American operations in [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], [[Somalia]] and [[Yemen]], and will facilitate expanded operations in [[Algeria]], [[Egypt]], [[Mali]], [[Libya]], [[Iran]], and throughout east Africa.<ref name=wp1023/>

A clear example of the expansion of targeted killing as managed by the database is the U.S. military base in Djibouti City, [[Djibouti]], near [[Somalia]].<ref name=wp1025>{{cite news |title=Remote U.S. base at core of secret operations |first=Craig |last=Whitlock |authorlink=Craig Whitlock |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/remote-us-base-at-core-of-secret-operations/2012/10/25/a26a9392-197a-11e2-bd10-5ff056538b7c_story.html?hpid=z2 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=25 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BhkIaGeU |archivedate=26 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Called [[Camp Lemonnier]] and originally created by the [[French Foreign Legion]], the camp has clandestinely become the largest U.S. drone base outside Afghanistan. About 3,200 U.S. soldiers, contractors and civilians are assigned to the camp, 300 of whom are special operations personnel.<ref name=wp1025 />

One terrorism suspect on the Disposition Matrix is Somali citizen [[Ahmed Abdulkadir Warsame]], currently a prisoner of the United States being held in New York.<ref name=wp1023 />

==Process==
{{Quote box
| quote = "I tend to do what I think is right. But I find much more comfort, I guess, in the views and values of this president".
| source = – [[John O. Brennan]] in August 2012. ''[[Washington Post]],'' 24 October 2012.<ref name=wp1024 />
| width = 40%
| align = right
}}
The database eliminates the prior system of dual (but not judicial) scrutiny by both [[The Pentagon]] and the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]], instead using a "streamlined" system in which suspects are designated by multiple agencies and ultimately presented to Brennan and the Vice President.<ref name=wp1023 /> The head of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], responsible for carrying out orders to kill suspects on the list, no longer contributes to the decision of whether or not to kill them.<ref name=wp1023 />

Instead, the [[National Counterterrorism Center|NCTC]] plays a greater role in determining targets, which they generate at the request of the White House. The criteria and decisions determining who may be targeted for killing are developed in large part by John Brennan, who "wields enormous power in shaping decisions on 'kill' lists and the allocation of armed drones".<ref name=wp1024 /> Targets are reviewed every three months with input from the CIA and JSOC, before being passed on top officials in the NCTC, CIA, JSOC, the National Security Council, Pentagon, and [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]].<ref name=wp1023 /> Ultimately, the authority to kill a suspect outside Pakistan must be approved by the President.<ref name=wp1023 />

The review process also allows the killing of individuals whose identities are unknown, but who are thought to be engaged in certain activities, for instance packing a vehicle with explosives.<ref name=wp1023 />

As reported previously, American citizens may be listed as targets for killing in the database.<ref name=will /> Suspects are not formally charged of any crime or offered a trial in their own defense.<ref name=ws1026>{{cite news |title=Institutionalized state assassinations and the November 6 election |first=Bill |last=Van Auken |authorlink=Bill Van Auken |url=http://wsws.org/articles/2012/oct2012/pers-o26.shtml |newspaper=World Socialist Web Site |date=26 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6Bp3lKT98 |archivedate=31 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Obama administration lawyers have asserted that American citizens alleged to be members of Al Qaeda and said to pose an "imminent threat of violent attack" against the United States may be killed without judicial process.<ref name=nyt20130205b>{{cite news|title=Memo Cites Legal Basis for Killing U.S. Citizens in Al Qaeda|newspaper=The New York Times|first1=Charlie|first2=Scott|last1=Savage|last2=Shane|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/05/us/politics/us-memo-details-views-on-killing-citizens-in-al-qaeda.html|date=5 February 2013|accessdate=5 February 2013}}</ref> The legal arguments of US officials for this policy were leaked to NBC News in February 2013, in the form of briefing papers summarizing legal memos from October 2011.<ref name=nyt20130205b />

==Endorsement==
Officials describing the Disposition Matrix have described it as legally and morally sound, and the ''Washington Post'' has written that "internal doubts about the effectiveness of the drone campaign are almost nonexistent".<ref name=wp1023 /> U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] has called the decision to kill American citizen and terrorism suspect [[Anwar al-Awlaki]] "an easy one",<ref name=will>{{cite news |title=Secret ‘Kill List’ Proves a Test of Obama’s Principles and Will |first1=Scott |last1=Shane |first2=Jo |last2=Becker |authorlink2=Jo Becker |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/29/world/obamas-leadership-in-war-on-al-qaeda.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=29 May 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BhOaw6G3 |archivedate=26 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> and shares counterterrorism views with Brennan, the principal architect of the criteria used when making suspects targets in the database. Referring to President Obama's view of drone strikes, Brennan has stated, "I don’t think we’ve had a disagreement".<ref name=wp1024 />

U.S. officials speaking to the ''Washington Post'' seemed "confident that they have devised an approach that is so bureaucratically, legally and morally sound that future administrations will follow suit".<ref name=wp1023 /> Brennan, a principal architect of the "Disposition Matrix", stated in April 2012 that "in order to ensure that our counterterrorism operations involving the use of lethal force are legal, ethical, and wise, President Obama has demanded that we hold ourselves to the highest possible standards and processes".<ref name=wilson>{{cite news |title=The Efficacy and Ethics of U.S. Counterterrorism Strategy |first=John O. |last=Brennan |authorlink=John O. Brennan |url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/the-efficacy-and-ethics-us-counterterrorism-strategy |publisher=The Wilson Center |date=30 April 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6Bp3llQrv |archivedate=31 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

The [[Obama Administration]]'s drone program received approval from [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] presidential candidate [[Mitt Romney]] during the 2012 U.S. presidential elections.<ref name=wp1023 /><ref name=ws1025 />

[[Robert M. Chesney]] has written for the ''Lawfare'' blog that "it certainly is a good thing to create an information management tool that makes certain that officials across agencies and departments can have real-time, comprehensive understanding of the options available (practically, legally, diplomatically, etc.) in the event specific persons turn up in specific places".<ref name=ches1>{{cite web |url=http://www.lawfareblog.com/2012/10/kill-lists-the-disposition-matrix-and-the-permanent-war-thoughts-on-the-post-article/ |title=Kill Lists, the Disposition Matrix, and the Permanent War: Thoughts on the Post Article |last=Chesney |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert M. Chesney |date=24 October 2012 |work=lawfareblog.com |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BhOcghAD |archivedate=26 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> He has also argued that the ''Washington Post'' article describing the program falsely implies that it has been associated with a change in U.S. counter-terrorism policy.<ref name=ches1 />

According to research by the [[RAND Corporation]], "drone strikes are associated with decreases in both the frequency and the lethality of militant attacks overall and in IED and suicide attacks specifically."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://patrickjohnston.info/materials/drones.pdf |title=The Impact of U.S. Drone Strikes on Terrorism in Pakistan |last1=Johnston |first1=Patrick B. |last2=Sarbahi |first2=Anoop |date=25 February 2012 |publisher=RAND Corporation}}</ref>

==Criticism==
{{Quote box
| quote = "Anyone who thought U.S. targeted killing outside of armed conflict was a narrow, emergency-based exception to the requirement of due process before a death sentence is being proven conclusively wrong".
| source = – The [[American Civil Liberties Union]], 23 October 2012.<ref name=ex1024 />
| width = 40%
| align = right
}}

The Pakistani interior minister [[Rehman Malik]] has stated that 336 American drone strikes in Pakistan claimed over 2,300 victims, 80% of whom were innocent civilians.<ref name=ws1025 /> A [[Pew Research Center]] poll shows that 74% of Pakistanis believe that the U.S. "is the enemy", an increase from prior years.<ref name=exdv>{{cite news |title=Romney ratifies Obama’s drone strikes |first=Kimberly |last=Dvorak |work=Examiner.com |date=25 October 2012}} [http://www.webcitation.org/6BhOlwC8J Archived] from the original on 26 October 2012.</ref>

The [[American Civil Liberties Union]] (ACLU) has condemned the database, writing in a press release that "anyone who thought U.S. targeted killing outside of armed conflict was a narrow, emergency-based exception to the requirement of due process before a death sentence is being proven conclusively wrong.”<ref name=ex1024>{{cite news |title=ACLU slams White House for "disposition matrix" i.e., terrorist hit list |first=Sean |last=Higgins |url=http://washingtonexaminer.com/aclu-slams-white-house-for-disposition-matrix-i.e.-terrorist-hit-list/article/2511594 |newspaper=The Washington Examiner |date=24 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BhP6Dhmn |archivedate=26 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> It has also filed freedom of information requests regarding the database and filed a lawsuit challenging its constitutionality.<ref name=ex1024 />

[[Glenn Greenwald]] has written that "the central role played by the NCTC in determining who should be killed [is] rather odious... the NCTC operates a gigantic data-mining operation, in which all sorts of information about innocent Americans is systematically monitored, stored, and analyzed".<ref name=gw1024>{{cite news |title=Obama moves to make the War on Terror permanent |first=Glenn |last=Greenwald |authorlink=Glenn Greenwald |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2012/oct/24/obama-terrorism-kill-list |newspaper=The Guardian |date=24 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BhOg4QS6 |archivedate=26 October 2012 |deadurl=no |location=London}}</ref> Greenwald concludes that the Disposition Matrix has established "simultaneously a surveillance state and a secretive, unaccountable judicial body that analyzes who you are and then decrees what should be done with you, how you should be "disposed" of, beyond the reach of any minimal accountability or transparency".<ref name=gw1024 /> Former [[counter-terrorism]] specialist and [[military intelligence]] officer [[Philip Giraldi]] has criticized the disposition matrix's "everyday" killing of targets with what he calls "little or no evidence," leaving the White house "completely unaccountable."<ref>{{cite news |title=Kill Lists Will Continue |first=Philip |last=Giraldi |authorlink=Philip Giraldi |url=http://original.antiwar.com/giraldi/2012/11/07/kill-lists-will-continue/ |work=[[Antiwar.com]] |date=8 November 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6C2YMHo57 |archivedate=9 November 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>[http://original.antiwar.com/giraldi/2012/12/05/the-protocols-for-death/ The Protocols for Death], by [[Philip Giraldi]], [[Antiwar.com]], 06 December 2012</ref> Giraldi later commented that Brennan "feels the [drone] program has run its course as a CIA operation."<ref>{{cite news|last=Hirsch|first=Michael|title=John Brennan’s Love-Hate Relationship With Drones|url=http://www.nationaljournal.com/whitehouse/john-brennan-s-love-hate-relationship-with-drones-20130207|newspaper=National Journal|date=7 February 2013}}</ref>

Criticizing strikes organized under the aegis of the database, the ''[[World Socialist Web Site]]'' has written that "the great majority of those killed in Pakistan are targeted for resisting the US occupation of neighboring Afghanistan, while in Yemen they are killed for opposing the US-backed regime there".<ref name=ws1025 /> Regarding the effect of the database in the United States, the site has written that "the Obama administration has arrogated to itself the most extreme power that can be asserted by any dictatorship—that of ordering citizens put to death without presenting charges against them, much less proving them in a court of law".<ref name=ws1025 /> They later criticized the relative silence in the media and the political establishment following the revelation.<ref>{{cite news |title=American democracy and the "disposition matrix" |first=Joseph |last=Kishore |url=http://www.wsws.org/articles/2012/oct2012/pers-o31.shtml |newspaper=World Socialist Web Site |date=31 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BzfXBntR |archivedate=7 November 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

In a commentary reprinted by ''Eurasia Review'', [[Russia Today]] has called strikes directed by the database "targeted executions" and "extrajudicial murders", and rhetorically asked how the database will further American counter-terrorism policies if it alienates its allies.<ref name=rt1024>{{cite news |title=Kill-list 2.0: Obama’s ‘disposition matrix’ maps out extrajudicial murders for years to come |url=http://rt.com/usa/news/disposition-matrix-kill-obama-146/ |newspaper=Russia Today |date=24 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BhOhc89I |archivedate=26 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Describing the criteria for killing established by the database and drone program, ''[[Voice of Russia]]'' has written that "in essence, this means that based on intelligence evidence, the administration assumes the right to judge and execute anyone without bothering about such minor things as proper court hearings, or the right of the accused person for proper legal defense".<ref name=vor1026>{{cite news |title=Barack Obama widens the practice of extrajudicial killings |first=Boris |last=Volkhonsky |url=http://english.ruvr.ru/2012_10_26/Barack-Obama-widens-the-practice-of-extrajudicial-killings/ |publisher=Voice of Russia |date=26 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6Bp3m7GtF |archivedate=31 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> It has accused the Obama Administration of violating American principles of [[due process]], stating, "the fact that such operations clearly violate the principles propagated by the U.S. itself, like the right of everyone for legal defense, does not seem to bother the administration".<ref name=vor1026 />

Speaking at [[Harvard Law School]] on 25 October 2012, [[United Nations Special Rapporteur]] on human rights and counter terrorism, Ben Emmerson, stated that he would launch "an investigation unit within the special procedures of the [[United Nations Human Rights Council|Human Rights Council]] to inquire into individual drone attacks".<ref name=rt1026>{{cite news |title=United Nations to begin investigating US drone strike targeted kills |url=http://rt.com/usa/news/us-drone-emmerson-un-256/ |newspaper=Russia Today |date=26 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6BhOjRYIp |archivedate=26 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Emmerson and [[Christof Heyns]], UN Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, have described some American drone attacks as [[war crime]]s.<ref name=rt1026 />

John Hudson, writing in the Atlantic Wire, has raised the concern that from a semantic perspective, the term "Disposition Matrix" sanitizes and perhaps obscures the more descriptive phrase "kill list".<ref name=hud>{{cite news |title=How the White House 'Kill List' Became the White House 'Disposition Matrix' |first=John |last=Hudson |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/politics/2012/10/how-white-house-kill-list-became-white-house-disposition-matrix/58295/ |newspaper=The Atlantic Wire |date=24 October 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6Bp3mXBrv |archivedate=31 October 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

The United States Senate is split over how to handle the issue, with Democrats urging the creation of a special court to review the matrix: John McCain (R-Ariz.) has called for control of all armed drones to be transferred from the CIA to the U.S. Department of Defense,<ref>[http://thehill.com/blogs/defcon-hill/policy-and-strategy/282687-no-court-for-drones-says-gop "No court for drone oversight, says GOP."]</ref> while [[Dianne Feinstein]] has expressed doubt that the Pentagon would take the same level of care to avoid [[collateral damage]].<ref>[http://thehill.com/blogs/defcon-hill/policy-and-strategy/290049-white-house-plan-to-let-pentagon-take-over-cia-armed-drones-sparks-concern "White House move to let Pentagon take over CIA armed drones sparks concern."]</ref>

==Drone strike casualties==
Reports on civilian casualties in Pakistan resulting from American drone attacks have been compiled by a number of institutions including the [[Bureau of Investigative Journalism]], the [[Long War Journal]], the [[New America Foundation]], and researchers at [[Stanford University]] and [[New York University]] law schools.<ref name=lud>{{cite web |url=http://livingunderdrones.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Stanford_NYU_LIVING_UNDER_DRONES.pdf |title=Living Under Drones: Death, Injury and Trauma to Civilians from US Drone Practices in Pakistan |author1=International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic, Stanford Law School |author2=Global Justice Clinic, NYU School of Law |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6C1NZMGYJ |date=September 2012 |archivedate=8 November 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> The ''New York Times'' reported that the Obama Administration embraced a disputed method for counting civilian casualties, which in effect counts all military-age males in a strike zone as combatants, giving partial explanation to the official claims of extraordinarily low collateral deaths.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/29/world/obamas-leadership-in-war-on-al-qaeda.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 |work=The New York Times |first1=Jo |last1=Becker |first2=Scott |last2=Shane |title=Secret 'Kill List' Tests Obama's Principles |date=29 May 2012}}</ref>

The [[Bureau of Investigative Journalism]] (TBIJ) reports that between 2004 and 2012, CIA directed drone strikes killed 475–885 Pakistani civilians, of 2,593–3,378 persons killed altogether.<ref name=bij1>{{cite web |url=http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2012/01/11/obama-2012-strikes/ |title=Obama 2012 Pakistan strikes |publisher=The Bureau of Investigative Journalism |date=11 January 2012}}</ref><ref name=bij2>{{cite web |url=http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2011/08/10/most-complete-picture-yet-of-cia-drone-strikes/ |title=Drone War Exposed – the complete picture of CIA strikes in Pakistan |first=Chris |last=Woods |publisher=The Bureau of Investigative Journalism |date=10 August 2011}}</ref> The report finds that drone strikes killed 176 children, and injured an additional 1,250 or more people.<ref name=bij1 /> The TBIJ report estimates that drone strikes in Pakistan declined from 904 to 228 between 2010 and 2012.<ref name=bij3>{{cite news |url=http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2012/07/02/resources-and-graphs/ |title=Pakistan drone statistics visualised |publisher=The Bureau of Investigative Journalism |date=2 July 2012}}</ref>

TBIJ reports that during the same timeframe, drone strikes killed 60–163 Yemeni civilians, of 362–1,052 persons killed altogether in Yemen, including 24–34 children; strikes killed 11–57 Somali civilians of 58–170 persons killed in Somalia, including 1–3 children.<ref name=bij1 />

The [[Long War Journal]] (LWJ), published by the [[Foundation for Defense of Democracies]],<ref name=lud /> reports that 136 Pakistani civilians have been killed by drone attacks since 2006.<ref name=lat1>{{cite news |title=Drone strikes in Pakistan have killed many civilians, study says |first=David |last=Zucchino |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2012/sep/24/world/la-fg-drone-study-20120925 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=24 September 2012}}</ref> According to LWJ, the majority of drone strikes in Pakistan since 2004 occurred under the Obama Administration, which has ordered over 247 strikes since 2009, compared the Bush Administration's 45.<ref name=bbc2>{{cite news |title=Deadly drones and Obama’s secret war in Pakistan |first=Nasir |last=Islam |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2012\06\19\story_19-6-2012_pg3_2 |newspaper=Daily Times |location=Pakistan |date=19 June 2012}}</ref><ref name=lwj>{{cite web |url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/pakistan-strikes.php |title=Charting the data for US airstrikes in Pakistan, 2004 - 2012 |last1=Roggio |first1=Bill |last2=Mayer |first2=Alexander |date=24 October 2012 |publisher=Foundation for Defense of Democracies}}</ref>

The [[New America Foundation]] (NAF) has published a report titled "Year of the Drone," finding that between 2004 and 2012, American drone strikes killed 1,618–2,769 militants, of 1,908–3,225 killed altogether in Pakistan.<ref name=naf>{{cite web |url=http://counterterrorism.newamerica.net/drones |title=The Year of the Drone |publisher=New America Foundation}}</ref> The foundation also found that during the same period, reported civilian casualties from drone strikes were 15–16%, dropping from 60% in 2006 to 1–2% in 2012.<ref name=naf /><ref name=reuters1>{{cite news |title=Obama victory infuriates Pakistani drone victims |first1=Randy |last1=Fabi |first2=Aisha |last2=Chowdhry |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/11/08/us-usa-campaign-pakistan-idUSBRE8A70A020121108 |publisher=Reuters |date=8 November 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6C17cLI1w |archivedate=8 November 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

A report by researchers at Stanford and New York University Law Schools, working at the Stanford International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution clinic and at the Global Justice Clinic, has evaluated casualty reports produced by TBIJ, LWJ and NAF, also conducting its own interviews with witnesses and victims.<ref name=lud /><ref name=cnn1>{{cite news |title=Drone strikes kill, maim and traumatize too many civilians, U.S. study says |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/25/world/asia/pakistan-us-drone-strikes/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=26 September 2012 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6C1N6Wvhh |archivedate=8 November 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> The report finds that casualty estimates obtained by TBIJ are "the best currently available," while it finds "omissions and inconsistencies in New America Foundation's dataset," and challenges their finding that civilian casualties have been low in 2012.<ref name=lud /><ref name=atl>{{cite news |title=CNN's Bogus Drone-Deaths Graphic |first=Conor |last=Friedersdorf |url=http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/07/cnns-bogus-drone-deaths-graphic/259493/ |newspaper=The Atlantic |date=6 July 2012}}</ref> The report criticizes reliance on anonymous officials for estimates of civilian casualties, and widespread use of the term "militant" by the media when describing non-civilian casualties.<ref name=lud /> The report concurs with that published by the NAF, stating the number of "high level targets" killed by drone strikes in Pakistan constitutes about 2% of all drone strike casualties.<ref name=cnn1 />

Meg Braun, an author of the NAF study, has written that the Stanford and New York University researchers were "not impartial," adding that while "the U.S. government's claims that civilian casualties from drone strikes during Obama's term in office are in the single digits are manifestly untrue, [there] is no need to overstate the rate of civilian deaths to make the point that drones strikes are legally suspect and morally hazardous."<ref name=afpak1>{{cite news |title=Counting civilian casualties in CIA’s drone war |first=Meg |last=Braun |url=http://afpak.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2012/11/02/counting_civilian_casualties_in_cia_s_drone_war |newspaper=Foreign Policy |date=2 November 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Main Core]]
* [[Targeted killing]]
* [[Extrajudicial killing]]
* [[Joint Special Operations Command]]
* [[Executive actions of the CIA]]
* [[Threat Matrix (Pakistan)|Threat Matrix]], a similar program led by [[Pakistan]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}

[[Category:Counter-terrorism policy of the United States]]
[[Category:Deaths by drone attack| ]]
[[Category:War on Terror]]
[[Category:Obama Administration initiatives]]
[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency operations]]
[[Category:History of the foreign relations of the United States]]
[[Category:Foreign policy doctrines of the United States]]
[[Category:United States military policies]]
[[Category:United States foreign policy]]

Oregon Boundary Dispute

2016-01-24T08:35:06Z

Jprg1966:

[[File:Oregoncountry.png|thumb|300px|The Oregon Country/Columbia District stretched from 42N to 54 40'N. The most heavily disputed portion is highlighted]]
The '''Oregon boundary dispute''' or the '''Oregon Question''', was a controversy over the political division of the [[Pacific Northwest]] of [[North America]] between several nations that had competing territorial and commercial aspirations over the region.

Expansionist competition into the region began in the 18th century, with participants including the [[Russian Empire]], the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]], the [[Kingdom of Spain]] and the [[United States of America]]. By the 1820s, both the Russians, through the [[Russo-American Treaty of 1824]] and the [[Russo-British Treaty of 1825]] and the Spanish, by the [[Adams Onis Treaty|Adams Onis Treaty of 1819]], formally withdrew their territorial claims in the region. Through these treaties the British and Americans gained residual territorial claims in the disputed area.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mackie |first=Richard Somerset |title=Trading Beyond the Mountains: The British Fur Trade on the Pacific 1793-1843 |year=1997 |publisher=University of British Columbia (UBC) Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0613-3 |pages=29, 124–126, 140}} online at [http://books.google.com/books?id=VKXgJw6K088C Google Books]</ref> The remaining portion of the [[North America]]n [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast contested by the UK and the US was defined as the following: west of the [[Continental Divide of the Americas]], north of [[Alta California]] at [[42nd parallel north]], and south of [[Russian America]] at [[parallel 54°40′ north]]; typically this region was referred to by the British as the [[Columbia District]] and the [[Oregon Country]] by the Americans. The Oregon Dispute began to become important in geopolitical diplomacy between the British Empire and the new American Republic, especially after the [[War of 1812]]. Following long European precedent only limited sovereign rights of the local [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous nations]] were recognized by either power.

In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1844|1844 U.S. presidential election]], ending the Oregon Question by annexing the entire area was a position adopted by the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]]. Some scholars have claimed the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party's]] lack of interest in the issue was due to its relative insignificance among other more pressing domestic issues.<ref name=Miles /> Democratic candidate [[James K. Polk]] appealed to the popular theme of [[manifest destiny]] and [[expansionism|expansionist]] sentiment, defeating Whig [[Henry Clay]]. Polk sent the British government the previously offered partition along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]]. Subsequent negotiations faltered as the British plenipotentiaries still argued for a border along the Columbia River. Tensions grew as American expansionists like [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Edward A. Hannegan]] of [[Indiana]] and [[United States House of Representatives|Representative]] [[Leonard Henly Sims]] of [[Missouri]], urged Polk to annex the entire Pacific Northwest to the 54°40′ parallel north, as the Democrats had called for in the election. The turmoil gave rise to [[political slogan|slogans]] such as "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" As relations with [[Mexico]] were rapidly deteriorating following the [[annexation of Texas]], the expansionist agenda of Polk and the Democratic Party created the possibility of two different, simultaneous wars for the United States. Just before the outbreak of the [[Mexican–American War|war with Mexico]], Polk returned to his earlier position of a border along the 49th parallel.

The 1846 [[Oregon Treaty]] established the border between [[British North America]] and the United States along the 49th parallel until the [[Strait of Georgia]], where the marine boundary curved south to exclude [[Vancouver Island]] and the [[Gulf Islands]] from the United States. As a result a small portion of the [[Tsawwassen|Tsawwassen Peninsula]], [[Point Roberts, Washington|Point Roberts]] became an [[exclave]] of the United States. Vague wording in the treaty left the ownership of the [[San Juan Islands]] in doubt, as the division was to follow the "through the middle of the said channel (the [[Salish Sea]])"<ref>[[s:Oregon Treaty|Oregon Treaty]] from Wikisource. Accessed 12 February 2015.</ref> to the [[Strait of Juan de Fuca]]. During the so called [[Pig War]], both nations agreed to a joint military occupation of the islands. Kaiser [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] of the [[German Empire]] was selected as an arbitrator to end the dispute, with a three-man commission ruling in favor of the United States in 1872. There the [[Haro Strait]] became the border line, rather than the British favored [[Rosario Strait]]. The border established by the Oregon Treaty and finalized by the arbitration in 1872 remains the boundary between the United States and [[Canada]] in the Pacific Northwest.

==Background==
The Oregon Question originated in the 18th century during the early European or American exploration of the [[Pacific Northwest]]. Various Empires began to consider the area suitable for colonial expansion, including the Americans, Russians, Spanish and British. Naval captains such as the Spanish [[Juan José Pérez Hernández]], British [[George Vancouver]] and American [[Robert Gray (sea-captain)|Robert Gray]] gave defining regional water formations like the [[Columbia River]] and the [[Puget Sound]] their modern names and charted in the 1790s. Overland explorations were commenced by the British [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]] in 1792 and later followed by the American [[Lewis and Clark]] expedition, which reached the mouth of the [[Columbia River]] in 1805. These explorers often claimed in the name of their respective governments sovereignty over the Northwest Coast. The knowledge of fur-bearing animal populations like the [[California sea lion]], [[North American beaver]] and the [[Northern fur seal]] were used to create an economic network called the [[maritime fur trade]]. The [[North American fur trade|fur trade]] would remain the main economic interest that drew Euro-Americans to the Pacific Northwest for decades. Merchants exchanged goods for fur pelts along the coast with Indigenous nations such as the [[Chinookan people]], the [[Aleut]]s and the [[Nuu-chah-nulth]].

[[Image:Columbiarivermap.png|thumb|300px|Map of the Columbia River and its tributaries, showing modern political boundaries and cities.]]

===Spanish colonisation===
A series of [[Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest|Expeditions to the Pacific Northwest]] were financed by the Spanish to strengthen their claims to the region. Creating a colony called [[Santa Cruz de Nuca]] on [[Vancouver Island]], the Spanish were the first white colonisers of the Pacific Northwest outside Russian America to the north. A period of tensions with the United Kingdom, called the [[Nootka Crisis]], arose after the Spanish seized a British vessel. However the three [[Nootka Convention]]s averted conflict, with both countries agreeing to protect their mutual access to [[Friendly Cove]] against outside powers. While the Spanish colony was abandoned, a border delineating the northern reaches of [[New Spain]] wasn't included. Despite the Nootka Conventions still allowing the Spanish to establish colonies in the region, no more attempts were made as other geopolitical and domestic matters drew the attention of the authorities. With the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] of 1819, the Spanish formally withdrew all formal claims to lands north of the [[42nd parallel north|42° north]].

===Russian interest===
The [[Imperial Russian government]] established the [[Russian-American Company]] in 1799, a monopoly among Russian subjects for fur trading operations in [[Russian America]] with the [[Ukase of 1799]]. In part from the growing Russian activities to the north, the Spanish created the [[Spanish missions in California|Catholic Missions]] to create colonies in [[Alta California]]. Plans for creating Russians colonies what became the modern American states of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and [[Oregon]] were formulated by [[Nikolai Rezanov]]. He aimed to relocate the primary colony of Russian America to the entrance of the Columbia River, though was unable to enter the river in 1806 and the plan was abandoned.<ref>[[Grigory Langsdorff|Langsdorff, Grigory]]. [https://archive.org/stream/langsdorffsnarra00lang#page/20/mode/2up ''Langsdorff's Narrative of the Rezanov voyage to Nueva California in 1806.''] Translator Thomas C. Russell. San Francsico, CA: The Private Press of Thomas C. Russell. 1927, p. 21.</ref> In 1808 [[Alexander Andreyevich Baranov]] sent the ''[[Russian schooner Nikolai|Nikolai]]'', with the captain "ordered to explore the coast south of Vancouver Island, barter with the natives for sea otter pelts, and if possible discover a site for a permanent Russian post in the Oregon Country."<ref name=Donnolly1>Alton S. Donnelly. ''The Wreck of the Sv. Nikolai'' ed. Kenneth N. Owens. Portland, OR: The Press of the Oregon Historical Society. 1985, p. 4.</ref> The ship crashed on the [[Olympic Peninsula]] and the surviving crew didn't return to [[New Archangel]] for two years. The failure of the vessel to find a suitable location led to the Russians to not consider much of the Northwest coast worth colonising.<ref>Donnolly (1985), p. 30.</ref> Their interest in the Puget Sound and the Columbia River was diverted to Alta California, with [[Fort Ross]] soon established. The [[Russo-American Treaty of 1824]] and the [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825)|Treaty of Saint Petersburg]] with the British formally created the southern border of Russian America at [[parallel 54°40′ north]].

===Early Anglo-American competition===
Both the Russian and Spanish empires held no significant plans at promoting colonies along the Northwest Coast by the 1810s. The British and American were the remaining two nations with citizens active in commercial operations in the region. Starting with a party of the [[Montreal]] based [[North West Company]] (NWC) employees led by [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]] in 1807, the British began land-based operations and opened trading posts throughout the region. Thompson extensively explored the Columbia River watershed. While at the junction of Columbia and [[Snake River|Snake]] Rivers, he erected a pole on July 9, 1811, with a notice stating "Know hereby that this country is claimed by Great Britain as part of its territories..." and additionally stated the intention of the NWC to build a trading post there.<ref>Elliott, T. C. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/20609875 ''David Thompson, Pathfinder and the Columbia River'']. The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 12, No. 3 (1911), pp. 195-205.</ref> [[Fort Nez Percés]] was later established at the location in 1818. The American [[Pacific Fur Company]] (PFC) began operations in 1811 at [[Fort Astoria]], constructed at the entrance of the Columbia River. The eruption of the [[War of 1812]] didn't create a violent confrontation in the Pacific Northwest between the competing companies. Led by [[Donald Mackenzie (explorer)|Donald Mackenzie]], PFC officers agreed to liquidate its assets to their NWC competitors, with an agreement signed on 23 November 1813.<ref name=Chittenden>Chittenden, Hiram M. [http://www.archive.org/details/americanfurtrade01chit ''The American Fur Trade in the Far West.''] Vol. 1. New York City: Francis P. Harper. 1902, pp. 222-223.</ref> The [[HMS Racoon (1808)|HMS ''Racoon'']] was ordered to capture Fort Astoria, though by the time it arrived, the post was already under NWC management. After the collapse of the PFC, American [[mountain men]] operated in small groups in the region, typically based east of the Rocky Mountains, only to meet once a year at the annual [[Rendezvous (fur trade)|Rendezvous]].

==Joint occupation==

===Treaty of 1818===
{{main|Treaty of 1818}}
In 1818, diplomats of the two countries attempted to negotiate a boundary between the rival claims. The Americans suggested dividing the Pacific Northwest along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]], which was the border between the United States and [[British North America]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. The lack of accurate cartographic knowledge led American diplomats to declare the [[Louisiana Purchase]] gave them an incontestable claim to the region.<ref name=Merk1>Merk, Frederick. ''The Ghost River Caledonia in the Oregon Negotiation of 1818.'' The American Historical Review 50, No. 3 (1950), pp. 530-551.</ref> British diplomats wanted a border further south along the [[Columbia River]], so as to maintain the [[North West Company]]'s (later the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]'s (HBC)) control of the lucrative [[fur trade]] along that river.<ref name=Merk1/> The diplomatic teams couldn't agree upon mutually satisfactory terms and remained in deadlock by October. [[Albert Gallatin]], the main American negotiator, had previously instructed to have a tentative agreement by the convening of the 3rd session of the [[15th United States Congress]], set for 16 November.

A final proposition was made to the British [[plenipotentiary]], [[Frederick John Robinson, 1st Earl of Ripon|Frederick John Robinson]], for the continuation of the 49th parallel west while leaving the United Kingdom, as Gallatin stated, "all the waters emptying in the sound called the Gulf of Georgia."<ref name=Merk1/> This would have awarded "all the territory draining west from the [[Cascade Mountains|Cascade]] divide and north from the Columbia River divide into the gulf" and the entirety of the [[Puget Sound]] along with the Straits of [[Strait of Georgia|Georgia]] and [[Strait of Juan de Fuca|Juan de Fuca]] to the United Kingdom.<ref name=Merk1/> Robinson demurred from the proposal however, the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, which settled most other disputes from the [[War of 1812]], called for the joint occupation of the region for ten years.

===Proposed partition plans===
As the expiration of the Joint Occupation treaty approached, a second round of negotiations commenced in 1824. American Minister [[Richard Rush]] offered for the extension of agreement with an additional clause on 2 April. The 51° parallel would be a provisional border within the Pacific Northwest, with no British additional settlements to be established south of the line, nor any American settlements north of it.<ref name=Marshall1>Marshall, William I. [http://www.archive.org/details/acquisitionoreg04marsgoog ''Acquisition of Oregon and the Long Suppressed Evidence about Marcus Whitman.''] Vol. 1. Seattle: Lowman & Hanford Co. 1911, p. 166.</ref> Despite Rush's offering to modify the temporary border to the 49° parallel, the British negotiators rejected his offer. His proposal was seen as the likely basis for the eventual division of the Pacific Northwest. The British plenipotentiaries [[William Huskisson]] and [[Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe|Stratford Canning]] on 29 June pressed instead for a permanent line along the 49° parallel west until the main branch of the Columbia River. With the British formally abandoning claims south or east of the Columbia River, the Oregon Question from then on became focused what later became Western [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and the southern portion of Vancouver Island.<ref name=Marshall1/> Rush reacted to the British proposal as unfavorably as they had to his own offer, leaving the talks at a stalemate.

[[Image:George Canning by Richard Evans - detail.jpg|150px|thumb|[[George Canning]] has been appraised the most active Secretary of Foreign Affairs in maintaining the British claims of a division along the Columbia River.<ref name=Galbraith1/>]]

Throughout 1825, [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]] [[George Canning]] held discussions with [[Sir John Pelly, 1st Baronet|Governor Pelly]] of the HBC as to a potential settlement with the United States. Pelly felt a border along the [[Snake River|Snake]] and Columbia Rivers was advantageous for the United Kingdom and his company.<ref name=Galbraith1>Galbraith, John S. ''The Hudson's Bay Company as an Imperial Factor, 1821 - 1869.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1957, pp. 184-188.</ref> Contacting American minister [[Rufus King]] in April 1826, Canning requested that a settlement be reached over the Oregon dispute. Gallatin was appointed [[United States Minister to the United Kingdom|Ambassador to the United Kingdom]] and given instructions by [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Henry Clay]] in July 1826 to offer a division of the Pacific Northwest along the 49th parallel to the British.<ref name=Meany>Meany, Edmond S. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40474377 ''Three Diplomats Prominent in the Oregon Question.''] The Washington Historical Quarterly 5, No. 3 (1914), pp. 207-214.</ref> In a letter to Prime Minister [[Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool|Lord Liverpool]] in 1826, Canning presented the possibilities of trade with the [[Qing Empire]] if a division of the Pacific Northwest was to be made with the Americans. He felt the recognition of American rights to ownership of Astoria, despite its continued use by the NWC and later HBC, was "absolutely unjustifiable."<ref name=Canning>[[George Canning|Canning, George]]. [http://books.google.com/books?id=24PFAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s ''Some Official Correspondence of George Canning.''] Vol. II. Editor Edward J. Stapleton. London: Longmans, Green and Co. 1887, pp. 71-74.</ref> This diplomatic courtesy Canning felt weakened the territorial claims of the United Kingdom. A border along the Columbia River would give "an immense direct intercourse between China and what may be, if we resolve not yield them up, her boundless establishments on the N. W. Coast of America."<ref name=Canning/>

===Renewal===
Huskisson was appointed along with [[Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth|Henry Addington]] to negotiate with Gallatin. Unlike his superior, Canning, Huskisson held a negative view of the HBC monopoly and found the region held in dispute with the Americans "of little consequence to the British."<ref name=Galbraith1/> At time the HBC's staff was the only continuous white occupants in the region, though their economic activities weren't utilized by Huskinisson in exchanges with Gallatin.<ref name=Galbraith1/> The division suggested by Pelly and Canning's 1824 offer of a Columbia River boundary were both rejected. The argument used to counter these offers was the same as in 1824, that a boundary along the Columbia would deny the U.S. an easily accessible deep water port on the [[Pacific Ocean]]. The British negotiators to allay this attack offered a detached [[Olympic Peninsula]] as American territory, giving access to both the Straits of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound.<ref name=Galbraith1/> This was seen as unsatisfactory by the Americans however. The diplomatic talks were continued but failed to divide the region in a satisfactory way for both nations. The Treaty of 1818 was renewed on 7 August 1827,<ref name=Shewmaker>Shewmaker, Kenneth E. ''Daniel Webster and the Oregon Question.'' Pacific Historical Review 51, No. 2 (1982), pp. 195-201.</ref> with a clause added by Gallatin that a one-year notice had to be given when either party intended to abrogate the agreement.<ref name=Meany/> After the death of Canning and the failure to find a satisfactory division of the region with the Americans, "Oregon had been almost forgotten by the [British] politicians..."<ref name=Galbraith1/>

==Significance in America==

===Regional Activities===
American Protestant missionaries began to arrive in the 1830s and established the [[Methodist Mission]] in the [[Willamette Valley]] and the [[Whitman Mission National Historic Site|Whitman Mission]] east of the [[Cascade Range|Cascades]].<ref>[http://bluebook.state.or.us/cultural/history/history06.htm Oregon History: Land-based Fur Trade and Exploration]</ref> [[Ewing Young]] created a [[sawmill|saw mill]]<ref>[http://www.endoftheoregontrail.org/oregontrails/ewingyoung.html Ewing Young Route]. compiled by Karen Bassett, Jim Renner, and Joyce White.</ref> and a [[gristmill|grist mill]] in the Willamette Valley early in the 1830s.<ref>[http://www.salemhistory.net/people/historic_figures.htm Salem Online History: Salem's Historic Figures]</ref> He and several other American colonists formed the [[Willamette Cattle Company]] in 1837 to bring over 600 head of cattle to the Willamette Valley, with about half of its shares purchased by McLoughlin. Over 700 U.S settlers arrived via the Oregon Trail in the "[[Oregon Trail#Great Migration of 1843|Great Migration of 1843]]". The [[Provisional Government of Oregon]] was established in the Willamette Valley during 1843 as well. Its rule was limited to those interested Americans and former [[French-Canadian]] HBC employees in the valley.

===John Floyd===
The first attempts by the American Government for proactive action in colonising the Pacific Northwest began in 1820 during the 2nd session of the [[16th United States Congress|16th Congress]]. [[John Floyd (Virginia politician)|John Floyd]], a [[United States House of Representatives|Representative]] from [[Virginia]], spearheaded a report that would "authorize the occupation of the Columbia River, and to regulated trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes thereon."<ref name=Benton>[[Thomas Hart Benton (politician)|Benton, Thomas H.]] [http://www.archive.org/details/thirtyyearsview01inbent ''Thirty years' view.''] Vol 1. New York City: D. Appleton and Co. 1854, pp. 13-14</ref> Additionally the bill called for cultivating commercial relations with the [[Qing Empire]] and the [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. His interest in the distant region likely began after meeting former PFC employee [[Russell Farnham]]. Floyd had the support of fellow Virginian Representative [[Thomas Van Swearingen]] and Representative [[Thomas Metcalfe (Kentucky)|Thomas Metcalfe]] of [[Kentucky]]. The bill was presented to both the House and to [[James Monroe|President Monroe]]. In the House, Floyd's bill was defended by one member who stated that it didn't "attempt a colonial settlement. The territory proposed to be occupied is already a part of the United States."<ref name=Wilson>Wilson, Joseph R. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/20609465 ''The Oregon Question. II.''] The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 1, No. 3 (1900), pp. 213-252.</ref> Monroe inquired the opinion of [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[John Quincy Adams]] for potential revisions. Adams retorted that "The paper was a tissue of errors in fact and abortive reasoning, of invidious reflections and rude invectives. There was nothing could purify it but the fire."<ref>[[John Quincy Adams|Adams, John Quincy]]. [http://books.google.com/books?id=unoUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA238#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Memoirs of John Quincy Adams.''] Vol. 5 ed. Charles F. Adams. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott and Co. 1875, p. 238.</ref> Read twice before the legislature, "most of the members not considering it a serious proceeding", it didn't pass.<ref name=Benton/>

[[Image:Johnfloydvirginia.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Representative [[John Floyd (Virginia politician)|John Floyd]] was the most prominent early Congressional member in favor of extensive American claims in the Pacific Northwest.]]

Floyd continued to authorise legislation calling for an American colony on the Pacific. His career as a Representative ended in 1829, with the Oregon Question not discussed at Congress until 1837. The northern border proposed by Floyd was at first the [[53rd parallel north|53°]], and later 54°40′.<ref name=Shippee1/> These bills were still met with the apathy or opposition of other Congressional members, one in particular not being tabled for consideration by a vote of 100 to 61.<ref name=Shippee1/> [[Missouri]] Senator [[Thomas Hart Benton (politician)|Thomas H. Benton]] became a vocal supporter of Floyd's efforts, and thought that they would "plant the germ of a powerful and independent Power beyond the Rockies."<ref name=Shippee1/> [[John C. Calhoun]], then [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]], while somewhat interested in Floyd's considered bills, gave his opinion to that the HBC was an economic threat to American commercial interests in the west. <blockquote>"....so long as the traders of the British Fur Company have free access to the region of the Rocky Mountains from the various posts... they will in great measure monopolize the Fur Trade West of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], to the almost entire exclusion in the next few years of our trade."<ref name=Shippee1>Shippee, Lester B. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/20610098 ''The Federal Relations of Oregon.''] The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 19, No. 2 (1918), pp. 89-133.</ref></blockquote>

===1844 Presidential election===
The [[United States presidential election, 1844|1844 presidential election]] was a definitive turning point for the United States. Admitting the [[Texas Republic]] by diplomatic negotiations to begin a process of [[annexation of Texas]] into the nation was a contentious topic. At the same time, the Oregon Question "became a weapon in a struggle for domestic political power."<ref name=Graebner/> At the [[1844 Democratic National Convention|Democratic National Convention]], the [[party platform]] asserted "That our title to the whole of the Territory of Oregon is clear and unquestionable; that no portion of the same ought to be ceded to England or any other power, and that the reoccupation of Oregon and the re-annexation of Texas at the earliest practicable period are great American measures..."<ref>{{cite web|title=Democratic Party Platform of 1844|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29573|website=The American Presidency Project|accessdate=16 February 2015}}</ref> By tying the Oregon dispute to the more controversial Texas debate, the Democrats appealed to expansionist members from both the Northern and Southern states.<ref name=Graebner>Graebner, Norman A. ''Empire on the Pacific; a study in American continental expansion.'' New York City, NY: New York Ronald Press Co. 1955, p. 35.</ref> Enlargement in the Pacific Northwest offered a means of mollifying Northern fears of allowing Texas, another [[Slave and free states|slave state]], by a counterbalance of additional free states. Democratic candidate [[James K. Polk]] went on to win a narrow victory over [[United States Whig Party|Whig]] candidate [[Henry Clay]], in part because Clay had taken a stand against immediate expansion in Texas. Despite the use of the Oregon Question in the election, according to Edward Miles, the topic wasn't "a significant campaign issue" as "the Whigs would have been forced to discuss it."<ref name=Miles/> Their silence "indicated that Oregon had failed to arouse widespread interest."<ref name=Miles>Miles, E.A. ''"Fifty-Four Forty or Fight"—an American Political Legend.'' Mississippi Valley Historical Review 44, No. 2 (1957), pp. 291–309.</ref>

"[[Parallel 54°40′ north|Fifty-four Forty]] or Fight!" was not yet coined during this election but appeared by January 1846, driven in part by the Democratic press. The phrase is frequently misidentified as a campaign slogan from the election of 1844, even in many textbooks.<ref name=Miles/><ref name=Rosenboom>Rosenboom, Eugene H. ''A History of Presidential Elections: From George Washington to Richard M. Nixon.'' 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan. 1970, p. 132.</ref><ref>Pletcher (1973), p. 223.</ref><ref>Hans Sperber, ''"Fifty-four Forty or Fight": Facts and Fictions'', American Speech '''32'''(1), February 1957, pp. 5–11.</ref> ''[[Bartlett's Familiar Quotations]]'' attributes the slogan to William Allen. 54°40′ was the southern boundary of [[Russian America]], and considered the northernmost limit of the Pacific Northwest. One actual Democratic campaign slogan from this election (used in [[Pennsylvania]]) was the more mundane "Polk, [[George M. Dallas|Dallas]], and the [[Tariff of 1842|Tariff of '42]]".<ref name=Rosenboom/>

==British interest==

===Hudson's Bay Company===
{{main|Columbia Department}}

[[Image:Gsimpson.gif|180px|thumb|left|[[George Simpson (administrator)|George Simpson]], manager of HBC operations in North America, reported in 1837 that the Pacific Northwest "may become an object of very great importance, and we are strengthening that claim to it... by forming the nucleus of a colony through the establishment of farms, and the settlement of some of our retiring officers and servants as agriculturalists."<ref name=Merk3>Merk, Frederick. ''Fur Trade and Empire; George Simpson's Journal 1824-25.'' Cambridge, MA: Belknap. 1968, p. 339.</ref>]]

The [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (HBC) merged with the North West Company in 1821 and assumed its various fur trading stations. The HBC held a license among British subjects to trade with the populous aboriginal peoples of the region, and its network of trading posts and routes extended southward from [[New Caledonia (Canada)|New Caledonia]], another HBC fur-trade district, into the Columbia basin (most of New Caledonia lay south of 54-40). The HBC's headquarters for the entire region became established at [[Fort Vancouver]] (modern [[Vancouver, Washington]]) in 1824. During that year [[George Simpson (administrator)|George Simpson]] while discussing the company's "uncertain tenure of the Columbia" with [[Andrew Colville|Governor Colville]], discussed the possibility of closing operations along the river.<ref name=Merk2>Merk (1968), p. 244.</ref> "If the Americans settle on the mouth of the Columbia it would in my opinion be necessary to abandon the Coast [south of the river]..." Simpson stated, with the company posts to "move to the Northward..."<ref name=Merk2/> At its pinnacle in the late 1830s and early 1840s, Fort Vancouver watched over 34 outposts, 24 ports, six ships, and 600 employees.

===Domestic===
The [[Edinburgh Review#Edinburgh Review, 1802–1929|Edinburgh Review]] declared the Pacific Northwest "the last corner of the earth left free for the occupation of a civilized race. When Oregon shall be colonised, the map of the world may be considered as filled up."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=WFA7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA185#v=onepage&q&f=false The Edinburgh Review or Critical Journal: For July, 1843.... October, 1843.''] Vol. LXXVIII. Edinburgh: Ballantyne and Hughes. 1843, p. 185.</ref>

===Naval presence===
[[Royal Navy]] ships were dispatched to the Pacific Northwest through out the decades, to both expand cartographical knowledge and protect fur trading stations. The British established the [[Pacific Station]] in 1826 at [[Valparaíso]], [[Chile]], increasing the strategic capabilities of their navy. A squadron was moved there and later vessels sent to the Pacific Northwest were based out of the port. [[HMS Blossom (1806)|HMS ''Blossom'']] was in the region during 1818. The next surveying expedition was commenced by [[HMS Sulphur (1826)|HMS ''Sulphur'']] and [[HMS Starling (1829)|HMS ''Starling'']] in 1837, with operations lasting until 1839. Dispatched from the Pacific Station to gather intelligence on the HBC posts, [[HMS Modeste (1837)|HMS ''Modeste'']] arrived at the Columbia River in July 1844. Chief Factor [[James Douglas (governor)|James Douglas]] complained that the naval officers "had more taste for a [[lark]] than a 'musty' lecture on politics or the greater national interests in question."<ref>[[John McLoughlin|McLoughlin, John]]. ''The Letters of John McLoughlin from Fort Vancouver to the Governor and Committee, Third Series, 1844-1846.'' editor E. E. Rich. London: 1944, p. 180.</ref> The ''Modeste'' visited the HBC trading posts of Forts George, Vancouver, Victoria and [[Fort Simpson|Simpson]].<ref name=BCHQ1/>

==Political efforts during Tyler Presidency==
Missouri Senator [[Lewis F. Linn|Lewis Linn]] tabled legislation in 1842, inspired in part by Floyd's previous efforts. Linn's bill called for the government to create land grants for men interested in settling the Pacific Northwest. The arrival of [[Alexander Baring, 1st Baron Ashburton|Baron Ashburton]] in April 1842, sent to resolve several territorial disputes with the United States, delayed Linn's legislation. Initially focusing on the Pacific Northwest, Ashburton presented [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Daniel Webster]] the 1824 partition proposal made by Canning of a division along the Columbia River.<ref name=Shewmaker /> Webster rejected the offer for the same reasons it was previously repudiated, the division would leave the United States with no suitable locations for a large Pacific port. Webster suggested that Ashburton's proposal may have been found acceptable by the Americans, if the United States could be compensated with the [[Mexico|Mexican]] owned [[San Francisco Bay]].<ref name=Shewmaker /> Ashburton passed on the offer to his superiors, but no further action was taken. Both diplomats became focused on settling the [[Aroostook War]] and formulated the [[Webster–Ashburton Treaty]].

At the final session of the [[27th United States Congress|27th Congress]] on 19 December 1842, Linn presented a similar bill to colonize the Pacific Northwest as he put it, "by the Anglo-American race, which will extend our limits from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean."<ref name=Wilson /> Arguments over the bill lasted over a month, and it was eventually passed in the Senate 24-22.<ref name=Wilson /> In opposition to Linn's bill, Calhoun famously declared that the U.S. government should pursue a policy of "wise and masterly inactivity"<ref>The phrase "wise and masterly inactivity", which Calhoun used more than once, originated with Sir [[James Mackintosh]]. ([http://www.bartleby.com/73/1038.html source])</ref> in Oregon, letting settlement determine the eventual boundary.<ref name=Wilson /> Many of Calhoun's fellow [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]], however, soon began to advocate a more direct approach.<ref>Pletcher, David M. ''The Diplomacy of Annexation: Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War''. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press. 1973, pp. 109–110.</ref>

By early 1843, Webster returned to the Oregon Question, formalising a plan that included the 1826 British offer of the Olympic Peninsula enclave and the purchase of [[Alta California]] from Mexico.<ref name=Shewmaker /> The increasing hostility President Tyler had with the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] led to Webster's disinterest in continuing to act as the Secretary of State and his plan was shelved. The American minister to the UK, [[Edward Everett]], was given authority to negotiate with British officials to settle the Oregon Question in October 1843. Meeting with Prime Minister [[Robert Peel]]'s [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]], [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Earl of Aberdeen]] on 29 November, Everett presented the terms considered by President [[John Tyler]]. The old offer of the 49th parallel was once more presented, along with a guarantee to free access to the Columbia River.<ref name=Treaty>[http://archive.org/details/cihm_15845 ''Papers relating to the Treaty of Washington''.] Vol. V. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office. 1872, pp. 6–11.</ref> However during President Tyler's [[State of the Union]] address that year on 6 December, he claimed "the entire region of country lying on the Pacific and embraced within 42° and 54°40′ of north latitude."<ref>[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29647 ''1843 State of the Union Address''.] Accessed 6 November 2014.</ref> After receiving this declaration, Aberdeen began to consult with the committee and Governor Pelly, previously left out of the most recent diplomatic exchanges.<ref name=Galbraith2>Galbraith (1957), p. 231.</ref>

==Polk Presidency==
[[Image:JamesKnoxPolk.png|180px|thumb|President [[James K. Polk]] was elected in 1844 in part from his support for substantial claims against the British. Much of this rhetoric was to make the United Kingdom accept the long tabled proposed division along the 49th parallel.]]

In his March 1845 [[Inauguration Day|inaugural address]], President Polk quoted from the party platform, saying that the U.S. title to Oregon was "clear and unquestionable".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Polk|first1=James|title=Inaugural Address of James Knox Polk|url=http://www.avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/polk.asp|website=The Avalon Project|publisher=Yale Law School|accessdate=18 November 2014}}</ref> Tensions grew, with both sides moving to strengthen border fortifications in anticipation of war. Despite Polk's bold language, he was actually prepared to compromise, and had no real desire to go to war over Oregon. He believed that a firm stance would compel the British to accept a resolution agreeable to the United States. While meeting with Representative [[James A. Black]] on 4 January 1846, Polk stated that "the only way to treat [[John Bull]] was to look him straight in the eye... if Congress faultered [sic]... John Bull would immediately become arrogant and more grasping in his demands..."<ref>[[James K. Polk|Polk, James K.]] [http://www.books.google.com/books?id=wxMOAAAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s ''The Diary of James K. Polk during his Presidency, 1845 to 1849.''] Vol. 1. ed. Milo M. Quaife. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. 1910, pp. 153-155.</ref> But Polk's position on Oregon was not mere posturing: he genuinely believed that the U.S. had a legitimate claim to the entire region.<ref name=Haynes>Haynes, Sam W. ''James K. Polk and the Expansionist Impulse''. Arlington: University of Texas. 1997, pp. 118–120.</ref> He rejected British offers to settle the dispute through arbitration, fearing that no impartial third party could be found.<ref>Pletcher (1973), p. 322.</ref>

Many newspaper editors in the United States clamored for Polk to claim the entire region as the Democrats had proposed in the 1844 campaign. Headlines like "The Whole of Oregon or None" by [[The Union (newspaper)|The Union]] editor [[Thomas Ritchie]] appeared on 6 November 1845.<ref name=Miles/> In a column in the ''New York Morning News'' on December 27, 1845, editor [[John L. O'Sullivan]] argued that the United States should claim all of Oregon "by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us..."<ref>Horsman, Reginald. ''Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1981, p. .</ref> Soon afterwards, the term "[[Manifest Destiny]]" became a standard phrase for expansionists, and a permanent part of the American lexicon. O'Sullivan's version of "Manifest Destiny" was not a call for war, but such calls were soon forthcoming.

After Polk's inauguration, British diplomats began to receive instructions influenced from HBC officials like Simpson, whose suggestions were transmitted through Pelly and then Aberdeen to the [[British Ambassador to the United States|British Ambassador]] [[Richard Pakenham]]. In a letter written to Calhoun in August 1844, Pakenham pressed for a border along the Columbia River. He made an offer that likely originated from Simpson: Americans could select naval bases on the portion of Vancouver Island south of the 49th parallel or along the Strait of Juan de Fuca in return.<ref name=Galbraith2/> Diplomatic channels continued negotiations throughout 1844, by early 1845 Everett reported the willingness of Aberdeen to accept the 49th parallel, provided the southern portion of [[Vancouver Island]] would become British territory.<ref name=Treaty/>

In the summer of 1845, the Polk administration renewed the proposal to divide Oregon along the 49th parallel to the Pacific Ocean. U.S. Secretary of State [[James Buchanan]] on 12 July<ref name=Galbraith3>Galbraith (1957), p. 240.</ref> offered the British any desired ports on the portion of Vancouver Island south of this line,<ref name=Wilson/> though navigation rights of the Columbia River weren't included. Because this proposal fell short of the Tyler administration's earlier offer, Pakenham rejected the offer without first contacting London.<ref name=Galbraith3/> Offended, Polk officially withdrew the proposal on August 30, 1845, and broke off negotiations. Aberdeen censured Pakenham for this diplomatic blunder, and attempted to renew the dialogue. By then, however, Polk was suspicious of British intentions, and under increasing political pressure not to compromise. He declined to reopen negotiations.<ref name=Haynes/><ref>Pletcher (1973), pp. 237–249, 296–300</ref>

==War crisis==
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%" style="text-align: center; margin: 0px 5px 10px 10px;" align="right"
!colspan=2|Important figures in the Oregon question
|-
! United States
! United Kingdom
|-
|[[James K. Polk]] [[President of the United States|President]]
|[[Robert Peel]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]]
|-
|[[James Buchanan]] [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]
|[[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Earl of Aberdeen]] [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]]
|-
|[[Louis McLane]] [[United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom|Minister to the UK]]
|[[Richard Pakenham]] [[List of British Ambassadors to the United States|Minister in Washington]]
|}

===Congressional pressure===
[[Image:Lewis Cass - Brady-Handy.jpg|160px|thumb|left|Senator [[Lewis Cass]] was a leading advocate of 54°40′, but backed away from the claim when it became untenable. Like [[James Buchanan]], Cass had presidential ambitions and did not want to alienate Americans on either side of the Oregon question.]]

In his [[State of the Union Address|annual address]] to Congress on December 2, 1845, Polk recommended giving the British the required one-year notice of the termination of the joint occupation agreement. Democratic expansionists in Congress from the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], led by Senators [[Lewis Cass]] of [[Michigan]], [[Edward A. Hannegan]] of [[Indiana]], and [[William Allen (governor)|William Allen]] of [[Ohio]], called for war with the United Kingdom rather than accepting anything short of all of Oregon up to [[Parallel 54°40′ north]]. These pronouncements were fueled by a number of factors, including traditional [[Anglophobia|distrust of the British]] and a belief that the U.S. had the better claim and would make better use of the land.

The debate was not strictly divided along party or sectional lines, with many who clamored for the 54°40′ border were Northerners upset at Polk's willingness to compromise on the Pacific Northwest border. Polk's uncompromising pursuit of Texas, an acquisition seen favorable for Southern slave owners, angered many advocates of 54°40′, as the President was a Southerner and a slave owner. As historian [[David M. Pletcher]] noted, "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" seemed to be directed at the southern aristocracy in the U.S. as much as at the United Kingdom.<ref>Pletcher (1973), pp. 335–37.</ref>

Moderates like Webster warned that the U.S. could not win a war against the [[British Empire]], and that negotiation could still achieve U.S. territorial goals. Webster confided to [[Evelyn Denison, 1st Viscount Ossington|Viscount Ossington]], a personal friend, in 26 February 1846, that it would be a "stupendous folly and enormous crime" for the two nations to declare war over the Pacific Northwest.<ref>Wiltse, Charles M. ''Daniel Webster and the British Experience.'' Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 85 (1973), pp. 58-77.</ref>

===British reaction===
[[Image:Georgehamiltongordonaberdeen.jpg|180px|thumb|Foreign Secretary [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Lord Aberdeen]] was committed to maintaining peaceable relations with the Americans, evaluating the disputed territory in the Oregon Question as unimportant.]]

====Pacific Naval forces====
During the height of tensions with the United States in 1845 and 1846, there were at least five Royal Naval vessels operating in the Pacific Northwest.<ref name=BCHQ2>Longstaff, F. V. and W. K. Lamb. [http://www.library.ubc.ca/archives/pdfs/bchf/bchq_1945_2.pdf ''The Royal Navy on the Northwest Coast, 1813-1850. Part 2.''] The British Columbia Historical Quarterly 9, No. 2 (1945), pp. 113-128.</ref> The 80-gun ship-of-the-line [[HMS Collingwood (1841)|HMS ''Collingwood'']] was deployed to Valparaíso under the CinC Rear Admiral Sir [[George Francis Seymour|George Seymour]] in 1845, with orders to report on the situation in the region.<ref name=BCHQ1>Longstaff, F. V. and W. K. Lamb. [http://www.library.ubc.ca/archives/pdfs/bchf/bchq_1945_1.pdf ''The Royal Navy on the Northwest Coast, 1813-1850. Part 1.''] The British Columbia Historical Quarterly 9, No. 1 (1945), pp. 1-24.</ref> [[HMS America (1810)|HMS ''America'']], under the command of Captain John Gordon (younger brother Foreign Secretary Aberdeen), was therefore sent north that year.<ref name=BCHQ1/> [[Roderick Finlayson]] gave a tour of Vancouver Island to the visiting naval officers, where Gordon aired his negative appraisal of the Northwest region. During a deer hunt on the island, Gordon informed Finlayson that he "would not give one of the barren hills of Scotland for all he saw around him."<ref>[[Roderick Finlayson|Finlayson, Roderick]]. [https://archive.org/stream/cihm_14981#page/n19/mode/2up ''Biography of Roderick Finlayson.''] Victoria, B.C.: 1891, p. 15.</ref> The ''America'' departed from the Straits of Juan de Fuca on 1 October. The ''Modeste'' entered the Columbia River and arriving at Fort Vancouver on 30 November 1845,<ref name=BCHQ1/> where it remained until 4 May 1847.<ref name=BCHQ2/> The ''Modeste'' was not favorably viewed by American colonists in the Willamette Valley, threatened by the large warship. Relations were improved when the officers organised a [[Ball (dance)|ball]] at Vancouver on 3 February 1846,<ref>The [[Oregon Spectator]] (Oregon City, OR), [http://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022662/1846-02-19/ed-1/seq-2/ ''Ball at Vancouver.''] 19 February 1846, p. 2.</ref> later theatrical performances by the ship's crew, including ''[[Love in a Village]]'' and ''[[The Mock Doctor]]'', along with [[picnic]]s.<ref>[[Oregon Spectator]] (Oregon City, OR), [http://www.oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022662/1846-05-14/ed-1/seq-2/ ''Theatre at Vancouver.''] 14 May 1846, p. 2.</ref>

[[HMS Fisgard (1819)|HMS ''Fisgard'']] was first reinforcement, ordered from the Pacific Station by Rear Admirial Seymour in January 1846. Captain Duntze was to "afford Protection to Her Majesty's Subjects in Oregon and the North West Coast..." and avoid any potential confrontations with American settlers.<ref name=BCHQ2/> On 5 May the ''Fisgard'' reached Fort Victoria, later moving to [[Fort Nisqually]] on the 18th, where it remained until October. Sent to aid other British vessels navigate difficult channels and rivers, [[HMS Cormorant (1842)|HMS ''Cormorant'']], a [[Paddle steamer]], arrived at the Strait of Juan de Fuca in June.<ref name=BCHQ2/> Two survey ships were dispatched from [[Plymouth]] in June 1845, [[HMS Herald (1822)|HMS ''Herald'']] and [[HMS Pandora (1833)|HMS ''Pandora'']], for charting the coast of the Americas.<ref name=BCHQ2/> The vessels reached [[Cape Flattery]] on 24 June 1846. The ''Cormorant'' towed the ''Herald'' to Fort Victoria three days later.<ref>Seemann, Berthold. [http://www.archive.org/details/narrativevoyage01seemgoog ''Narrative of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Herald during the years 1845-51.''] London: Reeve & Co. 1853, p. 100.</ref> The ''Herald'' and the ''Pandora'' spent several months charting the Puget Sound and Vancouver Island until 2 September, when the vessels sailed for Alta California.<ref>Seemann (1853), p. 112.</ref> The ''Fisgard'' and ''Cormorant'' both departed for Valparaíso in October.<ref name=BCHQ2/> As the ''Modeste'' was the only British ship in the region during 1847, the Oregon Treaty "seemed to have taken the edge off of the Royal Navy's interest in the Northwest Coast."<ref name=BCHQ2/>

====War plan====
Due to his extensive travels throughout the western stations of the HBC, Governor Pelly instructed [[George Simpson (administrator)|George Simpson]] to draft a plan for the British Government if hostilities were to arise with the Americans.<ref name=Galbraith4>Galbraith (1957), pp. 236-237.</ref> Finalizing the proposal on 29 March 1845, Simpson called for two areas to launch offensives. The [[Red River Colony]] would be the base of operations for forays into the [[Great Plains]], an expansive region then only lightly colonized by Americans.<ref name=Galbraith4/> A militia composed of [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] riflemen and neighboring [[First Nations]] like the [[Ojibwe]] would be created, along with a garrison of [[British Army|Regular Army]] infantry. To secure the Pacific Northwest and the Columbia River, Simpson felt [[Cape Disappointment (Washington)|Cape Disappointment]] was of critical importance. A naval force of two [[steamboat]]s and two [[Ship of the line|ships of the line]] would bring a detachment of [[Royal Marines]] to create a [[coastal battery]] there.<ref name=Galbraith4/> Recruitment was hoped by Simpson to gain a force led by Regular Army officers of 2,000 Métis and [[Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest|indigenous peoples]] in the region. His proposal quickly earned the interest of the British Government as he met with Prime Minister Peel and Foreign Secretary Aberdeen on 2 April. [[British pound|£]]1,000 were awarded to lay the ground work for defensive operations in the Pacific Northwest.<ref name=Galbraith4/> [[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]] [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Stanley]] favored the plan, declaring that the HBC had to maintain military operations west of [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario|Sault Ste. Marie]].<ref name=Galbraith3/>

==Resolution==
Aberdeen had no intention of going to war over a region that was of diminishing economic value to the United Kingdom. Furthermore the United States was an important trading partner, especially with the need of American wheat in the onset of [[Irish Potato Famine|famine in Ireland]]. Aberdeen and Pakenham were negotiating from a position of strength. The key was the overwhelming naval power which Britain could have brought to bear against the United States, combined with a diplomatic and political landscape that ultimately favored the British government's aim of protecting her interests robustly but without resort to armed conflict. Ultimately British politicians and naval officers recognized that any conflict over the Oregon boundary, however undesirable, would be decided, like the War of 1812, on the Eastern Seaboard of the U.S. and the Great Lakes. The Royal Navy’s presence on the Atlantic seaboard wasn't as numerically prominent as the American forces, yet its overall superiority to the U.S. Navy was decisive upon American decision-making during the crisis, especially their decision to compromise.<ref>[[Barry M. Gough|Gough, Barry M.]]. ''The Royal Navy and the Northwest Coast of North America, 1810-1914.'' Vancouver, B.C.: University of British Columbia Press. 1971, pp. 70-83.</ref> [[Louis McLane]], the American minister in the United Kingdom, reported to Buchanan on 2 February that the British were prepared "to commission immediately some thirty ships-of-the-line in addition to steamers and other vessels held in reserve..."<ref>editor Miller, Hunter. [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112040219443;view=1up;seq=90 ''Treaties and other International Acts of the United States of America.''] Vol. 5. Washington D.C.: [[United States Government Publishing Office|Government Printing Office]]. 1937, p. 58.</ref> Polk’s bluff had been called.

American diplomat [[Edward Everett]] contacted the [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] leader [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|John Russell]] on 28 December 1845, supporting a revision of the American offer so as to allow the British to keep the entirety of Vancouver Island. He warned Russell that influence among the Whigs could stifle the negotiations. "If you choose to rally the public opinion of England against this basis of compromise, it will not be easy for Sir. R. Peel and Lord Aberdeen to agree to it."<ref name=Merk2>Merk, Frederick. ''British Party Politics and the Oregon Treaty.'' The American Historical Review 37, No. 4 (1932), pp. 653-677.</ref> While still considering the Columbia River important for British interests, Russell assured Aberdeen of his support in settling the Oregon Question. While Everett's was influential in this political move, Russell felt it was, as Frederick Merk stated, "prudent Whig policy" to support Aberdeen in this case.<ref name=Merk3/>

Although Polk had called on Congress in December 1845 to pass a resolution notifying the British of the termination of joint occupancy agreement, it was not until April 23, 1846. that both houses complied. The passage was delayed especially in the Senate by contentious debate. Several Southern Senators, like [[William S. Archer]]<ref>Cong. Globe, 28th Cong., 1st Sess. 520 (1846)</ref> and [[John M. Berrien]],<ref>Cong. Globe, 28th Cong., 1st Sess. 511 (1846)</ref> were wary of military capabilities of the British Empire. Ultimately a mild resolution was approved, the text of which called on both governments to settle the matter amicably.

By a large margin, moderation had won out over calls for war. Unlike Western Democrats, most Congressmen—like Polk—did not want to fight for 54° 40′. <ref>Pletcher (1973), p. 351.</ref> The Polk administration then made it known that the British government should offer terms to settle the dispute. Despite the cooling diplomatic relations, a repeat of the War of 1812 was not popular with either nation's government. Time was of the essence, because it was well known that the [[Robert Peel|Peel government]] would fall with the impending repeal of the [[corn laws]] in the United Kingdom, and then negotiations would have to begin again with a new ministry. At a time when the European continental balance was a far more pressing problem, a costly war with a major trading partner was not popular with the British government. Aberdeen and McLane quickly worked out a compromise and sent it to the United States.

==Oregon Treaty==
{{main|Oregon Treaty}}
[[Image:Wpdms oregon territory 1848.png|frame|The [[Oregon Territory]], as established after the [[Oregon Treaty]], superimposed over the current state boundaries.]]
Pakenham and Buchanan drew up a formal treaty, known as the Oregon Treaty, which was ratified by the Senate on June 18, 1846, by a vote of 41–14. The border was set at the 49th parallel, the original U.S. proposal, with navigation rights on the Columbia River granted to British subjects living in the area. Senator William Allen, one of the most outspoken advocates of the 54° 40' claim, felt betrayed by Polk and resigned his chairmanship of the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|Foreign Relations Committee]].

Henry Commager appraised the factors leading to the settlement as "a combination of temporary, fortuitous, and circumstantial phenomena, extraneous to the local situation, largely outside of American control, and foreign to American influence."<ref name=Commager>Commager, Henry. ''England and Oregon Treaty of 1846.'' Oregon Historical Quarterly 28, No. 1 (1927), pp. 18-38.</ref> Canadian Hugh LL. Keenlyside and American Gerald S. Brown wrote a century after the treaty that {{quote|under the existing conditions, [it] was just and equitable. ''Neither nation had a clear legal title to any of the territory'', and the result was practically an equal division. Great Britain was given the better harbors, and greater resources in minerals, timber, and fish; the United States received much more agricultural land, and a district that has, on the whole, a better climate. This decision, moreover, is almost unique among the solutions of American boundary troubles, in that it has been accepted with reasonable satisfaction by both nations. A better proof of its justice could hardly be demanded.<ref name="keenlyside1952">{{cite book | url=http://www.questia.com/read/9352181/canada-and-the-united-states-some-aspects-of-their | title=Canada and the United States: Some Aspects of Their Historical Relations | publisher=Alfred A. Knopf | author=Keenlyside, Hugh LL.; Brown, Gerald S. | year=1952 | pages=171}}</ref>}}

The terms of the Oregon Treaty were essentially the same ones that had been offered earlier by the Tyler administration, and thus represented a diplomatic victory for Polk.<ref>Haynes (1997), p. 136.</ref> However, Polk has often been criticized for his handling of the Oregon question. Historian Sam W. Haynes characterizes Polk's policy as "[[brinkmanship]]" which "brought the United States perilously close to a needless and potentially disastrous conflict".<ref>Haynes (1997), p. 194.</ref> David M. Pletcher notes that while Polk's bellicose stance was the by-product of internal American politics, the war crisis was "largely of his own creation" and might have been avoided "with more sophisticated diplomacy".<ref>Pletcher (1973), p. 592.</ref> According to Jesse Reeves, "Had [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Palmerston]] been in Aberdeen's position at the time of Polk's 'firm' pronouncement, Polk might have lost Oregon."<ref name=Reeves>Reeves, Jesse S. [http://books.google.com/books?id=jHd2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA263#v=onepage&q&f=false ''American Diplomacy under Tyler and Polk.''] Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. 1907, p. 263.</ref> Aberdeen's desire for peace and good relations with the United States "are responsible for the settlement that Polk thought to gain by a firm policy. That Aberdeen was "bluffed" by Polk is absurd."<ref name=Reeves/>

The treaty was ambiguously phrased about the route of the boundary, which was to follow "the deepest channel" out to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, leaving the fate of the [[San Juan Islands]] in question. After the ''[[Pig War]]'', arbitration by [[William I of Germany|Kaiser William I]] of the [[German Empire]] led to [[Treaty of Washington (1871)]], which awarded America all of the islands.

[[Upper Canada]] politicians and public, already angry with the Oregon Treaty, were once again upset that Britain had not looked after their interests and sought greater autonomy in international affairs.

==Historical maps==
The boundary between British and American territory was shown differently in maps at the time:
<gallery>
Image:OrBoundaryMapDetached.jpg|The 1826 proposal of Huskisson and Addington
Image:1841 map of the Oregon Territory.jpg|An 1841 American map showing the 54°40′ line near [[Fort Simpson, British Columbia|Fort Simpson]] as the boundary
Image:Arrowsmith Oregon Country.jpg|An 1844 British map showing the [[Columbia River]] as the boundary
Image:1846 Oregon territory.jpg|An 1846 map showing the 49th parallel as the boundary through [[Vancouver Island]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Adams-Onís Treaty]] of 1819, between U.S. and Spain, resolved borders from Florida to the Pacific Ocean.
* [[Alaska boundary dispute]], mid-to-late-19th century, resolved in 1903, resolved border between Alaska and British Columbia.
* [[Pig War]]
* [[Webster-Ashburton Treaty]] of 1842, primarily concerned the border between Maine and New Brunswick, but reaffirmed other aspects of the U.S.–Canadian border.

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

==Further reading==
*[http://www.nosracines.ca/page.aspx?id=607082&qryID=3e0b2f50-86b2-4a0a-9888-27c93e4a4a6d ''Sir James Douglas, Chapter V The Oregon Boundary''], Robert Hamilton Coats and R. Edward Gosnell, publ. Morang, Toronto, 1908
*[http://nosracines.ca/page.aspx?id=786037&qryID=fdd28732-abe2-4ce9-98e4-195d198530be ''A history of British Columbia'', Chapter IX "The Oregon Boundary", pp 89-96, E.O.S. Scholefield, British Columbia Historical Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, 1913]

==External links==
'''Party platform and speeches'''
*[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=25814 Polk's March 1845 inaugural address], in which he reasserted the "clear and unquestionable" claim
*[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29486 Polk's December 1845 message to Congress], in which he called for the end of the joint occupation of Oregon

'''Political cartoons''' from [[Harper's Weekly]], 1846
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=9&Year=1846 "Polk's Dream"], in which the Devil, disguised as Andrew Jackson, advises Polk to fight for the 54°40′ line
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=10&Year=1846 "Present Presidential Position"], in which the Democratic Party's "jackass" is standing on the 54°40′ line
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/DisplayCartoonMedium.asp?MaxID=77&UniqueID=13&Year=1846&YearMark=1843 "Ultimatum on the Oregon Question"], Polk talks with Queen Victoria, while others make comments
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=15&Year=1846 "War! or No War!"], two Irish immigrants face off over the boundary question

'''Other'''
*[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa031600a.htm ''Fifty-Four Forty or Fight''] at About.com, an example of a reference that mistakenly describes the phrase as an 1844 campaign slogan
*[http://earlywomenmasters.net/quilts/f/54_40/index.html ''54-40 or Fight''] shows the [[quilt block]] named after the slogan. In this time period, women frequently used quilts to express their political views.

{{Oregon Pioneer History}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oregon Boundary Dispute}}
[[Category:Canada–United States border disputes]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation British Columbia]]
[[Category:History of the Pacific Northwest]]
[[Category:History of United States expansionism]]
[[Category:Oregon Country]]
[[Category:Pacific Northwest]]
[[Category:Presidency of James K. Polk]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Idaho]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Oregon]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Wyoming]]
[[Category:United Kingdom–United States relations]]

Oregon Boundary Dispute

2016-01-24T08:33:43Z

Jprg1966: /* Political efforts during Tyler Presidency */

[[Image:Oregoncountry.png|thumb|300px|The Oregon Country/Columbia District stretched from 42N to 54 40'N. The most heavily disputed portion is highlighted]]
The '''Oregon boundary dispute''' or the '''Oregon Question''', was a controversy over the political division of the [[Pacific Northwest]] of [[North America]] between several nations that had competing territorial and commercial aspirations over the region.

Expansionist competition into the region began in the 18th century, with participants including the [[Russian Empire]], the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]], the [[Kingdom of Spain]] and the [[United States of America]]. By the 1820s, both the Russians, through the [[Russo-American Treaty of 1824]] and the [[Russo-British Treaty of 1825]] and the Spanish, by the [[Adams Onis Treaty|Adams Onis Treaty of 1819]], formally withdrew their territorial claims in the region. Through these treaties the British and Americans gained residual territorial claims in the disputed area.<ref>{{cite book |last= Mackie |first= Richard Somerset |title= Trading Beyond the Mountains: The British Fur Trade on the Pacific 1793-1843 |year= 1997 |publisher= University of British Columbia (UBC) Press |location= Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0613-3 |pages= 29, 124–126, 140}} online at [http://books.google.com/books?id=VKXgJw6K088C Google Books]</ref> The remaining portion of the [[North America]]n [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast contested by the UK and the US was defined as the following: west of the [[Continental Divide of the Americas]], north of [[Alta California]] at [[42nd parallel north]], and south of [[Russian America]] at [[parallel 54°40′ north]]; typically this region was referred to by the British as the [[Columbia District]] and the [[Oregon Country]] by the Americans. The Oregon Dispute began to become important in geopolitical diplomacy between the British Empire and the new American Republic, especially after the [[War of 1812]]. Following long European precedent only limited sovereign rights of the local [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous nations]] were recognized by either power.

In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1844|1844 U.S. presidential election]], ending the Oregon Question by annexing the entire area was a position adopted by the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]]. Some scholars have claimed the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party's]] lack of interest in the issue was due to its relative insignificance among other more pressing domestic issues.<ref name=Miles/> Democratic candidate [[James K. Polk]] appealed to the popular theme of [[manifest destiny]] and [[expansionism|expansionist]] sentiment, defeating Whig [[Henry Clay]]. Polk sent the British government the previously offered partition along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]]. Subsequent negotiations faltered as the British plenipotentiaries still argued for a border along the Columbia River. Tensions grew as American expansionists like [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Edward A. Hannegan]] of [[Indiana]] and [[United States House of Representatives|Representative]] [[Leonard Henly Sims]] of [[Missouri]], urged Polk to annex the entire Pacific Northwest to the 54°40′ parallel north, as the Democrats had called for in the election. The turmoil gave rise to [[political slogan|slogans]] such as "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" As relations with [[Mexico]] were rapidly deteriorating following the [[annexation of Texas]], the expansionist agenda of Polk and the Democratic Party created the possibility of two different, simultaneous wars for the United States. Just before the outbreak of the [[Mexican-American War|war with Mexico]], Polk returned to his earlier position of a border along the 49th parallel.

The 1846 [[Oregon Treaty]] established the border between [[British North America]] and the United States along the 49th parallel until the [[Strait of Georgia]], where the marine boundary curved south to exclude [[Vancouver Island]] and the [[Gulf Islands]] from the United States. As a result a small portion of the [[Tsawwassen|Tsawwassen Peninsula]], [[Point Roberts, Washington|Point Roberts]] became an [[exclave]] of the United States. Vague wording in the treaty left the ownership of the [[San Juan Islands]] in doubt, as the division was to follow the "through the middle of the said channel (the [[Salish Sea]])"<ref>[[s:Oregon Treaty|Oregon Treaty]] from Wikisource. Accessed 12 February 2015.</ref> to the [[Strait of Juan de Fuca]]. During the so called [[Pig War]], both nations agreed to a joint military occupation of the islands. Kaiser [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] of the [[German Empire]] was selected as an arbitrator to end the dispute, with a three-man commission ruling in favor of the United States in 1872. There the [[Haro Strait]] became the border line, rather than the British favored [[Rosario Strait]]. The border established by the Oregon Treaty and finalized by the arbitration in 1872 remains the boundary between the United States and [[Canada]] in the Pacific Northwest.

==Background==
The Oregon Question originated in the 18th century during the early European or American exploration of the [[Pacific Northwest]]. Various Empires began to consider the area suitable for colonial expansion, including the Americans, Russians, Spanish and British. Naval captains such as the Spanish [[Juan José Pérez Hernández]], British [[George Vancouver]] and American [[Robert Gray (sea-captain)|Robert Gray]] gave defining regional water formations like the [[Columbia River]] and the [[Puget Sound]] their modern names and charted in the 1790s. Overland explorations were commenced by the British [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]] in 1792 and later followed by the American [[Lewis and Clark]] expedition, which reached the mouth of the [[Columbia River]] in 1805. These explorers often claimed in the name of their respective governments sovereignty over the Northwest Coast. The knowledge of fur-bearing animal populations like the [[California sea lion]], [[North American beaver]] and the [[Northern fur seal]] were used to create an economic network called the [[maritime fur trade]]. The [[North American fur trade|fur trade]] would remain the main economic interest that drew Euro-Americans to the Pacific Northwest for decades. Merchants exchanged goods for fur pelts along the coast with Indigenous nations such as the [[Chinookan people]], the [[Aleut]]s and the [[Nuu-chah-nulth]].

[[Image:Columbiarivermap.png|thumb|300px|Map of the Columbia River and its tributaries, showing modern political boundaries and cities.]]

===Spanish colonisation===
A series of [[Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest|Expeditions to the Pacific Northwest]] were financed by the Spanish to strengthen their claims to the region. Creating a colony called [[Santa Cruz de Nuca]] on [[Vancouver Island]], the Spanish were the first white colonisers of the Pacific Northwest outside Russian America to the north. A period of tensions with the United Kingdom, called the [[Nootka Crisis]], arose after the Spanish seized a British vessel. However the three [[Nootka Convention]]s averted conflict, with both countries agreeing to protect their mutual access to [[Friendly Cove]] against outside powers. While the Spanish colony was abandoned, a border delineating the northern reaches of [[New Spain]] wasn't included. Despite the Nootka Conventions still allowing the Spanish to establish colonies in the region, no more attempts were made as other geopolitical and domestic matters drew the attention of the authorities. With the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] of 1819, the Spanish formally withdrew all formal claims to lands north of the [[42nd parallel north|42° north]].

===Russian interest===
The [[Imperial Russian government]] established the [[Russian-American Company]] in 1799, a monopoly among Russian subjects for fur trading operations in [[Russian America]] with the [[Ukase of 1799]]. In part from the growing Russian activities to the north, the Spanish created the [[Spanish missions in California|Catholic Missions]] to create colonies in [[Alta California]]. Plans for creating Russians colonies what became the modern American states of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and [[Oregon]] were formulated by [[Nikolai Rezanov]]. He aimed to relocate the primary colony of Russian America to the entrance of the Columbia River, though was unable to enter the river in 1806 and the plan was abandoned.<ref>[[Grigory Langsdorff|Langsdorff, Grigory]]. [https://archive.org/stream/langsdorffsnarra00lang#page/20/mode/2up ''Langsdorff's Narrative of the Rezanov voyage to Nueva California in 1806.''] Translator Thomas C. Russell. San Francsico, CA: The Private Press of Thomas C. Russell. 1927, p. 21.</ref> In 1808 [[Alexander Andreyevich Baranov]] sent the ''[[Russian schooner Nikolai|Nikolai]]'', with the captain "ordered to explore the coast south of Vancouver Island, barter with the natives for sea otter pelts, and if possible discover a site for a permanent Russian post in the Oregon Country."<ref name=Donnolly1>Alton S. Donnelly. ''The Wreck of the Sv. Nikolai'' ed. Kenneth N. Owens. Portland, OR: The Press of the Oregon Historical Society. 1985, p. 4.</ref> The ship crashed on the [[Olympic Peninsula]] and the surviving crew didn't return to [[New Archangel]] for two years. The failure of the vessel to find a suitable location led to the Russians to not consider much of the Northwest coast worth colonising.<ref>Donnolly (1985), p. 30.</ref> Their interest in the Puget Sound and the Columbia River was diverted to Alta California, with [[Fort Ross]] soon established. The [[Russo-American Treaty of 1824]] and the [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825)|Treaty of Saint Petersburg]] with the British formally created the southern border of Russian America at [[parallel 54°40′ north]].

===Early Anglo-American competition===
Both the Russian and Spanish empires held no significant plans at promoting colonies along the Northwest Coast by the 1810s. The British and American were the remaining two nations with citizens active in commercial operations in the region. Starting with a party of the [[Montreal]] based [[North West Company]] (NWC) employees led by [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]] in 1807, the British began land-based operations and opened trading posts throughout the region. Thompson extensively explored the Columbia River watershed. While at the junction of Columbia and [[Snake River|Snake]] Rivers, he erected a pole on July 9, 1811, with a notice stating "Know hereby that this country is claimed by Great Britain as part of its territories..." and additionally stated the intention of the NWC to build a trading post there.<ref>Elliott, T. C. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/20609875 ''David Thompson, Pathfinder and the Columbia River'']. The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 12, No. 3 (1911), pp. 195-205.</ref> [[Fort Nez Percés]] was later established at the location in 1818. The American [[Pacific Fur Company]] (PFC) began operations in 1811 at [[Fort Astoria]], constructed at the entrance of the Columbia River. The eruption of the [[War of 1812]] didn't create a violent confrontation in the Pacific Northwest between the competing companies. Led by [[Donald Mackenzie (explorer)|Donald Mackenzie]], PFC officers agreed to liquidate its assets to their NWC competitors, with an agreement signed on 23 November 1813.<ref name=Chittenden>Chittenden, Hiram M. [http://www.archive.org/details/americanfurtrade01chit ''The American Fur Trade in the Far West.''] Vol. 1. New York City: Francis P. Harper. 1902, pp. 222-223.</ref> The [[HMS Racoon (1808)|HMS ''Racoon'']] was ordered to capture Fort Astoria, though by the time it arrived, the post was already under NWC management. After the collapse of the PFC, American [[mountain men]] operated in small groups in the region, typically based east of the Rocky Mountains, only to meet once a year at the annual [[Rendezvous (fur trade)|Rendezvous]].

==Joint occupation==

===Treaty of 1818===
{{main|Treaty of 1818}}
In 1818, diplomats of the two countries attempted to negotiate a boundary between the rival claims. The Americans suggested dividing the Pacific Northwest along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]], which was the border between the United States and [[British North America]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. The lack of accurate cartographic knowledge led American diplomats to declare the [[Louisiana Purchase]] gave them an incontestable claim to the region.<ref name=Merk1>Merk, Frederick. ''The Ghost River Caledonia in the Oregon Negotiation of 1818.'' The American Historical Review 50, No. 3 (1950), pp. 530-551.</ref> British diplomats wanted a border further south along the [[Columbia River]], so as to maintain the [[North West Company]]'s (later the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]'s (HBC)) control of the lucrative [[fur trade]] along that river.<ref name=Merk1/> The diplomatic teams couldn't agree upon mutually satisfactory terms and remained in deadlock by October. [[Albert Gallatin]], the main American negotiator, had previously instructed to have a tentative agreement by the convening of the 3rd session of the [[15th United States Congress]], set for 16 November.

A final proposition was made to the British [[plenipotentiary]], [[Frederick John Robinson, 1st Earl of Ripon|Frederick John Robinson]], for the continuation of the 49th parallel west while leaving the United Kingdom, as Gallatin stated, "all the waters emptying in the sound called the Gulf of Georgia."<ref name=Merk1/> This would have awarded "all the territory draining west from the [[Cascade Mountains|Cascade]] divide and north from the Columbia River divide into the gulf" and the entirety of the [[Puget Sound]] along with the Straits of [[Strait of Georgia|Georgia]] and [[Strait of Juan de Fuca|Juan de Fuca]] to the United Kingdom.<ref name=Merk1/> Robinson demurred from the proposal however, the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, which settled most other disputes from the [[War of 1812]], called for the joint occupation of the region for ten years.

===Proposed partition plans===
As the expiration of the Joint Occupation treaty approached, a second round of negotiations commenced in 1824. American Minister [[Richard Rush]] offered for the extension of agreement with an additional clause on 2 April. The 51° parallel would be a provisional border within the Pacific Northwest, with no British additional settlements to be established south of the line, nor any American settlements north of it.<ref name=Marshall1>Marshall, William I. [http://www.archive.org/details/acquisitionoreg04marsgoog ''Acquisition of Oregon and the Long Suppressed Evidence about Marcus Whitman.''] Vol. 1. Seattle: Lowman & Hanford Co. 1911, p. 166.</ref> Despite Rush's offering to modify the temporary border to the 49° parallel, the British negotiators rejected his offer. His proposal was seen as the likely basis for the eventual division of the Pacific Northwest. The British plenipotentiaries [[William Huskisson]] and [[Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe|Stratford Canning]] on 29 June pressed instead for a permanent line along the 49° parallel west until the main branch of the Columbia River. With the British formally abandoning claims south or east of the Columbia River, the Oregon Question from then on became focused what later became Western [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and the southern portion of Vancouver Island.<ref name=Marshall1/> Rush reacted to the British proposal as unfavorably as they had to his own offer, leaving the talks at a stalemate.

[[Image:George Canning by Richard Evans - detail.jpg|150px|thumb|[[George Canning]] has been appraised the most active Secretary of Foreign Affairs in maintaining the British claims of a division along the Columbia River.<ref name=Galbraith1/>]]

Throughout 1825, [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]] [[George Canning]] held discussions with [[Sir John Pelly, 1st Baronet|Governor Pelly]] of the HBC as to a potential settlement with the United States. Pelly felt a border along the [[Snake River|Snake]] and Columbia Rivers was advantageous for the United Kingdom and his company.<ref name=Galbraith1>Galbraith, John S. ''The Hudson's Bay Company as an Imperial Factor, 1821 - 1869.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1957, pp. 184-188.</ref> Contacting American minister [[Rufus King]] in April 1826, Canning requested that a settlement be reached over the Oregon dispute. Gallatin was appointed [[United States Minister to the United Kingdom|Ambassador to the United Kingdom]] and given instructions by [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Henry Clay]] in July 1826 to offer a division of the Pacific Northwest along the 49th parallel to the British.<ref name=Meany>Meany, Edmond S. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40474377 ''Three Diplomats Prominent in the Oregon Question.''] The Washington Historical Quarterly 5, No. 3 (1914), pp. 207-214.</ref> In a letter to Prime Minister [[Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool|Lord Liverpool]] in 1826, Canning presented the possibilities of trade with the [[Qing Empire]] if a division of the Pacific Northwest was to be made with the Americans. He felt the recognition of American rights to ownership of Astoria, despite its continued use by the NWC and later HBC, was "absolutely unjustifiable."<ref name=Canning>[[George Canning|Canning, George]]. [http://books.google.com/books?id=24PFAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s ''Some Official Correspondence of George Canning.''] Vol. II. Editor Edward J. Stapleton. London: Longmans, Green and Co. 1887, pp. 71-74.</ref> This diplomatic courtesy Canning felt weakened the territorial claims of the United Kingdom. A border along the Columbia River would give "an immense direct intercourse between China and what may be, if we resolve not yield them up, her boundless establishments on the N. W. Coast of America."<ref name=Canning/>

===Renewal===
Huskisson was appointed along with [[Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth|Henry Addington]] to negotiate with Gallatin. Unlike his superior, Canning, Huskisson held a negative view of the HBC monopoly and found the region held in dispute with the Americans "of little consequence to the British."<ref name=Galbraith1/> At time the HBC's staff was the only continuous white occupants in the region, though their economic activities weren't utilized by Huskinisson in exchanges with Gallatin.<ref name=Galbraith1/> The division suggested by Pelly and Canning's 1824 offer of a Columbia River boundary were both rejected. The argument used to counter these offers was the same as in 1824, that a boundary along the Columbia would deny the U.S. an easily accessible deep water port on the [[Pacific Ocean]]. The British negotiators to allay this attack offered a detached [[Olympic Peninsula]] as American territory, giving access to both the Straits of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound.<ref name=Galbraith1/> This was seen as unsatisfactory by the Americans however. The diplomatic talks were continued but failed to divide the region in a satisfactory way for both nations. The Treaty of 1818 was renewed on 7 August 1827,<ref name=Shewmaker>Shewmaker, Kenneth E. ''Daniel Webster and the Oregon Question.'' Pacific Historical Review 51, No. 2 (1982), pp. 195-201.</ref> with a clause added by Gallatin that a one-year notice had to be given when either party intended to abrogate the agreement.<ref name=Meany/> After the death of Canning and the failure to find a satisfactory division of the region with the Americans, "Oregon had been almost forgotten by the [British] politicians..."<ref name=Galbraith1/>

==Significance in America==

===Regional Activities===
American Protestant missionaries began to arrive in the 1830s and established the [[Methodist Mission]] in the [[Willamette Valley]] and the [[Whitman Mission National Historic Site|Whitman Mission]] east of the [[Cascade Range|Cascades]].<ref>[http://bluebook.state.or.us/cultural/history/history06.htm Oregon History: Land-based Fur Trade and Exploration]</ref> [[Ewing Young]] created a [[sawmill|saw mill]]<ref>[http://www.endoftheoregontrail.org/oregontrails/ewingyoung.html Ewing Young Route]. compiled by Karen Bassett, Jim Renner, and Joyce White.</ref> and a [[gristmill|grist mill]] in the Willamette Valley early in the 1830s.<ref>[http://www.salemhistory.net/people/historic_figures.htm Salem Online History: Salem's Historic Figures]</ref> He and several other American colonists formed the [[Willamette Cattle Company]] in 1837 to bring over 600 head of cattle to the Willamette Valley, with about half of its shares purchased by McLoughlin. Over 700 U.S settlers arrived via the Oregon Trail in the "[[Oregon Trail#Great Migration of 1843|Great Migration of 1843]]". The [[Provisional Government of Oregon]] was established in the Willamette Valley during 1843 as well. Its rule was limited to those interested Americans and former [[French-Canadian]] HBC employees in the valley.

===John Floyd===
The first attempts by the American Government for proactive action in colonising the Pacific Northwest began in 1820 during the 2nd session of the [[16th United States Congress|16th Congress]]. [[John Floyd (Virginia politician)|John Floyd]], a [[United States House of Representatives|Representative]] from [[Virginia]], spearheaded a report that would "authorize the occupation of the Columbia River, and to regulated trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes thereon."<ref name=Benton>[[Thomas Hart Benton (politician)|Benton, Thomas H.]] [http://www.archive.org/details/thirtyyearsview01inbent ''Thirty years' view.''] Vol 1. New York City: D. Appleton and Co. 1854, pp. 13-14</ref> Additionally the bill called for cultivating commercial relations with the [[Qing Empire]] and the [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. His interest in the distant region likely began after meeting former PFC employee [[Russell Farnham]]. Floyd had the support of fellow Virginian Representative [[Thomas Van Swearingen]] and Representative [[Thomas Metcalfe (Kentucky)|Thomas Metcalfe]] of [[Kentucky]]. The bill was presented to both the House and to [[James Monroe|President Monroe]]. In the House, Floyd's bill was defended by one member who stated that it didn't "attempt a colonial settlement. The territory proposed to be occupied is already a part of the United States."<ref name=Wilson>Wilson, Joseph R. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/20609465 ''The Oregon Question. II.''] The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 1, No. 3 (1900), pp. 213-252.</ref> Monroe inquired the opinion of [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[John Quincy Adams]] for potential revisions. Adams retorted that "The paper was a tissue of errors in fact and abortive reasoning, of invidious reflections and rude invectives. There was nothing could purify it but the fire."<ref>[[John Quincy Adams|Adams, John Quincy]]. [http://books.google.com/books?id=unoUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA238#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Memoirs of John Quincy Adams.''] Vol. 5 ed. Charles F. Adams. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott and Co. 1875, p. 238.</ref> Read twice before the legislature, "most of the members not considering it a serious proceeding", it didn't pass.<ref name=Benton/>

[[Image:Johnfloydvirginia.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Representative [[John Floyd (Virginia politician)|John Floyd]] was the most prominent early Congressional member in favor of extensive American claims in the Pacific Northwest.]]

Floyd continued to authorise legislation calling for an American colony on the Pacific. His career as a Representative ended in 1829, with the Oregon Question not discussed at Congress until 1837. The northern border proposed by Floyd was at first the [[53rd parallel north|53°]], and later 54°40′.<ref name=Shippee1/> These bills were still met with the apathy or opposition of other Congressional members, one in particular not being tabled for consideration by a vote of 100 to 61.<ref name=Shippee1/> [[Missouri]] Senator [[Thomas Hart Benton (politician)|Thomas H. Benton]] became a vocal supporter of Floyd's efforts, and thought that they would "plant the germ of a powerful and independent Power beyond the Rockies."<ref name=Shippee1/> [[John C. Calhoun]], then [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]], while somewhat interested in Floyd's considered bills, gave his opinion to that the HBC was an economic threat to American commercial interests in the west. <blockquote>"....so long as the traders of the British Fur Company have free access to the region of the Rocky Mountains from the various posts... they will in great measure monopolize the Fur Trade West of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], to the almost entire exclusion in the next few years of our trade."<ref name=Shippee1>Shippee, Lester B. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/20610098 ''The Federal Relations of Oregon.''] The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 19, No. 2 (1918), pp. 89-133.</ref></blockquote>

===1844 Presidential election===
The [[United States presidential election, 1844|1844 presidential election]] was a definitive turning point for the United States. Admitting the [[Texas Republic]] by diplomatic negotiations to begin a process of [[annexation of Texas]] into the nation was a contentious topic. At the same time, the Oregon Question "became a weapon in a struggle for domestic political power."<ref name=Graebner/> At the [[1844 Democratic National Convention|Democratic National Convention]], the [[party platform]] asserted "That our title to the whole of the Territory of Oregon is clear and unquestionable; that no portion of the same ought to be ceded to England or any other power, and that the reoccupation of Oregon and the re-annexation of Texas at the earliest practicable period are great American measures..."<ref>{{cite web|title=Democratic Party Platform of 1844|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29573|website=The American Presidency Project|accessdate=16 February 2015}}</ref> By tying the Oregon dispute to the more controversial Texas debate, the Democrats appealed to expansionist members from both the Northern and Southern states.<ref name=Graebner>Graebner, Norman A. ''Empire on the Pacific; a study in American continental expansion.'' New York City, NY: New York Ronald Press Co. 1955, p. 35.</ref> Enlargement in the Pacific Northwest offered a means of mollifying Northern fears of allowing Texas, another [[Slave and free states|slave state]], by a counterbalance of additional free states. Democratic candidate [[James K. Polk]] went on to win a narrow victory over [[United States Whig Party|Whig]] candidate [[Henry Clay]], in part because Clay had taken a stand against immediate expansion in Texas. Despite the use of the Oregon Question in the election, according to Edward Miles, the topic wasn't "a significant campaign issue" as "the Whigs would have been forced to discuss it."<ref name=Miles/> Their silence "indicated that Oregon had failed to arouse widespread interest."<ref name=Miles>Miles, E.A. ''"Fifty-Four Forty or Fight"—an American Political Legend.'' Mississippi Valley Historical Review 44, No. 2 (1957), pp. 291–309.</ref>

"[[Parallel 54°40′ north|Fifty-four Forty]] or Fight!" was not yet coined during this election but appeared by January 1846, driven in part by the Democratic press. The phrase is frequently misidentified as a campaign slogan from the election of 1844, even in many textbooks.<ref name=Miles/><ref name=Rosenboom>Rosenboom, Eugene H. ''A History of Presidential Elections: From George Washington to Richard M. Nixon.'' 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan. 1970, p. 132.</ref><ref>Pletcher (1973), p. 223.</ref><ref>Hans Sperber, ''"Fifty-four Forty or Fight": Facts and Fictions'', American Speech '''32'''(1), February 1957, pp. 5–11.</ref> ''[[Bartlett's Familiar Quotations]]'' attributes the slogan to William Allen. 54°40′ was the southern boundary of [[Russian America]], and considered the northernmost limit of the Pacific Northwest. One actual Democratic campaign slogan from this election (used in [[Pennsylvania]]) was the more mundane "Polk, [[George M. Dallas|Dallas]], and the [[Tariff of 1842|Tariff of '42]]".<ref name=Rosenboom/>

==British interest==

===Hudson's Bay Company===
{{main|Columbia Department}}

[[Image:Gsimpson.gif|180px|thumb|left|[[George Simpson (administrator)|George Simpson]], manager of HBC operations in North America, reported in 1837 that the Pacific Northwest "may become an object of very great importance, and we are strengthening that claim to it... by forming the nucleus of a colony through the establishment of farms, and the settlement of some of our retiring officers and servants as agriculturalists."<ref name=Merk3>Merk, Frederick. ''Fur Trade and Empire; George Simpson's Journal 1824-25.'' Cambridge, MA: Belknap. 1968, p. 339.</ref>]]

The [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (HBC) merged with the North West Company in 1821 and assumed its various fur trading stations. The HBC held a license among British subjects to trade with the populous aboriginal peoples of the region, and its network of trading posts and routes extended southward from [[New Caledonia (Canada)|New Caledonia]], another HBC fur-trade district, into the Columbia basin (most of New Caledonia lay south of 54-40). The HBC's headquarters for the entire region became established at [[Fort Vancouver]] (modern [[Vancouver, Washington]]) in 1824. During that year [[George Simpson (administrator)|George Simpson]] while discussing the company's "uncertain tenure of the Columbia" with [[Andrew Colville|Governor Colville]], discussed the possibility of closing operations along the river.<ref name=Merk2>Merk (1968), p. 244.</ref> "If the Americans settle on the mouth of the Columbia it would in my opinion be necessary to abandon the Coast [south of the river]..." Simpson stated, with the company posts to "move to the Northward..."<ref name=Merk2/> At its pinnacle in the late 1830s and early 1840s, Fort Vancouver watched over 34 outposts, 24 ports, six ships, and 600 employees.

===Domestic===
The [[Edinburgh Review#Edinburgh Review, 1802–1929|Edinburgh Review]] declared the Pacific Northwest "the last corner of the earth left free for the occupation of a civilized race. When Oregon shall be colonised, the map of the world may be considered as filled up."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=WFA7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA185#v=onepage&q&f=false The Edinburgh Review or Critical Journal: For July, 1843.... October, 1843.''] Vol. LXXVIII. Edinburgh: Ballantyne and Hughes. 1843, p. 185.</ref>

===Naval presence===
[[Royal Navy]] ships were dispatched to the Pacific Northwest through out the decades, to both expand cartographical knowledge and protect fur trading stations. The British established the [[Pacific Station]] in 1826 at [[Valparaíso]], [[Chile]], increasing the strategic capabilities of their navy. A squadron was moved there and later vessels sent to the Pacific Northwest were based out of the port. [[HMS Blossom (1806)|HMS ''Blossom'']] was in the region during 1818. The next surveying expedition was commenced by [[HMS Sulphur (1826)|HMS ''Sulphur'']] and [[HMS Starling (1829)|HMS ''Starling'']] in 1837, with operations lasting until 1839. Dispatched from the Pacific Station to gather intelligence on the HBC posts, [[HMS Modeste (1837)|HMS ''Modeste'']] arrived at the Columbia River in July 1844. Chief Factor [[James Douglas (governor)|James Douglas]] complained that the naval officers "had more taste for a [[lark]] than a 'musty' lecture on politics or the greater national interests in question."<ref>[[John McLoughlin|McLoughlin, John]]. ''The Letters of John McLoughlin from Fort Vancouver to the Governor and Committee, Third Series, 1844-1846.'' editor E. E. Rich. London: 1944, p. 180.</ref> The ''Modeste'' visited the HBC trading posts of Forts George, Vancouver, Victoria and [[Fort Simpson|Simpson]].<ref name=BCHQ1/>

==Political efforts during Tyler Presidency==
Missouri Senator [[Lewis F. Linn|Lewis Linn]] tabled legislation in 1842, inspired in part by Floyd's previous efforts. Linn's bill called for the government to create land grants for men interested in settling the Pacific Northwest. The arrival of [[Alexander Baring, 1st Baron Ashburton|Baron Ashburton]] in April 1842, sent to resolve several territorial disputes with the United States, delayed Linn's legislation. Initially focusing on the Pacific Northwest, Ashburton presented [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Daniel Webster]] the 1824 partition proposal made by Canning of a division along the Columbia River.<ref name=Shewmaker /> Webster rejected the offer for the same reasons it was previously repudiated, the division would leave the United States with no suitable locations for a large Pacific port. Webster suggested that Ashburton's proposal may have been found acceptable by the Americans, if the United States could be compensated with the [[Mexico|Mexican]] owned [[San Francisco Bay]].<ref name=Shewmaker /> Ashburton passed on the offer to his superiors, but no further action was taken. Both diplomats became focused on settling the [[Aroostook War]] and formulated the [[Webster–Ashburton Treaty]].

At the final session of the [[27th United States Congress|27th Congress]] on 19 December 1842, Linn presented a similar bill to colonize the Pacific Northwest as he put it, "by the Anglo-American race, which will extend our limits from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean."<ref name=Wilson /> Arguments over the bill lasted over a month, and it was eventually passed in the Senate 24-22.<ref name=Wilson /> In opposition to Linn's bill, Calhoun famously declared that the U.S. government should pursue a policy of "wise and masterly inactivity"<ref>The phrase "wise and masterly inactivity", which Calhoun used more than once, originated with Sir [[James Mackintosh]]. ([http://www.bartleby.com/73/1038.html source])</ref> in Oregon, letting settlement determine the eventual boundary.<ref name=Wilson /> Many of Calhoun's fellow [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]], however, soon began to advocate a more direct approach.<ref>Pletcher, David M. ''The Diplomacy of Annexation: Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War''. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press. 1973, pp. 109–110.</ref>

By early 1843, Webster returned to the Oregon Question, formalising a plan that included the 1826 British offer of the Olympic Peninsula enclave and the purchase of [[Alta California]] from Mexico.<ref name=Shewmaker /> The increasing hostility President Tyler had with the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] led to Webster's disinterest in continuing to act as the Secretary of State and his plan was shelved. The American minister to the UK, [[Edward Everett]], was given authority to negotiate with British officials to settle the Oregon Question in October 1843. Meeting with Prime Minister [[Robert Peel]]'s [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]], [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Earl of Aberdeen]] on 29 November, Everett presented the terms considered by President [[John Tyler]]. The old offer of the 49th parallel was once more presented, along with a guarantee to free access to the Columbia River.<ref name=Treaty>[http://archive.org/details/cihm_15845 ''Papers relating to the Treaty of Washington''.] Vol. V. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office. 1872, pp. 6–11.</ref> However during President Tyler's [[State of the Union]] address that year on 6 December, he claimed "the entire region of country lying on the Pacific and embraced within 42° and 54°40′ of north latitude."<ref>[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29647 ''1843 State of the Union Address''.] Accessed 6 November 2014.</ref> After receiving this declaration, Aberdeen began to consult with the committee and Governor Pelly, previously left out of the most recent diplomatic exchanges.<ref name=Galbraith2>Galbraith (1957), p. 231.</ref>

==Polk Presidency==
[[Image:JamesKnoxPolk.png|180px|thumb|President [[James K. Polk]] was elected in 1844 in part from his support for substantial claims against the British. Much of this rhetoric was to make the United Kingdom accept the long tabled proposed division along the 49th parallel.]]

In his March 1845 [[Inauguration Day|inaugural address]], President Polk quoted from the party platform, saying that the U.S. title to Oregon was "clear and unquestionable".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Polk|first1=James|title=Inaugural Address of James Knox Polk|url=http://www.avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/polk.asp|website=The Avalon Project|publisher=Yale Law School|accessdate=18 November 2014}}</ref> Tensions grew, with both sides moving to strengthen border fortifications in anticipation of war. Despite Polk's bold language, he was actually prepared to compromise, and had no real desire to go to war over Oregon. He believed that a firm stance would compel the British to accept a resolution agreeable to the United States. While meeting with Representative [[James A. Black]] on 4 January 1846, Polk stated that "the only way to treat [[John Bull]] was to look him straight in the eye... if Congress faultered [sic]... John Bull would immediately become arrogant and more grasping in his demands..."<ref>[[James K. Polk|Polk, James K.]] [http://www.books.google.com/books?id=wxMOAAAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s ''The Diary of James K. Polk during his Presidency, 1845 to 1849.''] Vol. 1. ed. Milo M. Quaife. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. 1910, pp. 153-155.</ref> But Polk's position on Oregon was not mere posturing: he genuinely believed that the U.S. had a legitimate claim to the entire region.<ref name=Haynes>Haynes, Sam W. ''James K. Polk and the Expansionist Impulse''. Arlington: University of Texas. 1997, pp. 118–120.</ref> He rejected British offers to settle the dispute through arbitration, fearing that no impartial third party could be found.<ref>Pletcher (1973), p. 322.</ref>

Many newspaper editors in the United States clamored for Polk to claim the entire region as the Democrats had proposed in the 1844 campaign. Headlines like "The Whole of Oregon or None" by [[The Union (newspaper)|The Union]] editor [[Thomas Ritchie]] appeared on 6 November 1845.<ref name=Miles/> In a column in the ''New York Morning News'' on December 27, 1845, editor [[John L. O'Sullivan]] argued that the United States should claim all of Oregon "by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us..."<ref>Horsman, Reginald. ''Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1981, p. .</ref> Soon afterwards, the term "[[Manifest Destiny]]" became a standard phrase for expansionists, and a permanent part of the American lexicon. O'Sullivan's version of "Manifest Destiny" was not a call for war, but such calls were soon forthcoming.

After Polk's inauguration, British diplomats began to receive instructions influenced from HBC officials like Simpson, whose suggestions were transmitted through Pelly and then Aberdeen to the [[British Ambassador to the United States|British Ambassador]] [[Richard Pakenham]]. In a letter written to Calhoun in August 1844, Pakenham pressed for a border along the Columbia River. He made an offer that likely originated from Simpson: Americans could select naval bases on the portion of Vancouver Island south of the 49th parallel or along the Strait of Juan de Fuca in return.<ref name=Galbraith2/> Diplomatic channels continued negotiations throughout 1844, by early 1845 Everett reported the willingness of Aberdeen to accept the 49th parallel, provided the southern portion of [[Vancouver Island]] would become British territory.<ref name=Treaty/>

In the summer of 1845, the Polk administration renewed the proposal to divide Oregon along the 49th parallel to the Pacific Ocean. U.S. Secretary of State [[James Buchanan]] on 12 July<ref name=Galbraith3>Galbraith (1957), p. 240.</ref> offered the British any desired ports on the portion of Vancouver Island south of this line,<ref name=Wilson/> though navigation rights of the Columbia River weren't included. Because this proposal fell short of the Tyler administration's earlier offer, Pakenham rejected the offer without first contacting London.<ref name=Galbraith3/> Offended, Polk officially withdrew the proposal on August 30, 1845, and broke off negotiations. Aberdeen censured Pakenham for this diplomatic blunder, and attempted to renew the dialogue. By then, however, Polk was suspicious of British intentions, and under increasing political pressure not to compromise. He declined to reopen negotiations.<ref name=Haynes/><ref>Pletcher (1973), pp. 237–249, 296–300</ref>

==War crisis==
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%" style="text-align: center; margin: 0px 5px 10px 10px;" align="right"
!colspan=2|Important figures in the Oregon question
|-
! United States
! United Kingdom
|-
|[[James K. Polk]] [[President of the United States|President]]
|[[Robert Peel]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]]
|-
|[[James Buchanan]] [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]
|[[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Earl of Aberdeen]] [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]]
|-
|[[Louis McLane]] [[United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom|Minister to the UK]]
|[[Richard Pakenham]] [[List of British Ambassadors to the United States|Minister in Washington]]
|}

===Congressional pressure===
[[Image:Lewis Cass - Brady-Handy.jpg|160px|thumb|left|Senator [[Lewis Cass]] was a leading advocate of 54°40′, but backed away from the claim when it became untenable. Like [[James Buchanan]], Cass had presidential ambitions and did not want to alienate Americans on either side of the Oregon question.]]

In his [[State of the Union Address|annual address]] to Congress on December 2, 1845, Polk recommended giving the British the required one-year notice of the termination of the joint occupation agreement. Democratic expansionists in Congress from the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], led by Senators [[Lewis Cass]] of [[Michigan]], [[Edward A. Hannegan]] of [[Indiana]], and [[William Allen (governor)|William Allen]] of [[Ohio]], called for war with the United Kingdom rather than accepting anything short of all of Oregon up to [[Parallel 54°40′ north]]. These pronouncements were fueled by a number of factors, including traditional [[Anglophobia|distrust of the British]] and a belief that the U.S. had the better claim and would make better use of the land.

The debate was not strictly divided along party or sectional lines, with many who clamored for the 54°40′ border were Northerners upset at Polk's willingness to compromise on the Pacific Northwest border. Polk's uncompromising pursuit of Texas, an acquisition seen favorable for Southern slave owners, angered many advocates of 54°40′, as the President was a Southerner and a slave owner. As historian [[David M. Pletcher]] noted, "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" seemed to be directed at the southern aristocracy in the U.S. as much as at the United Kingdom.<ref>Pletcher (1973), pp. 335–37.</ref>

Moderates like Webster warned that the U.S. could not win a war against the [[British Empire]], and that negotiation could still achieve U.S. territorial goals. Webster confided to [[Evelyn Denison, 1st Viscount Ossington|Viscount Ossington]], a personal friend, in 26 February 1846, that it would be a "stupendous folly and enormous crime" for the two nations to declare war over the Pacific Northwest.<ref>Wiltse, Charles M. ''Daniel Webster and the British Experience.'' Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 85 (1973), pp. 58-77.</ref>

===British reaction===
[[Image:Georgehamiltongordonaberdeen.jpg|180px|thumb|Foreign Secretary [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Lord Aberdeen]] was committed to maintaining peaceable relations with the Americans, evaluating the disputed territory in the Oregon Question as unimportant.]]

====Pacific Naval forces====
During the height of tensions with the United States in 1845 and 1846, there were at least five Royal Naval vessels operating in the Pacific Northwest.<ref name=BCHQ2>Longstaff, F. V. and W. K. Lamb. [http://www.library.ubc.ca/archives/pdfs/bchf/bchq_1945_2.pdf ''The Royal Navy on the Northwest Coast, 1813-1850. Part 2.''] The British Columbia Historical Quarterly 9, No. 2 (1945), pp. 113-128.</ref> The 80-gun ship-of-the-line [[HMS Collingwood (1841)|HMS ''Collingwood'']] was deployed to Valparaíso under the CinC Rear Admiral Sir [[George Francis Seymour|George Seymour]] in 1845, with orders to report on the situation in the region.<ref name=BCHQ1>Longstaff, F. V. and W. K. Lamb. [http://www.library.ubc.ca/archives/pdfs/bchf/bchq_1945_1.pdf ''The Royal Navy on the Northwest Coast, 1813-1850. Part 1.''] The British Columbia Historical Quarterly 9, No. 1 (1945), pp. 1-24.</ref> [[HMS America (1810)|HMS ''America'']], under the command of Captain John Gordon (younger brother Foreign Secretary Aberdeen), was therefore sent north that year.<ref name=BCHQ1/> [[Roderick Finlayson]] gave a tour of Vancouver Island to the visiting naval officers, where Gordon aired his negative appraisal of the Northwest region. During a deer hunt on the island, Gordon informed Finlayson that he "would not give one of the barren hills of Scotland for all he saw around him."<ref>[[Roderick Finlayson|Finlayson, Roderick]]. [https://archive.org/stream/cihm_14981#page/n19/mode/2up ''Biography of Roderick Finlayson.''] Victoria, B.C.: 1891, p. 15.</ref> The ''America'' departed from the Straits of Juan de Fuca on 1 October. The ''Modeste'' entered the Columbia River and arriving at Fort Vancouver on 30 November 1845,<ref name=BCHQ1/> where it remained until 4 May 1847.<ref name=BCHQ2/> The ''Modeste'' was not favorably viewed by American colonists in the Willamette Valley, threatened by the large warship. Relations were improved when the officers organised a [[Ball (dance)|ball]] at Vancouver on 3 February 1846,<ref>The [[Oregon Spectator]] (Oregon City, OR), [http://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022662/1846-02-19/ed-1/seq-2/ ''Ball at Vancouver.''] 19 February 1846, p. 2.</ref> later theatrical performances by the ship's crew, including ''[[Love in a Village]]'' and ''[[The Mock Doctor]]'', along with [[picnic]]s.<ref>[[Oregon Spectator]] (Oregon City, OR), [http://www.oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022662/1846-05-14/ed-1/seq-2/ ''Theatre at Vancouver.''] 14 May 1846, p. 2.</ref>

[[HMS Fisgard (1819)|HMS ''Fisgard'']] was first reinforcement, ordered from the Pacific Station by Rear Admirial Seymour in January 1846. Captain Duntze was to "afford Protection to Her Majesty's Subjects in Oregon and the North West Coast..." and avoid any potential confrontations with American settlers.<ref name=BCHQ2/> On 5 May the ''Fisgard'' reached Fort Victoria, later moving to [[Fort Nisqually]] on the 18th, where it remained until October. Sent to aid other British vessels navigate difficult channels and rivers, [[HMS Cormorant (1842)|HMS ''Cormorant'']], a [[Paddle steamer]], arrived at the Strait of Juan de Fuca in June.<ref name=BCHQ2/> Two survey ships were dispatched from [[Plymouth]] in June 1845, [[HMS Herald (1822)|HMS ''Herald'']] and [[HMS Pandora (1833)|HMS ''Pandora'']], for charting the coast of the Americas.<ref name=BCHQ2/> The vessels reached [[Cape Flattery]] on 24 June 1846. The ''Cormorant'' towed the ''Herald'' to Fort Victoria three days later.<ref>Seemann, Berthold. [http://www.archive.org/details/narrativevoyage01seemgoog ''Narrative of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Herald during the years 1845-51.''] London: Reeve & Co. 1853, p. 100.</ref> The ''Herald'' and the ''Pandora'' spent several months charting the Puget Sound and Vancouver Island until 2 September, when the vessels sailed for Alta California.<ref>Seemann (1853), p. 112.</ref> The ''Fisgard'' and ''Cormorant'' both departed for Valparaíso in October.<ref name=BCHQ2/> As the ''Modeste'' was the only British ship in the region during 1847, the Oregon Treaty "seemed to have taken the edge off of the Royal Navy's interest in the Northwest Coast."<ref name=BCHQ2/>

====War plan====
Due to his extensive travels throughout the western stations of the HBC, Governor Pelly instructed [[George Simpson (administrator)|George Simpson]] to draft a plan for the British Government if hostilities were to arise with the Americans.<ref name=Galbraith4>Galbraith (1957), pp. 236-237.</ref> Finalizing the proposal on 29 March 1845, Simpson called for two areas to launch offensives. The [[Red River Colony]] would be the base of operations for forays into the [[Great Plains]], an expansive region then only lightly colonized by Americans.<ref name=Galbraith4/> A militia composed of [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] riflemen and neighboring [[First Nations]] like the [[Ojibwe]] would be created, along with a garrison of [[British Army|Regular Army]] infantry. To secure the Pacific Northwest and the Columbia River, Simpson felt [[Cape Disappointment (Washington)|Cape Disappointment]] was of critical importance. A naval force of two [[steamboat]]s and two [[Ship of the line|ships of the line]] would bring a detachment of [[Royal Marines]] to create a [[coastal battery]] there.<ref name=Galbraith4/> Recruitment was hoped by Simpson to gain a force led by Regular Army officers of 2,000 Métis and [[Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest|indigenous peoples]] in the region. His proposal quickly earned the interest of the British Government as he met with Prime Minister Peel and Foreign Secretary Aberdeen on 2 April. [[British pound|£]]1,000 were awarded to lay the ground work for defensive operations in the Pacific Northwest.<ref name=Galbraith4/> [[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]] [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Stanley]] favored the plan, declaring that the HBC had to maintain military operations west of [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario|Sault Ste. Marie]].<ref name=Galbraith3/>

==Resolution==
Aberdeen had no intention of going to war over a region that was of diminishing economic value to the United Kingdom. Furthermore the United States was an important trading partner, especially with the need of American wheat in the onset of [[Irish Potato Famine|famine in Ireland]]. Aberdeen and Pakenham were negotiating from a position of strength. The key was the overwhelming naval power which Britain could have brought to bear against the United States, combined with a diplomatic and political landscape that ultimately favored the British government's aim of protecting her interests robustly but without resort to armed conflict. Ultimately British politicians and naval officers recognized that any conflict over the Oregon boundary, however undesirable, would be decided, like the War of 1812, on the Eastern Seaboard of the U.S. and the Great Lakes. The Royal Navy’s presence on the Atlantic seaboard wasn't as numerically prominent as the American forces, yet its overall superiority to the U.S. Navy was decisive upon American decision-making during the crisis, especially their decision to compromise.<ref>[[Barry M. Gough|Gough, Barry M.]]. ''The Royal Navy and the Northwest Coast of North America, 1810-1914.'' Vancouver, B.C.: University of British Columbia Press. 1971, pp. 70-83.</ref> [[Louis McLane]], the American minister in the United Kingdom, reported to Buchanan on 2 February that the British were prepared "to commission immediately some thirty ships-of-the-line in addition to steamers and other vessels held in reserve..."<ref>editor Miller, Hunter. [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112040219443;view=1up;seq=90 ''Treaties and other International Acts of the United States of America.''] Vol. 5. Washington D.C.: [[United States Government Publishing Office|Government Printing Office]]. 1937, p. 58.</ref> Polk’s bluff had been called.

American diplomat [[Edward Everett]] contacted the [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] leader [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|John Russell]] on 28 December 1845, supporting a revision of the American offer so as to allow the British to keep the entirety of Vancouver Island. He warned Russell that influence among the Whigs could stifle the negotiations. "If you choose to rally the public opinion of England against this basis of compromise, it will not be easy for Sir. R. Peel and Lord Aberdeen to agree to it."<ref name=Merk2>Merk, Frederick. ''British Party Politics and the Oregon Treaty.'' The American Historical Review 37, No. 4 (1932), pp. 653-677.</ref> While still considering the Columbia River important for British interests, Russell assured Aberdeen of his support in settling the Oregon Question. While Everett's was influential in this political move, Russell felt it was, as Frederick Merk stated, "prudent Whig policy" to support Aberdeen in this case.<ref name=Merk3/>

Although Polk had called on Congress in December 1845 to pass a resolution notifying the British of the termination of joint occupancy agreement, it was not until April 23, 1846. that both houses complied. The passage was delayed especially in the Senate by contentious debate. Several Southern Senators, like [[William S. Archer]]<ref>Cong. Globe, 28th Cong., 1st Sess. 520 (1846)</ref> and [[John M. Berrien]],<ref>Cong. Globe, 28th Cong., 1st Sess. 511 (1846)</ref> were wary of military capabilities of the British Empire. Ultimately a mild resolution was approved, the text of which called on both governments to settle the matter amicably.

By a large margin, moderation had won out over calls for war. Unlike Western Democrats, most Congressmen—like Polk—did not want to fight for 54° 40′. <ref>Pletcher (1973), p. 351.</ref> The Polk administration then made it known that the British government should offer terms to settle the dispute. Despite the cooling diplomatic relations, a repeat of the War of 1812 was not popular with either nation's government. Time was of the essence, because it was well known that the [[Robert Peel|Peel government]] would fall with the impending repeal of the [[corn laws]] in the United Kingdom, and then negotiations would have to begin again with a new ministry. At a time when the European continental balance was a far more pressing problem, a costly war with a major trading partner was not popular with the British government. Aberdeen and McLane quickly worked out a compromise and sent it to the United States.

==Oregon Treaty==
{{main|Oregon Treaty}}
[[Image:Wpdms oregon territory 1848.png|frame|The [[Oregon Territory]], as established after the [[Oregon Treaty]], superimposed over the current state boundaries.]]
Pakenham and Buchanan drew up a formal treaty, known as the Oregon Treaty, which was ratified by the Senate on June 18, 1846, by a vote of 41–14. The border was set at the 49th parallel, the original U.S. proposal, with navigation rights on the Columbia River granted to British subjects living in the area. Senator William Allen, one of the most outspoken advocates of the 54° 40' claim, felt betrayed by Polk and resigned his chairmanship of the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|Foreign Relations Committee]].

Henry Commager appraised the factors leading to the settlement as "a combination of temporary, fortuitous, and circumstantial phenomena, extraneous to the local situation, largely outside of American control, and foreign to American influence."<ref name=Commager>Commager, Henry. ''England and Oregon Treaty of 1846.'' Oregon Historical Quarterly 28, No. 1 (1927), pp. 18-38.</ref> Canadian Hugh LL. Keenlyside and American Gerald S. Brown wrote a century after the treaty that {{quote|under the existing conditions, [it] was just and equitable. ''Neither nation had a clear legal title to any of the territory'', and the result was practically an equal division. Great Britain was given the better harbors, and greater resources in minerals, timber, and fish; the United States received much more agricultural land, and a district that has, on the whole, a better climate. This decision, moreover, is almost unique among the solutions of American boundary troubles, in that it has been accepted with reasonable satisfaction by both nations. A better proof of its justice could hardly be demanded.<ref name="keenlyside1952">{{cite book | url=http://www.questia.com/read/9352181/canada-and-the-united-states-some-aspects-of-their | title=Canada and the United States: Some Aspects of Their Historical Relations | publisher=Alfred A. Knopf | author=Keenlyside, Hugh LL.; Brown, Gerald S. | year=1952 | pages=171}}</ref>}}

The terms of the Oregon Treaty were essentially the same ones that had been offered earlier by the Tyler administration, and thus represented a diplomatic victory for Polk.<ref>Haynes (1997), p. 136.</ref> However, Polk has often been criticized for his handling of the Oregon question. Historian Sam W. Haynes characterizes Polk's policy as "[[brinkmanship]]" which "brought the United States perilously close to a needless and potentially disastrous conflict".<ref>Haynes (1997), p. 194.</ref> David M. Pletcher notes that while Polk's bellicose stance was the by-product of internal American politics, the war crisis was "largely of his own creation" and might have been avoided "with more sophisticated diplomacy".<ref>Pletcher (1973), p. 592.</ref> According to Jesse Reeves, "Had [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Palmerston]] been in Aberdeen's position at the time of Polk's 'firm' pronouncement, Polk might have lost Oregon."<ref name=Reeves>Reeves, Jesse S. [http://books.google.com/books?id=jHd2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA263#v=onepage&q&f=false ''American Diplomacy under Tyler and Polk.''] Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. 1907, p. 263.</ref> Aberdeen's desire for peace and good relations with the United States "are responsible for the settlement that Polk thought to gain by a firm policy. That Aberdeen was "bluffed" by Polk is absurd."<ref name=Reeves/>

The treaty was ambiguously phrased about the route of the boundary, which was to follow "the deepest channel" out to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, leaving the fate of the [[San Juan Islands]] in question. After the ''[[Pig War]]'', arbitration by [[William I of Germany|Kaiser William I]] of the [[German Empire]] led to [[Treaty of Washington (1871)]], which awarded America all of the islands.

[[Upper Canada]] politicians and public, already angry with the Oregon Treaty, were once again upset that Britain had not looked after their interests and sought greater autonomy in international affairs.

==Historical maps==
The boundary between British and American territory was shown differently in maps at the time:
<gallery>
Image:OrBoundaryMapDetached.jpg|The 1826 proposal of Huskisson and Addington
Image:1841 map of the Oregon Territory.jpg|An 1841 American map showing the 54°40′ line near [[Fort Simpson, British Columbia|Fort Simpson]] as the boundary
Image:Arrowsmith Oregon Country.jpg|An 1844 British map showing the [[Columbia River]] as the boundary
Image:1846 Oregon territory.jpg|An 1846 map showing the 49th parallel as the boundary through [[Vancouver Island]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Adams-Onís Treaty]] of 1819, between U.S. and Spain, resolved borders from Florida to the Pacific Ocean.
* [[Alaska boundary dispute]], mid-to-late-19th century, resolved in 1903, resolved border between Alaska and British Columbia.
* [[Pig War]]
* [[Webster-Ashburton Treaty]] of 1842, primarily concerned the border between Maine and New Brunswick, but reaffirmed other aspects of the U.S.–Canadian border.

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

==Further reading==
*[http://www.nosracines.ca/page.aspx?id=607082&qryID=3e0b2f50-86b2-4a0a-9888-27c93e4a4a6d ''Sir James Douglas, Chapter V The Oregon Boundary''], Robert Hamilton Coats and R. Edward Gosnell, publ. Morang, Toronto, 1908
*[http://nosracines.ca/page.aspx?id=786037&qryID=fdd28732-abe2-4ce9-98e4-195d198530be ''A history of British Columbia'', Chapter IX "The Oregon Boundary", pp 89-96, E.O.S. Scholefield, British Columbia Historical Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, 1913]

==External links==
'''Party platform and speeches'''
*[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=25814 Polk's March 1845 inaugural address], in which he reasserted the "clear and unquestionable" claim
*[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29486 Polk's December 1845 message to Congress], in which he called for the end of the joint occupation of Oregon

'''Political cartoons''' from [[Harper's Weekly]], 1846
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=9&Year=1846 "Polk's Dream"], in which the Devil, disguised as Andrew Jackson, advises Polk to fight for the 54°40′ line
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=10&Year=1846 "Present Presidential Position"], in which the Democratic Party's "jackass" is standing on the 54°40′ line
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/DisplayCartoonMedium.asp?MaxID=77&UniqueID=13&Year=1846&YearMark=1843 "Ultimatum on the Oregon Question"], Polk talks with Queen Victoria, while others make comments
*[http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/IndexDisplayCartoonMedium.asp?SourceIndex=Topics&IndexText=Oregon&UniqueID=15&Year=1846 "War! or No War!"], two Irish immigrants face off over the boundary question

'''Other'''
*[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa031600a.htm ''Fifty-Four Forty or Fight''] at About.com, an example of a reference that mistakenly describes the phrase as an 1844 campaign slogan
*[http://earlywomenmasters.net/quilts/f/54_40/index.html ''54-40 or Fight''] shows the [[quilt block]] named after the slogan. In this time period, women frequently used quilts to express their political views.

{{Oregon Pioneer History}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oregon Boundary Dispute}}
[[Category:Canada–United States border disputes]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation British Columbia]]
[[Category:History of the Pacific Northwest]]
[[Category:History of United States expansionism]]
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[[Category:Pacific Northwest]]
[[Category:Presidency of James K. Polk]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Idaho]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Oregon]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Wyoming]]
[[Category:United Kingdom–United States relations]]

Drake Hotel (New York City)

2015-12-12T19:22:11Z

Jprg1966: Cleaned up using AutoEd

[[File:Drake Hotel (1251914031).jpg|thumb|300px|right|The main entrance of the Drake Hotel in January 2006.]]

The '''Drake Hotel''' was a [[hotel]] located at [[Park Avenue (Manhattan)|Park Avenue]] and [[56th Street (Manhattan)|56th Street]], in [[Midtown Manhattan|midtown]] [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]].

The hotel was built in 1926 by the real estate organization of [[Bing & Bing]]. It was a 21-floor complex with 495 rooms. According to one source, "it boasted innovations such as automatic refrigeration as well as spacious, luxurious rooms and suites".<ref name=hotel>[http://www.hotel-online.com/News/PR2006_4th/Dec06_Turkel21.html Nobody Asked Me, But… No. 21] hotel-online.com, written by Stanley Turkel, retrieved December 2006</ref> [[Fauchon]] chocolates was located on the ground floor.

Silent film star [[Lillian Gish]] lived at the hotel from 1946 to 1949. Other notable guests included [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Muhammad Ali]], [[Judy Garland]], [[Jimi Hendrix]] and [[Glenn Gould]]. Restaurateur [[Toots Shor]] lived there in his final years. Songwriter [[Jerome Kern]] collapsed on the sidewalk in front of the Drake on November 5, 1945.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the Drake Hotel was the preferred accommodation in New York for a number of touring [[rock and roll|rock bands]], such as [[Led Zeppelin]] and [[The Who]]. During their stay there in July 1973, Led Zeppelin had $203,000 in cash stolen from a safe deposit box at the hotel. The money was never recovered and the identity of the thief or thieves has never been discovered. The band later sued the Drake Hotel for the theft.<ref name="Welch">Chris Welch (1994) ''Led Zeppelin'', London: Orion Books. ISBN 1-85797-930-3, p. 68.</ref> The British rock band Slade stayed at the hotel on 6 October 1973 after their gig at the New York Academy of Music. Another British rock band [[Sweet (band)|Sweet]] made The Drake their home from home during gruelling tours in the USA in the 1970s. Shepheard's was touted as the most fashionable nightclub of the time, where people like [[Lee Radziwill]] and [[Julie Newmar]] danced [[The Frug]] to a live disc jockey.

The hotel was acquired in the early 1980s by the [[Swissotel]] company of [[Zurich]], which renamed it '''Swissotel The Drake''' and undertook a $52 million room-by-room renovation of the building. Renovations were completed in 1991. In 2006 the hotel was sold for $440 million to developer [[Harry Macklowe]]. It was demolished in 2007, and the site became one of New York's most valuable development sites in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://therealdeal.com/newyork/articles/harry-macklowe-s-drake-hotel-tops-list-of-most-valuable-nyc-development-sites|title=Drake Hotel tops most valuable NYC development sites list|date=21 June 2011|work=The Real Deal New York|accessdate=29 May 2015}}</ref>

In mid-2012, construction began on a {{convert|1398|ft|m|0|adj=on}} residential skyscraper, [[432 Park Avenue]] on the site.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=94370|title=432 Park Avenue|accessdate=2012-08-17|publisher=SkyscraperPage.com}}</ref> Designed by [[Rafael Viñoly]] around "the purest geometric form: the square", the tower has eighty-four 93-foot-square stories, each with six 100-square-foot windows per face. The tower's condominium units range from a 351-square-foot studio to a six-bedroom, seven-bath penthouse with a library. When it was topped out in October 2014,<ref>{{cite web|title=Inside New York's $95 Million Penthouse: 432 Park Avenue|url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/aliciaadamczyk/2014/10/16/inside-new-yorks-95-million-penthouse-432-park-avenue/|date=October 17, 2014|first=Alicia|last=Adamczyk|accessdate=August 6, 2015}}</ref> 432 Park Avenue became the second-tallest building in New York City by roof height, with a roof height surpassing [[One World Trade Center]] by {{Convert|32|ft|m|1|abbr=on}}. It is now the tallest residential building in the Western Hemisphere.<ref>{{cite news|title=Boom in Luxury Towers Is Warping New York Real Estate Market|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/19/nyregion/boom-in-luxury-towers-is-warping-new-york-real-estate-market.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2013-05-18|access-date=2015-08-05|issn=0362-4331|first=Charles V.|last=Bagli}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of former hotels in Manhattan]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Drake Hotel (New York City)}}
[[Category:Buildings and structures demolished in 2007]]
[[Category:Demolished hotels in the United States]]
[[Category:Hotel buildings completed in 1926]]
[[Category:Former hotels in Manhattan]]
[[Category:Park Avenue]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2015-11-04T03:56:58Z

Jprg1966: /* Humanistic Judaism */

{{About|historical and modern views of Jews|the portrayal of women in the Bible|Women in the Bible}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|religion}}
{{Women in society sidebar}}

The [[role]] of '''women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], the [[Oral Torah|Oral Law]] (the corpus of rabbinic literature), by [[Minhag|custom]], and by non-religious cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature mention various female role models, religious law treats women differently in various circumstances.

[[Gender]] has a bearing on familial lines: in traditional Judaism, [[Who is a Jew?|Jewishness]] is passed down through the mother, although the father's name is used to describe sons and daughters in the [[Torah]], e.g., "Dinah, daughter of Jacob".<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|pages= 121, 131}}</ref>

==Biblical times==
{{See also|Old Testament views on women}}
Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are a number of exceptions to this rule, including the [[Matriarchs (Bible)|Matriarchs]] [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca]], [[Rachel]], and [[Leah]], [[Miriam]] the prophetess, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Huldah]] the prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Rahab]] and [[Esther]]. In the Biblical account these women did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was formed between the Israelites and the God of Abraham at Mount Sinai. The Torah relates that both Israelite men and Israelite women were present at Sinai, however, the covenant was worded in such a way that it bound men to act upon its requirements and to ensure that the members of their household (wives, children, and slaves) met these requirements as well. In this sense, the covenant bound women as well, though indirectly.<ref name="HauptmanEtz">[[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman, Judith]]. "Women." ''Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary''. Ed. David L. Lieber. The Jewish Publication Society, 2001. 1356-1359.</ref>

Marriage and family law in biblical times favored men over women. For example, a husband could divorce a wife if he chose to, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. The practice of [[levirate marriage]] applied to widows of childless deceased husbands, not to widowers of childless deceased wives; though if either he or she didn't consent to the marriage, a different ceremony called chalitza is done instead. Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men during biblical times, however, they also suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount.<ref name="HauptmanEtz" /> However, men had specific obligations they were required to perform for their wives. These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual relations to their wives.<ref>[[Joseph Telushkin|Telushkin, Joseph]]. ''Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible''. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997. p. 403.</ref>

Women also had a role in ritual life. Women (as well as men) were required to make a pilgrimage to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] once a year and offer the [[Passover]] [[korban|sacrifice]]. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a ''todah'' ("thanksgiving") offering after childbirth. Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non-levitical men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and generally more discreet scale.

Women depended on men economically. Women generally did not own property except in the rare case of inheriting land from a father who didn't bear sons. Even "in such cases, women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings."<ref name="HauptmanEtz" />

According to [[John Bowker (theologian)]], traditionally, Jewish "men and women pray separately. This goes back to ancient times when women could go only as far as the second court of the Temple."<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 119}}</ref>

==Talmudic times==
Classical Jewish [[rabbinical literature]] contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that:
*Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the (righteous) women than to (righteous) men<ref>''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berakhot]]'' 17a</ref>
*Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine<ref>''[[Nashim|Kiddushin]]'' 49b</ref>
*Women are ''light on raw knowledge'' – i.e., they possess more intuition<ref>''[[Shabbat (Talmud)|Shabbat]]'' 33b</ref>
*A man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good; a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself<ref>''[[Yebamot]]'' 62b</ref>
*When [[Rav Yosef b. Hiyya]] heard his mother's footsteps he would say: ''Let me arise before the approach of the [[Shekhinah|divine presence]]''<ref>''Kiddushin'' 31b</ref>
*Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its (Israel's) righteous women<ref>''[[Sotah]]'' 11b</ref>
*A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong<ref>''[[Baba Metzia]]'' 59a</ref>
*Women have greater faith than men<ref>''[[Sifre]]'', 133</ref>
*Women have greater powers of discernment<ref>''[[Tohorot|Niddah]]'' 45b</ref>
*Women are especially tenderhearted<ref>''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'' 14b</ref>

While few women are mentioned by name in rabbinic literature, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands. Occasionally they have a public persona. Examples are [[Bruriah daughter of Rabbi Hananiah Ben Teradion|Bruriah]], the wife of the [[Tannaim|Tanna]] [[Rabbi Meir]]; Rachel, the wife of [[Akiba ben Joseph|Rabbi Akiva]]; and Yalta, the wife of [[Rav Nachman|Rabbi Nachman]]. [[Elazar ben Arach|Rabbi Elazar]]'s{{Who|date=February 2010}} [[Imma Shalom|wife]] (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]]. When R' Elazar ben Azarya was asked to assume the role of ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]'' ("Prince" or President of the [[Sanhedrin]]), he replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Brachoth 27b</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
Since Jews were seen as second class citizens in the Christian and Muslim world, it was even harder for Jewish women to establish their own status. Avraham Grossman argues in his book ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe'' that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them: "the biblical and talmudic heritage; the situation in the non-Jewish society within which the Jews lived and functioned; and the economic status of the Jews, including the woman's role in supporting the family."<ref>Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. 1.</ref> Grossman uses all three factors to argue that women's status overall during this period actually rose.<ref>Grossman, 3.</ref>

During the Middle Ages, there was a conflict between Judaism's lofty religious expectations of women and the reality of society in which these Jewish women lived; this is similar to the lives of Christian women in the same period.<ref>Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94.</ref> This prompted the [[kabbalistic]] work ''Sefer Hakanah'' to demand that women fulfill the ''[[mitzvot]]'' in a way that would be equal to men.<ref name="Ben-Sasson">Ben-Sasson, H. H. "Spiritual and Social Creativity." ''A History of the Jewish People''. Ed. Ben-Sasson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. 612–627. Print.</ref>

=== Religious life ===
Religious developments during the medieval period included relaxation on prohibitions against teaching women [[Torah]], and the rise of women's prayer groups.<ref>Steinberg, 157–158.</ref> One place that women participated in Jewish practices publicly was the [[synagogue]]. Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.<ref name="Baskin 1991 42">{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=42|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There is evidence that in the 15th century some communities of [[Ashkenaz]], the wife of the rabbi wore ''[[tzitzit]]'' just like her husband.<ref name="Ben-Sasson" />

In most [[synagogues]] they were given their own section, most likely a balcony; some [[synagogues]] had a separate building.<ref name="Grossman,181">Grossman, 181.</ref> Separation from the men was created by the Rabbis in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]. The reasoning behind the [[Halacha]] was that a woman and her body would distract men and give them impure thoughts during prayer.<ref>[[Talmud]], [[Sukkah (Talmud)|Succah]] 51a–52b</ref> Due to this rabbinical interpretation, scholars have seen the women’s role in the synagogue as limited and sometimes even non-existent. However, recent research has shown that women actually had a larger role in the synagogue and the community at large. Women usually attended synagogue, for example, on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] and the holidays.<ref>Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period.'' Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52.</ref> Depending on the location of the women in the [[synagogue]], they may have followed the same service as the men or they conducted their own services. Since the [[synagogues]] were large, there would be a designated woman who would be able to follow the cantor and repeat the prayers aloud for the women.<ref name="Grossman,181" /> Women had always attended services on [[Shabbat]] and holidays, but beginning in the eleventh century, women became more involved in the [[synagogue]] and its rituals. Women sitting separately from the men became a norm in [[synagogues]] around the beginning of the thirteenth century.<ref>Steinberg, 157.</ref> Women, however, did much more than pray in the [[synagogue]]. One of the main jobs for women was to beautify the building. There are [[Torah ark]] curtains and [[Torah]] covers that women sewed and survive today.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|page=128 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}</ref> The [[synagogue]] was a communal place for both men and women where worship, learning and community activities occurred.

The rise and increasing popularity of [[Kabbalah]], which emphasized the [[shechinah]] and female aspects of the divine presence and human-divine relationship, and which saw marriage as a holy covenant between partners rather than a civil contract, had great influence. Kabbalists explained the phenomenon of menstruation as expressions of the demonic or sinful character of the menstruant.<ref>Koren, Sharon Faye. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/nashim/summary/v017/17.koren.html "The Menstruant as 'Other' in Medieval Judaism and Christianity."] Project MUSE. Spring 2009. 29 December 2011.</ref> These changes were accompanied by increased pietistic strictures, including greater requirements for [[Tzeniut|modest dress]], and greater strictures during [[Niddah|the period of menstruation]]. At the same time, there was a rise in philosophical and [[midrashic]] interpretations depicting women in a negative light, emphasizing a duality between matter and spirit in which femininity was associated, negatively, with earth and matter.<ref>Grossman, 277–278.</ref> The gentile society was also seen as a negative influence on the Jewish community. For example, it seems that Jews would analyze the modesty of their non-Jewish neighbors before officially moving into a new community because they knew that their children would be influenced by the local gentiles.<ref>Grossman, 2.</ref>

After the [[Alhambra Decree|expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492]], women became virtually the only source of Jewish ritual and tradition in the Catholic world in a phenomenon known as [[crypto-Judaism]]. Crypto-Jewish women would slaughter their own animals and made sure to keep as many of the [[Kosher|Jewish dietary laws]] and life cycle rituals as possible without raising suspicion. Occasionally, these women were prosecuted by [[Inquisition]] officials for suspicious behavior such as lighting candles to honor the Sabbath or refusing to eat pork when it was offered to them. The [[Inquisition]] targeted crypto-Jewish women at least as much as it targeted crypto-Jewish men because women were accused of perpetuating Jewish tradition while men were merely permitting their wives and daughters to organize the household in this manner.<ref>Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009. 105–111.</ref>

Jewish women were also apart of the social phenomenon of martyrdom of the [[First Crusade]]. Most of the violence from the [[First Crusade]] towards Jews was due to the [[People's Crusade]]. Inspired by the Pope's call, Christians in Roven, Trier, Metz, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Prague, and Bohemia, among others, massacred thousands of Jews. The local governments did not, at first, sanction the mass murder of Jews as part of the fervor of the Crusades. However, popular anxiety overcame many towns and villages and lead towards the local government's support of killing Jews.<ref>Steinberg, 108.</ref> Although many Jews did convert, many rather chose to die. Through the sources, such as chronicles and poems, we see that Jewish women were often martyred with their families.<ref name="Steinberg,160">Steinberg, 160.</ref> In contrast, most Christian women martyrs were members of a convent or religious order when they were martyred (See [http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/women1.htm Women and Hagiography in Medieval Christianity] for more information).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|page=38}}</ref>

=== Domestic life ===
Marriage, Domestic Violence and Divorce are all topics discussed by Jewish sages of the Medieval world. Marriage is an important institution in Judaism (see [[Marriage in Judaism]]). The sages of this period discussed this topic at length.

[[Rabbeinu Gershom]] instituted a rabbinic decree ([[Takkanah]]) prohibiting polygamy among [[Ashkenazic]] Jews.<ref>{{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|page=81}}</ref> The rabbis instituted legal methods to enable women to petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a divorce. [[Maimonides]] ruled that a woman who found her husband "repugnant" could compel a divorce, "because she is not like a captive, to be subjected to intercourse with one who is hateful to her."<ref>[[Mishneh Torah]], Hilkhot Ishut 14:8</ref><ref>Biale, 91.</ref> Divorce for Christian women was technically not an option. By the tenth century, Christianity considered marriage a sacrament and could not be dissolved (see [[Divorce#Medieval Europe|Divorce in Medieval Europe]]).

The rabbis also instituted and tightened prohibitions on domestic violence. [[Peretz ben Elijah|Rabbi Peretz ben Elijah]] ruled, "The cry of the daughters of our people has been heard concerning the sons of Israel who raise their hands to strike their wives. Yet who has given a husband the authority to beat his wife?"<ref>Grossman, 224.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] ruled that "For it is the way of the Gentiles to behave thus, but Heaven forbid that any Jew should do so. And one who beats his wife is to be excommunicated and banned and beaten."<ref>Grossman, 226.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] also ruled that a battered wife could petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a husband to grant a divorce, with a monetary fine owed her on top of the regular [[ketubah]] money.<ref>Grossman, 222.</ref> These rulings occurred in the midst of societies where wife-beating was legally sanctioned and routine.<ref>Grossman, 230.</ref>

=== Education ===
Jewish women had a limited education. They were taught to read, write, run a household. They were also given some education in religious law that was essential to their daily lives, such as keeping [[kosher]].<ref name="Baskin 1991 42" /> Both Christian and Jewish girls were educated in the home. Although Christian girls may have had a male or female tutor, most Jewish girls had a female tutor.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=43|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> Higher learning was uncommon for both Christian and Jewish women. Christian women could enter a convent in order to achieve a higher education (See [[Female education#Medieval period|Female Education in the Medieval Period]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=46|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There are more sources of education for Jewish women living in Muslim controlled lands. Middle Eastern Jewry, on the other hand, had an abundance of female literates. The [[Cairo Geniza]] is filled with correspondences written (sometimes dictated) between family members and spouses. Many of these letters are pious and poetic and express a desire to be in closer or more frequent contact with a loved one that is far enough away to only be reached by written correspondence. There are also records of wills and other personal legal documents as well as written petitions to officials in cases of spouse spousal abuse or other conflicts between family members written or dictated by women.<ref>Melammed, 91–100.</ref>

Many women gained enough education to help their husbands out in business or even hold their own. Just like Christian women who ran their own business, Jewish women were engaged in their own occupations as well as helping their husbands. Jewish women seem to have lent money to Christian women throughout Europe.<ref>Marcus, 38.</ref> Women were also copyists, [[Midwifery#Early historical perspective|midwives]], spinners and weavers.<ref name="Steinberg,160" /><ref>Marcus, 39.</ref>

==Views on the education of women==
From certain contexts of the Mishnah and Talmud it can be derived that women should not study Mishnah. There were female Tannaitic Torah jurists such as Rabbi Meir's wife,<ref>Medrish on Proverbs 31:10</ref> Rabbi Meir's daughter, and the daughter of Haninyah ben Teradyon<ref>Talmud Babylonia Kelim Bava Kamma 4:17 separately in Sifre Deuteronomy 307 in both she is personally left unnamed and referred to as just, 'and we have learned from the daughter of Haninyah ben Terradyon', a sign of the prevailing attitude towards women (as property of their fathers).</ref> Haninyah's daughter is again mentioned as a sage in the non-Talmud 3rd-century text Tractate Semahot verse 12:13.<ref>[http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300010695 also search ISBN 9780300010695 for an English translation.]</ref> Rabbi Meir's wife is credited with teaching him how to understand some verses from Isaiah.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Berachot 10a</ref> In the Mishnah there is also a reference to certain women teaching men the Torah from behind a curtain, so that no man would be offended.

A ''yeshiva'', or school for Talmudic studies, is an "exclusively masculine environment" because of absence of women from these studies.<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 123}}</ref>

===Beruryah===
[[Beruryah]] (her name is a standard Jewish female name meaning 'the clarity of God') is a Tanna mentioned by name in the Talmud, who has a female name, has orally been transmitted as a female, and is referred to in the text using the nekeva (feminine Hebrew and Aramaic) adjectives and adverbs. Originally she was believed to be either Rabbi Meir's wife mentioned above, or Rabbi Chaninyah's daughter mentioned above, however over the past three to four centuries Rabbinic scholars have realized that these generations do not correspond to Beruryah's law decisions, and life, therefore she today is just 'Beruryah' and of heretofore unknown lineage.

Her law decisions were minor but set a crucial ancient precedent for modern Jewish women. She is mentioned at least four times in the Talmudic discourse regarding her law decrees first Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 10a then in Tosefta Pesahim 62b in Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 53b–54a and Babylonian Talmud Avodah Zarah 18b. In one case she paskinned din on "klaustra" a rare Greek word referring to an object, used in the Talmud, unfortunately Rabbi Yehudah Hanassi did not believe women could be credited with paskining din, as it says 'do not speak too much to women' (Tannah Rabbi Jesse the Galilean), and therefore credited the law to Rabbi Joshua who may have been her father.<ref>Mishnah Keylim 11:4</ref>

Beruryah however was actually remembered with great respect in the Talmud where she is lauded to have been reputed as such a genius that she studied “three hundred Halachot from three hundred sages in just one day” (Pesachim 62b). Clearly contradicting the injunction against women studying Torah.

===Rashi's daughters===
[[Rashi]] had no sons and taught the Mishnah and Talmud to his daughters, until they knew it by heart as Jewish tradition teaches;<ref>[http://www.rashisdaughters.com/ Rashi's Daughters]</ref> they then transferred their knowledge of original Mishnah commentary to the Ashkenazi men of the next generation.

===Haim Yosef David Azulai, AKA 'The Hid'aa'===
The [[Chaim Joseph David Azulai|Hida]], wrote (Tuv Ayin, no. 4) woman should not study Mishnah only if they do not want to.'We cannot force a woman to learn, like we do to boys'. However, if she wants to learn then not only may she do so on her own, but men may originally teach her, and she can then teach other women if they so choose. According to the Hida, the prohibition against teaching women does not apply to a motivated woman or girl. Other Mizrahi Rabbis disputed this with him.

His response to detractors was that indeed, in truth, there is a prohibition against teaching Mishnah to any student—male or female—who one knows is not properly prepared and motivated, referred to a talmid she-eino hagun (Shulhan Arukh, Yoreh De'ah 246:7). Babylonian Talmud Berakhos 28a relates that Rabban Gamliel would announce that any student who is not pure enough so that 'his outer self is like his inner self' may not enter the study hall. While this approach, requiring absolute purity, was rejected by other ancient Rabbis, for example 'he who is not for the name of God, will become for the name of God', and a middle approach was adopted by Jews as standard. If one has knowledge that a particular Mishnayot student is definitely bad then he may not be taught. He claimed that 'it seems that for women there is a higher standard and she must be motivated in order to have this permission to learn' in his response to the Mizrahi tradition.

===Yisrael Meir Kagan===
{{Main|Yisrael Meir Kagan}}
One of the most important Ashkenazic rabbanim of the past century, Yisrael Meir Kagan, known popularly as the Chofetz Chaim. favored Torah education for girls to counteract the French "finishing schools" prevalent in his day for the daughters of the bourgeoisie.{{quote|
"It would appear that all [these sexist laws] were intended for earlier generations when everyone dwelt in the place of their familial ancestral home and ancestral tradition was very powerful among all to follow the path of their fathers... under such circumstances we could maintain that a woman not study Mishnayos and, for guidance, rely on her righteous parents, but presently, due to our myriad sins, ancestral tradition has become exceptionally weak and it is common that people do not dwell in proximity to the family home, and especially those women who devote themselves to mastering the vernacular, surely it is a now a great mitzvah to teach them Scripture and the ethical teachings of our sages such as Pirkei Avos, Menoras Ha-Ma'or and the like so that they will internalize our sacred faith because [if we do not do so] they are prone to abandon the path of God and violate all principles of [our] faith."<ref>Likkutei Halachos, Sotah p. 21</ref>}}

===Joseph Solovetchik===
{{Main|Joseph B. Soloveitchik}}
Rabbi Yoseph Solovetchik 'amened' the teachings of The Hafetz Haim. Rabbi Solovetchik taught all religious Ashkenazi Jews with the exception of hardline Hasidim, not should, or if they show motivation, but must teach their female children Gemarah like the boy school children. He among others fully institutionalized the teaching of Mishnah and Talmud to girls, from an autobiography on him by Rabbi Mayor Twersky called "A Glimpse of the Rav" in R. Menachem Genack ed., Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: Man of Halacha, Man of Faith, page 113: {{quote|"The halakha prohibiting Torah study for women is not indiscriminate or all-encompassing. There is complete unanimity that women are obligated to study halakhot pertaining to mitsvot which are incumbent upon them... The prohibition of teaching Torah she-Ba'al Pe to women relates to optional study. If ever circumstances dictate that study of Torah sh-Ba'al Pe is necessary to provide a firm foundation for faith, such study becomes obligatory and obviously lies beyond the pale of any prohibition." Undoubtedly, the Rav's prescription was more far-reaching that that of the Hafets Hayim and others. But the difference in magnitude should not obscure their fundamental agreement [on changing the attitudes Halachically].}}

==Present day==
{{Jewish feminism}}
{{Further|Jewish feminism|Women in Israel|Orthodox Jewish feminism|Women of the Wall}}

===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] is based on gendered understandings of Jewish practice—i.e., that there are different roles for men and women in religious life. There are different opinions among Orthodox Jews concerning these differences. Most claim that men and women have complementary, yet different roles in religious life, resulting in different religious obligations. Others believe that some of these differences are not a reflection of religious law, but rather of cultural, social, and historical causes. In the area of education, women were historically exempted from any study beyond an understanding of the practical aspects of [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household{{spaced ndash}}both of which they have an obligation to learn. Until the twentieth century, women were often discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. In the past 100 years, Orthodox Jewish education for women has advanced tremendously.<ref>Handelman, Susan. [http://www.chabad.org/theJewishWoman/article_cdo/aid/371261/jewish/Feminism-and-Orthodoxy.htm "Feminism and Orthodoxy - What It's All About."] ''Chabad Lubavitch''. 25 December 2011.</ref>

There have been many areas in which Orthodox women have been working towards change within religious life over the past 20 years: promoting advanced women's learning and scholarship, promoting women's ritual inclusion in synagogue, promoting women's communal and religious leadership, and more.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lakein|first1=Dvora|title=How Does She Do It?|url=http://lubavitch.com/news/article/2031309/How-Does-She-Do-It.html|accessdate=17 November 2014|agency=Chabad Lubavitch World HQ / News|date=October 6, 2014|quote=Mrs. Shula Bryski, representative to Thousand Oaks, California, and a mother of six, says that the Rebbe “empowered women in a way perhaps never done before.” Embracing modernity, the Rebbe understood that today, “women need more sophisticated Judaism, more depth, more spirituality.” Bryski’s personal emphasis in this affluent Los Angeles suburb is educating women through a weekly Caffeine for the Soul class, monthly Rosh Chodesh Society meetings, and the wildly-popular bat-mitzvah classes she leads. Bryski also serves on the editorial board of the Rosh Chodesh Society, a project of Jewish Learning Institute (JLI) and is a prolific writer.}}</ref> Women have been advancing change despite often vocal opposition by rabbinic leaders. Some Orthodox rabbis try to discount changes by claiming that women are motivated by sociological reasons and not by "true" religious motivation.<ref>Kress, Michael. [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/orthostate.html "The State of Orthodox Judaism Today."] ''Jewish Virtual Library''. 25 December 2011.</ref> For example, Orthodox, [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]], and [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] rabbis discourage women from wearing a [[yarmulke]], [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed members|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011|accessdate=October 29, 2014|issue=Haaretz|date=January 29, 2014}}</ref>

In most Orthodox synagogues, women still do not give a ''d'var Torah'' (brief discourse, generally on the weekly Torah portion) after or between services. Furthermore, a few Modern Orthodox synagogues have mechitzot dividing the left and right sides of the synagogue (rather than the usual division between the front and back of the synagogue, with women sitting in the back), with the women's section on one side and the men's section on the other.<ref>[http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf ] {{wayback|url=http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf |date=20150402103147 }}</ref>

====Rules of modesty====
{{Main|Tzniut}}
The importance of modesty in dress and conduct is particularly stressed among girls and women in Orthodox society. Many Orthodox women only wear skirts and avoid wearing trousers, and some married Orthodox women cover their hair with a wig, hat, or scarf. Judaism prescribes modesty for both men and women.{{citation needed |date=November 2013}}

====Rules of family purity====
{{Main|Niddah}}
In accordance with Jewish Law, Orthodox Jewish women refrain from contact with their husbands while they are [[niddah|menstruating]], and for a period of 7 clean days after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. The Israeli Rabbinate has recently approved women acting as ''yoatzot'', [[halakhic]] advisers on sensitive personal matters such as [[family purity]].

====Modern Orthodox Judaism====
Rabbi [[Joseph B. Soloveitchik]], a leader of profound influence in modern Orthodoxy in the United States, discouraged women from serving as presidents of synagogues or any other official positions of leadership,<ref name="Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis Of Womens Prayer Groups">[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQHwIAxpZRAC&pg=PA107], additional text.</ref> from performing other [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]] (commandments) traditionally performed by males exclusively, such as wearing a [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]]. Soloveitchik wrote that while women do not lack the capability to perform such acts, there is no [[Tradition|''mesorah'']] (Jewish tradition) that permits it. In making his decision, he relied upon Jewish oral law, including a [[mishnah]] in Chulin 2a and a Beit Yoseph in the Tur Yoreh Deah stating that a woman can perform a specific official communal service for her own needs but not those of others.<ref>Aharon Ziegler, ''Halakhic Positions of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik'', Volume II, p. 81.</ref>

Women's issues garnered more interest with the advent of [[feminism]]. Many Modern Orthodox Jewish women and Modern Orthodox rabbis sought to provide greater and more advanced Jewish education for women. Since most Modern Orthodox women attend college, and many receive advanced degrees in a variety of fields, Modern Orthodox communities generally promote women's secular education. A few Modern Orthodox Synagogues have women serving as clergy, including [[Gilah Kletenik]] at [[Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun]]. In 2013, [[Yeshivat Maharat]], located in the United States, became the first Orthodox institution to consecrate female clergy. The graduates of Yeshivat Maharat do not call themselves "rabbis." The title they are given is "maharat."<ref>"Jewish Daily Forward Podcast." ''[http://forward.com/articles/179052/female-orthodox-leaders-new-and-old/ Female Orthodox Leaders: New and Old]''. 21 June 2013. ''The Jewish Daily Forward''. Web. 23 June 2013.</ref> Also in 2013, [[Malka Schaps]] became the first female [[Haredi]] dean at an Israeli university when she was appointed dean of Bar Ilan University's Faculty of Exact Sciences.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.550156 Malka Schaps becomes first female Haredi dean at Israeli university - National Israel News | Haaretz]</ref> Also in 2013, the first class of female [[halacha|halachic]] advisers trained to practice in the US graduated; they graduated from the North American branch of [[Nishmat]]’s yoetzet halacha program in a ceremony at Congregation Sheartith Israel, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in Manhattan and [[SAR High School]] in Riverdale, New York began allowing girls to wrap tefillin during Shacharit-morning prayer; it is probably the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so.<ref>[http://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/nyc-orthodox-high-school-lets-girls-put-on-tefillin/2014/01/20/ The Jewish Press » » NYC Orthodox High School Lets Girls Put On Tefillin]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/landmark-us-program-graduates-first-female-halachic-advisers/ Landmark US program graduates first female halachic advisers | The Times of Israel]</ref>

In 2014, the first ever book of [[halacha|halachic]] decisions written by women who were ordained to serve as poskot (Idit Bartov and Anat Novoselsky) was published.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://jpupdates.com/2014/06/26/first-halacha-sefer-women-makes-waves-israel-orthodox-world/ First Halacha Sefer By Women Makes Waves in Israeli Orthodox World - JP Updates | JP Updates]</ref> The women were ordained by the municipal chief rabbi of Efrat, Rabbi [[Shlomo Riskin]], after completing [[Midreshet Lindenbaum]] women’s college’s five-year ordination course in advanced studies in Jewish law, as well as passing examinations equivalent to the rabbinate’s requirement for men.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

In 2015, Jennie Rosenfeld became the first female Orthodox spiritual advisor in Israel (specifically, she became the spiritual advisor, also called manhiga ruchanit, for the community of [[Efrat]].)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2015/1/26/with-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel#.VMZhzS7lw4I=|title=With female spiritual advisor, Efrat spotlights women’s empowerment in Israel|work=JNS.org}}</ref>

====Women's prayer groups====
Separate Jewish women's prayer groups were a sanctioned custom among German Jews in the [[Middle Ages]]. The ''Kol Bo'' provides, in the laws for [[Tisha B'Av]]:

:And they recite dirges there for about a quarter of the night, the men in their synagogue and the women in their synagogue. And likewise during the day the men recite dirges by themselves and the women by themselves, until about a third of the day has passed.

In Germany, in the 12th and 13th centuries, women's prayer groups were led by female cantors. Rabbi Eliezar of Worms, in his elegy for his wife Dulca, praised her for teaching the other women how to pray and embellishing the prayer with music. The gravestone of Urania of Worms, who died in 1275, contains the inscription "who sang ''piyyutim'' for the women with musical voice." In the Nurnberg Memorial Book, one Richenza was inscribed with the title "prayer leader of the women."<ref>Grossman, ''Pious and Rebellious'', pp. 180-182.</ref>

Orthodox women more recently began holding organized women's ''tefila'' (prayer) groups beginning in the 1970s. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a ''[[minyan]]'' (prayer quorum) for the purpose of [[Jewish services|regular services]], women in these groups read the prayers and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of Orthodox Judaism have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:

* The most restrictive view, held by some Modern Orthodox authorities, and most Haredi Rabbis, rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law).{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}
* A more liberal, permissive view maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatible with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e., do not include certain parts of the service known as ''devarim she-bi-kdusha''), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against ''halakha''. People in this group include Rabbi Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Rabbi [[Avi Weiss]].<ref>Israel's late [[Ashkenazi]]c [[Chief Rabbi]] [[Shlomo Goren]] ''may'' have ruled in 1974 that while women do not constitute a ''minyan'', they may still carry out full prayer services. Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, stating that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual ''halakha'' was in accord with the second school of thought, listed above.[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm]</ref>
* A third view maintains argues in favor of the acceptability of calling women to the Torah in mixed services, and leading certain parts of the service which do not require a [[minyan]], under certain conditions.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf]|972 KB}}</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf]|78.1 KB}}</ref>

In 2013 the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a [[halacha|halachic]] ruling which allows women, for the first time, to say the [[Kaddish]] prayer in memory of their deceased parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4396702,00.html |title=Halachic ruling: Women may say Kaddish - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

====Women as witnesses====
Traditionally, women are not generally permitted to serve as witnesses in an Orthodox [[Beit Din]] ([[Beit Din|rabbinical court]]), although they have recently been permitted to serve as ''toanot'' (advocates) in those courts. This limitation has exceptions which have required exploration under rabbinic law as the role of women in society and the obligations of religious groups under external civil law have been subject to increasing recent scrutiny.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The recent case of Rabbi [[Mordecai Tendler]], the first rabbi to be expelled from the [[Rabbinical Council of America]] following allegations of sexual harassment, illustrated the importance of clarification of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[halakha]] in this area. Rabbi Tendler claimed that the tradition of exclusion of women's testimony should compel the RCA to disregard the allegations. He argued that since the testimony of a woman could not be admitted in [[Beit Din|Rabbinical court]], there were no valid witnesses against him, and hence the case for his expulsion had to be thrown out for lack of evidence. In a ruling of importance for Orthodox women's capacity for legal self-protection under [[Halakha|Jewish law]], [[Haredi]] Rabbi [[Benzion Wosner]], writing on behalf of the ''Shevet Levi'' [[Beit Din]] (Rabbinical court) of [[Monsey, New York]], identified sexual harassment cases as coming under a class of exceptions to the traditional exclusion, under which "even children or women" have not only a right but an obligation to testify, and can be relied upon by a rabbinical court as valid witnesses:

:The [[Meir Abulafia|Ramah]] in Choshen Mishpat (Siman 35, 14) rules that in a case where only women congregate or in a case where only women could possibly testify, (in this case the alleged harassment occurred behind closed doors) they can and should certainly testify. (Terumas Hadeshen Siman 353 and Agudah Perek 10, Yochasin)

:This is also the ruling of the [[Joseph Colon Trabotto|Maharik]], [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra|Radvaz]], and the [[Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz|Mahar"i of Minz]]. Even those "[[Posek|Poskim]]" that would normally not rely on women witnesses, they would certainly agree that in our case ... where there is ample evidence that this Rabbi violated [[Torah]] precepts, then even children or women can certainly be kosher as witnesses, as the [[Chatam Sofer|Chasam Sofer]] pointed out in his ''sefer'' (monograph) (Orach Chaim T'shuvah 11)<ref>English summary at [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/Tendler_Mordecai.html The Awareness Center: Case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler.] Original ''teshuvah'' ([[Responsum]]) (in Hebrew) at {{PDF|[http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/HaravWosner'sT'shuvah.pdf The Awareness Center: Harav Wosner's Teshuvah]|130 KB}} (Note: parenthetical translations are added, parenthetical references are original)</ref>

The [[Rabbinical Council of America]], while initially relying on its own investigation, chose to rely on the Halakhic ruling of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbinical body as authoritative in the situation.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

====Orthodox approaches to change====
Leaders of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] community have been steadfast in their opposition to a change in the role of women, arguing that the religious and social constraints on women, as dictated by traditional Jewish texts, are timeless and are not affected by contemporary social change. Many also argue that giving traditionally male roles to women will only detract from both women's and men's ability to lead truly fulfilling lives. Haredim have also sometimes perceived arguments for liberalization as in reality stemming from antagonism to Jewish law and beliefs generally, arguing that preserving faith requires resisting secular and "un-Jewish" ideas.

Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly in its more liberal variants, has tended to look at proposed changes in the role of women on a specific, case-by-case basis, focusing on arguments regarding the religious and legal role of specific prayers, rituals and activities individually. Such arguments have tended to focus on cases where the Talmud and other traditional sources express multiple or more liberal viewpoints, particularly where the role of women in the past was arguably broader than in more recent times. Feminist advocates within Orthodoxy have tended to stay within the traditional legal process of argumentation, seeking a gradualist approach, and avoiding wholesale arguments against the religious tradition as such.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Nevertheless, a growing [[Orthodox Jewish feminism|Orthodox feminist]] movement seeks to address gender inequalities.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed women|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011#|accessdate=30 June 2014|work=Haaretz|date=Jan 28, 2014}}</ref></blockquote>

===Agunot===

[[Agunot]] (lit. "chained women") are women who wish to divorce their husbands, but whose husbands refuse to give them a writ of divorce (a "get"). In Orthodox Judaism, only a man is able to serve a "get."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Farkash|first1=Tali|title=e women extorted by ex-husbands|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4400770,00.html|accessdate=2014-10-29|publisher=Ynet News|date=2013-07-07}}</ref>

===Conservative Judaism===
Although the position of [[Conservative Judaism]] toward women originally differed little from the Orthodox position, it has in recent years minimized legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of decisions and [[responsa]] on this topic. These provide for women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being counted as part of a ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'' - an arbiter in matters of religious law)
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:
*[[Matrilineality in Judaism|Matrilineal descent]]. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.
*Pidyon Ha-Bat, a proposed ceremony based on the biblical redemption of the eldest newborn son ([[Pidyon HaBen|Pidyon Ha-Ben]]). The CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

A Conservative Jewish ''[[ketuba]]'' includes a clause that puts a husband and wife on more equal footing when it comes to marriage and divorce law within ''halacha''.<ref name="Raphael">Raphael, Marc Lee. ''Profiles in American Judaism: The Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Traditions in Historical Perspective''. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1984. p. 110</ref>

The CJLS recently reaffirmed the obligation of Conservative women to observe ''[[niddah]]'' (sexual abstinence during and after menstruation) and ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual immersion) following menstruation, although somewhat liberalizing certain details. Such practices, while requirements of Conservative Judaism, are not widely observed among Conservative laity.

====Changes in the Conservative position====
Prior to 1973, Conservative Judaism had more limited roles for women and was more similar to current Modern Orthodoxy, with changes on issues including mixed seating, synagogue corporate leadership, and permitting women to be called to the Torah. In 1973, the CJLS of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] voted, without issuing an opinion, that women could count in a [[minyan]]. There was a special commission appointed by the Conservative movement to study the issue of ordaining women as rabbis, which met between 1977 and 1978, and consisted of eleven men and three women; the women were Marian Siner Gordon, an attorney, Rivkah Harris, an [[Assyriologist]], and [[Francine Klagsbrun]], a writer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/klagsbrun-francine |title=Francine Klagsbrun | Jewish Women's Archive |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2015-09-07}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] (JTSA) faculty voted, also without accompanying opinion, to ordain women as rabbis and as cantors.<ref name="Raphael" /> [[Paula Hyman]], among others, took part in the vote as a member of the JTS faculty.

In 2002, the CJLS adapted a [[responsum]] by Rabbi David Fine, [https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf ''Women and the Minyan''], which provides an official religious-law foundation for women counting in a minyan and explains the current Conservative approach to the role of women in prayer.<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org">{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}}</ref> This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

In 2006, the CJLS adopted three [[responsum|responsa]] on the subject of [[niddah]], which reaffirmed an obligation of Conservative women to abstain from sexual relations during and following [[menstruation]] and to immerse in a [[mikvah]] prior to resumption, while liberalizing observance requirements including shortening the length of the [[niddah]] period, lifting restrictions on non-sexual contact during niddah, and reducing the circumstances under which spotting and similar conditions would mandate abstinence.<ref name="RabbiIntro">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Mikveh_Introduction.doc Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiGrossman">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Grossman-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Susan Grossman, MIKVEH AND THE SANCTITY OF BEING CREATED HUMAN, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiReisner">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Reisner-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Avram Reisner, OBSERVING NIDDAH IN OUR DAY: AN INQUIRY ON THE STATUS OF PURITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY WITH A MENSTRUANT, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiBerkowitz">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Berkowitz-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, RESHAPING THE LAWS OF FAMILY PURITY FOR THE MODERN WORLD, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref>

In all cases continuing the Orthodox approach was also upheld as an option. Individual Conservative rabbis and synagogues are not required to adopt any of these changes, and a small number have adopted none of them.

====Conservative approaches to change====
Prior to 1973, Conservative approaches to change were generally on an individual, case-by-case basis. Between 1973 and 2002, the Conservative movement adapted changes through its official organizations, but without issuing explanatory opinions. Since 2002, the Conservative movement has coalesced around a single across-the board approach to the role of women in Jewish law.<ref>This section summarizes the CLJS's 2002 Fine "Women and the Minyan" {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}} Responsum's review and critique of prior CJLS efforts to adopt an authoritative responsum.</ref>

In 1973, 1983, and 1993, individual rabbis and professors issued six major opinions which influenced change in the Conservative approach, the first and second Sigal, Blumenthal, Rabinowitz, and [[Joel Roth|Roth]] responsa, and the [[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman]] article. These opinions sought to provide for a wholesale shift in women's public roles through a single, comprehensive legal justification. Most such opinions based their positions on an argument that Jewish women always were, or have become, legally obligated to perform the same ''mitzvot'' as men and to do so in the same manner.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The first Sigal and the Blumenthal responsa were considered by the CJLS as part of its decision on prayer roles in 1973. They argued that women have always had the same obligations as men.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} The first Sigal responsum used the Talmud's general prayer obligation and examples of cases in which women were traditionally obligated to say specific prayers and inferred from them a public prayer obligation identical to that of men. The Blumenthal responsum extrapolated from a minority authority that a ''minyan'' could be formed with nine men and one woman in an emergency. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) declined to adopt either responsum. Rabbi Siegel reported to the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] membership that many on the CJLS, while agreeing with the result, found the arguments unconvincing.

The Rabinowitz, [[Joel Roth|Roth]], and second Sigal responsa were considered by the JTSA faculty as part of its decision to ordain women as rabbis in 1983. The Rabbinowitz responsum sidestepped the issue of obligation, arguing that there is no longer a religious need for a community representative in prayer and hence there is no need to decide whether a woman can ''halakhically'' serve as one. The CJLS felt that an argument potentially undermining the value of community and clergy was unconvincing: "We should not be afraid to recognize that the function of clergy is to help our people connect with the holy." The Roth and second Sigal responsa accepted that time-bound ''mitzvot'' were traditionally optional for women, but argued that women in modern times could change their traditional roles. The Roth responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|1=[http://www.jtsa.edu/rabbinical/women/roth.pdf#search='women%20roth%20responsum']|2=161 KB}}</ref> argued that women could individually voluntarily assume the same obligations as men, and that women who do so (e.g., pray three times a day regularly) could count in a ''minyan'' and serve as agents. The JTSA accordingly required female rabbinical students wishing to train as rabbis to personally obligate themselves, but synagogue rabbis, unwilling to inquire into individual religiosity, found it impractical. The second Sigal responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/sigal_women.pdf]|3.17 MB}}</ref> called for a ''takkanah'', or rabbinical edict, "that would serve as a ''halakhic'' ERA," overruling all non-egalitarian provisions in law or, in the alternative, a new approach to ''halakhic'' interpretation independent of legal precedents. The CJLS, unwilling to use either an intrusive approach or a repudiation of the traditional legal process as bases for action, did not adopt either and let the JTS faculty vote stand unexplained.

In 1993, Professor [[Judith Hauptman]] of JTS issued an influential paper<ref>http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427</ref> arguing that women had historically always been obligated in prayer, using more detailed arguments than the Blumenthal and first Sigal responsa. The paper suggested that women who followed traditional practices were failing to meet their obligations. Rabbi Roth argued that Conservative Judaism should think twice before adopting a viewpoint labeling its most traditional and often most committed members as sinners. The issue was again dropped.

In 2002, the CJLS returned to the issue of justifying its actions regarding women's status, and adopted a single authoritative approach, the Fine responsum,<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org" /> as the definitive Conservative [[halakha]] on role-of-women issues. This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The Responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this Responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

===Reform Judaism===
[[Reform Judaism]] believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that [[halakha]] (Jewish law) is the sole legitimate form of Jewish decision making, and holds that Jews can and must consider their conscience and ethical principles inherent in the Jewish tradition when deciding upon a right course of action. There is widespread consensus among Reform Jews that traditional distinctions between the role of men and women are antithetical to the deeper ethical principles of Judaism. This has enabled Reform communities to allow women to perform many rituals traditionally reserved for men, such as:
*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

Concerns about intermarriage have also influenced the Reform Jewish position on gender. In 1983, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] passed a resolution waiving the need for formal conversion for anyone with at least one Jewish parent who has made affirmative acts of Jewish identity. This departed from the traditional position requiring formal [[conversion to Judaism]] for children without a [[matrilineal descent|Jewish mother]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/patrilineal1.html Reform Movement's Resolution on Patrilineal Descent]</ref> The 1983 resolution of the American Reform movement has had a mixed reception in Reform Jewish communities outside of the United States. Most notably, the [[Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism]] has rejected patrilineal descent and requires formal conversion for anyone without a Jewish mother.<ref>[http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=840313&ct=1051515 Reform Judaism in Israel: Progress and Prospects]</ref> As well, a joint Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative and Reform Bet Din formed in Denver, Colorado to promote uniform standards for conversion to Judaism was dissolved in 1983, due to that Reform resolution.<ref name="Wertheimer, A People Divided">{{cite book|last=Wertheimer|first=Jack|title=A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America|publisher=University Press of New England|year=1997}}</ref> However, in 2015 the majority of Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis voted in favor of a position paper proposing "that individuals who live a Jewish life, and who are patrilineally Jewish, can be welcomed into the Jewish community and confirmed as Jewish through an individual process."<ref name="jpost1">{{cite web|last=Lewis |first=Jerry |url=http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/UK-Reform-rabbis-accept-patrilineal-descent-409298 |title=UK Reform rabbis accept patrilineal descent |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=July 17, 2015 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref> Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis stated that rabbis "would be able to take local decisions – ratified by the [[Beit Din]] – confirming Jewish status."<ref name="jpost1"/>

Liberal prayerbooks tend increasingly to avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language. For example, the [[Liberal Judaism (UK)|UK Liberal movement]]'s ''Siddur Lev Chadash'' (1995) does so, as does the [[Reform Judaism (UK)|UK Reform Movement]]'s ''Forms of Prayer'' (2008).<ref>[http://thejc.com/articles/the-slimline-siddur-a-touch-bob-dylan The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan] ''The Jewish Chronicle'']</ref><ref>[http://www.bwpjc.org/slc.htm Siddur Lev Chadash]</ref> In [[Mishkan T'filah]], the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as "He" have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.) <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/03/us/03prayerbook.html?_r=1 |work=The New York Times |first=Laurie |last=Goodstein |title=In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change |date=3 September 2007}}</ref> In 2015 the Reform Jewish [[High Holy Days]] prayer book [[Mishkan HaNefesh]] was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.<ref name="jweekly1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/74278/gates-of-repentance-replacement-advances-reform-trends/ |title='Gates of Repentance' replacement advances Reform trends |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=2015-03-26 |accessdate=2015-04-14}}</ref> It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer [[Avinu Malkeinu]] that refers to God as both "Loving Father" and "Compassionate Mother."<ref name="jweekly1" /> Other notable changes are replacing a line from the Reform movement's earlier prayerbook, "Gates of Repentance," that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line "rejoicing with couples under the chuppah [wedding canopy]", and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering "mibeit," Hebrew for "from the house of," in addition to the traditional "son of" or "daughter of."<ref name="jweekly1" />

====Reform approaches to change====
Reform Judaism generally holds that the various differences between the roles of men and women in traditional Jewish law are not relevant to modern conditions and not applicable today. Accordingly, there has been no need to develop legal arguments analogous to those made within the Orthodox and Conservative movements.

=== Reconstructionist Judaism ===
The equality of women and men is a central tenet and hallmark of [[Reconstructionist Judaism]]. From the beginning, Reconstructionist Jewish ritual allowed men and women to pray together—a decision based on egalitarian philosophy. It was on this basis that Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]] called for the full equality of women and men, despite the obvious difficulties reconciling this stance with norms of traditional Jewish practice.<ref>Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.</ref> The Reconstructionist Movement ordained women rabbis from the start.<ref>Nadell, Pamela. ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination 1889–1985''. editor Jewish Women's Life, Beacon Press, 1998. pages 187–188</ref> In 1968, women were accepted into the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, under the leadership of [[Ira Eisenstein]].<ref>Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16542.html Jewish Virtual Library. 2001.</ref> The first ordained female Reconstructionist rabbi, [[Sandy Eisenberg Sasso]], served as rabbi of the Manhattan Reconstructionist Congregation in 1976 and gained a pulpit in 1977 at Beth El Zedeck congregation in Indianapolis. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso was accepted without debate or subsequent controversy.<ref>Sandy Sasso ordained as first female Reconstructionist rabbi,This Week in History. Jewish Women's Archive. http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/19/1974/sandy-sasso</ref> In 2005, 24 out of the movement's 106 synagogues in the US had women as senior or assistant rabbis.<ref>in Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States, Jewish Women's Archive, http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states</ref> In 2013 Rabbi [[Deborah Waxman]] was elected as the President of the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical College]].<ref name="thejewishweek.com">[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/national-news/reconstructionists-pick-first-woman-lesbian-denominational-leader Reconstructionists Pick First Woman, Lesbian As Denominational Leader] ''The Jewish Week'']</ref><ref>[http://forward.com/articles/185252/trailblazing-reconstructionist-deborah-waxman-reli/?p=all Trailblazing Reconstructionist Deborah Waxman Relishes Challenges of Judaism] – ''Jewish Daily Forward''</ref> As the President, she is believed to be the first woman and first lesbian to lead a Jewish congregational union, and the first female rabbi and first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is both a congregational union and a seminary.<ref name="thejewishweek.com" /><ref>http://www.rrc.edu/sites/default/files/ORPHAN_PDFs/RRC_WaxmanPresidentElect-ForPress3.pdf?hero=1615</ref>

The Reconstructionist Community began including women in the [[minyan]] and allowing them to come up to the [[Torah]] for [[Aliyah (Torah)|aliyot]]. They also continued the practice of [[bat mitzvah]].<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, ''Putting God on the Guest List: How to Reclaim the Spiritual Meaning of Your Child's Bar or Bat Mitzvah'', Jewish Lights Publishing (Woodstock, Vermont), 1992.</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allowed women to perform other traditional male tasks, such as serving as witnesses, leading services,<ref>Cantor Heather is a first for Reconstructionist shul, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20569&Itemid=86 , Canadian Jewish News, 06 January 2011</ref> public Torah reading, and wearing ritual prayer garments like [[kippot]] and [[tallitot]].<ref>One example in this video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oplgjEjts0, Darchei Noam Congregation, Toronto, Canada.</ref> Female Reconstructionist rabbis have been instrumental in the creation of rituals, stories, and music that have begun to give women's experience a voice in Judaism. Most of the focus has been on rituals for life-cycle events.<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, ''The Voices of Children'', Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar, Reconstructionist Press, 2005</ref> New ceremonies have been created for births,<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, ''Call Them Builders: A Resource Booklet about Jewish Attitudes and Practices on Birth and Family Life'', Reconstructionist Federation of Congregations and Havurot (New York)</ref> weddings, divorces, conversions,<ref>Shefa, Sheri (August 2006). "Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb". Canadian Jewish News. http://joi.org/bloglinks/CJN Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb 8-24-06.pdf</ref> weaning, and the onset of menarche and menopause. The Reconstructionist movement as a whole has been committed to creating liturgy that is in consonance with gender equality and the celebration of women's lives.<ref>This is reflected in the prayer books that have been published by the Reconstructionist movement</ref><ref>Female scribe to pen Reconstructionist shul’s new Torah, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=16953&Itemid=86, Canadian Jewish News, May 21, 2009.</ref><ref>Montreal congregation hires first female scribe to pen Torah in Canada, http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200906031702/Montreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html ''Jewish Tribune'', 3 June 2009.</ref> Another major step: The Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations has also developed educational programs that teach the full acceptance of lesbians,<ref>See Rabbi [[Rebecca Alpert]] and Rabbi [[Toba Spitzer]]</ref> as well as rituals that affirm lesbian relationships.<ref>Anne Lapidus Lerner in Jewish Women's Archive http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lerner-anne-lapidus</ref><ref>Radin, Charles A. First openly gay rabbi elected leader,http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/03/first_openly_ga.html , Boston Globe, March 13, 2007.</ref> Reconstructionist rabbis officiate at same-sex weddings.<ref>for Montreal https://www.dorshei-emet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92&Itemid=100</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allows openly [[LGBT]] men and women to be ordained as rabbis and cantors.

Several prominent members of the Reconstructionist community have focused on issues like domestic violence.<ref>Gordon, Sheldon (21 April 2006) "Billboards Focus on Jewish Domestic Violence", in ''Jewish Daily Forward'' http://www.forward.com/articles/1263/</ref><ref>Na'amat Canada, http://www.naamat.com/legalaid.htm</ref><ref>Springtide Resources, Wife Abuse in the Jewish Community, http://www.womanabuseprevention.com/html/jewish_community.html</ref><ref>Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse, http://jcada.org/www/docs/4/</ref> Others have devoted energy to helping women gain the right of divorce in traditional Jewish communities.<ref>(French) Femmes et judaïsme – Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce , Journal Le Devoir, 24 April 2010</ref><ref>Sonia Sarah Lipsyc ,http://soniasarahlipsyc.canalblog.com/</ref> Many have spoken out for the right of Jewish women to pray aloud and read from the Torah at the [[Western Wall]] in Jerusalem, the [[Women of the Wall]] group.<ref>[http://womenofthewall.org.il/?lang=he Women of the Wall | נשות הכותל]</ref>

When the roles of women in religion change, there may also be changed roles for men. With their advocacy of patrilineal descent in the 1970s, the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association]] supported the principle that a man who takes responsibility for raising a Jewish child can pass Judaism on to the next generation as well as a woman. All children who receive a Jewish education are considered Jewish in Reconstructionist Judaism regardless of whatever is the sex of their Jewish parent.

=== Jewish Renewal ===
[[Jewish Renewal]] is a recent [[Jewish denominations|movement]] in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]], [[music]]al and [[Meditation|meditative]] practices; it describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism's prophetic and mystical traditions."<ref>[http://www.aleph.org/renewal.htm About Jewish Renewal]</ref> The Jewish Renewal movement ordains women as well as men as rabbis and cantors. [[Lynn Gottlieb]] became the first female rabbi in Jewish Renewal in 1981, and [[Avitall Gerstetter]], who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA030.htm |title=Lynn Gottlieb |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2003-09-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2009 and 2012 respectively, OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) issued a board statement and a resolution supporting [[Women of the Wall]].<ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/2009-board-statement-on-women-of-the-wall/ 2009 Board Statement on Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref><ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/wow-statement-of-support/ 2012 Statement of Support for Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref> The Statement of Principles of OHALAH states in part, "Our local communities will embody egalitarian and inclusive values, manifested in a variety of leadership and decision-making structures, ensuring that women and men are full and equal partners in every aspect of our communal Jewish life."<ref>[http://ohalah.org/about-us/principles/ Aleph Statement of Principles | OhalahOhalah]</ref> In 2014 OHALAH issued a board resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: OHALAH supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women's Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]]; OHALAH condemns all types of sexism; OHALAH is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come; and OHALAH supports equal rights regardless of gender."<ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/resolution-on-gender-equality/ Board Resolution on Gender Equality | OhalahOhalah]</ref> Also in 2014, ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal issued a statement stating, "ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal supports the observance of Women's History Month, International Women's Day, and Women's Equality Day, condemns all types of sexism, is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come, and supports equal rights regardless of gender, in recognition and allegiance to the view that we are all equally created in the Divine Image."<ref>[http://kolaleph.org/2014/02/04/gender-equality-now/ Statement On Gender Equality | Kol ALEPH]</ref>

=== Humanistic Judaism ===
[[Humanistic Judaism]] is a movement in Judaism that offers a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life. It ordains both men and women as rabbis, and its first rabbi was a woman, [[Tamara Kolton]], who was ordained in 1999.<ref name="shj">{{cite web|url=http://www.shj.org/shjbios.htm |title=Society for Humanistic Judaism – Rabbis and Leadership |publisher=Shj.org |accessdate=2012-03-12}}</ref> Its first cantor was also a woman, [[Hazzan Deborah Davis|Deborah Davis]], ordained in 2001; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped ordaining cantors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jmwc.org/Women/womend.html |title=Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music |publisher=JMWC |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> The [[Society for Humanistic Judaism]] issued a statement in 1996 stating in part, "we affirm that a woman has the moral right and should have the continuing legal right to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy in accordance with her own ethical standards. Because a decision to terminate a pregnancy carries serious, irreversible consequences, it is one to be made with great care and with keen awareness of the complex psychological, emotional, and ethical implications." They also issued a statement in 2011 condemning the then-recent passage of the "No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act" by the U.S. House of Representatives, which they called "a direct attack on a women's right to choose".<ref>[http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html |date=20131228071242 }}</ref> In 2012, they issued a resolution opposing conscience clauses that allow religious-affiliated institutions to be exempt from generally applicable requirements mandating reproductive healthcare services to individuals or employees.<ref>[http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html |date=20131228070406}}</ref> In 2013 they issued a resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: The Society for Humanistic Judaism wholeheartedly supports the observance of [[Women's Equality Day]] on August 26 to commemorate the anniversary of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allowing women to vote; The Society condemns gender discrimination in all its forms, including restriction of rights, limited access to education, violence, and subjugation; and The Society commits itself to maintain vigilance and speak out in the fight to bring gender equality to our generation and to the generations that follow."<ref>[http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html |date=20131018050824}}</ref>

=== Women as soferim ===
A Sofer, Sopher, Sofer SeTaM, or Sofer ST"M (Heb: "scribe", סופר סת״ם) is a Jewish scribe who can transcribe Torah scrolls, tefillin and mezuzot, and other religious writings. (ST"M, סת״ם, is an abbreviation for Sefer Torahs, Tefillin, and Mezuzot. The plural of sofer is "soferim", סופרים.) Forming the basis for the discussion of women becoming soferim, [[Talmud|Talmud Gittin]] 45b states: "Sifrei Torah, tefillin and mezuzot written by a heretic, a star-worshipper, a slave, a woman, a minor, a [[Cuthean]], or an [[Apostasy in Judaism|apostate Jew]], are unfit for ritual use."<ref>[http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml ] {{wayback|url=http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml |date=20130615110436 }}</ref> The rulings on [[Mezuzah]] and [[Tefillin]] are virtually undisputed among those who hold to the [[Talmud|Talmudic Law]]. While [[Arba'ah Turim]] does not include women in its list of those ineligible to write Sifrei Torah, some see this as proof that women are permitted to write a Torah scroll.<ref>Tur, [[Wikisource:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/271|Orah Hayyim 271]].</ref> However today, virtually all Orthodox (both Modern and Ultra) authorities contest the idea that a woman is permitted to write a [[Sefer Torah]]. Yet women are permitted to inscribe [[Ketubah|Ketubot]] (marriage contracts), STaM not intended for ritual use, and other writings of [[Sofrut]] beyond simple STaM. In 2003 Canadian [[Aviel Barclay]] became the world's first known traditionally trained female sofer.<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/3614/ A Female Scribe’s Trailblazing Effort – Forward.com]</ref><ref>[http://jwablog.jwa.org/soferet Simchat Torah with a Soferet's Torah | Jewish Women's Archive]</ref> In 2007 [[Jen Taylor Friedman]], a British woman, became the first female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]].<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/11604/ As New Year Dawns, Jewish Women Mark Milestones – Forward.com]</ref> In 2010 the first [[Sefer Torah]] scribed by a group of women (six female sofers, who were from Brazil, Canada, Israel, and the United States) was completed;<ref>[http://jta.org/news/article/2010/10/15/2741313/womens-torah-dedicated-in-seattle Women’s Torah dedicated in Seattle | Jewish Telegraphic Agency]</ref> this was known as the [[Women's Torah Project]].<ref name="jweekly.com">[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/59670/cjms-resident-scribe-takes-part-in-group-torah-project-in-seattle/ Julie Seltzer, a female Torah scribe from San Francisco, contributed to the first Torah scroll to be written by a group of women. | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern Calif...]</ref>

From October 2010 until spring 2011, [[Julie Seltzer]], one of the female sofers from the Women's Torah Project, scribed a [[Sefer Torah]] as part of an exhibition at the [[Contemporary Jewish Museum]] in [[San Francisco]]. This makes her the first American female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]]; Julie Seltzer was born in Philadelphia and is non-denominationally Jewish.<ref name="jweekly.com"/><ref>http://www.thecjm.org/index.php?option=com_ccevents&scope=prgm&task=detail&fid=8&oid=563</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/arts/design/08sfculture.html</ref><ref>[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/61328/cjm-to-celebrate-end-of-groundbreaking-torah-project CJM to celebrate end of groundbreaking Torah project | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California]</ref> From spring 2011 until August 2012 she scribed another [[Sefer Torah]], this time for the Reform congregation Beth Israel in San Diego.<ref name="jpost.com">[http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=286912 Torah, she wrote | JPost | Israel News]</ref><ref>[http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah ] {{wayback|url=http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah |date=20150721211051 }}</ref> Seltzer was taught mostly by [[Jen Taylor Friedman]].<ref name="jpost.com"/> On September 22, 2013, [[Congregation Beth Elohim]] of New York dedicated a new Torah, which members of Beth Elohim said was the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman.<ref>[http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/congregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015 Congregation Beth Elohim in Park Slope dedicates new Torah for 150th anniversary - News 12 Brooklyn]</ref> The Torah was scribed by Linda Coppleson.<ref>[http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ ] {{wayback|url=http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ |date=20141011005036 }}</ref> As of 2014, there are an estimated 50 female sofers in the world.<ref>{{cite web|author=By Jeff KunerthOrlando Sentinel |url=http://www.pressherald.com/2014/08/23/female-jewish-scribe-helps-keep-tradition-alive/ |title=Female Jewish scribe helps keep tradition alive - The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram |publisher=Pressherald.com |date=2014-08-23 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism|Gender studies}}
*[[bat-Kohen]] (daughter of a priest)
*[[Jewish feminism]]
**[[List of Jewish feminists]]
*[[Women as theological figures]]
**[[Rabbi#Women as rabbis|Women as rabbis]]
**[[Rebbetzin]] (rabbi's wife)
**[[List of women in the Bible]]
*[[Beis Yaakov]] (schools for Haredi girls)
*[[Niddah]] (menstruation laws)
*''[[Soferet]]'' (Jewish scribe who can transcribe religious documents)
*[[Gender and Judaism]]
*[[Tzeniut]] (modest behavior)
*[[Negiah]] (guidelines for physical contact)
*[[Yichud]] (prohibitions of secluding oneself with a stranger)
*[[Jewish view of marriage]]
**[[Shidduch]] (finding a marriage partner)
**[[Shalom bayit]] (peace and harmony in the relationship between husband and wife)
*[[Minyan]] (quorum of at least ten Jews acceptable for the recitation of certain prayers)
**[[Partnership minyan]] (a movement to give women more roles in prayer services)
*[[Agunah]] (a woman who wishes to divorce her husband, but, because her husband did not provide her with a divorce contract, is unable to according to Jewish law)
*[[Women in Israel]]
**[[Women of the Wall]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==

'''General'''
* [http://www.rachaelscentre.org/ Rachael's Centre for Torah, Musar & Ethics] An online learning community dedicated to Pluralistic Jewish learning through a female lens
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://www.jofa.org/ Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance] JOFA
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://jcada.org/www Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse]
* [http://www.naamat.com/domesticviolence.htm Na'amat Canada]
* [http://www.awarenow.org/www/docs/100/Internet Adolescents Working for Awesome Relationship Experiences] AWARE

'''Publications'''
* [http://www.lilith.org/ Lilith Magazine] a Jewish feminist journal
* [http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.

'''Particular issues'''
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/12/06/wuhsha-the-broker-jewish-women-in-the-medieval-economy/ "Wuhsha the Broker: Jewish Women in the Medieval Economy," Jewish History Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/09/19/rachel-wife-of-akiva-women-in-ancient-israel/ "Rachel, Wife of Akiva: Women in Ancient Israel," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/02/10/gluckel-of-hameln-jewish-women-n-the-17th-century/ "Gluckel of Hameln: Jewish Women in the 17th Century," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/spots_of_light/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki Spots of Light: Women in the Holocaust] an online exhibition by [[Yad Vashem]]
* [http://alternativestokiddushin.wordpress.com The Kiddushin Variations] A Directory of Halakhic Possibilities For A More Egalitarian Kiddushin Ritual.
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library
* [http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5759winter/sense.htm "Sense and Sensibilities: Women and Torah Study"], Bryna Levy, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 1998, 59 (2).
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf "Qeri’at ha-Torah by Women: A Halakhic Analysis"]|972 KB}}, Shapiro, Mendel. Edah 1:2, 2001
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf "Congregational Dignity and Human Dignity: Women and Public Torah Reading"]|78.1 KB}}, Sperber, Daniel. Edah 3:2, 2002
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427 "Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies"], Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf "Women and the Minyan"]|194 KB}}, Fine, David. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative), 2002
* [http://www.annette-boeckler.de/liturgie/EgalitarianServices.html Egalitarian Jewish Services A Discussion Paper]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5765/5765winter/WOMENADV.PDF "Women Advocates Make Their Mark"]|473 KB}}, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 2004.
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimer2-1.htm "Women and Minyan"], ''[[Tradition (orthodox journal)|Tradition]]'', 1988. Summary of Orthodox arguments regarding women counting in minyan for certain purposes
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm "Women's Prayer Services Theory and Practice"], ''[[Tradition (journal)|Tradition]]'', 1998. Summary of Orthodox arguments for and against women's prayer groups
* Elissa Strauss, ''Women Who Write Torah, A New Generation of Female Scribes Makes History''. http://forward.com/articles/133017/, The Jewish Daily Forward, November 19, 2010.
* (French) Harvey, Claire. Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce, Le Devoir, 24 April 2010.
* ''Mordecai Kaplan'' .2005.http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai, Jewish Women's Archive, 2005
* Luo,Michael, An Orthodox Jewish Woman, and Soon, a Spiritual Leader, http://www.hods.org/pdf/press/An%20Orthodox%20Jewish%20Woman,%20and%20Soon,%20a%20Spiritual%20Leader.htm, New York Times, August 21, 2006.
* ''Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States''. http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states, Jewish Women's archive, 2005
* Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html, Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press
* ''On the Ordination of Women: An Advocate's Halakhic Response'' Mayer E. Rabbinowitz. In Simon Greenberg, ed., ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988.
* ''Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies,'' Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', [[Simon Greenberg]], ed. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988. ISBN 0-87334-041-8
* ''Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender'', [[Charlotte Fonrobert]], Stanford University Press, 2000
* ''The Moon's Lost Light: A Torah Perspective on Women from the Fall of Eve to the Full Redemption'', Devorah Heshelis, Targum Press, 2006. ISBN 1-56871-377-0
* Nadell, Pamela S., "Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination, 1889-1985" in Jewish Women's Life. Editor
* Rabbi Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar,

===Middle Ages===
* Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period''. Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52-60. ISBN 9780691057873
* Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94-114. ISBN 0814320929
* {{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|pages=41–51|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}
* {{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|isbn=0805210490}}
* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Mark R.|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=0691139318}}
* Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1584653922
* {{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|pages=34–45}}
* Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009.105-111.ISBN 9780814732199
* {{cite book|last=Steinberg|first=Theodore L.|title=Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=0275985881}}
* {{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|isbn=0827607520 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}

=== Orthodox Judaism and women ===
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' [[Blu Greenberg]], Jewish Publication Society
* ''Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment,'' [[Saul Berman|Berman, Saul J.]] Response, 40, 1981, 5:17.
* ''Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State,'' Ellenson, David Harry. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law (58-81) 2001.
* ''Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?'' [[Tamar Ross]], ''Judaism'', 42:4, 1993, 478-491.
* ''Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?,'' Reisman, Levi M. The Jewish Observer, 31:5, 1998, 37-47
* ''Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period,'' [[Ross|Ross, Tamar]]
* ''In Case There Tamar Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan,'' Fishbane, Simcha. Judaism, 42:4, 1993, 492-503.
* ''Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law,'' Shenhav, Sharon. Justice, 21, 1999, 28-31.
* ''On Egalitarianism & Halakha,'' Stern, Marc D. Tradition, 36:2, 2002, 1-30.
* ''Women, Jewish Law and Modernity,'' Wolowelsky, Joel B. Ktav. 1997.
* ''Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism'', [[Tamar Ross|Ross, Tamar]]. Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58465-390-6
* ''Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups'', [[Avi Weiss|Weiss, Avi]], Ktav publishers, January 2003 ISBN 0-88125-719-2
*''Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation''. [[Tova Hartman|Hartman, Tova]], Brandeis University Press, 2007. ISBN 1-58465-658-1.

{{Jewish life}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Women In Judaism}}
[[Category:Judaism and women| ]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Gender roles by society]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2015-11-04T03:56:00Z

Jprg1966: /* Jewish Renewal */

{{About|historical and modern views of Jews|the portrayal of women in the Bible|Women in the Bible}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|religion}}
{{Women in society sidebar}}

The [[role]] of '''women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], the [[Oral Torah|Oral Law]] (the corpus of rabbinic literature), by [[Minhag|custom]], and by non-religious cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature mention various female role models, religious law treats women differently in various circumstances.

[[Gender]] has a bearing on familial lines: in traditional Judaism, [[Who is a Jew?|Jewishness]] is passed down through the mother, although the father's name is used to describe sons and daughters in the [[Torah]], e.g., "Dinah, daughter of Jacob".<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|pages= 121, 131}}</ref>

==Biblical times==
{{See also|Old Testament views on women}}
Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are a number of exceptions to this rule, including the [[Matriarchs (Bible)|Matriarchs]] [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca]], [[Rachel]], and [[Leah]], [[Miriam]] the prophetess, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Huldah]] the prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Rahab]] and [[Esther]]. In the Biblical account these women did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was formed between the Israelites and the God of Abraham at Mount Sinai. The Torah relates that both Israelite men and Israelite women were present at Sinai, however, the covenant was worded in such a way that it bound men to act upon its requirements and to ensure that the members of their household (wives, children, and slaves) met these requirements as well. In this sense, the covenant bound women as well, though indirectly.<ref name="HauptmanEtz">[[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman, Judith]]. "Women." ''Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary''. Ed. David L. Lieber. The Jewish Publication Society, 2001. 1356-1359.</ref>

Marriage and family law in biblical times favored men over women. For example, a husband could divorce a wife if he chose to, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. The practice of [[levirate marriage]] applied to widows of childless deceased husbands, not to widowers of childless deceased wives; though if either he or she didn't consent to the marriage, a different ceremony called chalitza is done instead. Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men during biblical times, however, they also suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount.<ref name="HauptmanEtz" /> However, men had specific obligations they were required to perform for their wives. These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual relations to their wives.<ref>[[Joseph Telushkin|Telushkin, Joseph]]. ''Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible''. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997. p. 403.</ref>

Women also had a role in ritual life. Women (as well as men) were required to make a pilgrimage to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] once a year and offer the [[Passover]] [[korban|sacrifice]]. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a ''todah'' ("thanksgiving") offering after childbirth. Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non-levitical men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and generally more discreet scale.

Women depended on men economically. Women generally did not own property except in the rare case of inheriting land from a father who didn't bear sons. Even "in such cases, women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings."<ref name="HauptmanEtz" />

According to [[John Bowker (theologian)]], traditionally, Jewish "men and women pray separately. This goes back to ancient times when women could go only as far as the second court of the Temple."<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 119}}</ref>

==Talmudic times==
Classical Jewish [[rabbinical literature]] contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that:
*Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the (righteous) women than to (righteous) men<ref>''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berakhot]]'' 17a</ref>
*Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine<ref>''[[Nashim|Kiddushin]]'' 49b</ref>
*Women are ''light on raw knowledge'' – i.e., they possess more intuition<ref>''[[Shabbat (Talmud)|Shabbat]]'' 33b</ref>
*A man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good; a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself<ref>''[[Yebamot]]'' 62b</ref>
*When [[Rav Yosef b. Hiyya]] heard his mother's footsteps he would say: ''Let me arise before the approach of the [[Shekhinah|divine presence]]''<ref>''Kiddushin'' 31b</ref>
*Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its (Israel's) righteous women<ref>''[[Sotah]]'' 11b</ref>
*A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong<ref>''[[Baba Metzia]]'' 59a</ref>
*Women have greater faith than men<ref>''[[Sifre]]'', 133</ref>
*Women have greater powers of discernment<ref>''[[Tohorot|Niddah]]'' 45b</ref>
*Women are especially tenderhearted<ref>''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'' 14b</ref>

While few women are mentioned by name in rabbinic literature, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands. Occasionally they have a public persona. Examples are [[Bruriah daughter of Rabbi Hananiah Ben Teradion|Bruriah]], the wife of the [[Tannaim|Tanna]] [[Rabbi Meir]]; Rachel, the wife of [[Akiba ben Joseph|Rabbi Akiva]]; and Yalta, the wife of [[Rav Nachman|Rabbi Nachman]]. [[Elazar ben Arach|Rabbi Elazar]]'s{{Who|date=February 2010}} [[Imma Shalom|wife]] (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]]. When R' Elazar ben Azarya was asked to assume the role of ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]'' ("Prince" or President of the [[Sanhedrin]]), he replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Brachoth 27b</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
Since Jews were seen as second class citizens in the Christian and Muslim world, it was even harder for Jewish women to establish their own status. Avraham Grossman argues in his book ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe'' that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them: "the biblical and talmudic heritage; the situation in the non-Jewish society within which the Jews lived and functioned; and the economic status of the Jews, including the woman's role in supporting the family."<ref>Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. 1.</ref> Grossman uses all three factors to argue that women's status overall during this period actually rose.<ref>Grossman, 3.</ref>

During the Middle Ages, there was a conflict between Judaism's lofty religious expectations of women and the reality of society in which these Jewish women lived; this is similar to the lives of Christian women in the same period.<ref>Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94.</ref> This prompted the [[kabbalistic]] work ''Sefer Hakanah'' to demand that women fulfill the ''[[mitzvot]]'' in a way that would be equal to men.<ref name="Ben-Sasson">Ben-Sasson, H. H. "Spiritual and Social Creativity." ''A History of the Jewish People''. Ed. Ben-Sasson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. 612–627. Print.</ref>

=== Religious life ===
Religious developments during the medieval period included relaxation on prohibitions against teaching women [[Torah]], and the rise of women's prayer groups.<ref>Steinberg, 157–158.</ref> One place that women participated in Jewish practices publicly was the [[synagogue]]. Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.<ref name="Baskin 1991 42">{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=42|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There is evidence that in the 15th century some communities of [[Ashkenaz]], the wife of the rabbi wore ''[[tzitzit]]'' just like her husband.<ref name="Ben-Sasson" />

In most [[synagogues]] they were given their own section, most likely a balcony; some [[synagogues]] had a separate building.<ref name="Grossman,181">Grossman, 181.</ref> Separation from the men was created by the Rabbis in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]. The reasoning behind the [[Halacha]] was that a woman and her body would distract men and give them impure thoughts during prayer.<ref>[[Talmud]], [[Sukkah (Talmud)|Succah]] 51a–52b</ref> Due to this rabbinical interpretation, scholars have seen the women’s role in the synagogue as limited and sometimes even non-existent. However, recent research has shown that women actually had a larger role in the synagogue and the community at large. Women usually attended synagogue, for example, on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] and the holidays.<ref>Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period.'' Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52.</ref> Depending on the location of the women in the [[synagogue]], they may have followed the same service as the men or they conducted their own services. Since the [[synagogues]] were large, there would be a designated woman who would be able to follow the cantor and repeat the prayers aloud for the women.<ref name="Grossman,181" /> Women had always attended services on [[Shabbat]] and holidays, but beginning in the eleventh century, women became more involved in the [[synagogue]] and its rituals. Women sitting separately from the men became a norm in [[synagogues]] around the beginning of the thirteenth century.<ref>Steinberg, 157.</ref> Women, however, did much more than pray in the [[synagogue]]. One of the main jobs for women was to beautify the building. There are [[Torah ark]] curtains and [[Torah]] covers that women sewed and survive today.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|page=128 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}</ref> The [[synagogue]] was a communal place for both men and women where worship, learning and community activities occurred.

The rise and increasing popularity of [[Kabbalah]], which emphasized the [[shechinah]] and female aspects of the divine presence and human-divine relationship, and which saw marriage as a holy covenant between partners rather than a civil contract, had great influence. Kabbalists explained the phenomenon of menstruation as expressions of the demonic or sinful character of the menstruant.<ref>Koren, Sharon Faye. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/nashim/summary/v017/17.koren.html "The Menstruant as 'Other' in Medieval Judaism and Christianity."] Project MUSE. Spring 2009. 29 December 2011.</ref> These changes were accompanied by increased pietistic strictures, including greater requirements for [[Tzeniut|modest dress]], and greater strictures during [[Niddah|the period of menstruation]]. At the same time, there was a rise in philosophical and [[midrashic]] interpretations depicting women in a negative light, emphasizing a duality between matter and spirit in which femininity was associated, negatively, with earth and matter.<ref>Grossman, 277–278.</ref> The gentile society was also seen as a negative influence on the Jewish community. For example, it seems that Jews would analyze the modesty of their non-Jewish neighbors before officially moving into a new community because they knew that their children would be influenced by the local gentiles.<ref>Grossman, 2.</ref>

After the [[Alhambra Decree|expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492]], women became virtually the only source of Jewish ritual and tradition in the Catholic world in a phenomenon known as [[crypto-Judaism]]. Crypto-Jewish women would slaughter their own animals and made sure to keep as many of the [[Kosher|Jewish dietary laws]] and life cycle rituals as possible without raising suspicion. Occasionally, these women were prosecuted by [[Inquisition]] officials for suspicious behavior such as lighting candles to honor the Sabbath or refusing to eat pork when it was offered to them. The [[Inquisition]] targeted crypto-Jewish women at least as much as it targeted crypto-Jewish men because women were accused of perpetuating Jewish tradition while men were merely permitting their wives and daughters to organize the household in this manner.<ref>Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009. 105–111.</ref>

Jewish women were also apart of the social phenomenon of martyrdom of the [[First Crusade]]. Most of the violence from the [[First Crusade]] towards Jews was due to the [[People's Crusade]]. Inspired by the Pope's call, Christians in Roven, Trier, Metz, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Prague, and Bohemia, among others, massacred thousands of Jews. The local governments did not, at first, sanction the mass murder of Jews as part of the fervor of the Crusades. However, popular anxiety overcame many towns and villages and lead towards the local government's support of killing Jews.<ref>Steinberg, 108.</ref> Although many Jews did convert, many rather chose to die. Through the sources, such as chronicles and poems, we see that Jewish women were often martyred with their families.<ref name="Steinberg,160">Steinberg, 160.</ref> In contrast, most Christian women martyrs were members of a convent or religious order when they were martyred (See [http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/women1.htm Women and Hagiography in Medieval Christianity] for more information).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|page=38}}</ref>

=== Domestic life ===
Marriage, Domestic Violence and Divorce are all topics discussed by Jewish sages of the Medieval world. Marriage is an important institution in Judaism (see [[Marriage in Judaism]]). The sages of this period discussed this topic at length.

[[Rabbeinu Gershom]] instituted a rabbinic decree ([[Takkanah]]) prohibiting polygamy among [[Ashkenazic]] Jews.<ref>{{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|page=81}}</ref> The rabbis instituted legal methods to enable women to petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a divorce. [[Maimonides]] ruled that a woman who found her husband "repugnant" could compel a divorce, "because she is not like a captive, to be subjected to intercourse with one who is hateful to her."<ref>[[Mishneh Torah]], Hilkhot Ishut 14:8</ref><ref>Biale, 91.</ref> Divorce for Christian women was technically not an option. By the tenth century, Christianity considered marriage a sacrament and could not be dissolved (see [[Divorce#Medieval Europe|Divorce in Medieval Europe]]).

The rabbis also instituted and tightened prohibitions on domestic violence. [[Peretz ben Elijah|Rabbi Peretz ben Elijah]] ruled, "The cry of the daughters of our people has been heard concerning the sons of Israel who raise their hands to strike their wives. Yet who has given a husband the authority to beat his wife?"<ref>Grossman, 224.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] ruled that "For it is the way of the Gentiles to behave thus, but Heaven forbid that any Jew should do so. And one who beats his wife is to be excommunicated and banned and beaten."<ref>Grossman, 226.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] also ruled that a battered wife could petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a husband to grant a divorce, with a monetary fine owed her on top of the regular [[ketubah]] money.<ref>Grossman, 222.</ref> These rulings occurred in the midst of societies where wife-beating was legally sanctioned and routine.<ref>Grossman, 230.</ref>

=== Education ===
Jewish women had a limited education. They were taught to read, write, run a household. They were also given some education in religious law that was essential to their daily lives, such as keeping [[kosher]].<ref name="Baskin 1991 42" /> Both Christian and Jewish girls were educated in the home. Although Christian girls may have had a male or female tutor, most Jewish girls had a female tutor.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=43|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> Higher learning was uncommon for both Christian and Jewish women. Christian women could enter a convent in order to achieve a higher education (See [[Female education#Medieval period|Female Education in the Medieval Period]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=46|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There are more sources of education for Jewish women living in Muslim controlled lands. Middle Eastern Jewry, on the other hand, had an abundance of female literates. The [[Cairo Geniza]] is filled with correspondences written (sometimes dictated) between family members and spouses. Many of these letters are pious and poetic and express a desire to be in closer or more frequent contact with a loved one that is far enough away to only be reached by written correspondence. There are also records of wills and other personal legal documents as well as written petitions to officials in cases of spouse spousal abuse or other conflicts between family members written or dictated by women.<ref>Melammed, 91–100.</ref>

Many women gained enough education to help their husbands out in business or even hold their own. Just like Christian women who ran their own business, Jewish women were engaged in their own occupations as well as helping their husbands. Jewish women seem to have lent money to Christian women throughout Europe.<ref>Marcus, 38.</ref> Women were also copyists, [[Midwifery#Early historical perspective|midwives]], spinners and weavers.<ref name="Steinberg,160" /><ref>Marcus, 39.</ref>

==Views on the education of women==
From certain contexts of the Mishnah and Talmud it can be derived that women should not study Mishnah. There were female Tannaitic Torah jurists such as Rabbi Meir's wife,<ref>Medrish on Proverbs 31:10</ref> Rabbi Meir's daughter, and the daughter of Haninyah ben Teradyon<ref>Talmud Babylonia Kelim Bava Kamma 4:17 separately in Sifre Deuteronomy 307 in both she is personally left unnamed and referred to as just, 'and we have learned from the daughter of Haninyah ben Terradyon', a sign of the prevailing attitude towards women (as property of their fathers).</ref> Haninyah's daughter is again mentioned as a sage in the non-Talmud 3rd-century text Tractate Semahot verse 12:13.<ref>[http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300010695 also search ISBN 9780300010695 for an English translation.]</ref> Rabbi Meir's wife is credited with teaching him how to understand some verses from Isaiah.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Berachot 10a</ref> In the Mishnah there is also a reference to certain women teaching men the Torah from behind a curtain, so that no man would be offended.

A ''yeshiva'', or school for Talmudic studies, is an "exclusively masculine environment" because of absence of women from these studies.<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 123}}</ref>

===Beruryah===
[[Beruryah]] (her name is a standard Jewish female name meaning 'the clarity of God') is a Tanna mentioned by name in the Talmud, who has a female name, has orally been transmitted as a female, and is referred to in the text using the nekeva (feminine Hebrew and Aramaic) adjectives and adverbs. Originally she was believed to be either Rabbi Meir's wife mentioned above, or Rabbi Chaninyah's daughter mentioned above, however over the past three to four centuries Rabbinic scholars have realized that these generations do not correspond to Beruryah's law decisions, and life, therefore she today is just 'Beruryah' and of heretofore unknown lineage.

Her law decisions were minor but set a crucial ancient precedent for modern Jewish women. She is mentioned at least four times in the Talmudic discourse regarding her law decrees first Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 10a then in Tosefta Pesahim 62b in Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 53b–54a and Babylonian Talmud Avodah Zarah 18b. In one case she paskinned din on "klaustra" a rare Greek word referring to an object, used in the Talmud, unfortunately Rabbi Yehudah Hanassi did not believe women could be credited with paskining din, as it says 'do not speak too much to women' (Tannah Rabbi Jesse the Galilean), and therefore credited the law to Rabbi Joshua who may have been her father.<ref>Mishnah Keylim 11:4</ref>

Beruryah however was actually remembered with great respect in the Talmud where she is lauded to have been reputed as such a genius that she studied “three hundred Halachot from three hundred sages in just one day” (Pesachim 62b). Clearly contradicting the injunction against women studying Torah.

===Rashi's daughters===
[[Rashi]] had no sons and taught the Mishnah and Talmud to his daughters, until they knew it by heart as Jewish tradition teaches;<ref>[http://www.rashisdaughters.com/ Rashi's Daughters]</ref> they then transferred their knowledge of original Mishnah commentary to the Ashkenazi men of the next generation.

===Haim Yosef David Azulai, AKA 'The Hid'aa'===
The [[Chaim Joseph David Azulai|Hida]], wrote (Tuv Ayin, no. 4) woman should not study Mishnah only if they do not want to.'We cannot force a woman to learn, like we do to boys'. However, if she wants to learn then not only may she do so on her own, but men may originally teach her, and she can then teach other women if they so choose. According to the Hida, the prohibition against teaching women does not apply to a motivated woman or girl. Other Mizrahi Rabbis disputed this with him.

His response to detractors was that indeed, in truth, there is a prohibition against teaching Mishnah to any student—male or female—who one knows is not properly prepared and motivated, referred to a talmid she-eino hagun (Shulhan Arukh, Yoreh De'ah 246:7). Babylonian Talmud Berakhos 28a relates that Rabban Gamliel would announce that any student who is not pure enough so that 'his outer self is like his inner self' may not enter the study hall. While this approach, requiring absolute purity, was rejected by other ancient Rabbis, for example 'he who is not for the name of God, will become for the name of God', and a middle approach was adopted by Jews as standard. If one has knowledge that a particular Mishnayot student is definitely bad then he may not be taught. He claimed that 'it seems that for women there is a higher standard and she must be motivated in order to have this permission to learn' in his response to the Mizrahi tradition.

===Yisrael Meir Kagan===
{{Main|Yisrael Meir Kagan}}
One of the most important Ashkenazic rabbanim of the past century, Yisrael Meir Kagan, known popularly as the Chofetz Chaim. favored Torah education for girls to counteract the French "finishing schools" prevalent in his day for the daughters of the bourgeoisie.{{quote|
"It would appear that all [these sexist laws] were intended for earlier generations when everyone dwelt in the place of their familial ancestral home and ancestral tradition was very powerful among all to follow the path of their fathers... under such circumstances we could maintain that a woman not study Mishnayos and, for guidance, rely on her righteous parents, but presently, due to our myriad sins, ancestral tradition has become exceptionally weak and it is common that people do not dwell in proximity to the family home, and especially those women who devote themselves to mastering the vernacular, surely it is a now a great mitzvah to teach them Scripture and the ethical teachings of our sages such as Pirkei Avos, Menoras Ha-Ma'or and the like so that they will internalize our sacred faith because [if we do not do so] they are prone to abandon the path of God and violate all principles of [our] faith."<ref>Likkutei Halachos, Sotah p. 21</ref>}}

===Joseph Solovetchik===
{{Main|Joseph B. Soloveitchik}}
Rabbi Yoseph Solovetchik 'amened' the teachings of The Hafetz Haim. Rabbi Solovetchik taught all religious Ashkenazi Jews with the exception of hardline Hasidim, not should, or if they show motivation, but must teach their female children Gemarah like the boy school children. He among others fully institutionalized the teaching of Mishnah and Talmud to girls, from an autobiography on him by Rabbi Mayor Twersky called "A Glimpse of the Rav" in R. Menachem Genack ed., Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: Man of Halacha, Man of Faith, page 113: {{quote|"The halakha prohibiting Torah study for women is not indiscriminate or all-encompassing. There is complete unanimity that women are obligated to study halakhot pertaining to mitsvot which are incumbent upon them... The prohibition of teaching Torah she-Ba'al Pe to women relates to optional study. If ever circumstances dictate that study of Torah sh-Ba'al Pe is necessary to provide a firm foundation for faith, such study becomes obligatory and obviously lies beyond the pale of any prohibition." Undoubtedly, the Rav's prescription was more far-reaching that that of the Hafets Hayim and others. But the difference in magnitude should not obscure their fundamental agreement [on changing the attitudes Halachically].}}

==Present day==
{{Jewish feminism}}
{{Further|Jewish feminism|Women in Israel|Orthodox Jewish feminism|Women of the Wall}}

===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] is based on gendered understandings of Jewish practice—i.e., that there are different roles for men and women in religious life. There are different opinions among Orthodox Jews concerning these differences. Most claim that men and women have complementary, yet different roles in religious life, resulting in different religious obligations. Others believe that some of these differences are not a reflection of religious law, but rather of cultural, social, and historical causes. In the area of education, women were historically exempted from any study beyond an understanding of the practical aspects of [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household{{spaced ndash}}both of which they have an obligation to learn. Until the twentieth century, women were often discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. In the past 100 years, Orthodox Jewish education for women has advanced tremendously.<ref>Handelman, Susan. [http://www.chabad.org/theJewishWoman/article_cdo/aid/371261/jewish/Feminism-and-Orthodoxy.htm "Feminism and Orthodoxy - What It's All About."] ''Chabad Lubavitch''. 25 December 2011.</ref>

There have been many areas in which Orthodox women have been working towards change within religious life over the past 20 years: promoting advanced women's learning and scholarship, promoting women's ritual inclusion in synagogue, promoting women's communal and religious leadership, and more.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lakein|first1=Dvora|title=How Does She Do It?|url=http://lubavitch.com/news/article/2031309/How-Does-She-Do-It.html|accessdate=17 November 2014|agency=Chabad Lubavitch World HQ / News|date=October 6, 2014|quote=Mrs. Shula Bryski, representative to Thousand Oaks, California, and a mother of six, says that the Rebbe “empowered women in a way perhaps never done before.” Embracing modernity, the Rebbe understood that today, “women need more sophisticated Judaism, more depth, more spirituality.” Bryski’s personal emphasis in this affluent Los Angeles suburb is educating women through a weekly Caffeine for the Soul class, monthly Rosh Chodesh Society meetings, and the wildly-popular bat-mitzvah classes she leads. Bryski also serves on the editorial board of the Rosh Chodesh Society, a project of Jewish Learning Institute (JLI) and is a prolific writer.}}</ref> Women have been advancing change despite often vocal opposition by rabbinic leaders. Some Orthodox rabbis try to discount changes by claiming that women are motivated by sociological reasons and not by "true" religious motivation.<ref>Kress, Michael. [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/orthostate.html "The State of Orthodox Judaism Today."] ''Jewish Virtual Library''. 25 December 2011.</ref> For example, Orthodox, [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]], and [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] rabbis discourage women from wearing a [[yarmulke]], [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed members|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011|accessdate=October 29, 2014|issue=Haaretz|date=January 29, 2014}}</ref>

In most Orthodox synagogues, women still do not give a ''d'var Torah'' (brief discourse, generally on the weekly Torah portion) after or between services. Furthermore, a few Modern Orthodox synagogues have mechitzot dividing the left and right sides of the synagogue (rather than the usual division between the front and back of the synagogue, with women sitting in the back), with the women's section on one side and the men's section on the other.<ref>[http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf ] {{wayback|url=http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf |date=20150402103147 }}</ref>

====Rules of modesty====
{{Main|Tzniut}}
The importance of modesty in dress and conduct is particularly stressed among girls and women in Orthodox society. Many Orthodox women only wear skirts and avoid wearing trousers, and some married Orthodox women cover their hair with a wig, hat, or scarf. Judaism prescribes modesty for both men and women.{{citation needed |date=November 2013}}

====Rules of family purity====
{{Main|Niddah}}
In accordance with Jewish Law, Orthodox Jewish women refrain from contact with their husbands while they are [[niddah|menstruating]], and for a period of 7 clean days after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. The Israeli Rabbinate has recently approved women acting as ''yoatzot'', [[halakhic]] advisers on sensitive personal matters such as [[family purity]].

====Modern Orthodox Judaism====
Rabbi [[Joseph B. Soloveitchik]], a leader of profound influence in modern Orthodoxy in the United States, discouraged women from serving as presidents of synagogues or any other official positions of leadership,<ref name="Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis Of Womens Prayer Groups">[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQHwIAxpZRAC&pg=PA107], additional text.</ref> from performing other [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]] (commandments) traditionally performed by males exclusively, such as wearing a [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]]. Soloveitchik wrote that while women do not lack the capability to perform such acts, there is no [[Tradition|''mesorah'']] (Jewish tradition) that permits it. In making his decision, he relied upon Jewish oral law, including a [[mishnah]] in Chulin 2a and a Beit Yoseph in the Tur Yoreh Deah stating that a woman can perform a specific official communal service for her own needs but not those of others.<ref>Aharon Ziegler, ''Halakhic Positions of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik'', Volume II, p. 81.</ref>

Women's issues garnered more interest with the advent of [[feminism]]. Many Modern Orthodox Jewish women and Modern Orthodox rabbis sought to provide greater and more advanced Jewish education for women. Since most Modern Orthodox women attend college, and many receive advanced degrees in a variety of fields, Modern Orthodox communities generally promote women's secular education. A few Modern Orthodox Synagogues have women serving as clergy, including [[Gilah Kletenik]] at [[Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun]]. In 2013, [[Yeshivat Maharat]], located in the United States, became the first Orthodox institution to consecrate female clergy. The graduates of Yeshivat Maharat do not call themselves "rabbis." The title they are given is "maharat."<ref>"Jewish Daily Forward Podcast." ''[http://forward.com/articles/179052/female-orthodox-leaders-new-and-old/ Female Orthodox Leaders: New and Old]''. 21 June 2013. ''The Jewish Daily Forward''. Web. 23 June 2013.</ref> Also in 2013, [[Malka Schaps]] became the first female [[Haredi]] dean at an Israeli university when she was appointed dean of Bar Ilan University's Faculty of Exact Sciences.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.550156 Malka Schaps becomes first female Haredi dean at Israeli university - National Israel News | Haaretz]</ref> Also in 2013, the first class of female [[halacha|halachic]] advisers trained to practice in the US graduated; they graduated from the North American branch of [[Nishmat]]’s yoetzet halacha program in a ceremony at Congregation Sheartith Israel, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in Manhattan and [[SAR High School]] in Riverdale, New York began allowing girls to wrap tefillin during Shacharit-morning prayer; it is probably the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so.<ref>[http://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/nyc-orthodox-high-school-lets-girls-put-on-tefillin/2014/01/20/ The Jewish Press » » NYC Orthodox High School Lets Girls Put On Tefillin]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/landmark-us-program-graduates-first-female-halachic-advisers/ Landmark US program graduates first female halachic advisers | The Times of Israel]</ref>

In 2014, the first ever book of [[halacha|halachic]] decisions written by women who were ordained to serve as poskot (Idit Bartov and Anat Novoselsky) was published.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://jpupdates.com/2014/06/26/first-halacha-sefer-women-makes-waves-israel-orthodox-world/ First Halacha Sefer By Women Makes Waves in Israeli Orthodox World - JP Updates | JP Updates]</ref> The women were ordained by the municipal chief rabbi of Efrat, Rabbi [[Shlomo Riskin]], after completing [[Midreshet Lindenbaum]] women’s college’s five-year ordination course in advanced studies in Jewish law, as well as passing examinations equivalent to the rabbinate’s requirement for men.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

In 2015, Jennie Rosenfeld became the first female Orthodox spiritual advisor in Israel (specifically, she became the spiritual advisor, also called manhiga ruchanit, for the community of [[Efrat]].)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2015/1/26/with-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel#.VMZhzS7lw4I=|title=With female spiritual advisor, Efrat spotlights women’s empowerment in Israel|work=JNS.org}}</ref>

====Women's prayer groups====
Separate Jewish women's prayer groups were a sanctioned custom among German Jews in the [[Middle Ages]]. The ''Kol Bo'' provides, in the laws for [[Tisha B'Av]]:

:And they recite dirges there for about a quarter of the night, the men in their synagogue and the women in their synagogue. And likewise during the day the men recite dirges by themselves and the women by themselves, until about a third of the day has passed.

In Germany, in the 12th and 13th centuries, women's prayer groups were led by female cantors. Rabbi Eliezar of Worms, in his elegy for his wife Dulca, praised her for teaching the other women how to pray and embellishing the prayer with music. The gravestone of Urania of Worms, who died in 1275, contains the inscription "who sang ''piyyutim'' for the women with musical voice." In the Nurnberg Memorial Book, one Richenza was inscribed with the title "prayer leader of the women."<ref>Grossman, ''Pious and Rebellious'', pp. 180-182.</ref>

Orthodox women more recently began holding organized women's ''tefila'' (prayer) groups beginning in the 1970s. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a ''[[minyan]]'' (prayer quorum) for the purpose of [[Jewish services|regular services]], women in these groups read the prayers and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of Orthodox Judaism have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:

* The most restrictive view, held by some Modern Orthodox authorities, and most Haredi Rabbis, rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law).{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}
* A more liberal, permissive view maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatible with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e., do not include certain parts of the service known as ''devarim she-bi-kdusha''), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against ''halakha''. People in this group include Rabbi Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Rabbi [[Avi Weiss]].<ref>Israel's late [[Ashkenazi]]c [[Chief Rabbi]] [[Shlomo Goren]] ''may'' have ruled in 1974 that while women do not constitute a ''minyan'', they may still carry out full prayer services. Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, stating that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual ''halakha'' was in accord with the second school of thought, listed above.[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm]</ref>
* A third view maintains argues in favor of the acceptability of calling women to the Torah in mixed services, and leading certain parts of the service which do not require a [[minyan]], under certain conditions.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf]|972 KB}}</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf]|78.1 KB}}</ref>

In 2013 the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a [[halacha|halachic]] ruling which allows women, for the first time, to say the [[Kaddish]] prayer in memory of their deceased parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4396702,00.html |title=Halachic ruling: Women may say Kaddish - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

====Women as witnesses====
Traditionally, women are not generally permitted to serve as witnesses in an Orthodox [[Beit Din]] ([[Beit Din|rabbinical court]]), although they have recently been permitted to serve as ''toanot'' (advocates) in those courts. This limitation has exceptions which have required exploration under rabbinic law as the role of women in society and the obligations of religious groups under external civil law have been subject to increasing recent scrutiny.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The recent case of Rabbi [[Mordecai Tendler]], the first rabbi to be expelled from the [[Rabbinical Council of America]] following allegations of sexual harassment, illustrated the importance of clarification of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[halakha]] in this area. Rabbi Tendler claimed that the tradition of exclusion of women's testimony should compel the RCA to disregard the allegations. He argued that since the testimony of a woman could not be admitted in [[Beit Din|Rabbinical court]], there were no valid witnesses against him, and hence the case for his expulsion had to be thrown out for lack of evidence. In a ruling of importance for Orthodox women's capacity for legal self-protection under [[Halakha|Jewish law]], [[Haredi]] Rabbi [[Benzion Wosner]], writing on behalf of the ''Shevet Levi'' [[Beit Din]] (Rabbinical court) of [[Monsey, New York]], identified sexual harassment cases as coming under a class of exceptions to the traditional exclusion, under which "even children or women" have not only a right but an obligation to testify, and can be relied upon by a rabbinical court as valid witnesses:

:The [[Meir Abulafia|Ramah]] in Choshen Mishpat (Siman 35, 14) rules that in a case where only women congregate or in a case where only women could possibly testify, (in this case the alleged harassment occurred behind closed doors) they can and should certainly testify. (Terumas Hadeshen Siman 353 and Agudah Perek 10, Yochasin)

:This is also the ruling of the [[Joseph Colon Trabotto|Maharik]], [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra|Radvaz]], and the [[Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz|Mahar"i of Minz]]. Even those "[[Posek|Poskim]]" that would normally not rely on women witnesses, they would certainly agree that in our case ... where there is ample evidence that this Rabbi violated [[Torah]] precepts, then even children or women can certainly be kosher as witnesses, as the [[Chatam Sofer|Chasam Sofer]] pointed out in his ''sefer'' (monograph) (Orach Chaim T'shuvah 11)<ref>English summary at [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/Tendler_Mordecai.html The Awareness Center: Case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler.] Original ''teshuvah'' ([[Responsum]]) (in Hebrew) at {{PDF|[http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/HaravWosner'sT'shuvah.pdf The Awareness Center: Harav Wosner's Teshuvah]|130 KB}} (Note: parenthetical translations are added, parenthetical references are original)</ref>

The [[Rabbinical Council of America]], while initially relying on its own investigation, chose to rely on the Halakhic ruling of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbinical body as authoritative in the situation.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

====Orthodox approaches to change====
Leaders of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] community have been steadfast in their opposition to a change in the role of women, arguing that the religious and social constraints on women, as dictated by traditional Jewish texts, are timeless and are not affected by contemporary social change. Many also argue that giving traditionally male roles to women will only detract from both women's and men's ability to lead truly fulfilling lives. Haredim have also sometimes perceived arguments for liberalization as in reality stemming from antagonism to Jewish law and beliefs generally, arguing that preserving faith requires resisting secular and "un-Jewish" ideas.

Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly in its more liberal variants, has tended to look at proposed changes in the role of women on a specific, case-by-case basis, focusing on arguments regarding the religious and legal role of specific prayers, rituals and activities individually. Such arguments have tended to focus on cases where the Talmud and other traditional sources express multiple or more liberal viewpoints, particularly where the role of women in the past was arguably broader than in more recent times. Feminist advocates within Orthodoxy have tended to stay within the traditional legal process of argumentation, seeking a gradualist approach, and avoiding wholesale arguments against the religious tradition as such.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Nevertheless, a growing [[Orthodox Jewish feminism|Orthodox feminist]] movement seeks to address gender inequalities.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed women|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011#|accessdate=30 June 2014|work=Haaretz|date=Jan 28, 2014}}</ref></blockquote>

===Agunot===

[[Agunot]] (lit. "chained women") are women who wish to divorce their husbands, but whose husbands refuse to give them a writ of divorce (a "get"). In Orthodox Judaism, only a man is able to serve a "get."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Farkash|first1=Tali|title=e women extorted by ex-husbands|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4400770,00.html|accessdate=2014-10-29|publisher=Ynet News|date=2013-07-07}}</ref>

===Conservative Judaism===
Although the position of [[Conservative Judaism]] toward women originally differed little from the Orthodox position, it has in recent years minimized legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of decisions and [[responsa]] on this topic. These provide for women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being counted as part of a ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'' - an arbiter in matters of religious law)
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:
*[[Matrilineality in Judaism|Matrilineal descent]]. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.
*Pidyon Ha-Bat, a proposed ceremony based on the biblical redemption of the eldest newborn son ([[Pidyon HaBen|Pidyon Ha-Ben]]). The CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

A Conservative Jewish ''[[ketuba]]'' includes a clause that puts a husband and wife on more equal footing when it comes to marriage and divorce law within ''halacha''.<ref name="Raphael">Raphael, Marc Lee. ''Profiles in American Judaism: The Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Traditions in Historical Perspective''. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1984. p. 110</ref>

The CJLS recently reaffirmed the obligation of Conservative women to observe ''[[niddah]]'' (sexual abstinence during and after menstruation) and ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual immersion) following menstruation, although somewhat liberalizing certain details. Such practices, while requirements of Conservative Judaism, are not widely observed among Conservative laity.

====Changes in the Conservative position====
Prior to 1973, Conservative Judaism had more limited roles for women and was more similar to current Modern Orthodoxy, with changes on issues including mixed seating, synagogue corporate leadership, and permitting women to be called to the Torah. In 1973, the CJLS of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] voted, without issuing an opinion, that women could count in a [[minyan]]. There was a special commission appointed by the Conservative movement to study the issue of ordaining women as rabbis, which met between 1977 and 1978, and consisted of eleven men and three women; the women were Marian Siner Gordon, an attorney, Rivkah Harris, an [[Assyriologist]], and [[Francine Klagsbrun]], a writer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/klagsbrun-francine |title=Francine Klagsbrun | Jewish Women's Archive |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2015-09-07}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] (JTSA) faculty voted, also without accompanying opinion, to ordain women as rabbis and as cantors.<ref name="Raphael" /> [[Paula Hyman]], among others, took part in the vote as a member of the JTS faculty.

In 2002, the CJLS adapted a [[responsum]] by Rabbi David Fine, [https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf ''Women and the Minyan''], which provides an official religious-law foundation for women counting in a minyan and explains the current Conservative approach to the role of women in prayer.<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org">{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}}</ref> This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

In 2006, the CJLS adopted three [[responsum|responsa]] on the subject of [[niddah]], which reaffirmed an obligation of Conservative women to abstain from sexual relations during and following [[menstruation]] and to immerse in a [[mikvah]] prior to resumption, while liberalizing observance requirements including shortening the length of the [[niddah]] period, lifting restrictions on non-sexual contact during niddah, and reducing the circumstances under which spotting and similar conditions would mandate abstinence.<ref name="RabbiIntro">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Mikveh_Introduction.doc Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiGrossman">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Grossman-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Susan Grossman, MIKVEH AND THE SANCTITY OF BEING CREATED HUMAN, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiReisner">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Reisner-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Avram Reisner, OBSERVING NIDDAH IN OUR DAY: AN INQUIRY ON THE STATUS OF PURITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY WITH A MENSTRUANT, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiBerkowitz">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Berkowitz-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, RESHAPING THE LAWS OF FAMILY PURITY FOR THE MODERN WORLD, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref>

In all cases continuing the Orthodox approach was also upheld as an option. Individual Conservative rabbis and synagogues are not required to adopt any of these changes, and a small number have adopted none of them.

====Conservative approaches to change====
Prior to 1973, Conservative approaches to change were generally on an individual, case-by-case basis. Between 1973 and 2002, the Conservative movement adapted changes through its official organizations, but without issuing explanatory opinions. Since 2002, the Conservative movement has coalesced around a single across-the board approach to the role of women in Jewish law.<ref>This section summarizes the CLJS's 2002 Fine "Women and the Minyan" {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}} Responsum's review and critique of prior CJLS efforts to adopt an authoritative responsum.</ref>

In 1973, 1983, and 1993, individual rabbis and professors issued six major opinions which influenced change in the Conservative approach, the first and second Sigal, Blumenthal, Rabinowitz, and [[Joel Roth|Roth]] responsa, and the [[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman]] article. These opinions sought to provide for a wholesale shift in women's public roles through a single, comprehensive legal justification. Most such opinions based their positions on an argument that Jewish women always were, or have become, legally obligated to perform the same ''mitzvot'' as men and to do so in the same manner.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The first Sigal and the Blumenthal responsa were considered by the CJLS as part of its decision on prayer roles in 1973. They argued that women have always had the same obligations as men.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} The first Sigal responsum used the Talmud's general prayer obligation and examples of cases in which women were traditionally obligated to say specific prayers and inferred from them a public prayer obligation identical to that of men. The Blumenthal responsum extrapolated from a minority authority that a ''minyan'' could be formed with nine men and one woman in an emergency. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) declined to adopt either responsum. Rabbi Siegel reported to the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] membership that many on the CJLS, while agreeing with the result, found the arguments unconvincing.

The Rabinowitz, [[Joel Roth|Roth]], and second Sigal responsa were considered by the JTSA faculty as part of its decision to ordain women as rabbis in 1983. The Rabbinowitz responsum sidestepped the issue of obligation, arguing that there is no longer a religious need for a community representative in prayer and hence there is no need to decide whether a woman can ''halakhically'' serve as one. The CJLS felt that an argument potentially undermining the value of community and clergy was unconvincing: "We should not be afraid to recognize that the function of clergy is to help our people connect with the holy." The Roth and second Sigal responsa accepted that time-bound ''mitzvot'' were traditionally optional for women, but argued that women in modern times could change their traditional roles. The Roth responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|1=[http://www.jtsa.edu/rabbinical/women/roth.pdf#search='women%20roth%20responsum']|2=161 KB}}</ref> argued that women could individually voluntarily assume the same obligations as men, and that women who do so (e.g., pray three times a day regularly) could count in a ''minyan'' and serve as agents. The JTSA accordingly required female rabbinical students wishing to train as rabbis to personally obligate themselves, but synagogue rabbis, unwilling to inquire into individual religiosity, found it impractical. The second Sigal responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/sigal_women.pdf]|3.17 MB}}</ref> called for a ''takkanah'', or rabbinical edict, "that would serve as a ''halakhic'' ERA," overruling all non-egalitarian provisions in law or, in the alternative, a new approach to ''halakhic'' interpretation independent of legal precedents. The CJLS, unwilling to use either an intrusive approach or a repudiation of the traditional legal process as bases for action, did not adopt either and let the JTS faculty vote stand unexplained.

In 1993, Professor [[Judith Hauptman]] of JTS issued an influential paper<ref>http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427</ref> arguing that women had historically always been obligated in prayer, using more detailed arguments than the Blumenthal and first Sigal responsa. The paper suggested that women who followed traditional practices were failing to meet their obligations. Rabbi Roth argued that Conservative Judaism should think twice before adopting a viewpoint labeling its most traditional and often most committed members as sinners. The issue was again dropped.

In 2002, the CJLS returned to the issue of justifying its actions regarding women's status, and adopted a single authoritative approach, the Fine responsum,<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org" /> as the definitive Conservative [[halakha]] on role-of-women issues. This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The Responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this Responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

===Reform Judaism===
[[Reform Judaism]] believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that [[halakha]] (Jewish law) is the sole legitimate form of Jewish decision making, and holds that Jews can and must consider their conscience and ethical principles inherent in the Jewish tradition when deciding upon a right course of action. There is widespread consensus among Reform Jews that traditional distinctions between the role of men and women are antithetical to the deeper ethical principles of Judaism. This has enabled Reform communities to allow women to perform many rituals traditionally reserved for men, such as:
*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

Concerns about intermarriage have also influenced the Reform Jewish position on gender. In 1983, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] passed a resolution waiving the need for formal conversion for anyone with at least one Jewish parent who has made affirmative acts of Jewish identity. This departed from the traditional position requiring formal [[conversion to Judaism]] for children without a [[matrilineal descent|Jewish mother]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/patrilineal1.html Reform Movement's Resolution on Patrilineal Descent]</ref> The 1983 resolution of the American Reform movement has had a mixed reception in Reform Jewish communities outside of the United States. Most notably, the [[Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism]] has rejected patrilineal descent and requires formal conversion for anyone without a Jewish mother.<ref>[http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=840313&ct=1051515 Reform Judaism in Israel: Progress and Prospects]</ref> As well, a joint Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative and Reform Bet Din formed in Denver, Colorado to promote uniform standards for conversion to Judaism was dissolved in 1983, due to that Reform resolution.<ref name="Wertheimer, A People Divided">{{cite book|last=Wertheimer|first=Jack|title=A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America|publisher=University Press of New England|year=1997}}</ref> However, in 2015 the majority of Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis voted in favor of a position paper proposing "that individuals who live a Jewish life, and who are patrilineally Jewish, can be welcomed into the Jewish community and confirmed as Jewish through an individual process."<ref name="jpost1">{{cite web|last=Lewis |first=Jerry |url=http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/UK-Reform-rabbis-accept-patrilineal-descent-409298 |title=UK Reform rabbis accept patrilineal descent |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=July 17, 2015 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref> Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis stated that rabbis "would be able to take local decisions – ratified by the [[Beit Din]] – confirming Jewish status."<ref name="jpost1"/>

Liberal prayerbooks tend increasingly to avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language. For example, the [[Liberal Judaism (UK)|UK Liberal movement]]'s ''Siddur Lev Chadash'' (1995) does so, as does the [[Reform Judaism (UK)|UK Reform Movement]]'s ''Forms of Prayer'' (2008).<ref>[http://thejc.com/articles/the-slimline-siddur-a-touch-bob-dylan The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan] ''The Jewish Chronicle'']</ref><ref>[http://www.bwpjc.org/slc.htm Siddur Lev Chadash]</ref> In [[Mishkan T'filah]], the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as "He" have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.) <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/03/us/03prayerbook.html?_r=1 |work=The New York Times |first=Laurie |last=Goodstein |title=In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change |date=3 September 2007}}</ref> In 2015 the Reform Jewish [[High Holy Days]] prayer book [[Mishkan HaNefesh]] was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.<ref name="jweekly1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/74278/gates-of-repentance-replacement-advances-reform-trends/ |title='Gates of Repentance' replacement advances Reform trends |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=2015-03-26 |accessdate=2015-04-14}}</ref> It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer [[Avinu Malkeinu]] that refers to God as both "Loving Father" and "Compassionate Mother."<ref name="jweekly1" /> Other notable changes are replacing a line from the Reform movement's earlier prayerbook, "Gates of Repentance," that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line "rejoicing with couples under the chuppah [wedding canopy]", and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering "mibeit," Hebrew for "from the house of," in addition to the traditional "son of" or "daughter of."<ref name="jweekly1" />

====Reform approaches to change====
Reform Judaism generally holds that the various differences between the roles of men and women in traditional Jewish law are not relevant to modern conditions and not applicable today. Accordingly, there has been no need to develop legal arguments analogous to those made within the Orthodox and Conservative movements.

=== Reconstructionist Judaism ===
The equality of women and men is a central tenet and hallmark of [[Reconstructionist Judaism]]. From the beginning, Reconstructionist Jewish ritual allowed men and women to pray together—a decision based on egalitarian philosophy. It was on this basis that Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]] called for the full equality of women and men, despite the obvious difficulties reconciling this stance with norms of traditional Jewish practice.<ref>Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.</ref> The Reconstructionist Movement ordained women rabbis from the start.<ref>Nadell, Pamela. ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination 1889–1985''. editor Jewish Women's Life, Beacon Press, 1998. pages 187–188</ref> In 1968, women were accepted into the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, under the leadership of [[Ira Eisenstein]].<ref>Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16542.html Jewish Virtual Library. 2001.</ref> The first ordained female Reconstructionist rabbi, [[Sandy Eisenberg Sasso]], served as rabbi of the Manhattan Reconstructionist Congregation in 1976 and gained a pulpit in 1977 at Beth El Zedeck congregation in Indianapolis. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso was accepted without debate or subsequent controversy.<ref>Sandy Sasso ordained as first female Reconstructionist rabbi,This Week in History. Jewish Women's Archive. http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/19/1974/sandy-sasso</ref> In 2005, 24 out of the movement's 106 synagogues in the US had women as senior or assistant rabbis.<ref>in Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States, Jewish Women's Archive, http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states</ref> In 2013 Rabbi [[Deborah Waxman]] was elected as the President of the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical College]].<ref name="thejewishweek.com">[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/national-news/reconstructionists-pick-first-woman-lesbian-denominational-leader Reconstructionists Pick First Woman, Lesbian As Denominational Leader] ''The Jewish Week'']</ref><ref>[http://forward.com/articles/185252/trailblazing-reconstructionist-deborah-waxman-reli/?p=all Trailblazing Reconstructionist Deborah Waxman Relishes Challenges of Judaism] – ''Jewish Daily Forward''</ref> As the President, she is believed to be the first woman and first lesbian to lead a Jewish congregational union, and the first female rabbi and first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is both a congregational union and a seminary.<ref name="thejewishweek.com" /><ref>http://www.rrc.edu/sites/default/files/ORPHAN_PDFs/RRC_WaxmanPresidentElect-ForPress3.pdf?hero=1615</ref>

The Reconstructionist Community began including women in the [[minyan]] and allowing them to come up to the [[Torah]] for [[Aliyah (Torah)|aliyot]]. They also continued the practice of [[bat mitzvah]].<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, ''Putting God on the Guest List: How to Reclaim the Spiritual Meaning of Your Child's Bar or Bat Mitzvah'', Jewish Lights Publishing (Woodstock, Vermont), 1992.</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allowed women to perform other traditional male tasks, such as serving as witnesses, leading services,<ref>Cantor Heather is a first for Reconstructionist shul, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20569&Itemid=86 , Canadian Jewish News, 06 January 2011</ref> public Torah reading, and wearing ritual prayer garments like [[kippot]] and [[tallitot]].<ref>One example in this video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oplgjEjts0, Darchei Noam Congregation, Toronto, Canada.</ref> Female Reconstructionist rabbis have been instrumental in the creation of rituals, stories, and music that have begun to give women's experience a voice in Judaism. Most of the focus has been on rituals for life-cycle events.<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, ''The Voices of Children'', Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar, Reconstructionist Press, 2005</ref> New ceremonies have been created for births,<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, ''Call Them Builders: A Resource Booklet about Jewish Attitudes and Practices on Birth and Family Life'', Reconstructionist Federation of Congregations and Havurot (New York)</ref> weddings, divorces, conversions,<ref>Shefa, Sheri (August 2006). "Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb". Canadian Jewish News. http://joi.org/bloglinks/CJN Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb 8-24-06.pdf</ref> weaning, and the onset of menarche and menopause. The Reconstructionist movement as a whole has been committed to creating liturgy that is in consonance with gender equality and the celebration of women's lives.<ref>This is reflected in the prayer books that have been published by the Reconstructionist movement</ref><ref>Female scribe to pen Reconstructionist shul’s new Torah, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=16953&Itemid=86, Canadian Jewish News, May 21, 2009.</ref><ref>Montreal congregation hires first female scribe to pen Torah in Canada, http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200906031702/Montreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html ''Jewish Tribune'', 3 June 2009.</ref> Another major step: The Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations has also developed educational programs that teach the full acceptance of lesbians,<ref>See Rabbi [[Rebecca Alpert]] and Rabbi [[Toba Spitzer]]</ref> as well as rituals that affirm lesbian relationships.<ref>Anne Lapidus Lerner in Jewish Women's Archive http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lerner-anne-lapidus</ref><ref>Radin, Charles A. First openly gay rabbi elected leader,http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/03/first_openly_ga.html , Boston Globe, March 13, 2007.</ref> Reconstructionist rabbis officiate at same-sex weddings.<ref>for Montreal https://www.dorshei-emet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92&Itemid=100</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allows openly [[LGBT]] men and women to be ordained as rabbis and cantors.

Several prominent members of the Reconstructionist community have focused on issues like domestic violence.<ref>Gordon, Sheldon (21 April 2006) "Billboards Focus on Jewish Domestic Violence", in ''Jewish Daily Forward'' http://www.forward.com/articles/1263/</ref><ref>Na'amat Canada, http://www.naamat.com/legalaid.htm</ref><ref>Springtide Resources, Wife Abuse in the Jewish Community, http://www.womanabuseprevention.com/html/jewish_community.html</ref><ref>Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse, http://jcada.org/www/docs/4/</ref> Others have devoted energy to helping women gain the right of divorce in traditional Jewish communities.<ref>(French) Femmes et judaïsme – Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce , Journal Le Devoir, 24 April 2010</ref><ref>Sonia Sarah Lipsyc ,http://soniasarahlipsyc.canalblog.com/</ref> Many have spoken out for the right of Jewish women to pray aloud and read from the Torah at the [[Western Wall]] in Jerusalem, the [[Women of the Wall]] group.<ref>[http://womenofthewall.org.il/?lang=he Women of the Wall | נשות הכותל]</ref>

When the roles of women in religion change, there may also be changed roles for men. With their advocacy of patrilineal descent in the 1970s, the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association]] supported the principle that a man who takes responsibility for raising a Jewish child can pass Judaism on to the next generation as well as a woman. All children who receive a Jewish education are considered Jewish in Reconstructionist Judaism regardless of whatever is the sex of their Jewish parent.

=== Jewish Renewal ===
[[Jewish Renewal]] is a recent [[Jewish denominations|movement]] in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]], [[music]]al and [[Meditation|meditative]] practices; it describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism's prophetic and mystical traditions."<ref>[http://www.aleph.org/renewal.htm About Jewish Renewal]</ref> The Jewish Renewal movement ordains women as well as men as rabbis and cantors. [[Lynn Gottlieb]] became the first female rabbi in Jewish Renewal in 1981, and [[Avitall Gerstetter]], who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA030.htm |title=Lynn Gottlieb |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2003-09-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2009 and 2012 respectively, OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) issued a board statement and a resolution supporting [[Women of the Wall]].<ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/2009-board-statement-on-women-of-the-wall/ 2009 Board Statement on Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref><ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/wow-statement-of-support/ 2012 Statement of Support for Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref> The Statement of Principles of OHALAH states in part, "Our local communities will embody egalitarian and inclusive values, manifested in a variety of leadership and decision-making structures, ensuring that women and men are full and equal partners in every aspect of our communal Jewish life."<ref>[http://ohalah.org/about-us/principles/ Aleph Statement of Principles | OhalahOhalah]</ref> In 2014 OHALAH issued a board resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: OHALAH supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women's Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]]; OHALAH condemns all types of sexism; OHALAH is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come; and OHALAH supports equal rights regardless of gender."<ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/resolution-on-gender-equality/ Board Resolution on Gender Equality | OhalahOhalah]</ref> Also in 2014, ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal issued a statement stating, "ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal supports the observance of Women's History Month, International Women's Day, and Women's Equality Day, condemns all types of sexism, is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come, and supports equal rights regardless of gender, in recognition and allegiance to the view that we are all equally created in the Divine Image."<ref>[http://kolaleph.org/2014/02/04/gender-equality-now/ Statement On Gender Equality | Kol ALEPH]</ref>

=== Humanistic Judaism ===
[[Humanistic Judaism]] is a movement in Judaism that offers a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life. It ordains both men and women as rabbis, and its first rabbi was a woman, [[Tamara Kolton]], who was ordained in 1999.<ref name="shj">{{cite web|url=http://www.shj.org/shjbios.htm |title=Society for Humanistic Judaism - Rabbis and Leadership |publisher=Shj.org |accessdate=2012-03-12}}</ref> Its first cantor was also a woman, [[Hazzan Deborah Davis|Deborah Davis]], ordained in 2001; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped ordaining cantors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jmwc.org/Women/womend.html |title=Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music |publisher=JMWC |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> The [[Society for Humanistic Judaism]] issued a statement in 1996 stating in part, "we affirm that a woman has the moral right and should have the continuing legal right to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy in accordance with her own ethical standards. Because a decision to terminate a pregnancy carries serious, irreversible consequences, it is one to be made with great care and with keen awareness of the complex psychological, emotional, and ethical implications." They also issued a statement in 2011 condemning the then-recent passage of the “No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act” by the U.S. House of Representatives, which they called "a direct attack on a women’s right to choose".<ref>[http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html |date=20131228071242 }}</ref> In 2012, they issued a resolution opposing conscience clauses that allow religious-affiliated institutions to be exempt from generally applicable requirements mandating reproductive healthcare services to individuals or employees.<ref>[http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html |date=20131228070406 }}</ref> In 2013 they issued a resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: The Society for Humanistic Judaism wholeheartedly supports the observance of [[Women's Equality Day]] on August 26 to commemorate the anniversary of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allowing women to vote; The Society condemns gender discrimination in all its forms, including restriction of rights, limited access to education, violence, and subjugation; and The Society commits itself to maintain vigilance and speak out in the fight to bring gender equality to our generation and to the generations that follow." <ref>[http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html |date=20131018050824 }}</ref>

=== Women as soferim ===
A Sofer, Sopher, Sofer SeTaM, or Sofer ST"M (Heb: "scribe", סופר סת״ם) is a Jewish scribe who can transcribe Torah scrolls, tefillin and mezuzot, and other religious writings. (ST"M, סת״ם, is an abbreviation for Sefer Torahs, Tefillin, and Mezuzot. The plural of sofer is "soferim", סופרים.) Forming the basis for the discussion of women becoming soferim, [[Talmud|Talmud Gittin]] 45b states: "Sifrei Torah, tefillin and mezuzot written by a heretic, a star-worshipper, a slave, a woman, a minor, a [[Cuthean]], or an [[Apostasy in Judaism|apostate Jew]], are unfit for ritual use."<ref>[http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml ] {{wayback|url=http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml |date=20130615110436 }}</ref> The rulings on [[Mezuzah]] and [[Tefillin]] are virtually undisputed among those who hold to the [[Talmud|Talmudic Law]]. While [[Arba'ah Turim]] does not include women in its list of those ineligible to write Sifrei Torah, some see this as proof that women are permitted to write a Torah scroll.<ref>Tur, [[Wikisource:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/271|Orah Hayyim 271]].</ref> However today, virtually all Orthodox (both Modern and Ultra) authorities contest the idea that a woman is permitted to write a [[Sefer Torah]]. Yet women are permitted to inscribe [[Ketubah|Ketubot]] (marriage contracts), STaM not intended for ritual use, and other writings of [[Sofrut]] beyond simple STaM. In 2003 Canadian [[Aviel Barclay]] became the world's first known traditionally trained female sofer.<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/3614/ A Female Scribe’s Trailblazing Effort – Forward.com]</ref><ref>[http://jwablog.jwa.org/soferet Simchat Torah with a Soferet's Torah | Jewish Women's Archive]</ref> In 2007 [[Jen Taylor Friedman]], a British woman, became the first female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]].<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/11604/ As New Year Dawns, Jewish Women Mark Milestones – Forward.com]</ref> In 2010 the first [[Sefer Torah]] scribed by a group of women (six female sofers, who were from Brazil, Canada, Israel, and the United States) was completed;<ref>[http://jta.org/news/article/2010/10/15/2741313/womens-torah-dedicated-in-seattle Women’s Torah dedicated in Seattle | Jewish Telegraphic Agency]</ref> this was known as the [[Women's Torah Project]].<ref name="jweekly.com">[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/59670/cjms-resident-scribe-takes-part-in-group-torah-project-in-seattle/ Julie Seltzer, a female Torah scribe from San Francisco, contributed to the first Torah scroll to be written by a group of women. | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern Calif...]</ref>

From October 2010 until spring 2011, [[Julie Seltzer]], one of the female sofers from the Women's Torah Project, scribed a [[Sefer Torah]] as part of an exhibition at the [[Contemporary Jewish Museum]] in [[San Francisco]]. This makes her the first American female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]]; Julie Seltzer was born in Philadelphia and is non-denominationally Jewish.<ref name="jweekly.com"/><ref>http://www.thecjm.org/index.php?option=com_ccevents&scope=prgm&task=detail&fid=8&oid=563</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/arts/design/08sfculture.html</ref><ref>[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/61328/cjm-to-celebrate-end-of-groundbreaking-torah-project CJM to celebrate end of groundbreaking Torah project | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California]</ref> From spring 2011 until August 2012 she scribed another [[Sefer Torah]], this time for the Reform congregation Beth Israel in San Diego.<ref name="jpost.com">[http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=286912 Torah, she wrote | JPost | Israel News]</ref><ref>[http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah ] {{wayback|url=http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah |date=20150721211051 }}</ref> Seltzer was taught mostly by [[Jen Taylor Friedman]].<ref name="jpost.com"/> On September 22, 2013, [[Congregation Beth Elohim]] of New York dedicated a new Torah, which members of Beth Elohim said was the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman.<ref>[http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/congregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015 Congregation Beth Elohim in Park Slope dedicates new Torah for 150th anniversary - News 12 Brooklyn]</ref> The Torah was scribed by Linda Coppleson.<ref>[http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ ] {{wayback|url=http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ |date=20141011005036 }}</ref> As of 2014, there are an estimated 50 female sofers in the world.<ref>{{cite web|author=By Jeff KunerthOrlando Sentinel |url=http://www.pressherald.com/2014/08/23/female-jewish-scribe-helps-keep-tradition-alive/ |title=Female Jewish scribe helps keep tradition alive - The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram |publisher=Pressherald.com |date=2014-08-23 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism|Gender studies}}
*[[bat-Kohen]] (daughter of a priest)
*[[Jewish feminism]]
**[[List of Jewish feminists]]
*[[Women as theological figures]]
**[[Rabbi#Women as rabbis|Women as rabbis]]
**[[Rebbetzin]] (rabbi's wife)
**[[List of women in the Bible]]
*[[Beis Yaakov]] (schools for Haredi girls)
*[[Niddah]] (menstruation laws)
*''[[Soferet]]'' (Jewish scribe who can transcribe religious documents)
*[[Gender and Judaism]]
*[[Tzeniut]] (modest behavior)
*[[Negiah]] (guidelines for physical contact)
*[[Yichud]] (prohibitions of secluding oneself with a stranger)
*[[Jewish view of marriage]]
**[[Shidduch]] (finding a marriage partner)
**[[Shalom bayit]] (peace and harmony in the relationship between husband and wife)
*[[Minyan]] (quorum of at least ten Jews acceptable for the recitation of certain prayers)
**[[Partnership minyan]] (a movement to give women more roles in prayer services)
*[[Agunah]] (a woman who wishes to divorce her husband, but, because her husband did not provide her with a divorce contract, is unable to according to Jewish law)
*[[Women in Israel]]
**[[Women of the Wall]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==

'''General'''
* [http://www.rachaelscentre.org/ Rachael's Centre for Torah, Musar & Ethics] An online learning community dedicated to Pluralistic Jewish learning through a female lens
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://www.jofa.org/ Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance] JOFA
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://jcada.org/www Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse]
* [http://www.naamat.com/domesticviolence.htm Na'amat Canada]
* [http://www.awarenow.org/www/docs/100/Internet Adolescents Working for Awesome Relationship Experiences] AWARE

'''Publications'''
* [http://www.lilith.org/ Lilith Magazine] a Jewish feminist journal
* [http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.

'''Particular issues'''
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/12/06/wuhsha-the-broker-jewish-women-in-the-medieval-economy/ "Wuhsha the Broker: Jewish Women in the Medieval Economy," Jewish History Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/09/19/rachel-wife-of-akiva-women-in-ancient-israel/ "Rachel, Wife of Akiva: Women in Ancient Israel," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/02/10/gluckel-of-hameln-jewish-women-n-the-17th-century/ "Gluckel of Hameln: Jewish Women in the 17th Century," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/spots_of_light/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki Spots of Light: Women in the Holocaust] an online exhibition by [[Yad Vashem]]
* [http://alternativestokiddushin.wordpress.com The Kiddushin Variations] A Directory of Halakhic Possibilities For A More Egalitarian Kiddushin Ritual.
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library
* [http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5759winter/sense.htm "Sense and Sensibilities: Women and Torah Study"], Bryna Levy, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 1998, 59 (2).
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf "Qeri’at ha-Torah by Women: A Halakhic Analysis"]|972 KB}}, Shapiro, Mendel. Edah 1:2, 2001
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf "Congregational Dignity and Human Dignity: Women and Public Torah Reading"]|78.1 KB}}, Sperber, Daniel. Edah 3:2, 2002
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427 "Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies"], Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf "Women and the Minyan"]|194 KB}}, Fine, David. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative), 2002
* [http://www.annette-boeckler.de/liturgie/EgalitarianServices.html Egalitarian Jewish Services A Discussion Paper]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5765/5765winter/WOMENADV.PDF "Women Advocates Make Their Mark"]|473 KB}}, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 2004.
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimer2-1.htm "Women and Minyan"], ''[[Tradition (orthodox journal)|Tradition]]'', 1988. Summary of Orthodox arguments regarding women counting in minyan for certain purposes
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm "Women's Prayer Services Theory and Practice"], ''[[Tradition (journal)|Tradition]]'', 1998. Summary of Orthodox arguments for and against women's prayer groups
* Elissa Strauss, ''Women Who Write Torah, A New Generation of Female Scribes Makes History''. http://forward.com/articles/133017/, The Jewish Daily Forward, November 19, 2010.
* (French) Harvey, Claire. Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce, Le Devoir, 24 April 2010.
* ''Mordecai Kaplan'' .2005.http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai, Jewish Women's Archive, 2005
* Luo,Michael, An Orthodox Jewish Woman, and Soon, a Spiritual Leader, http://www.hods.org/pdf/press/An%20Orthodox%20Jewish%20Woman,%20and%20Soon,%20a%20Spiritual%20Leader.htm, New York Times, August 21, 2006.
* ''Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States''. http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states, Jewish Women's archive, 2005
* Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html, Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press
* ''On the Ordination of Women: An Advocate's Halakhic Response'' Mayer E. Rabbinowitz. In Simon Greenberg, ed., ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988.
* ''Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies,'' Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', [[Simon Greenberg]], ed. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988. ISBN 0-87334-041-8
* ''Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender'', [[Charlotte Fonrobert]], Stanford University Press, 2000
* ''The Moon's Lost Light: A Torah Perspective on Women from the Fall of Eve to the Full Redemption'', Devorah Heshelis, Targum Press, 2006. ISBN 1-56871-377-0
* Nadell, Pamela S., "Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination, 1889-1985" in Jewish Women's Life. Editor
* Rabbi Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar,

===Middle Ages===
* Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period''. Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52-60. ISBN 9780691057873
* Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94-114. ISBN 0814320929
* {{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|pages=41–51|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}
* {{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|isbn=0805210490}}
* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Mark R.|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=0691139318}}
* Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1584653922
* {{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|pages=34–45}}
* Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009.105-111.ISBN 9780814732199
* {{cite book|last=Steinberg|first=Theodore L.|title=Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=0275985881}}
* {{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|isbn=0827607520 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}

=== Orthodox Judaism and women ===
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' [[Blu Greenberg]], Jewish Publication Society
* ''Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment,'' [[Saul Berman|Berman, Saul J.]] Response, 40, 1981, 5:17.
* ''Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State,'' Ellenson, David Harry. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law (58-81) 2001.
* ''Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?'' [[Tamar Ross]], ''Judaism'', 42:4, 1993, 478-491.
* ''Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?,'' Reisman, Levi M. The Jewish Observer, 31:5, 1998, 37-47
* ''Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period,'' [[Ross|Ross, Tamar]]
* ''In Case There Tamar Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan,'' Fishbane, Simcha. Judaism, 42:4, 1993, 492-503.
* ''Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law,'' Shenhav, Sharon. Justice, 21, 1999, 28-31.
* ''On Egalitarianism & Halakha,'' Stern, Marc D. Tradition, 36:2, 2002, 1-30.
* ''Women, Jewish Law and Modernity,'' Wolowelsky, Joel B. Ktav. 1997.
* ''Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism'', [[Tamar Ross|Ross, Tamar]]. Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58465-390-6
* ''Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups'', [[Avi Weiss|Weiss, Avi]], Ktav publishers, January 2003 ISBN 0-88125-719-2
*''Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation''. [[Tova Hartman|Hartman, Tova]], Brandeis University Press, 2007. ISBN 1-58465-658-1.

{{Jewish life}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Women In Judaism}}
[[Category:Judaism and women| ]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Gender roles by society]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2015-11-04T03:54:23Z

Jprg1966: /* Reconstructionist Judaism */

{{About|historical and modern views of Jews|the portrayal of women in the Bible|Women in the Bible}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|religion}}
{{Women in society sidebar}}

The [[role]] of '''women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], the [[Oral Torah|Oral Law]] (the corpus of rabbinic literature), by [[Minhag|custom]], and by non-religious cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature mention various female role models, religious law treats women differently in various circumstances.

[[Gender]] has a bearing on familial lines: in traditional Judaism, [[Who is a Jew?|Jewishness]] is passed down through the mother, although the father's name is used to describe sons and daughters in the [[Torah]], e.g., "Dinah, daughter of Jacob".<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|pages= 121, 131}}</ref>

==Biblical times==
{{See also|Old Testament views on women}}
Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are a number of exceptions to this rule, including the [[Matriarchs (Bible)|Matriarchs]] [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca]], [[Rachel]], and [[Leah]], [[Miriam]] the prophetess, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Huldah]] the prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Rahab]] and [[Esther]]. In the Biblical account these women did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was formed between the Israelites and the God of Abraham at Mount Sinai. The Torah relates that both Israelite men and Israelite women were present at Sinai, however, the covenant was worded in such a way that it bound men to act upon its requirements and to ensure that the members of their household (wives, children, and slaves) met these requirements as well. In this sense, the covenant bound women as well, though indirectly.<ref name="HauptmanEtz">[[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman, Judith]]. "Women." ''Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary''. Ed. David L. Lieber. The Jewish Publication Society, 2001. 1356-1359.</ref>

Marriage and family law in biblical times favored men over women. For example, a husband could divorce a wife if he chose to, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. The practice of [[levirate marriage]] applied to widows of childless deceased husbands, not to widowers of childless deceased wives; though if either he or she didn't consent to the marriage, a different ceremony called chalitza is done instead. Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men during biblical times, however, they also suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount.<ref name="HauptmanEtz" /> However, men had specific obligations they were required to perform for their wives. These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual relations to their wives.<ref>[[Joseph Telushkin|Telushkin, Joseph]]. ''Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible''. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997. p. 403.</ref>

Women also had a role in ritual life. Women (as well as men) were required to make a pilgrimage to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] once a year and offer the [[Passover]] [[korban|sacrifice]]. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a ''todah'' ("thanksgiving") offering after childbirth. Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non-levitical men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and generally more discreet scale.

Women depended on men economically. Women generally did not own property except in the rare case of inheriting land from a father who didn't bear sons. Even "in such cases, women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings."<ref name="HauptmanEtz" />

According to [[John Bowker (theologian)]], traditionally, Jewish "men and women pray separately. This goes back to ancient times when women could go only as far as the second court of the Temple."<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 119}}</ref>

==Talmudic times==
Classical Jewish [[rabbinical literature]] contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that:
*Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the (righteous) women than to (righteous) men<ref>''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berakhot]]'' 17a</ref>
*Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine<ref>''[[Nashim|Kiddushin]]'' 49b</ref>
*Women are ''light on raw knowledge'' – i.e., they possess more intuition<ref>''[[Shabbat (Talmud)|Shabbat]]'' 33b</ref>
*A man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good; a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself<ref>''[[Yebamot]]'' 62b</ref>
*When [[Rav Yosef b. Hiyya]] heard his mother's footsteps he would say: ''Let me arise before the approach of the [[Shekhinah|divine presence]]''<ref>''Kiddushin'' 31b</ref>
*Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its (Israel's) righteous women<ref>''[[Sotah]]'' 11b</ref>
*A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong<ref>''[[Baba Metzia]]'' 59a</ref>
*Women have greater faith than men<ref>''[[Sifre]]'', 133</ref>
*Women have greater powers of discernment<ref>''[[Tohorot|Niddah]]'' 45b</ref>
*Women are especially tenderhearted<ref>''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'' 14b</ref>

While few women are mentioned by name in rabbinic literature, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands. Occasionally they have a public persona. Examples are [[Bruriah daughter of Rabbi Hananiah Ben Teradion|Bruriah]], the wife of the [[Tannaim|Tanna]] [[Rabbi Meir]]; Rachel, the wife of [[Akiba ben Joseph|Rabbi Akiva]]; and Yalta, the wife of [[Rav Nachman|Rabbi Nachman]]. [[Elazar ben Arach|Rabbi Elazar]]'s{{Who|date=February 2010}} [[Imma Shalom|wife]] (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]]. When R' Elazar ben Azarya was asked to assume the role of ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]'' ("Prince" or President of the [[Sanhedrin]]), he replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Brachoth 27b</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
Since Jews were seen as second class citizens in the Christian and Muslim world, it was even harder for Jewish women to establish their own status. Avraham Grossman argues in his book ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe'' that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them: "the biblical and talmudic heritage; the situation in the non-Jewish society within which the Jews lived and functioned; and the economic status of the Jews, including the woman's role in supporting the family."<ref>Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. 1.</ref> Grossman uses all three factors to argue that women's status overall during this period actually rose.<ref>Grossman, 3.</ref>

During the Middle Ages, there was a conflict between Judaism's lofty religious expectations of women and the reality of society in which these Jewish women lived; this is similar to the lives of Christian women in the same period.<ref>Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94.</ref> This prompted the [[kabbalistic]] work ''Sefer Hakanah'' to demand that women fulfill the ''[[mitzvot]]'' in a way that would be equal to men.<ref name="Ben-Sasson">Ben-Sasson, H. H. "Spiritual and Social Creativity." ''A History of the Jewish People''. Ed. Ben-Sasson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. 612–627. Print.</ref>

=== Religious life ===
Religious developments during the medieval period included relaxation on prohibitions against teaching women [[Torah]], and the rise of women's prayer groups.<ref>Steinberg, 157–158.</ref> One place that women participated in Jewish practices publicly was the [[synagogue]]. Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.<ref name="Baskin 1991 42">{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=42|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There is evidence that in the 15th century some communities of [[Ashkenaz]], the wife of the rabbi wore ''[[tzitzit]]'' just like her husband.<ref name="Ben-Sasson" />

In most [[synagogues]] they were given their own section, most likely a balcony; some [[synagogues]] had a separate building.<ref name="Grossman,181">Grossman, 181.</ref> Separation from the men was created by the Rabbis in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]. The reasoning behind the [[Halacha]] was that a woman and her body would distract men and give them impure thoughts during prayer.<ref>[[Talmud]], [[Sukkah (Talmud)|Succah]] 51a–52b</ref> Due to this rabbinical interpretation, scholars have seen the women’s role in the synagogue as limited and sometimes even non-existent. However, recent research has shown that women actually had a larger role in the synagogue and the community at large. Women usually attended synagogue, for example, on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] and the holidays.<ref>Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period.'' Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52.</ref> Depending on the location of the women in the [[synagogue]], they may have followed the same service as the men or they conducted their own services. Since the [[synagogues]] were large, there would be a designated woman who would be able to follow the cantor and repeat the prayers aloud for the women.<ref name="Grossman,181" /> Women had always attended services on [[Shabbat]] and holidays, but beginning in the eleventh century, women became more involved in the [[synagogue]] and its rituals. Women sitting separately from the men became a norm in [[synagogues]] around the beginning of the thirteenth century.<ref>Steinberg, 157.</ref> Women, however, did much more than pray in the [[synagogue]]. One of the main jobs for women was to beautify the building. There are [[Torah ark]] curtains and [[Torah]] covers that women sewed and survive today.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|page=128 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}</ref> The [[synagogue]] was a communal place for both men and women where worship, learning and community activities occurred.

The rise and increasing popularity of [[Kabbalah]], which emphasized the [[shechinah]] and female aspects of the divine presence and human-divine relationship, and which saw marriage as a holy covenant between partners rather than a civil contract, had great influence. Kabbalists explained the phenomenon of menstruation as expressions of the demonic or sinful character of the menstruant.<ref>Koren, Sharon Faye. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/nashim/summary/v017/17.koren.html "The Menstruant as 'Other' in Medieval Judaism and Christianity."] Project MUSE. Spring 2009. 29 December 2011.</ref> These changes were accompanied by increased pietistic strictures, including greater requirements for [[Tzeniut|modest dress]], and greater strictures during [[Niddah|the period of menstruation]]. At the same time, there was a rise in philosophical and [[midrashic]] interpretations depicting women in a negative light, emphasizing a duality between matter and spirit in which femininity was associated, negatively, with earth and matter.<ref>Grossman, 277–278.</ref> The gentile society was also seen as a negative influence on the Jewish community. For example, it seems that Jews would analyze the modesty of their non-Jewish neighbors before officially moving into a new community because they knew that their children would be influenced by the local gentiles.<ref>Grossman, 2.</ref>

After the [[Alhambra Decree|expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492]], women became virtually the only source of Jewish ritual and tradition in the Catholic world in a phenomenon known as [[crypto-Judaism]]. Crypto-Jewish women would slaughter their own animals and made sure to keep as many of the [[Kosher|Jewish dietary laws]] and life cycle rituals as possible without raising suspicion. Occasionally, these women were prosecuted by [[Inquisition]] officials for suspicious behavior such as lighting candles to honor the Sabbath or refusing to eat pork when it was offered to them. The [[Inquisition]] targeted crypto-Jewish women at least as much as it targeted crypto-Jewish men because women were accused of perpetuating Jewish tradition while men were merely permitting their wives and daughters to organize the household in this manner.<ref>Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009. 105–111.</ref>

Jewish women were also apart of the social phenomenon of martyrdom of the [[First Crusade]]. Most of the violence from the [[First Crusade]] towards Jews was due to the [[People's Crusade]]. Inspired by the Pope's call, Christians in Roven, Trier, Metz, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Prague, and Bohemia, among others, massacred thousands of Jews. The local governments did not, at first, sanction the mass murder of Jews as part of the fervor of the Crusades. However, popular anxiety overcame many towns and villages and lead towards the local government's support of killing Jews.<ref>Steinberg, 108.</ref> Although many Jews did convert, many rather chose to die. Through the sources, such as chronicles and poems, we see that Jewish women were often martyred with their families.<ref name="Steinberg,160">Steinberg, 160.</ref> In contrast, most Christian women martyrs were members of a convent or religious order when they were martyred (See [http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/women1.htm Women and Hagiography in Medieval Christianity] for more information).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|page=38}}</ref>

=== Domestic life ===
Marriage, Domestic Violence and Divorce are all topics discussed by Jewish sages of the Medieval world. Marriage is an important institution in Judaism (see [[Marriage in Judaism]]). The sages of this period discussed this topic at length.

[[Rabbeinu Gershom]] instituted a rabbinic decree ([[Takkanah]]) prohibiting polygamy among [[Ashkenazic]] Jews.<ref>{{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|page=81}}</ref> The rabbis instituted legal methods to enable women to petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a divorce. [[Maimonides]] ruled that a woman who found her husband "repugnant" could compel a divorce, "because she is not like a captive, to be subjected to intercourse with one who is hateful to her."<ref>[[Mishneh Torah]], Hilkhot Ishut 14:8</ref><ref>Biale, 91.</ref> Divorce for Christian women was technically not an option. By the tenth century, Christianity considered marriage a sacrament and could not be dissolved (see [[Divorce#Medieval Europe|Divorce in Medieval Europe]]).

The rabbis also instituted and tightened prohibitions on domestic violence. [[Peretz ben Elijah|Rabbi Peretz ben Elijah]] ruled, "The cry of the daughters of our people has been heard concerning the sons of Israel who raise their hands to strike their wives. Yet who has given a husband the authority to beat his wife?"<ref>Grossman, 224.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] ruled that "For it is the way of the Gentiles to behave thus, but Heaven forbid that any Jew should do so. And one who beats his wife is to be excommunicated and banned and beaten."<ref>Grossman, 226.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] also ruled that a battered wife could petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a husband to grant a divorce, with a monetary fine owed her on top of the regular [[ketubah]] money.<ref>Grossman, 222.</ref> These rulings occurred in the midst of societies where wife-beating was legally sanctioned and routine.<ref>Grossman, 230.</ref>

=== Education ===
Jewish women had a limited education. They were taught to read, write, run a household. They were also given some education in religious law that was essential to their daily lives, such as keeping [[kosher]].<ref name="Baskin 1991 42" /> Both Christian and Jewish girls were educated in the home. Although Christian girls may have had a male or female tutor, most Jewish girls had a female tutor.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=43|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> Higher learning was uncommon for both Christian and Jewish women. Christian women could enter a convent in order to achieve a higher education (See [[Female education#Medieval period|Female Education in the Medieval Period]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=46|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There are more sources of education for Jewish women living in Muslim controlled lands. Middle Eastern Jewry, on the other hand, had an abundance of female literates. The [[Cairo Geniza]] is filled with correspondences written (sometimes dictated) between family members and spouses. Many of these letters are pious and poetic and express a desire to be in closer or more frequent contact with a loved one that is far enough away to only be reached by written correspondence. There are also records of wills and other personal legal documents as well as written petitions to officials in cases of spouse spousal abuse or other conflicts between family members written or dictated by women.<ref>Melammed, 91–100.</ref>

Many women gained enough education to help their husbands out in business or even hold their own. Just like Christian women who ran their own business, Jewish women were engaged in their own occupations as well as helping their husbands. Jewish women seem to have lent money to Christian women throughout Europe.<ref>Marcus, 38.</ref> Women were also copyists, [[Midwifery#Early historical perspective|midwives]], spinners and weavers.<ref name="Steinberg,160" /><ref>Marcus, 39.</ref>

==Views on the education of women==
From certain contexts of the Mishnah and Talmud it can be derived that women should not study Mishnah. There were female Tannaitic Torah jurists such as Rabbi Meir's wife,<ref>Medrish on Proverbs 31:10</ref> Rabbi Meir's daughter, and the daughter of Haninyah ben Teradyon<ref>Talmud Babylonia Kelim Bava Kamma 4:17 separately in Sifre Deuteronomy 307 in both she is personally left unnamed and referred to as just, 'and we have learned from the daughter of Haninyah ben Terradyon', a sign of the prevailing attitude towards women (as property of their fathers).</ref> Haninyah's daughter is again mentioned as a sage in the non-Talmud 3rd-century text Tractate Semahot verse 12:13.<ref>[http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300010695 also search ISBN 9780300010695 for an English translation.]</ref> Rabbi Meir's wife is credited with teaching him how to understand some verses from Isaiah.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Berachot 10a</ref> In the Mishnah there is also a reference to certain women teaching men the Torah from behind a curtain, so that no man would be offended.

A ''yeshiva'', or school for Talmudic studies, is an "exclusively masculine environment" because of absence of women from these studies.<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 123}}</ref>

===Beruryah===
[[Beruryah]] (her name is a standard Jewish female name meaning 'the clarity of God') is a Tanna mentioned by name in the Talmud, who has a female name, has orally been transmitted as a female, and is referred to in the text using the nekeva (feminine Hebrew and Aramaic) adjectives and adverbs. Originally she was believed to be either Rabbi Meir's wife mentioned above, or Rabbi Chaninyah's daughter mentioned above, however over the past three to four centuries Rabbinic scholars have realized that these generations do not correspond to Beruryah's law decisions, and life, therefore she today is just 'Beruryah' and of heretofore unknown lineage.

Her law decisions were minor but set a crucial ancient precedent for modern Jewish women. She is mentioned at least four times in the Talmudic discourse regarding her law decrees first Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 10a then in Tosefta Pesahim 62b in Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 53b–54a and Babylonian Talmud Avodah Zarah 18b. In one case she paskinned din on "klaustra" a rare Greek word referring to an object, used in the Talmud, unfortunately Rabbi Yehudah Hanassi did not believe women could be credited with paskining din, as it says 'do not speak too much to women' (Tannah Rabbi Jesse the Galilean), and therefore credited the law to Rabbi Joshua who may have been her father.<ref>Mishnah Keylim 11:4</ref>

Beruryah however was actually remembered with great respect in the Talmud where she is lauded to have been reputed as such a genius that she studied “three hundred Halachot from three hundred sages in just one day” (Pesachim 62b). Clearly contradicting the injunction against women studying Torah.

===Rashi's daughters===
[[Rashi]] had no sons and taught the Mishnah and Talmud to his daughters, until they knew it by heart as Jewish tradition teaches;<ref>[http://www.rashisdaughters.com/ Rashi's Daughters]</ref> they then transferred their knowledge of original Mishnah commentary to the Ashkenazi men of the next generation.

===Haim Yosef David Azulai, AKA 'The Hid'aa'===
The [[Chaim Joseph David Azulai|Hida]], wrote (Tuv Ayin, no. 4) woman should not study Mishnah only if they do not want to.'We cannot force a woman to learn, like we do to boys'. However, if she wants to learn then not only may she do so on her own, but men may originally teach her, and she can then teach other women if they so choose. According to the Hida, the prohibition against teaching women does not apply to a motivated woman or girl. Other Mizrahi Rabbis disputed this with him.

His response to detractors was that indeed, in truth, there is a prohibition against teaching Mishnah to any student—male or female—who one knows is not properly prepared and motivated, referred to a talmid she-eino hagun (Shulhan Arukh, Yoreh De'ah 246:7). Babylonian Talmud Berakhos 28a relates that Rabban Gamliel would announce that any student who is not pure enough so that 'his outer self is like his inner self' may not enter the study hall. While this approach, requiring absolute purity, was rejected by other ancient Rabbis, for example 'he who is not for the name of God, will become for the name of God', and a middle approach was adopted by Jews as standard. If one has knowledge that a particular Mishnayot student is definitely bad then he may not be taught. He claimed that 'it seems that for women there is a higher standard and she must be motivated in order to have this permission to learn' in his response to the Mizrahi tradition.

===Yisrael Meir Kagan===
{{Main|Yisrael Meir Kagan}}
One of the most important Ashkenazic rabbanim of the past century, Yisrael Meir Kagan, known popularly as the Chofetz Chaim. favored Torah education for girls to counteract the French "finishing schools" prevalent in his day for the daughters of the bourgeoisie.{{quote|
"It would appear that all [these sexist laws] were intended for earlier generations when everyone dwelt in the place of their familial ancestral home and ancestral tradition was very powerful among all to follow the path of their fathers... under such circumstances we could maintain that a woman not study Mishnayos and, for guidance, rely on her righteous parents, but presently, due to our myriad sins, ancestral tradition has become exceptionally weak and it is common that people do not dwell in proximity to the family home, and especially those women who devote themselves to mastering the vernacular, surely it is a now a great mitzvah to teach them Scripture and the ethical teachings of our sages such as Pirkei Avos, Menoras Ha-Ma'or and the like so that they will internalize our sacred faith because [if we do not do so] they are prone to abandon the path of God and violate all principles of [our] faith."<ref>Likkutei Halachos, Sotah p. 21</ref>}}

===Joseph Solovetchik===
{{Main|Joseph B. Soloveitchik}}
Rabbi Yoseph Solovetchik 'amened' the teachings of The Hafetz Haim. Rabbi Solovetchik taught all religious Ashkenazi Jews with the exception of hardline Hasidim, not should, or if they show motivation, but must teach their female children Gemarah like the boy school children. He among others fully institutionalized the teaching of Mishnah and Talmud to girls, from an autobiography on him by Rabbi Mayor Twersky called "A Glimpse of the Rav" in R. Menachem Genack ed., Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: Man of Halacha, Man of Faith, page 113: {{quote|"The halakha prohibiting Torah study for women is not indiscriminate or all-encompassing. There is complete unanimity that women are obligated to study halakhot pertaining to mitsvot which are incumbent upon them... The prohibition of teaching Torah she-Ba'al Pe to women relates to optional study. If ever circumstances dictate that study of Torah sh-Ba'al Pe is necessary to provide a firm foundation for faith, such study becomes obligatory and obviously lies beyond the pale of any prohibition." Undoubtedly, the Rav's prescription was more far-reaching that that of the Hafets Hayim and others. But the difference in magnitude should not obscure their fundamental agreement [on changing the attitudes Halachically].}}

==Present day==
{{Jewish feminism}}
{{Further|Jewish feminism|Women in Israel|Orthodox Jewish feminism|Women of the Wall}}

===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] is based on gendered understandings of Jewish practice—i.e., that there are different roles for men and women in religious life. There are different opinions among Orthodox Jews concerning these differences. Most claim that men and women have complementary, yet different roles in religious life, resulting in different religious obligations. Others believe that some of these differences are not a reflection of religious law, but rather of cultural, social, and historical causes. In the area of education, women were historically exempted from any study beyond an understanding of the practical aspects of [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household{{spaced ndash}}both of which they have an obligation to learn. Until the twentieth century, women were often discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. In the past 100 years, Orthodox Jewish education for women has advanced tremendously.<ref>Handelman, Susan. [http://www.chabad.org/theJewishWoman/article_cdo/aid/371261/jewish/Feminism-and-Orthodoxy.htm "Feminism and Orthodoxy - What It's All About."] ''Chabad Lubavitch''. 25 December 2011.</ref>

There have been many areas in which Orthodox women have been working towards change within religious life over the past 20 years: promoting advanced women's learning and scholarship, promoting women's ritual inclusion in synagogue, promoting women's communal and religious leadership, and more.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lakein|first1=Dvora|title=How Does She Do It?|url=http://lubavitch.com/news/article/2031309/How-Does-She-Do-It.html|accessdate=17 November 2014|agency=Chabad Lubavitch World HQ / News|date=October 6, 2014|quote=Mrs. Shula Bryski, representative to Thousand Oaks, California, and a mother of six, says that the Rebbe “empowered women in a way perhaps never done before.” Embracing modernity, the Rebbe understood that today, “women need more sophisticated Judaism, more depth, more spirituality.” Bryski’s personal emphasis in this affluent Los Angeles suburb is educating women through a weekly Caffeine for the Soul class, monthly Rosh Chodesh Society meetings, and the wildly-popular bat-mitzvah classes she leads. Bryski also serves on the editorial board of the Rosh Chodesh Society, a project of Jewish Learning Institute (JLI) and is a prolific writer.}}</ref> Women have been advancing change despite often vocal opposition by rabbinic leaders. Some Orthodox rabbis try to discount changes by claiming that women are motivated by sociological reasons and not by "true" religious motivation.<ref>Kress, Michael. [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/orthostate.html "The State of Orthodox Judaism Today."] ''Jewish Virtual Library''. 25 December 2011.</ref> For example, Orthodox, [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]], and [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] rabbis discourage women from wearing a [[yarmulke]], [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed members|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011|accessdate=October 29, 2014|issue=Haaretz|date=January 29, 2014}}</ref>

In most Orthodox synagogues, women still do not give a ''d'var Torah'' (brief discourse, generally on the weekly Torah portion) after or between services. Furthermore, a few Modern Orthodox synagogues have mechitzot dividing the left and right sides of the synagogue (rather than the usual division between the front and back of the synagogue, with women sitting in the back), with the women's section on one side and the men's section on the other.<ref>[http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf ] {{wayback|url=http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf |date=20150402103147 }}</ref>

====Rules of modesty====
{{Main|Tzniut}}
The importance of modesty in dress and conduct is particularly stressed among girls and women in Orthodox society. Many Orthodox women only wear skirts and avoid wearing trousers, and some married Orthodox women cover their hair with a wig, hat, or scarf. Judaism prescribes modesty for both men and women.{{citation needed |date=November 2013}}

====Rules of family purity====
{{Main|Niddah}}
In accordance with Jewish Law, Orthodox Jewish women refrain from contact with their husbands while they are [[niddah|menstruating]], and for a period of 7 clean days after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. The Israeli Rabbinate has recently approved women acting as ''yoatzot'', [[halakhic]] advisers on sensitive personal matters such as [[family purity]].

====Modern Orthodox Judaism====
Rabbi [[Joseph B. Soloveitchik]], a leader of profound influence in modern Orthodoxy in the United States, discouraged women from serving as presidents of synagogues or any other official positions of leadership,<ref name="Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis Of Womens Prayer Groups">[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQHwIAxpZRAC&pg=PA107], additional text.</ref> from performing other [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]] (commandments) traditionally performed by males exclusively, such as wearing a [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]]. Soloveitchik wrote that while women do not lack the capability to perform such acts, there is no [[Tradition|''mesorah'']] (Jewish tradition) that permits it. In making his decision, he relied upon Jewish oral law, including a [[mishnah]] in Chulin 2a and a Beit Yoseph in the Tur Yoreh Deah stating that a woman can perform a specific official communal service for her own needs but not those of others.<ref>Aharon Ziegler, ''Halakhic Positions of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik'', Volume II, p. 81.</ref>

Women's issues garnered more interest with the advent of [[feminism]]. Many Modern Orthodox Jewish women and Modern Orthodox rabbis sought to provide greater and more advanced Jewish education for women. Since most Modern Orthodox women attend college, and many receive advanced degrees in a variety of fields, Modern Orthodox communities generally promote women's secular education. A few Modern Orthodox Synagogues have women serving as clergy, including [[Gilah Kletenik]] at [[Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun]]. In 2013, [[Yeshivat Maharat]], located in the United States, became the first Orthodox institution to consecrate female clergy. The graduates of Yeshivat Maharat do not call themselves "rabbis." The title they are given is "maharat."<ref>"Jewish Daily Forward Podcast." ''[http://forward.com/articles/179052/female-orthodox-leaders-new-and-old/ Female Orthodox Leaders: New and Old]''. 21 June 2013. ''The Jewish Daily Forward''. Web. 23 June 2013.</ref> Also in 2013, [[Malka Schaps]] became the first female [[Haredi]] dean at an Israeli university when she was appointed dean of Bar Ilan University's Faculty of Exact Sciences.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.550156 Malka Schaps becomes first female Haredi dean at Israeli university - National Israel News | Haaretz]</ref> Also in 2013, the first class of female [[halacha|halachic]] advisers trained to practice in the US graduated; they graduated from the North American branch of [[Nishmat]]’s yoetzet halacha program in a ceremony at Congregation Sheartith Israel, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in Manhattan and [[SAR High School]] in Riverdale, New York began allowing girls to wrap tefillin during Shacharit-morning prayer; it is probably the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so.<ref>[http://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/nyc-orthodox-high-school-lets-girls-put-on-tefillin/2014/01/20/ The Jewish Press » » NYC Orthodox High School Lets Girls Put On Tefillin]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/landmark-us-program-graduates-first-female-halachic-advisers/ Landmark US program graduates first female halachic advisers | The Times of Israel]</ref>

In 2014, the first ever book of [[halacha|halachic]] decisions written by women who were ordained to serve as poskot (Idit Bartov and Anat Novoselsky) was published.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://jpupdates.com/2014/06/26/first-halacha-sefer-women-makes-waves-israel-orthodox-world/ First Halacha Sefer By Women Makes Waves in Israeli Orthodox World - JP Updates | JP Updates]</ref> The women were ordained by the municipal chief rabbi of Efrat, Rabbi [[Shlomo Riskin]], after completing [[Midreshet Lindenbaum]] women’s college’s five-year ordination course in advanced studies in Jewish law, as well as passing examinations equivalent to the rabbinate’s requirement for men.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

In 2015, Jennie Rosenfeld became the first female Orthodox spiritual advisor in Israel (specifically, she became the spiritual advisor, also called manhiga ruchanit, for the community of [[Efrat]].)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2015/1/26/with-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel#.VMZhzS7lw4I=|title=With female spiritual advisor, Efrat spotlights women’s empowerment in Israel|work=JNS.org}}</ref>

====Women's prayer groups====
Separate Jewish women's prayer groups were a sanctioned custom among German Jews in the [[Middle Ages]]. The ''Kol Bo'' provides, in the laws for [[Tisha B'Av]]:

:And they recite dirges there for about a quarter of the night, the men in their synagogue and the women in their synagogue. And likewise during the day the men recite dirges by themselves and the women by themselves, until about a third of the day has passed.

In Germany, in the 12th and 13th centuries, women's prayer groups were led by female cantors. Rabbi Eliezar of Worms, in his elegy for his wife Dulca, praised her for teaching the other women how to pray and embellishing the prayer with music. The gravestone of Urania of Worms, who died in 1275, contains the inscription "who sang ''piyyutim'' for the women with musical voice." In the Nurnberg Memorial Book, one Richenza was inscribed with the title "prayer leader of the women."<ref>Grossman, ''Pious and Rebellious'', pp. 180-182.</ref>

Orthodox women more recently began holding organized women's ''tefila'' (prayer) groups beginning in the 1970s. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a ''[[minyan]]'' (prayer quorum) for the purpose of [[Jewish services|regular services]], women in these groups read the prayers and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of Orthodox Judaism have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:

* The most restrictive view, held by some Modern Orthodox authorities, and most Haredi Rabbis, rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law).{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}
* A more liberal, permissive view maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatible with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e., do not include certain parts of the service known as ''devarim she-bi-kdusha''), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against ''halakha''. People in this group include Rabbi Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Rabbi [[Avi Weiss]].<ref>Israel's late [[Ashkenazi]]c [[Chief Rabbi]] [[Shlomo Goren]] ''may'' have ruled in 1974 that while women do not constitute a ''minyan'', they may still carry out full prayer services. Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, stating that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual ''halakha'' was in accord with the second school of thought, listed above.[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm]</ref>
* A third view maintains argues in favor of the acceptability of calling women to the Torah in mixed services, and leading certain parts of the service which do not require a [[minyan]], under certain conditions.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf]|972 KB}}</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf]|78.1 KB}}</ref>

In 2013 the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a [[halacha|halachic]] ruling which allows women, for the first time, to say the [[Kaddish]] prayer in memory of their deceased parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4396702,00.html |title=Halachic ruling: Women may say Kaddish - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

====Women as witnesses====
Traditionally, women are not generally permitted to serve as witnesses in an Orthodox [[Beit Din]] ([[Beit Din|rabbinical court]]), although they have recently been permitted to serve as ''toanot'' (advocates) in those courts. This limitation has exceptions which have required exploration under rabbinic law as the role of women in society and the obligations of religious groups under external civil law have been subject to increasing recent scrutiny.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The recent case of Rabbi [[Mordecai Tendler]], the first rabbi to be expelled from the [[Rabbinical Council of America]] following allegations of sexual harassment, illustrated the importance of clarification of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[halakha]] in this area. Rabbi Tendler claimed that the tradition of exclusion of women's testimony should compel the RCA to disregard the allegations. He argued that since the testimony of a woman could not be admitted in [[Beit Din|Rabbinical court]], there were no valid witnesses against him, and hence the case for his expulsion had to be thrown out for lack of evidence. In a ruling of importance for Orthodox women's capacity for legal self-protection under [[Halakha|Jewish law]], [[Haredi]] Rabbi [[Benzion Wosner]], writing on behalf of the ''Shevet Levi'' [[Beit Din]] (Rabbinical court) of [[Monsey, New York]], identified sexual harassment cases as coming under a class of exceptions to the traditional exclusion, under which "even children or women" have not only a right but an obligation to testify, and can be relied upon by a rabbinical court as valid witnesses:

:The [[Meir Abulafia|Ramah]] in Choshen Mishpat (Siman 35, 14) rules that in a case where only women congregate or in a case where only women could possibly testify, (in this case the alleged harassment occurred behind closed doors) they can and should certainly testify. (Terumas Hadeshen Siman 353 and Agudah Perek 10, Yochasin)

:This is also the ruling of the [[Joseph Colon Trabotto|Maharik]], [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra|Radvaz]], and the [[Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz|Mahar"i of Minz]]. Even those "[[Posek|Poskim]]" that would normally not rely on women witnesses, they would certainly agree that in our case ... where there is ample evidence that this Rabbi violated [[Torah]] precepts, then even children or women can certainly be kosher as witnesses, as the [[Chatam Sofer|Chasam Sofer]] pointed out in his ''sefer'' (monograph) (Orach Chaim T'shuvah 11)<ref>English summary at [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/Tendler_Mordecai.html The Awareness Center: Case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler.] Original ''teshuvah'' ([[Responsum]]) (in Hebrew) at {{PDF|[http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/HaravWosner'sT'shuvah.pdf The Awareness Center: Harav Wosner's Teshuvah]|130 KB}} (Note: parenthetical translations are added, parenthetical references are original)</ref>

The [[Rabbinical Council of America]], while initially relying on its own investigation, chose to rely on the Halakhic ruling of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbinical body as authoritative in the situation.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

====Orthodox approaches to change====
Leaders of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] community have been steadfast in their opposition to a change in the role of women, arguing that the religious and social constraints on women, as dictated by traditional Jewish texts, are timeless and are not affected by contemporary social change. Many also argue that giving traditionally male roles to women will only detract from both women's and men's ability to lead truly fulfilling lives. Haredim have also sometimes perceived arguments for liberalization as in reality stemming from antagonism to Jewish law and beliefs generally, arguing that preserving faith requires resisting secular and "un-Jewish" ideas.

Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly in its more liberal variants, has tended to look at proposed changes in the role of women on a specific, case-by-case basis, focusing on arguments regarding the religious and legal role of specific prayers, rituals and activities individually. Such arguments have tended to focus on cases where the Talmud and other traditional sources express multiple or more liberal viewpoints, particularly where the role of women in the past was arguably broader than in more recent times. Feminist advocates within Orthodoxy have tended to stay within the traditional legal process of argumentation, seeking a gradualist approach, and avoiding wholesale arguments against the religious tradition as such.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Nevertheless, a growing [[Orthodox Jewish feminism|Orthodox feminist]] movement seeks to address gender inequalities.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed women|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011#|accessdate=30 June 2014|work=Haaretz|date=Jan 28, 2014}}</ref></blockquote>

===Agunot===

[[Agunot]] (lit. "chained women") are women who wish to divorce their husbands, but whose husbands refuse to give them a writ of divorce (a "get"). In Orthodox Judaism, only a man is able to serve a "get."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Farkash|first1=Tali|title=e women extorted by ex-husbands|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4400770,00.html|accessdate=2014-10-29|publisher=Ynet News|date=2013-07-07}}</ref>

===Conservative Judaism===
Although the position of [[Conservative Judaism]] toward women originally differed little from the Orthodox position, it has in recent years minimized legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of decisions and [[responsa]] on this topic. These provide for women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being counted as part of a ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'' - an arbiter in matters of religious law)
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:
*[[Matrilineality in Judaism|Matrilineal descent]]. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.
*Pidyon Ha-Bat, a proposed ceremony based on the biblical redemption of the eldest newborn son ([[Pidyon HaBen|Pidyon Ha-Ben]]). The CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

A Conservative Jewish ''[[ketuba]]'' includes a clause that puts a husband and wife on more equal footing when it comes to marriage and divorce law within ''halacha''.<ref name="Raphael">Raphael, Marc Lee. ''Profiles in American Judaism: The Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Traditions in Historical Perspective''. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1984. p. 110</ref>

The CJLS recently reaffirmed the obligation of Conservative women to observe ''[[niddah]]'' (sexual abstinence during and after menstruation) and ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual immersion) following menstruation, although somewhat liberalizing certain details. Such practices, while requirements of Conservative Judaism, are not widely observed among Conservative laity.

====Changes in the Conservative position====
Prior to 1973, Conservative Judaism had more limited roles for women and was more similar to current Modern Orthodoxy, with changes on issues including mixed seating, synagogue corporate leadership, and permitting women to be called to the Torah. In 1973, the CJLS of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] voted, without issuing an opinion, that women could count in a [[minyan]]. There was a special commission appointed by the Conservative movement to study the issue of ordaining women as rabbis, which met between 1977 and 1978, and consisted of eleven men and three women; the women were Marian Siner Gordon, an attorney, Rivkah Harris, an [[Assyriologist]], and [[Francine Klagsbrun]], a writer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/klagsbrun-francine |title=Francine Klagsbrun | Jewish Women's Archive |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2015-09-07}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] (JTSA) faculty voted, also without accompanying opinion, to ordain women as rabbis and as cantors.<ref name="Raphael" /> [[Paula Hyman]], among others, took part in the vote as a member of the JTS faculty.

In 2002, the CJLS adapted a [[responsum]] by Rabbi David Fine, [https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf ''Women and the Minyan''], which provides an official religious-law foundation for women counting in a minyan and explains the current Conservative approach to the role of women in prayer.<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org">{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}}</ref> This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

In 2006, the CJLS adopted three [[responsum|responsa]] on the subject of [[niddah]], which reaffirmed an obligation of Conservative women to abstain from sexual relations during and following [[menstruation]] and to immerse in a [[mikvah]] prior to resumption, while liberalizing observance requirements including shortening the length of the [[niddah]] period, lifting restrictions on non-sexual contact during niddah, and reducing the circumstances under which spotting and similar conditions would mandate abstinence.<ref name="RabbiIntro">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Mikveh_Introduction.doc Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiGrossman">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Grossman-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Susan Grossman, MIKVEH AND THE SANCTITY OF BEING CREATED HUMAN, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiReisner">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Reisner-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Avram Reisner, OBSERVING NIDDAH IN OUR DAY: AN INQUIRY ON THE STATUS OF PURITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY WITH A MENSTRUANT, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiBerkowitz">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Berkowitz-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, RESHAPING THE LAWS OF FAMILY PURITY FOR THE MODERN WORLD, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref>

In all cases continuing the Orthodox approach was also upheld as an option. Individual Conservative rabbis and synagogues are not required to adopt any of these changes, and a small number have adopted none of them.

====Conservative approaches to change====
Prior to 1973, Conservative approaches to change were generally on an individual, case-by-case basis. Between 1973 and 2002, the Conservative movement adapted changes through its official organizations, but without issuing explanatory opinions. Since 2002, the Conservative movement has coalesced around a single across-the board approach to the role of women in Jewish law.<ref>This section summarizes the CLJS's 2002 Fine "Women and the Minyan" {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}} Responsum's review and critique of prior CJLS efforts to adopt an authoritative responsum.</ref>

In 1973, 1983, and 1993, individual rabbis and professors issued six major opinions which influenced change in the Conservative approach, the first and second Sigal, Blumenthal, Rabinowitz, and [[Joel Roth|Roth]] responsa, and the [[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman]] article. These opinions sought to provide for a wholesale shift in women's public roles through a single, comprehensive legal justification. Most such opinions based their positions on an argument that Jewish women always were, or have become, legally obligated to perform the same ''mitzvot'' as men and to do so in the same manner.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The first Sigal and the Blumenthal responsa were considered by the CJLS as part of its decision on prayer roles in 1973. They argued that women have always had the same obligations as men.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} The first Sigal responsum used the Talmud's general prayer obligation and examples of cases in which women were traditionally obligated to say specific prayers and inferred from them a public prayer obligation identical to that of men. The Blumenthal responsum extrapolated from a minority authority that a ''minyan'' could be formed with nine men and one woman in an emergency. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) declined to adopt either responsum. Rabbi Siegel reported to the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] membership that many on the CJLS, while agreeing with the result, found the arguments unconvincing.

The Rabinowitz, [[Joel Roth|Roth]], and second Sigal responsa were considered by the JTSA faculty as part of its decision to ordain women as rabbis in 1983. The Rabbinowitz responsum sidestepped the issue of obligation, arguing that there is no longer a religious need for a community representative in prayer and hence there is no need to decide whether a woman can ''halakhically'' serve as one. The CJLS felt that an argument potentially undermining the value of community and clergy was unconvincing: "We should not be afraid to recognize that the function of clergy is to help our people connect with the holy." The Roth and second Sigal responsa accepted that time-bound ''mitzvot'' were traditionally optional for women, but argued that women in modern times could change their traditional roles. The Roth responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|1=[http://www.jtsa.edu/rabbinical/women/roth.pdf#search='women%20roth%20responsum']|2=161 KB}}</ref> argued that women could individually voluntarily assume the same obligations as men, and that women who do so (e.g., pray three times a day regularly) could count in a ''minyan'' and serve as agents. The JTSA accordingly required female rabbinical students wishing to train as rabbis to personally obligate themselves, but synagogue rabbis, unwilling to inquire into individual religiosity, found it impractical. The second Sigal responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/sigal_women.pdf]|3.17 MB}}</ref> called for a ''takkanah'', or rabbinical edict, "that would serve as a ''halakhic'' ERA," overruling all non-egalitarian provisions in law or, in the alternative, a new approach to ''halakhic'' interpretation independent of legal precedents. The CJLS, unwilling to use either an intrusive approach or a repudiation of the traditional legal process as bases for action, did not adopt either and let the JTS faculty vote stand unexplained.

In 1993, Professor [[Judith Hauptman]] of JTS issued an influential paper<ref>http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427</ref> arguing that women had historically always been obligated in prayer, using more detailed arguments than the Blumenthal and first Sigal responsa. The paper suggested that women who followed traditional practices were failing to meet their obligations. Rabbi Roth argued that Conservative Judaism should think twice before adopting a viewpoint labeling its most traditional and often most committed members as sinners. The issue was again dropped.

In 2002, the CJLS returned to the issue of justifying its actions regarding women's status, and adopted a single authoritative approach, the Fine responsum,<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org" /> as the definitive Conservative [[halakha]] on role-of-women issues. This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The Responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this Responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

===Reform Judaism===
[[Reform Judaism]] believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that [[halakha]] (Jewish law) is the sole legitimate form of Jewish decision making, and holds that Jews can and must consider their conscience and ethical principles inherent in the Jewish tradition when deciding upon a right course of action. There is widespread consensus among Reform Jews that traditional distinctions between the role of men and women are antithetical to the deeper ethical principles of Judaism. This has enabled Reform communities to allow women to perform many rituals traditionally reserved for men, such as:
*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

Concerns about intermarriage have also influenced the Reform Jewish position on gender. In 1983, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] passed a resolution waiving the need for formal conversion for anyone with at least one Jewish parent who has made affirmative acts of Jewish identity. This departed from the traditional position requiring formal [[conversion to Judaism]] for children without a [[matrilineal descent|Jewish mother]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/patrilineal1.html Reform Movement's Resolution on Patrilineal Descent]</ref> The 1983 resolution of the American Reform movement has had a mixed reception in Reform Jewish communities outside of the United States. Most notably, the [[Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism]] has rejected patrilineal descent and requires formal conversion for anyone without a Jewish mother.<ref>[http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=840313&ct=1051515 Reform Judaism in Israel: Progress and Prospects]</ref> As well, a joint Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative and Reform Bet Din formed in Denver, Colorado to promote uniform standards for conversion to Judaism was dissolved in 1983, due to that Reform resolution.<ref name="Wertheimer, A People Divided">{{cite book|last=Wertheimer|first=Jack|title=A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America|publisher=University Press of New England|year=1997}}</ref> However, in 2015 the majority of Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis voted in favor of a position paper proposing "that individuals who live a Jewish life, and who are patrilineally Jewish, can be welcomed into the Jewish community and confirmed as Jewish through an individual process."<ref name="jpost1">{{cite web|last=Lewis |first=Jerry |url=http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/UK-Reform-rabbis-accept-patrilineal-descent-409298 |title=UK Reform rabbis accept patrilineal descent |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=July 17, 2015 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref> Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis stated that rabbis "would be able to take local decisions – ratified by the [[Beit Din]] – confirming Jewish status."<ref name="jpost1"/>

Liberal prayerbooks tend increasingly to avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language. For example, the [[Liberal Judaism (UK)|UK Liberal movement]]'s ''Siddur Lev Chadash'' (1995) does so, as does the [[Reform Judaism (UK)|UK Reform Movement]]'s ''Forms of Prayer'' (2008).<ref>[http://thejc.com/articles/the-slimline-siddur-a-touch-bob-dylan The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan] ''The Jewish Chronicle'']</ref><ref>[http://www.bwpjc.org/slc.htm Siddur Lev Chadash]</ref> In [[Mishkan T'filah]], the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as "He" have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.) <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/03/us/03prayerbook.html?_r=1 |work=The New York Times |first=Laurie |last=Goodstein |title=In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change |date=3 September 2007}}</ref> In 2015 the Reform Jewish [[High Holy Days]] prayer book [[Mishkan HaNefesh]] was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.<ref name="jweekly1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/74278/gates-of-repentance-replacement-advances-reform-trends/ |title='Gates of Repentance' replacement advances Reform trends |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=2015-03-26 |accessdate=2015-04-14}}</ref> It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer [[Avinu Malkeinu]] that refers to God as both "Loving Father" and "Compassionate Mother."<ref name="jweekly1" /> Other notable changes are replacing a line from the Reform movement's earlier prayerbook, "Gates of Repentance," that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line "rejoicing with couples under the chuppah [wedding canopy]", and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering "mibeit," Hebrew for "from the house of," in addition to the traditional "son of" or "daughter of."<ref name="jweekly1" />

====Reform approaches to change====
Reform Judaism generally holds that the various differences between the roles of men and women in traditional Jewish law are not relevant to modern conditions and not applicable today. Accordingly, there has been no need to develop legal arguments analogous to those made within the Orthodox and Conservative movements.

=== Reconstructionist Judaism ===
The equality of women and men is a central tenet and hallmark of [[Reconstructionist Judaism]]. From the beginning, Reconstructionist Jewish ritual allowed men and women to pray together—a decision based on egalitarian philosophy. It was on this basis that Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]] called for the full equality of women and men, despite the obvious difficulties reconciling this stance with norms of traditional Jewish practice.<ref>Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.</ref> The Reconstructionist Movement ordained women rabbis from the start.<ref>Nadell, Pamela. ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination 1889–1985''. editor Jewish Women's Life, Beacon Press, 1998. pages 187–188</ref> In 1968, women were accepted into the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, under the leadership of [[Ira Eisenstein]].<ref>Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16542.html Jewish Virtual Library. 2001.</ref> The first ordained female Reconstructionist rabbi, [[Sandy Eisenberg Sasso]], served as rabbi of the Manhattan Reconstructionist Congregation in 1976 and gained a pulpit in 1977 at Beth El Zedeck congregation in Indianapolis. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso was accepted without debate or subsequent controversy.<ref>Sandy Sasso ordained as first female Reconstructionist rabbi,This Week in History. Jewish Women's Archive. http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/19/1974/sandy-sasso</ref> In 2005, 24 out of the movement's 106 synagogues in the US had women as senior or assistant rabbis.<ref>in Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States, Jewish Women's Archive, http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states</ref> In 2013 Rabbi [[Deborah Waxman]] was elected as the President of the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical College]].<ref name="thejewishweek.com">[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/national-news/reconstructionists-pick-first-woman-lesbian-denominational-leader Reconstructionists Pick First Woman, Lesbian As Denominational Leader] ''The Jewish Week'']</ref><ref>[http://forward.com/articles/185252/trailblazing-reconstructionist-deborah-waxman-reli/?p=all Trailblazing Reconstructionist Deborah Waxman Relishes Challenges of Judaism] – ''Jewish Daily Forward''</ref> As the President, she is believed to be the first woman and first lesbian to lead a Jewish congregational union, and the first female rabbi and first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is both a congregational union and a seminary.<ref name="thejewishweek.com" /><ref>http://www.rrc.edu/sites/default/files/ORPHAN_PDFs/RRC_WaxmanPresidentElect-ForPress3.pdf?hero=1615</ref>

The Reconstructionist Community began including women in the [[minyan]] and allowing them to come up to the [[Torah]] for [[Aliyah (Torah)|aliyot]]. They also continued the practice of [[bat mitzvah]].<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, ''Putting God on the Guest List: How to Reclaim the Spiritual Meaning of Your Child's Bar or Bat Mitzvah'', Jewish Lights Publishing (Woodstock, Vermont), 1992.</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allowed women to perform other traditional male tasks, such as serving as witnesses, leading services,<ref>Cantor Heather is a first for Reconstructionist shul, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20569&Itemid=86 , Canadian Jewish News, 06 January 2011</ref> public Torah reading, and wearing ritual prayer garments like [[kippot]] and [[tallitot]].<ref>One example in this video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oplgjEjts0, Darchei Noam Congregation, Toronto, Canada.</ref> Female Reconstructionist rabbis have been instrumental in the creation of rituals, stories, and music that have begun to give women's experience a voice in Judaism. Most of the focus has been on rituals for life-cycle events.<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, ''The Voices of Children'', Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar, Reconstructionist Press, 2005</ref> New ceremonies have been created for births,<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, ''Call Them Builders: A Resource Booklet about Jewish Attitudes and Practices on Birth and Family Life'', Reconstructionist Federation of Congregations and Havurot (New York)</ref> weddings, divorces, conversions,<ref>Shefa, Sheri (August 2006). "Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb". Canadian Jewish News. http://joi.org/bloglinks/CJN Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb 8-24-06.pdf</ref> weaning, and the onset of menarche and menopause. The Reconstructionist movement as a whole has been committed to creating liturgy that is in consonance with gender equality and the celebration of women's lives.<ref>This is reflected in the prayer books that have been published by the Reconstructionist movement</ref><ref>Female scribe to pen Reconstructionist shul’s new Torah, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=16953&Itemid=86, Canadian Jewish News, May 21, 2009.</ref><ref>Montreal congregation hires first female scribe to pen Torah in Canada, http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200906031702/Montreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html ''Jewish Tribune'', 3 June 2009.</ref> Another major step: The Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations has also developed educational programs that teach the full acceptance of lesbians,<ref>See Rabbi [[Rebecca Alpert]] and Rabbi [[Toba Spitzer]]</ref> as well as rituals that affirm lesbian relationships.<ref>Anne Lapidus Lerner in Jewish Women's Archive http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lerner-anne-lapidus</ref><ref>Radin, Charles A. First openly gay rabbi elected leader,http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/03/first_openly_ga.html , Boston Globe, March 13, 2007.</ref> Reconstructionist rabbis officiate at same-sex weddings.<ref>for Montreal https://www.dorshei-emet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92&Itemid=100</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allows openly [[LGBT]] men and women to be ordained as rabbis and cantors.

Several prominent members of the Reconstructionist community have focused on issues like domestic violence.<ref>Gordon, Sheldon (21 April 2006) "Billboards Focus on Jewish Domestic Violence", in ''Jewish Daily Forward'' http://www.forward.com/articles/1263/</ref><ref>Na'amat Canada, http://www.naamat.com/legalaid.htm</ref><ref>Springtide Resources, Wife Abuse in the Jewish Community, http://www.womanabuseprevention.com/html/jewish_community.html</ref><ref>Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse, http://jcada.org/www/docs/4/</ref> Others have devoted energy to helping women gain the right of divorce in traditional Jewish communities.<ref>(French) Femmes et judaïsme – Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce , Journal Le Devoir, 24 April 2010</ref><ref>Sonia Sarah Lipsyc ,http://soniasarahlipsyc.canalblog.com/</ref> Many have spoken out for the right of Jewish women to pray aloud and read from the Torah at the [[Western Wall]] in Jerusalem, the [[Women of the Wall]] group.<ref>[http://womenofthewall.org.il/?lang=he Women of the Wall | נשות הכותל]</ref>

When the roles of women in religion change, there may also be changed roles for men. With their advocacy of patrilineal descent in the 1970s, the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association]] supported the principle that a man who takes responsibility for raising a Jewish child can pass Judaism on to the next generation as well as a woman. All children who receive a Jewish education are considered Jewish in Reconstructionist Judaism regardless of whatever is the sex of their Jewish parent.

=== Jewish Renewal===
[[Jewish Renewal]] is a recent [[Jewish denominations|movement]] in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]], [[music]]al and [[Meditation|meditative]] practices; it describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism’s prophetic and mystical traditions." <ref>[http://www.aleph.org/renewal.htm About Jewish Renewal]</ref> The Jewish Renewal movement ordains women as well as men as rabbis and cantors. [[Lynn Gottlieb]] became the first female rabbi in Jewish Renewal in 1981, and [[Avitall Gerstetter]], who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA030.htm |title=Lynn Gottlieb |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2003-09-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2009 and 2012 respectively, OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) issued a board statement and a resolution supporting [[Women of the Wall]].<ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/2009-board-statement-on-women-of-the-wall/ 2009 Board Statement on Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref><ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/wow-statement-of-support/ 2012 Statement of Support for Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref> The Statement of Principles of OHALAH states in part, "Our local communities will embody egalitarian and inclusive values, manifested in a variety of leadership and decision-making structures, ensuring that women and men are full and equal partners in every aspect of our communal Jewish life." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/about-us/principles/ Aleph Statement of Principles | OhalahOhalah]</ref> In 2014 OHALAH issued a board resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: OHALAH supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]]; OHALAH condemns all types of sexism; OHALAH is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come; and OHALAH supports equal rights regardless of gender." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/resolution-on-gender-equality/ Board Resolution on Gender Equality | OhalahOhalah]</ref> Also in 2014, ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal issued a statement stating, "ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]], condemns all types of sexism, is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come, and supports equal rights regardless of gender, in recognition and allegiance to the view that we are all equally created in the Divine Image." <ref>[http://kolaleph.org/2014/02/04/gender-equality-now/ Statement On Gender Equality | Kol ALEPH]</ref>

=== Humanistic Judaism ===
[[Humanistic Judaism]] is a movement in Judaism that offers a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life. It ordains both men and women as rabbis, and its first rabbi was a woman, [[Tamara Kolton]], who was ordained in 1999.<ref name="shj">{{cite web|url=http://www.shj.org/shjbios.htm |title=Society for Humanistic Judaism - Rabbis and Leadership |publisher=Shj.org |accessdate=2012-03-12}}</ref> Its first cantor was also a woman, [[Hazzan Deborah Davis|Deborah Davis]], ordained in 2001; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped ordaining cantors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jmwc.org/Women/womend.html |title=Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music |publisher=JMWC |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> The [[Society for Humanistic Judaism]] issued a statement in 1996 stating in part, "we affirm that a woman has the moral right and should have the continuing legal right to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy in accordance with her own ethical standards. Because a decision to terminate a pregnancy carries serious, irreversible consequences, it is one to be made with great care and with keen awareness of the complex psychological, emotional, and ethical implications." They also issued a statement in 2011 condemning the then-recent passage of the “No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act” by the U.S. House of Representatives, which they called "a direct attack on a women’s right to choose".<ref>[http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html |date=20131228071242 }}</ref> In 2012, they issued a resolution opposing conscience clauses that allow religious-affiliated institutions to be exempt from generally applicable requirements mandating reproductive healthcare services to individuals or employees.<ref>[http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html |date=20131228070406 }}</ref> In 2013 they issued a resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: The Society for Humanistic Judaism wholeheartedly supports the observance of [[Women's Equality Day]] on August 26 to commemorate the anniversary of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allowing women to vote; The Society condemns gender discrimination in all its forms, including restriction of rights, limited access to education, violence, and subjugation; and The Society commits itself to maintain vigilance and speak out in the fight to bring gender equality to our generation and to the generations that follow." <ref>[http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html |date=20131018050824 }}</ref>

=== Women as soferim ===
A Sofer, Sopher, Sofer SeTaM, or Sofer ST"M (Heb: "scribe", סופר סת״ם) is a Jewish scribe who can transcribe Torah scrolls, tefillin and mezuzot, and other religious writings. (ST"M, סת״ם, is an abbreviation for Sefer Torahs, Tefillin, and Mezuzot. The plural of sofer is "soferim", סופרים.) Forming the basis for the discussion of women becoming soferim, [[Talmud|Talmud Gittin]] 45b states: "Sifrei Torah, tefillin and mezuzot written by a heretic, a star-worshipper, a slave, a woman, a minor, a [[Cuthean]], or an [[Apostasy in Judaism|apostate Jew]], are unfit for ritual use."<ref>[http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml ] {{wayback|url=http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml |date=20130615110436 }}</ref> The rulings on [[Mezuzah]] and [[Tefillin]] are virtually undisputed among those who hold to the [[Talmud|Talmudic Law]]. While [[Arba'ah Turim]] does not include women in its list of those ineligible to write Sifrei Torah, some see this as proof that women are permitted to write a Torah scroll.<ref>Tur, [[Wikisource:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/271|Orah Hayyim 271]].</ref> However today, virtually all Orthodox (both Modern and Ultra) authorities contest the idea that a woman is permitted to write a [[Sefer Torah]]. Yet women are permitted to inscribe [[Ketubah|Ketubot]] (marriage contracts), STaM not intended for ritual use, and other writings of [[Sofrut]] beyond simple STaM. In 2003 Canadian [[Aviel Barclay]] became the world's first known traditionally trained female sofer.<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/3614/ A Female Scribe’s Trailblazing Effort – Forward.com]</ref><ref>[http://jwablog.jwa.org/soferet Simchat Torah with a Soferet's Torah | Jewish Women's Archive]</ref> In 2007 [[Jen Taylor Friedman]], a British woman, became the first female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]].<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/11604/ As New Year Dawns, Jewish Women Mark Milestones – Forward.com]</ref> In 2010 the first [[Sefer Torah]] scribed by a group of women (six female sofers, who were from Brazil, Canada, Israel, and the United States) was completed;<ref>[http://jta.org/news/article/2010/10/15/2741313/womens-torah-dedicated-in-seattle Women’s Torah dedicated in Seattle | Jewish Telegraphic Agency]</ref> this was known as the [[Women's Torah Project]].<ref name="jweekly.com">[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/59670/cjms-resident-scribe-takes-part-in-group-torah-project-in-seattle/ Julie Seltzer, a female Torah scribe from San Francisco, contributed to the first Torah scroll to be written by a group of women. | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern Calif...]</ref>

From October 2010 until spring 2011, [[Julie Seltzer]], one of the female sofers from the Women's Torah Project, scribed a [[Sefer Torah]] as part of an exhibition at the [[Contemporary Jewish Museum]] in [[San Francisco]]. This makes her the first American female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]]; Julie Seltzer was born in Philadelphia and is non-denominationally Jewish.<ref name="jweekly.com"/><ref>http://www.thecjm.org/index.php?option=com_ccevents&scope=prgm&task=detail&fid=8&oid=563</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/arts/design/08sfculture.html</ref><ref>[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/61328/cjm-to-celebrate-end-of-groundbreaking-torah-project CJM to celebrate end of groundbreaking Torah project | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California]</ref> From spring 2011 until August 2012 she scribed another [[Sefer Torah]], this time for the Reform congregation Beth Israel in San Diego.<ref name="jpost.com">[http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=286912 Torah, she wrote | JPost | Israel News]</ref><ref>[http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah ] {{wayback|url=http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah |date=20150721211051 }}</ref> Seltzer was taught mostly by [[Jen Taylor Friedman]].<ref name="jpost.com"/> On September 22, 2013, [[Congregation Beth Elohim]] of New York dedicated a new Torah, which members of Beth Elohim said was the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman.<ref>[http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/congregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015 Congregation Beth Elohim in Park Slope dedicates new Torah for 150th anniversary - News 12 Brooklyn]</ref> The Torah was scribed by Linda Coppleson.<ref>[http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ ] {{wayback|url=http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ |date=20141011005036 }}</ref> As of 2014, there are an estimated 50 female sofers in the world.<ref>{{cite web|author=By Jeff KunerthOrlando Sentinel |url=http://www.pressherald.com/2014/08/23/female-jewish-scribe-helps-keep-tradition-alive/ |title=Female Jewish scribe helps keep tradition alive - The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram |publisher=Pressherald.com |date=2014-08-23 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism|Gender studies}}
*[[bat-Kohen]] (daughter of a priest)
*[[Jewish feminism]]
**[[List of Jewish feminists]]
*[[Women as theological figures]]
**[[Rabbi#Women as rabbis|Women as rabbis]]
**[[Rebbetzin]] (rabbi's wife)
**[[List of women in the Bible]]
*[[Beis Yaakov]] (schools for Haredi girls)
*[[Niddah]] (menstruation laws)
*''[[Soferet]]'' (Jewish scribe who can transcribe religious documents)
*[[Gender and Judaism]]
*[[Tzeniut]] (modest behavior)
*[[Negiah]] (guidelines for physical contact)
*[[Yichud]] (prohibitions of secluding oneself with a stranger)
*[[Jewish view of marriage]]
**[[Shidduch]] (finding a marriage partner)
**[[Shalom bayit]] (peace and harmony in the relationship between husband and wife)
*[[Minyan]] (quorum of at least ten Jews acceptable for the recitation of certain prayers)
**[[Partnership minyan]] (a movement to give women more roles in prayer services)
*[[Agunah]] (a woman who wishes to divorce her husband, but, because her husband did not provide her with a divorce contract, is unable to according to Jewish law)
*[[Women in Israel]]
**[[Women of the Wall]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==

'''General'''
* [http://www.rachaelscentre.org/ Rachael's Centre for Torah, Musar & Ethics] An online learning community dedicated to Pluralistic Jewish learning through a female lens
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://www.jofa.org/ Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance] JOFA
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://jcada.org/www Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse]
* [http://www.naamat.com/domesticviolence.htm Na'amat Canada]
* [http://www.awarenow.org/www/docs/100/Internet Adolescents Working for Awesome Relationship Experiences] AWARE

'''Publications'''
* [http://www.lilith.org/ Lilith Magazine] a Jewish feminist journal
* [http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.

'''Particular issues'''
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/12/06/wuhsha-the-broker-jewish-women-in-the-medieval-economy/ "Wuhsha the Broker: Jewish Women in the Medieval Economy," Jewish History Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/09/19/rachel-wife-of-akiva-women-in-ancient-israel/ "Rachel, Wife of Akiva: Women in Ancient Israel," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/02/10/gluckel-of-hameln-jewish-women-n-the-17th-century/ "Gluckel of Hameln: Jewish Women in the 17th Century," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/spots_of_light/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki Spots of Light: Women in the Holocaust] an online exhibition by [[Yad Vashem]]
* [http://alternativestokiddushin.wordpress.com The Kiddushin Variations] A Directory of Halakhic Possibilities For A More Egalitarian Kiddushin Ritual.
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library
* [http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5759winter/sense.htm "Sense and Sensibilities: Women and Torah Study"], Bryna Levy, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 1998, 59 (2).
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf "Qeri’at ha-Torah by Women: A Halakhic Analysis"]|972 KB}}, Shapiro, Mendel. Edah 1:2, 2001
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf "Congregational Dignity and Human Dignity: Women and Public Torah Reading"]|78.1 KB}}, Sperber, Daniel. Edah 3:2, 2002
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427 "Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies"], Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf "Women and the Minyan"]|194 KB}}, Fine, David. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative), 2002
* [http://www.annette-boeckler.de/liturgie/EgalitarianServices.html Egalitarian Jewish Services A Discussion Paper]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5765/5765winter/WOMENADV.PDF "Women Advocates Make Their Mark"]|473 KB}}, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 2004.
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimer2-1.htm "Women and Minyan"], ''[[Tradition (orthodox journal)|Tradition]]'', 1988. Summary of Orthodox arguments regarding women counting in minyan for certain purposes
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm "Women's Prayer Services Theory and Practice"], ''[[Tradition (journal)|Tradition]]'', 1998. Summary of Orthodox arguments for and against women's prayer groups
* Elissa Strauss, ''Women Who Write Torah, A New Generation of Female Scribes Makes History''. http://forward.com/articles/133017/, The Jewish Daily Forward, November 19, 2010.
* (French) Harvey, Claire. Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce, Le Devoir, 24 April 2010.
* ''Mordecai Kaplan'' .2005.http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai, Jewish Women's Archive, 2005
* Luo,Michael, An Orthodox Jewish Woman, and Soon, a Spiritual Leader, http://www.hods.org/pdf/press/An%20Orthodox%20Jewish%20Woman,%20and%20Soon,%20a%20Spiritual%20Leader.htm, New York Times, August 21, 2006.
* ''Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States''. http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states, Jewish Women's archive, 2005
* Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html, Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press
* ''On the Ordination of Women: An Advocate's Halakhic Response'' Mayer E. Rabbinowitz. In Simon Greenberg, ed., ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988.
* ''Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies,'' Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', [[Simon Greenberg]], ed. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988. ISBN 0-87334-041-8
* ''Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender'', [[Charlotte Fonrobert]], Stanford University Press, 2000
* ''The Moon's Lost Light: A Torah Perspective on Women from the Fall of Eve to the Full Redemption'', Devorah Heshelis, Targum Press, 2006. ISBN 1-56871-377-0
* Nadell, Pamela S., "Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination, 1889-1985" in Jewish Women's Life. Editor
* Rabbi Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar,

===Middle Ages===
* Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period''. Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52-60. ISBN 9780691057873
* Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94-114. ISBN 0814320929
* {{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|pages=41–51|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}
* {{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|isbn=0805210490}}
* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Mark R.|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=0691139318}}
* Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1584653922
* {{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|pages=34–45}}
* Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009.105-111.ISBN 9780814732199
* {{cite book|last=Steinberg|first=Theodore L.|title=Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=0275985881}}
* {{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|isbn=0827607520 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}

=== Orthodox Judaism and women ===
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' [[Blu Greenberg]], Jewish Publication Society
* ''Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment,'' [[Saul Berman|Berman, Saul J.]] Response, 40, 1981, 5:17.
* ''Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State,'' Ellenson, David Harry. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law (58-81) 2001.
* ''Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?'' [[Tamar Ross]], ''Judaism'', 42:4, 1993, 478-491.
* ''Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?,'' Reisman, Levi M. The Jewish Observer, 31:5, 1998, 37-47
* ''Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period,'' [[Ross|Ross, Tamar]]
* ''In Case There Tamar Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan,'' Fishbane, Simcha. Judaism, 42:4, 1993, 492-503.
* ''Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law,'' Shenhav, Sharon. Justice, 21, 1999, 28-31.
* ''On Egalitarianism & Halakha,'' Stern, Marc D. Tradition, 36:2, 2002, 1-30.
* ''Women, Jewish Law and Modernity,'' Wolowelsky, Joel B. Ktav. 1997.
* ''Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism'', [[Tamar Ross|Ross, Tamar]]. Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58465-390-6
* ''Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups'', [[Avi Weiss|Weiss, Avi]], Ktav publishers, January 2003 ISBN 0-88125-719-2
*''Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation''. [[Tova Hartman|Hartman, Tova]], Brandeis University Press, 2007. ISBN 1-58465-658-1.

{{Jewish life}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Women In Judaism}}
[[Category:Judaism and women| ]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Gender roles by society]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2015-11-04T03:50:43Z

Jprg1966: /* Reform Judaism */

{{About|historical and modern views of Jews|the portrayal of women in the Bible|Women in the Bible}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|religion}}
{{Women in society sidebar}}

The [[role]] of '''women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], the [[Oral Torah|Oral Law]] (the corpus of rabbinic literature), by [[Minhag|custom]], and by non-religious cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature mention various female role models, religious law treats women differently in various circumstances.

[[Gender]] has a bearing on familial lines: in traditional Judaism, [[Who is a Jew?|Jewishness]] is passed down through the mother, although the father's name is used to describe sons and daughters in the [[Torah]], e.g., "Dinah, daughter of Jacob".<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|pages= 121, 131}}</ref>

==Biblical times==
{{See also|Old Testament views on women}}
Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are a number of exceptions to this rule, including the [[Matriarchs (Bible)|Matriarchs]] [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca]], [[Rachel]], and [[Leah]], [[Miriam]] the prophetess, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Huldah]] the prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Rahab]] and [[Esther]]. In the Biblical account these women did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was formed between the Israelites and the God of Abraham at Mount Sinai. The Torah relates that both Israelite men and Israelite women were present at Sinai, however, the covenant was worded in such a way that it bound men to act upon its requirements and to ensure that the members of their household (wives, children, and slaves) met these requirements as well. In this sense, the covenant bound women as well, though indirectly.<ref name="HauptmanEtz">[[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman, Judith]]. "Women." ''Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary''. Ed. David L. Lieber. The Jewish Publication Society, 2001. 1356-1359.</ref>

Marriage and family law in biblical times favored men over women. For example, a husband could divorce a wife if he chose to, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. The practice of [[levirate marriage]] applied to widows of childless deceased husbands, not to widowers of childless deceased wives; though if either he or she didn't consent to the marriage, a different ceremony called chalitza is done instead. Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men during biblical times, however, they also suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount.<ref name="HauptmanEtz" /> However, men had specific obligations they were required to perform for their wives. These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual relations to their wives.<ref>[[Joseph Telushkin|Telushkin, Joseph]]. ''Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible''. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997. p. 403.</ref>

Women also had a role in ritual life. Women (as well as men) were required to make a pilgrimage to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] once a year and offer the [[Passover]] [[korban|sacrifice]]. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a ''todah'' ("thanksgiving") offering after childbirth. Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non-levitical men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and generally more discreet scale.

Women depended on men economically. Women generally did not own property except in the rare case of inheriting land from a father who didn't bear sons. Even "in such cases, women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings."<ref name="HauptmanEtz" />

According to [[John Bowker (theologian)]], traditionally, Jewish "men and women pray separately. This goes back to ancient times when women could go only as far as the second court of the Temple."<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 119}}</ref>

==Talmudic times==
Classical Jewish [[rabbinical literature]] contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that:
*Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the (righteous) women than to (righteous) men<ref>''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berakhot]]'' 17a</ref>
*Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine<ref>''[[Nashim|Kiddushin]]'' 49b</ref>
*Women are ''light on raw knowledge'' – i.e., they possess more intuition<ref>''[[Shabbat (Talmud)|Shabbat]]'' 33b</ref>
*A man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good; a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself<ref>''[[Yebamot]]'' 62b</ref>
*When [[Rav Yosef b. Hiyya]] heard his mother's footsteps he would say: ''Let me arise before the approach of the [[Shekhinah|divine presence]]''<ref>''Kiddushin'' 31b</ref>
*Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its (Israel's) righteous women<ref>''[[Sotah]]'' 11b</ref>
*A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong<ref>''[[Baba Metzia]]'' 59a</ref>
*Women have greater faith than men<ref>''[[Sifre]]'', 133</ref>
*Women have greater powers of discernment<ref>''[[Tohorot|Niddah]]'' 45b</ref>
*Women are especially tenderhearted<ref>''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'' 14b</ref>

While few women are mentioned by name in rabbinic literature, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands. Occasionally they have a public persona. Examples are [[Bruriah daughter of Rabbi Hananiah Ben Teradion|Bruriah]], the wife of the [[Tannaim|Tanna]] [[Rabbi Meir]]; Rachel, the wife of [[Akiba ben Joseph|Rabbi Akiva]]; and Yalta, the wife of [[Rav Nachman|Rabbi Nachman]]. [[Elazar ben Arach|Rabbi Elazar]]'s{{Who|date=February 2010}} [[Imma Shalom|wife]] (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]]. When R' Elazar ben Azarya was asked to assume the role of ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]'' ("Prince" or President of the [[Sanhedrin]]), he replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Brachoth 27b</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
Since Jews were seen as second class citizens in the Christian and Muslim world, it was even harder for Jewish women to establish their own status. Avraham Grossman argues in his book ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe'' that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them: "the biblical and talmudic heritage; the situation in the non-Jewish society within which the Jews lived and functioned; and the economic status of the Jews, including the woman's role in supporting the family."<ref>Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. 1.</ref> Grossman uses all three factors to argue that women's status overall during this period actually rose.<ref>Grossman, 3.</ref>

During the Middle Ages, there was a conflict between Judaism's lofty religious expectations of women and the reality of society in which these Jewish women lived; this is similar to the lives of Christian women in the same period.<ref>Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94.</ref> This prompted the [[kabbalistic]] work ''Sefer Hakanah'' to demand that women fulfill the ''[[mitzvot]]'' in a way that would be equal to men.<ref name="Ben-Sasson">Ben-Sasson, H. H. "Spiritual and Social Creativity." ''A History of the Jewish People''. Ed. Ben-Sasson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. 612–627. Print.</ref>

=== Religious life ===
Religious developments during the medieval period included relaxation on prohibitions against teaching women [[Torah]], and the rise of women's prayer groups.<ref>Steinberg, 157–158.</ref> One place that women participated in Jewish practices publicly was the [[synagogue]]. Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.<ref name="Baskin 1991 42">{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=42|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There is evidence that in the 15th century some communities of [[Ashkenaz]], the wife of the rabbi wore ''[[tzitzit]]'' just like her husband.<ref name="Ben-Sasson" />

In most [[synagogues]] they were given their own section, most likely a balcony; some [[synagogues]] had a separate building.<ref name="Grossman,181">Grossman, 181.</ref> Separation from the men was created by the Rabbis in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]. The reasoning behind the [[Halacha]] was that a woman and her body would distract men and give them impure thoughts during prayer.<ref>[[Talmud]], [[Sukkah (Talmud)|Succah]] 51a–52b</ref> Due to this rabbinical interpretation, scholars have seen the women’s role in the synagogue as limited and sometimes even non-existent. However, recent research has shown that women actually had a larger role in the synagogue and the community at large. Women usually attended synagogue, for example, on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] and the holidays.<ref>Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period.'' Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52.</ref> Depending on the location of the women in the [[synagogue]], they may have followed the same service as the men or they conducted their own services. Since the [[synagogues]] were large, there would be a designated woman who would be able to follow the cantor and repeat the prayers aloud for the women.<ref name="Grossman,181" /> Women had always attended services on [[Shabbat]] and holidays, but beginning in the eleventh century, women became more involved in the [[synagogue]] and its rituals. Women sitting separately from the men became a norm in [[synagogues]] around the beginning of the thirteenth century.<ref>Steinberg, 157.</ref> Women, however, did much more than pray in the [[synagogue]]. One of the main jobs for women was to beautify the building. There are [[Torah ark]] curtains and [[Torah]] covers that women sewed and survive today.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|page=128 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}</ref> The [[synagogue]] was a communal place for both men and women where worship, learning and community activities occurred.

The rise and increasing popularity of [[Kabbalah]], which emphasized the [[shechinah]] and female aspects of the divine presence and human-divine relationship, and which saw marriage as a holy covenant between partners rather than a civil contract, had great influence. Kabbalists explained the phenomenon of menstruation as expressions of the demonic or sinful character of the menstruant.<ref>Koren, Sharon Faye. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/nashim/summary/v017/17.koren.html "The Menstruant as 'Other' in Medieval Judaism and Christianity."] Project MUSE. Spring 2009. 29 December 2011.</ref> These changes were accompanied by increased pietistic strictures, including greater requirements for [[Tzeniut|modest dress]], and greater strictures during [[Niddah|the period of menstruation]]. At the same time, there was a rise in philosophical and [[midrashic]] interpretations depicting women in a negative light, emphasizing a duality between matter and spirit in which femininity was associated, negatively, with earth and matter.<ref>Grossman, 277–278.</ref> The gentile society was also seen as a negative influence on the Jewish community. For example, it seems that Jews would analyze the modesty of their non-Jewish neighbors before officially moving into a new community because they knew that their children would be influenced by the local gentiles.<ref>Grossman, 2.</ref>

After the [[Alhambra Decree|expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492]], women became virtually the only source of Jewish ritual and tradition in the Catholic world in a phenomenon known as [[crypto-Judaism]]. Crypto-Jewish women would slaughter their own animals and made sure to keep as many of the [[Kosher|Jewish dietary laws]] and life cycle rituals as possible without raising suspicion. Occasionally, these women were prosecuted by [[Inquisition]] officials for suspicious behavior such as lighting candles to honor the Sabbath or refusing to eat pork when it was offered to them. The [[Inquisition]] targeted crypto-Jewish women at least as much as it targeted crypto-Jewish men because women were accused of perpetuating Jewish tradition while men were merely permitting their wives and daughters to organize the household in this manner.<ref>Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009. 105–111.</ref>

Jewish women were also apart of the social phenomenon of martyrdom of the [[First Crusade]]. Most of the violence from the [[First Crusade]] towards Jews was due to the [[People's Crusade]]. Inspired by the Pope's call, Christians in Roven, Trier, Metz, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Prague, and Bohemia, among others, massacred thousands of Jews. The local governments did not, at first, sanction the mass murder of Jews as part of the fervor of the Crusades. However, popular anxiety overcame many towns and villages and lead towards the local government's support of killing Jews.<ref>Steinberg, 108.</ref> Although many Jews did convert, many rather chose to die. Through the sources, such as chronicles and poems, we see that Jewish women were often martyred with their families.<ref name="Steinberg,160">Steinberg, 160.</ref> In contrast, most Christian women martyrs were members of a convent or religious order when they were martyred (See [http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/women1.htm Women and Hagiography in Medieval Christianity] for more information).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|page=38}}</ref>

=== Domestic life ===
Marriage, Domestic Violence and Divorce are all topics discussed by Jewish sages of the Medieval world. Marriage is an important institution in Judaism (see [[Marriage in Judaism]]). The sages of this period discussed this topic at length.

[[Rabbeinu Gershom]] instituted a rabbinic decree ([[Takkanah]]) prohibiting polygamy among [[Ashkenazic]] Jews.<ref>{{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|page=81}}</ref> The rabbis instituted legal methods to enable women to petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a divorce. [[Maimonides]] ruled that a woman who found her husband "repugnant" could compel a divorce, "because she is not like a captive, to be subjected to intercourse with one who is hateful to her."<ref>[[Mishneh Torah]], Hilkhot Ishut 14:8</ref><ref>Biale, 91.</ref> Divorce for Christian women was technically not an option. By the tenth century, Christianity considered marriage a sacrament and could not be dissolved (see [[Divorce#Medieval Europe|Divorce in Medieval Europe]]).

The rabbis also instituted and tightened prohibitions on domestic violence. [[Peretz ben Elijah|Rabbi Peretz ben Elijah]] ruled, "The cry of the daughters of our people has been heard concerning the sons of Israel who raise their hands to strike their wives. Yet who has given a husband the authority to beat his wife?"<ref>Grossman, 224.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] ruled that "For it is the way of the Gentiles to behave thus, but Heaven forbid that any Jew should do so. And one who beats his wife is to be excommunicated and banned and beaten."<ref>Grossman, 226.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] also ruled that a battered wife could petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a husband to grant a divorce, with a monetary fine owed her on top of the regular [[ketubah]] money.<ref>Grossman, 222.</ref> These rulings occurred in the midst of societies where wife-beating was legally sanctioned and routine.<ref>Grossman, 230.</ref>

=== Education ===
Jewish women had a limited education. They were taught to read, write, run a household. They were also given some education in religious law that was essential to their daily lives, such as keeping [[kosher]].<ref name="Baskin 1991 42" /> Both Christian and Jewish girls were educated in the home. Although Christian girls may have had a male or female tutor, most Jewish girls had a female tutor.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=43|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> Higher learning was uncommon for both Christian and Jewish women. Christian women could enter a convent in order to achieve a higher education (See [[Female education#Medieval period|Female Education in the Medieval Period]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=46|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There are more sources of education for Jewish women living in Muslim controlled lands. Middle Eastern Jewry, on the other hand, had an abundance of female literates. The [[Cairo Geniza]] is filled with correspondences written (sometimes dictated) between family members and spouses. Many of these letters are pious and poetic and express a desire to be in closer or more frequent contact with a loved one that is far enough away to only be reached by written correspondence. There are also records of wills and other personal legal documents as well as written petitions to officials in cases of spouse spousal abuse or other conflicts between family members written or dictated by women.<ref>Melammed, 91–100.</ref>

Many women gained enough education to help their husbands out in business or even hold their own. Just like Christian women who ran their own business, Jewish women were engaged in their own occupations as well as helping their husbands. Jewish women seem to have lent money to Christian women throughout Europe.<ref>Marcus, 38.</ref> Women were also copyists, [[Midwifery#Early historical perspective|midwives]], spinners and weavers.<ref name="Steinberg,160" /><ref>Marcus, 39.</ref>

==Views on the education of women==
From certain contexts of the Mishnah and Talmud it can be derived that women should not study Mishnah. There were female Tannaitic Torah jurists such as Rabbi Meir's wife,<ref>Medrish on Proverbs 31:10</ref> Rabbi Meir's daughter, and the daughter of Haninyah ben Teradyon<ref>Talmud Babylonia Kelim Bava Kamma 4:17 separately in Sifre Deuteronomy 307 in both she is personally left unnamed and referred to as just, 'and we have learned from the daughter of Haninyah ben Terradyon', a sign of the prevailing attitude towards women (as property of their fathers).</ref> Haninyah's daughter is again mentioned as a sage in the non-Talmud 3rd-century text Tractate Semahot verse 12:13.<ref>[http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300010695 also search ISBN 9780300010695 for an English translation.]</ref> Rabbi Meir's wife is credited with teaching him how to understand some verses from Isaiah.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Berachot 10a</ref> In the Mishnah there is also a reference to certain women teaching men the Torah from behind a curtain, so that no man would be offended.

A ''yeshiva'', or school for Talmudic studies, is an "exclusively masculine environment" because of absence of women from these studies.<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 123}}</ref>

===Beruryah===
[[Beruryah]] (her name is a standard Jewish female name meaning 'the clarity of God') is a Tanna mentioned by name in the Talmud, who has a female name, has orally been transmitted as a female, and is referred to in the text using the nekeva (feminine Hebrew and Aramaic) adjectives and adverbs. Originally she was believed to be either Rabbi Meir's wife mentioned above, or Rabbi Chaninyah's daughter mentioned above, however over the past three to four centuries Rabbinic scholars have realized that these generations do not correspond to Beruryah's law decisions, and life, therefore she today is just 'Beruryah' and of heretofore unknown lineage.

Her law decisions were minor but set a crucial ancient precedent for modern Jewish women. She is mentioned at least four times in the Talmudic discourse regarding her law decrees first Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 10a then in Tosefta Pesahim 62b in Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 53b–54a and Babylonian Talmud Avodah Zarah 18b. In one case she paskinned din on "klaustra" a rare Greek word referring to an object, used in the Talmud, unfortunately Rabbi Yehudah Hanassi did not believe women could be credited with paskining din, as it says 'do not speak too much to women' (Tannah Rabbi Jesse the Galilean), and therefore credited the law to Rabbi Joshua who may have been her father.<ref>Mishnah Keylim 11:4</ref>

Beruryah however was actually remembered with great respect in the Talmud where she is lauded to have been reputed as such a genius that she studied “three hundred Halachot from three hundred sages in just one day” (Pesachim 62b). Clearly contradicting the injunction against women studying Torah.

===Rashi's daughters===
[[Rashi]] had no sons and taught the Mishnah and Talmud to his daughters, until they knew it by heart as Jewish tradition teaches;<ref>[http://www.rashisdaughters.com/ Rashi's Daughters]</ref> they then transferred their knowledge of original Mishnah commentary to the Ashkenazi men of the next generation.

===Haim Yosef David Azulai, AKA 'The Hid'aa'===
The [[Chaim Joseph David Azulai|Hida]], wrote (Tuv Ayin, no. 4) woman should not study Mishnah only if they do not want to.'We cannot force a woman to learn, like we do to boys'. However, if she wants to learn then not only may she do so on her own, but men may originally teach her, and she can then teach other women if they so choose. According to the Hida, the prohibition against teaching women does not apply to a motivated woman or girl. Other Mizrahi Rabbis disputed this with him.

His response to detractors was that indeed, in truth, there is a prohibition against teaching Mishnah to any student—male or female—who one knows is not properly prepared and motivated, referred to a talmid she-eino hagun (Shulhan Arukh, Yoreh De'ah 246:7). Babylonian Talmud Berakhos 28a relates that Rabban Gamliel would announce that any student who is not pure enough so that 'his outer self is like his inner self' may not enter the study hall. While this approach, requiring absolute purity, was rejected by other ancient Rabbis, for example 'he who is not for the name of God, will become for the name of God', and a middle approach was adopted by Jews as standard. If one has knowledge that a particular Mishnayot student is definitely bad then he may not be taught. He claimed that 'it seems that for women there is a higher standard and she must be motivated in order to have this permission to learn' in his response to the Mizrahi tradition.

===Yisrael Meir Kagan===
{{Main|Yisrael Meir Kagan}}
One of the most important Ashkenazic rabbanim of the past century, Yisrael Meir Kagan, known popularly as the Chofetz Chaim. favored Torah education for girls to counteract the French "finishing schools" prevalent in his day for the daughters of the bourgeoisie.{{quote|
"It would appear that all [these sexist laws] were intended for earlier generations when everyone dwelt in the place of their familial ancestral home and ancestral tradition was very powerful among all to follow the path of their fathers... under such circumstances we could maintain that a woman not study Mishnayos and, for guidance, rely on her righteous parents, but presently, due to our myriad sins, ancestral tradition has become exceptionally weak and it is common that people do not dwell in proximity to the family home, and especially those women who devote themselves to mastering the vernacular, surely it is a now a great mitzvah to teach them Scripture and the ethical teachings of our sages such as Pirkei Avos, Menoras Ha-Ma'or and the like so that they will internalize our sacred faith because [if we do not do so] they are prone to abandon the path of God and violate all principles of [our] faith."<ref>Likkutei Halachos, Sotah p. 21</ref>}}

===Joseph Solovetchik===
{{Main|Joseph B. Soloveitchik}}
Rabbi Yoseph Solovetchik 'amened' the teachings of The Hafetz Haim. Rabbi Solovetchik taught all religious Ashkenazi Jews with the exception of hardline Hasidim, not should, or if they show motivation, but must teach their female children Gemarah like the boy school children. He among others fully institutionalized the teaching of Mishnah and Talmud to girls, from an autobiography on him by Rabbi Mayor Twersky called "A Glimpse of the Rav" in R. Menachem Genack ed., Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: Man of Halacha, Man of Faith, page 113: {{quote|"The halakha prohibiting Torah study for women is not indiscriminate or all-encompassing. There is complete unanimity that women are obligated to study halakhot pertaining to mitsvot which are incumbent upon them... The prohibition of teaching Torah she-Ba'al Pe to women relates to optional study. If ever circumstances dictate that study of Torah sh-Ba'al Pe is necessary to provide a firm foundation for faith, such study becomes obligatory and obviously lies beyond the pale of any prohibition." Undoubtedly, the Rav's prescription was more far-reaching that that of the Hafets Hayim and others. But the difference in magnitude should not obscure their fundamental agreement [on changing the attitudes Halachically].}}

==Present day==
{{Jewish feminism}}
{{Further|Jewish feminism|Women in Israel|Orthodox Jewish feminism|Women of the Wall}}

===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] is based on gendered understandings of Jewish practice—i.e., that there are different roles for men and women in religious life. There are different opinions among Orthodox Jews concerning these differences. Most claim that men and women have complementary, yet different roles in religious life, resulting in different religious obligations. Others believe that some of these differences are not a reflection of religious law, but rather of cultural, social, and historical causes. In the area of education, women were historically exempted from any study beyond an understanding of the practical aspects of [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household{{spaced ndash}}both of which they have an obligation to learn. Until the twentieth century, women were often discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. In the past 100 years, Orthodox Jewish education for women has advanced tremendously.<ref>Handelman, Susan. [http://www.chabad.org/theJewishWoman/article_cdo/aid/371261/jewish/Feminism-and-Orthodoxy.htm "Feminism and Orthodoxy - What It's All About."] ''Chabad Lubavitch''. 25 December 2011.</ref>

There have been many areas in which Orthodox women have been working towards change within religious life over the past 20 years: promoting advanced women's learning and scholarship, promoting women's ritual inclusion in synagogue, promoting women's communal and religious leadership, and more.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lakein|first1=Dvora|title=How Does She Do It?|url=http://lubavitch.com/news/article/2031309/How-Does-She-Do-It.html|accessdate=17 November 2014|agency=Chabad Lubavitch World HQ / News|date=October 6, 2014|quote=Mrs. Shula Bryski, representative to Thousand Oaks, California, and a mother of six, says that the Rebbe “empowered women in a way perhaps never done before.” Embracing modernity, the Rebbe understood that today, “women need more sophisticated Judaism, more depth, more spirituality.” Bryski’s personal emphasis in this affluent Los Angeles suburb is educating women through a weekly Caffeine for the Soul class, monthly Rosh Chodesh Society meetings, and the wildly-popular bat-mitzvah classes she leads. Bryski also serves on the editorial board of the Rosh Chodesh Society, a project of Jewish Learning Institute (JLI) and is a prolific writer.}}</ref> Women have been advancing change despite often vocal opposition by rabbinic leaders. Some Orthodox rabbis try to discount changes by claiming that women are motivated by sociological reasons and not by "true" religious motivation.<ref>Kress, Michael. [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/orthostate.html "The State of Orthodox Judaism Today."] ''Jewish Virtual Library''. 25 December 2011.</ref> For example, Orthodox, [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]], and [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] rabbis discourage women from wearing a [[yarmulke]], [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed members|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011|accessdate=October 29, 2014|issue=Haaretz|date=January 29, 2014}}</ref>

In most Orthodox synagogues, women still do not give a ''d'var Torah'' (brief discourse, generally on the weekly Torah portion) after or between services. Furthermore, a few Modern Orthodox synagogues have mechitzot dividing the left and right sides of the synagogue (rather than the usual division between the front and back of the synagogue, with women sitting in the back), with the women's section on one side and the men's section on the other.<ref>[http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf ] {{wayback|url=http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf |date=20150402103147 }}</ref>

====Rules of modesty====
{{Main|Tzniut}}
The importance of modesty in dress and conduct is particularly stressed among girls and women in Orthodox society. Many Orthodox women only wear skirts and avoid wearing trousers, and some married Orthodox women cover their hair with a wig, hat, or scarf. Judaism prescribes modesty for both men and women.{{citation needed |date=November 2013}}

====Rules of family purity====
{{Main|Niddah}}
In accordance with Jewish Law, Orthodox Jewish women refrain from contact with their husbands while they are [[niddah|menstruating]], and for a period of 7 clean days after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. The Israeli Rabbinate has recently approved women acting as ''yoatzot'', [[halakhic]] advisers on sensitive personal matters such as [[family purity]].

====Modern Orthodox Judaism====
Rabbi [[Joseph B. Soloveitchik]], a leader of profound influence in modern Orthodoxy in the United States, discouraged women from serving as presidents of synagogues or any other official positions of leadership,<ref name="Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis Of Womens Prayer Groups">[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQHwIAxpZRAC&pg=PA107], additional text.</ref> from performing other [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]] (commandments) traditionally performed by males exclusively, such as wearing a [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]]. Soloveitchik wrote that while women do not lack the capability to perform such acts, there is no [[Tradition|''mesorah'']] (Jewish tradition) that permits it. In making his decision, he relied upon Jewish oral law, including a [[mishnah]] in Chulin 2a and a Beit Yoseph in the Tur Yoreh Deah stating that a woman can perform a specific official communal service for her own needs but not those of others.<ref>Aharon Ziegler, ''Halakhic Positions of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik'', Volume II, p. 81.</ref>

Women's issues garnered more interest with the advent of [[feminism]]. Many Modern Orthodox Jewish women and Modern Orthodox rabbis sought to provide greater and more advanced Jewish education for women. Since most Modern Orthodox women attend college, and many receive advanced degrees in a variety of fields, Modern Orthodox communities generally promote women's secular education. A few Modern Orthodox Synagogues have women serving as clergy, including [[Gilah Kletenik]] at [[Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun]]. In 2013, [[Yeshivat Maharat]], located in the United States, became the first Orthodox institution to consecrate female clergy. The graduates of Yeshivat Maharat do not call themselves "rabbis." The title they are given is "maharat."<ref>"Jewish Daily Forward Podcast." ''[http://forward.com/articles/179052/female-orthodox-leaders-new-and-old/ Female Orthodox Leaders: New and Old]''. 21 June 2013. ''The Jewish Daily Forward''. Web. 23 June 2013.</ref> Also in 2013, [[Malka Schaps]] became the first female [[Haredi]] dean at an Israeli university when she was appointed dean of Bar Ilan University's Faculty of Exact Sciences.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.550156 Malka Schaps becomes first female Haredi dean at Israeli university - National Israel News | Haaretz]</ref> Also in 2013, the first class of female [[halacha|halachic]] advisers trained to practice in the US graduated; they graduated from the North American branch of [[Nishmat]]’s yoetzet halacha program in a ceremony at Congregation Sheartith Israel, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in Manhattan and [[SAR High School]] in Riverdale, New York began allowing girls to wrap tefillin during Shacharit-morning prayer; it is probably the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so.<ref>[http://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/nyc-orthodox-high-school-lets-girls-put-on-tefillin/2014/01/20/ The Jewish Press » » NYC Orthodox High School Lets Girls Put On Tefillin]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/landmark-us-program-graduates-first-female-halachic-advisers/ Landmark US program graduates first female halachic advisers | The Times of Israel]</ref>

In 2014, the first ever book of [[halacha|halachic]] decisions written by women who were ordained to serve as poskot (Idit Bartov and Anat Novoselsky) was published.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://jpupdates.com/2014/06/26/first-halacha-sefer-women-makes-waves-israel-orthodox-world/ First Halacha Sefer By Women Makes Waves in Israeli Orthodox World - JP Updates | JP Updates]</ref> The women were ordained by the municipal chief rabbi of Efrat, Rabbi [[Shlomo Riskin]], after completing [[Midreshet Lindenbaum]] women’s college’s five-year ordination course in advanced studies in Jewish law, as well as passing examinations equivalent to the rabbinate’s requirement for men.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

In 2015, Jennie Rosenfeld became the first female Orthodox spiritual advisor in Israel (specifically, she became the spiritual advisor, also called manhiga ruchanit, for the community of [[Efrat]].)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2015/1/26/with-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel#.VMZhzS7lw4I=|title=With female spiritual advisor, Efrat spotlights women’s empowerment in Israel|work=JNS.org}}</ref>

====Women's prayer groups====
Separate Jewish women's prayer groups were a sanctioned custom among German Jews in the [[Middle Ages]]. The ''Kol Bo'' provides, in the laws for [[Tisha B'Av]]:

:And they recite dirges there for about a quarter of the night, the men in their synagogue and the women in their synagogue. And likewise during the day the men recite dirges by themselves and the women by themselves, until about a third of the day has passed.

In Germany, in the 12th and 13th centuries, women's prayer groups were led by female cantors. Rabbi Eliezar of Worms, in his elegy for his wife Dulca, praised her for teaching the other women how to pray and embellishing the prayer with music. The gravestone of Urania of Worms, who died in 1275, contains the inscription "who sang ''piyyutim'' for the women with musical voice." In the Nurnberg Memorial Book, one Richenza was inscribed with the title "prayer leader of the women."<ref>Grossman, ''Pious and Rebellious'', pp. 180-182.</ref>

Orthodox women more recently began holding organized women's ''tefila'' (prayer) groups beginning in the 1970s. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a ''[[minyan]]'' (prayer quorum) for the purpose of [[Jewish services|regular services]], women in these groups read the prayers and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of Orthodox Judaism have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:

* The most restrictive view, held by some Modern Orthodox authorities, and most Haredi Rabbis, rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law).{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}
* A more liberal, permissive view maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatible with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e., do not include certain parts of the service known as ''devarim she-bi-kdusha''), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against ''halakha''. People in this group include Rabbi Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Rabbi [[Avi Weiss]].<ref>Israel's late [[Ashkenazi]]c [[Chief Rabbi]] [[Shlomo Goren]] ''may'' have ruled in 1974 that while women do not constitute a ''minyan'', they may still carry out full prayer services. Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, stating that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual ''halakha'' was in accord with the second school of thought, listed above.[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm]</ref>
* A third view maintains argues in favor of the acceptability of calling women to the Torah in mixed services, and leading certain parts of the service which do not require a [[minyan]], under certain conditions.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf]|972 KB}}</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf]|78.1 KB}}</ref>

In 2013 the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a [[halacha|halachic]] ruling which allows women, for the first time, to say the [[Kaddish]] prayer in memory of their deceased parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4396702,00.html |title=Halachic ruling: Women may say Kaddish - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

====Women as witnesses====
Traditionally, women are not generally permitted to serve as witnesses in an Orthodox [[Beit Din]] ([[Beit Din|rabbinical court]]), although they have recently been permitted to serve as ''toanot'' (advocates) in those courts. This limitation has exceptions which have required exploration under rabbinic law as the role of women in society and the obligations of religious groups under external civil law have been subject to increasing recent scrutiny.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The recent case of Rabbi [[Mordecai Tendler]], the first rabbi to be expelled from the [[Rabbinical Council of America]] following allegations of sexual harassment, illustrated the importance of clarification of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[halakha]] in this area. Rabbi Tendler claimed that the tradition of exclusion of women's testimony should compel the RCA to disregard the allegations. He argued that since the testimony of a woman could not be admitted in [[Beit Din|Rabbinical court]], there were no valid witnesses against him, and hence the case for his expulsion had to be thrown out for lack of evidence. In a ruling of importance for Orthodox women's capacity for legal self-protection under [[Halakha|Jewish law]], [[Haredi]] Rabbi [[Benzion Wosner]], writing on behalf of the ''Shevet Levi'' [[Beit Din]] (Rabbinical court) of [[Monsey, New York]], identified sexual harassment cases as coming under a class of exceptions to the traditional exclusion, under which "even children or women" have not only a right but an obligation to testify, and can be relied upon by a rabbinical court as valid witnesses:

:The [[Meir Abulafia|Ramah]] in Choshen Mishpat (Siman 35, 14) rules that in a case where only women congregate or in a case where only women could possibly testify, (in this case the alleged harassment occurred behind closed doors) they can and should certainly testify. (Terumas Hadeshen Siman 353 and Agudah Perek 10, Yochasin)

:This is also the ruling of the [[Joseph Colon Trabotto|Maharik]], [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra|Radvaz]], and the [[Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz|Mahar"i of Minz]]. Even those "[[Posek|Poskim]]" that would normally not rely on women witnesses, they would certainly agree that in our case ... where there is ample evidence that this Rabbi violated [[Torah]] precepts, then even children or women can certainly be kosher as witnesses, as the [[Chatam Sofer|Chasam Sofer]] pointed out in his ''sefer'' (monograph) (Orach Chaim T'shuvah 11)<ref>English summary at [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/Tendler_Mordecai.html The Awareness Center: Case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler.] Original ''teshuvah'' ([[Responsum]]) (in Hebrew) at {{PDF|[http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/HaravWosner'sT'shuvah.pdf The Awareness Center: Harav Wosner's Teshuvah]|130 KB}} (Note: parenthetical translations are added, parenthetical references are original)</ref>

The [[Rabbinical Council of America]], while initially relying on its own investigation, chose to rely on the Halakhic ruling of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbinical body as authoritative in the situation.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

====Orthodox approaches to change====
Leaders of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] community have been steadfast in their opposition to a change in the role of women, arguing that the religious and social constraints on women, as dictated by traditional Jewish texts, are timeless and are not affected by contemporary social change. Many also argue that giving traditionally male roles to women will only detract from both women's and men's ability to lead truly fulfilling lives. Haredim have also sometimes perceived arguments for liberalization as in reality stemming from antagonism to Jewish law and beliefs generally, arguing that preserving faith requires resisting secular and "un-Jewish" ideas.

Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly in its more liberal variants, has tended to look at proposed changes in the role of women on a specific, case-by-case basis, focusing on arguments regarding the religious and legal role of specific prayers, rituals and activities individually. Such arguments have tended to focus on cases where the Talmud and other traditional sources express multiple or more liberal viewpoints, particularly where the role of women in the past was arguably broader than in more recent times. Feminist advocates within Orthodoxy have tended to stay within the traditional legal process of argumentation, seeking a gradualist approach, and avoiding wholesale arguments against the religious tradition as such.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Nevertheless, a growing [[Orthodox Jewish feminism|Orthodox feminist]] movement seeks to address gender inequalities.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed women|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011#|accessdate=30 June 2014|work=Haaretz|date=Jan 28, 2014}}</ref></blockquote>

===Agunot===

[[Agunot]] (lit. "chained women") are women who wish to divorce their husbands, but whose husbands refuse to give them a writ of divorce (a "get"). In Orthodox Judaism, only a man is able to serve a "get."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Farkash|first1=Tali|title=e women extorted by ex-husbands|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4400770,00.html|accessdate=2014-10-29|publisher=Ynet News|date=2013-07-07}}</ref>

===Conservative Judaism===
Although the position of [[Conservative Judaism]] toward women originally differed little from the Orthodox position, it has in recent years minimized legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of decisions and [[responsa]] on this topic. These provide for women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being counted as part of a ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'' - an arbiter in matters of religious law)
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:
*[[Matrilineality in Judaism|Matrilineal descent]]. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.
*Pidyon Ha-Bat, a proposed ceremony based on the biblical redemption of the eldest newborn son ([[Pidyon HaBen|Pidyon Ha-Ben]]). The CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

A Conservative Jewish ''[[ketuba]]'' includes a clause that puts a husband and wife on more equal footing when it comes to marriage and divorce law within ''halacha''.<ref name="Raphael">Raphael, Marc Lee. ''Profiles in American Judaism: The Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Traditions in Historical Perspective''. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1984. p. 110</ref>

The CJLS recently reaffirmed the obligation of Conservative women to observe ''[[niddah]]'' (sexual abstinence during and after menstruation) and ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual immersion) following menstruation, although somewhat liberalizing certain details. Such practices, while requirements of Conservative Judaism, are not widely observed among Conservative laity.

====Changes in the Conservative position====
Prior to 1973, Conservative Judaism had more limited roles for women and was more similar to current Modern Orthodoxy, with changes on issues including mixed seating, synagogue corporate leadership, and permitting women to be called to the Torah. In 1973, the CJLS of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] voted, without issuing an opinion, that women could count in a [[minyan]]. There was a special commission appointed by the Conservative movement to study the issue of ordaining women as rabbis, which met between 1977 and 1978, and consisted of eleven men and three women; the women were Marian Siner Gordon, an attorney, Rivkah Harris, an [[Assyriologist]], and [[Francine Klagsbrun]], a writer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/klagsbrun-francine |title=Francine Klagsbrun | Jewish Women's Archive |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2015-09-07}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] (JTSA) faculty voted, also without accompanying opinion, to ordain women as rabbis and as cantors.<ref name="Raphael" /> [[Paula Hyman]], among others, took part in the vote as a member of the JTS faculty.

In 2002, the CJLS adapted a [[responsum]] by Rabbi David Fine, [https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf ''Women and the Minyan''], which provides an official religious-law foundation for women counting in a minyan and explains the current Conservative approach to the role of women in prayer.<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org">{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}}</ref> This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

In 2006, the CJLS adopted three [[responsum|responsa]] on the subject of [[niddah]], which reaffirmed an obligation of Conservative women to abstain from sexual relations during and following [[menstruation]] and to immerse in a [[mikvah]] prior to resumption, while liberalizing observance requirements including shortening the length of the [[niddah]] period, lifting restrictions on non-sexual contact during niddah, and reducing the circumstances under which spotting and similar conditions would mandate abstinence.<ref name="RabbiIntro">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Mikveh_Introduction.doc Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiGrossman">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Grossman-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Susan Grossman, MIKVEH AND THE SANCTITY OF BEING CREATED HUMAN, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiReisner">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Reisner-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Avram Reisner, OBSERVING NIDDAH IN OUR DAY: AN INQUIRY ON THE STATUS OF PURITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY WITH A MENSTRUANT, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiBerkowitz">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Berkowitz-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, RESHAPING THE LAWS OF FAMILY PURITY FOR THE MODERN WORLD, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref>

In all cases continuing the Orthodox approach was also upheld as an option. Individual Conservative rabbis and synagogues are not required to adopt any of these changes, and a small number have adopted none of them.

====Conservative approaches to change====
Prior to 1973, Conservative approaches to change were generally on an individual, case-by-case basis. Between 1973 and 2002, the Conservative movement adapted changes through its official organizations, but without issuing explanatory opinions. Since 2002, the Conservative movement has coalesced around a single across-the board approach to the role of women in Jewish law.<ref>This section summarizes the CLJS's 2002 Fine "Women and the Minyan" {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}} Responsum's review and critique of prior CJLS efforts to adopt an authoritative responsum.</ref>

In 1973, 1983, and 1993, individual rabbis and professors issued six major opinions which influenced change in the Conservative approach, the first and second Sigal, Blumenthal, Rabinowitz, and [[Joel Roth|Roth]] responsa, and the [[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman]] article. These opinions sought to provide for a wholesale shift in women's public roles through a single, comprehensive legal justification. Most such opinions based their positions on an argument that Jewish women always were, or have become, legally obligated to perform the same ''mitzvot'' as men and to do so in the same manner.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The first Sigal and the Blumenthal responsa were considered by the CJLS as part of its decision on prayer roles in 1973. They argued that women have always had the same obligations as men.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} The first Sigal responsum used the Talmud's general prayer obligation and examples of cases in which women were traditionally obligated to say specific prayers and inferred from them a public prayer obligation identical to that of men. The Blumenthal responsum extrapolated from a minority authority that a ''minyan'' could be formed with nine men and one woman in an emergency. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) declined to adopt either responsum. Rabbi Siegel reported to the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] membership that many on the CJLS, while agreeing with the result, found the arguments unconvincing.

The Rabinowitz, [[Joel Roth|Roth]], and second Sigal responsa were considered by the JTSA faculty as part of its decision to ordain women as rabbis in 1983. The Rabbinowitz responsum sidestepped the issue of obligation, arguing that there is no longer a religious need for a community representative in prayer and hence there is no need to decide whether a woman can ''halakhically'' serve as one. The CJLS felt that an argument potentially undermining the value of community and clergy was unconvincing: "We should not be afraid to recognize that the function of clergy is to help our people connect with the holy." The Roth and second Sigal responsa accepted that time-bound ''mitzvot'' were traditionally optional for women, but argued that women in modern times could change their traditional roles. The Roth responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|1=[http://www.jtsa.edu/rabbinical/women/roth.pdf#search='women%20roth%20responsum']|2=161 KB}}</ref> argued that women could individually voluntarily assume the same obligations as men, and that women who do so (e.g., pray three times a day regularly) could count in a ''minyan'' and serve as agents. The JTSA accordingly required female rabbinical students wishing to train as rabbis to personally obligate themselves, but synagogue rabbis, unwilling to inquire into individual religiosity, found it impractical. The second Sigal responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/sigal_women.pdf]|3.17 MB}}</ref> called for a ''takkanah'', or rabbinical edict, "that would serve as a ''halakhic'' ERA," overruling all non-egalitarian provisions in law or, in the alternative, a new approach to ''halakhic'' interpretation independent of legal precedents. The CJLS, unwilling to use either an intrusive approach or a repudiation of the traditional legal process as bases for action, did not adopt either and let the JTS faculty vote stand unexplained.

In 1993, Professor [[Judith Hauptman]] of JTS issued an influential paper<ref>http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427</ref> arguing that women had historically always been obligated in prayer, using more detailed arguments than the Blumenthal and first Sigal responsa. The paper suggested that women who followed traditional practices were failing to meet their obligations. Rabbi Roth argued that Conservative Judaism should think twice before adopting a viewpoint labeling its most traditional and often most committed members as sinners. The issue was again dropped.

In 2002, the CJLS returned to the issue of justifying its actions regarding women's status, and adopted a single authoritative approach, the Fine responsum,<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org" /> as the definitive Conservative [[halakha]] on role-of-women issues. This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The Responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this Responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

===Reform Judaism===
[[Reform Judaism]] believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that [[halakha]] (Jewish law) is the sole legitimate form of Jewish decision making, and holds that Jews can and must consider their conscience and ethical principles inherent in the Jewish tradition when deciding upon a right course of action. There is widespread consensus among Reform Jews that traditional distinctions between the role of men and women are antithetical to the deeper ethical principles of Judaism. This has enabled Reform communities to allow women to perform many rituals traditionally reserved for men, such as:
*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

Concerns about intermarriage have also influenced the Reform Jewish position on gender. In 1983, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] passed a resolution waiving the need for formal conversion for anyone with at least one Jewish parent who has made affirmative acts of Jewish identity. This departed from the traditional position requiring formal [[conversion to Judaism]] for children without a [[matrilineal descent|Jewish mother]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/patrilineal1.html Reform Movement's Resolution on Patrilineal Descent]</ref> The 1983 resolution of the American Reform movement has had a mixed reception in Reform Jewish communities outside of the United States. Most notably, the [[Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism]] has rejected patrilineal descent and requires formal conversion for anyone without a Jewish mother.<ref>[http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=840313&ct=1051515 Reform Judaism in Israel: Progress and Prospects]</ref> As well, a joint Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative and Reform Bet Din formed in Denver, Colorado to promote uniform standards for conversion to Judaism was dissolved in 1983, due to that Reform resolution.<ref name="Wertheimer, A People Divided">{{cite book|last=Wertheimer|first=Jack|title=A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America|publisher=University Press of New England|year=1997}}</ref> However, in 2015 the majority of Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis voted in favor of a position paper proposing "that individuals who live a Jewish life, and who are patrilineally Jewish, can be welcomed into the Jewish community and confirmed as Jewish through an individual process."<ref name="jpost1">{{cite web|last=Lewis |first=Jerry |url=http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/UK-Reform-rabbis-accept-patrilineal-descent-409298 |title=UK Reform rabbis accept patrilineal descent |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=July 17, 2015 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref> Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis stated that rabbis "would be able to take local decisions – ratified by the [[Beit Din]] – confirming Jewish status."<ref name="jpost1"/>

Liberal prayerbooks tend increasingly to avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language. For example, the [[Liberal Judaism (UK)|UK Liberal movement]]'s ''Siddur Lev Chadash'' (1995) does so, as does the [[Reform Judaism (UK)|UK Reform Movement]]'s ''Forms of Prayer'' (2008).<ref>[http://thejc.com/articles/the-slimline-siddur-a-touch-bob-dylan The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan] ''The Jewish Chronicle'']</ref><ref>[http://www.bwpjc.org/slc.htm Siddur Lev Chadash]</ref> In [[Mishkan T'filah]], the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as "He" have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.) <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/03/us/03prayerbook.html?_r=1 |work=The New York Times |first=Laurie |last=Goodstein |title=In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change |date=3 September 2007}}</ref> In 2015 the Reform Jewish [[High Holy Days]] prayer book [[Mishkan HaNefesh]] was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.<ref name="jweekly1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/74278/gates-of-repentance-replacement-advances-reform-trends/ |title='Gates of Repentance' replacement advances Reform trends |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=2015-03-26 |accessdate=2015-04-14}}</ref> It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer [[Avinu Malkeinu]] that refers to God as both "Loving Father" and "Compassionate Mother."<ref name="jweekly1" /> Other notable changes are replacing a line from the Reform movement's earlier prayerbook, "Gates of Repentance," that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line "rejoicing with couples under the chuppah [wedding canopy]", and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering "mibeit," Hebrew for "from the house of," in addition to the traditional "son of" or "daughter of."<ref name="jweekly1" />

====Reform approaches to change====
Reform Judaism generally holds that the various differences between the roles of men and women in traditional Jewish law are not relevant to modern conditions and not applicable today. Accordingly, there has been no need to develop legal arguments analogous to those made within the Orthodox and Conservative movements.

=== Reconstructionist Judaism ===

The equality of women and men is a central tenet and hallmark of [[Reconstructionist Judaism]]. From the beginning, Reconstructionist Jewish ritual allowed men and women to pray together — a decision based on egalitarian philosophy. It was on this basis that Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]] called for the full equality of women and men, despite the obvious difficulties reconciling this stance with norms of traditional Jewish practice.<ref>Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html , Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.</ref> The Reconstructionist Movement ordained women rabbis from the start.<ref>Nadell, Pamela. Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women’s Ordination 1889-1985. editor Jewish Women's Life, Beacon Press, 1998. pages 187-188</ref> In 1968, women were accepted into the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, under the leadership of [[Ira Eisenstein]].<ref>Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16542.html , Jewish Virtual Library. 2001.</ref> The first ordained female Reconstructionist rabbi, [[Sandy Eisenberg Sasso]], served as rabbi of the Manhattan Reconstructionist Congregation in 1976 and gained a pulpit in 1977 at Beth El Zedeck congregation in Indianapolis. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso was accepted without debate or subsequent controversy.<ref>Sandy Sasso ordained as first female Reconstructionist rabbi,This Week in History. Jewish Women's Archive. http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/19/1974/sandy-sasso</ref> In 2005, 24 out of the movement's 106 synagogues in the US had women as senior or assistant rabbis.<ref>in Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States, Jewish Women's Archive, http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states</ref> In 2013 Rabbi [[Deborah Waxman]] was elected as the President of the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical College]].<ref name="thejewishweek.com">[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/national-news/reconstructionists-pick-first-woman-lesbian-denominational-leader Reconstructionists Pick First Woman, Lesbian As Denominational Leader | The Jewish Week]</ref><ref>[http://forward.com/articles/185252/trailblazing-reconstructionist-deborah-waxman-reli/?p=all Trailblazing Reconstructionist Deborah Waxman Relishes Challenges of Judaism – Forward.com]</ref> As the President, she is believed to be the first woman and first lesbian to lead a Jewish congregational union, and the first female rabbi and first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is both a congregational union and a seminary.<ref name="thejewishweek.com"/><ref>http://www.rrc.edu/sites/default/files/ORPHAN_PDFs/RRC_WaxmanPresidentElect-ForPress3.pdf?hero=1615</ref>

The Reconstructionist Community began including women in the [[minyan]] and allowing them to come up to the [[Torah]] for [[Aliyah (Torah)|aliyot]]. They also continued the practice of [[bat mitzvah]].<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso,Putting God on the Guest List: How to Reclaim the Spiritual Meaning of Your Child's Bar or Bat Mitzvah, Jewish Lights Publishing (Woodstock, Vermont), 1992.</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allowed women to perform other traditional male tasks, such as serving as witnesses, leading services,<ref>Cantor Heather’ is a first for Reconstructionist shul, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20569&Itemid=86 , Canadian Jewish News, 06 January 2011
</ref> public Torah reading, and wearing ritual prayer garments like [[kippot]] and [[tallitot]].<ref>One example in this video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oplgjEjts0 ,Darchei Noam Congregation, Toronto, Canada.</ref> Female Reconstructionist rabbis have been instrumental in the creation of rituals, stories, and music that have begun to give women's experience a voice in Judaism. Most of the focus has been on rituals for life-cycle events.<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar, Reconstructionist Press, 2005</ref> New ceremonies have been created for births,<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, Call Them Builders: A Resource Booklet about Jewish Attitudes and Practices on Birth and Family Life, Reconstructionist Federation of Congregations and Havurot (New York)</ref> weddings, divorces, conversions,<ref>Shefa, Sheri (August 2006). "Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb". Canadian Jewish News.http://joi.org/bloglinks/CJN Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb 8-24-06.pdf</ref> weaning, and the onset of menarche and menopause. The Reconstructionist movement as a whole has been committed to creating liturgy that is in consonance with gender equality and the celebration of women's lives.<ref>This is reflected in the prayer books that have been published by the Reconstructionist movement</ref><ref>Female scribe to pen Reconstructionist shul’s new Torah, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=16953&Itemid=86, Canadian Jewish News, May 21, 2009.</ref><ref>Montreal congregation hires first female scribe to pen Torah in Canada, http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200906031702/Montreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html ,Jewish Tribune,3 June 2009.</ref> Another major step: The Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations has also developed educational programs that teach the full acceptance of lesbians,<ref>See Rabbi [[Rebecca Alpert]] and Rabbi [[Toba Spitzer]]</ref> as well as rituals that affirm lesbian relationships.<ref>Anne Lapidus Lerner in Jewish Women's Archive http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lerner-anne-lapidus</ref><ref>Radin, Charles A. First openly gay rabbi elected leader,http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/03/first_openly_ga.html , Boston Globe, March 13, 2007.</ref> Reconstructionist rabbis officiate at same-sex weddings.<ref>for Montreal https://www.dorshei-emet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92&Itemid=100</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allows openly [[LGBT]] men and women to be ordained as rabbis and cantors.

Several prominent members of the Reconstructionist community have focused on issues like domestic violence.<ref>Gordon, Sheldon (21 April 2006) ''Billboards Focus on Jewish Domestic Violence'', in Jewish Daily Forward http://www.forward.com/articles/1263/</ref><ref>Na'amat Canada, http://www.naamat.com/legalaid.htm</ref><ref>Springtide Resources, Wife Abuse in the Jewish Community, http://www.womanabuseprevention.com/html/jewish_community.html</ref><ref>Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse, http://jcada.org/www/docs/4/</ref> Others have devoted energy to helping women gain the right of divorce in traditional Jewish communities.<ref>(French) Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce , Journal Le Devoir, 24 April 2010</ref><ref>Sonia Sarah Lipsyc ,http://soniasarahlipsyc.canalblog.com/</ref> Many have spoken out for the right of Jewish women to pray aloud and read from the Torah at the [[Western Wall]] in Jerusalem, the [[Women of the Wall]] group.<ref>[http://womenofthewall.org.il/?lang=he Women of the Wall | נשות הכותל]</ref>

When the roles of women in religion change, there may also be changed roles for men. With their advocacy of patrilineal descent in the 1970s, the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association]] supported the principle that a man who takes responsibility for raising a Jewish child can pass Judaism on to the next generation as well as a woman. All children who receive a Jewish education are considered Jewish in Reconstructionist Judaism regardless of whatever is the sex of their Jewish parent.

=== Jewish Renewal===
[[Jewish Renewal]] is a recent [[Jewish denominations|movement]] in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]], [[music]]al and [[Meditation|meditative]] practices; it describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism’s prophetic and mystical traditions." <ref>[http://www.aleph.org/renewal.htm About Jewish Renewal]</ref> The Jewish Renewal movement ordains women as well as men as rabbis and cantors. [[Lynn Gottlieb]] became the first female rabbi in Jewish Renewal in 1981, and [[Avitall Gerstetter]], who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA030.htm |title=Lynn Gottlieb |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2003-09-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2009 and 2012 respectively, OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) issued a board statement and a resolution supporting [[Women of the Wall]].<ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/2009-board-statement-on-women-of-the-wall/ 2009 Board Statement on Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref><ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/wow-statement-of-support/ 2012 Statement of Support for Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref> The Statement of Principles of OHALAH states in part, "Our local communities will embody egalitarian and inclusive values, manifested in a variety of leadership and decision-making structures, ensuring that women and men are full and equal partners in every aspect of our communal Jewish life." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/about-us/principles/ Aleph Statement of Principles | OhalahOhalah]</ref> In 2014 OHALAH issued a board resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: OHALAH supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]]; OHALAH condemns all types of sexism; OHALAH is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come; and OHALAH supports equal rights regardless of gender." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/resolution-on-gender-equality/ Board Resolution on Gender Equality | OhalahOhalah]</ref> Also in 2014, ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal issued a statement stating, "ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]], condemns all types of sexism, is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come, and supports equal rights regardless of gender, in recognition and allegiance to the view that we are all equally created in the Divine Image." <ref>[http://kolaleph.org/2014/02/04/gender-equality-now/ Statement On Gender Equality | Kol ALEPH]</ref>

=== Humanistic Judaism ===
[[Humanistic Judaism]] is a movement in Judaism that offers a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life. It ordains both men and women as rabbis, and its first rabbi was a woman, [[Tamara Kolton]], who was ordained in 1999.<ref name="shj">{{cite web|url=http://www.shj.org/shjbios.htm |title=Society for Humanistic Judaism - Rabbis and Leadership |publisher=Shj.org |accessdate=2012-03-12}}</ref> Its first cantor was also a woman, [[Hazzan Deborah Davis|Deborah Davis]], ordained in 2001; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped ordaining cantors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jmwc.org/Women/womend.html |title=Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music |publisher=JMWC |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> The [[Society for Humanistic Judaism]] issued a statement in 1996 stating in part, "we affirm that a woman has the moral right and should have the continuing legal right to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy in accordance with her own ethical standards. Because a decision to terminate a pregnancy carries serious, irreversible consequences, it is one to be made with great care and with keen awareness of the complex psychological, emotional, and ethical implications." They also issued a statement in 2011 condemning the then-recent passage of the “No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act” by the U.S. House of Representatives, which they called "a direct attack on a women’s right to choose".<ref>[http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html |date=20131228071242 }}</ref> In 2012, they issued a resolution opposing conscience clauses that allow religious-affiliated institutions to be exempt from generally applicable requirements mandating reproductive healthcare services to individuals or employees.<ref>[http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html |date=20131228070406 }}</ref> In 2013 they issued a resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: The Society for Humanistic Judaism wholeheartedly supports the observance of [[Women's Equality Day]] on August 26 to commemorate the anniversary of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allowing women to vote; The Society condemns gender discrimination in all its forms, including restriction of rights, limited access to education, violence, and subjugation; and The Society commits itself to maintain vigilance and speak out in the fight to bring gender equality to our generation and to the generations that follow." <ref>[http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html |date=20131018050824 }}</ref>

=== Women as soferim ===
A Sofer, Sopher, Sofer SeTaM, or Sofer ST"M (Heb: "scribe", סופר סת״ם) is a Jewish scribe who can transcribe Torah scrolls, tefillin and mezuzot, and other religious writings. (ST"M, סת״ם, is an abbreviation for Sefer Torahs, Tefillin, and Mezuzot. The plural of sofer is "soferim", סופרים.) Forming the basis for the discussion of women becoming soferim, [[Talmud|Talmud Gittin]] 45b states: "Sifrei Torah, tefillin and mezuzot written by a heretic, a star-worshipper, a slave, a woman, a minor, a [[Cuthean]], or an [[Apostasy in Judaism|apostate Jew]], are unfit for ritual use."<ref>[http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml ] {{wayback|url=http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml |date=20130615110436 }}</ref> The rulings on [[Mezuzah]] and [[Tefillin]] are virtually undisputed among those who hold to the [[Talmud|Talmudic Law]]. While [[Arba'ah Turim]] does not include women in its list of those ineligible to write Sifrei Torah, some see this as proof that women are permitted to write a Torah scroll.<ref>Tur, [[Wikisource:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/271|Orah Hayyim 271]].</ref> However today, virtually all Orthodox (both Modern and Ultra) authorities contest the idea that a woman is permitted to write a [[Sefer Torah]]. Yet women are permitted to inscribe [[Ketubah|Ketubot]] (marriage contracts), STaM not intended for ritual use, and other writings of [[Sofrut]] beyond simple STaM. In 2003 Canadian [[Aviel Barclay]] became the world's first known traditionally trained female sofer.<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/3614/ A Female Scribe’s Trailblazing Effort – Forward.com]</ref><ref>[http://jwablog.jwa.org/soferet Simchat Torah with a Soferet's Torah | Jewish Women's Archive]</ref> In 2007 [[Jen Taylor Friedman]], a British woman, became the first female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]].<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/11604/ As New Year Dawns, Jewish Women Mark Milestones – Forward.com]</ref> In 2010 the first [[Sefer Torah]] scribed by a group of women (six female sofers, who were from Brazil, Canada, Israel, and the United States) was completed;<ref>[http://jta.org/news/article/2010/10/15/2741313/womens-torah-dedicated-in-seattle Women’s Torah dedicated in Seattle | Jewish Telegraphic Agency]</ref> this was known as the [[Women's Torah Project]].<ref name="jweekly.com">[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/59670/cjms-resident-scribe-takes-part-in-group-torah-project-in-seattle/ Julie Seltzer, a female Torah scribe from San Francisco, contributed to the first Torah scroll to be written by a group of women. | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern Calif...]</ref>

From October 2010 until spring 2011, [[Julie Seltzer]], one of the female sofers from the Women's Torah Project, scribed a [[Sefer Torah]] as part of an exhibition at the [[Contemporary Jewish Museum]] in [[San Francisco]]. This makes her the first American female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]]; Julie Seltzer was born in Philadelphia and is non-denominationally Jewish.<ref name="jweekly.com"/><ref>http://www.thecjm.org/index.php?option=com_ccevents&scope=prgm&task=detail&fid=8&oid=563</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/arts/design/08sfculture.html</ref><ref>[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/61328/cjm-to-celebrate-end-of-groundbreaking-torah-project CJM to celebrate end of groundbreaking Torah project | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California]</ref> From spring 2011 until August 2012 she scribed another [[Sefer Torah]], this time for the Reform congregation Beth Israel in San Diego.<ref name="jpost.com">[http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=286912 Torah, she wrote | JPost | Israel News]</ref><ref>[http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah ] {{wayback|url=http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah |date=20150721211051 }}</ref> Seltzer was taught mostly by [[Jen Taylor Friedman]].<ref name="jpost.com"/> On September 22, 2013, [[Congregation Beth Elohim]] of New York dedicated a new Torah, which members of Beth Elohim said was the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman.<ref>[http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/congregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015 Congregation Beth Elohim in Park Slope dedicates new Torah for 150th anniversary - News 12 Brooklyn]</ref> The Torah was scribed by Linda Coppleson.<ref>[http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ ] {{wayback|url=http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ |date=20141011005036 }}</ref> As of 2014, there are an estimated 50 female sofers in the world.<ref>{{cite web|author=By Jeff KunerthOrlando Sentinel |url=http://www.pressherald.com/2014/08/23/female-jewish-scribe-helps-keep-tradition-alive/ |title=Female Jewish scribe helps keep tradition alive - The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram |publisher=Pressherald.com |date=2014-08-23 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism|Gender studies}}
*[[bat-Kohen]] (daughter of a priest)
*[[Jewish feminism]]
**[[List of Jewish feminists]]
*[[Women as theological figures]]
**[[Rabbi#Women as rabbis|Women as rabbis]]
**[[Rebbetzin]] (rabbi's wife)
**[[List of women in the Bible]]
*[[Beis Yaakov]] (schools for Haredi girls)
*[[Niddah]] (menstruation laws)
*''[[Soferet]]'' (Jewish scribe who can transcribe religious documents)
*[[Gender and Judaism]]
*[[Tzeniut]] (modest behavior)
*[[Negiah]] (guidelines for physical contact)
*[[Yichud]] (prohibitions of secluding oneself with a stranger)
*[[Jewish view of marriage]]
**[[Shidduch]] (finding a marriage partner)
**[[Shalom bayit]] (peace and harmony in the relationship between husband and wife)
*[[Minyan]] (quorum of at least ten Jews acceptable for the recitation of certain prayers)
**[[Partnership minyan]] (a movement to give women more roles in prayer services)
*[[Agunah]] (a woman who wishes to divorce her husband, but, because her husband did not provide her with a divorce contract, is unable to according to Jewish law)
*[[Women in Israel]]
**[[Women of the Wall]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==

'''General'''
* [http://www.rachaelscentre.org/ Rachael's Centre for Torah, Musar & Ethics] An online learning community dedicated to Pluralistic Jewish learning through a female lens
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://www.jofa.org/ Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance] JOFA
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://jcada.org/www Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse]
* [http://www.naamat.com/domesticviolence.htm Na'amat Canada]
* [http://www.awarenow.org/www/docs/100/Internet Adolescents Working for Awesome Relationship Experiences] AWARE

'''Publications'''
* [http://www.lilith.org/ Lilith Magazine] a Jewish feminist journal
* [http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.

'''Particular issues'''
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/12/06/wuhsha-the-broker-jewish-women-in-the-medieval-economy/ "Wuhsha the Broker: Jewish Women in the Medieval Economy," Jewish History Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/09/19/rachel-wife-of-akiva-women-in-ancient-israel/ "Rachel, Wife of Akiva: Women in Ancient Israel," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/02/10/gluckel-of-hameln-jewish-women-n-the-17th-century/ "Gluckel of Hameln: Jewish Women in the 17th Century," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/spots_of_light/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki Spots of Light: Women in the Holocaust] an online exhibition by [[Yad Vashem]]
* [http://alternativestokiddushin.wordpress.com The Kiddushin Variations] A Directory of Halakhic Possibilities For A More Egalitarian Kiddushin Ritual.
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library
* [http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5759winter/sense.htm "Sense and Sensibilities: Women and Torah Study"], Bryna Levy, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 1998, 59 (2).
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf "Qeri’at ha-Torah by Women: A Halakhic Analysis"]|972 KB}}, Shapiro, Mendel. Edah 1:2, 2001
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf "Congregational Dignity and Human Dignity: Women and Public Torah Reading"]|78.1 KB}}, Sperber, Daniel. Edah 3:2, 2002
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427 "Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies"], Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf "Women and the Minyan"]|194 KB}}, Fine, David. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative), 2002
* [http://www.annette-boeckler.de/liturgie/EgalitarianServices.html Egalitarian Jewish Services A Discussion Paper]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5765/5765winter/WOMENADV.PDF "Women Advocates Make Their Mark"]|473 KB}}, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 2004.
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimer2-1.htm "Women and Minyan"], ''[[Tradition (orthodox journal)|Tradition]]'', 1988. Summary of Orthodox arguments regarding women counting in minyan for certain purposes
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm "Women's Prayer Services Theory and Practice"], ''[[Tradition (journal)|Tradition]]'', 1998. Summary of Orthodox arguments for and against women's prayer groups
* Elissa Strauss, ''Women Who Write Torah, A New Generation of Female Scribes Makes History''. http://forward.com/articles/133017/, The Jewish Daily Forward, November 19, 2010.
* (French) Harvey, Claire. Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce, Le Devoir, 24 April 2010.
* ''Mordecai Kaplan'' .2005.http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai, Jewish Women's Archive, 2005
* Luo,Michael, An Orthodox Jewish Woman, and Soon, a Spiritual Leader, http://www.hods.org/pdf/press/An%20Orthodox%20Jewish%20Woman,%20and%20Soon,%20a%20Spiritual%20Leader.htm, New York Times, August 21, 2006.
* ''Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States''. http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states, Jewish Women's archive, 2005
* Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html, Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press
* ''On the Ordination of Women: An Advocate's Halakhic Response'' Mayer E. Rabbinowitz. In Simon Greenberg, ed., ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988.
* ''Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies,'' Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', [[Simon Greenberg]], ed. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988. ISBN 0-87334-041-8
* ''Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender'', [[Charlotte Fonrobert]], Stanford University Press, 2000
* ''The Moon's Lost Light: A Torah Perspective on Women from the Fall of Eve to the Full Redemption'', Devorah Heshelis, Targum Press, 2006. ISBN 1-56871-377-0
* Nadell, Pamela S., "Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination, 1889-1985" in Jewish Women's Life. Editor
* Rabbi Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar,

===Middle Ages===
* Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period''. Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52-60. ISBN 9780691057873
* Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94-114. ISBN 0814320929
* {{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|pages=41–51|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}
* {{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|isbn=0805210490}}
* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Mark R.|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=0691139318}}
* Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1584653922
* {{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|pages=34–45}}
* Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009.105-111.ISBN 9780814732199
* {{cite book|last=Steinberg|first=Theodore L.|title=Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=0275985881}}
* {{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|isbn=0827607520 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}

=== Orthodox Judaism and women ===
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' [[Blu Greenberg]], Jewish Publication Society
* ''Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment,'' [[Saul Berman|Berman, Saul J.]] Response, 40, 1981, 5:17.
* ''Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State,'' Ellenson, David Harry. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law (58-81) 2001.
* ''Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?'' [[Tamar Ross]], ''Judaism'', 42:4, 1993, 478-491.
* ''Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?,'' Reisman, Levi M. The Jewish Observer, 31:5, 1998, 37-47
* ''Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period,'' [[Ross|Ross, Tamar]]
* ''In Case There Tamar Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan,'' Fishbane, Simcha. Judaism, 42:4, 1993, 492-503.
* ''Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law,'' Shenhav, Sharon. Justice, 21, 1999, 28-31.
* ''On Egalitarianism & Halakha,'' Stern, Marc D. Tradition, 36:2, 2002, 1-30.
* ''Women, Jewish Law and Modernity,'' Wolowelsky, Joel B. Ktav. 1997.
* ''Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism'', [[Tamar Ross|Ross, Tamar]]. Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58465-390-6
* ''Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups'', [[Avi Weiss|Weiss, Avi]], Ktav publishers, January 2003 ISBN 0-88125-719-2
*''Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation''. [[Tova Hartman|Hartman, Tova]], Brandeis University Press, 2007. ISBN 1-58465-658-1.

{{Jewish life}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Women In Judaism}}
[[Category:Judaism and women| ]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Gender roles by society]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2015-11-04T03:47:37Z

Jprg1966: /* Conservative approaches to change */

{{About|historical and modern views of Jews|the portrayal of women in the Bible|Women in the Bible}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|religion}}
{{Women in society sidebar}}

The [[role]] of '''women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], the [[Oral Torah|Oral Law]] (the corpus of rabbinic literature), by [[Minhag|custom]], and by non-religious cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature mention various female role models, religious law treats women differently in various circumstances.

[[Gender]] has a bearing on familial lines: in traditional Judaism, [[Who is a Jew?|Jewishness]] is passed down through the mother, although the father's name is used to describe sons and daughters in the [[Torah]], e.g., "Dinah, daughter of Jacob".<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|pages= 121, 131}}</ref>

==Biblical times==
{{See also|Old Testament views on women}}
Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are a number of exceptions to this rule, including the [[Matriarchs (Bible)|Matriarchs]] [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca]], [[Rachel]], and [[Leah]], [[Miriam]] the prophetess, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Huldah]] the prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Rahab]] and [[Esther]]. In the Biblical account these women did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was formed between the Israelites and the God of Abraham at Mount Sinai. The Torah relates that both Israelite men and Israelite women were present at Sinai, however, the covenant was worded in such a way that it bound men to act upon its requirements and to ensure that the members of their household (wives, children, and slaves) met these requirements as well. In this sense, the covenant bound women as well, though indirectly.<ref name="HauptmanEtz">[[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman, Judith]]. "Women." ''Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary''. Ed. David L. Lieber. The Jewish Publication Society, 2001. 1356-1359.</ref>

Marriage and family law in biblical times favored men over women. For example, a husband could divorce a wife if he chose to, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. The practice of [[levirate marriage]] applied to widows of childless deceased husbands, not to widowers of childless deceased wives; though if either he or she didn't consent to the marriage, a different ceremony called chalitza is done instead. Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men during biblical times, however, they also suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount.<ref name="HauptmanEtz" /> However, men had specific obligations they were required to perform for their wives. These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual relations to their wives.<ref>[[Joseph Telushkin|Telushkin, Joseph]]. ''Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible''. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997. p. 403.</ref>

Women also had a role in ritual life. Women (as well as men) were required to make a pilgrimage to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] once a year and offer the [[Passover]] [[korban|sacrifice]]. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a ''todah'' ("thanksgiving") offering after childbirth. Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non-levitical men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and generally more discreet scale.

Women depended on men economically. Women generally did not own property except in the rare case of inheriting land from a father who didn't bear sons. Even "in such cases, women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings."<ref name="HauptmanEtz" />

According to [[John Bowker (theologian)]], traditionally, Jewish "men and women pray separately. This goes back to ancient times when women could go only as far as the second court of the Temple."<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 119}}</ref>

==Talmudic times==
Classical Jewish [[rabbinical literature]] contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that:
*Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the (righteous) women than to (righteous) men<ref>''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berakhot]]'' 17a</ref>
*Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine<ref>''[[Nashim|Kiddushin]]'' 49b</ref>
*Women are ''light on raw knowledge'' – i.e., they possess more intuition<ref>''[[Shabbat (Talmud)|Shabbat]]'' 33b</ref>
*A man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good; a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself<ref>''[[Yebamot]]'' 62b</ref>
*When [[Rav Yosef b. Hiyya]] heard his mother's footsteps he would say: ''Let me arise before the approach of the [[Shekhinah|divine presence]]''<ref>''Kiddushin'' 31b</ref>
*Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its (Israel's) righteous women<ref>''[[Sotah]]'' 11b</ref>
*A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong<ref>''[[Baba Metzia]]'' 59a</ref>
*Women have greater faith than men<ref>''[[Sifre]]'', 133</ref>
*Women have greater powers of discernment<ref>''[[Tohorot|Niddah]]'' 45b</ref>
*Women are especially tenderhearted<ref>''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'' 14b</ref>

While few women are mentioned by name in rabbinic literature, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands. Occasionally they have a public persona. Examples are [[Bruriah daughter of Rabbi Hananiah Ben Teradion|Bruriah]], the wife of the [[Tannaim|Tanna]] [[Rabbi Meir]]; Rachel, the wife of [[Akiba ben Joseph|Rabbi Akiva]]; and Yalta, the wife of [[Rav Nachman|Rabbi Nachman]]. [[Elazar ben Arach|Rabbi Elazar]]'s{{Who|date=February 2010}} [[Imma Shalom|wife]] (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]]. When R' Elazar ben Azarya was asked to assume the role of ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]'' ("Prince" or President of the [[Sanhedrin]]), he replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Brachoth 27b</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
Since Jews were seen as second class citizens in the Christian and Muslim world, it was even harder for Jewish women to establish their own status. Avraham Grossman argues in his book ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe'' that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them: "the biblical and talmudic heritage; the situation in the non-Jewish society within which the Jews lived and functioned; and the economic status of the Jews, including the woman's role in supporting the family."<ref>Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. 1.</ref> Grossman uses all three factors to argue that women's status overall during this period actually rose.<ref>Grossman, 3.</ref>

During the Middle Ages, there was a conflict between Judaism's lofty religious expectations of women and the reality of society in which these Jewish women lived; this is similar to the lives of Christian women in the same period.<ref>Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94.</ref> This prompted the [[kabbalistic]] work ''Sefer Hakanah'' to demand that women fulfill the ''[[mitzvot]]'' in a way that would be equal to men.<ref name="Ben-Sasson">Ben-Sasson, H. H. "Spiritual and Social Creativity." ''A History of the Jewish People''. Ed. Ben-Sasson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. 612–627. Print.</ref>

=== Religious life ===
Religious developments during the medieval period included relaxation on prohibitions against teaching women [[Torah]], and the rise of women's prayer groups.<ref>Steinberg, 157–158.</ref> One place that women participated in Jewish practices publicly was the [[synagogue]]. Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.<ref name="Baskin 1991 42">{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=42|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There is evidence that in the 15th century some communities of [[Ashkenaz]], the wife of the rabbi wore ''[[tzitzit]]'' just like her husband.<ref name="Ben-Sasson" />

In most [[synagogues]] they were given their own section, most likely a balcony; some [[synagogues]] had a separate building.<ref name="Grossman,181">Grossman, 181.</ref> Separation from the men was created by the Rabbis in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]. The reasoning behind the [[Halacha]] was that a woman and her body would distract men and give them impure thoughts during prayer.<ref>[[Talmud]], [[Sukkah (Talmud)|Succah]] 51a–52b</ref> Due to this rabbinical interpretation, scholars have seen the women’s role in the synagogue as limited and sometimes even non-existent. However, recent research has shown that women actually had a larger role in the synagogue and the community at large. Women usually attended synagogue, for example, on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] and the holidays.<ref>Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period.'' Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52.</ref> Depending on the location of the women in the [[synagogue]], they may have followed the same service as the men or they conducted their own services. Since the [[synagogues]] were large, there would be a designated woman who would be able to follow the cantor and repeat the prayers aloud for the women.<ref name="Grossman,181" /> Women had always attended services on [[Shabbat]] and holidays, but beginning in the eleventh century, women became more involved in the [[synagogue]] and its rituals. Women sitting separately from the men became a norm in [[synagogues]] around the beginning of the thirteenth century.<ref>Steinberg, 157.</ref> Women, however, did much more than pray in the [[synagogue]]. One of the main jobs for women was to beautify the building. There are [[Torah ark]] curtains and [[Torah]] covers that women sewed and survive today.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|page=128 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}</ref> The [[synagogue]] was a communal place for both men and women where worship, learning and community activities occurred.

The rise and increasing popularity of [[Kabbalah]], which emphasized the [[shechinah]] and female aspects of the divine presence and human-divine relationship, and which saw marriage as a holy covenant between partners rather than a civil contract, had great influence. Kabbalists explained the phenomenon of menstruation as expressions of the demonic or sinful character of the menstruant.<ref>Koren, Sharon Faye. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/nashim/summary/v017/17.koren.html "The Menstruant as 'Other' in Medieval Judaism and Christianity."] Project MUSE. Spring 2009. 29 December 2011.</ref> These changes were accompanied by increased pietistic strictures, including greater requirements for [[Tzeniut|modest dress]], and greater strictures during [[Niddah|the period of menstruation]]. At the same time, there was a rise in philosophical and [[midrashic]] interpretations depicting women in a negative light, emphasizing a duality between matter and spirit in which femininity was associated, negatively, with earth and matter.<ref>Grossman, 277–278.</ref> The gentile society was also seen as a negative influence on the Jewish community. For example, it seems that Jews would analyze the modesty of their non-Jewish neighbors before officially moving into a new community because they knew that their children would be influenced by the local gentiles.<ref>Grossman, 2.</ref>

After the [[Alhambra Decree|expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492]], women became virtually the only source of Jewish ritual and tradition in the Catholic world in a phenomenon known as [[crypto-Judaism]]. Crypto-Jewish women would slaughter their own animals and made sure to keep as many of the [[Kosher|Jewish dietary laws]] and life cycle rituals as possible without raising suspicion. Occasionally, these women were prosecuted by [[Inquisition]] officials for suspicious behavior such as lighting candles to honor the Sabbath or refusing to eat pork when it was offered to them. The [[Inquisition]] targeted crypto-Jewish women at least as much as it targeted crypto-Jewish men because women were accused of perpetuating Jewish tradition while men were merely permitting their wives and daughters to organize the household in this manner.<ref>Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009. 105–111.</ref>

Jewish women were also apart of the social phenomenon of martyrdom of the [[First Crusade]]. Most of the violence from the [[First Crusade]] towards Jews was due to the [[People's Crusade]]. Inspired by the Pope's call, Christians in Roven, Trier, Metz, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Prague, and Bohemia, among others, massacred thousands of Jews. The local governments did not, at first, sanction the mass murder of Jews as part of the fervor of the Crusades. However, popular anxiety overcame many towns and villages and lead towards the local government's support of killing Jews.<ref>Steinberg, 108.</ref> Although many Jews did convert, many rather chose to die. Through the sources, such as chronicles and poems, we see that Jewish women were often martyred with their families.<ref name="Steinberg,160">Steinberg, 160.</ref> In contrast, most Christian women martyrs were members of a convent or religious order when they were martyred (See [http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/women1.htm Women and Hagiography in Medieval Christianity] for more information).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|page=38}}</ref>

=== Domestic life ===
Marriage, Domestic Violence and Divorce are all topics discussed by Jewish sages of the Medieval world. Marriage is an important institution in Judaism (see [[Marriage in Judaism]]). The sages of this period discussed this topic at length.

[[Rabbeinu Gershom]] instituted a rabbinic decree ([[Takkanah]]) prohibiting polygamy among [[Ashkenazic]] Jews.<ref>{{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|page=81}}</ref> The rabbis instituted legal methods to enable women to petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a divorce. [[Maimonides]] ruled that a woman who found her husband "repugnant" could compel a divorce, "because she is not like a captive, to be subjected to intercourse with one who is hateful to her."<ref>[[Mishneh Torah]], Hilkhot Ishut 14:8</ref><ref>Biale, 91.</ref> Divorce for Christian women was technically not an option. By the tenth century, Christianity considered marriage a sacrament and could not be dissolved (see [[Divorce#Medieval Europe|Divorce in Medieval Europe]]).

The rabbis also instituted and tightened prohibitions on domestic violence. [[Peretz ben Elijah|Rabbi Peretz ben Elijah]] ruled, "The cry of the daughters of our people has been heard concerning the sons of Israel who raise their hands to strike their wives. Yet who has given a husband the authority to beat his wife?"<ref>Grossman, 224.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] ruled that "For it is the way of the Gentiles to behave thus, but Heaven forbid that any Jew should do so. And one who beats his wife is to be excommunicated and banned and beaten."<ref>Grossman, 226.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] also ruled that a battered wife could petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a husband to grant a divorce, with a monetary fine owed her on top of the regular [[ketubah]] money.<ref>Grossman, 222.</ref> These rulings occurred in the midst of societies where wife-beating was legally sanctioned and routine.<ref>Grossman, 230.</ref>

=== Education ===
Jewish women had a limited education. They were taught to read, write, run a household. They were also given some education in religious law that was essential to their daily lives, such as keeping [[kosher]].<ref name="Baskin 1991 42" /> Both Christian and Jewish girls were educated in the home. Although Christian girls may have had a male or female tutor, most Jewish girls had a female tutor.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=43|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> Higher learning was uncommon for both Christian and Jewish women. Christian women could enter a convent in order to achieve a higher education (See [[Female education#Medieval period|Female Education in the Medieval Period]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=46|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There are more sources of education for Jewish women living in Muslim controlled lands. Middle Eastern Jewry, on the other hand, had an abundance of female literates. The [[Cairo Geniza]] is filled with correspondences written (sometimes dictated) between family members and spouses. Many of these letters are pious and poetic and express a desire to be in closer or more frequent contact with a loved one that is far enough away to only be reached by written correspondence. There are also records of wills and other personal legal documents as well as written petitions to officials in cases of spouse spousal abuse or other conflicts between family members written or dictated by women.<ref>Melammed, 91–100.</ref>

Many women gained enough education to help their husbands out in business or even hold their own. Just like Christian women who ran their own business, Jewish women were engaged in their own occupations as well as helping their husbands. Jewish women seem to have lent money to Christian women throughout Europe.<ref>Marcus, 38.</ref> Women were also copyists, [[Midwifery#Early historical perspective|midwives]], spinners and weavers.<ref name="Steinberg,160" /><ref>Marcus, 39.</ref>

==Views on the education of women==
From certain contexts of the Mishnah and Talmud it can be derived that women should not study Mishnah. There were female Tannaitic Torah jurists such as Rabbi Meir's wife,<ref>Medrish on Proverbs 31:10</ref> Rabbi Meir's daughter, and the daughter of Haninyah ben Teradyon<ref>Talmud Babylonia Kelim Bava Kamma 4:17 separately in Sifre Deuteronomy 307 in both she is personally left unnamed and referred to as just, 'and we have learned from the daughter of Haninyah ben Terradyon', a sign of the prevailing attitude towards women (as property of their fathers).</ref> Haninyah's daughter is again mentioned as a sage in the non-Talmud 3rd-century text Tractate Semahot verse 12:13.<ref>[http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300010695 also search ISBN 9780300010695 for an English translation.]</ref> Rabbi Meir's wife is credited with teaching him how to understand some verses from Isaiah.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Berachot 10a</ref> In the Mishnah there is also a reference to certain women teaching men the Torah from behind a curtain, so that no man would be offended.

A ''yeshiva'', or school for Talmudic studies, is an "exclusively masculine environment" because of absence of women from these studies.<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 123}}</ref>

===Beruryah===
[[Beruryah]] (her name is a standard Jewish female name meaning 'the clarity of God') is a Tanna mentioned by name in the Talmud, who has a female name, has orally been transmitted as a female, and is referred to in the text using the nekeva (feminine Hebrew and Aramaic) adjectives and adverbs. Originally she was believed to be either Rabbi Meir's wife mentioned above, or Rabbi Chaninyah's daughter mentioned above, however over the past three to four centuries Rabbinic scholars have realized that these generations do not correspond to Beruryah's law decisions, and life, therefore she today is just 'Beruryah' and of heretofore unknown lineage.

Her law decisions were minor but set a crucial ancient precedent for modern Jewish women. She is mentioned at least four times in the Talmudic discourse regarding her law decrees first Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 10a then in Tosefta Pesahim 62b in Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 53b–54a and Babylonian Talmud Avodah Zarah 18b. In one case she paskinned din on "klaustra" a rare Greek word referring to an object, used in the Talmud, unfortunately Rabbi Yehudah Hanassi did not believe women could be credited with paskining din, as it says 'do not speak too much to women' (Tannah Rabbi Jesse the Galilean), and therefore credited the law to Rabbi Joshua who may have been her father.<ref>Mishnah Keylim 11:4</ref>

Beruryah however was actually remembered with great respect in the Talmud where she is lauded to have been reputed as such a genius that she studied “three hundred Halachot from three hundred sages in just one day” (Pesachim 62b). Clearly contradicting the injunction against women studying Torah.

===Rashi's daughters===
[[Rashi]] had no sons and taught the Mishnah and Talmud to his daughters, until they knew it by heart as Jewish tradition teaches;<ref>[http://www.rashisdaughters.com/ Rashi's Daughters]</ref> they then transferred their knowledge of original Mishnah commentary to the Ashkenazi men of the next generation.

===Haim Yosef David Azulai, AKA 'The Hid'aa'===
The [[Chaim Joseph David Azulai|Hida]], wrote (Tuv Ayin, no. 4) woman should not study Mishnah only if they do not want to.'We cannot force a woman to learn, like we do to boys'. However, if she wants to learn then not only may she do so on her own, but men may originally teach her, and she can then teach other women if they so choose. According to the Hida, the prohibition against teaching women does not apply to a motivated woman or girl. Other Mizrahi Rabbis disputed this with him.

His response to detractors was that indeed, in truth, there is a prohibition against teaching Mishnah to any student—male or female—who one knows is not properly prepared and motivated, referred to a talmid she-eino hagun (Shulhan Arukh, Yoreh De'ah 246:7). Babylonian Talmud Berakhos 28a relates that Rabban Gamliel would announce that any student who is not pure enough so that 'his outer self is like his inner self' may not enter the study hall. While this approach, requiring absolute purity, was rejected by other ancient Rabbis, for example 'he who is not for the name of God, will become for the name of God', and a middle approach was adopted by Jews as standard. If one has knowledge that a particular Mishnayot student is definitely bad then he may not be taught. He claimed that 'it seems that for women there is a higher standard and she must be motivated in order to have this permission to learn' in his response to the Mizrahi tradition.

===Yisrael Meir Kagan===
{{Main|Yisrael Meir Kagan}}
One of the most important Ashkenazic rabbanim of the past century, Yisrael Meir Kagan, known popularly as the Chofetz Chaim. favored Torah education for girls to counteract the French "finishing schools" prevalent in his day for the daughters of the bourgeoisie.{{quote|
"It would appear that all [these sexist laws] were intended for earlier generations when everyone dwelt in the place of their familial ancestral home and ancestral tradition was very powerful among all to follow the path of their fathers... under such circumstances we could maintain that a woman not study Mishnayos and, for guidance, rely on her righteous parents, but presently, due to our myriad sins, ancestral tradition has become exceptionally weak and it is common that people do not dwell in proximity to the family home, and especially those women who devote themselves to mastering the vernacular, surely it is a now a great mitzvah to teach them Scripture and the ethical teachings of our sages such as Pirkei Avos, Menoras Ha-Ma'or and the like so that they will internalize our sacred faith because [if we do not do so] they are prone to abandon the path of God and violate all principles of [our] faith."<ref>Likkutei Halachos, Sotah p. 21</ref>}}

===Joseph Solovetchik===
{{Main|Joseph B. Soloveitchik}}
Rabbi Yoseph Solovetchik 'amened' the teachings of The Hafetz Haim. Rabbi Solovetchik taught all religious Ashkenazi Jews with the exception of hardline Hasidim, not should, or if they show motivation, but must teach their female children Gemarah like the boy school children. He among others fully institutionalized the teaching of Mishnah and Talmud to girls, from an autobiography on him by Rabbi Mayor Twersky called "A Glimpse of the Rav" in R. Menachem Genack ed., Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: Man of Halacha, Man of Faith, page 113: {{quote|"The halakha prohibiting Torah study for women is not indiscriminate or all-encompassing. There is complete unanimity that women are obligated to study halakhot pertaining to mitsvot which are incumbent upon them... The prohibition of teaching Torah she-Ba'al Pe to women relates to optional study. If ever circumstances dictate that study of Torah sh-Ba'al Pe is necessary to provide a firm foundation for faith, such study becomes obligatory and obviously lies beyond the pale of any prohibition." Undoubtedly, the Rav's prescription was more far-reaching that that of the Hafets Hayim and others. But the difference in magnitude should not obscure their fundamental agreement [on changing the attitudes Halachically].}}

==Present day==
{{Jewish feminism}}
{{Further|Jewish feminism|Women in Israel|Orthodox Jewish feminism|Women of the Wall}}

===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] is based on gendered understandings of Jewish practice—i.e., that there are different roles for men and women in religious life. There are different opinions among Orthodox Jews concerning these differences. Most claim that men and women have complementary, yet different roles in religious life, resulting in different religious obligations. Others believe that some of these differences are not a reflection of religious law, but rather of cultural, social, and historical causes. In the area of education, women were historically exempted from any study beyond an understanding of the practical aspects of [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household{{spaced ndash}}both of which they have an obligation to learn. Until the twentieth century, women were often discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. In the past 100 years, Orthodox Jewish education for women has advanced tremendously.<ref>Handelman, Susan. [http://www.chabad.org/theJewishWoman/article_cdo/aid/371261/jewish/Feminism-and-Orthodoxy.htm "Feminism and Orthodoxy - What It's All About."] ''Chabad Lubavitch''. 25 December 2011.</ref>

There have been many areas in which Orthodox women have been working towards change within religious life over the past 20 years: promoting advanced women's learning and scholarship, promoting women's ritual inclusion in synagogue, promoting women's communal and religious leadership, and more.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lakein|first1=Dvora|title=How Does She Do It?|url=http://lubavitch.com/news/article/2031309/How-Does-She-Do-It.html|accessdate=17 November 2014|agency=Chabad Lubavitch World HQ / News|date=October 6, 2014|quote=Mrs. Shula Bryski, representative to Thousand Oaks, California, and a mother of six, says that the Rebbe “empowered women in a way perhaps never done before.” Embracing modernity, the Rebbe understood that today, “women need more sophisticated Judaism, more depth, more spirituality.” Bryski’s personal emphasis in this affluent Los Angeles suburb is educating women through a weekly Caffeine for the Soul class, monthly Rosh Chodesh Society meetings, and the wildly-popular bat-mitzvah classes she leads. Bryski also serves on the editorial board of the Rosh Chodesh Society, a project of Jewish Learning Institute (JLI) and is a prolific writer.}}</ref> Women have been advancing change despite often vocal opposition by rabbinic leaders. Some Orthodox rabbis try to discount changes by claiming that women are motivated by sociological reasons and not by "true" religious motivation.<ref>Kress, Michael. [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/orthostate.html "The State of Orthodox Judaism Today."] ''Jewish Virtual Library''. 25 December 2011.</ref> For example, Orthodox, [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]], and [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] rabbis discourage women from wearing a [[yarmulke]], [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed members|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011|accessdate=October 29, 2014|issue=Haaretz|date=January 29, 2014}}</ref>

In most Orthodox synagogues, women still do not give a ''d'var Torah'' (brief discourse, generally on the weekly Torah portion) after or between services. Furthermore, a few Modern Orthodox synagogues have mechitzot dividing the left and right sides of the synagogue (rather than the usual division between the front and back of the synagogue, with women sitting in the back), with the women's section on one side and the men's section on the other.<ref>[http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf ] {{wayback|url=http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf |date=20150402103147 }}</ref>

====Rules of modesty====
{{Main|Tzniut}}
The importance of modesty in dress and conduct is particularly stressed among girls and women in Orthodox society. Many Orthodox women only wear skirts and avoid wearing trousers, and some married Orthodox women cover their hair with a wig, hat, or scarf. Judaism prescribes modesty for both men and women.{{citation needed |date=November 2013}}

====Rules of family purity====
{{Main|Niddah}}
In accordance with Jewish Law, Orthodox Jewish women refrain from contact with their husbands while they are [[niddah|menstruating]], and for a period of 7 clean days after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. The Israeli Rabbinate has recently approved women acting as ''yoatzot'', [[halakhic]] advisers on sensitive personal matters such as [[family purity]].

====Modern Orthodox Judaism====
Rabbi [[Joseph B. Soloveitchik]], a leader of profound influence in modern Orthodoxy in the United States, discouraged women from serving as presidents of synagogues or any other official positions of leadership,<ref name="Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis Of Womens Prayer Groups">[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQHwIAxpZRAC&pg=PA107], additional text.</ref> from performing other [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]] (commandments) traditionally performed by males exclusively, such as wearing a [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]]. Soloveitchik wrote that while women do not lack the capability to perform such acts, there is no [[Tradition|''mesorah'']] (Jewish tradition) that permits it. In making his decision, he relied upon Jewish oral law, including a [[mishnah]] in Chulin 2a and a Beit Yoseph in the Tur Yoreh Deah stating that a woman can perform a specific official communal service for her own needs but not those of others.<ref>Aharon Ziegler, ''Halakhic Positions of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik'', Volume II, p. 81.</ref>

Women's issues garnered more interest with the advent of [[feminism]]. Many Modern Orthodox Jewish women and Modern Orthodox rabbis sought to provide greater and more advanced Jewish education for women. Since most Modern Orthodox women attend college, and many receive advanced degrees in a variety of fields, Modern Orthodox communities generally promote women's secular education. A few Modern Orthodox Synagogues have women serving as clergy, including [[Gilah Kletenik]] at [[Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun]]. In 2013, [[Yeshivat Maharat]], located in the United States, became the first Orthodox institution to consecrate female clergy. The graduates of Yeshivat Maharat do not call themselves "rabbis." The title they are given is "maharat."<ref>"Jewish Daily Forward Podcast." ''[http://forward.com/articles/179052/female-orthodox-leaders-new-and-old/ Female Orthodox Leaders: New and Old]''. 21 June 2013. ''The Jewish Daily Forward''. Web. 23 June 2013.</ref> Also in 2013, [[Malka Schaps]] became the first female [[Haredi]] dean at an Israeli university when she was appointed dean of Bar Ilan University's Faculty of Exact Sciences.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.550156 Malka Schaps becomes first female Haredi dean at Israeli university - National Israel News | Haaretz]</ref> Also in 2013, the first class of female [[halacha|halachic]] advisers trained to practice in the US graduated; they graduated from the North American branch of [[Nishmat]]’s yoetzet halacha program in a ceremony at Congregation Sheartith Israel, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in Manhattan and [[SAR High School]] in Riverdale, New York began allowing girls to wrap tefillin during Shacharit-morning prayer; it is probably the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so.<ref>[http://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/nyc-orthodox-high-school-lets-girls-put-on-tefillin/2014/01/20/ The Jewish Press » » NYC Orthodox High School Lets Girls Put On Tefillin]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/landmark-us-program-graduates-first-female-halachic-advisers/ Landmark US program graduates first female halachic advisers | The Times of Israel]</ref>

In 2014, the first ever book of [[halacha|halachic]] decisions written by women who were ordained to serve as poskot (Idit Bartov and Anat Novoselsky) was published.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://jpupdates.com/2014/06/26/first-halacha-sefer-women-makes-waves-israel-orthodox-world/ First Halacha Sefer By Women Makes Waves in Israeli Orthodox World - JP Updates | JP Updates]</ref> The women were ordained by the municipal chief rabbi of Efrat, Rabbi [[Shlomo Riskin]], after completing [[Midreshet Lindenbaum]] women’s college’s five-year ordination course in advanced studies in Jewish law, as well as passing examinations equivalent to the rabbinate’s requirement for men.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

In 2015, Jennie Rosenfeld became the first female Orthodox spiritual advisor in Israel (specifically, she became the spiritual advisor, also called manhiga ruchanit, for the community of [[Efrat]].)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2015/1/26/with-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel#.VMZhzS7lw4I=|title=With female spiritual advisor, Efrat spotlights women’s empowerment in Israel|work=JNS.org}}</ref>

====Women's prayer groups====
Separate Jewish women's prayer groups were a sanctioned custom among German Jews in the [[Middle Ages]]. The ''Kol Bo'' provides, in the laws for [[Tisha B'Av]]:

:And they recite dirges there for about a quarter of the night, the men in their synagogue and the women in their synagogue. And likewise during the day the men recite dirges by themselves and the women by themselves, until about a third of the day has passed.

In Germany, in the 12th and 13th centuries, women's prayer groups were led by female cantors. Rabbi Eliezar of Worms, in his elegy for his wife Dulca, praised her for teaching the other women how to pray and embellishing the prayer with music. The gravestone of Urania of Worms, who died in 1275, contains the inscription "who sang ''piyyutim'' for the women with musical voice." In the Nurnberg Memorial Book, one Richenza was inscribed with the title "prayer leader of the women."<ref>Grossman, ''Pious and Rebellious'', pp. 180-182.</ref>

Orthodox women more recently began holding organized women's ''tefila'' (prayer) groups beginning in the 1970s. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a ''[[minyan]]'' (prayer quorum) for the purpose of [[Jewish services|regular services]], women in these groups read the prayers and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of Orthodox Judaism have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:

* The most restrictive view, held by some Modern Orthodox authorities, and most Haredi Rabbis, rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law).{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}
* A more liberal, permissive view maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatible with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e., do not include certain parts of the service known as ''devarim she-bi-kdusha''), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against ''halakha''. People in this group include Rabbi Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Rabbi [[Avi Weiss]].<ref>Israel's late [[Ashkenazi]]c [[Chief Rabbi]] [[Shlomo Goren]] ''may'' have ruled in 1974 that while women do not constitute a ''minyan'', they may still carry out full prayer services. Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, stating that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual ''halakha'' was in accord with the second school of thought, listed above.[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm]</ref>
* A third view maintains argues in favor of the acceptability of calling women to the Torah in mixed services, and leading certain parts of the service which do not require a [[minyan]], under certain conditions.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf]|972 KB}}</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf]|78.1 KB}}</ref>

In 2013 the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a [[halacha|halachic]] ruling which allows women, for the first time, to say the [[Kaddish]] prayer in memory of their deceased parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4396702,00.html |title=Halachic ruling: Women may say Kaddish - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

====Women as witnesses====
Traditionally, women are not generally permitted to serve as witnesses in an Orthodox [[Beit Din]] ([[Beit Din|rabbinical court]]), although they have recently been permitted to serve as ''toanot'' (advocates) in those courts. This limitation has exceptions which have required exploration under rabbinic law as the role of women in society and the obligations of religious groups under external civil law have been subject to increasing recent scrutiny.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The recent case of Rabbi [[Mordecai Tendler]], the first rabbi to be expelled from the [[Rabbinical Council of America]] following allegations of sexual harassment, illustrated the importance of clarification of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[halakha]] in this area. Rabbi Tendler claimed that the tradition of exclusion of women's testimony should compel the RCA to disregard the allegations. He argued that since the testimony of a woman could not be admitted in [[Beit Din|Rabbinical court]], there were no valid witnesses against him, and hence the case for his expulsion had to be thrown out for lack of evidence. In a ruling of importance for Orthodox women's capacity for legal self-protection under [[Halakha|Jewish law]], [[Haredi]] Rabbi [[Benzion Wosner]], writing on behalf of the ''Shevet Levi'' [[Beit Din]] (Rabbinical court) of [[Monsey, New York]], identified sexual harassment cases as coming under a class of exceptions to the traditional exclusion, under which "even children or women" have not only a right but an obligation to testify, and can be relied upon by a rabbinical court as valid witnesses:

:The [[Meir Abulafia|Ramah]] in Choshen Mishpat (Siman 35, 14) rules that in a case where only women congregate or in a case where only women could possibly testify, (in this case the alleged harassment occurred behind closed doors) they can and should certainly testify. (Terumas Hadeshen Siman 353 and Agudah Perek 10, Yochasin)

:This is also the ruling of the [[Joseph Colon Trabotto|Maharik]], [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra|Radvaz]], and the [[Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz|Mahar"i of Minz]]. Even those "[[Posek|Poskim]]" that would normally not rely on women witnesses, they would certainly agree that in our case ... where there is ample evidence that this Rabbi violated [[Torah]] precepts, then even children or women can certainly be kosher as witnesses, as the [[Chatam Sofer|Chasam Sofer]] pointed out in his ''sefer'' (monograph) (Orach Chaim T'shuvah 11)<ref>English summary at [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/Tendler_Mordecai.html The Awareness Center: Case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler.] Original ''teshuvah'' ([[Responsum]]) (in Hebrew) at {{PDF|[http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/HaravWosner'sT'shuvah.pdf The Awareness Center: Harav Wosner's Teshuvah]|130 KB}} (Note: parenthetical translations are added, parenthetical references are original)</ref>

The [[Rabbinical Council of America]], while initially relying on its own investigation, chose to rely on the Halakhic ruling of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbinical body as authoritative in the situation.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

====Orthodox approaches to change====
Leaders of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] community have been steadfast in their opposition to a change in the role of women, arguing that the religious and social constraints on women, as dictated by traditional Jewish texts, are timeless and are not affected by contemporary social change. Many also argue that giving traditionally male roles to women will only detract from both women's and men's ability to lead truly fulfilling lives. Haredim have also sometimes perceived arguments for liberalization as in reality stemming from antagonism to Jewish law and beliefs generally, arguing that preserving faith requires resisting secular and "un-Jewish" ideas.

Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly in its more liberal variants, has tended to look at proposed changes in the role of women on a specific, case-by-case basis, focusing on arguments regarding the religious and legal role of specific prayers, rituals and activities individually. Such arguments have tended to focus on cases where the Talmud and other traditional sources express multiple or more liberal viewpoints, particularly where the role of women in the past was arguably broader than in more recent times. Feminist advocates within Orthodoxy have tended to stay within the traditional legal process of argumentation, seeking a gradualist approach, and avoiding wholesale arguments against the religious tradition as such.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Nevertheless, a growing [[Orthodox Jewish feminism|Orthodox feminist]] movement seeks to address gender inequalities.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed women|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011#|accessdate=30 June 2014|work=Haaretz|date=Jan 28, 2014}}</ref></blockquote>

===Agunot===

[[Agunot]] (lit. "chained women") are women who wish to divorce their husbands, but whose husbands refuse to give them a writ of divorce (a "get"). In Orthodox Judaism, only a man is able to serve a "get."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Farkash|first1=Tali|title=e women extorted by ex-husbands|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4400770,00.html|accessdate=2014-10-29|publisher=Ynet News|date=2013-07-07}}</ref>

===Conservative Judaism===
Although the position of [[Conservative Judaism]] toward women originally differed little from the Orthodox position, it has in recent years minimized legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of decisions and [[responsa]] on this topic. These provide for women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being counted as part of a ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'' - an arbiter in matters of religious law)
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:
*[[Matrilineality in Judaism|Matrilineal descent]]. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.
*Pidyon Ha-Bat, a proposed ceremony based on the biblical redemption of the eldest newborn son ([[Pidyon HaBen|Pidyon Ha-Ben]]). The CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

A Conservative Jewish ''[[ketuba]]'' includes a clause that puts a husband and wife on more equal footing when it comes to marriage and divorce law within ''halacha''.<ref name="Raphael">Raphael, Marc Lee. ''Profiles in American Judaism: The Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Traditions in Historical Perspective''. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1984. p. 110</ref>

The CJLS recently reaffirmed the obligation of Conservative women to observe ''[[niddah]]'' (sexual abstinence during and after menstruation) and ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual immersion) following menstruation, although somewhat liberalizing certain details. Such practices, while requirements of Conservative Judaism, are not widely observed among Conservative laity.

====Changes in the Conservative position====
Prior to 1973, Conservative Judaism had more limited roles for women and was more similar to current Modern Orthodoxy, with changes on issues including mixed seating, synagogue corporate leadership, and permitting women to be called to the Torah. In 1973, the CJLS of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] voted, without issuing an opinion, that women could count in a [[minyan]]. There was a special commission appointed by the Conservative movement to study the issue of ordaining women as rabbis, which met between 1977 and 1978, and consisted of eleven men and three women; the women were Marian Siner Gordon, an attorney, Rivkah Harris, an [[Assyriologist]], and [[Francine Klagsbrun]], a writer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/klagsbrun-francine |title=Francine Klagsbrun | Jewish Women's Archive |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2015-09-07}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] (JTSA) faculty voted, also without accompanying opinion, to ordain women as rabbis and as cantors.<ref name="Raphael" /> [[Paula Hyman]], among others, took part in the vote as a member of the JTS faculty.

In 2002, the CJLS adapted a [[responsum]] by Rabbi David Fine, [https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf ''Women and the Minyan''], which provides an official religious-law foundation for women counting in a minyan and explains the current Conservative approach to the role of women in prayer.<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org">{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}}</ref> This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

In 2006, the CJLS adopted three [[responsum|responsa]] on the subject of [[niddah]], which reaffirmed an obligation of Conservative women to abstain from sexual relations during and following [[menstruation]] and to immerse in a [[mikvah]] prior to resumption, while liberalizing observance requirements including shortening the length of the [[niddah]] period, lifting restrictions on non-sexual contact during niddah, and reducing the circumstances under which spotting and similar conditions would mandate abstinence.<ref name="RabbiIntro">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Mikveh_Introduction.doc Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiGrossman">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Grossman-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Susan Grossman, MIKVEH AND THE SANCTITY OF BEING CREATED HUMAN, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiReisner">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Reisner-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Avram Reisner, OBSERVING NIDDAH IN OUR DAY: AN INQUIRY ON THE STATUS OF PURITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY WITH A MENSTRUANT, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiBerkowitz">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Berkowitz-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, RESHAPING THE LAWS OF FAMILY PURITY FOR THE MODERN WORLD, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref>

In all cases continuing the Orthodox approach was also upheld as an option. Individual Conservative rabbis and synagogues are not required to adopt any of these changes, and a small number have adopted none of them.

====Conservative approaches to change====
Prior to 1973, Conservative approaches to change were generally on an individual, case-by-case basis. Between 1973 and 2002, the Conservative movement adapted changes through its official organizations, but without issuing explanatory opinions. Since 2002, the Conservative movement has coalesced around a single across-the board approach to the role of women in Jewish law.<ref>This section summarizes the CLJS's 2002 Fine "Women and the Minyan" {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}} Responsum's review and critique of prior CJLS efforts to adopt an authoritative responsum.</ref>

In 1973, 1983, and 1993, individual rabbis and professors issued six major opinions which influenced change in the Conservative approach, the first and second Sigal, Blumenthal, Rabinowitz, and [[Joel Roth|Roth]] responsa, and the [[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman]] article. These opinions sought to provide for a wholesale shift in women's public roles through a single, comprehensive legal justification. Most such opinions based their positions on an argument that Jewish women always were, or have become, legally obligated to perform the same ''mitzvot'' as men and to do so in the same manner.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The first Sigal and the Blumenthal responsa were considered by the CJLS as part of its decision on prayer roles in 1973. They argued that women have always had the same obligations as men.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} The first Sigal responsum used the Talmud's general prayer obligation and examples of cases in which women were traditionally obligated to say specific prayers and inferred from them a public prayer obligation identical to that of men. The Blumenthal responsum extrapolated from a minority authority that a ''minyan'' could be formed with nine men and one woman in an emergency. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) declined to adopt either responsum. Rabbi Siegel reported to the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] membership that many on the CJLS, while agreeing with the result, found the arguments unconvincing.

The Rabinowitz, [[Joel Roth|Roth]], and second Sigal responsa were considered by the JTSA faculty as part of its decision to ordain women as rabbis in 1983. The Rabbinowitz responsum sidestepped the issue of obligation, arguing that there is no longer a religious need for a community representative in prayer and hence there is no need to decide whether a woman can ''halakhically'' serve as one. The CJLS felt that an argument potentially undermining the value of community and clergy was unconvincing: "We should not be afraid to recognize that the function of clergy is to help our people connect with the holy." The Roth and second Sigal responsa accepted that time-bound ''mitzvot'' were traditionally optional for women, but argued that women in modern times could change their traditional roles. The Roth responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|1=[http://www.jtsa.edu/rabbinical/women/roth.pdf#search='women%20roth%20responsum']|2=161 KB}}</ref> argued that women could individually voluntarily assume the same obligations as men, and that women who do so (e.g., pray three times a day regularly) could count in a ''minyan'' and serve as agents. The JTSA accordingly required female rabbinical students wishing to train as rabbis to personally obligate themselves, but synagogue rabbis, unwilling to inquire into individual religiosity, found it impractical. The second Sigal responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/sigal_women.pdf]|3.17 MB}}</ref> called for a ''takkanah'', or rabbinical edict, "that would serve as a ''halakhic'' ERA," overruling all non-egalitarian provisions in law or, in the alternative, a new approach to ''halakhic'' interpretation independent of legal precedents. The CJLS, unwilling to use either an intrusive approach or a repudiation of the traditional legal process as bases for action, did not adopt either and let the JTS faculty vote stand unexplained.

In 1993, Professor [[Judith Hauptman]] of JTS issued an influential paper<ref>http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427</ref> arguing that women had historically always been obligated in prayer, using more detailed arguments than the Blumenthal and first Sigal responsa. The paper suggested that women who followed traditional practices were failing to meet their obligations. Rabbi Roth argued that Conservative Judaism should think twice before adopting a viewpoint labeling its most traditional and often most committed members as sinners. The issue was again dropped.

In 2002, the CJLS returned to the issue of justifying its actions regarding women's status, and adopted a single authoritative approach, the Fine responsum,<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org" /> as the definitive Conservative [[halakha]] on role-of-women issues. This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The Responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this Responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

===Reform Judaism===
[[Reform Judaism]] believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that [[halakha]] (Jewish law) is the sole legitimate form of Jewish decision making, and holds that Jews can and must consider their conscience and ethical principles inherent in the Jewish tradition when deciding upon a right course of action. There is widespread consensus among Reform Jews that traditional distinctions between the role of men and women are antithetical to the deeper ethical principles of Judaism. This has enabled Reform communities to allow women to perform many rituals traditionally reserved for men, such as:

*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

Concerns about intermarriage have also influenced the Reform Jewish position on gender. In 1983, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] passed a resolution waiving the need for formal conversion for anyone with at least one Jewish parent who has made affirmative acts of Jewish identity. This departed from the traditional position requiring formal [[conversion to Judaism]] for children without a [[matrilineal descent|Jewish mother]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/patrilineal1.html Reform Movement's Resolution on Patrilineal Descent]</ref> The 1983 resolution of the American Reform movement has had a mixed reception in Reform Jewish communities outside of the United States. Most notably, the [[Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism]] has rejected patrilineal descent and requires formal conversion for anyone without a Jewish mother.<ref>[http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=840313&ct=1051515 Reform Judaism in Israel: Progress and Prospects]</ref> As well, a joint Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative and Reform Bet Din formed in Denver, Colorado to promote uniform standards for conversion to Judaism was dissolved in 1983, due to that Reform resolution.<ref name="Wertheimer, A People Divided">{{Cite book|last=Wertheimer|first=Jack|title=A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America|publisher=University Press of New England|year=1997}}</ref> However, in 2015 the majority of Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis voted in favor of a position paper proposing "that individuals who live a Jewish life, and who are patrilineally Jewish, can be welcomed into the Jewish community and confirmed as Jewish through an individual process."<ref name="jpost1">{{cite web|last=Lewis |first=Jerry |url=http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/UK-Reform-rabbis-accept-patrilineal-descent-409298 |title=UK Reform rabbis accept patrilineal descent - Diaspora - Jerusalem Post |publisher=Jpost.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref> Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis stated that rabbis "would be able to take local decisions – ratified by the [[Beit Din]] – confirming Jewish status."<ref name="jpost1"/>

Liberal prayerbooks tend increasingly to avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language. For example, the [[Liberal Judaism (UK)|UK Liberal movement]]'s ''Siddur Lev Chadash'' (1995) does so, as does the [[Reform Judaism (UK)|UK Reform Movement]]'s ''Forms of Prayer'' (2008).<ref>[http://thejc.com/articles/the-slimline-siddur-a-touch-bob-dylan The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan | The Jewish Chronicle]</ref><ref>[http://www.bwpjc.org/slc.htm Siddur Lev Chadash]</ref> In [[Mishkan T'filah]], the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as “He” have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.) <ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/03/us/03prayerbook.html?_r=1 | work=The New York Times | first=Laurie | last=Goodstein | title=In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change | date=3 September 2007}}</ref> In 2015 the Reform Jewish [[High Holy Days]] prayer book [[Mishkan HaNefesh]] was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.<ref name="jweekly1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/74278/gates-of-repentance-replacement-advances-reform-trends/ |title=‘Gates of Repentance’ replacement advances Reform trends | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=2015-03-26 |accessdate=2015-04-14}}</ref> It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer [[Avinu Malkeinu]] that refers to God as both "Loving Father" and "Compassionate Mother."<ref name="jweekly1"/> Other notable changes are replacing a line from the Reform movement’s earlier prayerbook, "Gates of Repentance," that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line "rejoicing with couples under the chuppah [wedding canopy]", and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering “mibeit,” Hebrew for “from the house of,” in addition to the traditional “son of” or “daughter of.”<ref name="jweekly1"/>

====Reform approaches to change====
Reform Judaism generally holds that the various differences between the roles of men and women in traditional Jewish law are not relevant to modern conditions and not applicable today. Accordingly, there has been no need to develop legal arguments analogous to those made within the Orthodox and Conservative movements.

=== Reconstructionist Judaism ===

The equality of women and men is a central tenet and hallmark of [[Reconstructionist Judaism]]. From the beginning, Reconstructionist Jewish ritual allowed men and women to pray together — a decision based on egalitarian philosophy. It was on this basis that Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]] called for the full equality of women and men, despite the obvious difficulties reconciling this stance with norms of traditional Jewish practice.<ref>Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html , Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.</ref> The Reconstructionist Movement ordained women rabbis from the start.<ref>Nadell, Pamela. Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women’s Ordination 1889-1985. editor Jewish Women's Life, Beacon Press, 1998. pages 187-188</ref> In 1968, women were accepted into the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, under the leadership of [[Ira Eisenstein]].<ref>Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16542.html , Jewish Virtual Library. 2001.</ref> The first ordained female Reconstructionist rabbi, [[Sandy Eisenberg Sasso]], served as rabbi of the Manhattan Reconstructionist Congregation in 1976 and gained a pulpit in 1977 at Beth El Zedeck congregation in Indianapolis. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso was accepted without debate or subsequent controversy.<ref>Sandy Sasso ordained as first female Reconstructionist rabbi,This Week in History. Jewish Women's Archive. http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/19/1974/sandy-sasso</ref> In 2005, 24 out of the movement's 106 synagogues in the US had women as senior or assistant rabbis.<ref>in Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States, Jewish Women's Archive, http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states</ref> In 2013 Rabbi [[Deborah Waxman]] was elected as the President of the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical College]].<ref name="thejewishweek.com">[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/national-news/reconstructionists-pick-first-woman-lesbian-denominational-leader Reconstructionists Pick First Woman, Lesbian As Denominational Leader | The Jewish Week]</ref><ref>[http://forward.com/articles/185252/trailblazing-reconstructionist-deborah-waxman-reli/?p=all Trailblazing Reconstructionist Deborah Waxman Relishes Challenges of Judaism – Forward.com]</ref> As the President, she is believed to be the first woman and first lesbian to lead a Jewish congregational union, and the first female rabbi and first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is both a congregational union and a seminary.<ref name="thejewishweek.com"/><ref>http://www.rrc.edu/sites/default/files/ORPHAN_PDFs/RRC_WaxmanPresidentElect-ForPress3.pdf?hero=1615</ref>

The Reconstructionist Community began including women in the [[minyan]] and allowing them to come up to the [[Torah]] for [[Aliyah (Torah)|aliyot]]. They also continued the practice of [[bat mitzvah]].<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso,Putting God on the Guest List: How to Reclaim the Spiritual Meaning of Your Child's Bar or Bat Mitzvah, Jewish Lights Publishing (Woodstock, Vermont), 1992.</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allowed women to perform other traditional male tasks, such as serving as witnesses, leading services,<ref>Cantor Heather’ is a first for Reconstructionist shul, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20569&Itemid=86 , Canadian Jewish News, 06 January 2011
</ref> public Torah reading, and wearing ritual prayer garments like [[kippot]] and [[tallitot]].<ref>One example in this video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oplgjEjts0 ,Darchei Noam Congregation, Toronto, Canada.</ref> Female Reconstructionist rabbis have been instrumental in the creation of rituals, stories, and music that have begun to give women's experience a voice in Judaism. Most of the focus has been on rituals for life-cycle events.<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar, Reconstructionist Press, 2005</ref> New ceremonies have been created for births,<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, Call Them Builders: A Resource Booklet about Jewish Attitudes and Practices on Birth and Family Life, Reconstructionist Federation of Congregations and Havurot (New York)</ref> weddings, divorces, conversions,<ref>Shefa, Sheri (August 2006). "Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb". Canadian Jewish News.http://joi.org/bloglinks/CJN Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb 8-24-06.pdf</ref> weaning, and the onset of menarche and menopause. The Reconstructionist movement as a whole has been committed to creating liturgy that is in consonance with gender equality and the celebration of women's lives.<ref>This is reflected in the prayer books that have been published by the Reconstructionist movement</ref><ref>Female scribe to pen Reconstructionist shul’s new Torah, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=16953&Itemid=86, Canadian Jewish News, May 21, 2009.</ref><ref>Montreal congregation hires first female scribe to pen Torah in Canada, http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200906031702/Montreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html ,Jewish Tribune,3 June 2009.</ref> Another major step: The Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations has also developed educational programs that teach the full acceptance of lesbians,<ref>See Rabbi [[Rebecca Alpert]] and Rabbi [[Toba Spitzer]]</ref> as well as rituals that affirm lesbian relationships.<ref>Anne Lapidus Lerner in Jewish Women's Archive http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lerner-anne-lapidus</ref><ref>Radin, Charles A. First openly gay rabbi elected leader,http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/03/first_openly_ga.html , Boston Globe, March 13, 2007.</ref> Reconstructionist rabbis officiate at same-sex weddings.<ref>for Montreal https://www.dorshei-emet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92&Itemid=100</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allows openly [[LGBT]] men and women to be ordained as rabbis and cantors.

Several prominent members of the Reconstructionist community have focused on issues like domestic violence.<ref>Gordon, Sheldon (21 April 2006) ''Billboards Focus on Jewish Domestic Violence'', in Jewish Daily Forward http://www.forward.com/articles/1263/</ref><ref>Na'amat Canada, http://www.naamat.com/legalaid.htm</ref><ref>Springtide Resources, Wife Abuse in the Jewish Community, http://www.womanabuseprevention.com/html/jewish_community.html</ref><ref>Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse, http://jcada.org/www/docs/4/</ref> Others have devoted energy to helping women gain the right of divorce in traditional Jewish communities.<ref>(French) Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce , Journal Le Devoir, 24 April 2010</ref><ref>Sonia Sarah Lipsyc ,http://soniasarahlipsyc.canalblog.com/</ref> Many have spoken out for the right of Jewish women to pray aloud and read from the Torah at the [[Western Wall]] in Jerusalem, the [[Women of the Wall]] group.<ref>[http://womenofthewall.org.il/?lang=he Women of the Wall | נשות הכותל]</ref>

When the roles of women in religion change, there may also be changed roles for men. With their advocacy of patrilineal descent in the 1970s, the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association]] supported the principle that a man who takes responsibility for raising a Jewish child can pass Judaism on to the next generation as well as a woman. All children who receive a Jewish education are considered Jewish in Reconstructionist Judaism regardless of whatever is the sex of their Jewish parent.

=== Jewish Renewal===
[[Jewish Renewal]] is a recent [[Jewish denominations|movement]] in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]], [[music]]al and [[Meditation|meditative]] practices; it describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism’s prophetic and mystical traditions." <ref>[http://www.aleph.org/renewal.htm About Jewish Renewal]</ref> The Jewish Renewal movement ordains women as well as men as rabbis and cantors. [[Lynn Gottlieb]] became the first female rabbi in Jewish Renewal in 1981, and [[Avitall Gerstetter]], who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA030.htm |title=Lynn Gottlieb |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2003-09-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2009 and 2012 respectively, OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) issued a board statement and a resolution supporting [[Women of the Wall]].<ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/2009-board-statement-on-women-of-the-wall/ 2009 Board Statement on Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref><ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/wow-statement-of-support/ 2012 Statement of Support for Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref> The Statement of Principles of OHALAH states in part, "Our local communities will embody egalitarian and inclusive values, manifested in a variety of leadership and decision-making structures, ensuring that women and men are full and equal partners in every aspect of our communal Jewish life." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/about-us/principles/ Aleph Statement of Principles | OhalahOhalah]</ref> In 2014 OHALAH issued a board resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: OHALAH supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]]; OHALAH condemns all types of sexism; OHALAH is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come; and OHALAH supports equal rights regardless of gender." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/resolution-on-gender-equality/ Board Resolution on Gender Equality | OhalahOhalah]</ref> Also in 2014, ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal issued a statement stating, "ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]], condemns all types of sexism, is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come, and supports equal rights regardless of gender, in recognition and allegiance to the view that we are all equally created in the Divine Image." <ref>[http://kolaleph.org/2014/02/04/gender-equality-now/ Statement On Gender Equality | Kol ALEPH]</ref>

=== Humanistic Judaism ===
[[Humanistic Judaism]] is a movement in Judaism that offers a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life. It ordains both men and women as rabbis, and its first rabbi was a woman, [[Tamara Kolton]], who was ordained in 1999.<ref name="shj">{{cite web|url=http://www.shj.org/shjbios.htm |title=Society for Humanistic Judaism - Rabbis and Leadership |publisher=Shj.org |accessdate=2012-03-12}}</ref> Its first cantor was also a woman, [[Hazzan Deborah Davis|Deborah Davis]], ordained in 2001; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped ordaining cantors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jmwc.org/Women/womend.html |title=Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music |publisher=JMWC |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> The [[Society for Humanistic Judaism]] issued a statement in 1996 stating in part, "we affirm that a woman has the moral right and should have the continuing legal right to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy in accordance with her own ethical standards. Because a decision to terminate a pregnancy carries serious, irreversible consequences, it is one to be made with great care and with keen awareness of the complex psychological, emotional, and ethical implications." They also issued a statement in 2011 condemning the then-recent passage of the “No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act” by the U.S. House of Representatives, which they called "a direct attack on a women’s right to choose".<ref>[http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html |date=20131228071242 }}</ref> In 2012, they issued a resolution opposing conscience clauses that allow religious-affiliated institutions to be exempt from generally applicable requirements mandating reproductive healthcare services to individuals or employees.<ref>[http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html |date=20131228070406 }}</ref> In 2013 they issued a resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: The Society for Humanistic Judaism wholeheartedly supports the observance of [[Women's Equality Day]] on August 26 to commemorate the anniversary of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allowing women to vote; The Society condemns gender discrimination in all its forms, including restriction of rights, limited access to education, violence, and subjugation; and The Society commits itself to maintain vigilance and speak out in the fight to bring gender equality to our generation and to the generations that follow." <ref>[http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html |date=20131018050824 }}</ref>

=== Women as soferim ===
A Sofer, Sopher, Sofer SeTaM, or Sofer ST"M (Heb: "scribe", סופר סת״ם) is a Jewish scribe who can transcribe Torah scrolls, tefillin and mezuzot, and other religious writings. (ST"M, סת״ם, is an abbreviation for Sefer Torahs, Tefillin, and Mezuzot. The plural of sofer is "soferim", סופרים.) Forming the basis for the discussion of women becoming soferim, [[Talmud|Talmud Gittin]] 45b states: "Sifrei Torah, tefillin and mezuzot written by a heretic, a star-worshipper, a slave, a woman, a minor, a [[Cuthean]], or an [[Apostasy in Judaism|apostate Jew]], are unfit for ritual use."<ref>[http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml ] {{wayback|url=http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml |date=20130615110436 }}</ref> The rulings on [[Mezuzah]] and [[Tefillin]] are virtually undisputed among those who hold to the [[Talmud|Talmudic Law]]. While [[Arba'ah Turim]] does not include women in its list of those ineligible to write Sifrei Torah, some see this as proof that women are permitted to write a Torah scroll.<ref>Tur, [[Wikisource:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/271|Orah Hayyim 271]].</ref> However today, virtually all Orthodox (both Modern and Ultra) authorities contest the idea that a woman is permitted to write a [[Sefer Torah]]. Yet women are permitted to inscribe [[Ketubah|Ketubot]] (marriage contracts), STaM not intended for ritual use, and other writings of [[Sofrut]] beyond simple STaM. In 2003 Canadian [[Aviel Barclay]] became the world's first known traditionally trained female sofer.<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/3614/ A Female Scribe’s Trailblazing Effort – Forward.com]</ref><ref>[http://jwablog.jwa.org/soferet Simchat Torah with a Soferet's Torah | Jewish Women's Archive]</ref> In 2007 [[Jen Taylor Friedman]], a British woman, became the first female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]].<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/11604/ As New Year Dawns, Jewish Women Mark Milestones – Forward.com]</ref> In 2010 the first [[Sefer Torah]] scribed by a group of women (six female sofers, who were from Brazil, Canada, Israel, and the United States) was completed;<ref>[http://jta.org/news/article/2010/10/15/2741313/womens-torah-dedicated-in-seattle Women’s Torah dedicated in Seattle | Jewish Telegraphic Agency]</ref> this was known as the [[Women's Torah Project]].<ref name="jweekly.com">[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/59670/cjms-resident-scribe-takes-part-in-group-torah-project-in-seattle/ Julie Seltzer, a female Torah scribe from San Francisco, contributed to the first Torah scroll to be written by a group of women. | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern Calif...]</ref>

From October 2010 until spring 2011, [[Julie Seltzer]], one of the female sofers from the Women's Torah Project, scribed a [[Sefer Torah]] as part of an exhibition at the [[Contemporary Jewish Museum]] in [[San Francisco]]. This makes her the first American female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]]; Julie Seltzer was born in Philadelphia and is non-denominationally Jewish.<ref name="jweekly.com"/><ref>http://www.thecjm.org/index.php?option=com_ccevents&scope=prgm&task=detail&fid=8&oid=563</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/arts/design/08sfculture.html</ref><ref>[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/61328/cjm-to-celebrate-end-of-groundbreaking-torah-project CJM to celebrate end of groundbreaking Torah project | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California]</ref> From spring 2011 until August 2012 she scribed another [[Sefer Torah]], this time for the Reform congregation Beth Israel in San Diego.<ref name="jpost.com">[http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=286912 Torah, she wrote | JPost | Israel News]</ref><ref>[http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah ] {{wayback|url=http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah |date=20150721211051 }}</ref> Seltzer was taught mostly by [[Jen Taylor Friedman]].<ref name="jpost.com"/> On September 22, 2013, [[Congregation Beth Elohim]] of New York dedicated a new Torah, which members of Beth Elohim said was the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman.<ref>[http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/congregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015 Congregation Beth Elohim in Park Slope dedicates new Torah for 150th anniversary - News 12 Brooklyn]</ref> The Torah was scribed by Linda Coppleson.<ref>[http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ ] {{wayback|url=http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ |date=20141011005036 }}</ref> As of 2014, there are an estimated 50 female sofers in the world.<ref>{{cite web|author=By Jeff KunerthOrlando Sentinel |url=http://www.pressherald.com/2014/08/23/female-jewish-scribe-helps-keep-tradition-alive/ |title=Female Jewish scribe helps keep tradition alive - The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram |publisher=Pressherald.com |date=2014-08-23 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism|Gender studies}}
*[[bat-Kohen]] (daughter of a priest)
*[[Jewish feminism]]
**[[List of Jewish feminists]]
*[[Women as theological figures]]
**[[Rabbi#Women as rabbis|Women as rabbis]]
**[[Rebbetzin]] (rabbi's wife)
**[[List of women in the Bible]]
*[[Beis Yaakov]] (schools for Haredi girls)
*[[Niddah]] (menstruation laws)
*''[[Soferet]]'' (Jewish scribe who can transcribe religious documents)
*[[Gender and Judaism]]
*[[Tzeniut]] (modest behavior)
*[[Negiah]] (guidelines for physical contact)
*[[Yichud]] (prohibitions of secluding oneself with a stranger)
*[[Jewish view of marriage]]
**[[Shidduch]] (finding a marriage partner)
**[[Shalom bayit]] (peace and harmony in the relationship between husband and wife)
*[[Minyan]] (quorum of at least ten Jews acceptable for the recitation of certain prayers)
**[[Partnership minyan]] (a movement to give women more roles in prayer services)
*[[Agunah]] (a woman who wishes to divorce her husband, but, because her husband did not provide her with a divorce contract, is unable to according to Jewish law)
*[[Women in Israel]]
**[[Women of the Wall]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==

'''General'''
* [http://www.rachaelscentre.org/ Rachael's Centre for Torah, Musar & Ethics] An online learning community dedicated to Pluralistic Jewish learning through a female lens
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://www.jofa.org/ Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance] JOFA
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://jcada.org/www Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse]
* [http://www.naamat.com/domesticviolence.htm Na'amat Canada]
* [http://www.awarenow.org/www/docs/100/Internet Adolescents Working for Awesome Relationship Experiences] AWARE

'''Publications'''
* [http://www.lilith.org/ Lilith Magazine] a Jewish feminist journal
* [http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.

'''Particular issues'''
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/12/06/wuhsha-the-broker-jewish-women-in-the-medieval-economy/ "Wuhsha the Broker: Jewish Women in the Medieval Economy," Jewish History Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/09/19/rachel-wife-of-akiva-women-in-ancient-israel/ "Rachel, Wife of Akiva: Women in Ancient Israel," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/02/10/gluckel-of-hameln-jewish-women-n-the-17th-century/ "Gluckel of Hameln: Jewish Women in the 17th Century," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/spots_of_light/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki Spots of Light: Women in the Holocaust] an online exhibition by [[Yad Vashem]]
* [http://alternativestokiddushin.wordpress.com The Kiddushin Variations] A Directory of Halakhic Possibilities For A More Egalitarian Kiddushin Ritual.
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library
* [http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5759winter/sense.htm "Sense and Sensibilities: Women and Torah Study"], Bryna Levy, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 1998, 59 (2).
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf "Qeri’at ha-Torah by Women: A Halakhic Analysis"]|972 KB}}, Shapiro, Mendel. Edah 1:2, 2001
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf "Congregational Dignity and Human Dignity: Women and Public Torah Reading"]|78.1 KB}}, Sperber, Daniel. Edah 3:2, 2002
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427 "Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies"], Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf "Women and the Minyan"]|194 KB}}, Fine, David. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative), 2002
* [http://www.annette-boeckler.de/liturgie/EgalitarianServices.html Egalitarian Jewish Services A Discussion Paper]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5765/5765winter/WOMENADV.PDF "Women Advocates Make Their Mark"]|473 KB}}, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 2004.
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimer2-1.htm "Women and Minyan"], ''[[Tradition (orthodox journal)|Tradition]]'', 1988. Summary of Orthodox arguments regarding women counting in minyan for certain purposes
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm "Women's Prayer Services Theory and Practice"], ''[[Tradition (journal)|Tradition]]'', 1998. Summary of Orthodox arguments for and against women's prayer groups
* Elissa Strauss, ''Women Who Write Torah, A New Generation of Female Scribes Makes History''. http://forward.com/articles/133017/, The Jewish Daily Forward, November 19, 2010.
* (French) Harvey, Claire. Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce, Le Devoir, 24 April 2010.
* ''Mordecai Kaplan'' .2005.http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai, Jewish Women's Archive, 2005
* Luo,Michael, An Orthodox Jewish Woman, and Soon, a Spiritual Leader, http://www.hods.org/pdf/press/An%20Orthodox%20Jewish%20Woman,%20and%20Soon,%20a%20Spiritual%20Leader.htm, New York Times, August 21, 2006.
* ''Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States''. http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states, Jewish Women's archive, 2005
* Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html, Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press
* ''On the Ordination of Women: An Advocate's Halakhic Response'' Mayer E. Rabbinowitz. In Simon Greenberg, ed., ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988.
* ''Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies,'' Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', [[Simon Greenberg]], ed. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988. ISBN 0-87334-041-8
* ''Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender'', [[Charlotte Fonrobert]], Stanford University Press, 2000
* ''The Moon's Lost Light: A Torah Perspective on Women from the Fall of Eve to the Full Redemption'', Devorah Heshelis, Targum Press, 2006. ISBN 1-56871-377-0
* Nadell, Pamela S., "Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination, 1889-1985" in Jewish Women's Life. Editor
* Rabbi Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar,

===Middle Ages===
* Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period''. Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52-60. ISBN 9780691057873
* Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94-114. ISBN 0814320929
* {{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|pages=41–51|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}
* {{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|isbn=0805210490}}
* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Mark R.|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=0691139318}}
* Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1584653922
* {{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|pages=34–45}}
* Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009.105-111.ISBN 9780814732199
* {{cite book|last=Steinberg|first=Theodore L.|title=Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=0275985881}}
* {{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|isbn=0827607520 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}

=== Orthodox Judaism and women ===
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' [[Blu Greenberg]], Jewish Publication Society
* ''Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment,'' [[Saul Berman|Berman, Saul J.]] Response, 40, 1981, 5:17.
* ''Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State,'' Ellenson, David Harry. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law (58-81) 2001.
* ''Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?'' [[Tamar Ross]], ''Judaism'', 42:4, 1993, 478-491.
* ''Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?,'' Reisman, Levi M. The Jewish Observer, 31:5, 1998, 37-47
* ''Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period,'' [[Ross|Ross, Tamar]]
* ''In Case There Tamar Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan,'' Fishbane, Simcha. Judaism, 42:4, 1993, 492-503.
* ''Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law,'' Shenhav, Sharon. Justice, 21, 1999, 28-31.
* ''On Egalitarianism & Halakha,'' Stern, Marc D. Tradition, 36:2, 2002, 1-30.
* ''Women, Jewish Law and Modernity,'' Wolowelsky, Joel B. Ktav. 1997.
* ''Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism'', [[Tamar Ross|Ross, Tamar]]. Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58465-390-6
* ''Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups'', [[Avi Weiss|Weiss, Avi]], Ktav publishers, January 2003 ISBN 0-88125-719-2
*''Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation''. [[Tova Hartman|Hartman, Tova]], Brandeis University Press, 2007. ISBN 1-58465-658-1.

{{Jewish life}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Women In Judaism}}
[[Category:Judaism and women| ]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Gender roles by society]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2015-11-04T03:46:51Z

Jprg1966: /* Conservative approaches to change */

{{About|historical and modern views of Jews|the portrayal of women in the Bible|Women in the Bible}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|religion}}
{{Women in society sidebar}}

The [[role]] of '''women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], the [[Oral Torah|Oral Law]] (the corpus of rabbinic literature), by [[Minhag|custom]], and by non-religious cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature mention various female role models, religious law treats women differently in various circumstances.

[[Gender]] has a bearing on familial lines: in traditional Judaism, [[Who is a Jew?|Jewishness]] is passed down through the mother, although the father's name is used to describe sons and daughters in the [[Torah]], e.g., "Dinah, daughter of Jacob".<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|pages= 121, 131}}</ref>

==Biblical times==
{{See also|Old Testament views on women}}
Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are a number of exceptions to this rule, including the [[Matriarchs (Bible)|Matriarchs]] [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca]], [[Rachel]], and [[Leah]], [[Miriam]] the prophetess, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Huldah]] the prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Rahab]] and [[Esther]]. In the Biblical account these women did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was formed between the Israelites and the God of Abraham at Mount Sinai. The Torah relates that both Israelite men and Israelite women were present at Sinai, however, the covenant was worded in such a way that it bound men to act upon its requirements and to ensure that the members of their household (wives, children, and slaves) met these requirements as well. In this sense, the covenant bound women as well, though indirectly.<ref name="HauptmanEtz">[[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman, Judith]]. "Women." ''Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary''. Ed. David L. Lieber. The Jewish Publication Society, 2001. 1356-1359.</ref>

Marriage and family law in biblical times favored men over women. For example, a husband could divorce a wife if he chose to, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. The practice of [[levirate marriage]] applied to widows of childless deceased husbands, not to widowers of childless deceased wives; though if either he or she didn't consent to the marriage, a different ceremony called chalitza is done instead. Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men during biblical times, however, they also suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount.<ref name="HauptmanEtz" /> However, men had specific obligations they were required to perform for their wives. These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual relations to their wives.<ref>[[Joseph Telushkin|Telushkin, Joseph]]. ''Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible''. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997. p. 403.</ref>

Women also had a role in ritual life. Women (as well as men) were required to make a pilgrimage to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] once a year and offer the [[Passover]] [[korban|sacrifice]]. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a ''todah'' ("thanksgiving") offering after childbirth. Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non-levitical men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and generally more discreet scale.

Women depended on men economically. Women generally did not own property except in the rare case of inheriting land from a father who didn't bear sons. Even "in such cases, women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings."<ref name="HauptmanEtz" />

According to [[John Bowker (theologian)]], traditionally, Jewish "men and women pray separately. This goes back to ancient times when women could go only as far as the second court of the Temple."<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 119}}</ref>

==Talmudic times==
Classical Jewish [[rabbinical literature]] contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that:
*Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the (righteous) women than to (righteous) men<ref>''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berakhot]]'' 17a</ref>
*Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine<ref>''[[Nashim|Kiddushin]]'' 49b</ref>
*Women are ''light on raw knowledge'' – i.e., they possess more intuition<ref>''[[Shabbat (Talmud)|Shabbat]]'' 33b</ref>
*A man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good; a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself<ref>''[[Yebamot]]'' 62b</ref>
*When [[Rav Yosef b. Hiyya]] heard his mother's footsteps he would say: ''Let me arise before the approach of the [[Shekhinah|divine presence]]''<ref>''Kiddushin'' 31b</ref>
*Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its (Israel's) righteous women<ref>''[[Sotah]]'' 11b</ref>
*A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong<ref>''[[Baba Metzia]]'' 59a</ref>
*Women have greater faith than men<ref>''[[Sifre]]'', 133</ref>
*Women have greater powers of discernment<ref>''[[Tohorot|Niddah]]'' 45b</ref>
*Women are especially tenderhearted<ref>''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'' 14b</ref>

While few women are mentioned by name in rabbinic literature, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands. Occasionally they have a public persona. Examples are [[Bruriah daughter of Rabbi Hananiah Ben Teradion|Bruriah]], the wife of the [[Tannaim|Tanna]] [[Rabbi Meir]]; Rachel, the wife of [[Akiba ben Joseph|Rabbi Akiva]]; and Yalta, the wife of [[Rav Nachman|Rabbi Nachman]]. [[Elazar ben Arach|Rabbi Elazar]]'s{{Who|date=February 2010}} [[Imma Shalom|wife]] (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]]. When R' Elazar ben Azarya was asked to assume the role of ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]'' ("Prince" or President of the [[Sanhedrin]]), he replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Brachoth 27b</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
Since Jews were seen as second class citizens in the Christian and Muslim world, it was even harder for Jewish women to establish their own status. Avraham Grossman argues in his book ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe'' that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them: "the biblical and talmudic heritage; the situation in the non-Jewish society within which the Jews lived and functioned; and the economic status of the Jews, including the woman's role in supporting the family."<ref>Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. 1.</ref> Grossman uses all three factors to argue that women's status overall during this period actually rose.<ref>Grossman, 3.</ref>

During the Middle Ages, there was a conflict between Judaism's lofty religious expectations of women and the reality of society in which these Jewish women lived; this is similar to the lives of Christian women in the same period.<ref>Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94.</ref> This prompted the [[kabbalistic]] work ''Sefer Hakanah'' to demand that women fulfill the ''[[mitzvot]]'' in a way that would be equal to men.<ref name="Ben-Sasson">Ben-Sasson, H. H. "Spiritual and Social Creativity." ''A History of the Jewish People''. Ed. Ben-Sasson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. 612–627. Print.</ref>

=== Religious life ===
Religious developments during the medieval period included relaxation on prohibitions against teaching women [[Torah]], and the rise of women's prayer groups.<ref>Steinberg, 157–158.</ref> One place that women participated in Jewish practices publicly was the [[synagogue]]. Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.<ref name="Baskin 1991 42">{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=42|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There is evidence that in the 15th century some communities of [[Ashkenaz]], the wife of the rabbi wore ''[[tzitzit]]'' just like her husband.<ref name="Ben-Sasson" />

In most [[synagogues]] they were given their own section, most likely a balcony; some [[synagogues]] had a separate building.<ref name="Grossman,181">Grossman, 181.</ref> Separation from the men was created by the Rabbis in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]. The reasoning behind the [[Halacha]] was that a woman and her body would distract men and give them impure thoughts during prayer.<ref>[[Talmud]], [[Sukkah (Talmud)|Succah]] 51a–52b</ref> Due to this rabbinical interpretation, scholars have seen the women’s role in the synagogue as limited and sometimes even non-existent. However, recent research has shown that women actually had a larger role in the synagogue and the community at large. Women usually attended synagogue, for example, on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] and the holidays.<ref>Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period.'' Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52.</ref> Depending on the location of the women in the [[synagogue]], they may have followed the same service as the men or they conducted their own services. Since the [[synagogues]] were large, there would be a designated woman who would be able to follow the cantor and repeat the prayers aloud for the women.<ref name="Grossman,181" /> Women had always attended services on [[Shabbat]] and holidays, but beginning in the eleventh century, women became more involved in the [[synagogue]] and its rituals. Women sitting separately from the men became a norm in [[synagogues]] around the beginning of the thirteenth century.<ref>Steinberg, 157.</ref> Women, however, did much more than pray in the [[synagogue]]. One of the main jobs for women was to beautify the building. There are [[Torah ark]] curtains and [[Torah]] covers that women sewed and survive today.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|page=128 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}</ref> The [[synagogue]] was a communal place for both men and women where worship, learning and community activities occurred.

The rise and increasing popularity of [[Kabbalah]], which emphasized the [[shechinah]] and female aspects of the divine presence and human-divine relationship, and which saw marriage as a holy covenant between partners rather than a civil contract, had great influence. Kabbalists explained the phenomenon of menstruation as expressions of the demonic or sinful character of the menstruant.<ref>Koren, Sharon Faye. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/nashim/summary/v017/17.koren.html "The Menstruant as 'Other' in Medieval Judaism and Christianity."] Project MUSE. Spring 2009. 29 December 2011.</ref> These changes were accompanied by increased pietistic strictures, including greater requirements for [[Tzeniut|modest dress]], and greater strictures during [[Niddah|the period of menstruation]]. At the same time, there was a rise in philosophical and [[midrashic]] interpretations depicting women in a negative light, emphasizing a duality between matter and spirit in which femininity was associated, negatively, with earth and matter.<ref>Grossman, 277–278.</ref> The gentile society was also seen as a negative influence on the Jewish community. For example, it seems that Jews would analyze the modesty of their non-Jewish neighbors before officially moving into a new community because they knew that their children would be influenced by the local gentiles.<ref>Grossman, 2.</ref>

After the [[Alhambra Decree|expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492]], women became virtually the only source of Jewish ritual and tradition in the Catholic world in a phenomenon known as [[crypto-Judaism]]. Crypto-Jewish women would slaughter their own animals and made sure to keep as many of the [[Kosher|Jewish dietary laws]] and life cycle rituals as possible without raising suspicion. Occasionally, these women were prosecuted by [[Inquisition]] officials for suspicious behavior such as lighting candles to honor the Sabbath or refusing to eat pork when it was offered to them. The [[Inquisition]] targeted crypto-Jewish women at least as much as it targeted crypto-Jewish men because women were accused of perpetuating Jewish tradition while men were merely permitting their wives and daughters to organize the household in this manner.<ref>Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009. 105–111.</ref>

Jewish women were also apart of the social phenomenon of martyrdom of the [[First Crusade]]. Most of the violence from the [[First Crusade]] towards Jews was due to the [[People's Crusade]]. Inspired by the Pope's call, Christians in Roven, Trier, Metz, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Prague, and Bohemia, among others, massacred thousands of Jews. The local governments did not, at first, sanction the mass murder of Jews as part of the fervor of the Crusades. However, popular anxiety overcame many towns and villages and lead towards the local government's support of killing Jews.<ref>Steinberg, 108.</ref> Although many Jews did convert, many rather chose to die. Through the sources, such as chronicles and poems, we see that Jewish women were often martyred with their families.<ref name="Steinberg,160">Steinberg, 160.</ref> In contrast, most Christian women martyrs were members of a convent or religious order when they were martyred (See [http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/women1.htm Women and Hagiography in Medieval Christianity] for more information).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|page=38}}</ref>

=== Domestic life ===
Marriage, Domestic Violence and Divorce are all topics discussed by Jewish sages of the Medieval world. Marriage is an important institution in Judaism (see [[Marriage in Judaism]]). The sages of this period discussed this topic at length.

[[Rabbeinu Gershom]] instituted a rabbinic decree ([[Takkanah]]) prohibiting polygamy among [[Ashkenazic]] Jews.<ref>{{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|page=81}}</ref> The rabbis instituted legal methods to enable women to petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a divorce. [[Maimonides]] ruled that a woman who found her husband "repugnant" could compel a divorce, "because she is not like a captive, to be subjected to intercourse with one who is hateful to her."<ref>[[Mishneh Torah]], Hilkhot Ishut 14:8</ref><ref>Biale, 91.</ref> Divorce for Christian women was technically not an option. By the tenth century, Christianity considered marriage a sacrament and could not be dissolved (see [[Divorce#Medieval Europe|Divorce in Medieval Europe]]).

The rabbis also instituted and tightened prohibitions on domestic violence. [[Peretz ben Elijah|Rabbi Peretz ben Elijah]] ruled, "The cry of the daughters of our people has been heard concerning the sons of Israel who raise their hands to strike their wives. Yet who has given a husband the authority to beat his wife?"<ref>Grossman, 224.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] ruled that "For it is the way of the Gentiles to behave thus, but Heaven forbid that any Jew should do so. And one who beats his wife is to be excommunicated and banned and beaten."<ref>Grossman, 226.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] also ruled that a battered wife could petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a husband to grant a divorce, with a monetary fine owed her on top of the regular [[ketubah]] money.<ref>Grossman, 222.</ref> These rulings occurred in the midst of societies where wife-beating was legally sanctioned and routine.<ref>Grossman, 230.</ref>

=== Education ===
Jewish women had a limited education. They were taught to read, write, run a household. They were also given some education in religious law that was essential to their daily lives, such as keeping [[kosher]].<ref name="Baskin 1991 42" /> Both Christian and Jewish girls were educated in the home. Although Christian girls may have had a male or female tutor, most Jewish girls had a female tutor.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=43|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> Higher learning was uncommon for both Christian and Jewish women. Christian women could enter a convent in order to achieve a higher education (See [[Female education#Medieval period|Female Education in the Medieval Period]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=46|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There are more sources of education for Jewish women living in Muslim controlled lands. Middle Eastern Jewry, on the other hand, had an abundance of female literates. The [[Cairo Geniza]] is filled with correspondences written (sometimes dictated) between family members and spouses. Many of these letters are pious and poetic and express a desire to be in closer or more frequent contact with a loved one that is far enough away to only be reached by written correspondence. There are also records of wills and other personal legal documents as well as written petitions to officials in cases of spouse spousal abuse or other conflicts between family members written or dictated by women.<ref>Melammed, 91–100.</ref>

Many women gained enough education to help their husbands out in business or even hold their own. Just like Christian women who ran their own business, Jewish women were engaged in their own occupations as well as helping their husbands. Jewish women seem to have lent money to Christian women throughout Europe.<ref>Marcus, 38.</ref> Women were also copyists, [[Midwifery#Early historical perspective|midwives]], spinners and weavers.<ref name="Steinberg,160" /><ref>Marcus, 39.</ref>

==Views on the education of women==
From certain contexts of the Mishnah and Talmud it can be derived that women should not study Mishnah. There were female Tannaitic Torah jurists such as Rabbi Meir's wife,<ref>Medrish on Proverbs 31:10</ref> Rabbi Meir's daughter, and the daughter of Haninyah ben Teradyon<ref>Talmud Babylonia Kelim Bava Kamma 4:17 separately in Sifre Deuteronomy 307 in both she is personally left unnamed and referred to as just, 'and we have learned from the daughter of Haninyah ben Terradyon', a sign of the prevailing attitude towards women (as property of their fathers).</ref> Haninyah's daughter is again mentioned as a sage in the non-Talmud 3rd-century text Tractate Semahot verse 12:13.<ref>[http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300010695 also search ISBN 9780300010695 for an English translation.]</ref> Rabbi Meir's wife is credited with teaching him how to understand some verses from Isaiah.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Berachot 10a</ref> In the Mishnah there is also a reference to certain women teaching men the Torah from behind a curtain, so that no man would be offended.

A ''yeshiva'', or school for Talmudic studies, is an "exclusively masculine environment" because of absence of women from these studies.<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 123}}</ref>

===Beruryah===
[[Beruryah]] (her name is a standard Jewish female name meaning 'the clarity of God') is a Tanna mentioned by name in the Talmud, who has a female name, has orally been transmitted as a female, and is referred to in the text using the nekeva (feminine Hebrew and Aramaic) adjectives and adverbs. Originally she was believed to be either Rabbi Meir's wife mentioned above, or Rabbi Chaninyah's daughter mentioned above, however over the past three to four centuries Rabbinic scholars have realized that these generations do not correspond to Beruryah's law decisions, and life, therefore she today is just 'Beruryah' and of heretofore unknown lineage.

Her law decisions were minor but set a crucial ancient precedent for modern Jewish women. She is mentioned at least four times in the Talmudic discourse regarding her law decrees first Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 10a then in Tosefta Pesahim 62b in Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 53b–54a and Babylonian Talmud Avodah Zarah 18b. In one case she paskinned din on "klaustra" a rare Greek word referring to an object, used in the Talmud, unfortunately Rabbi Yehudah Hanassi did not believe women could be credited with paskining din, as it says 'do not speak too much to women' (Tannah Rabbi Jesse the Galilean), and therefore credited the law to Rabbi Joshua who may have been her father.<ref>Mishnah Keylim 11:4</ref>

Beruryah however was actually remembered with great respect in the Talmud where she is lauded to have been reputed as such a genius that she studied “three hundred Halachot from three hundred sages in just one day” (Pesachim 62b). Clearly contradicting the injunction against women studying Torah.

===Rashi's daughters===
[[Rashi]] had no sons and taught the Mishnah and Talmud to his daughters, until they knew it by heart as Jewish tradition teaches;<ref>[http://www.rashisdaughters.com/ Rashi's Daughters]</ref> they then transferred their knowledge of original Mishnah commentary to the Ashkenazi men of the next generation.

===Haim Yosef David Azulai, AKA 'The Hid'aa'===
The [[Chaim Joseph David Azulai|Hida]], wrote (Tuv Ayin, no. 4) woman should not study Mishnah only if they do not want to.'We cannot force a woman to learn, like we do to boys'. However, if she wants to learn then not only may she do so on her own, but men may originally teach her, and she can then teach other women if they so choose. According to the Hida, the prohibition against teaching women does not apply to a motivated woman or girl. Other Mizrahi Rabbis disputed this with him.

His response to detractors was that indeed, in truth, there is a prohibition against teaching Mishnah to any student—male or female—who one knows is not properly prepared and motivated, referred to a talmid she-eino hagun (Shulhan Arukh, Yoreh De'ah 246:7). Babylonian Talmud Berakhos 28a relates that Rabban Gamliel would announce that any student who is not pure enough so that 'his outer self is like his inner self' may not enter the study hall. While this approach, requiring absolute purity, was rejected by other ancient Rabbis, for example 'he who is not for the name of God, will become for the name of God', and a middle approach was adopted by Jews as standard. If one has knowledge that a particular Mishnayot student is definitely bad then he may not be taught. He claimed that 'it seems that for women there is a higher standard and she must be motivated in order to have this permission to learn' in his response to the Mizrahi tradition.

===Yisrael Meir Kagan===
{{Main|Yisrael Meir Kagan}}
One of the most important Ashkenazic rabbanim of the past century, Yisrael Meir Kagan, known popularly as the Chofetz Chaim. favored Torah education for girls to counteract the French "finishing schools" prevalent in his day for the daughters of the bourgeoisie.{{quote|
"It would appear that all [these sexist laws] were intended for earlier generations when everyone dwelt in the place of their familial ancestral home and ancestral tradition was very powerful among all to follow the path of their fathers... under such circumstances we could maintain that a woman not study Mishnayos and, for guidance, rely on her righteous parents, but presently, due to our myriad sins, ancestral tradition has become exceptionally weak and it is common that people do not dwell in proximity to the family home, and especially those women who devote themselves to mastering the vernacular, surely it is a now a great mitzvah to teach them Scripture and the ethical teachings of our sages such as Pirkei Avos, Menoras Ha-Ma'or and the like so that they will internalize our sacred faith because [if we do not do so] they are prone to abandon the path of God and violate all principles of [our] faith."<ref>Likkutei Halachos, Sotah p. 21</ref>}}

===Joseph Solovetchik===
{{Main|Joseph B. Soloveitchik}}
Rabbi Yoseph Solovetchik 'amened' the teachings of The Hafetz Haim. Rabbi Solovetchik taught all religious Ashkenazi Jews with the exception of hardline Hasidim, not should, or if they show motivation, but must teach their female children Gemarah like the boy school children. He among others fully institutionalized the teaching of Mishnah and Talmud to girls, from an autobiography on him by Rabbi Mayor Twersky called "A Glimpse of the Rav" in R. Menachem Genack ed., Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: Man of Halacha, Man of Faith, page 113: {{quote|"The halakha prohibiting Torah study for women is not indiscriminate or all-encompassing. There is complete unanimity that women are obligated to study halakhot pertaining to mitsvot which are incumbent upon them... The prohibition of teaching Torah she-Ba'al Pe to women relates to optional study. If ever circumstances dictate that study of Torah sh-Ba'al Pe is necessary to provide a firm foundation for faith, such study becomes obligatory and obviously lies beyond the pale of any prohibition." Undoubtedly, the Rav's prescription was more far-reaching that that of the Hafets Hayim and others. But the difference in magnitude should not obscure their fundamental agreement [on changing the attitudes Halachically].}}

==Present day==
{{Jewish feminism}}
{{Further|Jewish feminism|Women in Israel|Orthodox Jewish feminism|Women of the Wall}}

===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] is based on gendered understandings of Jewish practice—i.e., that there are different roles for men and women in religious life. There are different opinions among Orthodox Jews concerning these differences. Most claim that men and women have complementary, yet different roles in religious life, resulting in different religious obligations. Others believe that some of these differences are not a reflection of religious law, but rather of cultural, social, and historical causes. In the area of education, women were historically exempted from any study beyond an understanding of the practical aspects of [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household{{spaced ndash}}both of which they have an obligation to learn. Until the twentieth century, women were often discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. In the past 100 years, Orthodox Jewish education for women has advanced tremendously.<ref>Handelman, Susan. [http://www.chabad.org/theJewishWoman/article_cdo/aid/371261/jewish/Feminism-and-Orthodoxy.htm "Feminism and Orthodoxy - What It's All About."] ''Chabad Lubavitch''. 25 December 2011.</ref>

There have been many areas in which Orthodox women have been working towards change within religious life over the past 20 years: promoting advanced women's learning and scholarship, promoting women's ritual inclusion in synagogue, promoting women's communal and religious leadership, and more.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lakein|first1=Dvora|title=How Does She Do It?|url=http://lubavitch.com/news/article/2031309/How-Does-She-Do-It.html|accessdate=17 November 2014|agency=Chabad Lubavitch World HQ / News|date=October 6, 2014|quote=Mrs. Shula Bryski, representative to Thousand Oaks, California, and a mother of six, says that the Rebbe “empowered women in a way perhaps never done before.” Embracing modernity, the Rebbe understood that today, “women need more sophisticated Judaism, more depth, more spirituality.” Bryski’s personal emphasis in this affluent Los Angeles suburb is educating women through a weekly Caffeine for the Soul class, monthly Rosh Chodesh Society meetings, and the wildly-popular bat-mitzvah classes she leads. Bryski also serves on the editorial board of the Rosh Chodesh Society, a project of Jewish Learning Institute (JLI) and is a prolific writer.}}</ref> Women have been advancing change despite often vocal opposition by rabbinic leaders. Some Orthodox rabbis try to discount changes by claiming that women are motivated by sociological reasons and not by "true" religious motivation.<ref>Kress, Michael. [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/orthostate.html "The State of Orthodox Judaism Today."] ''Jewish Virtual Library''. 25 December 2011.</ref> For example, Orthodox, [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]], and [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] rabbis discourage women from wearing a [[yarmulke]], [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed members|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011|accessdate=October 29, 2014|issue=Haaretz|date=January 29, 2014}}</ref>

In most Orthodox synagogues, women still do not give a ''d'var Torah'' (brief discourse, generally on the weekly Torah portion) after or between services. Furthermore, a few Modern Orthodox synagogues have mechitzot dividing the left and right sides of the synagogue (rather than the usual division between the front and back of the synagogue, with women sitting in the back), with the women's section on one side and the men's section on the other.<ref>[http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf ] {{wayback|url=http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf |date=20150402103147 }}</ref>

====Rules of modesty====
{{Main|Tzniut}}
The importance of modesty in dress and conduct is particularly stressed among girls and women in Orthodox society. Many Orthodox women only wear skirts and avoid wearing trousers, and some married Orthodox women cover their hair with a wig, hat, or scarf. Judaism prescribes modesty for both men and women.{{citation needed |date=November 2013}}

====Rules of family purity====
{{Main|Niddah}}
In accordance with Jewish Law, Orthodox Jewish women refrain from contact with their husbands while they are [[niddah|menstruating]], and for a period of 7 clean days after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. The Israeli Rabbinate has recently approved women acting as ''yoatzot'', [[halakhic]] advisers on sensitive personal matters such as [[family purity]].

====Modern Orthodox Judaism====
Rabbi [[Joseph B. Soloveitchik]], a leader of profound influence in modern Orthodoxy in the United States, discouraged women from serving as presidents of synagogues or any other official positions of leadership,<ref name="Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis Of Womens Prayer Groups">[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQHwIAxpZRAC&pg=PA107], additional text.</ref> from performing other [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]] (commandments) traditionally performed by males exclusively, such as wearing a [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]]. Soloveitchik wrote that while women do not lack the capability to perform such acts, there is no [[Tradition|''mesorah'']] (Jewish tradition) that permits it. In making his decision, he relied upon Jewish oral law, including a [[mishnah]] in Chulin 2a and a Beit Yoseph in the Tur Yoreh Deah stating that a woman can perform a specific official communal service for her own needs but not those of others.<ref>Aharon Ziegler, ''Halakhic Positions of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik'', Volume II, p. 81.</ref>

Women's issues garnered more interest with the advent of [[feminism]]. Many Modern Orthodox Jewish women and Modern Orthodox rabbis sought to provide greater and more advanced Jewish education for women. Since most Modern Orthodox women attend college, and many receive advanced degrees in a variety of fields, Modern Orthodox communities generally promote women's secular education. A few Modern Orthodox Synagogues have women serving as clergy, including [[Gilah Kletenik]] at [[Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun]]. In 2013, [[Yeshivat Maharat]], located in the United States, became the first Orthodox institution to consecrate female clergy. The graduates of Yeshivat Maharat do not call themselves "rabbis." The title they are given is "maharat."<ref>"Jewish Daily Forward Podcast." ''[http://forward.com/articles/179052/female-orthodox-leaders-new-and-old/ Female Orthodox Leaders: New and Old]''. 21 June 2013. ''The Jewish Daily Forward''. Web. 23 June 2013.</ref> Also in 2013, [[Malka Schaps]] became the first female [[Haredi]] dean at an Israeli university when she was appointed dean of Bar Ilan University's Faculty of Exact Sciences.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.550156 Malka Schaps becomes first female Haredi dean at Israeli university - National Israel News | Haaretz]</ref> Also in 2013, the first class of female [[halacha|halachic]] advisers trained to practice in the US graduated; they graduated from the North American branch of [[Nishmat]]’s yoetzet halacha program in a ceremony at Congregation Sheartith Israel, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in Manhattan and [[SAR High School]] in Riverdale, New York began allowing girls to wrap tefillin during Shacharit-morning prayer; it is probably the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so.<ref>[http://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/nyc-orthodox-high-school-lets-girls-put-on-tefillin/2014/01/20/ The Jewish Press » » NYC Orthodox High School Lets Girls Put On Tefillin]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/landmark-us-program-graduates-first-female-halachic-advisers/ Landmark US program graduates first female halachic advisers | The Times of Israel]</ref>

In 2014, the first ever book of [[halacha|halachic]] decisions written by women who were ordained to serve as poskot (Idit Bartov and Anat Novoselsky) was published.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://jpupdates.com/2014/06/26/first-halacha-sefer-women-makes-waves-israel-orthodox-world/ First Halacha Sefer By Women Makes Waves in Israeli Orthodox World - JP Updates | JP Updates]</ref> The women were ordained by the municipal chief rabbi of Efrat, Rabbi [[Shlomo Riskin]], after completing [[Midreshet Lindenbaum]] women’s college’s five-year ordination course in advanced studies in Jewish law, as well as passing examinations equivalent to the rabbinate’s requirement for men.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

In 2015, Jennie Rosenfeld became the first female Orthodox spiritual advisor in Israel (specifically, she became the spiritual advisor, also called manhiga ruchanit, for the community of [[Efrat]].)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2015/1/26/with-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel#.VMZhzS7lw4I=|title=With female spiritual advisor, Efrat spotlights women’s empowerment in Israel|work=JNS.org}}</ref>

====Women's prayer groups====
Separate Jewish women's prayer groups were a sanctioned custom among German Jews in the [[Middle Ages]]. The ''Kol Bo'' provides, in the laws for [[Tisha B'Av]]:

:And they recite dirges there for about a quarter of the night, the men in their synagogue and the women in their synagogue. And likewise during the day the men recite dirges by themselves and the women by themselves, until about a third of the day has passed.

In Germany, in the 12th and 13th centuries, women's prayer groups were led by female cantors. Rabbi Eliezar of Worms, in his elegy for his wife Dulca, praised her for teaching the other women how to pray and embellishing the prayer with music. The gravestone of Urania of Worms, who died in 1275, contains the inscription "who sang ''piyyutim'' for the women with musical voice." In the Nurnberg Memorial Book, one Richenza was inscribed with the title "prayer leader of the women."<ref>Grossman, ''Pious and Rebellious'', pp. 180-182.</ref>

Orthodox women more recently began holding organized women's ''tefila'' (prayer) groups beginning in the 1970s. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a ''[[minyan]]'' (prayer quorum) for the purpose of [[Jewish services|regular services]], women in these groups read the prayers and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of Orthodox Judaism have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:

* The most restrictive view, held by some Modern Orthodox authorities, and most Haredi Rabbis, rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law).{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}
* A more liberal, permissive view maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatible with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e., do not include certain parts of the service known as ''devarim she-bi-kdusha''), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against ''halakha''. People in this group include Rabbi Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Rabbi [[Avi Weiss]].<ref>Israel's late [[Ashkenazi]]c [[Chief Rabbi]] [[Shlomo Goren]] ''may'' have ruled in 1974 that while women do not constitute a ''minyan'', they may still carry out full prayer services. Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, stating that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual ''halakha'' was in accord with the second school of thought, listed above.[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm]</ref>
* A third view maintains argues in favor of the acceptability of calling women to the Torah in mixed services, and leading certain parts of the service which do not require a [[minyan]], under certain conditions.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf]|972 KB}}</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf]|78.1 KB}}</ref>

In 2013 the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a [[halacha|halachic]] ruling which allows women, for the first time, to say the [[Kaddish]] prayer in memory of their deceased parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4396702,00.html |title=Halachic ruling: Women may say Kaddish - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

====Women as witnesses====
Traditionally, women are not generally permitted to serve as witnesses in an Orthodox [[Beit Din]] ([[Beit Din|rabbinical court]]), although they have recently been permitted to serve as ''toanot'' (advocates) in those courts. This limitation has exceptions which have required exploration under rabbinic law as the role of women in society and the obligations of religious groups under external civil law have been subject to increasing recent scrutiny.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The recent case of Rabbi [[Mordecai Tendler]], the first rabbi to be expelled from the [[Rabbinical Council of America]] following allegations of sexual harassment, illustrated the importance of clarification of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[halakha]] in this area. Rabbi Tendler claimed that the tradition of exclusion of women's testimony should compel the RCA to disregard the allegations. He argued that since the testimony of a woman could not be admitted in [[Beit Din|Rabbinical court]], there were no valid witnesses against him, and hence the case for his expulsion had to be thrown out for lack of evidence. In a ruling of importance for Orthodox women's capacity for legal self-protection under [[Halakha|Jewish law]], [[Haredi]] Rabbi [[Benzion Wosner]], writing on behalf of the ''Shevet Levi'' [[Beit Din]] (Rabbinical court) of [[Monsey, New York]], identified sexual harassment cases as coming under a class of exceptions to the traditional exclusion, under which "even children or women" have not only a right but an obligation to testify, and can be relied upon by a rabbinical court as valid witnesses:

:The [[Meir Abulafia|Ramah]] in Choshen Mishpat (Siman 35, 14) rules that in a case where only women congregate or in a case where only women could possibly testify, (in this case the alleged harassment occurred behind closed doors) they can and should certainly testify. (Terumas Hadeshen Siman 353 and Agudah Perek 10, Yochasin)

:This is also the ruling of the [[Joseph Colon Trabotto|Maharik]], [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra|Radvaz]], and the [[Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz|Mahar"i of Minz]]. Even those "[[Posek|Poskim]]" that would normally not rely on women witnesses, they would certainly agree that in our case ... where there is ample evidence that this Rabbi violated [[Torah]] precepts, then even children or women can certainly be kosher as witnesses, as the [[Chatam Sofer|Chasam Sofer]] pointed out in his ''sefer'' (monograph) (Orach Chaim T'shuvah 11)<ref>English summary at [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/Tendler_Mordecai.html The Awareness Center: Case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler.] Original ''teshuvah'' ([[Responsum]]) (in Hebrew) at {{PDF|[http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/HaravWosner'sT'shuvah.pdf The Awareness Center: Harav Wosner's Teshuvah]|130 KB}} (Note: parenthetical translations are added, parenthetical references are original)</ref>

The [[Rabbinical Council of America]], while initially relying on its own investigation, chose to rely on the Halakhic ruling of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbinical body as authoritative in the situation.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

====Orthodox approaches to change====
Leaders of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] community have been steadfast in their opposition to a change in the role of women, arguing that the religious and social constraints on women, as dictated by traditional Jewish texts, are timeless and are not affected by contemporary social change. Many also argue that giving traditionally male roles to women will only detract from both women's and men's ability to lead truly fulfilling lives. Haredim have also sometimes perceived arguments for liberalization as in reality stemming from antagonism to Jewish law and beliefs generally, arguing that preserving faith requires resisting secular and "un-Jewish" ideas.

Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly in its more liberal variants, has tended to look at proposed changes in the role of women on a specific, case-by-case basis, focusing on arguments regarding the religious and legal role of specific prayers, rituals and activities individually. Such arguments have tended to focus on cases where the Talmud and other traditional sources express multiple or more liberal viewpoints, particularly where the role of women in the past was arguably broader than in more recent times. Feminist advocates within Orthodoxy have tended to stay within the traditional legal process of argumentation, seeking a gradualist approach, and avoiding wholesale arguments against the religious tradition as such.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Nevertheless, a growing [[Orthodox Jewish feminism|Orthodox feminist]] movement seeks to address gender inequalities.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed women|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011#|accessdate=30 June 2014|work=Haaretz|date=Jan 28, 2014}}</ref></blockquote>

===Agunot===

[[Agunot]] (lit. "chained women") are women who wish to divorce their husbands, but whose husbands refuse to give them a writ of divorce (a "get"). In Orthodox Judaism, only a man is able to serve a "get."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Farkash|first1=Tali|title=e women extorted by ex-husbands|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4400770,00.html|accessdate=2014-10-29|publisher=Ynet News|date=2013-07-07}}</ref>

===Conservative Judaism===
Although the position of [[Conservative Judaism]] toward women originally differed little from the Orthodox position, it has in recent years minimized legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of decisions and [[responsa]] on this topic. These provide for women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being counted as part of a ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'' - an arbiter in matters of religious law)
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:
*[[Matrilineality in Judaism|Matrilineal descent]]. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.
*Pidyon Ha-Bat, a proposed ceremony based on the biblical redemption of the eldest newborn son ([[Pidyon HaBen|Pidyon Ha-Ben]]). The CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

A Conservative Jewish ''[[ketuba]]'' includes a clause that puts a husband and wife on more equal footing when it comes to marriage and divorce law within ''halacha''.<ref name="Raphael">Raphael, Marc Lee. ''Profiles in American Judaism: The Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Traditions in Historical Perspective''. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1984. p. 110</ref>

The CJLS recently reaffirmed the obligation of Conservative women to observe ''[[niddah]]'' (sexual abstinence during and after menstruation) and ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual immersion) following menstruation, although somewhat liberalizing certain details. Such practices, while requirements of Conservative Judaism, are not widely observed among Conservative laity.

====Changes in the Conservative position====
Prior to 1973, Conservative Judaism had more limited roles for women and was more similar to current Modern Orthodoxy, with changes on issues including mixed seating, synagogue corporate leadership, and permitting women to be called to the Torah. In 1973, the CJLS of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] voted, without issuing an opinion, that women could count in a [[minyan]]. There was a special commission appointed by the Conservative movement to study the issue of ordaining women as rabbis, which met between 1977 and 1978, and consisted of eleven men and three women; the women were Marian Siner Gordon, an attorney, Rivkah Harris, an [[Assyriologist]], and [[Francine Klagsbrun]], a writer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/klagsbrun-francine |title=Francine Klagsbrun | Jewish Women's Archive |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2015-09-07}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] (JTSA) faculty voted, also without accompanying opinion, to ordain women as rabbis and as cantors.<ref name="Raphael" /> [[Paula Hyman]], among others, took part in the vote as a member of the JTS faculty.

In 2002, the CJLS adapted a [[responsum]] by Rabbi David Fine, [https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf ''Women and the Minyan''], which provides an official religious-law foundation for women counting in a minyan and explains the current Conservative approach to the role of women in prayer.<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org">{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}}</ref> This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

In 2006, the CJLS adopted three [[responsum|responsa]] on the subject of [[niddah]], which reaffirmed an obligation of Conservative women to abstain from sexual relations during and following [[menstruation]] and to immerse in a [[mikvah]] prior to resumption, while liberalizing observance requirements including shortening the length of the [[niddah]] period, lifting restrictions on non-sexual contact during niddah, and reducing the circumstances under which spotting and similar conditions would mandate abstinence.<ref name="RabbiIntro">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Mikveh_Introduction.doc Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiGrossman">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Grossman-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Susan Grossman, MIKVEH AND THE SANCTITY OF BEING CREATED HUMAN, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiReisner">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Reisner-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Avram Reisner, OBSERVING NIDDAH IN OUR DAY: AN INQUIRY ON THE STATUS OF PURITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY WITH A MENSTRUANT, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiBerkowitz">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Berkowitz-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, RESHAPING THE LAWS OF FAMILY PURITY FOR THE MODERN WORLD, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref>

In all cases continuing the Orthodox approach was also upheld as an option. Individual Conservative rabbis and synagogues are not required to adopt any of these changes, and a small number have adopted none of them.

====Conservative approaches to change====
Prior to 1973, Conservative approaches to change were generally on an individual, case-by-case basis. Between 1973 and 2002, the Conservative movement adapted changes through its official organizations, but without issuing explanatory opinions. Since 2002, the Conservative movement has coalesced around a single across-the board approach to the role of women in Jewish law.<ref>This section summarizes the CLJS's 2002 Fine "Women and the Minyan" {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}} Responsum's review and critique of prior CJLS efforts to adopt an authoritative responsum.</ref>

In 1973, 1983, and 1993, individual rabbis and professors issued six major opinions which influenced change in the Conservative approach, the first and second Sigal, Blumenthal, Rabinowitz, and [[Joel Roth|Roth]] responsa, and the [[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman]] article. These opinions sought to provide for a wholesale shift in women's public roles through a single, comprehensive legal justification. Most such opinions based their positions on an argument that Jewish women always were, or have become, legally obligated to perform the same ''mitzvot'' as men and to do so in the same manner.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The first Sigal and the Blumenthal responsa were considered by the CJLS as part of its decision on prayer roles in 1973. They argued that women have always had the same obligations as men.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} The first Sigal responsum used the Talmud's general prayer obligation and examples of cases in which women were traditionally obligated to say specific prayers and inferred from them a public prayer obligation identical to that of men. The Blumenthal responsum extrapolated from a minority authority that a ''minyan'' could be formed with nine men and one woman in an emergency. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) declined to adopt either responsum. Rabbi Siegel reported to the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] membership that many on the CJLS, while agreeing with the result, found the arguments unconvincing.

The Rabinowitz, [[Joel Roth|Roth]], and second Sigal responsa were considered by the JTSA faculty as part of its decision to ordain women as rabbis in 1983. The Rabbinowitz responsum sidestepped the issue of obligation, arguing that there is no longer a religious need for a community representative in prayer and hence there is no need to decide whether a woman can ''halakhically'' serve as one. The CJLS felt that an argument potentially undermining the value of community and clergy was unconvincing: "We should not be afraid to recognize that the function of clergy is to help our people connect with the holy." The Roth and second Sigal responsa accepted that time-bound ''mitzvot'' were traditionally optional for women, but argued that women in modern times could change their traditional roles. The Roth responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|1=[http://www.jtsa.edu/rabbinical/women/roth.pdf#search='women%20roth%20responsum']|2=161 KB}}</ref> argued that women could individually voluntarily assume the same obligations as men, and that women who do so (e.g., pray three times a day regularly) could count in a ''minyan'' and serve as agents. The JTSA accordingly required female rabbinical students wishing to train as rabbis to personally obligate themselves, but synagogue rabbis, unwilling to inquire into individual religiosity, found it impractical. The second Sigal responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/sigal_women.pdf]|3.17 MB}}</ref> called for a ''takkanah'', or rabbinical edict, "that would serve as a ''halakhic'' ERA," overruling all non-egalitarian provisions in law or, in the alternative, a new approach to ''halakhic'' interpretation independent of legal precedents. The CJLS, unwilling to use either an intrusive approach or a repudiation of the traditional legal process as bases for action, did not adopt either and let the JTS faculty vote stand unexplained.

In 1993, Professor [[Judith Hauptman]] of JTS issued an influential paper <ref>http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427</ref> arguing that women had historically always been obligated in prayer, using more detailed arguments than the Blumenthal and first Sigal responsa. The paper suggested that women who followed traditional practices were failing to meet their obligations. Rabbi Roth argued that Conservative Judaism should think twice before adopting a viewpoint labeling its most traditional and often most committed members as sinners. The issue was again dropped.

In 2002, the CJLS returned to the issue of justifying its actions regarding women's status, and adopted a single authoritative approach, the Fine responsum,<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org"/> as the definitive Conservative [[halakha]] on role-of-women issues. This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The Responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this Responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

===Reform Judaism===
[[Reform Judaism]] believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that [[halakha]] (Jewish law) is the sole legitimate form of Jewish decision making, and holds that Jews can and must consider their conscience and ethical principles inherent in the Jewish tradition when deciding upon a right course of action. There is widespread consensus among Reform Jews that traditional distinctions between the role of men and women are antithetical to the deeper ethical principles of Judaism. This has enabled Reform communities to allow women to perform many rituals traditionally reserved for men, such as:

*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

Concerns about intermarriage have also influenced the Reform Jewish position on gender. In 1983, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] passed a resolution waiving the need for formal conversion for anyone with at least one Jewish parent who has made affirmative acts of Jewish identity. This departed from the traditional position requiring formal [[conversion to Judaism]] for children without a [[matrilineal descent|Jewish mother]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/patrilineal1.html Reform Movement's Resolution on Patrilineal Descent]</ref> The 1983 resolution of the American Reform movement has had a mixed reception in Reform Jewish communities outside of the United States. Most notably, the [[Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism]] has rejected patrilineal descent and requires formal conversion for anyone without a Jewish mother.<ref>[http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=840313&ct=1051515 Reform Judaism in Israel: Progress and Prospects]</ref> As well, a joint Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative and Reform Bet Din formed in Denver, Colorado to promote uniform standards for conversion to Judaism was dissolved in 1983, due to that Reform resolution.<ref name="Wertheimer, A People Divided">{{Cite book|last=Wertheimer|first=Jack|title=A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America|publisher=University Press of New England|year=1997}}</ref> However, in 2015 the majority of Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis voted in favor of a position paper proposing "that individuals who live a Jewish life, and who are patrilineally Jewish, can be welcomed into the Jewish community and confirmed as Jewish through an individual process."<ref name="jpost1">{{cite web|last=Lewis |first=Jerry |url=http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/UK-Reform-rabbis-accept-patrilineal-descent-409298 |title=UK Reform rabbis accept patrilineal descent - Diaspora - Jerusalem Post |publisher=Jpost.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref> Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis stated that rabbis "would be able to take local decisions – ratified by the [[Beit Din]] – confirming Jewish status."<ref name="jpost1"/>

Liberal prayerbooks tend increasingly to avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language. For example, the [[Liberal Judaism (UK)|UK Liberal movement]]'s ''Siddur Lev Chadash'' (1995) does so, as does the [[Reform Judaism (UK)|UK Reform Movement]]'s ''Forms of Prayer'' (2008).<ref>[http://thejc.com/articles/the-slimline-siddur-a-touch-bob-dylan The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan | The Jewish Chronicle]</ref><ref>[http://www.bwpjc.org/slc.htm Siddur Lev Chadash]</ref> In [[Mishkan T'filah]], the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as “He” have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.) <ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/03/us/03prayerbook.html?_r=1 | work=The New York Times | first=Laurie | last=Goodstein | title=In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change | date=3 September 2007}}</ref> In 2015 the Reform Jewish [[High Holy Days]] prayer book [[Mishkan HaNefesh]] was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.<ref name="jweekly1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/74278/gates-of-repentance-replacement-advances-reform-trends/ |title=‘Gates of Repentance’ replacement advances Reform trends | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=2015-03-26 |accessdate=2015-04-14}}</ref> It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer [[Avinu Malkeinu]] that refers to God as both "Loving Father" and "Compassionate Mother."<ref name="jweekly1"/> Other notable changes are replacing a line from the Reform movement’s earlier prayerbook, "Gates of Repentance," that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line "rejoicing with couples under the chuppah [wedding canopy]", and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering “mibeit,” Hebrew for “from the house of,” in addition to the traditional “son of” or “daughter of.”<ref name="jweekly1"/>

====Reform approaches to change====
Reform Judaism generally holds that the various differences between the roles of men and women in traditional Jewish law are not relevant to modern conditions and not applicable today. Accordingly, there has been no need to develop legal arguments analogous to those made within the Orthodox and Conservative movements.

=== Reconstructionist Judaism ===

The equality of women and men is a central tenet and hallmark of [[Reconstructionist Judaism]]. From the beginning, Reconstructionist Jewish ritual allowed men and women to pray together — a decision based on egalitarian philosophy. It was on this basis that Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]] called for the full equality of women and men, despite the obvious difficulties reconciling this stance with norms of traditional Jewish practice.<ref>Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html , Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.</ref> The Reconstructionist Movement ordained women rabbis from the start.<ref>Nadell, Pamela. Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women’s Ordination 1889-1985. editor Jewish Women's Life, Beacon Press, 1998. pages 187-188</ref> In 1968, women were accepted into the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, under the leadership of [[Ira Eisenstein]].<ref>Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16542.html , Jewish Virtual Library. 2001.</ref> The first ordained female Reconstructionist rabbi, [[Sandy Eisenberg Sasso]], served as rabbi of the Manhattan Reconstructionist Congregation in 1976 and gained a pulpit in 1977 at Beth El Zedeck congregation in Indianapolis. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso was accepted without debate or subsequent controversy.<ref>Sandy Sasso ordained as first female Reconstructionist rabbi,This Week in History. Jewish Women's Archive. http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/19/1974/sandy-sasso</ref> In 2005, 24 out of the movement's 106 synagogues in the US had women as senior or assistant rabbis.<ref>in Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States, Jewish Women's Archive, http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states</ref> In 2013 Rabbi [[Deborah Waxman]] was elected as the President of the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical College]].<ref name="thejewishweek.com">[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/national-news/reconstructionists-pick-first-woman-lesbian-denominational-leader Reconstructionists Pick First Woman, Lesbian As Denominational Leader | The Jewish Week]</ref><ref>[http://forward.com/articles/185252/trailblazing-reconstructionist-deborah-waxman-reli/?p=all Trailblazing Reconstructionist Deborah Waxman Relishes Challenges of Judaism – Forward.com]</ref> As the President, she is believed to be the first woman and first lesbian to lead a Jewish congregational union, and the first female rabbi and first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is both a congregational union and a seminary.<ref name="thejewishweek.com"/><ref>http://www.rrc.edu/sites/default/files/ORPHAN_PDFs/RRC_WaxmanPresidentElect-ForPress3.pdf?hero=1615</ref>

The Reconstructionist Community began including women in the [[minyan]] and allowing them to come up to the [[Torah]] for [[Aliyah (Torah)|aliyot]]. They also continued the practice of [[bat mitzvah]].<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso,Putting God on the Guest List: How to Reclaim the Spiritual Meaning of Your Child's Bar or Bat Mitzvah, Jewish Lights Publishing (Woodstock, Vermont), 1992.</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allowed women to perform other traditional male tasks, such as serving as witnesses, leading services,<ref>Cantor Heather’ is a first for Reconstructionist shul, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20569&Itemid=86 , Canadian Jewish News, 06 January 2011
</ref> public Torah reading, and wearing ritual prayer garments like [[kippot]] and [[tallitot]].<ref>One example in this video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oplgjEjts0 ,Darchei Noam Congregation, Toronto, Canada.</ref> Female Reconstructionist rabbis have been instrumental in the creation of rituals, stories, and music that have begun to give women's experience a voice in Judaism. Most of the focus has been on rituals for life-cycle events.<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar, Reconstructionist Press, 2005</ref> New ceremonies have been created for births,<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, Call Them Builders: A Resource Booklet about Jewish Attitudes and Practices on Birth and Family Life, Reconstructionist Federation of Congregations and Havurot (New York)</ref> weddings, divorces, conversions,<ref>Shefa, Sheri (August 2006). "Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb". Canadian Jewish News.http://joi.org/bloglinks/CJN Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb 8-24-06.pdf</ref> weaning, and the onset of menarche and menopause. The Reconstructionist movement as a whole has been committed to creating liturgy that is in consonance with gender equality and the celebration of women's lives.<ref>This is reflected in the prayer books that have been published by the Reconstructionist movement</ref><ref>Female scribe to pen Reconstructionist shul’s new Torah, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=16953&Itemid=86, Canadian Jewish News, May 21, 2009.</ref><ref>Montreal congregation hires first female scribe to pen Torah in Canada, http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200906031702/Montreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html ,Jewish Tribune,3 June 2009.</ref> Another major step: The Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations has also developed educational programs that teach the full acceptance of lesbians,<ref>See Rabbi [[Rebecca Alpert]] and Rabbi [[Toba Spitzer]]</ref> as well as rituals that affirm lesbian relationships.<ref>Anne Lapidus Lerner in Jewish Women's Archive http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lerner-anne-lapidus</ref><ref>Radin, Charles A. First openly gay rabbi elected leader,http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/03/first_openly_ga.html , Boston Globe, March 13, 2007.</ref> Reconstructionist rabbis officiate at same-sex weddings.<ref>for Montreal https://www.dorshei-emet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92&Itemid=100</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allows openly [[LGBT]] men and women to be ordained as rabbis and cantors.

Several prominent members of the Reconstructionist community have focused on issues like domestic violence.<ref>Gordon, Sheldon (21 April 2006) ''Billboards Focus on Jewish Domestic Violence'', in Jewish Daily Forward http://www.forward.com/articles/1263/</ref><ref>Na'amat Canada, http://www.naamat.com/legalaid.htm</ref><ref>Springtide Resources, Wife Abuse in the Jewish Community, http://www.womanabuseprevention.com/html/jewish_community.html</ref><ref>Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse, http://jcada.org/www/docs/4/</ref> Others have devoted energy to helping women gain the right of divorce in traditional Jewish communities.<ref>(French) Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce , Journal Le Devoir, 24 April 2010</ref><ref>Sonia Sarah Lipsyc ,http://soniasarahlipsyc.canalblog.com/</ref> Many have spoken out for the right of Jewish women to pray aloud and read from the Torah at the [[Western Wall]] in Jerusalem, the [[Women of the Wall]] group.<ref>[http://womenofthewall.org.il/?lang=he Women of the Wall | נשות הכותל]</ref>

When the roles of women in religion change, there may also be changed roles for men. With their advocacy of patrilineal descent in the 1970s, the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association]] supported the principle that a man who takes responsibility for raising a Jewish child can pass Judaism on to the next generation as well as a woman. All children who receive a Jewish education are considered Jewish in Reconstructionist Judaism regardless of whatever is the sex of their Jewish parent.

=== Jewish Renewal===
[[Jewish Renewal]] is a recent [[Jewish denominations|movement]] in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]], [[music]]al and [[Meditation|meditative]] practices; it describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism’s prophetic and mystical traditions." <ref>[http://www.aleph.org/renewal.htm About Jewish Renewal]</ref> The Jewish Renewal movement ordains women as well as men as rabbis and cantors. [[Lynn Gottlieb]] became the first female rabbi in Jewish Renewal in 1981, and [[Avitall Gerstetter]], who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA030.htm |title=Lynn Gottlieb |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2003-09-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2009 and 2012 respectively, OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) issued a board statement and a resolution supporting [[Women of the Wall]].<ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/2009-board-statement-on-women-of-the-wall/ 2009 Board Statement on Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref><ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/wow-statement-of-support/ 2012 Statement of Support for Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref> The Statement of Principles of OHALAH states in part, "Our local communities will embody egalitarian and inclusive values, manifested in a variety of leadership and decision-making structures, ensuring that women and men are full and equal partners in every aspect of our communal Jewish life." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/about-us/principles/ Aleph Statement of Principles | OhalahOhalah]</ref> In 2014 OHALAH issued a board resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: OHALAH supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]]; OHALAH condemns all types of sexism; OHALAH is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come; and OHALAH supports equal rights regardless of gender." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/resolution-on-gender-equality/ Board Resolution on Gender Equality | OhalahOhalah]</ref> Also in 2014, ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal issued a statement stating, "ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]], condemns all types of sexism, is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come, and supports equal rights regardless of gender, in recognition and allegiance to the view that we are all equally created in the Divine Image." <ref>[http://kolaleph.org/2014/02/04/gender-equality-now/ Statement On Gender Equality | Kol ALEPH]</ref>

=== Humanistic Judaism ===
[[Humanistic Judaism]] is a movement in Judaism that offers a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life. It ordains both men and women as rabbis, and its first rabbi was a woman, [[Tamara Kolton]], who was ordained in 1999.<ref name="shj">{{cite web|url=http://www.shj.org/shjbios.htm |title=Society for Humanistic Judaism - Rabbis and Leadership |publisher=Shj.org |accessdate=2012-03-12}}</ref> Its first cantor was also a woman, [[Hazzan Deborah Davis|Deborah Davis]], ordained in 2001; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped ordaining cantors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jmwc.org/Women/womend.html |title=Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music |publisher=JMWC |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> The [[Society for Humanistic Judaism]] issued a statement in 1996 stating in part, "we affirm that a woman has the moral right and should have the continuing legal right to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy in accordance with her own ethical standards. Because a decision to terminate a pregnancy carries serious, irreversible consequences, it is one to be made with great care and with keen awareness of the complex psychological, emotional, and ethical implications." They also issued a statement in 2011 condemning the then-recent passage of the “No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act” by the U.S. House of Representatives, which they called "a direct attack on a women’s right to choose".<ref>[http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html |date=20131228071242 }}</ref> In 2012, they issued a resolution opposing conscience clauses that allow religious-affiliated institutions to be exempt from generally applicable requirements mandating reproductive healthcare services to individuals or employees.<ref>[http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html |date=20131228070406 }}</ref> In 2013 they issued a resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: The Society for Humanistic Judaism wholeheartedly supports the observance of [[Women's Equality Day]] on August 26 to commemorate the anniversary of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allowing women to vote; The Society condemns gender discrimination in all its forms, including restriction of rights, limited access to education, violence, and subjugation; and The Society commits itself to maintain vigilance and speak out in the fight to bring gender equality to our generation and to the generations that follow." <ref>[http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html |date=20131018050824 }}</ref>

=== Women as soferim ===
A Sofer, Sopher, Sofer SeTaM, or Sofer ST"M (Heb: "scribe", סופר סת״ם) is a Jewish scribe who can transcribe Torah scrolls, tefillin and mezuzot, and other religious writings. (ST"M, סת״ם, is an abbreviation for Sefer Torahs, Tefillin, and Mezuzot. The plural of sofer is "soferim", סופרים.) Forming the basis for the discussion of women becoming soferim, [[Talmud|Talmud Gittin]] 45b states: "Sifrei Torah, tefillin and mezuzot written by a heretic, a star-worshipper, a slave, a woman, a minor, a [[Cuthean]], or an [[Apostasy in Judaism|apostate Jew]], are unfit for ritual use."<ref>[http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml ] {{wayback|url=http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml |date=20130615110436 }}</ref> The rulings on [[Mezuzah]] and [[Tefillin]] are virtually undisputed among those who hold to the [[Talmud|Talmudic Law]]. While [[Arba'ah Turim]] does not include women in its list of those ineligible to write Sifrei Torah, some see this as proof that women are permitted to write a Torah scroll.<ref>Tur, [[Wikisource:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/271|Orah Hayyim 271]].</ref> However today, virtually all Orthodox (both Modern and Ultra) authorities contest the idea that a woman is permitted to write a [[Sefer Torah]]. Yet women are permitted to inscribe [[Ketubah|Ketubot]] (marriage contracts), STaM not intended for ritual use, and other writings of [[Sofrut]] beyond simple STaM. In 2003 Canadian [[Aviel Barclay]] became the world's first known traditionally trained female sofer.<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/3614/ A Female Scribe’s Trailblazing Effort – Forward.com]</ref><ref>[http://jwablog.jwa.org/soferet Simchat Torah with a Soferet's Torah | Jewish Women's Archive]</ref> In 2007 [[Jen Taylor Friedman]], a British woman, became the first female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]].<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/11604/ As New Year Dawns, Jewish Women Mark Milestones – Forward.com]</ref> In 2010 the first [[Sefer Torah]] scribed by a group of women (six female sofers, who were from Brazil, Canada, Israel, and the United States) was completed;<ref>[http://jta.org/news/article/2010/10/15/2741313/womens-torah-dedicated-in-seattle Women’s Torah dedicated in Seattle | Jewish Telegraphic Agency]</ref> this was known as the [[Women's Torah Project]].<ref name="jweekly.com">[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/59670/cjms-resident-scribe-takes-part-in-group-torah-project-in-seattle/ Julie Seltzer, a female Torah scribe from San Francisco, contributed to the first Torah scroll to be written by a group of women. | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern Calif...]</ref>

From October 2010 until spring 2011, [[Julie Seltzer]], one of the female sofers from the Women's Torah Project, scribed a [[Sefer Torah]] as part of an exhibition at the [[Contemporary Jewish Museum]] in [[San Francisco]]. This makes her the first American female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]]; Julie Seltzer was born in Philadelphia and is non-denominationally Jewish.<ref name="jweekly.com"/><ref>http://www.thecjm.org/index.php?option=com_ccevents&scope=prgm&task=detail&fid=8&oid=563</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/arts/design/08sfculture.html</ref><ref>[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/61328/cjm-to-celebrate-end-of-groundbreaking-torah-project CJM to celebrate end of groundbreaking Torah project | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California]</ref> From spring 2011 until August 2012 she scribed another [[Sefer Torah]], this time for the Reform congregation Beth Israel in San Diego.<ref name="jpost.com">[http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=286912 Torah, she wrote | JPost | Israel News]</ref><ref>[http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah ] {{wayback|url=http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah |date=20150721211051 }}</ref> Seltzer was taught mostly by [[Jen Taylor Friedman]].<ref name="jpost.com"/> On September 22, 2013, [[Congregation Beth Elohim]] of New York dedicated a new Torah, which members of Beth Elohim said was the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman.<ref>[http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/congregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015 Congregation Beth Elohim in Park Slope dedicates new Torah for 150th anniversary - News 12 Brooklyn]</ref> The Torah was scribed by Linda Coppleson.<ref>[http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ ] {{wayback|url=http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ |date=20141011005036 }}</ref> As of 2014, there are an estimated 50 female sofers in the world.<ref>{{cite web|author=By Jeff KunerthOrlando Sentinel |url=http://www.pressherald.com/2014/08/23/female-jewish-scribe-helps-keep-tradition-alive/ |title=Female Jewish scribe helps keep tradition alive - The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram |publisher=Pressherald.com |date=2014-08-23 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism|Gender studies}}
*[[bat-Kohen]] (daughter of a priest)
*[[Jewish feminism]]
**[[List of Jewish feminists]]
*[[Women as theological figures]]
**[[Rabbi#Women as rabbis|Women as rabbis]]
**[[Rebbetzin]] (rabbi's wife)
**[[List of women in the Bible]]
*[[Beis Yaakov]] (schools for Haredi girls)
*[[Niddah]] (menstruation laws)
*''[[Soferet]]'' (Jewish scribe who can transcribe religious documents)
*[[Gender and Judaism]]
*[[Tzeniut]] (modest behavior)
*[[Negiah]] (guidelines for physical contact)
*[[Yichud]] (prohibitions of secluding oneself with a stranger)
*[[Jewish view of marriage]]
**[[Shidduch]] (finding a marriage partner)
**[[Shalom bayit]] (peace and harmony in the relationship between husband and wife)
*[[Minyan]] (quorum of at least ten Jews acceptable for the recitation of certain prayers)
**[[Partnership minyan]] (a movement to give women more roles in prayer services)
*[[Agunah]] (a woman who wishes to divorce her husband, but, because her husband did not provide her with a divorce contract, is unable to according to Jewish law)
*[[Women in Israel]]
**[[Women of the Wall]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==

'''General'''
* [http://www.rachaelscentre.org/ Rachael's Centre for Torah, Musar & Ethics] An online learning community dedicated to Pluralistic Jewish learning through a female lens
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://www.jofa.org/ Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance] JOFA
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://jcada.org/www Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse]
* [http://www.naamat.com/domesticviolence.htm Na'amat Canada]
* [http://www.awarenow.org/www/docs/100/Internet Adolescents Working for Awesome Relationship Experiences] AWARE

'''Publications'''
* [http://www.lilith.org/ Lilith Magazine] a Jewish feminist journal
* [http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.

'''Particular issues'''
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/12/06/wuhsha-the-broker-jewish-women-in-the-medieval-economy/ "Wuhsha the Broker: Jewish Women in the Medieval Economy," Jewish History Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/09/19/rachel-wife-of-akiva-women-in-ancient-israel/ "Rachel, Wife of Akiva: Women in Ancient Israel," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/02/10/gluckel-of-hameln-jewish-women-n-the-17th-century/ "Gluckel of Hameln: Jewish Women in the 17th Century," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/spots_of_light/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki Spots of Light: Women in the Holocaust] an online exhibition by [[Yad Vashem]]
* [http://alternativestokiddushin.wordpress.com The Kiddushin Variations] A Directory of Halakhic Possibilities For A More Egalitarian Kiddushin Ritual.
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library
* [http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5759winter/sense.htm "Sense and Sensibilities: Women and Torah Study"], Bryna Levy, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 1998, 59 (2).
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf "Qeri’at ha-Torah by Women: A Halakhic Analysis"]|972 KB}}, Shapiro, Mendel. Edah 1:2, 2001
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf "Congregational Dignity and Human Dignity: Women and Public Torah Reading"]|78.1 KB}}, Sperber, Daniel. Edah 3:2, 2002
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427 "Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies"], Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf "Women and the Minyan"]|194 KB}}, Fine, David. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative), 2002
* [http://www.annette-boeckler.de/liturgie/EgalitarianServices.html Egalitarian Jewish Services A Discussion Paper]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5765/5765winter/WOMENADV.PDF "Women Advocates Make Their Mark"]|473 KB}}, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 2004.
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimer2-1.htm "Women and Minyan"], ''[[Tradition (orthodox journal)|Tradition]]'', 1988. Summary of Orthodox arguments regarding women counting in minyan for certain purposes
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm "Women's Prayer Services Theory and Practice"], ''[[Tradition (journal)|Tradition]]'', 1998. Summary of Orthodox arguments for and against women's prayer groups
* Elissa Strauss, ''Women Who Write Torah, A New Generation of Female Scribes Makes History''. http://forward.com/articles/133017/, The Jewish Daily Forward, November 19, 2010.
* (French) Harvey, Claire. Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce, Le Devoir, 24 April 2010.
* ''Mordecai Kaplan'' .2005.http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai, Jewish Women's Archive, 2005
* Luo,Michael, An Orthodox Jewish Woman, and Soon, a Spiritual Leader, http://www.hods.org/pdf/press/An%20Orthodox%20Jewish%20Woman,%20and%20Soon,%20a%20Spiritual%20Leader.htm, New York Times, August 21, 2006.
* ''Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States''. http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states, Jewish Women's archive, 2005
* Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html, Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press
* ''On the Ordination of Women: An Advocate's Halakhic Response'' Mayer E. Rabbinowitz. In Simon Greenberg, ed., ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988.
* ''Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies,'' Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', [[Simon Greenberg]], ed. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988. ISBN 0-87334-041-8
* ''Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender'', [[Charlotte Fonrobert]], Stanford University Press, 2000
* ''The Moon's Lost Light: A Torah Perspective on Women from the Fall of Eve to the Full Redemption'', Devorah Heshelis, Targum Press, 2006. ISBN 1-56871-377-0
* Nadell, Pamela S., "Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination, 1889-1985" in Jewish Women's Life. Editor
* Rabbi Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar,

===Middle Ages===
* Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period''. Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52-60. ISBN 9780691057873
* Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94-114. ISBN 0814320929
* {{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|pages=41–51|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}
* {{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|isbn=0805210490}}
* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Mark R.|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=0691139318}}
* Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1584653922
* {{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|pages=34–45}}
* Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009.105-111.ISBN 9780814732199
* {{cite book|last=Steinberg|first=Theodore L.|title=Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=0275985881}}
* {{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|isbn=0827607520 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}

=== Orthodox Judaism and women ===
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' [[Blu Greenberg]], Jewish Publication Society
* ''Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment,'' [[Saul Berman|Berman, Saul J.]] Response, 40, 1981, 5:17.
* ''Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State,'' Ellenson, David Harry. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law (58-81) 2001.
* ''Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?'' [[Tamar Ross]], ''Judaism'', 42:4, 1993, 478-491.
* ''Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?,'' Reisman, Levi M. The Jewish Observer, 31:5, 1998, 37-47
* ''Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period,'' [[Ross|Ross, Tamar]]
* ''In Case There Tamar Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan,'' Fishbane, Simcha. Judaism, 42:4, 1993, 492-503.
* ''Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law,'' Shenhav, Sharon. Justice, 21, 1999, 28-31.
* ''On Egalitarianism & Halakha,'' Stern, Marc D. Tradition, 36:2, 2002, 1-30.
* ''Women, Jewish Law and Modernity,'' Wolowelsky, Joel B. Ktav. 1997.
* ''Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism'', [[Tamar Ross|Ross, Tamar]]. Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58465-390-6
* ''Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups'', [[Avi Weiss|Weiss, Avi]], Ktav publishers, January 2003 ISBN 0-88125-719-2
*''Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation''. [[Tova Hartman|Hartman, Tova]], Brandeis University Press, 2007. ISBN 1-58465-658-1.

{{Jewish life}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Women In Judaism}}
[[Category:Judaism and women| ]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Gender roles by society]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2015-11-04T03:44:14Z

Jprg1966: /* Rashi's Daughters */

{{About|historical and modern views of Jews|the portrayal of women in the Bible|Women in the Bible}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|religion}}
{{Women in society sidebar}}

The [[role]] of '''women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], the [[Oral Torah|Oral Law]] (the corpus of rabbinic literature), by [[Minhag|custom]], and by non-religious cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature mention various female role models, religious law treats women differently in various circumstances.

[[Gender]] has a bearing on familial lines: in traditional Judaism, [[Who is a Jew?|Jewishness]] is passed down through the mother, although the father's name is used to describe sons and daughters in the [[Torah]], e.g., "Dinah, daughter of Jacob".<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|pages= 121, 131}}</ref>

==Biblical times==
{{See also|Old Testament views on women}}
Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are a number of exceptions to this rule, including the [[Matriarchs (Bible)|Matriarchs]] [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca]], [[Rachel]], and [[Leah]], [[Miriam]] the prophetess, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Huldah]] the prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Rahab]] and [[Esther]]. In the Biblical account these women did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was formed between the Israelites and the God of Abraham at Mount Sinai. The Torah relates that both Israelite men and Israelite women were present at Sinai, however, the covenant was worded in such a way that it bound men to act upon its requirements and to ensure that the members of their household (wives, children, and slaves) met these requirements as well. In this sense, the covenant bound women as well, though indirectly.<ref name="HauptmanEtz">[[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman, Judith]]. "Women." ''Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary''. Ed. David L. Lieber. The Jewish Publication Society, 2001. 1356-1359.</ref>

Marriage and family law in biblical times favored men over women. For example, a husband could divorce a wife if he chose to, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. The practice of [[levirate marriage]] applied to widows of childless deceased husbands, not to widowers of childless deceased wives; though if either he or she didn't consent to the marriage, a different ceremony called chalitza is done instead. Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men during biblical times, however, they also suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount.<ref name="HauptmanEtz" /> However, men had specific obligations they were required to perform for their wives. These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual relations to their wives.<ref>[[Joseph Telushkin|Telushkin, Joseph]]. ''Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible''. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997. p. 403.</ref>

Women also had a role in ritual life. Women (as well as men) were required to make a pilgrimage to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] once a year and offer the [[Passover]] [[korban|sacrifice]]. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a ''todah'' ("thanksgiving") offering after childbirth. Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non-levitical men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and generally more discreet scale.

Women depended on men economically. Women generally did not own property except in the rare case of inheriting land from a father who didn't bear sons. Even "in such cases, women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings."<ref name="HauptmanEtz" />

According to [[John Bowker (theologian)]], traditionally, Jewish "men and women pray separately. This goes back to ancient times when women could go only as far as the second court of the Temple."<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 119}}</ref>

==Talmudic times==
Classical Jewish [[rabbinical literature]] contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that:
*Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the (righteous) women than to (righteous) men<ref>''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berakhot]]'' 17a</ref>
*Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine<ref>''[[Nashim|Kiddushin]]'' 49b</ref>
*Women are ''light on raw knowledge'' – i.e., they possess more intuition<ref>''[[Shabbat (Talmud)|Shabbat]]'' 33b</ref>
*A man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good; a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself<ref>''[[Yebamot]]'' 62b</ref>
*When [[Rav Yosef b. Hiyya]] heard his mother's footsteps he would say: ''Let me arise before the approach of the [[Shekhinah|divine presence]]''<ref>''Kiddushin'' 31b</ref>
*Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its (Israel's) righteous women<ref>''[[Sotah]]'' 11b</ref>
*A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong<ref>''[[Baba Metzia]]'' 59a</ref>
*Women have greater faith than men<ref>''[[Sifre]]'', 133</ref>
*Women have greater powers of discernment<ref>''[[Tohorot|Niddah]]'' 45b</ref>
*Women are especially tenderhearted<ref>''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'' 14b</ref>

While few women are mentioned by name in rabbinic literature, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands. Occasionally they have a public persona. Examples are [[Bruriah daughter of Rabbi Hananiah Ben Teradion|Bruriah]], the wife of the [[Tannaim|Tanna]] [[Rabbi Meir]]; Rachel, the wife of [[Akiba ben Joseph|Rabbi Akiva]]; and Yalta, the wife of [[Rav Nachman|Rabbi Nachman]]. [[Elazar ben Arach|Rabbi Elazar]]'s{{Who|date=February 2010}} [[Imma Shalom|wife]] (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]]. When R' Elazar ben Azarya was asked to assume the role of ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]'' ("Prince" or President of the [[Sanhedrin]]), he replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Brachoth 27b</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
Since Jews were seen as second class citizens in the Christian and Muslim world, it was even harder for Jewish women to establish their own status. Avraham Grossman argues in his book ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe'' that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them: "the biblical and talmudic heritage; the situation in the non-Jewish society within which the Jews lived and functioned; and the economic status of the Jews, including the woman's role in supporting the family."<ref>Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. 1.</ref> Grossman uses all three factors to argue that women's status overall during this period actually rose.<ref>Grossman, 3.</ref>

During the Middle Ages, there was a conflict between Judaism's lofty religious expectations of women and the reality of society in which these Jewish women lived; this is similar to the lives of Christian women in the same period.<ref>Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94.</ref> This prompted the [[kabbalistic]] work ''Sefer Hakanah'' to demand that women fulfill the ''[[mitzvot]]'' in a way that would be equal to men.<ref name="Ben-Sasson">Ben-Sasson, H. H. "Spiritual and Social Creativity." ''A History of the Jewish People''. Ed. Ben-Sasson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. 612–627. Print.</ref>

=== Religious life ===
Religious developments during the medieval period included relaxation on prohibitions against teaching women [[Torah]], and the rise of women's prayer groups.<ref>Steinberg, 157–158.</ref> One place that women participated in Jewish practices publicly was the [[synagogue]]. Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.<ref name="Baskin 1991 42">{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=42|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There is evidence that in the 15th century some communities of [[Ashkenaz]], the wife of the rabbi wore ''[[tzitzit]]'' just like her husband.<ref name="Ben-Sasson" />

In most [[synagogues]] they were given their own section, most likely a balcony; some [[synagogues]] had a separate building.<ref name="Grossman,181">Grossman, 181.</ref> Separation from the men was created by the Rabbis in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]. The reasoning behind the [[Halacha]] was that a woman and her body would distract men and give them impure thoughts during prayer.<ref>[[Talmud]], [[Sukkah (Talmud)|Succah]] 51a–52b</ref> Due to this rabbinical interpretation, scholars have seen the women’s role in the synagogue as limited and sometimes even non-existent. However, recent research has shown that women actually had a larger role in the synagogue and the community at large. Women usually attended synagogue, for example, on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] and the holidays.<ref>Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period.'' Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52.</ref> Depending on the location of the women in the [[synagogue]], they may have followed the same service as the men or they conducted their own services. Since the [[synagogues]] were large, there would be a designated woman who would be able to follow the cantor and repeat the prayers aloud for the women.<ref name="Grossman,181" /> Women had always attended services on [[Shabbat]] and holidays, but beginning in the eleventh century, women became more involved in the [[synagogue]] and its rituals. Women sitting separately from the men became a norm in [[synagogues]] around the beginning of the thirteenth century.<ref>Steinberg, 157.</ref> Women, however, did much more than pray in the [[synagogue]]. One of the main jobs for women was to beautify the building. There are [[Torah ark]] curtains and [[Torah]] covers that women sewed and survive today.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|page=128 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}</ref> The [[synagogue]] was a communal place for both men and women where worship, learning and community activities occurred.

The rise and increasing popularity of [[Kabbalah]], which emphasized the [[shechinah]] and female aspects of the divine presence and human-divine relationship, and which saw marriage as a holy covenant between partners rather than a civil contract, had great influence. Kabbalists explained the phenomenon of menstruation as expressions of the demonic or sinful character of the menstruant.<ref>Koren, Sharon Faye. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/nashim/summary/v017/17.koren.html "The Menstruant as 'Other' in Medieval Judaism and Christianity."] Project MUSE. Spring 2009. 29 December 2011.</ref> These changes were accompanied by increased pietistic strictures, including greater requirements for [[Tzeniut|modest dress]], and greater strictures during [[Niddah|the period of menstruation]]. At the same time, there was a rise in philosophical and [[midrashic]] interpretations depicting women in a negative light, emphasizing a duality between matter and spirit in which femininity was associated, negatively, with earth and matter.<ref>Grossman, 277–278.</ref> The gentile society was also seen as a negative influence on the Jewish community. For example, it seems that Jews would analyze the modesty of their non-Jewish neighbors before officially moving into a new community because they knew that their children would be influenced by the local gentiles.<ref>Grossman, 2.</ref>

After the [[Alhambra Decree|expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492]], women became virtually the only source of Jewish ritual and tradition in the Catholic world in a phenomenon known as [[crypto-Judaism]]. Crypto-Jewish women would slaughter their own animals and made sure to keep as many of the [[Kosher|Jewish dietary laws]] and life cycle rituals as possible without raising suspicion. Occasionally, these women were prosecuted by [[Inquisition]] officials for suspicious behavior such as lighting candles to honor the Sabbath or refusing to eat pork when it was offered to them. The [[Inquisition]] targeted crypto-Jewish women at least as much as it targeted crypto-Jewish men because women were accused of perpetuating Jewish tradition while men were merely permitting their wives and daughters to organize the household in this manner.<ref>Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009. 105–111.</ref>

Jewish women were also apart of the social phenomenon of martyrdom of the [[First Crusade]]. Most of the violence from the [[First Crusade]] towards Jews was due to the [[People's Crusade]]. Inspired by the Pope's call, Christians in Roven, Trier, Metz, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Prague, and Bohemia, among others, massacred thousands of Jews. The local governments did not, at first, sanction the mass murder of Jews as part of the fervor of the Crusades. However, popular anxiety overcame many towns and villages and lead towards the local government's support of killing Jews.<ref>Steinberg, 108.</ref> Although many Jews did convert, many rather chose to die. Through the sources, such as chronicles and poems, we see that Jewish women were often martyred with their families.<ref name="Steinberg,160">Steinberg, 160.</ref> In contrast, most Christian women martyrs were members of a convent or religious order when they were martyred (See [http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/women1.htm Women and Hagiography in Medieval Christianity] for more information).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|page=38}}</ref>

=== Domestic life ===
Marriage, Domestic Violence and Divorce are all topics discussed by Jewish sages of the Medieval world. Marriage is an important institution in Judaism (see [[Marriage in Judaism]]). The sages of this period discussed this topic at length.

[[Rabbeinu Gershom]] instituted a rabbinic decree ([[Takkanah]]) prohibiting polygamy among [[Ashkenazic]] Jews.<ref>{{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|page=81}}</ref> The rabbis instituted legal methods to enable women to petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a divorce. [[Maimonides]] ruled that a woman who found her husband "repugnant" could compel a divorce, "because she is not like a captive, to be subjected to intercourse with one who is hateful to her."<ref>[[Mishneh Torah]], Hilkhot Ishut 14:8</ref><ref>Biale, 91.</ref> Divorce for Christian women was technically not an option. By the tenth century, Christianity considered marriage a sacrament and could not be dissolved (see [[Divorce#Medieval Europe|Divorce in Medieval Europe]]).

The rabbis also instituted and tightened prohibitions on domestic violence. [[Peretz ben Elijah|Rabbi Peretz ben Elijah]] ruled, "The cry of the daughters of our people has been heard concerning the sons of Israel who raise their hands to strike their wives. Yet who has given a husband the authority to beat his wife?"<ref>Grossman, 224.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] ruled that "For it is the way of the Gentiles to behave thus, but Heaven forbid that any Jew should do so. And one who beats his wife is to be excommunicated and banned and beaten."<ref>Grossman, 226.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] also ruled that a battered wife could petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a husband to grant a divorce, with a monetary fine owed her on top of the regular [[ketubah]] money.<ref>Grossman, 222.</ref> These rulings occurred in the midst of societies where wife-beating was legally sanctioned and routine.<ref>Grossman, 230.</ref>

=== Education ===
Jewish women had a limited education. They were taught to read, write, run a household. They were also given some education in religious law that was essential to their daily lives, such as keeping [[kosher]].<ref name="Baskin 1991 42" /> Both Christian and Jewish girls were educated in the home. Although Christian girls may have had a male or female tutor, most Jewish girls had a female tutor.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=43|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> Higher learning was uncommon for both Christian and Jewish women. Christian women could enter a convent in order to achieve a higher education (See [[Female education#Medieval period|Female Education in the Medieval Period]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=46|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There are more sources of education for Jewish women living in Muslim controlled lands. Middle Eastern Jewry, on the other hand, had an abundance of female literates. The [[Cairo Geniza]] is filled with correspondences written (sometimes dictated) between family members and spouses. Many of these letters are pious and poetic and express a desire to be in closer or more frequent contact with a loved one that is far enough away to only be reached by written correspondence. There are also records of wills and other personal legal documents as well as written petitions to officials in cases of spouse spousal abuse or other conflicts between family members written or dictated by women.<ref>Melammed, 91–100.</ref>

Many women gained enough education to help their husbands out in business or even hold their own. Just like Christian women who ran their own business, Jewish women were engaged in their own occupations as well as helping their husbands. Jewish women seem to have lent money to Christian women throughout Europe.<ref>Marcus, 38.</ref> Women were also copyists, [[Midwifery#Early historical perspective|midwives]], spinners and weavers.<ref name="Steinberg,160" /><ref>Marcus, 39.</ref>

==Views on the education of women==
From certain contexts of the Mishnah and Talmud it can be derived that women should not study Mishnah. There were female Tannaitic Torah jurists such as Rabbi Meir's wife,<ref>Medrish on Proverbs 31:10</ref> Rabbi Meir's daughter, and the daughter of Haninyah ben Teradyon<ref>Talmud Babylonia Kelim Bava Kamma 4:17 separately in Sifre Deuteronomy 307 in both she is personally left unnamed and referred to as just, 'and we have learned from the daughter of Haninyah ben Terradyon', a sign of the prevailing attitude towards women (as property of their fathers).</ref> Haninyah's daughter is again mentioned as a sage in the non-Talmud 3rd-century text Tractate Semahot verse 12:13.<ref>[http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300010695 also search ISBN 9780300010695 for an English translation.]</ref> Rabbi Meir's wife is credited with teaching him how to understand some verses from Isaiah.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Berachot 10a</ref> In the Mishnah there is also a reference to certain women teaching men the Torah from behind a curtain, so that no man would be offended.

A ''yeshiva'', or school for Talmudic studies, is an "exclusively masculine environment" because of absence of women from these studies.<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 123}}</ref>

===Beruryah===
[[Beruryah]] (her name is a standard Jewish female name meaning 'the clarity of God') is a Tanna mentioned by name in the Talmud, who has a female name, has orally been transmitted as a female, and is referred to in the text using the nekeva (feminine Hebrew and Aramaic) adjectives and adverbs. Originally she was believed to be either Rabbi Meir's wife mentioned above, or Rabbi Chaninyah's daughter mentioned above, however over the past three to four centuries Rabbinic scholars have realized that these generations do not correspond to Beruryah's law decisions, and life, therefore she today is just 'Beruryah' and of heretofore unknown lineage.

Her law decisions were minor but set a crucial ancient precedent for modern Jewish women. She is mentioned at least four times in the Talmudic discourse regarding her law decrees first Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 10a then in Tosefta Pesahim 62b in Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 53b–54a and Babylonian Talmud Avodah Zarah 18b. In one case she paskinned din on "klaustra" a rare Greek word referring to an object, used in the Talmud, unfortunately Rabbi Yehudah Hanassi did not believe women could be credited with paskining din, as it says 'do not speak too much to women' (Tannah Rabbi Jesse the Galilean), and therefore credited the law to Rabbi Joshua who may have been her father.<ref>Mishnah Keylim 11:4</ref>

Beruryah however was actually remembered with great respect in the Talmud where she is lauded to have been reputed as such a genius that she studied “three hundred Halachot from three hundred sages in just one day” (Pesachim 62b). Clearly contradicting the injunction against women studying Torah.

===Rashi's daughters===
[[Rashi]] had no sons and taught the Mishnah and Talmud to his daughters, until they knew it by heart as Jewish tradition teaches;<ref>[http://www.rashisdaughters.com/ Rashi's Daughters]</ref> they then transferred their knowledge of original Mishnah commentary to the Ashkenazi men of the next generation.

===Haim Yosef David Azulai, AKA 'The Hid'aa'===
The [[Chaim Joseph David Azulai|Hida]], wrote (Tuv Ayin, no. 4) woman should not study Mishnah only if they do not want to.'We cannot force a woman to learn, like we do to boys'. However, if she wants to learn then not only may she do so on her own, but men may originally teach her, and she can then teach other women if they so choose. According to the Hida, the prohibition against teaching women does not apply to a motivated woman or girl. Other Mizrahi Rabbis disputed this with him.

His response to detractors was that indeed, in truth, there is a prohibition against teaching Mishnah to any student—male or female—who one knows is not properly prepared and motivated, referred to a talmid she-eino hagun (Shulhan Arukh, Yoreh De'ah 246:7). Babylonian Talmud Berakhos 28a relates that Rabban Gamliel would announce that any student who is not pure enough so that 'his outer self is like his inner self' may not enter the study hall. While this approach, requiring absolute purity, was rejected by other ancient Rabbis, for example 'he who is not for the name of God, will become for the name of God', and a middle approach was adopted by Jews as standard. If one has knowledge that a particular Mishnayot student is definitely bad then he may not be taught. He claimed that 'it seems that for women there is a higher standard and she must be motivated in order to have this permission to learn' in his response to the Mizrahi tradition.

===Yisrael Meir Kagan===
{{Main|Yisrael Meir Kagan}}
One of the most important Ashkenazic rabbanim of the past century, Yisrael Meir Kagan, known popularly as the Chofetz Chaim. favored Torah education for girls to counteract the French "finishing schools" prevalent in his day for the daughters of the bourgeoisie.{{quote|
"It would appear that all [these sexist laws] were intended for earlier generations when everyone dwelt in the place of their familial ancestral home and ancestral tradition was very powerful among all to follow the path of their fathers... under such circumstances we could maintain that a woman not study Mishnayos and, for guidance, rely on her righteous parents, but presently, due to our myriad sins, ancestral tradition has become exceptionally weak and it is common that people do not dwell in proximity to the family home, and especially those women who devote themselves to mastering the vernacular, surely it is a now a great mitzvah to teach them Scripture and the ethical teachings of our sages such as Pirkei Avos, Menoras Ha-Ma'or and the like so that they will internalize our sacred faith because [if we do not do so] they are prone to abandon the path of God and violate all principles of [our] faith."<ref>Likkutei Halachos, Sotah p. 21</ref>}}

===Joseph Solovetchik===
{{Main|Joseph B. Soloveitchik}}
Rabbi Yoseph Solovetchik 'amened' the teachings of The Hafetz Haim. Rabbi Solovetchik taught all religious Ashkenazi Jews with the exception of hardline Hasidim, not should, or if they show motivation, but must teach their female children Gemarah like the boy school children. He among others fully institutionalized the teaching of Mishnah and Talmud to girls, from an autobiography on him by Rabbi Mayor Twersky called "A Glimpse of the Rav" in R. Menachem Genack ed., Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: Man of Halacha, Man of Faith, page 113: {{quote|"The halakha prohibiting Torah study for women is not indiscriminate or all-encompassing. There is complete unanimity that women are obligated to study halakhot pertaining to mitsvot which are incumbent upon them... The prohibition of teaching Torah she-Ba'al Pe to women relates to optional study. If ever circumstances dictate that study of Torah sh-Ba'al Pe is necessary to provide a firm foundation for faith, such study becomes obligatory and obviously lies beyond the pale of any prohibition." Undoubtedly, the Rav's prescription was more far-reaching that that of the Hafets Hayim and others. But the difference in magnitude should not obscure their fundamental agreement [on changing the attitudes Halachically].}}

==Present day==
{{Jewish feminism}}
{{Further|Jewish feminism|Women in Israel|Orthodox Jewish feminism|Women of the Wall}}

===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] is based on gendered understandings of Jewish practice—i.e., that there are different roles for men and women in religious life. There are different opinions among Orthodox Jews concerning these differences. Most claim that men and women have complementary, yet different roles in religious life, resulting in different religious obligations. Others believe that some of these differences are not a reflection of religious law, but rather of cultural, social, and historical causes. In the area of education, women were historically exempted from any study beyond an understanding of the practical aspects of [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household{{spaced ndash}}both of which they have an obligation to learn. Until the twentieth century, women were often discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. In the past 100 years, Orthodox Jewish education for women has advanced tremendously.<ref>Handelman, Susan. [http://www.chabad.org/theJewishWoman/article_cdo/aid/371261/jewish/Feminism-and-Orthodoxy.htm "Feminism and Orthodoxy - What It's All About."] ''Chabad Lubavitch''. 25 December 2011.</ref>

There have been many areas in which Orthodox women have been working towards change within religious life over the past 20 years: promoting advanced women's learning and scholarship, promoting women's ritual inclusion in synagogue, promoting women's communal and religious leadership, and more.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lakein|first1=Dvora|title=How Does She Do It?|url=http://lubavitch.com/news/article/2031309/How-Does-She-Do-It.html|accessdate=17 November 2014|agency=Chabad Lubavitch World HQ / News|date=October 6, 2014|quote=Mrs. Shula Bryski, representative to Thousand Oaks, California, and a mother of six, says that the Rebbe “empowered women in a way perhaps never done before.” Embracing modernity, the Rebbe understood that today, “women need more sophisticated Judaism, more depth, more spirituality.” Bryski’s personal emphasis in this affluent Los Angeles suburb is educating women through a weekly Caffeine for the Soul class, monthly Rosh Chodesh Society meetings, and the wildly-popular bat-mitzvah classes she leads. Bryski also serves on the editorial board of the Rosh Chodesh Society, a project of Jewish Learning Institute (JLI) and is a prolific writer.}}</ref> Women have been advancing change despite often vocal opposition by rabbinic leaders. Some Orthodox rabbis try to discount changes by claiming that women are motivated by sociological reasons and not by "true" religious motivation.<ref>Kress, Michael. [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/orthostate.html "The State of Orthodox Judaism Today."] ''Jewish Virtual Library''. 25 December 2011.</ref> For example, Orthodox, [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]], and [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] rabbis discourage women from wearing a [[yarmulke]], [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed members|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011|accessdate=October 29, 2014|issue=Haaretz|date=January 29, 2014}}</ref>

In most Orthodox synagogues, women still do not give a ''d'var Torah'' (brief discourse, generally on the weekly Torah portion) after or between services. Furthermore, a few Modern Orthodox synagogues have mechitzot dividing the left and right sides of the synagogue (rather than the usual division between the front and back of the synagogue, with women sitting in the back), with the women's section on one side and the men's section on the other.<ref>[http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf ] {{wayback|url=http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf |date=20150402103147 }}</ref>

====Rules of modesty====
{{Main|Tzniut}}
The importance of modesty in dress and conduct is particularly stressed among girls and women in Orthodox society. Many Orthodox women only wear skirts and avoid wearing trousers, and some married Orthodox women cover their hair with a wig, hat, or scarf. Judaism prescribes modesty for both men and women.{{citation needed |date=November 2013}}

====Rules of family purity====
{{Main|Niddah}}
In accordance with Jewish Law, Orthodox Jewish women refrain from contact with their husbands while they are [[niddah|menstruating]], and for a period of 7 clean days after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. The Israeli Rabbinate has recently approved women acting as ''yoatzot'', [[halakhic]] advisers on sensitive personal matters such as [[family purity]].

====Modern Orthodox Judaism====
Rabbi [[Joseph B. Soloveitchik]], a leader of profound influence in modern Orthodoxy in the United States, discouraged women from serving as presidents of synagogues or any other official positions of leadership,<ref name="Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis Of Womens Prayer Groups">[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQHwIAxpZRAC&pg=PA107], additional text.</ref> from performing other [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]] (commandments) traditionally performed by males exclusively, such as wearing a [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]]. Soloveitchik wrote that while women do not lack the capability to perform such acts, there is no [[Tradition|''mesorah'']] (Jewish tradition) that permits it. In making his decision, he relied upon Jewish oral law, including a [[mishnah]] in Chulin 2a and a Beit Yoseph in the Tur Yoreh Deah stating that a woman can perform a specific official communal service for her own needs but not those of others.<ref>Aharon Ziegler, ''Halakhic Positions of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik'', Volume II, p. 81.</ref>

Women's issues garnered more interest with the advent of [[feminism]]. Many Modern Orthodox Jewish women and Modern Orthodox rabbis sought to provide greater and more advanced Jewish education for women. Since most Modern Orthodox women attend college, and many receive advanced degrees in a variety of fields, Modern Orthodox communities generally promote women's secular education. A few Modern Orthodox Synagogues have women serving as clergy, including [[Gilah Kletenik]] at [[Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun]]. In 2013, [[Yeshivat Maharat]], located in the United States, became the first Orthodox institution to consecrate female clergy. The graduates of Yeshivat Maharat do not call themselves "rabbis." The title they are given is "maharat."<ref>"Jewish Daily Forward Podcast." ''[http://forward.com/articles/179052/female-orthodox-leaders-new-and-old/ Female Orthodox Leaders: New and Old]''. 21 June 2013. ''The Jewish Daily Forward''. Web. 23 June 2013.</ref> Also in 2013, [[Malka Schaps]] became the first female [[Haredi]] dean at an Israeli university when she was appointed dean of Bar Ilan University's Faculty of Exact Sciences.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.550156 Malka Schaps becomes first female Haredi dean at Israeli university - National Israel News | Haaretz]</ref> Also in 2013, the first class of female [[halacha|halachic]] advisers trained to practice in the US graduated; they graduated from the North American branch of [[Nishmat]]’s yoetzet halacha program in a ceremony at Congregation Sheartith Israel, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in Manhattan and [[SAR High School]] in Riverdale, New York began allowing girls to wrap tefillin during Shacharit-morning prayer; it is probably the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so.<ref>[http://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/nyc-orthodox-high-school-lets-girls-put-on-tefillin/2014/01/20/ The Jewish Press » » NYC Orthodox High School Lets Girls Put On Tefillin]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/landmark-us-program-graduates-first-female-halachic-advisers/ Landmark US program graduates first female halachic advisers | The Times of Israel]</ref>

In 2014, the first ever book of [[halacha|halachic]] decisions written by women who were ordained to serve as poskot (Idit Bartov and Anat Novoselsky) was published.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://jpupdates.com/2014/06/26/first-halacha-sefer-women-makes-waves-israel-orthodox-world/ First Halacha Sefer By Women Makes Waves in Israeli Orthodox World - JP Updates | JP Updates]</ref> The women were ordained by the municipal chief rabbi of Efrat, Rabbi [[Shlomo Riskin]], after completing [[Midreshet Lindenbaum]] women’s college’s five-year ordination course in advanced studies in Jewish law, as well as passing examinations equivalent to the rabbinate’s requirement for men.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

In 2015, Jennie Rosenfeld became the first female Orthodox spiritual advisor in Israel (specifically, she became the spiritual advisor, also called manhiga ruchanit, for the community of [[Efrat]].)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2015/1/26/with-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel#.VMZhzS7lw4I=|title=With female spiritual advisor, Efrat spotlights women’s empowerment in Israel|work=JNS.org}}</ref>

====Women's prayer groups====
Separate Jewish women's prayer groups were a sanctioned custom among German Jews in the [[Middle Ages]]. The ''Kol Bo'' provides, in the laws for [[Tisha B'Av]]:

:And they recite dirges there for about a quarter of the night, the men in their synagogue and the women in their synagogue. And likewise during the day the men recite dirges by themselves and the women by themselves, until about a third of the day has passed.

In Germany, in the 12th and 13th centuries, women's prayer groups were led by female cantors. Rabbi Eliezar of Worms, in his elegy for his wife Dulca, praised her for teaching the other women how to pray and embellishing the prayer with music. The gravestone of Urania of Worms, who died in 1275, contains the inscription "who sang ''piyyutim'' for the women with musical voice." In the Nurnberg Memorial Book, one Richenza was inscribed with the title "prayer leader of the women."<ref>Grossman, ''Pious and Rebellious'', pp. 180-182.</ref>

Orthodox women more recently began holding organized women's ''tefila'' (prayer) groups beginning in the 1970s. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a ''[[minyan]]'' (prayer quorum) for the purpose of [[Jewish services|regular services]], women in these groups read the prayers and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of Orthodox Judaism have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:

* The most restrictive view, held by some Modern Orthodox authorities, and most Haredi Rabbis, rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law).{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}
* A more liberal, permissive view maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatible with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e., do not include certain parts of the service known as ''devarim she-bi-kdusha''), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against ''halakha''. People in this group include Rabbi Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Rabbi [[Avi Weiss]].<ref>Israel's late [[Ashkenazi]]c [[Chief Rabbi]] [[Shlomo Goren]] ''may'' have ruled in 1974 that while women do not constitute a ''minyan'', they may still carry out full prayer services. Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, stating that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual ''halakha'' was in accord with the second school of thought, listed above.[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm]</ref>
* A third view maintains argues in favor of the acceptability of calling women to the Torah in mixed services, and leading certain parts of the service which do not require a [[minyan]], under certain conditions.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf]|972 KB}}</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf]|78.1 KB}}</ref>

In 2013 the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a [[halacha|halachic]] ruling which allows women, for the first time, to say the [[Kaddish]] prayer in memory of their deceased parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4396702,00.html |title=Halachic ruling: Women may say Kaddish - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

====Women as witnesses====
Traditionally, women are not generally permitted to serve as witnesses in an Orthodox [[Beit Din]] ([[Beit Din|rabbinical court]]), although they have recently been permitted to serve as ''toanot'' (advocates) in those courts. This limitation has exceptions which have required exploration under rabbinic law as the role of women in society and the obligations of religious groups under external civil law have been subject to increasing recent scrutiny.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The recent case of Rabbi [[Mordecai Tendler]], the first rabbi to be expelled from the [[Rabbinical Council of America]] following allegations of sexual harassment, illustrated the importance of clarification of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[halakha]] in this area. Rabbi Tendler claimed that the tradition of exclusion of women's testimony should compel the RCA to disregard the allegations. He argued that since the testimony of a woman could not be admitted in [[Beit Din|Rabbinical court]], there were no valid witnesses against him, and hence the case for his expulsion had to be thrown out for lack of evidence. In a ruling of importance for Orthodox women's capacity for legal self-protection under [[Halakha|Jewish law]], [[Haredi]] Rabbi [[Benzion Wosner]], writing on behalf of the ''Shevet Levi'' [[Beit Din]] (Rabbinical court) of [[Monsey, New York]], identified sexual harassment cases as coming under a class of exceptions to the traditional exclusion, under which "even children or women" have not only a right but an obligation to testify, and can be relied upon by a rabbinical court as valid witnesses:

:The [[Meir Abulafia|Ramah]] in Choshen Mishpat (Siman 35, 14) rules that in a case where only women congregate or in a case where only women could possibly testify, (in this case the alleged harassment occurred behind closed doors) they can and should certainly testify. (Terumas Hadeshen Siman 353 and Agudah Perek 10, Yochasin)

:This is also the ruling of the [[Joseph Colon Trabotto|Maharik]], [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra|Radvaz]], and the [[Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz|Mahar"i of Minz]]. Even those "[[Posek|Poskim]]" that would normally not rely on women witnesses, they would certainly agree that in our case ... where there is ample evidence that this Rabbi violated [[Torah]] precepts, then even children or women can certainly be kosher as witnesses, as the [[Chatam Sofer|Chasam Sofer]] pointed out in his ''sefer'' (monograph) (Orach Chaim T'shuvah 11)<ref>English summary at [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/Tendler_Mordecai.html The Awareness Center: Case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler.] Original ''teshuvah'' ([[Responsum]]) (in Hebrew) at {{PDF|[http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/HaravWosner'sT'shuvah.pdf The Awareness Center: Harav Wosner's Teshuvah]|130 KB}} (Note: parenthetical translations are added, parenthetical references are original)</ref>

The [[Rabbinical Council of America]], while initially relying on its own investigation, chose to rely on the Halakhic ruling of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbinical body as authoritative in the situation.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

====Orthodox approaches to change====
Leaders of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] community have been steadfast in their opposition to a change in the role of women, arguing that the religious and social constraints on women, as dictated by traditional Jewish texts, are timeless and are not affected by contemporary social change. Many also argue that giving traditionally male roles to women will only detract from both women's and men's ability to lead truly fulfilling lives. Haredim have also sometimes perceived arguments for liberalization as in reality stemming from antagonism to Jewish law and beliefs generally, arguing that preserving faith requires resisting secular and "un-Jewish" ideas.

Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly in its more liberal variants, has tended to look at proposed changes in the role of women on a specific, case-by-case basis, focusing on arguments regarding the religious and legal role of specific prayers, rituals and activities individually. Such arguments have tended to focus on cases where the Talmud and other traditional sources express multiple or more liberal viewpoints, particularly where the role of women in the past was arguably broader than in more recent times. Feminist advocates within Orthodoxy have tended to stay within the traditional legal process of argumentation, seeking a gradualist approach, and avoiding wholesale arguments against the religious tradition as such.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Nevertheless, a growing [[Orthodox Jewish feminism|Orthodox feminist]] movement seeks to address gender inequalities.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed women|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011#|accessdate=30 June 2014|work=Haaretz|date=Jan 28, 2014}}</ref></blockquote>

===Agunot===

[[Agunot]] (lit. "chained women") are women who wish to divorce their husbands, but whose husbands refuse to give them a writ of divorce (a "get"). In Orthodox Judaism, only a man is able to serve a "get."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Farkash|first1=Tali|title=e women extorted by ex-husbands|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4400770,00.html|accessdate=2014-10-29|publisher=Ynet News|date=2013-07-07}}</ref>

===Conservative Judaism===
Although the position of [[Conservative Judaism]] toward women originally differed little from the Orthodox position, it has in recent years minimized legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of decisions and [[responsa]] on this topic. These provide for women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being counted as part of a ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'' - an arbiter in matters of religious law)
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:
*[[Matrilineality in Judaism|Matrilineal descent]]. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.
*Pidyon Ha-Bat, a proposed ceremony based on the biblical redemption of the eldest newborn son ([[Pidyon HaBen|Pidyon Ha-Ben]]). The CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

A Conservative Jewish ''[[ketuba]]'' includes a clause that puts a husband and wife on more equal footing when it comes to marriage and divorce law within ''halacha''.<ref name="Raphael">Raphael, Marc Lee. ''Profiles in American Judaism: The Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Traditions in Historical Perspective''. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1984. p. 110</ref>

The CJLS recently reaffirmed the obligation of Conservative women to observe ''[[niddah]]'' (sexual abstinence during and after menstruation) and ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual immersion) following menstruation, although somewhat liberalizing certain details. Such practices, while requirements of Conservative Judaism, are not widely observed among Conservative laity.

====Changes in the Conservative position====
Prior to 1973, Conservative Judaism had more limited roles for women and was more similar to current Modern Orthodoxy, with changes on issues including mixed seating, synagogue corporate leadership, and permitting women to be called to the Torah. In 1973, the CJLS of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] voted, without issuing an opinion, that women could count in a [[minyan]]. There was a special commission appointed by the Conservative movement to study the issue of ordaining women as rabbis, which met between 1977 and 1978, and consisted of eleven men and three women; the women were Marian Siner Gordon, an attorney, Rivkah Harris, an [[Assyriologist]], and [[Francine Klagsbrun]], a writer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/klagsbrun-francine |title=Francine Klagsbrun | Jewish Women's Archive |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2015-09-07}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] (JTSA) faculty voted, also without accompanying opinion, to ordain women as rabbis and as cantors.<ref name="Raphael" /> [[Paula Hyman]], among others, took part in the vote as a member of the JTS faculty.

In 2002, the CJLS adapted a [[responsum]] by Rabbi David Fine, [https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf ''Women and the Minyan''], which provides an official religious-law foundation for women counting in a minyan and explains the current Conservative approach to the role of women in prayer.<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org">{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}}</ref> This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

In 2006, the CJLS adopted three [[responsum|responsa]] on the subject of [[niddah]], which reaffirmed an obligation of Conservative women to abstain from sexual relations during and following [[menstruation]] and to immerse in a [[mikvah]] prior to resumption, while liberalizing observance requirements including shortening the length of the [[niddah]] period, lifting restrictions on non-sexual contact during niddah, and reducing the circumstances under which spotting and similar conditions would mandate abstinence.<ref name="RabbiIntro">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Mikveh_Introduction.doc Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiGrossman">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Grossman-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Susan Grossman, MIKVEH AND THE SANCTITY OF BEING CREATED HUMAN, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiReisner">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Reisner-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Avram Reisner, OBSERVING NIDDAH IN OUR DAY: AN INQUIRY ON THE STATUS OF PURITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY WITH A MENSTRUANT, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiBerkowitz">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Berkowitz-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, RESHAPING THE LAWS OF FAMILY PURITY FOR THE MODERN WORLD, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref>

In all cases continuing the Orthodox approach was also upheld as an option. Individual Conservative rabbis and synagogues are not required to adopt any of these changes, and a small number have adopted none of them.

====Conservative approaches to change====
Prior to 1973, Conservative approaches to change were generally on an individual, case-by-case basis. Between 1973 and 2002, the Conservative movement adapted changes through its official organizations, but without issuing explanatory opinions. Since 2002, the Conservative movement has coalesced around a single across-the board approach to the role of women in Jewish law.<ref>This section summarizes the CLJS's 2002 Fine "Women and the Minyan" {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}} Responsum's review and critique of prior CJLS efforts to adopt an authoritative responsum.</ref>

In 1973, 1983, and 1993, individual rabbis and professors issued six major opinions which influenced change in the Conservative approach, the first and second Sigal, Blumenthal, Rabinowitz, and [[Joel Roth|Roth]] responsa, and the [[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman]] article. These opinions sought to provide for a wholesale shift in women's public roles through a single, comprehensive legal justification. Most such opinions based their positions on an argument that Jewish women always were, or have become, legally obligated to perform the same ''mitzvot'' as men and to do so in the same manner.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The first Sigal and the Blumenthal responsa were considered by the CJLS as part of its decision on prayer roles in 1973. They argued that women have always had the same obligations as men.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} The first Sigal responsum used the Talmud's general prayer obligation and examples of cases in which women were traditionally obligated to say specific prayers and inferred from them a public prayer obligation identical to that of men. The Blumenthal responsum extrapolated from a minority authority that a ''minyan'' could be formed with nine men and one woman in an emergency. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) declined to adopt either responsum. Rabbi Siegel reported to the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] membership that many on the CJLS, while agreeing with the result, found the arguments unconvincing.

The Rabinowitz, [[Joel Roth|Roth]], and second Sigal responsa were considered by the JTSA faculty as part of its decision to ordain women as rabbis in 1983. The Rabbinowitz responsum sidestepped the issue of obligation, arguing that there is no longer a religious need for a community representative in prayer and hence there is no need to decide whether a woman can ''halakhically'' serve as one. The CJLS felt that an argument potentially undermining the value of community and clergy was unconvincing: "We should not be afraid to recognize that the function of clergy is to help our people connect with the holy." The Roth and second Sigal responsa accepted that time-bound ''mitzvot'' were traditionally optional for women, but argued that women in modern times could change their traditional roles. The Roth responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|1=[http://www.jtsa.edu/rabbinical/women/roth.pdf#search='women%20roth%20responsum']|2=161 KB}}</ref> argued that women could individually voluntarily assume the same obligations as men, and that women who do so (e.g. pray three times a day regularly) could count in a ''minyan'' and serve as agents. The JTSA accordingly required female rabbinical students wishing to train as rabbis to personally obligate themselves, but synagogue rabbis, unwilling to inquire into individual religiosity, found it impractical. The second Sigal responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/sigal_women.pdf]|3.17 MB}}</ref> called for a ''takkanah'', or rabbinical edict, "that would serve as a ''halakhic'' ERA," overruling all non-egalitarian provisions in law or, in the alternative, a new approach to ''halakhic'' interpretation independent of legal precedents. The CJLS, unwilling to use either an intrusive approach or a repudiation of the traditional legal process as bases for action, did not adopt either and let the JTS faculty vote stand unexplained.

In 1993, Professor [[Judith Hauptman]] of JTS issued an influential paper <ref>http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427</ref> arguing that women had historically always been obligated in prayer, using more detailed arguments than the Blumenthal and first Sigal responsa. The paper suggested that women who followed traditional practices were failing to meet their obligations. Rabbi Roth argued that Conservative Judaism should think twice before adopting a viewpoint labeling its most traditional and often most committed members as sinners. The issue was again dropped.

In 2002, the CJLS returned to the issue of justifying its actions regarding women's status, and adopted a single authoritative approach, the Fine responsum,<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org"/> as the definitive Conservative [[halakha]] on role-of-women issues. This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The Responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this Responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

===Reform Judaism===
[[Reform Judaism]] believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that [[halakha]] (Jewish law) is the sole legitimate form of Jewish decision making, and holds that Jews can and must consider their conscience and ethical principles inherent in the Jewish tradition when deciding upon a right course of action. There is widespread consensus among Reform Jews that traditional distinctions between the role of men and women are antithetical to the deeper ethical principles of Judaism. This has enabled Reform communities to allow women to perform many rituals traditionally reserved for men, such as:

*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

Concerns about intermarriage have also influenced the Reform Jewish position on gender. In 1983, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] passed a resolution waiving the need for formal conversion for anyone with at least one Jewish parent who has made affirmative acts of Jewish identity. This departed from the traditional position requiring formal [[conversion to Judaism]] for children without a [[matrilineal descent|Jewish mother]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/patrilineal1.html Reform Movement's Resolution on Patrilineal Descent]</ref> The 1983 resolution of the American Reform movement has had a mixed reception in Reform Jewish communities outside of the United States. Most notably, the [[Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism]] has rejected patrilineal descent and requires formal conversion for anyone without a Jewish mother.<ref>[http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=840313&ct=1051515 Reform Judaism in Israel: Progress and Prospects]</ref> As well, a joint Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative and Reform Bet Din formed in Denver, Colorado to promote uniform standards for conversion to Judaism was dissolved in 1983, due to that Reform resolution.<ref name="Wertheimer, A People Divided">{{Cite book|last=Wertheimer|first=Jack|title=A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America|publisher=University Press of New England|year=1997}}</ref> However, in 2015 the majority of Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis voted in favor of a position paper proposing "that individuals who live a Jewish life, and who are patrilineally Jewish, can be welcomed into the Jewish community and confirmed as Jewish through an individual process."<ref name="jpost1">{{cite web|last=Lewis |first=Jerry |url=http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/UK-Reform-rabbis-accept-patrilineal-descent-409298 |title=UK Reform rabbis accept patrilineal descent - Diaspora - Jerusalem Post |publisher=Jpost.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref> Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis stated that rabbis "would be able to take local decisions – ratified by the [[Beit Din]] – confirming Jewish status."<ref name="jpost1"/>

Liberal prayerbooks tend increasingly to avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language. For example, the [[Liberal Judaism (UK)|UK Liberal movement]]'s ''Siddur Lev Chadash'' (1995) does so, as does the [[Reform Judaism (UK)|UK Reform Movement]]'s ''Forms of Prayer'' (2008).<ref>[http://thejc.com/articles/the-slimline-siddur-a-touch-bob-dylan The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan | The Jewish Chronicle]</ref><ref>[http://www.bwpjc.org/slc.htm Siddur Lev Chadash]</ref> In [[Mishkan T'filah]], the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as “He” have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.) <ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/03/us/03prayerbook.html?_r=1 | work=The New York Times | first=Laurie | last=Goodstein | title=In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change | date=3 September 2007}}</ref> In 2015 the Reform Jewish [[High Holy Days]] prayer book [[Mishkan HaNefesh]] was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.<ref name="jweekly1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/74278/gates-of-repentance-replacement-advances-reform-trends/ |title=‘Gates of Repentance’ replacement advances Reform trends | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=2015-03-26 |accessdate=2015-04-14}}</ref> It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer [[Avinu Malkeinu]] that refers to God as both "Loving Father" and "Compassionate Mother."<ref name="jweekly1"/> Other notable changes are replacing a line from the Reform movement’s earlier prayerbook, "Gates of Repentance," that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line "rejoicing with couples under the chuppah [wedding canopy]", and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering “mibeit,” Hebrew for “from the house of,” in addition to the traditional “son of” or “daughter of.”<ref name="jweekly1"/>

====Reform approaches to change====
Reform Judaism generally holds that the various differences between the roles of men and women in traditional Jewish law are not relevant to modern conditions and not applicable today. Accordingly, there has been no need to develop legal arguments analogous to those made within the Orthodox and Conservative movements.

=== Reconstructionist Judaism ===

The equality of women and men is a central tenet and hallmark of [[Reconstructionist Judaism]]. From the beginning, Reconstructionist Jewish ritual allowed men and women to pray together — a decision based on egalitarian philosophy. It was on this basis that Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]] called for the full equality of women and men, despite the obvious difficulties reconciling this stance with norms of traditional Jewish practice.<ref>Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html , Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.</ref> The Reconstructionist Movement ordained women rabbis from the start.<ref>Nadell, Pamela. Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women’s Ordination 1889-1985. editor Jewish Women's Life, Beacon Press, 1998. pages 187-188</ref> In 1968, women were accepted into the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, under the leadership of [[Ira Eisenstein]].<ref>Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16542.html , Jewish Virtual Library. 2001.</ref> The first ordained female Reconstructionist rabbi, [[Sandy Eisenberg Sasso]], served as rabbi of the Manhattan Reconstructionist Congregation in 1976 and gained a pulpit in 1977 at Beth El Zedeck congregation in Indianapolis. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso was accepted without debate or subsequent controversy.<ref>Sandy Sasso ordained as first female Reconstructionist rabbi,This Week in History. Jewish Women's Archive. http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/19/1974/sandy-sasso</ref> In 2005, 24 out of the movement's 106 synagogues in the US had women as senior or assistant rabbis.<ref>in Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States, Jewish Women's Archive, http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states</ref> In 2013 Rabbi [[Deborah Waxman]] was elected as the President of the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical College]].<ref name="thejewishweek.com">[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/national-news/reconstructionists-pick-first-woman-lesbian-denominational-leader Reconstructionists Pick First Woman, Lesbian As Denominational Leader | The Jewish Week]</ref><ref>[http://forward.com/articles/185252/trailblazing-reconstructionist-deborah-waxman-reli/?p=all Trailblazing Reconstructionist Deborah Waxman Relishes Challenges of Judaism – Forward.com]</ref> As the President, she is believed to be the first woman and first lesbian to lead a Jewish congregational union, and the first female rabbi and first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is both a congregational union and a seminary.<ref name="thejewishweek.com"/><ref>http://www.rrc.edu/sites/default/files/ORPHAN_PDFs/RRC_WaxmanPresidentElect-ForPress3.pdf?hero=1615</ref>

The Reconstructionist Community began including women in the [[minyan]] and allowing them to come up to the [[Torah]] for [[Aliyah (Torah)|aliyot]]. They also continued the practice of [[bat mitzvah]].<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso,Putting God on the Guest List: How to Reclaim the Spiritual Meaning of Your Child's Bar or Bat Mitzvah, Jewish Lights Publishing (Woodstock, Vermont), 1992.</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allowed women to perform other traditional male tasks, such as serving as witnesses, leading services,<ref>Cantor Heather’ is a first for Reconstructionist shul, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20569&Itemid=86 , Canadian Jewish News, 06 January 2011
</ref> public Torah reading, and wearing ritual prayer garments like [[kippot]] and [[tallitot]].<ref>One example in this video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oplgjEjts0 ,Darchei Noam Congregation, Toronto, Canada.</ref> Female Reconstructionist rabbis have been instrumental in the creation of rituals, stories, and music that have begun to give women's experience a voice in Judaism. Most of the focus has been on rituals for life-cycle events.<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar, Reconstructionist Press, 2005</ref> New ceremonies have been created for births,<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, Call Them Builders: A Resource Booklet about Jewish Attitudes and Practices on Birth and Family Life, Reconstructionist Federation of Congregations and Havurot (New York)</ref> weddings, divorces, conversions,<ref>Shefa, Sheri (August 2006). "Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb". Canadian Jewish News.http://joi.org/bloglinks/CJN Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb 8-24-06.pdf</ref> weaning, and the onset of menarche and menopause. The Reconstructionist movement as a whole has been committed to creating liturgy that is in consonance with gender equality and the celebration of women's lives.<ref>This is reflected in the prayer books that have been published by the Reconstructionist movement</ref><ref>Female scribe to pen Reconstructionist shul’s new Torah, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=16953&Itemid=86, Canadian Jewish News, May 21, 2009.</ref><ref>Montreal congregation hires first female scribe to pen Torah in Canada, http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200906031702/Montreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html ,Jewish Tribune,3 June 2009.</ref> Another major step: The Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations has also developed educational programs that teach the full acceptance of lesbians,<ref>See Rabbi [[Rebecca Alpert]] and Rabbi [[Toba Spitzer]]</ref> as well as rituals that affirm lesbian relationships.<ref>Anne Lapidus Lerner in Jewish Women's Archive http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lerner-anne-lapidus</ref><ref>Radin, Charles A. First openly gay rabbi elected leader,http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/03/first_openly_ga.html , Boston Globe, March 13, 2007.</ref> Reconstructionist rabbis officiate at same-sex weddings.<ref>for Montreal https://www.dorshei-emet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92&Itemid=100</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allows openly [[LGBT]] men and women to be ordained as rabbis and cantors.

Several prominent members of the Reconstructionist community have focused on issues like domestic violence.<ref>Gordon, Sheldon (21 April 2006) ''Billboards Focus on Jewish Domestic Violence'', in Jewish Daily Forward http://www.forward.com/articles/1263/</ref><ref>Na'amat Canada, http://www.naamat.com/legalaid.htm</ref><ref>Springtide Resources, Wife Abuse in the Jewish Community, http://www.womanabuseprevention.com/html/jewish_community.html</ref><ref>Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse, http://jcada.org/www/docs/4/</ref> Others have devoted energy to helping women gain the right of divorce in traditional Jewish communities.<ref>(French) Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce , Journal Le Devoir, 24 April 2010</ref><ref>Sonia Sarah Lipsyc ,http://soniasarahlipsyc.canalblog.com/</ref> Many have spoken out for the right of Jewish women to pray aloud and read from the Torah at the [[Western Wall]] in Jerusalem, the [[Women of the Wall]] group.<ref>[http://womenofthewall.org.il/?lang=he Women of the Wall | נשות הכותל]</ref>

When the roles of women in religion change, there may also be changed roles for men. With their advocacy of patrilineal descent in the 1970s, the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association]] supported the principle that a man who takes responsibility for raising a Jewish child can pass Judaism on to the next generation as well as a woman. All children who receive a Jewish education are considered Jewish in Reconstructionist Judaism regardless of whatever is the sex of their Jewish parent.

=== Jewish Renewal===
[[Jewish Renewal]] is a recent [[Jewish denominations|movement]] in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]], [[music]]al and [[Meditation|meditative]] practices; it describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism’s prophetic and mystical traditions." <ref>[http://www.aleph.org/renewal.htm About Jewish Renewal]</ref> The Jewish Renewal movement ordains women as well as men as rabbis and cantors. [[Lynn Gottlieb]] became the first female rabbi in Jewish Renewal in 1981, and [[Avitall Gerstetter]], who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA030.htm |title=Lynn Gottlieb |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2003-09-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2009 and 2012 respectively, OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) issued a board statement and a resolution supporting [[Women of the Wall]].<ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/2009-board-statement-on-women-of-the-wall/ 2009 Board Statement on Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref><ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/wow-statement-of-support/ 2012 Statement of Support for Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref> The Statement of Principles of OHALAH states in part, "Our local communities will embody egalitarian and inclusive values, manifested in a variety of leadership and decision-making structures, ensuring that women and men are full and equal partners in every aspect of our communal Jewish life." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/about-us/principles/ Aleph Statement of Principles | OhalahOhalah]</ref> In 2014 OHALAH issued a board resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: OHALAH supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]]; OHALAH condemns all types of sexism; OHALAH is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come; and OHALAH supports equal rights regardless of gender." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/resolution-on-gender-equality/ Board Resolution on Gender Equality | OhalahOhalah]</ref> Also in 2014, ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal issued a statement stating, "ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]], condemns all types of sexism, is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come, and supports equal rights regardless of gender, in recognition and allegiance to the view that we are all equally created in the Divine Image." <ref>[http://kolaleph.org/2014/02/04/gender-equality-now/ Statement On Gender Equality | Kol ALEPH]</ref>

=== Humanistic Judaism ===
[[Humanistic Judaism]] is a movement in Judaism that offers a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life. It ordains both men and women as rabbis, and its first rabbi was a woman, [[Tamara Kolton]], who was ordained in 1999.<ref name="shj">{{cite web|url=http://www.shj.org/shjbios.htm |title=Society for Humanistic Judaism - Rabbis and Leadership |publisher=Shj.org |accessdate=2012-03-12}}</ref> Its first cantor was also a woman, [[Hazzan Deborah Davis|Deborah Davis]], ordained in 2001; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped ordaining cantors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jmwc.org/Women/womend.html |title=Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music |publisher=JMWC |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> The [[Society for Humanistic Judaism]] issued a statement in 1996 stating in part, "we affirm that a woman has the moral right and should have the continuing legal right to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy in accordance with her own ethical standards. Because a decision to terminate a pregnancy carries serious, irreversible consequences, it is one to be made with great care and with keen awareness of the complex psychological, emotional, and ethical implications." They also issued a statement in 2011 condemning the then-recent passage of the “No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act” by the U.S. House of Representatives, which they called "a direct attack on a women’s right to choose".<ref>[http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html |date=20131228071242 }}</ref> In 2012, they issued a resolution opposing conscience clauses that allow religious-affiliated institutions to be exempt from generally applicable requirements mandating reproductive healthcare services to individuals or employees.<ref>[http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html |date=20131228070406 }}</ref> In 2013 they issued a resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: The Society for Humanistic Judaism wholeheartedly supports the observance of [[Women's Equality Day]] on August 26 to commemorate the anniversary of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allowing women to vote; The Society condemns gender discrimination in all its forms, including restriction of rights, limited access to education, violence, and subjugation; and The Society commits itself to maintain vigilance and speak out in the fight to bring gender equality to our generation and to the generations that follow." <ref>[http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html |date=20131018050824 }}</ref>

=== Women as soferim ===
A Sofer, Sopher, Sofer SeTaM, or Sofer ST"M (Heb: "scribe", סופר סת״ם) is a Jewish scribe who can transcribe Torah scrolls, tefillin and mezuzot, and other religious writings. (ST"M, סת״ם, is an abbreviation for Sefer Torahs, Tefillin, and Mezuzot. The plural of sofer is "soferim", סופרים.) Forming the basis for the discussion of women becoming soferim, [[Talmud|Talmud Gittin]] 45b states: "Sifrei Torah, tefillin and mezuzot written by a heretic, a star-worshipper, a slave, a woman, a minor, a [[Cuthean]], or an [[Apostasy in Judaism|apostate Jew]], are unfit for ritual use."<ref>[http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml ] {{wayback|url=http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml |date=20130615110436 }}</ref> The rulings on [[Mezuzah]] and [[Tefillin]] are virtually undisputed among those who hold to the [[Talmud|Talmudic Law]]. While [[Arba'ah Turim]] does not include women in its list of those ineligible to write Sifrei Torah, some see this as proof that women are permitted to write a Torah scroll.<ref>Tur, [[Wikisource:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/271|Orah Hayyim 271]].</ref> However today, virtually all Orthodox (both Modern and Ultra) authorities contest the idea that a woman is permitted to write a [[Sefer Torah]]. Yet women are permitted to inscribe [[Ketubah|Ketubot]] (marriage contracts), STaM not intended for ritual use, and other writings of [[Sofrut]] beyond simple STaM. In 2003 Canadian [[Aviel Barclay]] became the world's first known traditionally trained female sofer.<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/3614/ A Female Scribe’s Trailblazing Effort – Forward.com]</ref><ref>[http://jwablog.jwa.org/soferet Simchat Torah with a Soferet's Torah | Jewish Women's Archive]</ref> In 2007 [[Jen Taylor Friedman]], a British woman, became the first female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]].<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/11604/ As New Year Dawns, Jewish Women Mark Milestones – Forward.com]</ref> In 2010 the first [[Sefer Torah]] scribed by a group of women (six female sofers, who were from Brazil, Canada, Israel, and the United States) was completed;<ref>[http://jta.org/news/article/2010/10/15/2741313/womens-torah-dedicated-in-seattle Women’s Torah dedicated in Seattle | Jewish Telegraphic Agency]</ref> this was known as the [[Women's Torah Project]].<ref name="jweekly.com">[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/59670/cjms-resident-scribe-takes-part-in-group-torah-project-in-seattle/ Julie Seltzer, a female Torah scribe from San Francisco, contributed to the first Torah scroll to be written by a group of women. | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern Calif...]</ref>

From October 2010 until spring 2011, [[Julie Seltzer]], one of the female sofers from the Women's Torah Project, scribed a [[Sefer Torah]] as part of an exhibition at the [[Contemporary Jewish Museum]] in [[San Francisco]]. This makes her the first American female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]]; Julie Seltzer was born in Philadelphia and is non-denominationally Jewish.<ref name="jweekly.com"/><ref>http://www.thecjm.org/index.php?option=com_ccevents&scope=prgm&task=detail&fid=8&oid=563</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/arts/design/08sfculture.html</ref><ref>[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/61328/cjm-to-celebrate-end-of-groundbreaking-torah-project CJM to celebrate end of groundbreaking Torah project | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California]</ref> From spring 2011 until August 2012 she scribed another [[Sefer Torah]], this time for the Reform congregation Beth Israel in San Diego.<ref name="jpost.com">[http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=286912 Torah, she wrote | JPost | Israel News]</ref><ref>[http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah ] {{wayback|url=http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah |date=20150721211051 }}</ref> Seltzer was taught mostly by [[Jen Taylor Friedman]].<ref name="jpost.com"/> On September 22, 2013, [[Congregation Beth Elohim]] of New York dedicated a new Torah, which members of Beth Elohim said was the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman.<ref>[http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/congregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015 Congregation Beth Elohim in Park Slope dedicates new Torah for 150th anniversary - News 12 Brooklyn]</ref> The Torah was scribed by Linda Coppleson.<ref>[http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ ] {{wayback|url=http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ |date=20141011005036 }}</ref> As of 2014, there are an estimated 50 female sofers in the world.<ref>{{cite web|author=By Jeff KunerthOrlando Sentinel |url=http://www.pressherald.com/2014/08/23/female-jewish-scribe-helps-keep-tradition-alive/ |title=Female Jewish scribe helps keep tradition alive - The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram |publisher=Pressherald.com |date=2014-08-23 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism|Gender studies}}
*[[bat-Kohen]] (daughter of a priest)
*[[Jewish feminism]]
**[[List of Jewish feminists]]
*[[Women as theological figures]]
**[[Rabbi#Women as rabbis|Women as rabbis]]
**[[Rebbetzin]] (rabbi's wife)
**[[List of women in the Bible]]
*[[Beis Yaakov]] (schools for Haredi girls)
*[[Niddah]] (menstruation laws)
*''[[Soferet]]'' (Jewish scribe who can transcribe religious documents)
*[[Gender and Judaism]]
*[[Tzeniut]] (modest behavior)
*[[Negiah]] (guidelines for physical contact)
*[[Yichud]] (prohibitions of secluding oneself with a stranger)
*[[Jewish view of marriage]]
**[[Shidduch]] (finding a marriage partner)
**[[Shalom bayit]] (peace and harmony in the relationship between husband and wife)
*[[Minyan]] (quorum of at least ten Jews acceptable for the recitation of certain prayers)
**[[Partnership minyan]] (a movement to give women more roles in prayer services)
*[[Agunah]] (a woman who wishes to divorce her husband, but, because her husband did not provide her with a divorce contract, is unable to according to Jewish law)
*[[Women in Israel]]
**[[Women of the Wall]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==

'''General'''
* [http://www.rachaelscentre.org/ Rachael's Centre for Torah, Musar & Ethics] An online learning community dedicated to Pluralistic Jewish learning through a female lens
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://www.jofa.org/ Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance] JOFA
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://jcada.org/www Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse]
* [http://www.naamat.com/domesticviolence.htm Na'amat Canada]
* [http://www.awarenow.org/www/docs/100/Internet Adolescents Working for Awesome Relationship Experiences] AWARE

'''Publications'''
* [http://www.lilith.org/ Lilith Magazine] a Jewish feminist journal
* [http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.

'''Particular issues'''
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/12/06/wuhsha-the-broker-jewish-women-in-the-medieval-economy/ "Wuhsha the Broker: Jewish Women in the Medieval Economy," Jewish History Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/09/19/rachel-wife-of-akiva-women-in-ancient-israel/ "Rachel, Wife of Akiva: Women in Ancient Israel," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/02/10/gluckel-of-hameln-jewish-women-n-the-17th-century/ "Gluckel of Hameln: Jewish Women in the 17th Century," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/spots_of_light/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki Spots of Light: Women in the Holocaust] an online exhibition by [[Yad Vashem]]
* [http://alternativestokiddushin.wordpress.com The Kiddushin Variations] A Directory of Halakhic Possibilities For A More Egalitarian Kiddushin Ritual.
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library
* [http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5759winter/sense.htm "Sense and Sensibilities: Women and Torah Study"], Bryna Levy, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 1998, 59 (2).
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf "Qeri’at ha-Torah by Women: A Halakhic Analysis"]|972 KB}}, Shapiro, Mendel. Edah 1:2, 2001
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf "Congregational Dignity and Human Dignity: Women and Public Torah Reading"]|78.1 KB}}, Sperber, Daniel. Edah 3:2, 2002
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427 "Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies"], Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf "Women and the Minyan"]|194 KB}}, Fine, David. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative), 2002
* [http://www.annette-boeckler.de/liturgie/EgalitarianServices.html Egalitarian Jewish Services A Discussion Paper]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5765/5765winter/WOMENADV.PDF "Women Advocates Make Their Mark"]|473 KB}}, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 2004.
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimer2-1.htm "Women and Minyan"], ''[[Tradition (orthodox journal)|Tradition]]'', 1988. Summary of Orthodox arguments regarding women counting in minyan for certain purposes
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm "Women's Prayer Services Theory and Practice"], ''[[Tradition (journal)|Tradition]]'', 1998. Summary of Orthodox arguments for and against women's prayer groups
* Elissa Strauss, ''Women Who Write Torah, A New Generation of Female Scribes Makes History''. http://forward.com/articles/133017/, The Jewish Daily Forward, November 19, 2010.
* (French) Harvey, Claire. Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce, Le Devoir, 24 April 2010.
* ''Mordecai Kaplan'' .2005.http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai, Jewish Women's Archive, 2005
* Luo,Michael, An Orthodox Jewish Woman, and Soon, a Spiritual Leader, http://www.hods.org/pdf/press/An%20Orthodox%20Jewish%20Woman,%20and%20Soon,%20a%20Spiritual%20Leader.htm, New York Times, August 21, 2006.
* ''Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States''. http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states, Jewish Women's archive, 2005
* Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html, Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press
* ''On the Ordination of Women: An Advocate's Halakhic Response'' Mayer E. Rabbinowitz. In Simon Greenberg, ed., ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988.
* ''Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies,'' Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', [[Simon Greenberg]], ed. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988. ISBN 0-87334-041-8
* ''Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender'', [[Charlotte Fonrobert]], Stanford University Press, 2000
* ''The Moon's Lost Light: A Torah Perspective on Women from the Fall of Eve to the Full Redemption'', Devorah Heshelis, Targum Press, 2006. ISBN 1-56871-377-0
* Nadell, Pamela S., "Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination, 1889-1985" in Jewish Women's Life. Editor
* Rabbi Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar,

===Middle Ages===
* Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period''. Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52-60. ISBN 9780691057873
* Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94-114. ISBN 0814320929
* {{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|pages=41–51|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}
* {{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|isbn=0805210490}}
* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Mark R.|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=0691139318}}
* Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1584653922
* {{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|pages=34–45}}
* Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009.105-111.ISBN 9780814732199
* {{cite book|last=Steinberg|first=Theodore L.|title=Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=0275985881}}
* {{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|isbn=0827607520 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}

=== Orthodox Judaism and women ===
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' [[Blu Greenberg]], Jewish Publication Society
* ''Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment,'' [[Saul Berman|Berman, Saul J.]] Response, 40, 1981, 5:17.
* ''Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State,'' Ellenson, David Harry. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law (58-81) 2001.
* ''Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?'' [[Tamar Ross]], ''Judaism'', 42:4, 1993, 478-491.
* ''Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?,'' Reisman, Levi M. The Jewish Observer, 31:5, 1998, 37-47
* ''Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period,'' [[Ross|Ross, Tamar]]
* ''In Case There Tamar Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan,'' Fishbane, Simcha. Judaism, 42:4, 1993, 492-503.
* ''Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law,'' Shenhav, Sharon. Justice, 21, 1999, 28-31.
* ''On Egalitarianism & Halakha,'' Stern, Marc D. Tradition, 36:2, 2002, 1-30.
* ''Women, Jewish Law and Modernity,'' Wolowelsky, Joel B. Ktav. 1997.
* ''Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism'', [[Tamar Ross|Ross, Tamar]]. Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58465-390-6
* ''Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups'', [[Avi Weiss|Weiss, Avi]], Ktav publishers, January 2003 ISBN 0-88125-719-2
*''Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation''. [[Tova Hartman|Hartman, Tova]], Brandeis University Press, 2007. ISBN 1-58465-658-1.

{{Jewish life}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Women In Judaism}}
[[Category:Judaism and women| ]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Gender roles by society]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2015-11-04T03:43:34Z

Jprg1966: /* Middle Ages */

{{About|historical and modern views of Jews|the portrayal of women in the Bible|Women in the Bible}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|religion}}
{{Women in society sidebar}}

The [[role]] of '''women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], the [[Oral Torah|Oral Law]] (the corpus of rabbinic literature), by [[Minhag|custom]], and by non-religious cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature mention various female role models, religious law treats women differently in various circumstances.

[[Gender]] has a bearing on familial lines: in traditional Judaism, [[Who is a Jew?|Jewishness]] is passed down through the mother, although the father's name is used to describe sons and daughters in the [[Torah]], e.g., "Dinah, daughter of Jacob".<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|pages= 121, 131}}</ref>

==Biblical times==
{{See also|Old Testament views on women}}
Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are a number of exceptions to this rule, including the [[Matriarchs (Bible)|Matriarchs]] [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca]], [[Rachel]], and [[Leah]], [[Miriam]] the prophetess, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Huldah]] the prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Rahab]] and [[Esther]]. In the Biblical account these women did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was formed between the Israelites and the God of Abraham at Mount Sinai. The Torah relates that both Israelite men and Israelite women were present at Sinai, however, the covenant was worded in such a way that it bound men to act upon its requirements and to ensure that the members of their household (wives, children, and slaves) met these requirements as well. In this sense, the covenant bound women as well, though indirectly.<ref name="HauptmanEtz">[[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman, Judith]]. "Women." ''Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary''. Ed. David L. Lieber. The Jewish Publication Society, 2001. 1356-1359.</ref>

Marriage and family law in biblical times favored men over women. For example, a husband could divorce a wife if he chose to, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. The practice of [[levirate marriage]] applied to widows of childless deceased husbands, not to widowers of childless deceased wives; though if either he or she didn't consent to the marriage, a different ceremony called chalitza is done instead. Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men during biblical times, however, they also suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount.<ref name="HauptmanEtz" /> However, men had specific obligations they were required to perform for their wives. These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual relations to their wives.<ref>[[Joseph Telushkin|Telushkin, Joseph]]. ''Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible''. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997. p. 403.</ref>

Women also had a role in ritual life. Women (as well as men) were required to make a pilgrimage to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] once a year and offer the [[Passover]] [[korban|sacrifice]]. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a ''todah'' ("thanksgiving") offering after childbirth. Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non-levitical men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and generally more discreet scale.

Women depended on men economically. Women generally did not own property except in the rare case of inheriting land from a father who didn't bear sons. Even "in such cases, women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings."<ref name="HauptmanEtz" />

According to [[John Bowker (theologian)]], traditionally, Jewish "men and women pray separately. This goes back to ancient times when women could go only as far as the second court of the Temple."<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 119}}</ref>

==Talmudic times==
Classical Jewish [[rabbinical literature]] contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that:
*Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the (righteous) women than to (righteous) men<ref>''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berakhot]]'' 17a</ref>
*Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine<ref>''[[Nashim|Kiddushin]]'' 49b</ref>
*Women are ''light on raw knowledge'' – i.e., they possess more intuition<ref>''[[Shabbat (Talmud)|Shabbat]]'' 33b</ref>
*A man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good; a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself<ref>''[[Yebamot]]'' 62b</ref>
*When [[Rav Yosef b. Hiyya]] heard his mother's footsteps he would say: ''Let me arise before the approach of the [[Shekhinah|divine presence]]''<ref>''Kiddushin'' 31b</ref>
*Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its (Israel's) righteous women<ref>''[[Sotah]]'' 11b</ref>
*A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong<ref>''[[Baba Metzia]]'' 59a</ref>
*Women have greater faith than men<ref>''[[Sifre]]'', 133</ref>
*Women have greater powers of discernment<ref>''[[Tohorot|Niddah]]'' 45b</ref>
*Women are especially tenderhearted<ref>''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'' 14b</ref>

While few women are mentioned by name in rabbinic literature, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands. Occasionally they have a public persona. Examples are [[Bruriah daughter of Rabbi Hananiah Ben Teradion|Bruriah]], the wife of the [[Tannaim|Tanna]] [[Rabbi Meir]]; Rachel, the wife of [[Akiba ben Joseph|Rabbi Akiva]]; and Yalta, the wife of [[Rav Nachman|Rabbi Nachman]]. [[Elazar ben Arach|Rabbi Elazar]]'s{{Who|date=February 2010}} [[Imma Shalom|wife]] (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]]. When R' Elazar ben Azarya was asked to assume the role of ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]'' ("Prince" or President of the [[Sanhedrin]]), he replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Brachoth 27b</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
Since Jews were seen as second class citizens in the Christian and Muslim world, it was even harder for Jewish women to establish their own status. Avraham Grossman argues in his book ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe'' that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them: "the biblical and talmudic heritage; the situation in the non-Jewish society within which the Jews lived and functioned; and the economic status of the Jews, including the woman's role in supporting the family."<ref>Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. 1.</ref> Grossman uses all three factors to argue that women's status overall during this period actually rose.<ref>Grossman, 3.</ref>

During the Middle Ages, there was a conflict between Judaism's lofty religious expectations of women and the reality of society in which these Jewish women lived; this is similar to the lives of Christian women in the same period.<ref>Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94.</ref> This prompted the [[kabbalistic]] work ''Sefer Hakanah'' to demand that women fulfill the ''[[mitzvot]]'' in a way that would be equal to men.<ref name="Ben-Sasson">Ben-Sasson, H. H. "Spiritual and Social Creativity." ''A History of the Jewish People''. Ed. Ben-Sasson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. 612–627. Print.</ref>

=== Religious life ===
Religious developments during the medieval period included relaxation on prohibitions against teaching women [[Torah]], and the rise of women's prayer groups.<ref>Steinberg, 157–158.</ref> One place that women participated in Jewish practices publicly was the [[synagogue]]. Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.<ref name="Baskin 1991 42">{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=42|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There is evidence that in the 15th century some communities of [[Ashkenaz]], the wife of the rabbi wore ''[[tzitzit]]'' just like her husband.<ref name="Ben-Sasson" />

In most [[synagogues]] they were given their own section, most likely a balcony; some [[synagogues]] had a separate building.<ref name="Grossman,181">Grossman, 181.</ref> Separation from the men was created by the Rabbis in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]. The reasoning behind the [[Halacha]] was that a woman and her body would distract men and give them impure thoughts during prayer.<ref>[[Talmud]], [[Sukkah (Talmud)|Succah]] 51a–52b</ref> Due to this rabbinical interpretation, scholars have seen the women’s role in the synagogue as limited and sometimes even non-existent. However, recent research has shown that women actually had a larger role in the synagogue and the community at large. Women usually attended synagogue, for example, on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] and the holidays.<ref>Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period.'' Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52.</ref> Depending on the location of the women in the [[synagogue]], they may have followed the same service as the men or they conducted their own services. Since the [[synagogues]] were large, there would be a designated woman who would be able to follow the cantor and repeat the prayers aloud for the women.<ref name="Grossman,181" /> Women had always attended services on [[Shabbat]] and holidays, but beginning in the eleventh century, women became more involved in the [[synagogue]] and its rituals. Women sitting separately from the men became a norm in [[synagogues]] around the beginning of the thirteenth century.<ref>Steinberg, 157.</ref> Women, however, did much more than pray in the [[synagogue]]. One of the main jobs for women was to beautify the building. There are [[Torah ark]] curtains and [[Torah]] covers that women sewed and survive today.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|page=128 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}</ref> The [[synagogue]] was a communal place for both men and women where worship, learning and community activities occurred.

The rise and increasing popularity of [[Kabbalah]], which emphasized the [[shechinah]] and female aspects of the divine presence and human-divine relationship, and which saw marriage as a holy covenant between partners rather than a civil contract, had great influence. Kabbalists explained the phenomenon of menstruation as expressions of the demonic or sinful character of the menstruant.<ref>Koren, Sharon Faye. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/nashim/summary/v017/17.koren.html "The Menstruant as 'Other' in Medieval Judaism and Christianity."] Project MUSE. Spring 2009. 29 December 2011.</ref> These changes were accompanied by increased pietistic strictures, including greater requirements for [[Tzeniut|modest dress]], and greater strictures during [[Niddah|the period of menstruation]]. At the same time, there was a rise in philosophical and [[midrashic]] interpretations depicting women in a negative light, emphasizing a duality between matter and spirit in which femininity was associated, negatively, with earth and matter.<ref>Grossman, 277–278.</ref> The gentile society was also seen as a negative influence on the Jewish community. For example, it seems that Jews would analyze the modesty of their non-Jewish neighbors before officially moving into a new community because they knew that their children would be influenced by the local gentiles.<ref>Grossman, 2.</ref>

After the [[Alhambra Decree|expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492]], women became virtually the only source of Jewish ritual and tradition in the Catholic world in a phenomenon known as [[crypto-Judaism]]. Crypto-Jewish women would slaughter their own animals and made sure to keep as many of the [[Kosher|Jewish dietary laws]] and life cycle rituals as possible without raising suspicion. Occasionally, these women were prosecuted by [[Inquisition]] officials for suspicious behavior such as lighting candles to honor the Sabbath or refusing to eat pork when it was offered to them. The [[Inquisition]] targeted crypto-Jewish women at least as much as it targeted crypto-Jewish men because women were accused of perpetuating Jewish tradition while men were merely permitting their wives and daughters to organize the household in this manner.<ref>Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009. 105–111.</ref>

Jewish women were also apart of the social phenomenon of martyrdom of the [[First Crusade]]. Most of the violence from the [[First Crusade]] towards Jews was due to the [[People's Crusade]]. Inspired by the Pope's call, Christians in Roven, Trier, Metz, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Prague, and Bohemia, among others, massacred thousands of Jews. The local governments did not, at first, sanction the mass murder of Jews as part of the fervor of the Crusades. However, popular anxiety overcame many towns and villages and lead towards the local government's support of killing Jews.<ref>Steinberg, 108.</ref> Although many Jews did convert, many rather chose to die. Through the sources, such as chronicles and poems, we see that Jewish women were often martyred with their families.<ref name="Steinberg,160">Steinberg, 160.</ref> In contrast, most Christian women martyrs were members of a convent or religious order when they were martyred (See [http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/women1.htm Women and Hagiography in Medieval Christianity] for more information).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|page=38}}</ref>

=== Domestic life ===
Marriage, Domestic Violence and Divorce are all topics discussed by Jewish sages of the Medieval world. Marriage is an important institution in Judaism (see [[Marriage in Judaism]]). The sages of this period discussed this topic at length.

[[Rabbeinu Gershom]] instituted a rabbinic decree ([[Takkanah]]) prohibiting polygamy among [[Ashkenazic]] Jews.<ref>{{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|page=81}}</ref> The rabbis instituted legal methods to enable women to petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a divorce. [[Maimonides]] ruled that a woman who found her husband "repugnant" could compel a divorce, "because she is not like a captive, to be subjected to intercourse with one who is hateful to her."<ref>[[Mishneh Torah]], Hilkhot Ishut 14:8</ref><ref>Biale, 91.</ref> Divorce for Christian women was technically not an option. By the tenth century, Christianity considered marriage a sacrament and could not be dissolved (see [[Divorce#Medieval Europe|Divorce in Medieval Europe]]).

The rabbis also instituted and tightened prohibitions on domestic violence. [[Peretz ben Elijah|Rabbi Peretz ben Elijah]] ruled, "The cry of the daughters of our people has been heard concerning the sons of Israel who raise their hands to strike their wives. Yet who has given a husband the authority to beat his wife?"<ref>Grossman, 224.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] ruled that "For it is the way of the Gentiles to behave thus, but Heaven forbid that any Jew should do so. And one who beats his wife is to be excommunicated and banned and beaten."<ref>Grossman, 226.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] also ruled that a battered wife could petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a husband to grant a divorce, with a monetary fine owed her on top of the regular [[ketubah]] money.<ref>Grossman, 222.</ref> These rulings occurred in the midst of societies where wife-beating was legally sanctioned and routine.<ref>Grossman, 230.</ref>

=== Education ===
Jewish women had a limited education. They were taught to read, write, run a household. They were also given some education in religious law that was essential to their daily lives, such as keeping [[kosher]].<ref name="Baskin 1991 42" /> Both Christian and Jewish girls were educated in the home. Although Christian girls may have had a male or female tutor, most Jewish girls had a female tutor.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=43|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> Higher learning was uncommon for both Christian and Jewish women. Christian women could enter a convent in order to achieve a higher education (See [[Female education#Medieval period|Female Education in the Medieval Period]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=46|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There are more sources of education for Jewish women living in Muslim controlled lands. Middle Eastern Jewry, on the other hand, had an abundance of female literates. The [[Cairo Geniza]] is filled with correspondences written (sometimes dictated) between family members and spouses. Many of these letters are pious and poetic and express a desire to be in closer or more frequent contact with a loved one that is far enough away to only be reached by written correspondence. There are also records of wills and other personal legal documents as well as written petitions to officials in cases of spouse spousal abuse or other conflicts between family members written or dictated by women.<ref>Melammed, 91–100.</ref>

Many women gained enough education to help their husbands out in business or even hold their own. Just like Christian women who ran their own business, Jewish women were engaged in their own occupations as well as helping their husbands. Jewish women seem to have lent money to Christian women throughout Europe.<ref>Marcus, 38.</ref> Women were also copyists, [[Midwifery#Early historical perspective|midwives]], spinners and weavers.<ref name="Steinberg,160" /><ref>Marcus, 39.</ref>

==Views on the education of women==
From certain contexts of the Mishnah and Talmud it can be derived that women should not study Mishnah. There were female Tannaitic Torah jurists such as Rabbi Meir's wife,<ref>Medrish on Proverbs 31:10</ref> Rabbi Meir's daughter, and the daughter of Haninyah ben Teradyon<ref>Talmud Babylonia Kelim Bava Kamma 4:17 separately in Sifre Deuteronomy 307 in both she is personally left unnamed and referred to as just, 'and we have learned from the daughter of Haninyah ben Terradyon', a sign of the prevailing attitude towards women (as property of their fathers).</ref> Haninyah's daughter is again mentioned as a sage in the non-Talmud 3rd-century text Tractate Semahot verse 12:13.<ref>[http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300010695 also search ISBN 9780300010695 for an English translation.]</ref> Rabbi Meir's wife is credited with teaching him how to understand some verses from Isaiah.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Berachot 10a</ref> In the Mishnah there is also a reference to certain women teaching men the Torah from behind a curtain, so that no man would be offended.

A ''yeshiva'', or school for Talmudic studies, is an "exclusively masculine environment" because of absence of women from these studies.<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 123}}</ref>

===Beruryah===
[[Beruryah]] (her name is a standard Jewish female name meaning 'the clarity of God') is a Tanna mentioned by name in the Talmud, who has a female name, has orally been transmitted as a female, and is referred to in the text using the nekeva (feminine Hebrew and Aramaic) adjectives and adverbs. Originally she was believed to be either Rabbi Meir's wife mentioned above, or Rabbi Chaninyah's daughter mentioned above, however over the past three to four centuries Rabbinic scholars have realized that these generations do not correspond to Beruryah's law decisions, and life, therefore she today is just 'Beruryah' and of heretofore unknown lineage.

Her law decisions were minor but set a crucial ancient precedent for modern Jewish women. She is mentioned at least four times in the Talmudic discourse regarding her law decrees first Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 10a then in Tosefta Pesahim 62b in Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 53b–54a and Babylonian Talmud Avodah Zarah 18b. In one case she paskinned din on "klaustra" a rare Greek word referring to an object, used in the Talmud, unfortunately Rabbi Yehudah Hanassi did not believe women could be credited with paskining din, as it says 'do not speak too much to women' (Tannah Rabbi Jesse the Galilean), and therefore credited the law to Rabbi Joshua who may have been her father.<ref>Mishnah Keylim 11:4</ref>

Beruryah however was actually remembered with great respect in the Talmud where she is lauded to have been reputed as such a genius that she studied “three hundred Halachot from three hundred sages in just one day” (Pesachim 62b). Clearly contradicting the injunction against women studying Torah.

===Rashi's Daughters===
[[Rashi]] had no sons and taught the Mishnah and Talmud to his daughters, until they knew it by heart as Jewish tradition teaches;<ref>[http://www.rashisdaughters.com/ Rashi's Daughters]</ref> they then transferred their knowledge of original Mishnah commentary to the Ashkenazi men of the next generation.

===Haim Yosef David Azulai, AKA 'The Hid'aa'===
The [[Chaim Joseph David Azulai|Hida]], wrote (Tuv Ayin, no. 4) woman should not study Mishnah only if they do not want to.'We cannot force a woman to learn, like we do to boys'. However, if she wants to learn then not only may she do so on her own, but men may originally teach her, and she can then teach other women if they so choose. According to the Hida, the prohibition against teaching women does not apply to a motivated woman or girl. Other Mizrahi Rabbis disputed this with him.

His response to detractors was that indeed, in truth, there is a prohibition against teaching Mishnah to any student—male or female—who one knows is not properly prepared and motivated, referred to a talmid she-eino hagun (Shulhan Arukh, Yoreh De'ah 246:7). Babylonian Talmud Berakhos 28a relates that Rabban Gamliel would announce that any student who is not pure enough so that 'his outer self is like his inner self' may not enter the study hall. While this approach, requiring absolute purity, was rejected by other ancient Rabbis, for example 'he who is not for the name of God, will become for the name of God', and a middle approach was adopted by Jews as standard. If one has knowledge that a particular Mishnayot student is definitely bad then he may not be taught. He claimed that 'it seems that for women there is a higher standard and she must be motivated in order to have this permission to learn' in his response to the Mizrahi tradition.

===Yisrael Meir Kagan===
{{Main|Yisrael Meir Kagan}}
One of the most important Ashkenazic rabbanim of the past century, Yisrael Meir Kagan, known popularly as the Chofetz Chaim. favored Torah education for girls to counteract the French "finishing schools" prevalent in his day for the daughters of the bourgeoisie.{{quote|
"It would appear that all [these sexist laws] were intended for earlier generations when everyone dwelt in the place of their familial ancestral home and ancestral tradition was very powerful among all to follow the path of their fathers... under such circumstances we could maintain that a woman not study Mishnayos and, for guidance, rely on her righteous parents, but presently, due to our myriad sins, ancestral tradition has become exceptionally weak and it is common that people do not dwell in proximity to the family home, and especially those women who devote themselves to mastering the vernacular, surely it is a now a great mitzvah to teach them Scripture and the ethical teachings of our sages such as Pirkei Avos, Menoras Ha-Ma'or and the like so that they will internalize our sacred faith because [if we do not do so] they are prone to abandon the path of God and violate all principles of [our] faith."<ref>Likkutei Halachos, Sotah p. 21</ref>}}

===Joseph Solovetchik===
{{Main|Joseph B. Soloveitchik}}
Rabbi Yoseph Solovetchik 'amened' the teachings of The Hafetz Haim. Rabbi Solovetchik taught all religious Ashkenazi Jews with the exception of hardline Hasidim, not should, or if they show motivation, but must teach their female children Gemarah like the boy school children. He among others fully institutionalized the teaching of Mishnah and Talmud to girls, from an autobiography on him by Rabbi Mayor Twersky called "A Glimpse of the Rav" in R. Menachem Genack ed., Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: Man of Halacha, Man of Faith, page 113: {{quote|"The halakha prohibiting Torah study for women is not indiscriminate or all-encompassing. There is complete unanimity that women are obligated to study halakhot pertaining to mitsvot which are incumbent upon them... The prohibition of teaching Torah she-Ba'al Pe to women relates to optional study. If ever circumstances dictate that study of Torah sh-Ba'al Pe is necessary to provide a firm foundation for faith, such study becomes obligatory and obviously lies beyond the pale of any prohibition." Undoubtedly, the Rav's prescription was more far-reaching that that of the Hafets Hayim and others. But the difference in magnitude should not obscure their fundamental agreement [on changing the attitudes Halachically].}}

==Present day==
{{Jewish feminism}}
{{Further|Jewish feminism|Women in Israel|Orthodox Jewish feminism|Women of the Wall}}

===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] is based on gendered understandings of Jewish practice—i.e., that there are different roles for men and women in religious life. There are different opinions among Orthodox Jews concerning these differences. Most claim that men and women have complementary, yet different roles in religious life, resulting in different religious obligations. Others believe that some of these differences are not a reflection of religious law, but rather of cultural, social, and historical causes. In the area of education, women were historically exempted from any study beyond an understanding of the practical aspects of [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household{{spaced ndash}}both of which they have an obligation to learn. Until the twentieth century, women were often discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. In the past 100 years, Orthodox Jewish education for women has advanced tremendously.<ref>Handelman, Susan. [http://www.chabad.org/theJewishWoman/article_cdo/aid/371261/jewish/Feminism-and-Orthodoxy.htm "Feminism and Orthodoxy - What It's All About."] ''Chabad Lubavitch''. 25 December 2011.</ref>

There have been many areas in which Orthodox women have been working towards change within religious life over the past 20 years: promoting advanced women's learning and scholarship, promoting women's ritual inclusion in synagogue, promoting women's communal and religious leadership, and more.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lakein|first1=Dvora|title=How Does She Do It?|url=http://lubavitch.com/news/article/2031309/How-Does-She-Do-It.html|accessdate=17 November 2014|agency=Chabad Lubavitch World HQ / News|date=October 6, 2014|quote=Mrs. Shula Bryski, representative to Thousand Oaks, California, and a mother of six, says that the Rebbe “empowered women in a way perhaps never done before.” Embracing modernity, the Rebbe understood that today, “women need more sophisticated Judaism, more depth, more spirituality.” Bryski’s personal emphasis in this affluent Los Angeles suburb is educating women through a weekly Caffeine for the Soul class, monthly Rosh Chodesh Society meetings, and the wildly-popular bat-mitzvah classes she leads. Bryski also serves on the editorial board of the Rosh Chodesh Society, a project of Jewish Learning Institute (JLI) and is a prolific writer.}}</ref> Women have been advancing change despite often vocal opposition by rabbinic leaders. Some Orthodox rabbis try to discount changes by claiming that women are motivated by sociological reasons and not by "true" religious motivation.<ref>Kress, Michael. [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/orthostate.html "The State of Orthodox Judaism Today."] ''Jewish Virtual Library''. 25 December 2011.</ref> For example, Orthodox, [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]], and [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] rabbis discourage women from wearing a [[yarmulke]], [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed members|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011|accessdate=October 29, 2014|issue=Haaretz|date=January 29, 2014}}</ref>

In most Orthodox synagogues, women still do not give a ''d'var Torah'' (brief discourse, generally on the weekly Torah portion) after or between services. Furthermore, a few Modern Orthodox synagogues have mechitzot dividing the left and right sides of the synagogue (rather than the usual division between the front and back of the synagogue, with women sitting in the back), with the women's section on one side and the men's section on the other.<ref>[http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf ] {{wayback|url=http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf |date=20150402103147 }}</ref>

====Rules of modesty====
{{Main|Tzniut}}
The importance of modesty in dress and conduct is particularly stressed among girls and women in Orthodox society. Many Orthodox women only wear skirts and avoid wearing trousers, and some married Orthodox women cover their hair with a wig, hat, or scarf. Judaism prescribes modesty for both men and women.{{citation needed |date=November 2013}}

====Rules of family purity====
{{Main|Niddah}}
In accordance with Jewish Law, Orthodox Jewish women refrain from contact with their husbands while they are [[niddah|menstruating]], and for a period of 7 clean days after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. The Israeli Rabbinate has recently approved women acting as ''yoatzot'', [[halakhic]] advisers on sensitive personal matters such as [[family purity]].

====Modern Orthodox Judaism====
Rabbi [[Joseph B. Soloveitchik]], a leader of profound influence in modern Orthodoxy in the United States, discouraged women from serving as presidents of synagogues or any other official positions of leadership,<ref name="Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis Of Womens Prayer Groups">[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQHwIAxpZRAC&pg=PA107], additional text.</ref> from performing other [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]] (commandments) traditionally performed by males exclusively, such as wearing a [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]]. Soloveitchik wrote that while women do not lack the capability to perform such acts, there is no [[Tradition|''mesorah'']] (Jewish tradition) that permits it. In making his decision, he relied upon Jewish oral law, including a [[mishnah]] in Chulin 2a and a Beit Yoseph in the Tur Yoreh Deah stating that a woman can perform a specific official communal service for her own needs but not those of others.<ref>Aharon Ziegler, ''Halakhic Positions of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik'', Volume II, p. 81.</ref>

Women's issues garnered more interest with the advent of [[feminism]]. Many Modern Orthodox Jewish women and Modern Orthodox rabbis sought to provide greater and more advanced Jewish education for women. Since most Modern Orthodox women attend college, and many receive advanced degrees in a variety of fields, Modern Orthodox communities generally promote women's secular education. A few Modern Orthodox Synagogues have women serving as clergy, including [[Gilah Kletenik]] at [[Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun]]. In 2013, [[Yeshivat Maharat]], located in the United States, became the first Orthodox institution to consecrate female clergy. The graduates of Yeshivat Maharat do not call themselves "rabbis." The title they are given is "maharat."<ref>"Jewish Daily Forward Podcast." ''[http://forward.com/articles/179052/female-orthodox-leaders-new-and-old/ Female Orthodox Leaders: New and Old]''. 21 June 2013. ''The Jewish Daily Forward''. Web. 23 June 2013.</ref> Also in 2013, [[Malka Schaps]] became the first female [[Haredi]] dean at an Israeli university when she was appointed dean of Bar Ilan University's Faculty of Exact Sciences.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.550156 Malka Schaps becomes first female Haredi dean at Israeli university - National Israel News | Haaretz]</ref> Also in 2013, the first class of female [[halacha|halachic]] advisers trained to practice in the US graduated; they graduated from the North American branch of [[Nishmat]]’s yoetzet halacha program in a ceremony at Congregation Sheartith Israel, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in Manhattan and [[SAR High School]] in Riverdale, New York began allowing girls to wrap tefillin during Shacharit-morning prayer; it is probably the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so.<ref>[http://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/nyc-orthodox-high-school-lets-girls-put-on-tefillin/2014/01/20/ The Jewish Press » » NYC Orthodox High School Lets Girls Put On Tefillin]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/landmark-us-program-graduates-first-female-halachic-advisers/ Landmark US program graduates first female halachic advisers | The Times of Israel]</ref>

In 2014, the first ever book of [[halacha|halachic]] decisions written by women who were ordained to serve as poskot (Idit Bartov and Anat Novoselsky) was published.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://jpupdates.com/2014/06/26/first-halacha-sefer-women-makes-waves-israel-orthodox-world/ First Halacha Sefer By Women Makes Waves in Israeli Orthodox World - JP Updates | JP Updates]</ref> The women were ordained by the municipal chief rabbi of Efrat, Rabbi [[Shlomo Riskin]], after completing [[Midreshet Lindenbaum]] women’s college’s five-year ordination course in advanced studies in Jewish law, as well as passing examinations equivalent to the rabbinate’s requirement for men.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

In 2015, Jennie Rosenfeld became the first female Orthodox spiritual advisor in Israel (specifically, she became the spiritual advisor, also called manhiga ruchanit, for the community of [[Efrat]].)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2015/1/26/with-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel#.VMZhzS7lw4I=|title=With female spiritual advisor, Efrat spotlights women’s empowerment in Israel|work=JNS.org}}</ref>

====Women's prayer groups====
Separate Jewish women's prayer groups were a sanctioned custom among German Jews in the [[Middle Ages]]. The ''Kol Bo'' provides, in the laws for [[Tisha B'Av]]:

:And they recite dirges there for about a quarter of the night, the men in their synagogue and the women in their synagogue. And likewise during the day the men recite dirges by themselves and the women by themselves, until about a third of the day has passed.

In Germany, in the 12th and 13th centuries, women's prayer groups were led by female cantors. Rabbi Eliezar of Worms, in his elegy for his wife Dulca, praised her for teaching the other women how to pray and embellishing the prayer with music. The gravestone of Urania of Worms, who died in 1275, contains the inscription "who sang ''piyyutim'' for the women with musical voice." In the Nurnberg Memorial Book, one Richenza was inscribed with the title "prayer leader of the women."<ref>Grossman, ''Pious and Rebellious'', pp. 180-182.</ref>

Orthodox women more recently began holding organized women's ''tefila'' (prayer) groups beginning in the 1970s. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a ''[[minyan]]'' (prayer quorum) for the purpose of [[Jewish services|regular services]], women in these groups read the prayers and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of Orthodox Judaism have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:

* The most restrictive view, held by some Modern Orthodox authorities, and most Haredi Rabbis, rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law).{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}
* A more liberal, permissive view maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatible with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e., do not include certain parts of the service known as ''devarim she-bi-kdusha''), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against ''halakha''. People in this group include Rabbi Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Rabbi [[Avi Weiss]].<ref>Israel's late [[Ashkenazi]]c [[Chief Rabbi]] [[Shlomo Goren]] ''may'' have ruled in 1974 that while women do not constitute a ''minyan'', they may still carry out full prayer services. Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, stating that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual ''halakha'' was in accord with the second school of thought, listed above.[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm]</ref>
* A third view maintains argues in favor of the acceptability of calling women to the Torah in mixed services, and leading certain parts of the service which do not require a [[minyan]], under certain conditions.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf]|972 KB}}</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf]|78.1 KB}}</ref>

In 2013 the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a [[halacha|halachic]] ruling which allows women, for the first time, to say the [[Kaddish]] prayer in memory of their deceased parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4396702,00.html |title=Halachic ruling: Women may say Kaddish - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

====Women as witnesses====
Traditionally, women are not generally permitted to serve as witnesses in an Orthodox [[Beit Din]] ([[Beit Din|rabbinical court]]), although they have recently been permitted to serve as ''toanot'' (advocates) in those courts. This limitation has exceptions which have required exploration under rabbinic law as the role of women in society and the obligations of religious groups under external civil law have been subject to increasing recent scrutiny.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The recent case of Rabbi [[Mordecai Tendler]], the first rabbi to be expelled from the [[Rabbinical Council of America]] following allegations of sexual harassment, illustrated the importance of clarification of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[halakha]] in this area. Rabbi Tendler claimed that the tradition of exclusion of women's testimony should compel the RCA to disregard the allegations. He argued that since the testimony of a woman could not be admitted in [[Beit Din|Rabbinical court]], there were no valid witnesses against him, and hence the case for his expulsion had to be thrown out for lack of evidence. In a ruling of importance for Orthodox women's capacity for legal self-protection under [[Halakha|Jewish law]], [[Haredi]] Rabbi [[Benzion Wosner]], writing on behalf of the ''Shevet Levi'' [[Beit Din]] (Rabbinical court) of [[Monsey, New York]], identified sexual harassment cases as coming under a class of exceptions to the traditional exclusion, under which "even children or women" have not only a right but an obligation to testify, and can be relied upon by a rabbinical court as valid witnesses:

:The [[Meir Abulafia|Ramah]] in Choshen Mishpat (Siman 35, 14) rules that in a case where only women congregate or in a case where only women could possibly testify, (in this case the alleged harassment occurred behind closed doors) they can and should certainly testify. (Terumas Hadeshen Siman 353 and Agudah Perek 10, Yochasin)

:This is also the ruling of the [[Joseph Colon Trabotto|Maharik]], [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra|Radvaz]], and the [[Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz|Mahar"i of Minz]]. Even those "[[Posek|Poskim]]" that would normally not rely on women witnesses, they would certainly agree that in our case ... where there is ample evidence that this Rabbi violated [[Torah]] precepts, then even children or women can certainly be kosher as witnesses, as the [[Chatam Sofer|Chasam Sofer]] pointed out in his ''sefer'' (monograph) (Orach Chaim T'shuvah 11)<ref>English summary at [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/Tendler_Mordecai.html The Awareness Center: Case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler.] Original ''teshuvah'' ([[Responsum]]) (in Hebrew) at {{PDF|[http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/HaravWosner'sT'shuvah.pdf The Awareness Center: Harav Wosner's Teshuvah]|130 KB}} (Note: parenthetical translations are added, parenthetical references are original)</ref>

The [[Rabbinical Council of America]], while initially relying on its own investigation, chose to rely on the Halakhic ruling of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbinical body as authoritative in the situation.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

====Orthodox approaches to change====
Leaders of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] community have been steadfast in their opposition to a change in the role of women, arguing that the religious and social constraints on women, as dictated by traditional Jewish texts, are timeless and are not affected by contemporary social change. Many also argue that giving traditionally male roles to women will only detract from both women's and men's ability to lead truly fulfilling lives. Haredim have also sometimes perceived arguments for liberalization as in reality stemming from antagonism to Jewish law and beliefs generally, arguing that preserving faith requires resisting secular and "un-Jewish" ideas.

Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly in its more liberal variants, has tended to look at proposed changes in the role of women on a specific, case-by-case basis, focusing on arguments regarding the religious and legal role of specific prayers, rituals and activities individually. Such arguments have tended to focus on cases where the Talmud and other traditional sources express multiple or more liberal viewpoints, particularly where the role of women in the past was arguably broader than in more recent times. Feminist advocates within Orthodoxy have tended to stay within the traditional legal process of argumentation, seeking a gradualist approach, and avoiding wholesale arguments against the religious tradition as such.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Nevertheless, a growing [[Orthodox Jewish feminism|Orthodox feminist]] movement seeks to address gender inequalities.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed women|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011#|accessdate=30 June 2014|work=Haaretz|date=Jan 28, 2014}}</ref></blockquote>

===Agunot===

[[Agunot]] (lit. "chained women") are women who wish to divorce their husbands, but whose husbands refuse to give them a writ of divorce (a "get"). In Orthodox Judaism, only a man is able to serve a "get."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Farkash|first1=Tali|title=e women extorted by ex-husbands|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4400770,00.html|accessdate=2014-10-29|publisher=Ynet News|date=2013-07-07}}</ref>

===Conservative Judaism===
Although the position of [[Conservative Judaism]] toward women originally differed little from the Orthodox position, it has in recent years minimized legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of decisions and [[responsa]] on this topic. These provide for women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being counted as part of a ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'' - an arbiter in matters of religious law)
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:
*[[Matrilineality in Judaism|Matrilineal descent]]. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.
*Pidyon Ha-Bat, a proposed ceremony based on the biblical redemption of the eldest newborn son ([[Pidyon HaBen|Pidyon Ha-Ben]]). The CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

A Conservative Jewish ''[[ketuba]]'' includes a clause that puts a husband and wife on more equal footing when it comes to marriage and divorce law within ''halacha''.<ref name="Raphael">Raphael, Marc Lee. ''Profiles in American Judaism: The Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Traditions in Historical Perspective''. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1984. p. 110</ref>

The CJLS recently reaffirmed the obligation of Conservative women to observe ''[[niddah]]'' (sexual abstinence during and after menstruation) and ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual immersion) following menstruation, although somewhat liberalizing certain details. Such practices, while requirements of Conservative Judaism, are not widely observed among Conservative laity.

====Changes in the Conservative position====
Prior to 1973, Conservative Judaism had more limited roles for women and was more similar to current Modern Orthodoxy, with changes on issues including mixed seating, synagogue corporate leadership, and permitting women to be called to the Torah. In 1973, the CJLS of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] voted, without issuing an opinion, that women could count in a [[minyan]]. There was a special commission appointed by the Conservative movement to study the issue of ordaining women as rabbis, which met between 1977 and 1978, and consisted of eleven men and three women; the women were Marian Siner Gordon, an attorney, Rivkah Harris, an [[Assyriologist]], and [[Francine Klagsbrun]], a writer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/klagsbrun-francine |title=Francine Klagsbrun | Jewish Women's Archive |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2015-09-07}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] (JTSA) faculty voted, also without accompanying opinion, to ordain women as rabbis and as cantors.<ref name="Raphael" /> [[Paula Hyman]], among others, took part in the vote as a member of the JTS faculty.

In 2002, the CJLS adapted a [[responsum]] by Rabbi David Fine, [https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf ''Women and the Minyan''], which provides an official religious-law foundation for women counting in a minyan and explains the current Conservative approach to the role of women in prayer.<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org">{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}}</ref> This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

In 2006, the CJLS adopted three [[responsum|responsa]] on the subject of [[niddah]], which reaffirmed an obligation of Conservative women to abstain from sexual relations during and following [[menstruation]] and to immerse in a [[mikvah]] prior to resumption, while liberalizing observance requirements including shortening the length of the [[niddah]] period, lifting restrictions on non-sexual contact during niddah, and reducing the circumstances under which spotting and similar conditions would mandate abstinence.<ref name="RabbiIntro">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Mikveh_Introduction.doc Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiGrossman">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Grossman-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Susan Grossman, MIKVEH AND THE SANCTITY OF BEING CREATED HUMAN, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiReisner">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Reisner-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Avram Reisner, OBSERVING NIDDAH IN OUR DAY: AN INQUIRY ON THE STATUS OF PURITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY WITH A MENSTRUANT, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiBerkowitz">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Berkowitz-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, RESHAPING THE LAWS OF FAMILY PURITY FOR THE MODERN WORLD, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref>

In all cases continuing the Orthodox approach was also upheld as an option. Individual Conservative rabbis and synagogues are not required to adopt any of these changes, and a small number have adopted none of them.

====Conservative approaches to change====
Prior to 1973, Conservative approaches to change were generally on an individual, case-by-case basis. Between 1973 and 2002, the Conservative movement adapted changes through its official organizations, but without issuing explanatory opinions. Since 2002, the Conservative movement has coalesced around a single across-the board approach to the role of women in Jewish law.<ref>This section summarizes the CLJS's 2002 Fine "Women and the Minyan" {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}} Responsum's review and critique of prior CJLS efforts to adopt an authoritative responsum.</ref>

In 1973, 1983, and 1993, individual rabbis and professors issued six major opinions which influenced change in the Conservative approach, the first and second Sigal, Blumenthal, Rabinowitz, and [[Joel Roth|Roth]] responsa, and the [[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman]] article. These opinions sought to provide for a wholesale shift in women's public roles through a single, comprehensive legal justification. Most such opinions based their positions on an argument that Jewish women always were, or have become, legally obligated to perform the same ''mitzvot'' as men and to do so in the same manner.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The first Sigal and the Blumenthal responsa were considered by the CJLS as part of its decision on prayer roles in 1973. They argued that women have always had the same obligations as men.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} The first Sigal responsum used the Talmud's general prayer obligation and examples of cases in which women were traditionally obligated to say specific prayers and inferred from them a public prayer obligation identical to that of men. The Blumenthal responsum extrapolated from a minority authority that a ''minyan'' could be formed with nine men and one woman in an emergency. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) declined to adopt either responsum. Rabbi Siegel reported to the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] membership that many on the CJLS, while agreeing with the result, found the arguments unconvincing.

The Rabinowitz, [[Joel Roth|Roth]], and second Sigal responsa were considered by the JTSA faculty as part of its decision to ordain women as rabbis in 1983. The Rabbinowitz responsum sidestepped the issue of obligation, arguing that there is no longer a religious need for a community representative in prayer and hence there is no need to decide whether a woman can ''halakhically'' serve as one. The CJLS felt that an argument potentially undermining the value of community and clergy was unconvincing: "We should not be afraid to recognize that the function of clergy is to help our people connect with the holy." The Roth and second Sigal responsa accepted that time-bound ''mitzvot'' were traditionally optional for women, but argued that women in modern times could change their traditional roles. The Roth responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|1=[http://www.jtsa.edu/rabbinical/women/roth.pdf#search='women%20roth%20responsum']|2=161 KB}}</ref> argued that women could individually voluntarily assume the same obligations as men, and that women who do so (e.g. pray three times a day regularly) could count in a ''minyan'' and serve as agents. The JTSA accordingly required female rabbinical students wishing to train as rabbis to personally obligate themselves, but synagogue rabbis, unwilling to inquire into individual religiosity, found it impractical. The second Sigal responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/sigal_women.pdf]|3.17 MB}}</ref> called for a ''takkanah'', or rabbinical edict, "that would serve as a ''halakhic'' ERA," overruling all non-egalitarian provisions in law or, in the alternative, a new approach to ''halakhic'' interpretation independent of legal precedents. The CJLS, unwilling to use either an intrusive approach or a repudiation of the traditional legal process as bases for action, did not adopt either and let the JTS faculty vote stand unexplained.

In 1993, Professor [[Judith Hauptman]] of JTS issued an influential paper <ref>http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427</ref> arguing that women had historically always been obligated in prayer, using more detailed arguments than the Blumenthal and first Sigal responsa. The paper suggested that women who followed traditional practices were failing to meet their obligations. Rabbi Roth argued that Conservative Judaism should think twice before adopting a viewpoint labeling its most traditional and often most committed members as sinners. The issue was again dropped.

In 2002, the CJLS returned to the issue of justifying its actions regarding women's status, and adopted a single authoritative approach, the Fine responsum,<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org"/> as the definitive Conservative [[halakha]] on role-of-women issues. This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The Responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this Responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

===Reform Judaism===
[[Reform Judaism]] believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that [[halakha]] (Jewish law) is the sole legitimate form of Jewish decision making, and holds that Jews can and must consider their conscience and ethical principles inherent in the Jewish tradition when deciding upon a right course of action. There is widespread consensus among Reform Jews that traditional distinctions between the role of men and women are antithetical to the deeper ethical principles of Judaism. This has enabled Reform communities to allow women to perform many rituals traditionally reserved for men, such as:

*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

Concerns about intermarriage have also influenced the Reform Jewish position on gender. In 1983, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] passed a resolution waiving the need for formal conversion for anyone with at least one Jewish parent who has made affirmative acts of Jewish identity. This departed from the traditional position requiring formal [[conversion to Judaism]] for children without a [[matrilineal descent|Jewish mother]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/patrilineal1.html Reform Movement's Resolution on Patrilineal Descent]</ref> The 1983 resolution of the American Reform movement has had a mixed reception in Reform Jewish communities outside of the United States. Most notably, the [[Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism]] has rejected patrilineal descent and requires formal conversion for anyone without a Jewish mother.<ref>[http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=840313&ct=1051515 Reform Judaism in Israel: Progress and Prospects]</ref> As well, a joint Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative and Reform Bet Din formed in Denver, Colorado to promote uniform standards for conversion to Judaism was dissolved in 1983, due to that Reform resolution.<ref name="Wertheimer, A People Divided">{{Cite book|last=Wertheimer|first=Jack|title=A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America|publisher=University Press of New England|year=1997}}</ref> However, in 2015 the majority of Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis voted in favor of a position paper proposing "that individuals who live a Jewish life, and who are patrilineally Jewish, can be welcomed into the Jewish community and confirmed as Jewish through an individual process."<ref name="jpost1">{{cite web|last=Lewis |first=Jerry |url=http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/UK-Reform-rabbis-accept-patrilineal-descent-409298 |title=UK Reform rabbis accept patrilineal descent - Diaspora - Jerusalem Post |publisher=Jpost.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref> Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis stated that rabbis "would be able to take local decisions – ratified by the [[Beit Din]] – confirming Jewish status."<ref name="jpost1"/>

Liberal prayerbooks tend increasingly to avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language. For example, the [[Liberal Judaism (UK)|UK Liberal movement]]'s ''Siddur Lev Chadash'' (1995) does so, as does the [[Reform Judaism (UK)|UK Reform Movement]]'s ''Forms of Prayer'' (2008).<ref>[http://thejc.com/articles/the-slimline-siddur-a-touch-bob-dylan The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan | The Jewish Chronicle]</ref><ref>[http://www.bwpjc.org/slc.htm Siddur Lev Chadash]</ref> In [[Mishkan T'filah]], the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as “He” have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.) <ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/03/us/03prayerbook.html?_r=1 | work=The New York Times | first=Laurie | last=Goodstein | title=In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change | date=3 September 2007}}</ref> In 2015 the Reform Jewish [[High Holy Days]] prayer book [[Mishkan HaNefesh]] was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.<ref name="jweekly1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/74278/gates-of-repentance-replacement-advances-reform-trends/ |title=‘Gates of Repentance’ replacement advances Reform trends | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=2015-03-26 |accessdate=2015-04-14}}</ref> It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer [[Avinu Malkeinu]] that refers to God as both "Loving Father" and "Compassionate Mother."<ref name="jweekly1"/> Other notable changes are replacing a line from the Reform movement’s earlier prayerbook, "Gates of Repentance," that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line "rejoicing with couples under the chuppah [wedding canopy]", and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering “mibeit,” Hebrew for “from the house of,” in addition to the traditional “son of” or “daughter of.”<ref name="jweekly1"/>

====Reform approaches to change====
Reform Judaism generally holds that the various differences between the roles of men and women in traditional Jewish law are not relevant to modern conditions and not applicable today. Accordingly, there has been no need to develop legal arguments analogous to those made within the Orthodox and Conservative movements.

=== Reconstructionist Judaism ===

The equality of women and men is a central tenet and hallmark of [[Reconstructionist Judaism]]. From the beginning, Reconstructionist Jewish ritual allowed men and women to pray together — a decision based on egalitarian philosophy. It was on this basis that Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]] called for the full equality of women and men, despite the obvious difficulties reconciling this stance with norms of traditional Jewish practice.<ref>Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html , Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.</ref> The Reconstructionist Movement ordained women rabbis from the start.<ref>Nadell, Pamela. Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women’s Ordination 1889-1985. editor Jewish Women's Life, Beacon Press, 1998. pages 187-188</ref> In 1968, women were accepted into the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, under the leadership of [[Ira Eisenstein]].<ref>Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16542.html , Jewish Virtual Library. 2001.</ref> The first ordained female Reconstructionist rabbi, [[Sandy Eisenberg Sasso]], served as rabbi of the Manhattan Reconstructionist Congregation in 1976 and gained a pulpit in 1977 at Beth El Zedeck congregation in Indianapolis. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso was accepted without debate or subsequent controversy.<ref>Sandy Sasso ordained as first female Reconstructionist rabbi,This Week in History. Jewish Women's Archive. http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/19/1974/sandy-sasso</ref> In 2005, 24 out of the movement's 106 synagogues in the US had women as senior or assistant rabbis.<ref>in Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States, Jewish Women's Archive, http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states</ref> In 2013 Rabbi [[Deborah Waxman]] was elected as the President of the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical College]].<ref name="thejewishweek.com">[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/national-news/reconstructionists-pick-first-woman-lesbian-denominational-leader Reconstructionists Pick First Woman, Lesbian As Denominational Leader | The Jewish Week]</ref><ref>[http://forward.com/articles/185252/trailblazing-reconstructionist-deborah-waxman-reli/?p=all Trailblazing Reconstructionist Deborah Waxman Relishes Challenges of Judaism – Forward.com]</ref> As the President, she is believed to be the first woman and first lesbian to lead a Jewish congregational union, and the first female rabbi and first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is both a congregational union and a seminary.<ref name="thejewishweek.com"/><ref>http://www.rrc.edu/sites/default/files/ORPHAN_PDFs/RRC_WaxmanPresidentElect-ForPress3.pdf?hero=1615</ref>

The Reconstructionist Community began including women in the [[minyan]] and allowing them to come up to the [[Torah]] for [[Aliyah (Torah)|aliyot]]. They also continued the practice of [[bat mitzvah]].<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso,Putting God on the Guest List: How to Reclaim the Spiritual Meaning of Your Child's Bar or Bat Mitzvah, Jewish Lights Publishing (Woodstock, Vermont), 1992.</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allowed women to perform other traditional male tasks, such as serving as witnesses, leading services,<ref>Cantor Heather’ is a first for Reconstructionist shul, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20569&Itemid=86 , Canadian Jewish News, 06 January 2011
</ref> public Torah reading, and wearing ritual prayer garments like [[kippot]] and [[tallitot]].<ref>One example in this video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oplgjEjts0 ,Darchei Noam Congregation, Toronto, Canada.</ref> Female Reconstructionist rabbis have been instrumental in the creation of rituals, stories, and music that have begun to give women's experience a voice in Judaism. Most of the focus has been on rituals for life-cycle events.<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar, Reconstructionist Press, 2005</ref> New ceremonies have been created for births,<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, Call Them Builders: A Resource Booklet about Jewish Attitudes and Practices on Birth and Family Life, Reconstructionist Federation of Congregations and Havurot (New York)</ref> weddings, divorces, conversions,<ref>Shefa, Sheri (August 2006). "Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb". Canadian Jewish News.http://joi.org/bloglinks/CJN Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb 8-24-06.pdf</ref> weaning, and the onset of menarche and menopause. The Reconstructionist movement as a whole has been committed to creating liturgy that is in consonance with gender equality and the celebration of women's lives.<ref>This is reflected in the prayer books that have been published by the Reconstructionist movement</ref><ref>Female scribe to pen Reconstructionist shul’s new Torah, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=16953&Itemid=86, Canadian Jewish News, May 21, 2009.</ref><ref>Montreal congregation hires first female scribe to pen Torah in Canada, http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200906031702/Montreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html ,Jewish Tribune,3 June 2009.</ref> Another major step: The Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations has also developed educational programs that teach the full acceptance of lesbians,<ref>See Rabbi [[Rebecca Alpert]] and Rabbi [[Toba Spitzer]]</ref> as well as rituals that affirm lesbian relationships.<ref>Anne Lapidus Lerner in Jewish Women's Archive http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lerner-anne-lapidus</ref><ref>Radin, Charles A. First openly gay rabbi elected leader,http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/03/first_openly_ga.html , Boston Globe, March 13, 2007.</ref> Reconstructionist rabbis officiate at same-sex weddings.<ref>for Montreal https://www.dorshei-emet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92&Itemid=100</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allows openly [[LGBT]] men and women to be ordained as rabbis and cantors.

Several prominent members of the Reconstructionist community have focused on issues like domestic violence.<ref>Gordon, Sheldon (21 April 2006) ''Billboards Focus on Jewish Domestic Violence'', in Jewish Daily Forward http://www.forward.com/articles/1263/</ref><ref>Na'amat Canada, http://www.naamat.com/legalaid.htm</ref><ref>Springtide Resources, Wife Abuse in the Jewish Community, http://www.womanabuseprevention.com/html/jewish_community.html</ref><ref>Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse, http://jcada.org/www/docs/4/</ref> Others have devoted energy to helping women gain the right of divorce in traditional Jewish communities.<ref>(French) Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce , Journal Le Devoir, 24 April 2010</ref><ref>Sonia Sarah Lipsyc ,http://soniasarahlipsyc.canalblog.com/</ref> Many have spoken out for the right of Jewish women to pray aloud and read from the Torah at the [[Western Wall]] in Jerusalem, the [[Women of the Wall]] group.<ref>[http://womenofthewall.org.il/?lang=he Women of the Wall | נשות הכותל]</ref>

When the roles of women in religion change, there may also be changed roles for men. With their advocacy of patrilineal descent in the 1970s, the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association]] supported the principle that a man who takes responsibility for raising a Jewish child can pass Judaism on to the next generation as well as a woman. All children who receive a Jewish education are considered Jewish in Reconstructionist Judaism regardless of whatever is the sex of their Jewish parent.

=== Jewish Renewal===
[[Jewish Renewal]] is a recent [[Jewish denominations|movement]] in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]], [[music]]al and [[Meditation|meditative]] practices; it describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism’s prophetic and mystical traditions." <ref>[http://www.aleph.org/renewal.htm About Jewish Renewal]</ref> The Jewish Renewal movement ordains women as well as men as rabbis and cantors. [[Lynn Gottlieb]] became the first female rabbi in Jewish Renewal in 1981, and [[Avitall Gerstetter]], who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA030.htm |title=Lynn Gottlieb |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2003-09-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2009 and 2012 respectively, OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) issued a board statement and a resolution supporting [[Women of the Wall]].<ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/2009-board-statement-on-women-of-the-wall/ 2009 Board Statement on Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref><ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/wow-statement-of-support/ 2012 Statement of Support for Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref> The Statement of Principles of OHALAH states in part, "Our local communities will embody egalitarian and inclusive values, manifested in a variety of leadership and decision-making structures, ensuring that women and men are full and equal partners in every aspect of our communal Jewish life." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/about-us/principles/ Aleph Statement of Principles | OhalahOhalah]</ref> In 2014 OHALAH issued a board resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: OHALAH supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]]; OHALAH condemns all types of sexism; OHALAH is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come; and OHALAH supports equal rights regardless of gender." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/resolution-on-gender-equality/ Board Resolution on Gender Equality | OhalahOhalah]</ref> Also in 2014, ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal issued a statement stating, "ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]], condemns all types of sexism, is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come, and supports equal rights regardless of gender, in recognition and allegiance to the view that we are all equally created in the Divine Image." <ref>[http://kolaleph.org/2014/02/04/gender-equality-now/ Statement On Gender Equality | Kol ALEPH]</ref>

=== Humanistic Judaism ===
[[Humanistic Judaism]] is a movement in Judaism that offers a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life. It ordains both men and women as rabbis, and its first rabbi was a woman, [[Tamara Kolton]], who was ordained in 1999.<ref name="shj">{{cite web|url=http://www.shj.org/shjbios.htm |title=Society for Humanistic Judaism - Rabbis and Leadership |publisher=Shj.org |accessdate=2012-03-12}}</ref> Its first cantor was also a woman, [[Hazzan Deborah Davis|Deborah Davis]], ordained in 2001; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped ordaining cantors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jmwc.org/Women/womend.html |title=Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music |publisher=JMWC |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> The [[Society for Humanistic Judaism]] issued a statement in 1996 stating in part, "we affirm that a woman has the moral right and should have the continuing legal right to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy in accordance with her own ethical standards. Because a decision to terminate a pregnancy carries serious, irreversible consequences, it is one to be made with great care and with keen awareness of the complex psychological, emotional, and ethical implications." They also issued a statement in 2011 condemning the then-recent passage of the “No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act” by the U.S. House of Representatives, which they called "a direct attack on a women’s right to choose".<ref>[http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html |date=20131228071242 }}</ref> In 2012, they issued a resolution opposing conscience clauses that allow religious-affiliated institutions to be exempt from generally applicable requirements mandating reproductive healthcare services to individuals or employees.<ref>[http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html |date=20131228070406 }}</ref> In 2013 they issued a resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: The Society for Humanistic Judaism wholeheartedly supports the observance of [[Women's Equality Day]] on August 26 to commemorate the anniversary of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allowing women to vote; The Society condemns gender discrimination in all its forms, including restriction of rights, limited access to education, violence, and subjugation; and The Society commits itself to maintain vigilance and speak out in the fight to bring gender equality to our generation and to the generations that follow." <ref>[http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html |date=20131018050824 }}</ref>

=== Women as soferim ===
A Sofer, Sopher, Sofer SeTaM, or Sofer ST"M (Heb: "scribe", סופר סת״ם) is a Jewish scribe who can transcribe Torah scrolls, tefillin and mezuzot, and other religious writings. (ST"M, סת״ם, is an abbreviation for Sefer Torahs, Tefillin, and Mezuzot. The plural of sofer is "soferim", סופרים.) Forming the basis for the discussion of women becoming soferim, [[Talmud|Talmud Gittin]] 45b states: "Sifrei Torah, tefillin and mezuzot written by a heretic, a star-worshipper, a slave, a woman, a minor, a [[Cuthean]], or an [[Apostasy in Judaism|apostate Jew]], are unfit for ritual use."<ref>[http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml ] {{wayback|url=http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml |date=20130615110436 }}</ref> The rulings on [[Mezuzah]] and [[Tefillin]] are virtually undisputed among those who hold to the [[Talmud|Talmudic Law]]. While [[Arba'ah Turim]] does not include women in its list of those ineligible to write Sifrei Torah, some see this as proof that women are permitted to write a Torah scroll.<ref>Tur, [[Wikisource:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/271|Orah Hayyim 271]].</ref> However today, virtually all Orthodox (both Modern and Ultra) authorities contest the idea that a woman is permitted to write a [[Sefer Torah]]. Yet women are permitted to inscribe [[Ketubah|Ketubot]] (marriage contracts), STaM not intended for ritual use, and other writings of [[Sofrut]] beyond simple STaM. In 2003 Canadian [[Aviel Barclay]] became the world's first known traditionally trained female sofer.<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/3614/ A Female Scribe’s Trailblazing Effort – Forward.com]</ref><ref>[http://jwablog.jwa.org/soferet Simchat Torah with a Soferet's Torah | Jewish Women's Archive]</ref> In 2007 [[Jen Taylor Friedman]], a British woman, became the first female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]].<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/11604/ As New Year Dawns, Jewish Women Mark Milestones – Forward.com]</ref> In 2010 the first [[Sefer Torah]] scribed by a group of women (six female sofers, who were from Brazil, Canada, Israel, and the United States) was completed;<ref>[http://jta.org/news/article/2010/10/15/2741313/womens-torah-dedicated-in-seattle Women’s Torah dedicated in Seattle | Jewish Telegraphic Agency]</ref> this was known as the [[Women's Torah Project]].<ref name="jweekly.com">[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/59670/cjms-resident-scribe-takes-part-in-group-torah-project-in-seattle/ Julie Seltzer, a female Torah scribe from San Francisco, contributed to the first Torah scroll to be written by a group of women. | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern Calif...]</ref>

From October 2010 until spring 2011, [[Julie Seltzer]], one of the female sofers from the Women's Torah Project, scribed a [[Sefer Torah]] as part of an exhibition at the [[Contemporary Jewish Museum]] in [[San Francisco]]. This makes her the first American female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]]; Julie Seltzer was born in Philadelphia and is non-denominationally Jewish.<ref name="jweekly.com"/><ref>http://www.thecjm.org/index.php?option=com_ccevents&scope=prgm&task=detail&fid=8&oid=563</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/arts/design/08sfculture.html</ref><ref>[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/61328/cjm-to-celebrate-end-of-groundbreaking-torah-project CJM to celebrate end of groundbreaking Torah project | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California]</ref> From spring 2011 until August 2012 she scribed another [[Sefer Torah]], this time for the Reform congregation Beth Israel in San Diego.<ref name="jpost.com">[http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=286912 Torah, she wrote | JPost | Israel News]</ref><ref>[http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah ] {{wayback|url=http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah |date=20150721211051 }}</ref> Seltzer was taught mostly by [[Jen Taylor Friedman]].<ref name="jpost.com"/> On September 22, 2013, [[Congregation Beth Elohim]] of New York dedicated a new Torah, which members of Beth Elohim said was the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman.<ref>[http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/congregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015 Congregation Beth Elohim in Park Slope dedicates new Torah for 150th anniversary - News 12 Brooklyn]</ref> The Torah was scribed by Linda Coppleson.<ref>[http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ ] {{wayback|url=http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ |date=20141011005036 }}</ref> As of 2014, there are an estimated 50 female sofers in the world.<ref>{{cite web|author=By Jeff KunerthOrlando Sentinel |url=http://www.pressherald.com/2014/08/23/female-jewish-scribe-helps-keep-tradition-alive/ |title=Female Jewish scribe helps keep tradition alive - The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram |publisher=Pressherald.com |date=2014-08-23 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism|Gender studies}}
*[[bat-Kohen]] (daughter of a priest)
*[[Jewish feminism]]
**[[List of Jewish feminists]]
*[[Women as theological figures]]
**[[Rabbi#Women as rabbis|Women as rabbis]]
**[[Rebbetzin]] (rabbi's wife)
**[[List of women in the Bible]]
*[[Beis Yaakov]] (schools for Haredi girls)
*[[Niddah]] (menstruation laws)
*''[[Soferet]]'' (Jewish scribe who can transcribe religious documents)
*[[Gender and Judaism]]
*[[Tzeniut]] (modest behavior)
*[[Negiah]] (guidelines for physical contact)
*[[Yichud]] (prohibitions of secluding oneself with a stranger)
*[[Jewish view of marriage]]
**[[Shidduch]] (finding a marriage partner)
**[[Shalom bayit]] (peace and harmony in the relationship between husband and wife)
*[[Minyan]] (quorum of at least ten Jews acceptable for the recitation of certain prayers)
**[[Partnership minyan]] (a movement to give women more roles in prayer services)
*[[Agunah]] (a woman who wishes to divorce her husband, but, because her husband did not provide her with a divorce contract, is unable to according to Jewish law)
*[[Women in Israel]]
**[[Women of the Wall]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==

'''General'''
* [http://www.rachaelscentre.org/ Rachael's Centre for Torah, Musar & Ethics] An online learning community dedicated to Pluralistic Jewish learning through a female lens
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://www.jofa.org/ Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance] JOFA
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://jcada.org/www Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse]
* [http://www.naamat.com/domesticviolence.htm Na'amat Canada]
* [http://www.awarenow.org/www/docs/100/Internet Adolescents Working for Awesome Relationship Experiences] AWARE

'''Publications'''
* [http://www.lilith.org/ Lilith Magazine] a Jewish feminist journal
* [http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.

'''Particular issues'''
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/12/06/wuhsha-the-broker-jewish-women-in-the-medieval-economy/ "Wuhsha the Broker: Jewish Women in the Medieval Economy," Jewish History Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/09/19/rachel-wife-of-akiva-women-in-ancient-israel/ "Rachel, Wife of Akiva: Women in Ancient Israel," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/02/10/gluckel-of-hameln-jewish-women-n-the-17th-century/ "Gluckel of Hameln: Jewish Women in the 17th Century," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/spots_of_light/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki Spots of Light: Women in the Holocaust] an online exhibition by [[Yad Vashem]]
* [http://alternativestokiddushin.wordpress.com The Kiddushin Variations] A Directory of Halakhic Possibilities For A More Egalitarian Kiddushin Ritual.
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library
* [http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5759winter/sense.htm "Sense and Sensibilities: Women and Torah Study"], Bryna Levy, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 1998, 59 (2).
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf "Qeri’at ha-Torah by Women: A Halakhic Analysis"]|972 KB}}, Shapiro, Mendel. Edah 1:2, 2001
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf "Congregational Dignity and Human Dignity: Women and Public Torah Reading"]|78.1 KB}}, Sperber, Daniel. Edah 3:2, 2002
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427 "Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies"], Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf "Women and the Minyan"]|194 KB}}, Fine, David. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative), 2002
* [http://www.annette-boeckler.de/liturgie/EgalitarianServices.html Egalitarian Jewish Services A Discussion Paper]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5765/5765winter/WOMENADV.PDF "Women Advocates Make Their Mark"]|473 KB}}, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 2004.
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimer2-1.htm "Women and Minyan"], ''[[Tradition (orthodox journal)|Tradition]]'', 1988. Summary of Orthodox arguments regarding women counting in minyan for certain purposes
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm "Women's Prayer Services Theory and Practice"], ''[[Tradition (journal)|Tradition]]'', 1998. Summary of Orthodox arguments for and against women's prayer groups
* Elissa Strauss, ''Women Who Write Torah, A New Generation of Female Scribes Makes History''. http://forward.com/articles/133017/, The Jewish Daily Forward, November 19, 2010.
* (French) Harvey, Claire. Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce, Le Devoir, 24 April 2010.
* ''Mordecai Kaplan'' .2005.http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai, Jewish Women's Archive, 2005
* Luo,Michael, An Orthodox Jewish Woman, and Soon, a Spiritual Leader, http://www.hods.org/pdf/press/An%20Orthodox%20Jewish%20Woman,%20and%20Soon,%20a%20Spiritual%20Leader.htm, New York Times, August 21, 2006.
* ''Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States''. http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states, Jewish Women's archive, 2005
* Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html, Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press
* ''On the Ordination of Women: An Advocate's Halakhic Response'' Mayer E. Rabbinowitz. In Simon Greenberg, ed., ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988.
* ''Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies,'' Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', [[Simon Greenberg]], ed. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988. ISBN 0-87334-041-8
* ''Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender'', [[Charlotte Fonrobert]], Stanford University Press, 2000
* ''The Moon's Lost Light: A Torah Perspective on Women from the Fall of Eve to the Full Redemption'', Devorah Heshelis, Targum Press, 2006. ISBN 1-56871-377-0
* Nadell, Pamela S., "Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination, 1889-1985" in Jewish Women's Life. Editor
* Rabbi Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar,

===Middle Ages===
* Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period''. Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52-60. ISBN 9780691057873
* Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94-114. ISBN 0814320929
* {{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|pages=41–51|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}
* {{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|isbn=0805210490}}
* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Mark R.|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=0691139318}}
* Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1584653922
* {{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|pages=34–45}}
* Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009.105-111.ISBN 9780814732199
* {{cite book|last=Steinberg|first=Theodore L.|title=Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=0275985881}}
* {{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|isbn=0827607520 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}

=== Orthodox Judaism and women ===
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' [[Blu Greenberg]], Jewish Publication Society
* ''Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment,'' [[Saul Berman|Berman, Saul J.]] Response, 40, 1981, 5:17.
* ''Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State,'' Ellenson, David Harry. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law (58-81) 2001.
* ''Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?'' [[Tamar Ross]], ''Judaism'', 42:4, 1993, 478-491.
* ''Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?,'' Reisman, Levi M. The Jewish Observer, 31:5, 1998, 37-47
* ''Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period,'' [[Ross|Ross, Tamar]]
* ''In Case There Tamar Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan,'' Fishbane, Simcha. Judaism, 42:4, 1993, 492-503.
* ''Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law,'' Shenhav, Sharon. Justice, 21, 1999, 28-31.
* ''On Egalitarianism & Halakha,'' Stern, Marc D. Tradition, 36:2, 2002, 1-30.
* ''Women, Jewish Law and Modernity,'' Wolowelsky, Joel B. Ktav. 1997.
* ''Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism'', [[Tamar Ross|Ross, Tamar]]. Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58465-390-6
* ''Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups'', [[Avi Weiss|Weiss, Avi]], Ktav publishers, January 2003 ISBN 0-88125-719-2
*''Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation''. [[Tova Hartman|Hartman, Tova]], Brandeis University Press, 2007. ISBN 1-58465-658-1.

{{Jewish life}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Women In Judaism}}
[[Category:Judaism and women| ]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Gender roles by society]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2015-11-04T03:39:46Z

Jprg1966: /* Talmudic times */

{{About|historical and modern views of Jews|the portrayal of women in the Bible|Women in the Bible}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|religion}}
{{Women in society sidebar}}

The [[role]] of '''women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], the [[Oral Torah|Oral Law]] (the corpus of rabbinic literature), by [[Minhag|custom]], and by non-religious cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature mention various female role models, religious law treats women differently in various circumstances.

[[Gender]] has a bearing on familial lines: in traditional Judaism, [[Who is a Jew?|Jewishness]] is passed down through the mother, although the father's name is used to describe sons and daughters in the [[Torah]], e.g., "Dinah, daughter of Jacob".<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|pages= 121, 131}}</ref>

==Biblical times==
{{See also|Old Testament views on women}}
Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are a number of exceptions to this rule, including the [[Matriarchs (Bible)|Matriarchs]] [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca]], [[Rachel]], and [[Leah]], [[Miriam]] the prophetess, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Huldah]] the prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Rahab]] and [[Esther]]. In the Biblical account these women did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was formed between the Israelites and the God of Abraham at Mount Sinai. The Torah relates that both Israelite men and Israelite women were present at Sinai, however, the covenant was worded in such a way that it bound men to act upon its requirements and to ensure that the members of their household (wives, children, and slaves) met these requirements as well. In this sense, the covenant bound women as well, though indirectly.<ref name="HauptmanEtz">[[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman, Judith]]. "Women." ''Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary''. Ed. David L. Lieber. The Jewish Publication Society, 2001. 1356-1359.</ref>

Marriage and family law in biblical times favored men over women. For example, a husband could divorce a wife if he chose to, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. The practice of [[levirate marriage]] applied to widows of childless deceased husbands, not to widowers of childless deceased wives; though if either he or she didn't consent to the marriage, a different ceremony called chalitza is done instead. Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men during biblical times, however, they also suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount.<ref name="HauptmanEtz" /> However, men had specific obligations they were required to perform for their wives. These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual relations to their wives.<ref>[[Joseph Telushkin|Telushkin, Joseph]]. ''Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible''. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997. p. 403.</ref>

Women also had a role in ritual life. Women (as well as men) were required to make a pilgrimage to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] once a year and offer the [[Passover]] [[korban|sacrifice]]. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a ''todah'' ("thanksgiving") offering after childbirth. Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non-levitical men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and generally more discreet scale.

Women depended on men economically. Women generally did not own property except in the rare case of inheriting land from a father who didn't bear sons. Even "in such cases, women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings."<ref name="HauptmanEtz" />

According to [[John Bowker (theologian)]], traditionally, Jewish "men and women pray separately. This goes back to ancient times when women could go only as far as the second court of the Temple."<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 119}}</ref>

==Talmudic times==
Classical Jewish [[rabbinical literature]] contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that:
*Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the (righteous) women than to (righteous) men<ref>''[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berakhot]]'' 17a</ref>
*Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine<ref>''[[Nashim|Kiddushin]]'' 49b</ref>
*Women are ''light on raw knowledge'' – i.e., they possess more intuition<ref>''[[Shabbat (Talmud)|Shabbat]]'' 33b</ref>
*A man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good; a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself<ref>''[[Yebamot]]'' 62b</ref>
*When [[Rav Yosef b. Hiyya]] heard his mother's footsteps he would say: ''Let me arise before the approach of the [[Shekhinah|divine presence]]''<ref>''Kiddushin'' 31b</ref>
*Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its (Israel's) righteous women<ref>''[[Sotah]]'' 11b</ref>
*A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong<ref>''[[Baba Metzia]]'' 59a</ref>
*Women have greater faith than men<ref>''[[Sifre]]'', 133</ref>
*Women have greater powers of discernment<ref>''[[Tohorot|Niddah]]'' 45b</ref>
*Women are especially tenderhearted<ref>''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'' 14b</ref>

While few women are mentioned by name in rabbinic literature, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands. Occasionally they have a public persona. Examples are [[Bruriah daughter of Rabbi Hananiah Ben Teradion|Bruriah]], the wife of the [[Tannaim|Tanna]] [[Rabbi Meir]]; Rachel, the wife of [[Akiba ben Joseph|Rabbi Akiva]]; and Yalta, the wife of [[Rav Nachman|Rabbi Nachman]]. [[Elazar ben Arach|Rabbi Elazar]]'s{{Who|date=February 2010}} [[Imma Shalom|wife]] (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]]. When R' Elazar ben Azarya was asked to assume the role of ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]'' ("Prince" or President of the [[Sanhedrin]]), he replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Brachoth 27b</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
Since Jews were seen as second class citizens in the Christian and Muslim world, it was even harder for Jewish women to establish their own status. Avraham Grossman argues in his book ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe'' that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them:“ the biblical and talmudic heritage; the situation in the non-Jewish society within which the Jews lived and functioned; and the economic status of the Jews, including the woman’s role in supporting the family.”<ref>Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. 1.</ref> Grossman uses all three factors to argue that women’s status overall during this period actually rose.<ref>Grossman, 3.</ref>

During the Middle Ages, there was a conflict between Judaism’s lofty religious expectations of women and the reality of society in which these Jewish women lived; this is similar to the lives of Christian women in the same period.<ref>Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94.</ref> This prompted the [[kabbalistic]] work ''Sefer Hakanah'' to demand that women fulfill the ''[[mitzvot]]'' in a way that would be equal to men.<ref name="Ben-Sasson">Ben-Sasson, H. H. "Spiritual and Social Creativity." ''A History of the Jewish People''. Ed. Ben-Sasson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. 612-627. Print.</ref>

===Religious Life===

Religious developments during the medieval period included relaxation on prohibitions against teaching women [[Torah]], and the rise of women's prayer groups.<ref>Steinberg,157-158.</ref> One place that women participated in Jewish practices publicly was the [[synagogue]]. Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.<ref name="Baskin 1991 42">{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=42|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> There is evidence that in the 15th century some communities of [[Ashkenaz]], the wife of the rabbi wore ''[[tzitzit]]'' just like her husband.<ref name="Ben-Sasson" />

In most [[synagogues]] they were given their own section, most likely a balcony; some [[synagogues]] had a separate building.<ref name="Grossman,181">Grossman,181.</ref> Separation from the men was created by the Rabbis in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]. The reasoning behind the [[Halacha]] was that a woman and her body would distract men and give them impure thoughts during prayer.<ref>[[Talmud]], [[Sukkah (Talmud)|Succah]] 51a-52b</ref> Due to this rabbinical interpretation, scholars have seen the women’s role in the synagogue as limited and sometimes even non-existent. However, recent research has shown that women actually had a larger role in the synagogue and the community at large. Women usually attended synagogue, for example, on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] and the holidays.<ref>Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period.'' Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52.</ref> Depending on the location of the women in the [[synagogue]], they may have followed the same service as the men or they conducted their own services. Since the [[synagogues]] were large, there would be a designated woman who would be able to follow the cantor and repeat the prayers aloud for the women.<ref name="Grossman,181"/> Women had always attended services on [[Shabbat]] and holidays, but beginning in the eleventh century, women became more involved in the [[synagogue]] and its rituals. Women sitting separately from the men became a norm in [[synagogues]] around the beginning of the thirteenth century.<ref>Steinberg,157.</ref> Women, however, did much more than pray in the [[synagogue]]. One of the main jobs for women was to beautify the building. There are [[Torah ark]] curtains and [[Torah]] covers that women sewed and survive today.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|page=128 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}</ref> The [[synagogue]] was a communal place for both men and women where worship, learning and community activities occurred.

The rise and increasing popularity of [[Kabbalah]], which emphasized the [[shechinah]] and female aspects of the divine presence and human-divine relationship, and which saw marriage as a holy covenant between partners rather than a civil contract, had great influence. Kabbalists explained the phenomenon of menstruation as expressions of the demonic or sinful character of the menstruant.<ref>Koren, Sharon Faye. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/nashim/summary/v017/17.koren.html "The Menstruant as 'Other' in Medieval Judaism and Christianity."] ''Project MUSE''. Spring 2009. 29 December 2011.</ref>
These changes were accompanied by increased pietistic strictures, including greater requirements for [[Tzeniut|modest dress]], and greater strictures during [[Niddah|the period of menstruation]]. At the same time, there was a rise in philosophical and [[midrashic]] interpretations depicting women in a negative light, emphasizing a duality between matter and spirit in which femininity was associated, negatively, with earth and matter.<ref>Grossman, 277-278.</ref> The gentile society was also seen as a negative influence on the Jewish community. For example, it seems that Jews would analyze the modesty of their non-Jewish neighbors before officially moving into a new community because they knew that their children would be influenced by the local gentiles.<ref>Grossman, 2.</ref>

After the [[Alhambra Decree|expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492]], women became virtually the only source of Jewish ritual and tradition in the Catholic world in a phenomenon known as [[crypto-Judaism]]. Crypto-Jewish women would slaughter their own animals and made sure to keep as many of the [[Kosher|Jewish dietary laws]] and life cycle rituals as possible without raising suspicion. Occasionally, these women were prosecuted by [[Inquisition]] officials for suspicious behavior such as lighting candles to honor the Sabbath or refusing to eat pork when it was offered to them. The [[Inquisition]] targeted crypto-Jewish women at least as much as it targeted crypto-Jewish men because women were accused of perpetuating Jewish tradition while men were merely permitting their wives and daughters to organize the household in this manner.<ref>Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009. 105-111.</ref>

Jewish women were also apart of the social phenomenon of martyrdom of the [[First Crusade]]. Most of the violence from the [[First Crusade]] towards Jews was due to the [[People’s Crusade]]. Inspired by the Pope’s call, Christians in Roven, Trier, Metz, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Prague, and Bohemia, among others, massacred thousands of Jews. The local governments did not, at first, sanction the mass murder of Jews as part of the fervor of the Crusades. However, popular anxiety overcame many towns and villages and lead towards the local government’s support of killing Jews.<ref>Steinberg,108.</ref> Although many Jews did convert, many rather chose to die. Through the sources, such as chronicles and poems, we see that Jewish women were often martyred with their families.<ref name="Steinberg,160">Steinberg,160.</ref> In contrast, most Christian women martyrs were members of a convent or religious order when they were martyred (See [http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/women1.htm Women and Hagiography in Medieval Christianity] for more information).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|page=38}}</ref>

===Domestic Life===
Marriage, Domestic Violence and Divorce are all topics discussed by Jewish sages of the Medieval world. Marriage is an important institution in Judaism (see [[Marriage in Judaism]]). The sages of this period discussed this topic at length.

[[Rabbeinu Gershom]] instituted a rabbinic decree ([[Takkanah]]) prohibiting polygamy among [[Ashkenazic]] Jews.<ref>{{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|page=81}}</ref> The rabbis instituted legal methods to enable women to petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a divorce. [[Maimonides]] ruled that a woman who found her husband "repugnant" could compel a divorce, "because she is not like a captive, to be subjected to intercourse with one who is hateful to her."<ref>[[Mishneh Torah]], Hilkhot Ishut 14:8</ref><ref>Biale, 91.</ref> Divorce for Christian women was technically not an option. By the tenth century, Christianity considered marriage a sacrament and could not be dissolved (see [[Divorce#Medieval Europe|Divorce in Medieval Europe]]).

The rabbis also instituted and tightened prohibitions on domestic violence. [[Peretz ben Elijah|Rabbi Peretz ben Elijah]] ruled, "The cry of the daughters of our people has been heard concerning the sons of Israel who raise their hands to strike their wives. Yet who has given a husband the authority to beat his wife?"<ref>Grossman, 224.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] ruled that "For it is the way of the Gentiles to behave thus, but Heaven forbid that any Jew should do so. And one who beats his wife is to be excommunicated and banned and beaten."<ref>Grossman, 226.</ref> [[Meir of Rothenburg|Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg]] also ruled that a battered wife could petition a [[Beit Din|rabbinical court]] to compel a husband to grant a divorce, with a monetary fine owed her on top of the regular [[ketubah]] money.<ref>Grossman,222.</ref> These rulings occurred in the midst of societies where wife-beating was legally sanctioned and routine.<ref>Grossman, 230.</ref>

=== Education ===

Jewish women had a limited education. They were taught to read, write, run a household. They were also given some education in religious law that was essential to their daily lives, such as keeping [[kosher]].<ref name="Baskin 1991 42"/> Both Christian and Jewish girls were educated in the home. Although Christian girls may have had a male or female tutor, most Jewish girls had a female tutor.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=43|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref> Higher learning was uncommon for both Christian and Jewish women. Christian women could enter a convent in order to achieve a higher education (See [[Female education#Medieval period|Female Education in the Medieval Period]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|page=46|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}</ref>
There are more sources of education for Jewish women living in Muslim controlled lands. Middle Eastern Jewry, on the other hand, had an abundance of female literates. The [[Cairo Geniza]] is filled with correspondences written (sometimes dictated) between family members and spouses. Many of these letters are pious and poetic and express a desire to be in closer or more frequent contact with a loved one that is far enough away to only be reached by written correspondence. There are also records of wills and other personal legal documents as well as written petitions to officials in cases of spouse spousal abuse or other conflicts between family members written or dictated by women.<ref>Melammed, 91-100.</ref>

Many women gained enough education to help their husbands out in business or even hold their own. Just like Christian women who ran their own business, Jewish women were engaged in their own occupations as well as helping their husbands. Jewish women seem to have lent money to Christian women throughout Europe.<ref>Marcus,38.</ref> Women were also copyists, [[Midwifery#Early historical perspective|midwives]], spinners and weavers.<ref name="Steinberg,160"/><ref>Marcus,39.</ref>

==Views on the education of women==
From certain contexts of the Mishnah and Talmud it can be derived that women should not study Mishnah. There were female Tannaitic Torah jurists such as Rabbi Meir's wife,<ref>Medrish on Proverbs 31:10</ref> Rabbi Meir's daughter, and the daughter of Haninyah ben Teradyon<ref>Talmud Babylonia Kelim Bava Kamma 4:17 separately in Sifre Deuteronomy 307 in both she is personally left unnamed and referred to as just, 'and we have learned from the daughter of Haninyah ben Terradyon', a sign of the prevailing attitude towards women (as property of their fathers).</ref> Haninyah's daughter is again mentioned as a sage in the non-Talmud 3rd-century text Tractate Semahot verse 12:13.<ref>[http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300010695 also search ISBN 9780300010695 for an English translation.]</ref> Rabbi Meir's wife is credited with teaching him how to understand some verses from Isaiah.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Berachot 10a</ref> In the Mishnah there is also a reference to certain women teaching men the Torah from behind a curtain, so that no man would be offended.

A ''yeshiva'', or school for Talmudic studies, is an "exclusively masculine environment" because of absence of women from these studies.<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 0-7894-1439-2|page= 123}}</ref>

===Beruryah===
[[Beruryah]] (her name is a standard Jewish female name meaning 'the clarity of God') is a Tanna mentioned by name in the Talmud, who has a female name, has orally been transmitted as a female, and is referred to in the text using the nekeva (feminine Hebrew and Aramaic) adjectives and adverbs. Originally she was believed to be either Rabbi Meir's wife mentioned above, or Rabbi Chaninyah's daughter mentioned above, however over the past three to four centuries Rabbinic scholars have realized that these generations do not correspond to Beruryah's law decisions, and life, therefore she today is just 'Beruryah' and of heretofore unknown lineage.

Her law decisions were minor but set a crucial ancient precedent for modern Jewish women. She is mentioned at least four times in the Talmudic discourse regarding her law decrees first Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 10a then in Tosefta Pesahim 62b in Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 53b–54a and Babylonian Talmud Avodah Zarah 18b. In one case she paskinned din on "klaustra" a rare Greek word referring to an object, used in the Talmud, unfortunately Rabbi Yehudah Hanassi did not believe women could be credited with paskining din, as it says 'do not speak too much to women' (Tannah Rabbi Jesse the Galilean), and therefore credited the law to Rabbi Joshua who may have been her father.<ref>Mishnah Keylim 11:4</ref>

Beruryah however was actually remembered with great respect in the Talmud where she is lauded to have been reputed as such a genius that she studied “three hundred Halachot from three hundred sages in just one day” (Pesachim 62b). Clearly contradicting the injunction against women studying Torah.

===Rashi's Daughters===
[[Rashi]] had no sons and taught the Mishnah and Talmud to his daughters, until they knew it by heart as Jewish tradition teaches;<ref>[http://www.rashisdaughters.com/ Rashi's Daughters]</ref> they then transferred their knowledge of original Mishnah commentary to the Ashkenazi men of the next generation.

===Haim Yosef David Azulai, AKA 'The Hid'aa'===
The [[Chaim Joseph David Azulai|Hida]], wrote (Tuv Ayin, no. 4) woman should not study Mishnah only if they do not want to.'We cannot force a woman to learn, like we do to boys'. However, if she wants to learn then not only may she do so on her own, but men may originally teach her, and she can then teach other women if they so choose. According to the Hida, the prohibition against teaching women does not apply to a motivated woman or girl. Other Mizrahi Rabbis disputed this with him.

His response to detractors was that indeed, in truth, there is a prohibition against teaching Mishnah to any student—male or female—who one knows is not properly prepared and motivated, referred to a talmid she-eino hagun (Shulhan Arukh, Yoreh De'ah 246:7). Babylonian Talmud Berakhos 28a relates that Rabban Gamliel would announce that any student who is not pure enough so that 'his outer self is like his inner self' may not enter the study hall. While this approach, requiring absolute purity, was rejected by other ancient Rabbis, for example 'he who is not for the name of God, will become for the name of God', and a middle approach was adopted by Jews as standard. If one has knowledge that a particular Mishnayot student is definitely bad then he may not be taught. He claimed that 'it seems that for women there is a higher standard and she must be motivated in order to have this permission to learn' in his response to the Mizrahi tradition.

===Yisrael Meir Kagan===
{{Main|Yisrael Meir Kagan}}
One of the most important Ashkenazic rabbanim of the past century, Yisrael Meir Kagan, known popularly as the Chofetz Chaim. favored Torah education for girls to counteract the French "finishing schools" prevalent in his day for the daughters of the bourgeoisie.{{quote|
"It would appear that all [these sexist laws] were intended for earlier generations when everyone dwelt in the place of their familial ancestral home and ancestral tradition was very powerful among all to follow the path of their fathers... under such circumstances we could maintain that a woman not study Mishnayos and, for guidance, rely on her righteous parents, but presently, due to our myriad sins, ancestral tradition has become exceptionally weak and it is common that people do not dwell in proximity to the family home, and especially those women who devote themselves to mastering the vernacular, surely it is a now a great mitzvah to teach them Scripture and the ethical teachings of our sages such as Pirkei Avos, Menoras Ha-Ma'or and the like so that they will internalize our sacred faith because [if we do not do so] they are prone to abandon the path of God and violate all principles of [our] faith."<ref>Likkutei Halachos, Sotah p. 21</ref>}}

===Joseph Solovetchik===
{{Main|Joseph B. Soloveitchik}}
Rabbi Yoseph Solovetchik 'amened' the teachings of The Hafetz Haim. Rabbi Solovetchik taught all religious Ashkenazi Jews with the exception of hardline Hasidim, not should, or if they show motivation, but must teach their female children Gemarah like the boy school children. He among others fully institutionalized the teaching of Mishnah and Talmud to girls, from an autobiography on him by Rabbi Mayor Twersky called "A Glimpse of the Rav" in R. Menachem Genack ed., Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: Man of Halacha, Man of Faith, page 113: {{quote|"The halakha prohibiting Torah study for women is not indiscriminate or all-encompassing. There is complete unanimity that women are obligated to study halakhot pertaining to mitsvot which are incumbent upon them... The prohibition of teaching Torah she-Ba'al Pe to women relates to optional study. If ever circumstances dictate that study of Torah sh-Ba'al Pe is necessary to provide a firm foundation for faith, such study becomes obligatory and obviously lies beyond the pale of any prohibition." Undoubtedly, the Rav's prescription was more far-reaching that that of the Hafets Hayim and others. But the difference in magnitude should not obscure their fundamental agreement [on changing the attitudes Halachically].}}

==Present day==
{{Jewish feminism}}
{{Further|Jewish feminism|Women in Israel|Orthodox Jewish feminism|Women of the Wall}}

===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] is based on gendered understandings of Jewish practice—i.e., that there are different roles for men and women in religious life. There are different opinions among Orthodox Jews concerning these differences. Most claim that men and women have complementary, yet different roles in religious life, resulting in different religious obligations. Others believe that some of these differences are not a reflection of religious law, but rather of cultural, social, and historical causes. In the area of education, women were historically exempted from any study beyond an understanding of the practical aspects of [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household{{spaced ndash}}both of which they have an obligation to learn. Until the twentieth century, women were often discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. In the past 100 years, Orthodox Jewish education for women has advanced tremendously.<ref>Handelman, Susan. [http://www.chabad.org/theJewishWoman/article_cdo/aid/371261/jewish/Feminism-and-Orthodoxy.htm "Feminism and Orthodoxy - What It's All About."] ''Chabad Lubavitch''. 25 December 2011.</ref>

There have been many areas in which Orthodox women have been working towards change within religious life over the past 20 years: promoting advanced women's learning and scholarship, promoting women's ritual inclusion in synagogue, promoting women's communal and religious leadership, and more.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lakein|first1=Dvora|title=How Does She Do It?|url=http://lubavitch.com/news/article/2031309/How-Does-She-Do-It.html|accessdate=17 November 2014|agency=Chabad Lubavitch World HQ / News|date=October 6, 2014|quote=Mrs. Shula Bryski, representative to Thousand Oaks, California, and a mother of six, says that the Rebbe “empowered women in a way perhaps never done before.” Embracing modernity, the Rebbe understood that today, “women need more sophisticated Judaism, more depth, more spirituality.” Bryski’s personal emphasis in this affluent Los Angeles suburb is educating women through a weekly Caffeine for the Soul class, monthly Rosh Chodesh Society meetings, and the wildly-popular bat-mitzvah classes she leads. Bryski also serves on the editorial board of the Rosh Chodesh Society, a project of Jewish Learning Institute (JLI) and is a prolific writer.}}</ref> Women have been advancing change despite often vocal opposition by rabbinic leaders. Some Orthodox rabbis try to discount changes by claiming that women are motivated by sociological reasons and not by "true" religious motivation.<ref>Kress, Michael. [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/orthostate.html "The State of Orthodox Judaism Today."] ''Jewish Virtual Library''. 25 December 2011.</ref> For example, Orthodox, [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]], and [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] rabbis discourage women from wearing a [[yarmulke]], [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed members|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011|accessdate=October 29, 2014|issue=Haaretz|date=January 29, 2014}}</ref>

In most Orthodox synagogues, women still do not give a ''d'var Torah'' (brief discourse, generally on the weekly Torah portion) after or between services. Furthermore, a few Modern Orthodox synagogues have mechitzot dividing the left and right sides of the synagogue (rather than the usual division between the front and back of the synagogue, with women sitting in the back), with the women's section on one side and the men's section on the other.<ref>[http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf ] {{wayback|url=http://www.jofa.org/pdf/Hebrew%20Institute%20of%20Riverdale%20(HIR).pdf |date=20150402103147 }}</ref>

====Rules of modesty====
{{Main|Tzniut}}
The importance of modesty in dress and conduct is particularly stressed among girls and women in Orthodox society. Many Orthodox women only wear skirts and avoid wearing trousers, and some married Orthodox women cover their hair with a wig, hat, or scarf. Judaism prescribes modesty for both men and women.{{citation needed |date=November 2013}}

====Rules of family purity====
{{Main|Niddah}}
In accordance with Jewish Law, Orthodox Jewish women refrain from contact with their husbands while they are [[niddah|menstruating]], and for a period of 7 clean days after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. The Israeli Rabbinate has recently approved women acting as ''yoatzot'', [[halakhic]] advisers on sensitive personal matters such as [[family purity]].

====Modern Orthodox Judaism====
Rabbi [[Joseph B. Soloveitchik]], a leader of profound influence in modern Orthodoxy in the United States, discouraged women from serving as presidents of synagogues or any other official positions of leadership,<ref name="Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis Of Womens Prayer Groups">[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQHwIAxpZRAC&pg=PA107], additional text.</ref> from performing other [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]] (commandments) traditionally performed by males exclusively, such as wearing a [[tallit]] or [[tefillin]]. Soloveitchik wrote that while women do not lack the capability to perform such acts, there is no [[Tradition|''mesorah'']] (Jewish tradition) that permits it. In making his decision, he relied upon Jewish oral law, including a [[mishnah]] in Chulin 2a and a Beit Yoseph in the Tur Yoreh Deah stating that a woman can perform a specific official communal service for her own needs but not those of others.<ref>Aharon Ziegler, ''Halakhic Positions of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik'', Volume II, p. 81.</ref>

Women's issues garnered more interest with the advent of [[feminism]]. Many Modern Orthodox Jewish women and Modern Orthodox rabbis sought to provide greater and more advanced Jewish education for women. Since most Modern Orthodox women attend college, and many receive advanced degrees in a variety of fields, Modern Orthodox communities generally promote women's secular education. A few Modern Orthodox Synagogues have women serving as clergy, including [[Gilah Kletenik]] at [[Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun]]. In 2013, [[Yeshivat Maharat]], located in the United States, became the first Orthodox institution to consecrate female clergy. The graduates of Yeshivat Maharat do not call themselves "rabbis." The title they are given is "maharat."<ref>"Jewish Daily Forward Podcast." ''[http://forward.com/articles/179052/female-orthodox-leaders-new-and-old/ Female Orthodox Leaders: New and Old]''. 21 June 2013. ''The Jewish Daily Forward''. Web. 23 June 2013.</ref> Also in 2013, [[Malka Schaps]] became the first female [[Haredi]] dean at an Israeli university when she was appointed dean of Bar Ilan University's Faculty of Exact Sciences.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.550156 Malka Schaps becomes first female Haredi dean at Israeli university - National Israel News | Haaretz]</ref> Also in 2013, the first class of female [[halacha|halachic]] advisers trained to practice in the US graduated; they graduated from the North American branch of [[Nishmat]]’s yoetzet halacha program in a ceremony at Congregation Sheartith Israel, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in Manhattan and [[SAR High School]] in Riverdale, New York began allowing girls to wrap tefillin during Shacharit-morning prayer; it is probably the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so.<ref>[http://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/nyc-orthodox-high-school-lets-girls-put-on-tefillin/2014/01/20/ The Jewish Press » » NYC Orthodox High School Lets Girls Put On Tefillin]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/landmark-us-program-graduates-first-female-halachic-advisers/ Landmark US program graduates first female halachic advisers | The Times of Israel]</ref>

In 2014, the first ever book of [[halacha|halachic]] decisions written by women who were ordained to serve as poskot (Idit Bartov and Anat Novoselsky) was published.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://jpupdates.com/2014/06/26/first-halacha-sefer-women-makes-waves-israel-orthodox-world/ First Halacha Sefer By Women Makes Waves in Israeli Orthodox World - JP Updates | JP Updates]</ref> The women were ordained by the municipal chief rabbi of Efrat, Rabbi [[Shlomo Riskin]], after completing [[Midreshet Lindenbaum]] women’s college’s five-year ordination course in advanced studies in Jewish law, as well as passing examinations equivalent to the rabbinate’s requirement for men.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

In 2015, Jennie Rosenfeld became the first female Orthodox spiritual advisor in Israel (specifically, she became the spiritual advisor, also called manhiga ruchanit, for the community of [[Efrat]].)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2015/1/26/with-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel#.VMZhzS7lw4I=|title=With female spiritual advisor, Efrat spotlights women’s empowerment in Israel|work=JNS.org}}</ref>

====Women's prayer groups====
Separate Jewish women's prayer groups were a sanctioned custom among German Jews in the [[Middle Ages]]. The ''Kol Bo'' provides, in the laws for [[Tisha B'Av]]:

:And they recite dirges there for about a quarter of the night, the men in their synagogue and the women in their synagogue. And likewise during the day the men recite dirges by themselves and the women by themselves, until about a third of the day has passed.

In Germany, in the 12th and 13th centuries, women's prayer groups were led by female cantors. Rabbi Eliezar of Worms, in his elegy for his wife Dulca, praised her for teaching the other women how to pray and embellishing the prayer with music. The gravestone of Urania of Worms, who died in 1275, contains the inscription "who sang ''piyyutim'' for the women with musical voice." In the Nurnberg Memorial Book, one Richenza was inscribed with the title "prayer leader of the women."<ref>Grossman, ''Pious and Rebellious'', pp. 180-182.</ref>

Orthodox women more recently began holding organized women's ''tefila'' (prayer) groups beginning in the 1970s. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a ''[[minyan]]'' (prayer quorum) for the purpose of [[Jewish services|regular services]], women in these groups read the prayers and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of Orthodox Judaism have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:

* The most restrictive view, held by some Modern Orthodox authorities, and most Haredi Rabbis, rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law).{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}
* A more liberal, permissive view maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatible with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e., do not include certain parts of the service known as ''devarim she-bi-kdusha''), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against ''halakha''. People in this group include Rabbi Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Rabbi [[Avi Weiss]].<ref>Israel's late [[Ashkenazi]]c [[Chief Rabbi]] [[Shlomo Goren]] ''may'' have ruled in 1974 that while women do not constitute a ''minyan'', they may still carry out full prayer services. Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, stating that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual ''halakha'' was in accord with the second school of thought, listed above.[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm]</ref>
* A third view maintains argues in favor of the acceptability of calling women to the Torah in mixed services, and leading certain parts of the service which do not require a [[minyan]], under certain conditions.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf]|972 KB}}</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf]|78.1 KB}}</ref>

In 2013 the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a [[halacha|halachic]] ruling which allows women, for the first time, to say the [[Kaddish]] prayer in memory of their deceased parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4396702,00.html |title=Halachic ruling: Women may say Kaddish - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

====Women as witnesses====
Traditionally, women are not generally permitted to serve as witnesses in an Orthodox [[Beit Din]] ([[Beit Din|rabbinical court]]), although they have recently been permitted to serve as ''toanot'' (advocates) in those courts. This limitation has exceptions which have required exploration under rabbinic law as the role of women in society and the obligations of religious groups under external civil law have been subject to increasing recent scrutiny.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The recent case of Rabbi [[Mordecai Tendler]], the first rabbi to be expelled from the [[Rabbinical Council of America]] following allegations of sexual harassment, illustrated the importance of clarification of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[halakha]] in this area. Rabbi Tendler claimed that the tradition of exclusion of women's testimony should compel the RCA to disregard the allegations. He argued that since the testimony of a woman could not be admitted in [[Beit Din|Rabbinical court]], there were no valid witnesses against him, and hence the case for his expulsion had to be thrown out for lack of evidence. In a ruling of importance for Orthodox women's capacity for legal self-protection under [[Halakha|Jewish law]], [[Haredi]] Rabbi [[Benzion Wosner]], writing on behalf of the ''Shevet Levi'' [[Beit Din]] (Rabbinical court) of [[Monsey, New York]], identified sexual harassment cases as coming under a class of exceptions to the traditional exclusion, under which "even children or women" have not only a right but an obligation to testify, and can be relied upon by a rabbinical court as valid witnesses:

:The [[Meir Abulafia|Ramah]] in Choshen Mishpat (Siman 35, 14) rules that in a case where only women congregate or in a case where only women could possibly testify, (in this case the alleged harassment occurred behind closed doors) they can and should certainly testify. (Terumas Hadeshen Siman 353 and Agudah Perek 10, Yochasin)

:This is also the ruling of the [[Joseph Colon Trabotto|Maharik]], [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra|Radvaz]], and the [[Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz|Mahar"i of Minz]]. Even those "[[Posek|Poskim]]" that would normally not rely on women witnesses, they would certainly agree that in our case ... where there is ample evidence that this Rabbi violated [[Torah]] precepts, then even children or women can certainly be kosher as witnesses, as the [[Chatam Sofer|Chasam Sofer]] pointed out in his ''sefer'' (monograph) (Orach Chaim T'shuvah 11)<ref>English summary at [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/Tendler_Mordecai.html The Awareness Center: Case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler.] Original ''teshuvah'' ([[Responsum]]) (in Hebrew) at {{PDF|[http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/HaravWosner'sT'shuvah.pdf The Awareness Center: Harav Wosner's Teshuvah]|130 KB}} (Note: parenthetical translations are added, parenthetical references are original)</ref>

The [[Rabbinical Council of America]], while initially relying on its own investigation, chose to rely on the Halakhic ruling of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbinical body as authoritative in the situation.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

====Orthodox approaches to change====
Leaders of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] community have been steadfast in their opposition to a change in the role of women, arguing that the religious and social constraints on women, as dictated by traditional Jewish texts, are timeless and are not affected by contemporary social change. Many also argue that giving traditionally male roles to women will only detract from both women's and men's ability to lead truly fulfilling lives. Haredim have also sometimes perceived arguments for liberalization as in reality stemming from antagonism to Jewish law and beliefs generally, arguing that preserving faith requires resisting secular and "un-Jewish" ideas.

Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly in its more liberal variants, has tended to look at proposed changes in the role of women on a specific, case-by-case basis, focusing on arguments regarding the religious and legal role of specific prayers, rituals and activities individually. Such arguments have tended to focus on cases where the Talmud and other traditional sources express multiple or more liberal viewpoints, particularly where the role of women in the past was arguably broader than in more recent times. Feminist advocates within Orthodoxy have tended to stay within the traditional legal process of argumentation, seeking a gradualist approach, and avoiding wholesale arguments against the religious tradition as such.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Nevertheless, a growing [[Orthodox Jewish feminism|Orthodox feminist]] movement seeks to address gender inequalities.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sztokman|first1=Elana|title=Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed women|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.571011#|accessdate=30 June 2014|work=Haaretz|date=Jan 28, 2014}}</ref></blockquote>

===Agunot===

[[Agunot]] (lit. "chained women") are women who wish to divorce their husbands, but whose husbands refuse to give them a writ of divorce (a "get"). In Orthodox Judaism, only a man is able to serve a "get."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Farkash|first1=Tali|title=e women extorted by ex-husbands|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4400770,00.html|accessdate=2014-10-29|publisher=Ynet News|date=2013-07-07}}</ref>

===Conservative Judaism===
Although the position of [[Conservative Judaism]] toward women originally differed little from the Orthodox position, it has in recent years minimized legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of decisions and [[responsa]] on this topic. These provide for women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being counted as part of a ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'' - an arbiter in matters of religious law)
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:
*[[Matrilineality in Judaism|Matrilineal descent]]. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.
*Pidyon Ha-Bat, a proposed ceremony based on the biblical redemption of the eldest newborn son ([[Pidyon HaBen|Pidyon Ha-Ben]]). The CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

A Conservative Jewish ''[[ketuba]]'' includes a clause that puts a husband and wife on more equal footing when it comes to marriage and divorce law within ''halacha''.<ref name="Raphael">Raphael, Marc Lee. ''Profiles in American Judaism: The Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Traditions in Historical Perspective''. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1984. p. 110</ref>

The CJLS recently reaffirmed the obligation of Conservative women to observe ''[[niddah]]'' (sexual abstinence during and after menstruation) and ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual immersion) following menstruation, although somewhat liberalizing certain details. Such practices, while requirements of Conservative Judaism, are not widely observed among Conservative laity.

====Changes in the Conservative position====
Prior to 1973, Conservative Judaism had more limited roles for women and was more similar to current Modern Orthodoxy, with changes on issues including mixed seating, synagogue corporate leadership, and permitting women to be called to the Torah. In 1973, the CJLS of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] voted, without issuing an opinion, that women could count in a [[minyan]]. There was a special commission appointed by the Conservative movement to study the issue of ordaining women as rabbis, which met between 1977 and 1978, and consisted of eleven men and three women; the women were Marian Siner Gordon, an attorney, Rivkah Harris, an [[Assyriologist]], and [[Francine Klagsbrun]], a writer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/klagsbrun-francine |title=Francine Klagsbrun | Jewish Women's Archive |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2015-09-07}}</ref> In 1983, the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] (JTSA) faculty voted, also without accompanying opinion, to ordain women as rabbis and as cantors.<ref name="Raphael" /> [[Paula Hyman]], among others, took part in the vote as a member of the JTS faculty.

In 2002, the CJLS adapted a [[responsum]] by Rabbi David Fine, [https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf ''Women and the Minyan''], which provides an official religious-law foundation for women counting in a minyan and explains the current Conservative approach to the role of women in prayer.<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org">{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}}</ref> This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

In 2006, the CJLS adopted three [[responsum|responsa]] on the subject of [[niddah]], which reaffirmed an obligation of Conservative women to abstain from sexual relations during and following [[menstruation]] and to immerse in a [[mikvah]] prior to resumption, while liberalizing observance requirements including shortening the length of the [[niddah]] period, lifting restrictions on non-sexual contact during niddah, and reducing the circumstances under which spotting and similar conditions would mandate abstinence.<ref name="RabbiIntro">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Mikveh_Introduction.doc Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiGrossman">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Grossman-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Susan Grossman, MIKVEH AND THE SANCTITY OF BEING CREATED HUMAN, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiReisner">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Reisner-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Avram Reisner, OBSERVING NIDDAH IN OUR DAY: AN INQUIRY ON THE STATUS OF PURITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY WITH A MENSTRUANT, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref><ref name="RabbiBerkowitz">[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Berkowitz-Niddah.pdf Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, RESHAPING THE LAWS OF FAMILY PURITY FOR THE MODERN WORLD, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006]</ref>

In all cases continuing the Orthodox approach was also upheld as an option. Individual Conservative rabbis and synagogues are not required to adopt any of these changes, and a small number have adopted none of them.

====Conservative approaches to change====
Prior to 1973, Conservative approaches to change were generally on an individual, case-by-case basis. Between 1973 and 2002, the Conservative movement adapted changes through its official organizations, but without issuing explanatory opinions. Since 2002, the Conservative movement has coalesced around a single across-the board approach to the role of women in Jewish law.<ref>This section summarizes the CLJS's 2002 Fine "Women and the Minyan" {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf]|194 KB}} Responsum's review and critique of prior CJLS efforts to adopt an authoritative responsum.</ref>

In 1973, 1983, and 1993, individual rabbis and professors issued six major opinions which influenced change in the Conservative approach, the first and second Sigal, Blumenthal, Rabinowitz, and [[Joel Roth|Roth]] responsa, and the [[Judith Hauptman|Hauptman]] article. These opinions sought to provide for a wholesale shift in women's public roles through a single, comprehensive legal justification. Most such opinions based their positions on an argument that Jewish women always were, or have become, legally obligated to perform the same ''mitzvot'' as men and to do so in the same manner.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The first Sigal and the Blumenthal responsa were considered by the CJLS as part of its decision on prayer roles in 1973. They argued that women have always had the same obligations as men.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} The first Sigal responsum used the Talmud's general prayer obligation and examples of cases in which women were traditionally obligated to say specific prayers and inferred from them a public prayer obligation identical to that of men. The Blumenthal responsum extrapolated from a minority authority that a ''minyan'' could be formed with nine men and one woman in an emergency. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) declined to adopt either responsum. Rabbi Siegel reported to the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] membership that many on the CJLS, while agreeing with the result, found the arguments unconvincing.

The Rabinowitz, [[Joel Roth|Roth]], and second Sigal responsa were considered by the JTSA faculty as part of its decision to ordain women as rabbis in 1983. The Rabbinowitz responsum sidestepped the issue of obligation, arguing that there is no longer a religious need for a community representative in prayer and hence there is no need to decide whether a woman can ''halakhically'' serve as one. The CJLS felt that an argument potentially undermining the value of community and clergy was unconvincing: "We should not be afraid to recognize that the function of clergy is to help our people connect with the holy." The Roth and second Sigal responsa accepted that time-bound ''mitzvot'' were traditionally optional for women, but argued that women in modern times could change their traditional roles. The Roth responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|1=[http://www.jtsa.edu/rabbinical/women/roth.pdf#search='women%20roth%20responsum']|2=161 KB}}</ref> argued that women could individually voluntarily assume the same obligations as men, and that women who do so (e.g. pray three times a day regularly) could count in a ''minyan'' and serve as agents. The JTSA accordingly required female rabbinical students wishing to train as rabbis to personally obligate themselves, but synagogue rabbis, unwilling to inquire into individual religiosity, found it impractical. The second Sigal responsum<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/sigal_women.pdf]|3.17 MB}}</ref> called for a ''takkanah'', or rabbinical edict, "that would serve as a ''halakhic'' ERA," overruling all non-egalitarian provisions in law or, in the alternative, a new approach to ''halakhic'' interpretation independent of legal precedents. The CJLS, unwilling to use either an intrusive approach or a repudiation of the traditional legal process as bases for action, did not adopt either and let the JTS faculty vote stand unexplained.

In 1993, Professor [[Judith Hauptman]] of JTS issued an influential paper <ref>http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427</ref> arguing that women had historically always been obligated in prayer, using more detailed arguments than the Blumenthal and first Sigal responsa. The paper suggested that women who followed traditional practices were failing to meet their obligations. Rabbi Roth argued that Conservative Judaism should think twice before adopting a viewpoint labeling its most traditional and often most committed members as sinners. The issue was again dropped.

In 2002, the CJLS returned to the issue of justifying its actions regarding women's status, and adopted a single authoritative approach, the Fine responsum,<ref name="rabbinicalassembly.org"/> as the definitive Conservative [[halakha]] on role-of-women issues. This responsum holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have, as a collective whole, voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this collective undertaking, the Fine responsum holds that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The Responsum also holds that traditionally-minded communities and individual women can opt out without being regarded by the Conservative movement as sinning. By adopting this Responsum, the CJLS found itself in a position to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the ''halakhic'' tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners.

===Reform Judaism===
[[Reform Judaism]] believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that [[halakha]] (Jewish law) is the sole legitimate form of Jewish decision making, and holds that Jews can and must consider their conscience and ethical principles inherent in the Jewish tradition when deciding upon a right course of action. There is widespread consensus among Reform Jews that traditional distinctions between the role of men and women are antithetical to the deeper ethical principles of Judaism. This has enabled Reform communities to allow women to perform many rituals traditionally reserved for men, such as:

*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

Concerns about intermarriage have also influenced the Reform Jewish position on gender. In 1983, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] passed a resolution waiving the need for formal conversion for anyone with at least one Jewish parent who has made affirmative acts of Jewish identity. This departed from the traditional position requiring formal [[conversion to Judaism]] for children without a [[matrilineal descent|Jewish mother]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/patrilineal1.html Reform Movement's Resolution on Patrilineal Descent]</ref> The 1983 resolution of the American Reform movement has had a mixed reception in Reform Jewish communities outside of the United States. Most notably, the [[Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism]] has rejected patrilineal descent and requires formal conversion for anyone without a Jewish mother.<ref>[http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=840313&ct=1051515 Reform Judaism in Israel: Progress and Prospects]</ref> As well, a joint Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative and Reform Bet Din formed in Denver, Colorado to promote uniform standards for conversion to Judaism was dissolved in 1983, due to that Reform resolution.<ref name="Wertheimer, A People Divided">{{Cite book|last=Wertheimer|first=Jack|title=A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America|publisher=University Press of New England|year=1997}}</ref> However, in 2015 the majority of Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis voted in favor of a position paper proposing "that individuals who live a Jewish life, and who are patrilineally Jewish, can be welcomed into the Jewish community and confirmed as Jewish through an individual process."<ref name="jpost1">{{cite web|last=Lewis |first=Jerry |url=http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/UK-Reform-rabbis-accept-patrilineal-descent-409298 |title=UK Reform rabbis accept patrilineal descent - Diaspora - Jerusalem Post |publisher=Jpost.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref> Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis stated that rabbis "would be able to take local decisions – ratified by the [[Beit Din]] – confirming Jewish status."<ref name="jpost1"/>

Liberal prayerbooks tend increasingly to avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language. For example, the [[Liberal Judaism (UK)|UK Liberal movement]]'s ''Siddur Lev Chadash'' (1995) does so, as does the [[Reform Judaism (UK)|UK Reform Movement]]'s ''Forms of Prayer'' (2008).<ref>[http://thejc.com/articles/the-slimline-siddur-a-touch-bob-dylan The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan | The Jewish Chronicle]</ref><ref>[http://www.bwpjc.org/slc.htm Siddur Lev Chadash]</ref> In [[Mishkan T'filah]], the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as “He” have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.) <ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/03/us/03prayerbook.html?_r=1 | work=The New York Times | first=Laurie | last=Goodstein | title=In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change | date=3 September 2007}}</ref> In 2015 the Reform Jewish [[High Holy Days]] prayer book [[Mishkan HaNefesh]] was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.<ref name="jweekly1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/74278/gates-of-repentance-replacement-advances-reform-trends/ |title=‘Gates of Repentance’ replacement advances Reform trends | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=2015-03-26 |accessdate=2015-04-14}}</ref> It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer [[Avinu Malkeinu]] that refers to God as both "Loving Father" and "Compassionate Mother."<ref name="jweekly1"/> Other notable changes are replacing a line from the Reform movement’s earlier prayerbook, "Gates of Repentance," that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line "rejoicing with couples under the chuppah [wedding canopy]", and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering “mibeit,” Hebrew for “from the house of,” in addition to the traditional “son of” or “daughter of.”<ref name="jweekly1"/>

====Reform approaches to change====
Reform Judaism generally holds that the various differences between the roles of men and women in traditional Jewish law are not relevant to modern conditions and not applicable today. Accordingly, there has been no need to develop legal arguments analogous to those made within the Orthodox and Conservative movements.

=== Reconstructionist Judaism ===

The equality of women and men is a central tenet and hallmark of [[Reconstructionist Judaism]]. From the beginning, Reconstructionist Jewish ritual allowed men and women to pray together — a decision based on egalitarian philosophy. It was on this basis that Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]] called for the full equality of women and men, despite the obvious difficulties reconciling this stance with norms of traditional Jewish practice.<ref>Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html , Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.</ref> The Reconstructionist Movement ordained women rabbis from the start.<ref>Nadell, Pamela. Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women’s Ordination 1889-1985. editor Jewish Women's Life, Beacon Press, 1998. pages 187-188</ref> In 1968, women were accepted into the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, under the leadership of [[Ira Eisenstein]].<ref>Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16542.html , Jewish Virtual Library. 2001.</ref> The first ordained female Reconstructionist rabbi, [[Sandy Eisenberg Sasso]], served as rabbi of the Manhattan Reconstructionist Congregation in 1976 and gained a pulpit in 1977 at Beth El Zedeck congregation in Indianapolis. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso was accepted without debate or subsequent controversy.<ref>Sandy Sasso ordained as first female Reconstructionist rabbi,This Week in History. Jewish Women's Archive. http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/19/1974/sandy-sasso</ref> In 2005, 24 out of the movement's 106 synagogues in the US had women as senior or assistant rabbis.<ref>in Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States, Jewish Women's Archive, http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states</ref> In 2013 Rabbi [[Deborah Waxman]] was elected as the President of the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical College]].<ref name="thejewishweek.com">[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/national-news/reconstructionists-pick-first-woman-lesbian-denominational-leader Reconstructionists Pick First Woman, Lesbian As Denominational Leader | The Jewish Week]</ref><ref>[http://forward.com/articles/185252/trailblazing-reconstructionist-deborah-waxman-reli/?p=all Trailblazing Reconstructionist Deborah Waxman Relishes Challenges of Judaism – Forward.com]</ref> As the President, she is believed to be the first woman and first lesbian to lead a Jewish congregational union, and the first female rabbi and first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is both a congregational union and a seminary.<ref name="thejewishweek.com"/><ref>http://www.rrc.edu/sites/default/files/ORPHAN_PDFs/RRC_WaxmanPresidentElect-ForPress3.pdf?hero=1615</ref>

The Reconstructionist Community began including women in the [[minyan]] and allowing them to come up to the [[Torah]] for [[Aliyah (Torah)|aliyot]]. They also continued the practice of [[bat mitzvah]].<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso,Putting God on the Guest List: How to Reclaim the Spiritual Meaning of Your Child's Bar or Bat Mitzvah, Jewish Lights Publishing (Woodstock, Vermont), 1992.</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allowed women to perform other traditional male tasks, such as serving as witnesses, leading services,<ref>Cantor Heather’ is a first for Reconstructionist shul, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20569&Itemid=86 , Canadian Jewish News, 06 January 2011
</ref> public Torah reading, and wearing ritual prayer garments like [[kippot]] and [[tallitot]].<ref>One example in this video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oplgjEjts0 ,Darchei Noam Congregation, Toronto, Canada.</ref> Female Reconstructionist rabbis have been instrumental in the creation of rituals, stories, and music that have begun to give women's experience a voice in Judaism. Most of the focus has been on rituals for life-cycle events.<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar, Reconstructionist Press, 2005</ref> New ceremonies have been created for births,<ref>Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, Call Them Builders: A Resource Booklet about Jewish Attitudes and Practices on Birth and Family Life, Reconstructionist Federation of Congregations and Havurot (New York)</ref> weddings, divorces, conversions,<ref>Shefa, Sheri (August 2006). "Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb". Canadian Jewish News.http://joi.org/bloglinks/CJN Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb 8-24-06.pdf</ref> weaning, and the onset of menarche and menopause. The Reconstructionist movement as a whole has been committed to creating liturgy that is in consonance with gender equality and the celebration of women's lives.<ref>This is reflected in the prayer books that have been published by the Reconstructionist movement</ref><ref>Female scribe to pen Reconstructionist shul’s new Torah, http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=16953&Itemid=86, Canadian Jewish News, May 21, 2009.</ref><ref>Montreal congregation hires first female scribe to pen Torah in Canada, http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200906031702/Montreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html ,Jewish Tribune,3 June 2009.</ref> Another major step: The Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations has also developed educational programs that teach the full acceptance of lesbians,<ref>See Rabbi [[Rebecca Alpert]] and Rabbi [[Toba Spitzer]]</ref> as well as rituals that affirm lesbian relationships.<ref>Anne Lapidus Lerner in Jewish Women's Archive http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lerner-anne-lapidus</ref><ref>Radin, Charles A. First openly gay rabbi elected leader,http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/03/first_openly_ga.html , Boston Globe, March 13, 2007.</ref> Reconstructionist rabbis officiate at same-sex weddings.<ref>for Montreal https://www.dorshei-emet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92&Itemid=100</ref> Reconstructionist Judaism also allows openly [[LGBT]] men and women to be ordained as rabbis and cantors.

Several prominent members of the Reconstructionist community have focused on issues like domestic violence.<ref>Gordon, Sheldon (21 April 2006) ''Billboards Focus on Jewish Domestic Violence'', in Jewish Daily Forward http://www.forward.com/articles/1263/</ref><ref>Na'amat Canada, http://www.naamat.com/legalaid.htm</ref><ref>Springtide Resources, Wife Abuse in the Jewish Community, http://www.womanabuseprevention.com/html/jewish_community.html</ref><ref>Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse, http://jcada.org/www/docs/4/</ref> Others have devoted energy to helping women gain the right of divorce in traditional Jewish communities.<ref>(French) Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce , Journal Le Devoir, 24 April 2010</ref><ref>Sonia Sarah Lipsyc ,http://soniasarahlipsyc.canalblog.com/</ref> Many have spoken out for the right of Jewish women to pray aloud and read from the Torah at the [[Western Wall]] in Jerusalem, the [[Women of the Wall]] group.<ref>[http://womenofthewall.org.il/?lang=he Women of the Wall | נשות הכותל]</ref>

When the roles of women in religion change, there may also be changed roles for men. With their advocacy of patrilineal descent in the 1970s, the [[Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association]] supported the principle that a man who takes responsibility for raising a Jewish child can pass Judaism on to the next generation as well as a woman. All children who receive a Jewish education are considered Jewish in Reconstructionist Judaism regardless of whatever is the sex of their Jewish parent.

=== Jewish Renewal===
[[Jewish Renewal]] is a recent [[Jewish denominations|movement]] in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]], [[music]]al and [[Meditation|meditative]] practices; it describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism’s prophetic and mystical traditions." <ref>[http://www.aleph.org/renewal.htm About Jewish Renewal]</ref> The Jewish Renewal movement ordains women as well as men as rabbis and cantors. [[Lynn Gottlieb]] became the first female rabbi in Jewish Renewal in 1981, and [[Avitall Gerstetter]], who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA030.htm |title=Lynn Gottlieb |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2003-09-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2009 and 2012 respectively, OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) issued a board statement and a resolution supporting [[Women of the Wall]].<ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/2009-board-statement-on-women-of-the-wall/ 2009 Board Statement on Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref><ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/wow-statement-of-support/ 2012 Statement of Support for Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah]</ref> The Statement of Principles of OHALAH states in part, "Our local communities will embody egalitarian and inclusive values, manifested in a variety of leadership and decision-making structures, ensuring that women and men are full and equal partners in every aspect of our communal Jewish life." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/about-us/principles/ Aleph Statement of Principles | OhalahOhalah]</ref> In 2014 OHALAH issued a board resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: OHALAH supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]]; OHALAH condemns all types of sexism; OHALAH is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come; and OHALAH supports equal rights regardless of gender." <ref>[http://ohalah.org/tikkun-olam/statements/resolution-on-gender-equality/ Board Resolution on Gender Equality | OhalahOhalah]</ref> Also in 2014, ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal issued a statement stating, "ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal supports the observance of [[Women's History Month]], [[International Women’s Day]], and [[Women's Equality Day]], condemns all types of sexism, is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come, and supports equal rights regardless of gender, in recognition and allegiance to the view that we are all equally created in the Divine Image." <ref>[http://kolaleph.org/2014/02/04/gender-equality-now/ Statement On Gender Equality | Kol ALEPH]</ref>

=== Humanistic Judaism ===
[[Humanistic Judaism]] is a movement in Judaism that offers a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life. It ordains both men and women as rabbis, and its first rabbi was a woman, [[Tamara Kolton]], who was ordained in 1999.<ref name="shj">{{cite web|url=http://www.shj.org/shjbios.htm |title=Society for Humanistic Judaism - Rabbis and Leadership |publisher=Shj.org |accessdate=2012-03-12}}</ref> Its first cantor was also a woman, [[Hazzan Deborah Davis|Deborah Davis]], ordained in 2001; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped ordaining cantors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jmwc.org/Women/womend.html |title=Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music |publisher=JMWC |accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> The [[Society for Humanistic Judaism]] issued a statement in 1996 stating in part, "we affirm that a woman has the moral right and should have the continuing legal right to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy in accordance with her own ethical standards. Because a decision to terminate a pregnancy carries serious, irreversible consequences, it is one to be made with great care and with keen awareness of the complex psychological, emotional, and ethical implications." They also issued a statement in 2011 condemning the then-recent passage of the “No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act” by the U.S. House of Representatives, which they called "a direct attack on a women’s right to choose".<ref>[http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/NewsAbortionFunding.html |date=20131228071242 }}</ref> In 2012, they issued a resolution opposing conscience clauses that allow religious-affiliated institutions to be exempt from generally applicable requirements mandating reproductive healthcare services to individuals or employees.<ref>[http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/ConscienceClauses.html |date=20131228070406 }}</ref> In 2013 they issued a resolution stating in part, "Therefore, be it resolved that: The Society for Humanistic Judaism wholeheartedly supports the observance of [[Women's Equality Day]] on August 26 to commemorate the anniversary of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allowing women to vote; The Society condemns gender discrimination in all its forms, including restriction of rights, limited access to education, violence, and subjugation; and The Society commits itself to maintain vigilance and speak out in the fight to bring gender equality to our generation and to the generations that follow." <ref>[http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.shj.org/WomensEqualityDay.html |date=20131018050824 }}</ref>

=== Women as soferim ===
A Sofer, Sopher, Sofer SeTaM, or Sofer ST"M (Heb: "scribe", סופר סת״ם) is a Jewish scribe who can transcribe Torah scrolls, tefillin and mezuzot, and other religious writings. (ST"M, סת״ם, is an abbreviation for Sefer Torahs, Tefillin, and Mezuzot. The plural of sofer is "soferim", סופרים.) Forming the basis for the discussion of women becoming soferim, [[Talmud|Talmud Gittin]] 45b states: "Sifrei Torah, tefillin and mezuzot written by a heretic, a star-worshipper, a slave, a woman, a minor, a [[Cuthean]], or an [[Apostasy in Judaism|apostate Jew]], are unfit for ritual use."<ref>[http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml ] {{wayback|url=http://www.geniza.net/ritual/women.shtml |date=20130615110436 }}</ref> The rulings on [[Mezuzah]] and [[Tefillin]] are virtually undisputed among those who hold to the [[Talmud|Talmudic Law]]. While [[Arba'ah Turim]] does not include women in its list of those ineligible to write Sifrei Torah, some see this as proof that women are permitted to write a Torah scroll.<ref>Tur, [[Wikisource:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/271|Orah Hayyim 271]].</ref> However today, virtually all Orthodox (both Modern and Ultra) authorities contest the idea that a woman is permitted to write a [[Sefer Torah]]. Yet women are permitted to inscribe [[Ketubah|Ketubot]] (marriage contracts), STaM not intended for ritual use, and other writings of [[Sofrut]] beyond simple STaM. In 2003 Canadian [[Aviel Barclay]] became the world's first known traditionally trained female sofer.<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/3614/ A Female Scribe’s Trailblazing Effort – Forward.com]</ref><ref>[http://jwablog.jwa.org/soferet Simchat Torah with a Soferet's Torah | Jewish Women's Archive]</ref> In 2007 [[Jen Taylor Friedman]], a British woman, became the first female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]].<ref>[http://www.forward.com/articles/11604/ As New Year Dawns, Jewish Women Mark Milestones – Forward.com]</ref> In 2010 the first [[Sefer Torah]] scribed by a group of women (six female sofers, who were from Brazil, Canada, Israel, and the United States) was completed;<ref>[http://jta.org/news/article/2010/10/15/2741313/womens-torah-dedicated-in-seattle Women’s Torah dedicated in Seattle | Jewish Telegraphic Agency]</ref> this was known as the [[Women's Torah Project]].<ref name="jweekly.com">[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/59670/cjms-resident-scribe-takes-part-in-group-torah-project-in-seattle/ Julie Seltzer, a female Torah scribe from San Francisco, contributed to the first Torah scroll to be written by a group of women. | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern Calif...]</ref>

From October 2010 until spring 2011, [[Julie Seltzer]], one of the female sofers from the Women's Torah Project, scribed a [[Sefer Torah]] as part of an exhibition at the [[Contemporary Jewish Museum]] in [[San Francisco]]. This makes her the first American female sofer to scribe a [[Sefer Torah]]; Julie Seltzer was born in Philadelphia and is non-denominationally Jewish.<ref name="jweekly.com"/><ref>http://www.thecjm.org/index.php?option=com_ccevents&scope=prgm&task=detail&fid=8&oid=563</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/arts/design/08sfculture.html</ref><ref>[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/61328/cjm-to-celebrate-end-of-groundbreaking-torah-project CJM to celebrate end of groundbreaking Torah project | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California]</ref> From spring 2011 until August 2012 she scribed another [[Sefer Torah]], this time for the Reform congregation Beth Israel in San Diego.<ref name="jpost.com">[http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=286912 Torah, she wrote | JPost | Israel News]</ref><ref>[http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah ] {{wayback|url=http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah |date=20150721211051 }}</ref> Seltzer was taught mostly by [[Jen Taylor Friedman]].<ref name="jpost.com"/> On September 22, 2013, [[Congregation Beth Elohim]] of New York dedicated a new Torah, which members of Beth Elohim said was the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman.<ref>[http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/congregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015 Congregation Beth Elohim in Park Slope dedicates new Torah for 150th anniversary - News 12 Brooklyn]</ref> The Torah was scribed by Linda Coppleson.<ref>[http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ ] {{wayback|url=http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/ |date=20141011005036 }}</ref> As of 2014, there are an estimated 50 female sofers in the world.<ref>{{cite web|author=By Jeff KunerthOrlando Sentinel |url=http://www.pressherald.com/2014/08/23/female-jewish-scribe-helps-keep-tradition-alive/ |title=Female Jewish scribe helps keep tradition alive - The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram |publisher=Pressherald.com |date=2014-08-23 |accessdate=2015-07-19}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism|Gender studies}}
*[[bat-Kohen]] (daughter of a priest)
*[[Jewish feminism]]
**[[List of Jewish feminists]]
*[[Women as theological figures]]
**[[Rabbi#Women as rabbis|Women as rabbis]]
**[[Rebbetzin]] (rabbi's wife)
**[[List of women in the Bible]]
*[[Beis Yaakov]] (schools for Haredi girls)
*[[Niddah]] (menstruation laws)
*''[[Soferet]]'' (Jewish scribe who can transcribe religious documents)
*[[Gender and Judaism]]
*[[Tzeniut]] (modest behavior)
*[[Negiah]] (guidelines for physical contact)
*[[Yichud]] (prohibitions of secluding oneself with a stranger)
*[[Jewish view of marriage]]
**[[Shidduch]] (finding a marriage partner)
**[[Shalom bayit]] (peace and harmony in the relationship between husband and wife)
*[[Minyan]] (quorum of at least ten Jews acceptable for the recitation of certain prayers)
**[[Partnership minyan]] (a movement to give women more roles in prayer services)
*[[Agunah]] (a woman who wishes to divorce her husband, but, because her husband did not provide her with a divorce contract, is unable to according to Jewish law)
*[[Women in Israel]]
**[[Women of the Wall]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==

'''General'''
* [http://www.rachaelscentre.org/ Rachael's Centre for Torah, Musar & Ethics] An online learning community dedicated to Pluralistic Jewish learning through a female lens
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://www.jofa.org/ Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance] JOFA
* [http://www.cs.biu.ac.il/~kalechm/judaism/judaism.html Sources on Halakha and the role of women in Hebrew and English] by [[Bar Ilan University]] Professor Meir Kalech
* [http://jcada.org/www Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse]
* [http://www.naamat.com/domesticviolence.htm Na'amat Canada]
* [http://www.awarenow.org/www/docs/100/Internet Adolescents Working for Awesome Relationship Experiences] AWARE

'''Publications'''
* [http://www.lilith.org/ Lilith Magazine] a Jewish feminist journal
* [http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.

'''Particular issues'''
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/12/06/wuhsha-the-broker-jewish-women-in-the-medieval-economy/ "Wuhsha the Broker: Jewish Women in the Medieval Economy," Jewish History Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/09/19/rachel-wife-of-akiva-women-in-ancient-israel/ "Rachel, Wife of Akiva: Women in Ancient Israel," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2012/02/10/gluckel-of-hameln-jewish-women-n-the-17th-century/ "Gluckel of Hameln: Jewish Women in the 17th Century," Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson]
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/spots_of_light/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki Spots of Light: Women in the Holocaust] an online exhibition by [[Yad Vashem]]
* [http://alternativestokiddushin.wordpress.com The Kiddushin Variations] A Directory of Halakhic Possibilities For A More Egalitarian Kiddushin Ritual.
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library
* [http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5759winter/sense.htm "Sense and Sensibilities: Women and Torah Study"], Bryna Levy, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 1998, 59 (2).
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf "Qeri’at ha-Torah by Women: A Halakhic Analysis"]|972 KB}}, Shapiro, Mendel. Edah 1:2, 2001
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf "Congregational Dignity and Human Dignity: Women and Public Torah Reading"]|78.1 KB}}, Sperber, Daniel. Edah 3:2, 2002
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427 "Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies"], Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf "Women and the Minyan"]|194 KB}}, Fine, David. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative), 2002
* [http://www.annette-boeckler.de/liturgie/EgalitarianServices.html Egalitarian Jewish Services A Discussion Paper]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5765/5765winter/WOMENADV.PDF "Women Advocates Make Their Mark"]|473 KB}}, ''[[Jewish Action]]'', Winter 2004.
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimer2-1.htm "Women and Minyan"], ''[[Tradition (orthodox journal)|Tradition]]'', 1988. Summary of Orthodox arguments regarding women counting in minyan for certain purposes
* [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm "Women's Prayer Services Theory and Practice"], ''[[Tradition (journal)|Tradition]]'', 1998. Summary of Orthodox arguments for and against women's prayer groups
* Elissa Strauss, ''Women Who Write Torah, A New Generation of Female Scribes Makes History''. http://forward.com/articles/133017/, The Jewish Daily Forward, November 19, 2010.
* (French) Harvey, Claire. Femmes et judaïsme - Des femmes veulent changer la loi juive concernant le divorce, http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/actualites-en-societe/287572/femmes-et-judaisme-des-femmes-veulent-changer-la-loi-juive-concernant-le-divorce, Le Devoir, 24 April 2010.
* ''Mordecai Kaplan'' .2005.http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai, Jewish Women's Archive, 2005
* Luo,Michael, An Orthodox Jewish Woman, and Soon, a Spiritual Leader, http://www.hods.org/pdf/press/An%20Orthodox%20Jewish%20Woman,%20and%20Soon,%20a%20Spiritual%20Leader.htm, New York Times, August 21, 2006.
* ''Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States''. http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states, Jewish Women's archive, 2005
* Who is a Reconstructionist Jew?. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html, Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press
* ''On the Ordination of Women: An Advocate's Halakhic Response'' Mayer E. Rabbinowitz. In Simon Greenberg, ed., ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988.
* ''Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies,'' Judith Hauptman, ''Judaism'' 42 (1993): 94-103.
* ''The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa'', [[Simon Greenberg]], ed. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988. ISBN 0-87334-041-8
* ''Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender'', [[Charlotte Fonrobert]], Stanford University Press, 2000
* ''The Moon's Lost Light: A Torah Perspective on Women from the Fall of Eve to the Full Redemption'', Devorah Heshelis, Targum Press, 2006. ISBN 1-56871-377-0
* Nadell, Pamela S., "Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination, 1889-1985" in Jewish Women's Life. Editor
* Rabbi Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, The Voices of Children, Co-editor with Siddur Kol HaNoar,

===Middle Ages===
* Adelman, Howard. "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer." ''Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period''. Ed. Lawrence Fine. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2001. 52-60. ISBN 9780691057873
* Baskin, Judith R. "Jewish Women in the Middle Ages." ''Jewish Women in Historical Perspective''. Ed. Judith R. Baskin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. 94-114. ISBN 0814320929
* {{cite journal|last=Baskin|first=Judith R.|title=Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women|journal=Jewish History|date=Spring 1991|volume=5|issue=1|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094|accessdate=21 November 2011|pages=41–51|doi=10.1007/bf01679792}}
* {{cite book|last=Biale|first=Rachel|title=Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today|year=1995|publisher=Schocken Books|location=New York|isbn=0805210490}}
* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Mark R.|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=0691139318}}
* Grossman, Avraham. ''Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe''. Translated from the Hebrew by Jonathan Chapman. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1584653922
* {{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=Ivan G|title=Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe|journal=Conservative Judaism|date=Spring 1986|volume=38|issue=3|pages=34–45}}
* Melammed, Renee Levine. "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies." ''Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship''. Ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn. New York: New York University Press, 2009.105-111.ISBN 9780814732199
* {{cite book|last=Steinberg|first=Theodore L.|title=Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages|year=2008|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=0275985881}}
* {{cite book|last=Taitz|first=Emily|title=The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.|year=2003|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|location=Philadelphia|isbn=0827607520 |author2=Sondra Henry |author3=Cheryl Tallan}}

=== Orthodox Judaism and women ===
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' [[Blu Greenberg]], Jewish Publication Society
* ''Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment,'' [[Saul Berman|Berman, Saul J.]] Response, 40, 1981, 5:17.
* ''Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State,'' Ellenson, David Harry. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law (58-81) 2001.
* ''Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?'' [[Tamar Ross]], ''Judaism'', 42:4, 1993, 478-491.
* ''Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?,'' Reisman, Levi M. The Jewish Observer, 31:5, 1998, 37-47
* ''Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period,'' [[Ross|Ross, Tamar]]
* ''In Case There Tamar Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan,'' Fishbane, Simcha. Judaism, 42:4, 1993, 492-503.
* ''Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law,'' Shenhav, Sharon. Justice, 21, 1999, 28-31.
* ''On Egalitarianism & Halakha,'' Stern, Marc D. Tradition, 36:2, 2002, 1-30.
* ''Women, Jewish Law and Modernity,'' Wolowelsky, Joel B. Ktav. 1997.
* ''Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism'', [[Tamar Ross|Ross, Tamar]]. Brandeis University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58465-390-6
* ''Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups'', [[Avi Weiss|Weiss, Avi]], Ktav publishers, January 2003 ISBN 0-88125-719-2
*''Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation''. [[Tova Hartman|Hartman, Tova]], Brandeis University Press, 2007. ISBN 1-58465-658-1.

{{Jewish life}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Women In Judaism}}
[[Category:Judaism and women| ]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Gender roles by society]]

War Plan Red

2015-09-20T15:14:55Z

Jprg1966: /* History */

[[File:War Plan Red.png|400px|thumb|

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Country !! Color
|-
| [[Canada]] || Crimson
|-
| [[United Kingdom|Britain]] || Red
|-
| [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] || Red
|-
| [[British Raj|India]] || Ruby
|-
| [[Australia]] || Scarlet
|-
| [[Dominion of New Zealand|New Zealand]] || Garnet
|-
| [[Irish Free State|Ireland]] || Emerald
|-
| The rest of the British Empire (not part of plan) || Pink
|}
]]
'''Joint Army and Navy Basic War Plan Red''' was a war plan created by the United States Army and Navy in the late 1920s and early 1930s to estimate the requirements for a hypothetical war with Great Britain (the "Red" forces).<ref>{{Cite book
| publisher = Center of Military History, Department of the Army
| last = Roberts
| first = Ken
| title = Command Decisions
| accessdate = 2011-07-19
| url = http://www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_0.htm
}}</ref> War Plan Red discussed the potential for fighting a war with Britain and its Empire and outlined those steps necessary to defend the Atlantic coast against any attempted [[mainland invasion of the United States]]. It further discussed fighting a two-front war with both Japan and Britain simultaneously (as envisioned in War Plan Red-Orange). War Plan Red was not operationalized and did not have presidential or Congressional approval. The United States [[War Powers Clause|can only declare war in congress]], and in this period of U.S. history, it made no war plans. President [[Herbert Hoover]] was known as a pacifist.<ref name="John Major 1998 pp 12-15">John Major, "War Plan Red: The American Plan for War with Britain," ''Historian'' (1998) 58#1 pp 12-15.</ref>

War Plan Red was developed by the [[United States Army]] following the 1927 [[Geneva Naval Conference]] and approved in May 1930 by the [[Secretary of War]] and the [[Secretary of Navy]] and updated in 1934–35. In 1939, on the outbreak of World War II and Britain's war against Nazi Germany, a decision was taken that no further planning was required but that the plan be retained.<ref>15 June 1939: Declassified Letter "Joint board to Secretary of Navy"</ref> War Plan Red was not declassified until 1974.

The war plan outlined those actions that would be necessary to initiate war between Britain and the United States. The plan suggested that the British would initially have the upper hand by virtue of the strength of the [[Royal Navy]]. The plan further assumed that Britain would probably use its Dominion in Canada as a springboard from which to initiate a retaliatory invasion of the United States. The assumption was taken that at first Britain would fight a defensive battle against invading American forces, but that the US would eventually defeat the British by blockading Great Britain and cutting off its food supplies.<ref>{{Cite conference
| publisher = Joint Board, 325. Serial 274.
| title = Joint Estimate of the Situation - Red and Tentative Plan - Red
| series = Security Classified Correspondence of the Joint Army-Navy Board, compiled 1918 – 03/1942, documenting the period 1910 – 3/1942
| accessdate = 2011-12-03
| url = http://strategytheory.org/military/us/joint_board/Estimate%20of%20the%20Situation%20-%20Red%20and%20Tentative%20Joint%20Basic%20Plan%20-%20Red.pdf
}}</ref>

== History ==
War Plan Red was one of a number of [[United States color-coded war plans|U.S. color-coded war plans]] developed by the U.S. after the First World War.

When War Plan Red was declassified in 1974, it caused a stir in [[Canada–United States relations|American–Canadian relations]] because Canada, codenamed "Crimson" in the plan, was to have been the principal target of American forces.<ref name="John Major 1998 pp 12-15" />

==Outline==
[[Image:Canada Maritime provinces map.png|thumb|The [[Maritimes]] in eastern Canada were the primary areas of strategic importance for the plan]]
War Plan Red first set out a description of Canada's geography, military resources, and transportation, and went on to evaluate a series of possible pre-emptive American campaigns to invade Canada in several areas and occupy key ports and railways before British troops could provide reinforcement to the Canadians—the assumption being that Britain would use Canada as a staging point. The idea was that the American attacks on Canada would prevent Britain from using Canadian resources, ports, or airbases.<ref name="John Major 1998 pp 12-15"/>

A key move was a joint US army-navy attack to capture the port city of [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]], cutting off the Canadians from their British allies. Their next objective was to "seize Canadian Power Plants near Niagara Falls"<ref>Carlson, 2005</ref> This was to be followed by a full-scale invasion on three fronts: From [[Vermont]] to take [[Montreal]] and [[Quebec City|Quebec]], from [[North Dakota]] to take over the railhead at [[Winnipeg]], and from the Midwest to capture the strategic nickel mines of Ontario. In parallel, the U.S. Navy was to seize the [[Great Lakes]] and blockade Canada’s Atlantic and Pacific ports.<ref name="John Major 1998 pp 12-15"/>

===Zones of operation===
The main zones of operation discussed in the plan are:
* [[Nova Scotia]] and [[New Brunswick]]:
** Occupying [[Halifax (former city), Nova Scotia|Halifax]], following a poison gas first strike, would deny the British a major naval base and cut links between Britain and Canada.
** The plan considers several land and sea options for the attack and concludes that a landing at [[St. Margarets Bay, Nova Scotia|St. Margarets Bay]], a then undeveloped bay near Halifax, would be superior to a direct assault via the longer overland route.
** Failing to take Halifax, the U.S. could occupy New Brunswick by land to cut Nova Scotia off from the rest of Canada at the key railway junction at [[Moncton]].
* [[Quebec]] and the valley of the [[Saint Lawrence River]]:
** Occupying [[Montreal]] and [[Quebec City]] would cut the remainder of Canada off from the Eastern seaboard, preventing the movement of soldiers and resources in both directions.
** The routes from northern [[New York]] to Montreal and from [[Vermont]] to Quebec are both found satisfactory for an offensive, with Quebec being the more critical target.
* [[Ontario]] and the [[Great Lakes]] area:
** Occupying this region gains control of [[Toronto]] and most of Canada's industry, while also preventing [[UK|Britain]] and [[Canada]] from using it for air or land attacks against the U.S. industrial heartland in the [[Midwest]].
** The plan proposes simultaneous offensives from [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] across the [[Niagara River]], from [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] into [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]], and from [[Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan|Sault Ste. Marie]] into [[Greater Sudbury|Sudbury]]. Controlling the Great Lakes for U.S. transport is considered logistically necessary for a continued invasion.
* [[Winnipeg]]
** Winnipeg is a central nexus of the Canadian rail system for connecting the country.
** The plan sees no major obstacles to an offensive from [[Grand Forks, North Dakota]], to Winnipeg.
* [[Vancouver]] and [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]]:
** Although Vancouver's distance from [[Europe]] reduces its importance, occupying it would deny Britain a naval base and cut Canada off from the [[Pacific Ocean]].
** Vancouver could be easily attacked overland from [[Bellingham, Washington]], and [[Vancouver Island]] could be attacked by sea from [[Port Angeles, Washington]].
** The [[British Columbia]] port [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia|Prince Rupert]] has a rail connection to the rest of Canada, but a naval blockade is viewed as easy if Vancouver were taken.

===No attacks outside Western Hemisphere===
Unlike the [[Rainbow Five]] plan, War Plan Red did not envision striking outside the [[Western Hemisphere]]. The plan assumed that the British Empire would have a much larger army and slightly larger navy. Because of the Empire's historical strength, the United States had traditionally planned for a defensive war with the British. War Plan Red recommended continued use of this strategy even as the American military grew to match Britain's size. Its authors saw conquering Canada as the best way to attack the British Empire and believed that doing so would cause Britain to negotiate for peace. A problem with the plan was that it did not discuss how to attack the Empire if Canada declared its neutrality, which the authors believed was likely. (The plan advised against accepting such a declaration without permission to occupy Canadian ports and some land until the war ended.){{r|bell199711}}

Based on extensive war games conducted at the [[Naval War College]], the plan rejected attacking British shipping or attempting to destroy the British fleet. The main American fleet would instead stay in the western North Atlantic to block British–Canadian traffic. The navy would wait for a good opportunity to engage the British fleet, and if successful would then attack British trade and colonies in the Western Hemisphere.<ref name="bell199711">{{cite journal | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40108144 | title=Thinking the Unthinkable: British and American Naval Strategies for an Anglo-American War, 1918-1931 | author=Bell, Christopher M. | journal=The International History Review |date=November 1997 | volume=19 | issue=4 | pages=789–808 | doi=10.1080/07075332.1997.9640804}}</ref>

In 1935, War Plan Red was updated and specified which roads to use in the invasion. "The best practicable route to [[Vancouver]] is via [[U.S. Route 99|Route 99]]" (Carlson, 2005). Further, in 1935, Americans planned to build three military airfields near the Canadian border and disguise them as civilian airports. "In February 1935, the War Department arranged a Congressional appropriation of $57 million to build three border air bases for the purposes of pre-emptive surprise attacks on Canadian air fields" (Berlin Glasnost, 1992–2007). The airfields were to be kept secret, but their existence was accidentally published by the [[United States Government Publishing Office|Government Printing Office]] and reported on the front page of the ''[[New York Times]]'' on May 1, 1935.

American war planners had no thoughts of returning captured British territory. "The policy will be to prepare the provinces and territories of CRIMSON and RED to become states and territories of the BLUE union upon the declaration of peace." <ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/29/AR2005122901412_2.html</ref>

==British strategy for war against the United States==
The Royal Navy never prepared a formal plan for war with the United States during the first half of the 20th century. The government of [[David Lloyd George]] in 1919 restricted the navy from doing so to prevent it from using American naval growth to justify building more ships. Like their American counterparts, most Royal Navy officers viewed cooperation with the other nation as the best way to maintain world peace due to the shared culture, language, and goals, although the British feared that attempts to regulate trade during a war with another nation might force a war with the United States.{{r|bell199711}}

Royal Navy officers generally believed that if war did occur, they could transport an army to Canada if asked, but nonetheless saw it as impossible to defend against the much larger United States, so did not plan to do so, as Canada's loss would not be fatal to Britain. An invasion of the United States was unrealistic and a naval blockade was too slow. The navy could not use a defensive strategy of waiting for the American fleet to cross the Atlantic because Imperial trade was too vulnerable. The Royal Navy officers believed that Britain was so vulnerable to a blockade that, if a superior American fleet appeared near the British Isles, Britain would quickly surrender. The officers planned to, instead, attack the American fleet from a Western Hemisphere base, likely [[Bermuda]], while other ships based in Canada and the West Indies would attack American shipping and protect Imperial trade. The navy would also bombard coastal bases and make small amphibious assaults. India and Australia would help capture [[Manila]] to prevent American attacks on British trade in Asia and perhaps a conquest of [[Hong Kong]]. The officers hoped that such acts would result in a stalemate making continued war unpopular in the United States, followed by a negotiated peace.{{r|bell199711}}

==Canadian counterpart==

{{Main|Defence Scheme No. 1}}
Canadian military officer Lieutenant Colonel [[James Sutherland Brown|James "Buster" Sutherland Brown]] developed an earlier counterpart to War Plan Red called Defence Scheme No. 1 on April 12, 1921. Maintaining that the best defense was a good offense, "Buster" Brown planned for rapid deployment of [[flying columns]] to occupy [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Great Falls, Montana|Great Falls]], [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]], and [[Albany, New York|Albany]]. With no hope of holding these objectives, the idea was to divert American troops to the flanks and away from Canada, hopefully long enough for Imperial allies to arrive with reinforcements. Defence Scheme No. 1 was terminated by [[Commander of the Canadian Army|Chief of the General Staff]] [[Andrew McNaughton]] in 1928, two years prior to the approval of War Plan Red.

==See also==
{{Portal|United States|Canada|United Kingdom|Military history}}

*[[United States color-coded war plans|Rainbow War Plans]]
*[[Aroostook War]] (1838–1839)
*''[[Canadian Bacon]]'' film
*[[Pig War]] (1859)
*[[Trent Affair]] (1861)
*[[War of 1812]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
*Bell, Christopher M., “Thinking the Unthinkable: British and American Naval Strategies for an Anglo-American War, 1918-31”, ''International History Review'', (November 1997) 19#4, 789-808.
*Holt, Thaddeus, "Joint Plan Red", in ''MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History'', Vol. 1 no. 1.
*Major, John. "War Plan Red: The American Plan for War with Britain," ''Historian'' (1998) 58#1 pp 12–15.
*Preston, Richard A. ''The Defence of the Undefended Border: Planning for War in North America 1867-1939''. Montreal and London: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1977.
*Rudmin, Floyd W. ''Bordering on Aggression: Evidence of U.S. Military Preparations Against Canada''. (1993). Voyageur Publishing. ISBN 0-921842-09-0

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
*Rudmin, F. [http://www.glasnost.de/hist/usa/1935invasion.html A 1935 US Plan for Invasion of Canada] February 1995
*Carlson, P. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/29/AR2005122901412.html Raiding the Icebox] The Washington Post. December 2005
*A Western Front Films Production in association with Brightside Films for Channel 5 [http://www.channel5.com/shows/revealed/episodes/americas-planned-war-on-britain-revealed America's Planned War On Britain: Revealed]

[[Category:Canada–United States relations]]
[[Category:United States–Caribbean relations]]
[[Category:History of the foreign relations of the United States]]
[[Category:United Kingdom–United States relations]]
[[Category:United States color-coded war plans]]